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The word evaporation is used to describe the process of changing liquid into a gas. Which word is used to describe the process of changing a solid into a gas? | Sublimation - The Water Cycle, from USGS Water-Science School
Credit: Really, Are You Serious?
Sublimation is the conversion between the solid and the gaseous phases of matter, with no intermediate liquid stage. For those of us interested in the water cycle, sublimation is most often used to describe the process of snow and ice changing into water vapor in the air without first melting into water. The opposite of sublimation is "deposition", where water vapor changes directly into ice—such a snowflakes and frost.
It is not easy to actually see sublimation occuring, at least not with ice. One way to see the results of sublimation is to hang a wet shirt outside on a below-freezing day. Eventually the ice in the shirt will disappear. Actually, the best way to visualize sublimation is to not use water at all, but to use carbon dioxide instead. If you don't know what I mean, then look at this picture of dry ice. "Dry ice" is actually solid, frozen carbon dioxide, which happens to sublimate, or turn to gas, at a chilly -78.5 °C (-109.3°F). The fog you see is actually a mixture of cold carbon dioxide gas and cold, humid air, created as the dry ice "melts" ... oops, I mean sublimates. Find out more about dry ice .
From Mt. Everest to the Chinook winds
Mt. Everest, losing some snowcover due to a common windstorm. Snow is also constantly lost, invisibly, due to sublimation.
Credit: Benjamin D. Oppenheimer
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Sublimation occurs more readily when certain weather conditions are present, such as low relative humidity and dry winds. Sublimation also occurs more at higher altitudes, where the air pressure is less than at lower altitudes. Energy, such as strong sunlight, is also needed. If I was to pick one place on Earth where sublimation happens a lot, I might choose the south face of Mt. Everest. Low temperatures, strong winds, intense sunlight, very low air pressure—just the recipe for sublimation to occur.
Dave Thurlow of the Mount Washington Observatory offers a good explanation of sublimation in The Weather Notebook:
"There's more than one way for Mother Nature to get rid of a fresh blanket of snow. The most common way, of course, is by melting-which gives everyone the pleasure of trudging through slush, mud, and water. But in the western U.S., there's a wind called the Chinook, or "snow eater," that vaporizes snow before it even has a chance to melt."
"Chinook winds are westerlies from the Pacific whose moisture gets wrung out as it passes over the Rocky Mountains. Once these winds come down from the mountains onto the high plains, they can be quite mild and extremely dry-as warm as 60 or 70 degrees Fahrenheit -- over 15 Celsius -- with a relative humidity of 10% or less. The air is so dry that when it hits a snowpack, the frozen water evaporates, going directly from the ice to vapor and bypassing the liquid phase entirely. This is called sublimation, and it's a common way for snow to disappear in the arid West."
Can't sublimate without the heat
Without the addition of energy (heat) to the process, ice would not sublimate into vapor. That is where sunlight plays a large role in the natural world. Water has a physical property called the "heat of vaporization," which is the amount of heat required to vaporize water. If you want an exact amount of heat, the heat of vaporization of water is 540 calories/gram, or 2,260 kilojoules/kilogram. That is a lot more energy than is needed to convert water to ice (the latent heat of fusion), which is 80 calories/gram. And, it is also about five times the energy needed for heating water from the freezing point to the boiling point. In summary, energy is needed for the sublimation of ice to vapor to occur, and most of the energy is needed in the vaporization phase. A cubic centimeter (1 gram) of water in ice form requires 80 calories to melt, 100 calories to rise to boiling point, and another 540 calories to vaporize, a total of 720 calories. Sublimation requires the same energy input, but bypasses the liquid phase.
Sources and more information
| Sublimation |
In which county of Northern Ireland is the Giant's Causeway situated? | The Changing States of Solids, Liquids, and Gases - dummies
The Changing States of Solids, Liquids, and Gases
The Changing States of Solids, Liquids, and Gases
The Changing States of Solids, Liquids, and Gases
When a substance goes from one state of matter — solid, liquid, or gas — to another state of matter, the process is a change of state. Some rather interesting things occur during this process.
Melting point as a chemistry concept
If you measure the temperature of a chunk of ice, you may find it to be –5° Celsius or so. If you take temperature readings while heating the ice in a pot on your stove, you find that the temperature of the ice begins to rise as the heat from the stove causes the ice particles to begin vibrating faster and faster.
After a while, some of the particles move so fast that they break free of the crystal lattice (which keeps a solid solid), and the lattice eventually breaks apart. The solid begins to go from a solid state to a liquid state — a process called melting. The temperature at which melting occurs is the melting point (mp) of the substance. The melting point for ice is 32° Fahrenheit, or 0° Celsius.
If you watch the temperature of ice as it melts, you see that the temperature remains steady at 0°C until all the ice has melted. During changes of state (phase changes), the temperature remains constant even though the liquid contains more energy than the ice (because the particles in liquids move faster than the particles in solids).
Boiling point of water
If you heat a pot of cool water, the temperature of the water rises and the particles move faster and faster as they absorb the heat. The temperature rises until the water reaches the next change of state — boiling. As the particles move faster and faster, they begin to break the attractive forces between each other and move freely as steam — a gas.
The process by which a substance moves from the liquid state to the gaseous state is called boiling. The temperature at which a liquid begins to boil is called the boiling point (bp). The bp is dependent on atmospheric pressure, but for water at sea level, it’s 212°F, or 100°C. The temperature of the boiling water will remain constant until all the water has been converted to steam.
You can summarize the process of water changing from a solid to a liquid to a gas in this way:
ice→water→steam
Because the basic particle in ice, water, and steam is the water molecule, the same process can also be shown as:
Here the (s) stands for solid, the (l) stands for liquid, and the (g) stands for gas. Unlike water, most chemical substances don’t have different names for the solid, liquid, and gas forms.
Freezing point of a substance
If you cool a gaseous substance, you can watch the phase changes that occur. The phase changes are:
Condensation — going from a gas to a liquid
Freezing — going from a liquid to a solid
The gas particles have a high amount of energy, but as they’re cooled, that energy is reduced. The attractive forces now have a chance to draw the particles closer together, forming a liquid. This process is called condensation. The particles are now in clumps, but as more energy is removed by cooling, the particles start to align themselves, and a solid is formed. This is known as freezing. The temperature at which this occurs is called the freezing point (fp) of the substance.
You can represent water changing states from a gas to a solid like this:
Sublimation
Most substances go through the logical progression from solid to liquid to gas as they’re heated — or vice versa as they’re cooled. But a few substances go directly from the solid to the gaseous state without ever becoming a liquid. Scientists call this process sublimation. Dry ice — solid carbon dioxide — is the classic example of sublimation. You can see dry ice particles becoming smaller as the solid begins to turn into a gas, but no liquid is formed during this phase change.
The process of sublimation is represented as:
In addition to dry ice, mothballs and certain solid air fresheners also go through the process of sublimation. The reverse of sublimation is deposition — going directly from a gaseous state to a solid state.
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Along with blue and red which colour appears on the flag of Chad? | World's Ten Most Colorful Flags
World's Ten Most Colorful Flags
World's 10 Most Colorful Flags
Here are ten of the most colorful flags from around the world.
While it is fairly common for flags to have just three colors, like the red, white, and blue of the United States or the black, red, and gold of Germany, some flags are much more colorful than that. What makes a flag colorful tends to be a subjective decision, however. There are many flags that use eight or more colors in them, but because the majority of the colors appear in small sections of a coat of arms, it just doesn't seem that colorful. Likewise, other flags may only have three or four colors, but a complex primary design or prominent display of the colors makes the flags appear to be extremely colorful.
Here are ten of the world's most colorful flags. For our purposes here, we have considered design as well as the number of colors in selecting the most colorful flags.
As the only nation to use six colors in their flag's primary design, South Africa gets first place on our list of the world's most colorful flags. The flag's design is made up of a green horizontal Y, positioned so that the Y touches both the upper and lower left corners of the flag. The triangular shape along the leftmost end of the flag is black with a yellow border. On the right side of the flag, the area above the Y is red, and the area below is blue, both with a white border. The colors and the Y design are meant to represent the convergence of two separate paths: those of the South Africans, and those of the Europeans who colonized the country.
Turkmenistan
Although with four colors in its design, Turkmenistan's flag is far from having the most colors. It does have the honor of being the most intricate of all the national flags in the world. The flag is primarily green, but with a wide vertical stripe near the left end of the flag. This stripe is primarily red, with five tribal patterns that are used in designing the traditional rugs the country is known for. Orange, white, red, and green can be found in the tribal designs, with a white crescent moon encompassing five white five-pointed stars on the field of green to the right of the stripe, near the top of the flag. Obviously, the five tribal designs represent the country's traditional heritage, while the five stars stand for the five regions of the nation.
Saint-Pierre and Miquelon
The flag of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon is a very interesting flag. Designed in 1982, this flag is actually a local flag, with the flag of France used as the islands' official flag. The design depicts a yellow ship on a light blue background with waves drawn in black and white, with three flags forming a narrow border along the leftmost side of the flag: a white, green, and red design in the top third, a black and white design in the middle third, and two yellow lions on a red background in the bottom third. The ship represents the colonization of the islands beginning in 1535, while the three individual designs stand for the origins of the islands' colonists: Basque Country (top), Brittany (middle), and Normandy (bottom).
Central Africa
The Central African Republic uses five colors in their flag: blue, white, green, yellow, and red. The colors are boldly blocked out in four horizontal stripes of the first four colors, bisected by a single vertical stripe in red. All of the stripes are the same width. In the upper left hand corner, on the leftmost end of the blue stripe, is a single yellow five-point star. Like many nations' flags, the colors represent various pieces of the country's history: The colors are those of the Pan-African and French flags combined, with the red stripe present to represent the bloodshed in the battle for independence. The star is there as a reminder of the hopes for a great future.
Dominica
The country of Dominica uses six different colors, but not all of those colors are used in the flag's primary design. The flag features a centered cross of yellow, black, and white stripes, with a green background. In the center of the cross is a red medallion, representing social justice, with a light blue, green, red, and yellow local parrot on it. Surrounding the parrot are ten green stars, representing the country's ten parishes. The cross stands for the Christian trinity, with each of the three colors representing a different part of the country's economy and heritage.
Zimbabwe
Like Central Africa, Zimbabwe's flag uses five different colors, but the complex design makes it seem very busy and colorful. The flag has seven horizontal stripes with colors alternating in the following order: green, yellow, red, black, red, yellow, and green. Superimposed over the stripes on the left end of the flag is a white triangle that points to the right, with a red star covered by a yellow bird inside the triangle. The bird remembers the country's history, and the central black stripe honors the native people, surrounded by red stripes to represent the fight for independence.
Seychelles
The flag of Seychelles is very interesting, as it features five colors radiating out from the lower left corner. The rays are, in order from the leftmost ray: blue for the sky and the sea, yellow for the sun, red for the people's will to work for unity and love, white for social justice, and green for the land.
Comoros
The Comoros flag is another that features five different colors, if you count white as a color. The leftmost half of the flag is taken up with a green triangle, with the point facing toward the right side of the flag. Inside the triangle are a white crescent moon, representing Islam, and four white stars, representing the four main islands. Behind the triangle and covering the rest of the flag are four equal horizontal stripes of yellow, white, red, and blue.
Namibia
Like Comoros and many other flags, the main colors of the flag of Namibia are red, blue, green, yellow, and white. This flag is dissected by a diagonal red stripe, from the lower left corner to the upper right corner, which is bordered with narrow white stripes. The upper left half of the flag is blue, for the sea and the sky, and the lower right is green, for agriculture. A sunburst with 12 small triangular rays is in the upper left corner, on the blue field, representing the country's power.
Grenada
The flag of Grenada is the only one on this list that has only three colors in its design, which is why it comes last. However, the busy design and bright colors of the Grenada flag makes it seem very colorful. The flag has a wide red border, with three yellow stars along the top and three yellow stars along the bottom of the flag. In the middle is a green and yellow rectangle divided into triangles with two intersecting lines: two yellow triangles on top and bottom, and two green triangles on the sides. In the middle, where all the triangle points meet, is a red circle with a yellow five-point star inside of it. To the left, in the green triangle, is a yellow and red nutmeg pod, representing the country's biggest export. The yellow in the flag represents the sun, the green represents agriculture, and the red border stands for the courage of the people, with a star for the capital and one for each of the administrative divisions of the country.
There are many other colorful flags throughout the world -- you can find them all in this list of the flags of the world. Which are your favorites?
| Hong Jin-ho |
In the traditional story of Sinbad the Sailor, what is the name of the giant bird that carries him off to safety following a shipwreck? | Central African Republic
This page is part of © FOTW Flags Of The World website
Central African Republic
2:3 Image by Željko Heimer, 11 May 2001
3:5 Image by Željko Heimer and Ant�nio Martins-Tuv�lkin, 25 May 2008
Flag adopted on 01 December 1958 and the Coat of Arms adopted on 17 May 1963.
BaTwa (the territory inhabited by the Twa people in the Central African Republic, Congo , Rwanda and Burundi ).
Background
The Central African Republic (CAR) is a landlocked country in central Africa. It borders Chad in the north, Sudan in the north east, South Sudan in the east, the Democratic Republic of Congo and the Republic of the Congo in the south, and Cameroon in the west. Since most of the territory is located in the Ubangi and Shari river basins, the territory was called Ubangi-Chari when colonised by France in the 19th century (or Oubangui-Chari in French). It was part of French Equatorial Africa (Afrique-Equatoriale-fran�aise) which existed between 1910 to 1958 as the federation of the four colonies of Gabon , Moyen-Congo (now the Republic of Congo), Oubangui-Chari (now the Central African Republic), and Chad. It became a semi-autonomous territory within the French Community on 01 December 1958 and obtained independence on 13 August 1960 (Source: Wikipedia ).
There was no distinctive colonial flag and the French tricolore was used prior to independence.
Bruce Berry, 12 May 2009
Symbolism and specifications of the National Flag
The national flag of the Central African Republic has four horizontal stripes of blue, white, green and yellow flag with fifth vertical red stripe in the centre. There is a yellow five-pointed star in the canton. In Album des pavillons nationaux et des marques distinctives (National flags and distinctive markings) 2000 edition [ pay00 ] the ratio of the flag is given as 2:3 with a note claiming that there exists a variant in the ratio of 3:5. By comparison, Whitney Smith's Flags Through the Ages and Across the World (1975) [ smi75b ] and Flags and Arms across the World (1980) [ smi80 ] gives the ratio as 3:5~, the Shipmate Chart gives it as 3:5, while Alfred Znamierowski in The World Encyclopedia of Flags: The Definitive Guide to International Flags, Banners, Standards and Ensigns (1999) [ zna99 ] says "Proportions unspecified", which is probably closest to the truth.
According to Smith (1982) [ smi82 ] the colours were chosen to represent France (the colonial power) and the Pan African colours. What is common - red as blood - is superimposed to symbolize that Europeans and Africans have to respect each other. Yellow star of independence symbolizes a bright future. The flag was officially hoisted on 01 December 1958.
Željko Heimer 11 May 2001
Album 2000 [ pay00 ] gives the construction details as (2+2+2+2):(5+2+5), but I am somehow doubtful about this as I believe that the numbers 5 are here are obtained from the firm overall ratio (2:3, which is not quite certain as discussed above) and the requirement that the vertical stripe be of equal width as each of the horizontal stripes (the requirement seems to be implicit, but followed quite strictly). L'Album (1995) also give two possibilities for the ratio, but it also specifies the position of the star, namely that its center is point 0.14b from hoist where b is the flag length.
While doing these images, I made image with ratio 4:5. While I have no sources or proof that such flag exists, but I think that this might have been the original idea - although probably never actually used - for the sake of the "conformity" with other "normal" flags (such as 2:3 or 3:5). The idea here is that all the five stripes are of equal size (area) in the flag.
Željko Heimer 11 May 2001
The colours of the Central African Republic were adopted unanimously by acclamation during the session of the Legislative Assembly on 01 December 1958 [1].
Before the vote, President Barth�l�my Boganda said to the Deputies:
"Those colours, which symbolize the four territories constituting the French Equatorial Africa [2] but also our guide territory, the Metropolitan France [3], came out of my heart. The red stripe which crosses the four colours is the symbol of our blood. As we did it when France was in danger [4], we shall shed our blood for Africa and to protect the Central African Republic, member of the French Community [5]."
The blue [colour], placed as the sky, stands for Vastness, Freedom, Greatness, Serenity.
The white [colour] recalls Naivety, Purity, Frankness, Bravery, Confidence, Dignity, Equality.
The green [colour] is the symbol of Hope, Belief and Faith.
The yellow [colour] marks Tolerance, Hospitality, Charity.
Therefore, the Central African flag expresses Barth�l�my Boganda's aspiration to the unity of all men in the world, but mostly to the African Unity, powerful in its rich and harmonious diversity (Source: "R�publique Centrafricaine - Na-Ndouzou" published c. 1969 on behalf of the Presidency of the Central African Republic by the Editions Delroisse , Boulogne-Billancourt, France). The text was edited by a commission presided by N. Kombot-Naguemon.
Notes (mine):
[1] In 1950, Barth�l�my Boganda, the first Deputy (in the French National Assembly) from Oubangui-Chari, funded the MESAN (Mouvement pour l'�volution sociale de l'Afrique noire, Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa). The Central African Republic was proclaimed in 1958, with Boganda as President, and became fully independent in 1959, David Dacko succeding to Boganda, deceased the same year. In 1965, Dacko was overthrown by Jean-Bedel Bokassa, later appointed President for life in 1972 and crowned Emperor in 1976, with the shameful and ridiculous support of France. In 1979, France turned the tables and helped Dacko to overthrow Bokassa (or rather overthrew Bokassa and placed Dacko on the vacant throne). Dacko was himself overthrown by Kolingba two years later. Since then, the Central African Republic has significant unrest "arbitrated" by France, which keeps troops stationed in Bangui, the capital.
[2] French Equatorial Africa (AEF, Afrique-Equatoriale-fran�aise) existed from 1910 to 1958, as the federation of the four colonies of Gabon, Moyen-Congo (now the Republic of Congo), Oubangui-Chari (now the Central African Republic) and Chad.
[3] France Metropolitan (code FX in ISO3166) is European France.
[4] This is a clear reference to F�lix Ebou� (1884-1944). Ebou� was born in Cayenne (French Guyana) and was the first Black Colonial Governor, first in Guadeloupe (1936) and then in Chad (1938). Following de Gaulle's call on 18 June 1940, Ebou� rallied the Free France, and the AEF served as territorial basis for the Free France.
[5] The French Community (Communaut� fran�aise) was founded in 1958. It grouped France, the Overseas Departments and Territories, and several of the former French colonies in Africa. It progressively decreased and ceased to function in 1960, although the Community was constitutionally abolished only in 1995! The flag of the Communaut� was a square tricolor flag with a golden fringe and LIBERTE EGALITE FRATERNITE written in gold in the middle of the flag (one word per line).
Ivan Sache, 24 Dec 2002
The protocol manual for the London 2012 Olympics (Flags and Anthems Manual, London, 2012 ) [ loc12 ] provides recommendations for national flag designs. Each National Olympic Committee was sent an image of their flag, including the PMS shades, by the London Organising Committee of the Olympic Games (LOCOG) for their approval. Once this was obtained, the LOCOG produced a 60 x 90 cm version of the flag for further approval. So, while these specifications may not be the official, government, version of each flag, they are certainly what the National Olympic Committee believed their flag to be.
For the CAR : PMS 293 blue, 032 red, 355 green, 109 yellow. The vertical flag is the horizontal version reversed and turned 90 degrees anti-clockwise - blue to the left, and the star pointing left in the top left corner.
Ian Sumner, 10 Oct 2012
A new Constitution was promulgated in Central African Republic on 14 January 1995, after having been accepted on 28 December 1994 by 82.06% of the voters. Article 17 of the Constitution describes the flag as follows:
Title II
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What is added to steel (approx 11%) to make it stainless and gives properties that prevent it from corroding, rusting or staining with water ? | Stainless Steel Questions | FAQs about Stainless Steel | Shine It
Answers:
Q.1 What is stainless steel?
Stainless steel is the generic name for a number of different steels used primarily because of their corrosion resistance. All stainless steels share a minimum percentage of 10.5% chromium. It is this element that reacts with the oxygen in the air to form a complex chrome-oxide surface layer that is invisible but strong enough to prevent further oxygen from "staining" (rusting) the surface.
The film itself is extremely thin, about 130 Angstroms and one Angstrom is one millionth of a centimeter. This layer is described as passive (does not react or influence other materials), tenacious (clings to the layer of steel and is not transferred elsewhere) and self-renewing (if damaged, more chromium from the steel will be exposed to the air and form more chromium oxide).
This means that over a period of years a stainless steel knife can literally be worn away by daily use and will still remain stainless. Higher levels of chromium and the addition of other alloying elements such as nickel and molybdenum enhance this surface layer and improve the corrosion resistance of the stainless material. Chromium is always the deciding factor, although other elements, particularly nickel and molybdenum, are added to improve corrosion resistance. Furthermore, stainless steel is fully recyclable.
Q.2 The three major classes of stainless steel are...
Austenitic: Chromium-nickel-iron alloys with 16-26% chromium, 6-22% nickel (Ni), and low carbon content, with non-magnetic properties (if annealed - working it at low temperatures, then heated and cooled). Nickel increases corrosion resistance. Harden able by cold-working (worked at low temperatures) as well as tempering (heated then cooled). Type 304 (S30400) or "18/8" (18% chromium 8% nickel), is the most commonly used grade or composition.
Martensitic: Chromium-iron alloys with 10.5-17% chromium and carefully controlled carbon content, harden able by quenching (quickly cooled in water or oil) and tempering (heated then cooled). It has magnetic properties. Commonly used in knives. Martensitic grades are strong and hard, but are brittle and difficult to form and weld. Type 420 (S42000) is a typical example.
Ferritic: Chromium-iron alloys with 17-27% chromium and low carbon content, with magnetic properties. Cooking utensils made of this type contain the higher chromium levels. Type 430 is the most commonly used ferritic. Two additional classes worth mentioning include Duplex (with austenitic and ferritic structures), and Precipitation Hardening stainless steel, used in certain extreme conditions.
Q.3 What does chrome-nickel content mean?
Chrome-Nickel content refers to the percentage of chrome and nickel in the stainless steel. Chrome gives the stainless steel its luster & durability, while the nickel is for the hardness & strength. 18/10 Stainless Steel means it contains 18% Chromium or Chrome and 10% Nickel. A sink with an 18/10 chrome-nickel content is considered to be an excellent grade, due to its corrosive resistance and greater durability.
Q.4 What is the difference between 18/8 and 18/10 stainless steel?
The first number is the amount of chromium that is contained in the stainless, i.e., 18 is 18% chromium. The second number is the amount of nickel, i.e., 8 stands for 8% nickel. So 18/8 means that this stainless steel contains 18% chromium and 8% nickel. 18/10 is 18% chromium and 10% nickel.
The higher the numbers the more corrosion resistant the material. Both 18/8 and 18/10 contain nickel and are part of the grade family "300 series" stainless. 18/0 means that there is 18% chromium but zero nickel. When there is no nickel the stainless grade family is the "400 series".
400 series are not as corrosion resistant as the 300 series and are magnetic, where the 300 series are non-magnetic and is the grade mainly used for sinks, Food processing equipment, Restaurant food preparation areas etc.
Q.5 What is the difference between 304 and 316 stainless steel?
304 contains 18% chromium and 8% nickel. 316 contains 16% chromium, 10% nickel and 2% molybdenum. The "moly" is added to help resist corrosion to chlorides (like sea water and de-icing salts.
Q.6 Can stainless steel be "welded"?
YES. Stainless steel is easily welded, but the welding procedure is different than that used with carbon steel. The "filler" rod or electrode must be stainless steel.
Q.7 What temperatures can stainless steel withstand?
Stainless steel has excellent properties at both extremes of the temperature scale. Some stainless steel can be used down to liquid nitrogen temperatures and some up to about 1800° F.
Q.8 What is the recycle content of stainless steel?
Stainless steel can be recycled 100%. That is all stainless steel can be re-melted to make new stainless steel. The typical amount of recycled stainless steel "scrap" that is used to make new stainless steel is between 65 & 80%.
Q.9 Can stainless steel rust? Why? (I thought stainless did not rust!)
Stainless does not "rust" as you think of regular steel rusting with a red oxide on the surface that flakes off. Corrosion is generally caused by contaminants settling on the surface of the stainless steel.
Q.10 Is stainless steel magnetic?
There are several "types" of stainless steel. The 300 series (which contains nickel) is NOT magnetic. The 400 series (which just contains chromium and no nickel) ARE magnetic.
Q.11 How are different classes of stainless steels used?
The austenitic microstructure is most commonly used for knives and cooking utensils. It is very tough, hardened through a process that consists of heating, cooling and heating. It resists scaling and retains strength at high temperatures.
Both ferritics and austenitics are used in kitchenware and household appliances. Austenitics are preferred in the food industry and beverage equipment due to the superior corrosion resistance and ease of cleaning. Type 301, for example, is an austenitic stainless steel, with 17% chromium, 7% nickel, and .05% carbon, and is widely used for institutional food preparation utensils.
You can easily make do with the lesser quality cookware for most oven use. For stovetop cooking, however, don't skimp on quality; buy only the better ones. Most manufacturers of high quality cookware use stainless steel similar to the Type 304 grade, with thick heat diffusing bottoms. Metals that provide better diffusion of heat, such as copper and aluminum, are attached to the bottom for heat diffusion, to prevent hot spots and uneven cooking.
Low quality cutlery is generally made out of grades like 409 and 430 (ferritic), while the finest Sheffield cutlery uses specially produced 410 and 420 (martensitic) for the knives, and 304 (austenitic) for the spoons and forks. Grades like the 410/420 can be hardened and tempered so that the knife blades will take a sharp edge, whereas the more ductile 304 stainless is easier to work and therefore more suitable for objects that have to undergo numerous shaping, buffing and grinding processes.
Q.1 How often should maintenance be carried out on stainless steel?
Maintenance on stainless steel varies due to different applications.
Interior stainless steel i.e: benches, shower trays, hand-basins, may require general cleaning on a day to day basis to maintain hygiene standards. However chemical and machine polishing processes can be carried out to remove scratches and discolouration based on personal preference. As a rule it is quite simply "clean the metal when it is dirty in order to restore its original appearance". Stainless steel can be frequently machined without causing damage.
Exterior stainless steel i.e: handrails, sculptures, down-pipes, signage, requires general cleaning to remove pollution, road grime or salt build up due to close proximity to the sea. Working environments can also create more aggressive conditions, such as the warm, high humidity atmosphere above indoor swimming pools. These environments can increase the speed of corrosion and therefore require more frequent maintenance.
SHINE IT Stainless recommends maintenance on a 4 – 6 monthly basis for exterior stainless steel. The stainless steel is chemically treated, machine polished and protective coated to enhance the appearance of the stainless steel and prevent corrosion. If corrosion is left on the surface it will cause pitting which is difficult to remove and this may result in replacement.
Q.2 What can I do to clean and maintain my stainless steel?
Bench Tops/Sinks – Wash surface with a soft cloth, and diluted cream cleanser. Rinse and dry after every use. Drying is very important to eliminate any film build-up that may develop from hard water deposits.
Refrigerator door, dishwasher and range hood panels etc – wipe surface with a soft cloth using a mild detergent and warm water. Always wipe in the direction of the grain, and remove all traces of detergent. Dry with a soft cloth.
Boat Fittings – all fittings should be frequently washed down with fresh water to remove salt deposits from the surface of the stainless steel. If the salt deposits are left to form corrosion on the surface of the steel this may cause pitting which will be difficult to remove. Shine It Stainless can provide an "on-site" service to chemically treat, machine polish, and protective coat your stainless steel to ensure it remains in the best possible condition.
SHINE IT Stainless have an oil protective coating, which is used to enhance the appearance of the stainless steel and protect the surface. This coating is designed for satin finishes only and is commonly used on appliances. This product can be purchased by contacting us.
Q.3 Can scratches be removed?
Yes. SHINE IT Stainless specialise in chemically treating and machining stainless steel to remove discolouration and scratching from all grades or styles of stainless steel.
We offer an "on site" and "in place" service which returns your stainless steel back to a near new condition.
Q.4 What can I use to prevent scratching of my stainless steel sink?
Perforated rubber or plastic mats in the sink will cut down on scratching and marking by pans and tableware. Wash with a solution of hand dish washing liquid detergent and water; rinse and polish dry with soft cloth or paper towel. Never use scouring powders or steel wool as they will scratch stainless steel.
Q.5 I have staining that has appeared on my stainless steel after acids were used in the same room but not applied directly on it - why has this happened?
Some acids release strong "fumes" that can attack the surface of the stainless steel and leave an unpleasant appearance. It is not necessary for the acid to directly come in contact with the stainless steel; just the "fumes" from it will cause the discoloration of the metal. SHINE IT Stainless can repair damage caused by chemicals and return the stainless steel back to a near new condition.
Q.6 What To Avoid using around stainless steel?
Bleaches containing hypochlorite will attack stainless steel and cause pitting and staining.
Certain foods, when left for prolonged periods, can cause pitting and corrosion. Examples are citric fruit juices, salt, vinegar, mustard, pickles, and mayonnaise (even used teabags can leave hard to remove stains).
Silver dip cleaners contain acids which attack stainless steel and leave a permanent stain.
Muratic acid which is sometimes used with grout around title and stone etc.
Strong acids can damage stainless steel (i.e., photographic developing liquids or denture cleanser), if they come in contact with the stainless steel.
Should these come in contact with your stainless steel they must be washed away immediately with clean water.
| Chromium |
In which council area of Scotland is the famous village of Gretna Green situated ? | CORROSION BEHAVIOUR OF BRASS, GALVANIZED STEEL AND STAINLESS STEEL IN JATROPHA BIODIESEL | Nduka Victor - Academia.edu
CORROSION BEHAVIOUR OF BRASS, GALVANIZED STEEL AND STAINLESS STEEL IN JATROPHA BIODIESEL
Nduka Victor
CORROSION BEHAVIOUR OF BRASS, STAINLESS STEEL AND GALVANIZED STEEL IN JATROPHA BIODIESEL BY NDUKA VICTOR IFEANYI ENG0902114 A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (B.ENG) IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING NOVEMBER, 2014. CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background Study Petroleum based fuel became a primary source of energy for transportation from the 20th century. This has continued till the beginning of the 21 th century with all vehicles running on gasoline diesel or natural gas. Currently due to gradual depletion of world petroleum reserve and its impact on environmental pollution as a result of increased exhaust emission, there is an urgent need to develop an alternative resource such as biodiesel which is a fitting alternative to petroleum based diesel (Knothe, 2005) Biodiesel which is a relatively clean-burning renewable fuel produced from new and used animal vegetable oil, could be used to replace at least a portion of the diesel fuel consumed worldwide. Biodiesel is defined by the World custom Organization, (WCO) as a mixture of mono-alkyl ester of long chain (C16-C18) fatty acids derived from vegetable oils or animal fats, it is a domestic renewable fuel for diesel engines and meets the specifications of the American Society of Testing and Materials ASTM D6751 and European Standard Organization EN14214 standards (WCO, 2007). Corrosion is the disintegration of a material as it reacts with other materials with which it comes into contact. According to Nernst’s theory, all metals have a tendency to pass into solution. However, the extent of corrosion varies for metal ions depending on its oxidation potential and various prevailing conditions 1 | Page (temperature, water content, etc.) in the fuel. Metal ions, when present in fuel, can cause corrosion (Jung et al., 2006). 1.2 Problem Statement Biodiesel has several advantages over regular petroleum diesel in that biodiesel produces significantly less harmful emissions than regular petroleum diesel when burned in a combustion engine, non-flammability (higher flash point), and it is more degradable than regular diesel. However there are some serious drawbacks on using biodiesel in transport and storage facilities (Knothe et al., 1997). One of the drawbacks of biodiesel usage is that due to its chemical composition which is comprised of unsaturated molecules that easily undergo oxidation, it causes corrosion in engine parts that are made of metals and alloys on contact with it. Another drawback is that as biodiesel is oxidized, a series of changes in its properties occurs. Properties like the acid value, peroxide value and viscosity increase, while the iodine value and content of methyl esters decrease; all of these affect the quality of biodiesel (Haseeb et al., 2010). Factors that influence the performance and engine durability of an engine run on B0 (100% pure or ‘neat’ diesel) or a biodiesel blend are presence of oxygen in the functional groups (moieties), free fatty acids, degree of unsaturation, and ability to attract and hold water (hygroscopic nature) of the biodiesel (Fazal et al., 2010). Biodiesel tends to have a more corrosive effect than regular diesel on metals. Compared with diesel, biodiesel is more prone to absorb water; this is because the esters in biodiesel exhibit some hygroscopic properties thereby increasing the 2 | Page water content. The water tends to condense on the metal surface causing corrosion and deterioration of the material. The water content in biodiesel can also convert the fatty acid alkyl esters (biodiesel) to fatty acids through a reversible reaction thereby increasing the amount of unwanted fatty acid in the biodiesel. The level of corrosion also depends on the type of metal in contact with biodiesel fuel. (Agarwal, 2007) Furthermore, the corrosion of metallic parts in contact with biodiesel fuel over a long period of time can cause fuel degradation, thereby making the fuel to go off-specification (Wang et al., 2011) 1.3 Aim and Objectives The aim of this work is to study the corrosion behavior of brass, stainless steel and galvanized steel in Jatropha biodiesel. The objectives are as follows: 1) Determine the corrosion rate of brass, stainless steel and galvanized steel in Jatropha biodiesel. 2) Check the effect of the corrosion of the metals if any on the properties of the biodiesel after a prolonged time. 3) Determine which metals have more resistance to corrosion in each sample of biodiesel. 4) Determine which has a higher corrosion rate on the metals of pure biodiesel, regular diesel and a blend of both biodiesel and diesel. 1.4 Scope of Work The scope of this work is as follows: 1) Production of biodiesel from Jatropha seed oil 2) Physiochemical Analysis of the Jatropha Biodiesel 3 | Page 3) Production of blends of biodiesel with diesel 4) Static immersion test in biodiesel and blends 5) Analysis of the properties of the fuel (acid value, peroxide value, density and iodine value) every fortnight 6) Determination of corrosion rate for the various metals in biodiesel and diesel blends. 1.5 Relevance of Work Although there are many works on the preparation and characterization of biodiesel, there is still little information available about the corrosion of metallic engine parts and storage systems in biodiesel. Cast iron, zinc, galvanized steel and brass are metals that can be used in storage systems for biodiesel, while copper, mild carbon steel, aluminum and stainless steel are used in diesel engines; therefore it is momentous to study the effects of biodiesel corrosion and its corrosion mechanisms on these metals so as to prevent the loss and collapse of metallic materials used to construct pipelines and storage tanks and determine proper transport system for utilization of biodiesel. 4 | Page CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 BIODIESEL Biodiesel was first produced by Duffy and Patrick in 1853 – forty years before the invention of the diesel engine. In 1893, Rudolf Diesel operated the first diesel 5 | Page engine using peanut oil as the fuel. Recent interest in biodiesel started in 1991 with the operation of the first industrial-scale biodiesel plant in Austria. Since then several plants were opened in many European countries, and by 1998, 21 countries were commercially producing biodiesel (Anisha et al., 2008). 2.1.1 Jatropha curcus – a promising biodiesel feed stock The biodiesel industry is still young and relatively small, so as it grows to a larger scale and when an infrastructure is developed, the costs of producing and marketing biodiesel may decline. However, in the longer term, the biggest challenge may be the ability of the feedstock supply to keep up with growing demand. The supply of soybeans, rapeseeds and other feedstocks available for biodiesel production will be limited by competition from other uses and land constraints (Jone and Miller, 1992) As such the key to the future of biodiesel is finding inexpensive feedstocks that can be grown by farmers on marginal agricultural land, and Jatropha is one of many plants that hold a great deal of promise. Jatropha proves to be a promising biofuel plantation and could emerge as a major alternative to diesel thus reducing the dependence on oil imports and saving the precious foreign exchange besides providing the much needed energy security (Pranab, 2010) Jatropha oil cannot be used for nutritional purposes without detoxification; hence its use as energy or fuel source is attractive. Jatropha curcus marginal/poor soil. 6 | Page is a drought-resistant perennial, growing well in It is easy to establish, grows relatively quickly and lives, producing seeds for 50 years. Its seed yield ranges from 7.5 to 12 tons per hectare per year, after five years of growth. The wonder plant hardy to dry weather conditions produces seeds with an oil content of 37%. It burns with clear smoke-free flame, tested successfully as fuel for simple diesel engine. Medically it is used for diseases like cancer, piles, snakebite, paralysis, dropsy etc. The plant serves as oil crop, for enrichment of soil, for ornamental purpose, prevent soil erosion, raw material for industrial use, potential feed stock (to feed tusser silk worm), as insecticide/pesticide etc. Being rich in nitrogen, the seed cake is an excellent source of plant nutrients. These characteristics along with its versatility make this plant vital in developing countries as an alternate fuel (Ahmed, 2004) 2.2 FATTY ACIDS Fatty acid consists of a straight chain of an even number of carbon atoms, with hydrogen atoms along the length of the chain and at one end of the chain and a carboxyl group (-COOH) at the other end. If the carbon-to-carbon bonds are all single, the acid is saturated; if any of the bonds is double or triple, the acid is unsaturated and is more reactive (Yagiz et al., 2007). A few fatty acids have branched chains, others contain ring structures e.g., prostaglandins. Fatty acids are not found in a free state in nature, commonly they exist in combination with the alcohol (glycerol) in the form of triglycerides. The most widely distributed fatty acid is oleic acid which is abundant in some vegetable oils (e.g. olive, peanut and 7 | Page sunflower seed) and they make up 46% of human fat (Divya, 2007). Many animals cannot synthesize one or more of the fatty acids and must ingest them in foods; one of such derived fatty acids is linoleic acid. Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids. 2.3 TRIGLYCERIDE Triglycerides are esters in which three molecules of one or more different fatty acids are linked to the alcohol glycerol, they are named according to their fatty acid components; e.g. tristearin contains three molecules of stearic acid (Chisti, 2007). The types of triglycerides in animals vary with the species and the composition of fats in the food. Triglycerides in animals and probably in plant seeds function as depots of energy. In mammals they are stored in adipose tissue until needed, at which time they are broke down to a molecule of glycerol and three molecules of fatty acid (Issariyakul et al., 2007). The latter combines with albumin, a protein in blood plasma and are carried in the bloodstream to sites of utilization. Triglycerides also serve as insulation and padding for organs in animals. Many vegetable triglycerides (oil) are liquid at room temperature, unlike those of animals; in addition, they contain a greater variety of fatty acids (Lapuerta et al., 2008). Vegetable oils can be hardened by treatment with hydrogen under pressure. In alkali, triglycerides are broken down (saponified) to form glycerol and three molecules of soap (salts of the fatty acids). CH2OH 8 | Page H2COCOR1 CHOH + 3RCOOH HCOCOR2 CH2OH + H20 H2COCOR3 Where R1, R2 and R3 can be identical to give the simple triglyceride or different to give the mixed triglyceride. Fatty acids are used as such or in the form of esters and oils (triglycerides) to produce methyl esters in the presence of alcohol. 2.4 FATS AND OILS Fats and oils belong to a group of compounds called lipids. They possess the characteristics property of insolubility in water but solubility in non-polar solvents. The designation fat or oil commonly distinguish their state at ambient temperature, which is solid and liquid respectively, although fats contain lesser proportion of unsaturated acids than oils (Berchmans & Hirata, 2008). They are forms of plants and animal life, thus are among the important components of food we eat, as provider of energy and vitamins source, and for their contribution to the texture, flavor and palatability of foods. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen linked together. Oils and fats are obtained from both plants and animal source and are termed vegetable oil and animal fat respectively (Kumar et al., 2007). These vegetable oils and animal fats are described as fixed oils to distinguish them from essential oils, which are volatile aromatic oils found in the stems and leaves of plants. Annually, the use of vegetable oils and lesser extent of animal fats are on the increase world-wide. 2.5 9 | Page PROPERTIES OF FATS AND OILS Fats and oils possess properties which are principally attributed to the behavior of the fatty acids present in them. These properties are classifies into physical and chemical properties. 2.6 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES Natural fats and oils are coloured due to the presence of pigments. They are polar, consequently are miscible in organic solvents such as hexane, acetone, benzene, diethyl ether, etc. 2.6.1 Density/ Specific Gravity The density of a homogeneous substance is its mass per unit volume. Its specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of an equal volume of water. Specific gravity is dimensionless. At a given temperature, triglycerides are considerably denser in the solid state than in the liquid state. Weight of fatty acids present in oils and level of unsaturation are factors that affect their density. Density increases with increase in weight, while it decreases with unsaturation. Under normal room temperature, fats and oils have lower densities than water. The comparison of the weight of one unit of oil to one unit volume of water at specified conditions of temperature and pressure gives what is termed the specific gravity of oil. The specific gravity of oils and fats is reflective of the level of their consistency and is consequently used in designing processing equipment for fats and oils (Mittelbach and Remschmidt, 2004) 2.6.2 Viscosity This is a measurement of the intermolecular friction and resistance to motion of oil when caused to flow under the influence of force. Due to the long chain structure 10 | P a g e of their triglyceride, molecules will slightly increase in their degree of unsaturation, and oil containing fatty acids of low molecular weight are slightly less viscous than oils of an equivalent degree of unsaturation containing high molecular weight fatty acid. However, viscosity also increases with polymerization of oil. 2.6.3 Refractive Index It is a significant property and numerous accurate instruments are available for its determination. Its application to fats and oils is to measure the extent to which a beam of light is refracted when it passes through the oil, which in most cases also gives a simple and reliable method of ascertaining whether or not an oil is adulterated or not. Increasing degree of unsaturation and large molecular weight gives high refractive index. 2.7 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES 2.7.1 Acid Value This is used in expressing the organic acidity of fats and oils and the extent of hydrolysis by lipase enzyme (Divya, 2007). In the coating industry, it is related to the reactivity of the drying oil with ingredients in their various uses, for example, alky resin formulation. It is usually expressed as the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide required to neutralize 1 gram of oil and fat. 2.7.2 Free fatty acid content (%FFA) The free fatty acid content is calculated as the percentage by weight of fatty acid of specified molecular weight, normally oleic acid (with molecular weight of 282g). In a number of cases, an average molecular weight more appropriate to the nature 11 | P a g e of the fat is used. The acid value is converted to percentage free fatty acid and vice versa as follows: %FFA = 0.503 x Acid value Acid value = 1.99 x %FFA 2.7.3 Iodine Value The iodine value is the number of gram or halogen, taken as iodine required to saturate the double bonds of 100g of oil under the condition of test. It is a measure of the level of unsaturation; hence, it is used as a basis for classification of oils and fats into drying, semi-drying and non-drying oils. It can also serve as a satisfactory quality control specification of fats and oils. In the hydrogenation process of fats and oils, it is a helpful test in determining the ability of the oil to harden (Blauuw, 2007) 2.7.4 Saponification Value (SV) The saponification value denotes the number of milligram of potassium hydroxide which is needed to saponify (neutralize the fatty acids and the glycerides) 1 gram of oil or fat. Saponification value is related to mean molecular weight of waterinsoluble fatty acid by the expression: Mean molecular weight = 56108 / SV of fatty acid 2.7.5 Unsaponifiable Matter This refers to the percentage calculated on the original fat and oils, of natural unsaponifiable matter present like sterols, hydrocarbons and organic unsaponifiable matter not volatile at 100 oC (mineral oils) which are generally 12 | P a g e absent from fat and oils. It is useful in helping to classify oils and fats and to indicate the presence of impurities. 2.7.6 Flash Point This is the temperature at which oils and fats ignite but there is no sustainable combustion or the temperature at which oils or fats start to evaporate giving off gases that can be ignited. It is measure using flash analyzer meter (Galadima and Garba, 2009) 2.7.7 Smoke Point This is the temperature at which smoke is firsts evolved when the oil or fat is heated under standard condition. The smoke point is related to the amount of volatile substances in oils. The higher the amount of volatile substance present in oils, the more readily the oil smokes, hence the lower the smoke point. 2.7.8 Fire Point This is the temperature at which enough volatile materials have accumulated and lead to sustainable combustion. The higher the amount of volatile material present in the oils, the lower the flash point, smoke point and fire point (Blauuw, 2007) 2.8 BIODIESEL PRODUCTION 2.8.1 TRANSESTERIFICATION Most commercial biodiesel is made by a chemical process called transesterification. This involves mixing the feedstock with an alcohol (typically methanol or ethanol) in the presence of a catalyst, such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide. The reaction produces methyl esters (if methanol is used, 13 | P a g e which comprises the biodiesel fuel and glycerin (Murphy et. al. 1995). The transesterification process is shown below: T ransesterification of triglycerides with methanol adapted from meher et al, 2006 A minimal content of water and free fatty acids in oil or fat is important for obtaining optimal results in the trans-esterification process. The existing water promotes the decomposition of esters in glycerol and fatty acids, which combined with the fatty acids already free, saponify with the basic catalyst (soap formation) thus decreasing the efficiency of the transesterification. Feuge and grose highlighted the importance of using dry oils and a fatty acid content of less than 0.5% by weight (kinast, 2003). A basic catalyst is used in the transesterification of triglycerides with a low content fatty acid. However, if the water and fatty acid contents are high, either an acid catalyst must be used or two transesterifications must be done, one with an acid catalyst and another with a basic catalyst. Freedman et al performed trials with peanut, soybeans and sunflower oils at 60 oC using methanol and sodium methoxide as a catalyst and found that around 80% of the conversion of esters occurs within the first few minutes of the reaction and after an hour it reaches a range of about 93-98% (freedman et. al., 1999). Reaction 14 | P a g e rate increases with reaction time, but when an acid catalyst is used, reaction time can be much longer. The temperature of the Trans esterification, its catalyst and quality, the alcohol and its molar relation with the triglyceride depends on the oil or fat that is being used. Bradshaw and Meuly found that the practical range of the molar ratio between methanol and a vegetable oil is 3.3 to 5.5:1 (Bradshaw and Meuly, 1999). 2.9 BIODIESEL PRODUCTION STEPS The base catalyzed production of biodiesel generally occurs using the following steps: 2.9.1 Mixing of alcohol and catalyst The catalyst is typically sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) or potassium hydroxide (potash). It is dissolved in the alcohol using a standard agitator and mixer. 2.9.2 Reaction The alcohol/ catalyst mix is then charged into a closed reaction vessel and the oil or fat is added. The system from here on is totally closed to the atmosphere to prevent loss of alcohol. The reaction mix is kept just above the boiling point of the alcohol (around 160oF) to speed up the reaction and the reaction takes place (Murphy et al., 1995). Recommended reaction time varies from 1 to 8 hours, and some systems recommend the reaction take place at room temperature. Excess alcohol is normally used to ensure total conversion of fat or oil to its esters. Care must be taken to monitor the amount of water and free fatty acids in the incoming oil or fat (kinast, 2003). If the free fatty acid level or water level is too high, it may 15 | P a g e cause problems with soap formation and the separation of the glycerin by-product downstream. 2.9.3 Separation Once the reaction is complete, two major products exist; glycerin and biodiesel. Each has a substantial amount of excess methanol that was used in the reaction (Freedman et al., 1999). The reacted mixture is sometimes neutralized at this step if needed. The glycerin phase is much denser than biodiesel phase and the two can be gravity separated with glycerin simply drawn off the bottom of the settling vessel. In some cases, a centrifuge is used to separate the two materials faster. 2.9.4 Alcohol Removal Once the glycerin and biodiesel phase have been separated, the excess alcohol in each phase is removed with a flash evaporation process or by distillation (Jensen, 2003). In other systems, the alcohol is removed and neutralized before the glycerin and esters have been separated. In either case, the alcohol is recovered using distillation equipment and is re-used. Care must be taken to ensure no water accumulates in the recovered alcohol stream. 2.9.5 Glycerin Neutralization The glycerin by-product contains unused catalyst and soaps that are neutralized with an acid (Kinast, 2003) and sent to storage as crude glycerin. In some cases the salt formed during this phase is recovered for use as fertilizer. In most cases the salt is left in the glycerin. Water and alcohol are removed to produce 80-88% pure glycerin that is ready to be sold as crude glycerin (Freedman et al., 1999). In 16 | P a g e more sophisticated operations, the glycerin is distilled to 99% or higher purity and sold into the cosmetic and pharmaceutical markets (Freedman et al., 1999) 2.9.6 Methyl Ester Wash Once separated from the glycerin, the biodiesel is sometimes purified by washing gently with warm water to remove residual catalysts or soaps, dried and sent to storage. This is normally the end of the production process resulting in a clear amber-yellow liquid with a viscosity similar to petro-diesel. In some systems, the biodiesel is distilled in an additional step to remove small amounts of color bodies to produce a colorless biodiesel (National Biodiesel Board, 2009) 2.10 PROPERTIES OF BIODIESEL Biodiesel is made up of fourteen different types of fatty acids, which are transformed into fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) by Transesterification. Different fractions of each type of FAME present in various feedstocks influence some properties of fuels. Biodiesel has lower energy content that produces more complete combustion of the fuel and less soot (Tyson, 2001). The lower energy content refers to the heating values, or energy per unit mass of the fuel excluding the heat produced by evaporation of water vapor in the fuel. Biodiesel (B100) has higher kinematic viscosity than diesel, which improves injector efficiency. B100 also has a higher specific gravity than conventional diesel and since fuel flow is controlled by volume, the expected peak power reduction for engines using B100 is only 5 to 7 percent less than conventional diesel because more pounds per gallon would flow and vaporize more efficiently given a set throttle. It should be noted that biodiesel 17 | P a g e produces more than three times energy as the same amount of fossil fuel (Sheehan et al., 1998). Biodiesel’s higher specific gravity relative to diesel means that on-road biodiesel blends are normally made by splash blending the biodiesel fuel on top the conventional diesel fuel (Tyson, 2001). By weight, biodiesel contains less carbon, sulphur and more oxygen than diesel. The reduced carbon content decreases tailpipe emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), carbondioxide (CO2) and soot (elemental carbon). The lower sulphur content of biodiesel is important for two reasons. First, as a low sulphur fuel, biodiesel produces little or no emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO 2); this contributes to respiratory illness, aggravates existing heart and lung diseases, contributes to the formation of acid rain and can impair visibility. 2.10.1 IODINE NUMBER Iodine number is a measure of the degree of unsaturation of fuel. Unsaturation can lead to deposit formation and storage problems with biodiesel. Soy and rape methyl esters have iodine values of approximately 133 and 97 respectively. Data for tallow esters are not found, but a lower iodine number is expected based on the greater degree of saturation. Research at Mercedes-Benz suggests that biodiesel with iodine number greater than 115 is not acceptable because of excessive carbon deposits. The iodine number is a measure of the amount of unsaturation in fatty acids. This unsaturation is in form of double bonds. The higher the iodine number, the more the C=C bonds present in the sample. The iodine value is measured by titration or calculation from the fatty acid profile which is determined by gas chromatography according to EN 14103. The iodine value result is indicated 18 | P a g e in gram of iodine/ 100gram biodiesel and the maximum value is set at 120g iodine/ 100g in EN14214. 2.10.2 FLASH POINT This is the temperature at which a fuel will catch fire. Since biodiesel has a number of FAMEs which are generally not volatile; it is safer to handle at higher temperatures than diesel. A minimum flash point for diesel fuel is required for fire safety. Biodiesel’s flash point is required to be at least 93 oC (200oF) to ensure it is classified as non-hazardous under the National Fire Protection Association (NEPA) code (Huang and Wilson, 2000). Flash point of biodiesel is higher than that of diesel which makes biodiesel safer than diesel in handling and storage point of view. Flash point of biodiesel can be estimated using the ASTM D93 standard. Excess alcohol in biodiesel can reduce flash point significantly and reduce the combustion quality of fuel, it can also cause corrosion of engine and metal components. Hence, alcohol content in biodiesel is given to a limit of 0.24mg/kg (Clement, 1996). 2.10.3 CETANE NUMBER Cetane number is a measurement of how well a diesel fuel combusts. Adequate cetane number is required for good engine performance. Higher cetane number helps ensure good cold start properties and minimize the formation of white smoke. Cetane number is determined in line with ASTM D613. It is related to ignition delay time experienced by fuel that has been injected into a diesel engine’s combustion chamber. Generally, shorter ignition delay time results in higher cetane number and vice versa. 19 | P a g e 2.10.4 ACID VALUE The acid value is primarily an indicator of free fatty acid content (natural degradation products of fats and oils). Acid value can be elevated if a fuel is not properly manufactured or has undergone oxidative degradation. The reaction of free fatty acids from the feedstock with the catalyst, as well as saponification of the fats causes alkaline metal soap formation in a secondary reaction of the transesterification. These soaps are removed from the product by physical separation. The remaining soap is split by washing with inorganic acids, and the resultant free fatty acids remain as fat soluble component in the biodiesel. Free fatty acids are very weak acids and hence only slightly corrosive, nevertheless, an effect on metallic components cannot be overruled. The ASTM D5671 and EN14124 standards limits acid value of biodiesel to 0.5gram KOH/ 100gram of biodiesel to ensure that biodiesel does not induce corrosion in pumps and filters caused by acids. Nevertheless, the acid value of biodiesel can rise during storage, if esters are split or short chain carbonic acids are formed as a result of ageing processes (Akintayo, 2004). 2.10.5 FREE AND TOTAL GLYCERIN This measures the amount of unconverted or partially converted fats and glycerin by-products in the fuel. Incomplete conversion of the fats and oils into biodiesel can lead to high total glycerin, if these numbers are too high, it can lead to engine contamination in fuel systems. The ASTM D6584 is used to determine total glycerin, but one of the major shortcomings of the D6584 gas chromatography method is its sensitivity to diesel fuel. Diesel fuel components react differently on the column used in the gas chromatograph; they make the determination of free 20 | P a g e glycerin very difficult and may damage the column, thus many labs are unable to determine free and total glycerin by this method in samples with even small amounts of diesel fuel, such as B99.9. 2.10.6 OXIDATION STABILITY Biodiesel can oxidize during storage and handling, leading to formation of peroxides, gums, acids and deposits. This is because biodiesel contains more polyunsaturates in its fuel composition than conventional diesel; therefore, it will have reduced stability. The minimum oxidation stability requirement is intended to ensure the storage stability of B100 and biodiesel blends (National Biodiesel Board, 2009). 2.10.7 KINEMATIC VISCOSITY This is the resistance to flow of a fluid under gravity. It is time taken for a fixed volume of fuel to flow under gravity through a capillary tube viscometer. The viscosity of vegetable oils reduces drastically when blending with diesel or transesterification. However as compared with diesel, biodiesel has a slightly higher viscosity. ASTM D6751 allows a range of 1.9-6.0 mm 2/s for biodiesel viscosity and a maximum allowable viscosity of 4.1mm 2/s for diesel both at 40oC. Viscosity is inversely proportional to temperature and it increases with chain length and degree of unsaturation. Higher viscosity leads to poor atomization, incomplete combustion and increases carbon deposits. Higher viscosity fuels need higher pumping power also (Clement, 1996). 2.10.8 21 | P a g e DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY This is the weight of a unit volume of fluid. Specific gravity is the ratio of density of the liquid to the density of water. The specific gravity of biodiesel ranges from 0.87 to 0.89 and they are generally higher than those of fossil diesel fuel. The value depends on their fatty acid composition as well as on their purity. Density increases with decreasing chain length and increasing number of double bonds, and can be decreased by the presence of low density contaminants such as methanol (Akintayo, 2004). 2.10.9 COLD FLOW PROPERTIES – CLOUD POINT, POUR POINT AND COLD FILTER PLUGGING POINT (CFPP) Some important parameters for low temperature operations of fuel are cloud point; pour point and cold filter plugging point. The cloud point is the temperature at which wax first becomes visible when the fuel is cooled. The pour point is the temperature at which it becomes semi-solid and loses its flow characteristics, at this temperature, the amount of wax out the solution is sufficient to gel the fuel and it is the lowest temperature at which the fuel can flow (Prakash, 1998). The ASTM D5853 is used to measure pour point and the ASTM D2500 is used to measure cloud point. Neither parameter measures the intermediate temperature at which the amount of wax becomes sufficient to restrict the flow in a vehicle fuel system. In many instances, the cloud point underestimates the ability of the fuel to perform at low temperature, while the pour point tends to be over optimistic. Biodiesel has higher cloud and pour point compared to conventional diesel. A test which has become widely accepted in Europe and other temperate regions of the world to predict low temperature performance is the cold filter plugging point (CFPP) of distillate fuels. The CFPP measures the highest temperature at 22 | P a g e which wax separating out of a sample can stop or seriously reduce the flow of fuel through a standard filter under standard test conditions. The CFPP does not correlate well with low temperature performance of fuels in North America and is not included in the ASTM book of standards (Owen and Coley, 1995). Special additives are routinely used to improve the cold flow properties of biodiesel fuel. These additives do not prevent wax formation but keeps the small wax crystals from combining with each other (Dunn et al., 1997). 2.11 BIOFUEL: CORROSION ISSUES Biofuels are generally heterogeneous in nature, and their composition varies considerably depending on the feedstock growth area, seasonal variations, and fertilization. Even biodiesel from feedstocks grown in the same area may vary in composition and properties, likely based on cultivation practices. It has been found that the ash content and other minerals (C, N, Al, Ca, Cl, Fe, K, Mg, Na, P, S, and Si) found in stems, leaves, and other parts of biofuel crops may have effects on the properties of biodiesel. The biofuel produced from a plant with the highest ash and mineral content also had the highest tendency to slag, foul, and corrode. It has been found that leaves produce greater deterioration in the biofuel quality than stems and flower heads. Studies have also found that biofuels from straw and cereals containing heavy metals, K, Na, Cl, and S – have higher corrosion and fouling tendencies in the furnace than those from wood and wood ashes. By delaying the harvest of crops, the content of alkalis and chlorine which cause fouling and corrosion during combustion has been reduced by a factor of 2 to 6. 23 | P a g e Corrosion studies on biodiesel and biodiesel-fossil diesel blends have been conducted under storage, transportation, combustion, and automobile operational conditions. Biodiesel-induced corrosion in storage (both in tanks and in automobiles) and transportation occurs by electrochemical mechanism (wet corrosion) mostly due to the presence of entrained water. However, the water content of biodiesel exposed with different metals is almost similar. This indicates that increasing water content is not dependent on the types of metal exposed in biodiesel. 2.12 CORROSION Corrosion is the gradual destruction of materials (usually metals) by chemical reaction with its environment. In most common use of the word, this means electrochemical oxidation of metals in reaction with an oxidant such as oxygen, rusting the formation of iron oxides, is a well-known example. Corrosion degrades the useful properties of materials and structures including strength, appearance and permeability to liquids and gases (Bradford, 2001) Many structural alloys corrode merely from exposure to moisture in air, but the process can be strongly affected by exposure to certain substances. Corrosion can be concentrated locally to form a pit or crack, or it can extend across a wide area more or less uniformly corroding the surface. Because corrosion is a diffusion controlled process, it occurs on exposed surfaces. As a result, methods to reduce the activity of the exposed surface, such as passivation and chromate conversion, can increase a material’s corrosion resistance. However, mechanisms are less visible and less predictable (Foster, 2005) 24 | P a g e some corrosion Passivation refers to the spontaneous formation of an ultrathin film of corrosion products known as passive film, on the metals surface that act as a barrier to further oxidation. The chemical composition and microstructure of a passive film are different from the underlying metal. Typical passive film thickness on aluminum, stainless steels and alloys is within 10 nanometers. The passive film is different from oxide layers that are formed upon heating and are in the micrometer thickness range-the passive film recovers if removed or damaged whereas the oxide layer does not (Marshall, 2010) Metal ions, when present in fuel, can cause corrosion of the metal; the extent of the corrosion of the metal depends on the kind of fuel, the properties of the metal and the prevailing environmental conditions (temperature, pressure, pH, light, etc.) (Cole and Sheerman, 1995). 2.13 Properties of Metals Metals in general have high electrical conductivity, high thermal conductivity, and high density. Typically they are malleable (can be beaten into any shape) and ductile (can be drawn into wires), deforming under stress without cleaving. In terms of optical properties, metals are shiny and lustrous. (Wikipedia) 2.14 BRASS Brass is an alloy made of copper and zinc; the proportions of zinc and copper can be varied to create a range of brasses with varying properties. Brass is used for decoration for its bright gold-like appearance; for applications where low friction is required such as locks, gears, bearings, doorknobs, ammunition casings and valves; for plumbing and electrical applications; and extensively in brass musical instruments such as horns and bells for its acoustic properties. It is also used in 25 | P a g e zippers. Brass is often used in situations where it is important that sparks not be struck, as in fittings and tools around explosive gases (Thornton, 2007) Brass has higher malleability than bronze or zinc. The relatively low melting point of brass (900 to 940 °C, 1652 to 1724 °F, depending on composition) and its flow characteristics make it a relatively easy material to cast. By varying the proportions of copper and zinc, the properties of the brass can be changed, allowing hard and soft brasses. The density of brass is approximately 0.303 lb/cubic inch, 8.4 to 8.73 grams per cubic centimeter (Walker, 2009). Today almost 90% of all brass alloys are recycled. Because brass is not ferromagnetic, it can be separated from ferrous scrap by passing the scrap near a powerful magnet. Brass scrap is collected and transported to the foundry where it is melted and recast into billets. Billets are heated and extruded into the desired form and size. 2.14.1 SEASON CRACKING Brass is susceptible to stress corrosion cracking, especially from ammonia or substances containing or releasing ammonia. The problem is sometimes known as season cracking after it was first discovered in brass cartridge cases used for rifle ammunition during the 1920s in the Indian Army. The problem was caused by high residual stresses from cold forming of the cases during manufacture, together with chemical attack from traces of ammonia in the atmosphere. The cartridges were stored in stables and the ammonia concentration rose during the hot summer months, thus initiating brittle cracks. The problem was resolved by annealing the cases, and storing the cartridges elsewhere (Hooks, 1995) 2.15 STAINLESS STEEL 26 | P a g e Stainless steel, also known as inox steel or inox from French "inoxydable", is a steel alloy with a minimum of 10.5% chromium content by mass (Harold and Cobb, 2010) Stainless steel does not readily corrode, rust or stain with water as ordinary steel does, but despite the name it is not fully stain-proof, most notably under lowoxygen, high-salinity, or poor-circulation environments. There are different grades and surface finishes of stainless steel to suit the environment the alloy must endure. Stainless steel is used where both the properties of steel and corrosion resistance are required (Mining and scientific press, 1921) Stainless steel differs from carbon steel by the amount of chromium present. Unprotected carbon steel rusts readily when exposed to air and moisture. This iron oxide film (the rust) is active and accelerates corrosion by forming more iron oxide, and due to the greater volume of the iron oxide this tends to flake and fall away. Stainless steels contain sufficient chromium to form a passive film of chromium oxide, which prevents further surface corrosion by blocking oxygen diffusion to the steel surface and blocks corrosion from spreading into the metal's internal structure, and due to the similar size of the steel and oxide ions they bond very strongly and remain attached to the surface (Joseph and Davis, 1994) Similar to steel, stainless steel is a poor conductor of electricity. Stainless steel is generally highly resistant to attack from acids, but this quality depends on the kind and concentration of the acid, the surrounding temperature, and the type of steel. Stainless steel grades are unaffected by any of the weak bases such as ammonium hydroxide, even in high concentrations and at high temperatures. The 27 | P a g e same grades of stainless steel exposed to stronger bases such as sodium hydroxide at high concentrations and high temperatures will likely experience some etching and cracking, especially with solutions containing chlorides (Corrosion clinic, 2012) 2.15.1 OXIDATION OF STAINLESS STEEL High oxidation resistance in air at ambient temperature is normally achieved with addition of a minimum of 13% (by weight) chromium, and up to 26% is used for harsh environments. The chromium forms a passivation layer of chromium (III) oxide (Cr2O3) when exposed to oxygen. The layer is too thin to be visible, and the metal remains lustrous and smooth. The layer is impervious to water and air, protecting the metal beneath, and this layer quickly reforms when the surface is scratched. This phenomenon is called passivation and is seen in other metals, such as aluminum and titanium. Corrosion resistance can be adversely affected if the component is used in a non-oxygenated environment, a typical example being underwater keel bolts buried in timber (Corrosion clinic, 2012). When stainless steel parts such as nuts and bolts are forced together, the oxide layer can be scraped off, allowing the parts to weld together. When forcibly disassembled, the welded material may be torn and pitted, an effect known as galling (When a material galls, some of it is pulled with the contacting surface, especially if there is a large amount of force compressing the surfaces together. Galling is caused by a combination of friction and adhesion between the surfaces, followed by slipping and tearing of crystal structure beneath the surface. This will generally leave some material stuck or even friction welded to the adjacent surface). This destructive galling can be avoided by the use of dissimilar materials 28 | P a g e for the parts forced together, for example bronze and stainless steel, or even different types of stainless steels (martensitic against austenitic). However, two different alloys electrically connected in a humid environment may act as Voltaic pile and corrode faster. Nitronic alloys made by selective alloying with manganese and nitrogen may have a reduced tendency to gall. Additionally, threaded joints may be lubricated to prevent galling (David and Michael, 1992). Stainless steel’s resistance to corrosion and staining, low maintenance and familiar lustre make it an ideal material for many applications. There are over 150 grades of stainless steel, of which fifteen are most commonly used. The alloy is milled into coils, sheets, plates, bars, wire, and tubing to be used in cookware, cutlery, household hardware, surgical instruments, major appliances, industrial equipment (for example, in sugar refineries) and as an automotive and aerospace structural alloy and construction material in large buildings. Storage tanks and tankers used to transport orange juice and other food are often made of stainless steel, because of its corrosion resistance. This also influences its use in commercial kitchens and food processing plants, as it can be steam-cleaned and sterilized and does not need paint or other surface finishes. Stainless steel has a density ranging from 7480-8000 kg/m3. (Materials property datasheets) 2.16 GALVANIZED STEEL Galvanized steel is steel that has gone through a chemical process to keep it from corroding. The steel gets coated in layers of zinc oxide because this protective metal does not get rusty as easily. The coating also gives the steel a more durable, hard to scratch finish that many people find attractive. For countless outdoor, 29 | P a g e marine, or industrial applications, galvanized steel is an essential fabrication component. One of the most common ways of making steel resist rust is by combining (alloying) it with a metal that is less likely to corrode: zinc. When steel is submerged in melted zinc, a chemical reaction permanently bonds the zinc to the steel. Therefore, the zinc isn't exactly a sealer, like paint, because it doesn't just coat the other metal; it actually permanently becomes a part of it. The most external layer is all zinc, but successive layers are a mixture of zinc and iron, with an interior of pure steel. This process, known as hot-dipped galvanization, is one of the most common methods of making galvanized steel, but it's not the only one. Continuous sheet galvanizing runs a steel sheet or wire through molten zinc; it's also a form of hot-dipping, but leaves a thinner layer of the protective metal. Steel can also be painted or sprayed with zinc, although neither method creates the strong bond that hot-dipping does. Electro galvanizing or electroplating uses electricity to create the bond between the two metals, which results in relatively thin layer of zinc. Steel often gets galvanized after individual parts have been formed, such as braces, nails, screws, beams, or studs. Continuous sheet galvanizing is often done before the metal is used to create products, however, and can withstand some bending and forming without flaking. Zinc protects steel in two ways. First, it is highly resistant to rust; iron, a major component of steel, reacts very easily with oxygen and moisture and will eventually disintegrate. The layer of zinc on the surface prevents those elements from reaching the steel so quickly. It also develops a patina — a layer of zinc oxides, salts, and other compounds — that offers further protection. Zinc is also 30 | P a g e extremely durable and scratch resistant, and has a satiny appearance that many find attractive. The outer layer also protects the steel by acting as a "sacrificial layer." If, for some reason, rust does take hold on the surface of galvanized steel, the zinc will get corroded first. Even in areas where the surface is scratched or damaged, the surrounding zinc will still corrode before the steel does. The lifespan of galvanized steel varies, but industrial steel with a 3.9 mil (0.0039 inches or 0.09906 mm) thick coating can last more than 70 years without maintenance under average conditions. Galvanized steel has a density of about 7850-7870 kg/m3. 2.16.1 USES OF GALVANIZED STEEL Galvanized steel can be found almost everywhere. Many individuals live in steel frame houses, and buildings are often made with galvanized steel roofs. There are multiple steel parts in cars that help protect them from the weather, and it's used in many marine applications due to its ability to withstand the salt and the elements. Besides being inexpensive, durable and effective, this metal is also popular because it can be recycled and reused multiple times. 31 | P a g e CHAPTER THREE 3.0 3.1 MATERIALS AND METHODS MATERIALS Jatropha seed oil, anhydrous Methanol of 99.95% purity, sodium hydroxide pellet and other chemicals used for biodiesel properties assessment like ethanol, benzene, chloroform, acetic acid, potassium hydroxide, potassium iodide, sodium 32 | P a g e thiosulphate, Wij’s reagent and acetone were of analytical reagent grade and were obtained from Stanvac Lab. 3.2 EQUIPMENT Table 3.1 below shows the equipment used in this study and their different models. Table 3.1 Equipment EQUIPMENT Magnetic stirrer MODEL IKA C-MAG SERIES, NO 0008039600 Weighing balance Heating mantle Micrometer Screw gauge METTLER TOLEDO SAB SCALETECH 116123731 EMX SEOH Analog Heating mantle 3.3 EXPERIMENTAL 3.3.1 Jatropha biodiesel production Biodiesel samples were prepared by transesterification of the vegetable oils with methanol in the presence of NaOH as catalyst. The ratio of oil to methanol volume used in the production was 5:1, 800ml of oil was measured and transferred into a conical flask, the flask was attached to the magnetic stirrer, then 160ml of methanol was measured and NaOH pellets of mass 1%w/w of the mass of the oil was weighed, crushed into small particle size and mixed with the methanol to form sodium methoxide. This mixture was added to the oil in the conical flask and the setup was left to run for about 45minutes to 1 hour with the temperature set at 60°C. After an hour, the reaction was brought to a stop and the content of the flask was poured into a separating funnel and allowed to stand for about a day, to facilitate the separation of the biodiesel from glycerol and other impurities. The biodiesel was purified by washing with warm water (40 °C) to remove dissolved soap and finally heated using a heating mantle to remove excess water remaining 33 | P a g e after washing. Figure below show the reaction setup for biodiesel production using a magnetic, and its separation from glycerol. SETUP FOR BIODIESEL SEPARATION OF BIODIESEL Figure PRODUCTION 3.1 Pictures showing setup for biodiesel production and its separation 3.3.2 Preparation of metal samples The metal samples under study are galvanized steel, stainless steel and brass, which were obtained from the Department of Production Engineering, University of Benin. The Stainless steel used was of martensic grade containing Iron (82-85%), chromium (12-14%), molybdenum (0.2-1%), nickel less than 2% and carbon (0.11%). The Galvanized steel composed of Iron (65-80%), Zinc (15-25%), Carbon (0.25-1.5%), Manganese less than 1.35%, Silicon less than 0.04% and Phosphorus less than 0.04%, while Brass alloy was made of Copper (60-65%), Zinc (35-40%), Tin not more than 0.01% and Lead not more than 0.01%. The metal samples were machined into various dimensions, after which a 2mm hole was drilled in all the samples to provide room for suspension of the metals during static immersion test. After the machining and drilling of the metals, sandpaper was used to polish their 34 | P a g e surfaces, after which the metals were washed with distilled water and cleaned with acetone. The weight of the samples were measured and recorded. Table 3.2 shows the dimensions of the metals used in this study Table 3.2 Dimensions and Weight of Metals at Start of Experiment Sample No Metal type Dimensions(mm) 1 Stainless steel 21 x 16 x 0.9 2 20.9 x 16 x 0.9 3 20.9 x 16 x 0.9 4 20.9 x 16 x 0.9 1 Galvanized steel 21 x 16 x 1.1 2 20.9 x 16 x 1.1 3 20.9 x 16 x 1.1 4 20.9 x 16 x 1.1 1 Brass 16 x 12 x 1.55 2 16.1 x 12 x 1.55 3 16 x 12 x 1.55 4 16 x 12 x 1.55 Diameter of hole drilled in metal samples = 2 mm 3.3.3 Weight (g) 1.770 1.760 1.740 1.730 1.880 1.840 1.840 1.860 2.114 2.195 2.087 2.088 Preparation of the biodiesel/diesel blend samples Blends of biodiesel (B5 and B20) were prepared by mixing 5% biodiesel and 95% petrol diesel to get B5 and mixing 20% biodiesel and 80% petrol diesel to get B20. The petro diesel used was purchased from a nearby commercial filling station, The biodiesel (B100), blends (B20 & B5) and diesel (B0) samples were each made up to 100ml volume and were placed in 16 containers, 4 containers for each (B100, B20, B5 & B0). 3.3.4 Static immersion test The weighed metals were suspended using fish line thread in the various fuel samples without the metal samples touching the base of the storage containers. 35 | P a g e These static immersion studies were carried out for a period of 8weeks at ambient temperature. The test metal specimens were evaluated after 8weeks for qualitative and quantitative estimation of corrosion. 3.4 METAL ANALYSES Qualitative and quantitative analysis was done on the metal samples. Qualitative metal analysis which involves visual surface inspection for corrosion product, tarnishing, cracking and degradation of metal were done by taking photographs of the test samples before and after the test. Determination of metallic corrosion rate in the fuels which is a very important quantitative metal analysis was also done. 3.4.1 Determination of corrosion rate of metals After cleaning the metals with acetone and washing with distilled water to remove corrosion products deposited on the metals, a weighing balance was used to determine the final weight of the metal, the weight loss was then calculated as: ∆W = M2 – M1 Where M2 = Initial weight (in milligrams) at experiment start up M1 = final weight (in milligrams) at experiment end The corrosion rate was then calculated using the formula below: K L= 534 × ∆ W ρAT Where KL 36 | P a g e = Corrosion rate (in mil/year), 1 mil = 0.001 inch ∆W (mg) = Weight loss ρ (g/cm3) = Density of Metal A (inch2) = Total area of exposed Metal T (hours) = Time of exposure of metal to blends in container 3.5 CHARACTERIZATION OF FUELS The determination of the properties of the fuel was done through standard procedures. The procedures include: 3.5.1 Determination of density The American Standard ASTM D1298 was used for Density calculation. The mass of the empty density bottle was weighed and noted as md, the density bottle was then filled with the fuel sample and the total mass of fuel and bottle was taken as mt. The density was then calculated as follows: Density = Where V mt −md V = volume of density bottle = volume of fuel. 3.5.2 Determination of acid value This test was carried out using the EN 14104 standard. 1g of the fuel sample was measured into a conical flask. 10ml was taken out of a mixture of equal volumes of ethanol and benzene and added to the conical flask, a stopper was used to cover the conical flask and its content was shaken vigorously, then 3 drops of 37 | P a g e phenolphthalein indicator was added and the solution was titrated against 0.05M of potassium hydroxide till there was a noticeable color change. A blank test was then carried out under the same conditions. The acid value was then calculated using the formula: Acid value = Where V Vb ( V −V b ) × mass of KOH ( 56 . 1 ) × Conc . of KOH mass of oil = volume of KOH used for titration against fuel = volume of KOH used for titration in blank 3.5.3 Determination of peroxide value The ASTM D3703 standard was used to carry out this test. Two grams of the fuel sample was weighed and placed in a conical flask then 12 ml of a mixture of 2 volumes of chloroform and 3 volumes of glacial acetic acid. Using a pipette, 0.2M of saturated potassium iodide was added, a stopper was used to cover the conical flask and the mixture was shaken vigorously for 1 minute, after which 12 ml of distilled water was added to liberate the iodine from the chloroform layer and 1 ml of starch solution was added. The mixture was then titrated against 0.1N of sodium thiosulphate until the blue-gray color disappeared in the upper aqueous layer. A blank test was then carried out under the same conditions. The peroxide value was then calculated using the formula below: Peroxide value = 38 | P a g e 10 ×(n1 −n2) m Where n1 = volume of sodium thiosulphate titrated against oil n2 = volume of sodium thiosulphate used for blank m = mass of fuel sample used 3.5.4 Determination of iodine value The method specified by ISO 3961 (1989) was used and according to the EN 14214 standard the iodine value of biodiesels should be less than 120 g I2 /100 g. A mass of 0.3g of the sample was weighed into a conical flask and 20ml of carbon tetrachloride was added to dissolve the oil, then 25ml of Wij’s reagent was added to the flask using a safety pipette in a fume chamber, stopper was inserted on the conical flask and the contents were vigorously swirled. The flask was then placed in the dark for 2 hours 30 minutes. At the end of this period, 20ml of 10% aqueous potassium iodide and 125ml of water was added using a measuring cylinder. The content was titrated with 0.1M sodium thiosulphate solution until the yellow color almost disappeared. Few drops of 1% starch indicator were added and the titration continued by adding thiosulphate drop wise until the blue coloration disappeared after vigorous shaking. The same procedure was used for blank test (without the oil fuel sample). The iodine value was calculated using the following formula: Iodine value = 39 | P a g e 12 . 69× C ×(V 2−V 1 ) M Where C = concentration of sodium thiosulphate used V1 = volume of sodium thiosulphate used when titrated against oil V2 = volume of sodium thiosulphate used for blank titration M = Mass of sample CHAPTER 4 4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 PROPERTIES OF JATROPHA BIODIESEL Table 4.1 shows the characteristics of the biodiesel produced before experimental setup. The biodiesel produced had a very high yield of 98.8% compared to 96.3% yield obtained by Sirikulbodee (2007). The density of 0.8760g/cm 3obtained for the Jatropha biodiesel as compared to 0.880g/cm 3 by Sirikulbodee (2007); Sani et al., (2013), 0.8863 g/cm3 by Belewu et al., (2010) is within reasonable range. This density is in accordance with obtainable ASTM values which range from 0.860 to 0.90 g/cm3.The acid value gotten for the freshly produce biodiesel was 0.4165, a recent study done by Fazal et al., (2010) got an acid value of 0.35 and Wagutu et al., (2009) reported a value of 0.24, all this values are within the range of ASTM value (less than or equal to 0.5) and the EN standard (less than or equal to 0.8). 40 | P a g e Wagutu et al., (2009) reported a viscosity value of 4.43 at 40 oC, Meenakshi et al., (2011) got 5.4, and the viscosity gotten from this work was 1.904mm 2/sec although smaller than those reported by previous works was within the standard of between 1.9 and 6.0. Table 4.1 Properties of Jatropha Biodiesel PROPERTIES UNITS Density JATROPHA BIODIESEL 0.8760 g/cm3 ASTM STANDARD 0.860 - 0.90 Viscosity 1.904 mm2/sec 1.9 – 6.0 Acid value 0.4165 mg KOH/ 100g of fuel 0.5 Peroxide value 0.5 meq/kg of fuel - Iodine value 98.525 gram I2/ 100g of fuel - Flash point 136 o 130 min Cetane number 51 - 40 min Yield 98.8% - - C Flash point and cetane number of 136 and 51 respectively was obtained from this work while Meenakshi et al., (2011) reported a flash point and cetane number of 169 and 53 respectively and Sani et al., (2013) obtained a value of 120 and 56 for flash point and cetane number respectively, Belewu et al., (2010) obtained a flash point value of 140. Wagutu et al., (2009) got a value of 147.4 and 55.03 for flash point and cetane number respectively. Wagutu et al., (2009) also reported a value of 102 for iodine value of Jatropha biodiesel, while Belewu et al., (2010) got an iodine value of 26.09, the iodine value gotten from this study was 98.525 g I2/ 100g of fuel. These three values are reasonable values in as much as they did not exceed the EN14214 standard of less than 120g I2/ 100g of fuel. 41 | P a g e 4.2 ACID VALUE OF FUEL Figure 4.1 shows the variation in the acid values of the fuels with time for metalexposed fuel samples. It was observed that the acid value of the fuels for any given metal type decreased in the order: B100 > B20 > B5 > B0. ACID VALUE/TIME CHART FOR B100 3 2.5 2 AC ID VALUE (mg KOH/g of fuel) control Brass 1.5 G Steel 1 S Steel 0.5 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 TIME (WEEKS) Figure 4.1a Variation of Acid value with time for metal-exposed B100 fuels This is because biodiesel contains more acid content than diesel, so that as the ratio of biodiesel to diesel increase, so does the acid value. From the figure above, it is also clear that acid values for all the fuels for any metal type increases with increase in immersion time of metal in the fuel. After production of fuels, the acid value for both diesel (0.1375) and biodiesel (0.4165) are within acceptable ASTM standards of 0.5mg KOH/ 100g of fuel, but after 2 weeks, only values for stainless steel exposed biodiesel are within range, those of brass and galvanized steel were above limit. The diesel samples were within accepted limits until after 8 weeks for stainless steel and galvanized steel and 6 weeks for brass. 42 | P a g e ACID VALUE/TIME CHART FOR B20 2.5 2 AC ID VALUE (mg KOH/g of fuel) 1.5 Control 1 G steel `Brass S steel 0.5 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 TIME (WEEKS) Figure 4.1b Variation of Acid value with time for metal-exposed B20 fuels Of all the metals, it was noticed that brass always had the highest acid value in (B100, B20, B5 and B0) than the other two metals, while stainless steel always had the least. Galvanized steel had acid values higher than those of stainless steel but less than brass. This should be expected since metals with higher corrosion rates are as a result of high acid content of the biodiesel caused by oxidation, so since brass is more corrosive, it implies the biodiesel in which the brass was immersed will have a higher acid value, and the biodiesel in which stainless steel was immersed will have the least acid values because stainless steel is the least corrosive of the three metals. 43 | P a g e ACID VALUE/TIME FOR B5 1.6 1.4 1.2 AC ID VALUE (mg KOH/g of fuel) 1 Control 0.8 `Brass 0.6 G steel 0.4 S steel 0.2 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 TIME (WEEKS) Figure 4.1c Variation of Acid Value with time for metal-exposed B5 fuels ACID VALUE FOR DIESEL (B0) 1.2 1 AC ID VALUE 0.8 Control 0.6 `Brass G steel 0.4 S steel 0.2 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 TIME (WEEKS) Figure 4.1d Variation of Acid values with time for metal-exposed Diesel (B0) 4.3 44 | P a g e DENSITY OF FUEL Figure 4.2 shows the variation in density of metal-exposed fuels with time. The measured density of fuels decreased in the order B100 > B20 > B5 > B0 for any given metal sample. DENSITY FOR B100 DENSITY 0.9 0.89 0.89 0.88 0.88 0.87 0.87 0.86 0.86 0.85 0.85 CONTROL BRASS G STEEL S STEEL 0 2 4 6 8 TIME (WEEKS) Figure 4.2a Variation of Density with time for metal-exposed Biodiesel (B100) Although there was no defined pattern for density changes, it was observed that density of biodiesel decreased after 4 weeks, and then increased 2 weeks later and finally plummeted after week 8. The density changes were not significant enough to go beyond or below the ASTM standard of between 0.86 to 0.90g/cm 3 for the biodiesel samples, an overall decrease in density was noticed in the fuels after 8 weeks .The changes in density could be attributed to the compositional change of biodiesel resulting from different materials exposure as well as corrosion products. 45 | P a g e 0. 85 0. 86 DENSITY FOR B20 0. 84 BRASS G STEEL 0. 83 DENSITY CONTROL 0. 81 0. 82 S STEEL 0 2 4 6 8 TIME (WEEKS) Figure 4.2b Variation of Density with time for metal-exposed B20 fuels 0. 84 0. 85 DENSITY FOR B5 0. 83 BRASS G STEEL 0. 82 DENSITY CONTROL 0. 8 0. 81 S STEEL 0 2 4 6 8 TIME (WEEKS) Figure 4.2c Variation of Density with time for metal-exposed B5 fuels 46 | P a g e DENSITY FOR DIESEL (B0) DENSITY 0.85 0.85 0.84 0.84 0.83 0.83 0.82 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.8 CONTROL BRASS G STEEL S STEEL 0 2 4 6 8 TIME (WEEKS) Figure 4.2d Variation of Density with time for metal-exposed Diesel (B0) fuels 4.4 PEROXIDE VALUE OF BIODIESEL Figure 4.3 shows that the peroxide values for the biodiesel increased with experiment time, this was due to increase in oxidation of the fuel over time which caused formation of peroxides. The highest peroxide value was always noticed in brass-biodiesel containers, while the least was in stainless steel-biodiesel containers. Those of galvanized steel were higher than those of stainless steel, but less than those of brass 47 | P a g e PEROX IDE VALUES FOR BIODIESEL 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Figure 4.3 0 WEEK 2 WEEKS 4 WEEKS 6 WEEKS CONTROL BRASS GALVANIZED STEEL STAINLESS STEEL 8 WEEKS Variation of Peroxide values with Time for metal-exposed Biodiesel samples 4.5 IODINE VALUE OF BIODIESEL Figure 4.4 shows that the iodine value for the biodiesel decreased with increase in setup time, this was because as the experiment progressed, the degree of unsaturation of the fuels decreased as oxidation in the biodiesel over time caused the breakdown of the C=C bonds in the fuel. Since stainless steel-biodiesel samples were the least oxidized, they had higher degree of unsaturation and higher iodine values, while the brass-biodiesel samples had the least iodine values and galvanized steel-biodiesel sample had iodine values greater than those of their brass counterpart but lower than those of stainless steel. 48 | P a g e IODINE VALUE FOR BIODIESEL 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Figure 4.4 0 WEEK 2 WEEKS 4 WEEKS 6 WEEKS CONTROL STAINLESS STEEL GALVANIZED STEEL BRASS 8 WEEKS Variation of Iodine values with time for metal-exposed Biodiesel Samples 4.6 CORROSION RATE OF METAL IN FUEL Figure 4.5 shows the corrosion rate for brass, galvanized steel and stainless steel in diesel (B0), B20, B5 and biodiesel (B100) after immersion at room temperature (25-27oC) for 1344hours. It is seen that for each metal, biodiesel is more corrosive than B20, B5 and diesel. Corrosion is found to decrease in the order: B100 > B20 > B5 > B0. Increased corrosion rate of different metals in palm biodiesel as compared to that in diesel, B20 and B5 could be attributed to the presence of oxygen and moisture absorption. Compositionally, biodiesel contains 10-12 wt% oxygen while diesel contains no oxygen. In the presence of oxygen, metal could easily be oxidized to different oxides and later it forms different metal compounds by further oxidation. This is why in most cases, biodiesel exposed metal surface shows higher oxygenated species. In addition, the ester molecules of biodiesel are 49 | P a g e more hygroscopic and polar in nature as compared to diesel, as the percentage of biodiesel increases, so does its tendency to absorb more water and be oxidized. Such properties of biodiesel may increase the chemical affinity with metals and thereby causes enhanced corrosion of metals. Also noticed is that of the three metals, brass is more corrosive and stainless steel is the least corrosive, Galvanized steel had a corrosion rate less than that of brass but greater than that of stainless steel. The corrosion rate of the metals in biodiesel (B100) decreased in the order: brass (0.6091 mil/yr) > Galvanized steel (0.3435 mil/yr) > Stainless steel (0.053 mil/yr). The same order was noticed in B20, B5 and diesel (B0). CORROSION RATE FOR METALS 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 Figure 4.5 Corrosion rates of metals in fuels Comparing the corrosion rates obtained from this work with those of others, Meenashki et al., (2013) obtained a value of 0.201 ± 0.041 mil/yr for brass in Pongamia pinnata biodiesel. Fazal et al., (2010) got corrosion rate of brass in palm biodiesel as 0.209898 mil/yr, Meenashki et al., (2011) got a corrosion rate of 50 | P a g e 0.4875 mil/yr in Jatropha biodiesel. For Stainless steel, Hu et al., (2012) got a corrosion rate of 0.0348 mil/yr in rapeseed biodiesel, Sani et al., (2013) reported a corrosion rate of 0.017 mil/yr for stainless steel in Jatropha biodiesel, Diana and Sonia, (2010) got a value of 0.0165 mil/yr in sunflower biodiesel. From the results of previous work, it is evident that Jatropha biodiesel is slightly more corrosive than other biodiesels, this is because of its elevated concentration of C18:2 (19–41%) fatty acid, which is more prone to oxidation due to presence of two double bonds. 4.7 SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS Figure 4.6 shows the appearance of different metal coupons before and after exposure to diesel and biodiesel. It is observed that the as-received brass is brown, galvanized steel and stainless steel are ash in color. After exposure to biodiesel, a green layer formed on brass, while in diesel, B20 and B5 the original color turned into reddish brown. For galvanized steel, a reddish brown layer was formed after exposure in B100, B20, B5 and diesel. There was no noticeable change of Stainless steel surface in diesel, B5, B20 and biodiesel. This change in colour is as a result of formation of corrosion products on the surface of the metals, the corrosion products are majorly made up of metallic oxides. STAINLE GALVANIZ SS ED STEEL STEEL Figure 4.6a Pictures of Metals before immersion test BRAS 51 | P a g e Figure 4.6b Picture of Metals after Immersion test in Biodiesel (B100) Figure 4.6c Picture of metals after immersion test in Diesel (B0) 4.8 COLOUR OF FUEL Fig. 4.7 shows the color of metal exposed biodiesel. It is seen that the biodiesel has a cloudy milk colour after production. B100 before immersion test Figure 4.7 52 | P a g e Stainless steelbiodiesel after test (8 Galvanized steelbiodiesel after test (8 Brassbiodiesel after test (8 weeks) B100 (control) after 8 weeks Pictures of Biodiesel Samples Before and After Experiment After exposure of biodiesel to brass, galvanized steel and stainless steel, the color of brass-exposed biodiesel has been changed slightly from a cloudy milk colour to a green clear colour, galvanized steel-exposed biodiesel changed from cloudy milk to clear reddish brown, stainless steel-exposed biodiesel became clear and transparent after 8 weeks (No noticeable colour). This colour changes may be attributed to deposition of corrosion products into the biodiesel. Such type of color change indicates the compositional change which may change the fuel properties as well. B20, B5 and diesel showed no reasonable colour changes. 53 | P a g e CHAPTER FIVE 5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 5.1 CONCLUSION Corrosion rate and degradation of Brass, Galvanized steel and Stainless Steel in Jatropha biodiesel was investigated by static immersion test. The following points had been concluded from the study: 1. Upon exposure to Jatropha biodiesel, the corrosion rate for the metals is: brass > galvanized steel > stainless steel. 2. For each metal, corrosion rate in biodiesel is in the order B100 (Biodiesel) > B20 > B5 >B0 (diesel). Brass metal is less resistant to corrosion in biodiesel (than stainless steel and Galvanized steel) and also causes more degradation of fuel properties. The same trend is observed in B20, B5 and diesel. 3. Upon exposure of biodiesel to these metals, the acid values for the Biodiesel samples cross the ASTM limit after 8 weeks. 4. As time of exposure of Jatropha biodiesel to the metals increases, properties of the biodiesel like acid value and peroxide value increases, while Iodine value and Density decreases 54 | P a g e 5.2 RECOMMENDATION From the experiment performed, the following recommendation was made: In use of metals like brass, stainless steel and galvanized steel in the making of storage tanks and engine parts that will be used with biodiesel, stainless steel should be the best choice since it will corrode the least in the biodiesel and it causes very little change in the fuel specification in comparison to brass and galvanized steel. In conditions where biodiesel is used in blends with diesel, the ratio (in volume) of biodiesel in the blends should be very minimal so as to get optimal performance of fuel, because the higher the ratio of biodiesel to diesel, the more likely the fuel will corrode metal parts it comes in contact with and the greater the tendency for the fuel to go off specification due to increased deposition of corrosion product in it. When corrosion of metals in fuel and cost efficiency is a key consideration in fuel choice, diesel should be chosen ahead of biodiesel because, although biodiesel is a cleaner burning fuel than diesel, it corrodes metallic parts more than diesel and diesel is more cost efficient than biodiesel. When designing components (like piping systems and storage tanks) that will be made with brass, galvanized steel or stainless steel, engineers and technicians should take the corrosion rate of these metals into consideration and provide corrosion allowance in the metallic parts that will come in contact with biodiesel. 55 | P a g e REFERENCES Agarwal, A. K. (2007). “Biofuels (alcohols and biodiesel) applications as fuels for internal combustion engines”. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 33: 233–271. Ahmed, M. (2004). “Cultivation of Jatropha curcas”, Aromatic – Medicinal Plants & Biodiesel, AROMA 2004, Edited by Ahmed M. and Deka P., North Eastern Development Finance Corporation Ltd. Guwahati, Assam, pp. 220-235. Akintayo, E. T. (2004). “Characteristics and composition of Parkia biaglobbosa and Jatropha curcas oils and seeds. Bioresource Technology, 92: 307-310. Anisha, A., Shyamala, R., Meenakshi, H. N., Saratha, R. and Papavinasm, S. (2008). “Biodiesel: Oil gloom to Oil Boom”. PICon. Paper # 2008/10. http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/picon, accessed on September 2014. ASTM American society of testing and materials (1984). ASTM D6751-02, “Requirements for Biodiesel”, ASTM, Easton, Maryland, USA. Berchman, G. D. and Hirata, E. B. (2008). “Biodiesel demand to propel grain, oil prices higher”. Business Daily from the Hindu Publications. 56 | P a g e Blauuw, U. (2007) “Characterization of Jatropha oil for the preparation of biodiesel” National product radiance, Volume 8, No. 2, Pp 127-132. Bradford, A. S. (2001). “Corrosion control”. Casti publishing inc., second edition, pp. 2-3. Bradshaw, W. V. and Meuly E. (1999). “Advancements in Development and Characterization of Biodiesel: A Review”, Fuel, vol. 87, pp. 2355–2373. Chisti, F. Y. (2007). “Biodiesel fuel production from micro-algae”. Journal of Biotechnology advances 25: 294-306. Cole, G. S. and Sheerman, A. M. (1995). “Lightweight materials for automotive applications”, Material Characteristics. 35:3–9. Corrosion clinc (2012). “Stainless steel: why they resist corrosion and how they fail”. Science Publications. 32: 270-275 Clement, S. A. (1996). “Characterization of Key Fuel Properties of Methyl Esterdiesel fuel Blends”. Fuel 88(1): 75-80. David, R. and Michael, F. (1992). “Engineering materials”, pergamon press, oxford, ISBN 0-08032532-7, Pp. 119. Divya, B. N. (2007). “Development and Evaluation of Biodiesel fuel and by-products from Jatropha oil. International Journal of Environmental Science Technology 6:219224. Dorado, M. P., Arnal, J. M., Gomexx, J., Gill, A. and Lopez, F. J. (2002). “The effects of a waste vegetable oil blend with diesel fuel on Engine performance. Transactions of ASAE Volume 2, 45(3): 519-523. Dunn, R. O., Shockley, M. W. & Bagby, M. O. (1997). “Winterized methyl esters from soybean oil: An alternative diesel fuel with improved low-temperature flow properties”. SAE Trans., Sec. 4: J. Fuels Lubricants, ISSN 0096-736X. 106: 640-649. 57 | P a g e Fazal, M.A., Haseeb, S. M. and Masjuki, H. H. (2010). “Comparative corrosive characteristics of petroleum diesel and palm biodiesel for automotive materials”. Fuel Processing Technology, 91: 1308–1315. Foster, K. (2005). “Crevice corrosion”, Heinemann Butterworth Publishers. Second Edition, Volume 2, pp. 23. Freedman, E. H., Pryde, R. and Mounts, T. L. (1999). “Variables affecting the yields of fatty Esters from Transesterified Vegetable oils”, Journal of American Oil Chemical Society, 61: 1638-1643. Galadima, D. and Garba, C. (2009). “A comparison of the different methods to improve engine performance while using Jatropha oil as the primary fuel in a compression ignition engine”. International conference on energy and environmental technologies for sustainable development. Pp. 267-274. Graboski, L. P. and McCormick, I. (1997). “Biodiesel as an alternative motor fuel: production and policies in the European Union”. Renew Sustain Energy; Rev. 12: 542-552. Harold, M. and Cobb, D. (2010). “The history of stainless steel”. ASM international, ISBN 1-61503-010-7, Pp. 360-365. Haseeb, S. M., Masjuki, H. H., Ann, L. J. and Fazal, M. A. (2010). “Corrosion characteristics of copper and leaded bronze in palm biodiesel”. Fuel Processing Technology, 91: 329–334. Hooks, D. R. (1995). “Understanding of zinc and brass in post medieval Europe”. British museum occasional papers, ISBN 0-23467-014-5. Pp.55 Huang, A. K. and Wilson, P. K. (2000). “A Comprehensive analysis of fuel properties of biodiesel from Koroch seed oil”, Energy & Fuels, 19(2): 656-657. Issariyakul, H. F., Foston, M. and Ragauskas, A. J. (2007). “Rapid Quantitative Analytical Tool for Characterizing the Preparation of Biodiesel”, Journal of Physical Chemistry. Vol.114, pp. 3883–3887. 58 | P a g e Jensen, P. M. (2003). “The corrosion of metals in contact with ester oils containing water at 60 and 150oC. Electrochimica Acta 40:1135-47. Jones, N. and Miller, J. H. (1992). “Jatropha curcas: Multipurpose Specie, an oil plant of unfulfilled promise”. Biomass and Bioenergy.19: 1-15. Joseph, R. and Davis, C. (1994). ‘Stainless steels”, ASM international ISBN 978-087170-503-7, Pp. 118. Jung, H., Kittelson, D. B. and Zachariah, M. R. (2006). “Characteristics of SME Biodiesel-Fueled Diesel Particle Emissions and the Kinetics of Oxidation”. Environ. Science Technology, 40: 4949-4955. Knothe, G. (2005). “Dependence of biodiesel fuel properties on the structure of fatty acid esters”. Fuel proc tech 8690; pp. 1059-1070. Knothe, G., Dunn, R. O. and Bagby, M. O. (1997). “Biodiesel: the use of vegetable oils and their derivatives as alternative diesel fuels”. American Chemical Society, first edition. Pp. 358-390. Knothe, G. L., Van Gerpen, J. and Krahl, J. (2005). “The Biodiesel Handbook”, AOCS Press, Champaign, Illinois USA, Pp. 23-35. Kumar, T. G., Negi, M. S., Bhatnagar, A. K. and Goyal, H. B. (2007). “Corrosion behavior of biodiesel from seed oils of Indian origin on diesel engine parts”. Fuel Processing Technology 88(3):303-7. Kinast, J. A. (2003). “Production of Biodiesels from Multiple Feedstocks and Properties of Biodiesels and Biodiesel/Diesel Blends”. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO. NREL/SR-510-31460. pp. 13. Lapuerta, M. C., Bernardini, G. P., Faso, V., Atrei, A. and Rovida, G. (2008). “Characterization by XPS of the corrosion patina formed on bronze surfaces”. Journal of Cultural Heritage; 3:199-204. Marshall, D. (2010). “Methods of protecting against corrosion: piping technology and products”, Journal of Corrosion Science 33:3531–3537. 59 | P a g e Mining and scientific press. (1921). “Unstainable steel”, Moneypenny Publishing, European Journal of Scientific research 21: 45-60. Mittelbach, M. and Remschmidt, C. (2004). “Biodiesel: the comprehensive handbook”, University of Michigan, second edition, ISBN: 3200002492, 9783200002494. Pp. 245-250. Murphy, L. C., Vidhya, S. D. and Naik S. N. (1995). “Technical aspect of biodiesel production by transesterification – a review”. Renew and Sustainable Energy Rev. 10: 248-68. National Biodiesel Board (2009). “Biodiesel Handling and use Guide”. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Fourth Edition, NREL/TP-540-43672, pp. 18-40. Owen F. D. and Coley T. U. (1995). “Characteristic and Composition of Jatropha Curcas Oil Seed from Malaysia and its Potential as Biodiesel Feedstock”, European Journal of Scientific Research, ISSN: 1450-216X. Volume 29, No. 3, Pp. 396-403. Prankl, O. and Worgetter, A. N. (1996). “New trends in Developing Biodiesel Worldwide, Evaluating & Exploring the Commercial Uses of Ethanol, Fuel alcohol & Biodiesel”. Scientific Research 20: 80-91. Prakash, H. G. (1998). “Properties and use of Jatropha curcas biodiesel and diesel fuel blends in compression ignition engine”, Renewable Energy, Volume 28, No. 2, Pp. 239-248. Pranab, K. B. (2010). “Biodiesel from Seeds of Jatropha Plants Found in North East India”, Lambert Academic Publishing, Saarbrucken, Germany, Vol 2, pp. 450-55. Shah, V. R. and Gupta, A. K. (2007). “Developing the rate equation for biodiesel production reaction”. Indian institute of Technology, New Delhi, pp. 450-467. Sheehan, J., Dunahay, T., Benemann, J.R. and Roessler, P. (1998). “A look back at the US department of energy’s aquatic species program: Biodiesel from Algae”. National renewable energy laboratory, Golden CO. pp. 50-60. 60 | P a g e Srivastava, P. K. (2000). Methyl ester of Karanja oil as alternative renewable source energy. Biofuel. 87: 1673-1677. Thornton, C. P. (2007) “of brass and bronze in prehistoric southwest Asia: studies in archeometallurgy”, archetype publications ISBN 1-904982-19-0, Pp. 34-36. Tyson, K. S. (2001). “Biodiesel handling and use guidelines”, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden CO. NREL/TP-580-30004. Pp. 25-30. Walker, R. (2009) “Mass, weight, density or specific gravity of different metals”, simetric publishing, united kingdom, pp. 670-672. Wang, W., Jenkins, P. E. and Ren, Z. (2011) “Heterogeneous corrosion behaviour of carbon steel in water contaminated biodiesel”. Corrosion Science, 53: 845–849. Yagiz, F., Kazan, D. & Nilgun, A. A. (2007). “Biodiesel production from waste oils by using lipase immobilized on hydrotalcite and zeolites”. Chemical Engineering Journal, 134: 262–267 61 | P a g e APPENDIX Acid values for biodiesel and blends for the different metals CONTROL TIME B100 B20 B5 0 WEEK 0.4165 0.2805 0.1403 2 WEEKS 0.42075 0.3366 0.2805 4 WEEKS 0.6992 0.6871 0.3015 6 WEEKS 0.8398 0.7211 0.5511 8 WEEKS 1.122 1.1109 0.5610 BRASS TIME B100 B20 B5 0 WEEK 0.4165 0.2805 0.1403 2 WEEKS 0.5600 0.3966 0.3333 4 WEEKS 1.005 0.8407 0.4821 6 WEEKS 1.700 1.4025 1.0890 8 WEEKS 2.5245 1.9537 1.4589 GALVANIZED STEEL TIME B100 B20 B5 0 WEEK 0.4165 0.2805 0.1403 2 WEEKS 0.5550 0.3647 0.2805 4 WEEKS 0.8407 0.7358 0.3711 6 WEEKS 1.3650 1.1004 0.8415 8 WEEKS 1.9635 1.6830 1.1056 STAINLESS STEEL TIME B100 B20 B5 0 WEEK 0.4165 0.2805 0.1403 2 WEEKS 0.4250 0.3628 0.2808 4 WEEKS 0.7398 0.7234 0.3125 6 WEEKS 0.8407 0.8110 0.4207 8 WEEKS 1.5083 1.4025 0.5638 B0 0.1375 0.2777 0.2805 0.3082 0.4212 B0 0.1375 0.2805 0.3150 0.5638 1.0890 B0 0.1375 0.2805 0.3002 0.4821 0.5621 B0 0.1375 0.2790 0.2810 0.3420 0.5545 Peroxide values of biodiesel for the different metals B100 CONTROL BRASS GALVANIZED STEEL STAINLESS STEEL 62 | P a g e 0 WEEK 0.5 0.5 0.5 2 WEEKS 1.0 7.5 5.0 4 WEEKS 10.5 18 15.75 6 WEEKS 25 45.25 40 8 WEEKS 41.05 60.5 58 0.5 4.75 12 35.25 49.5 Density of biodiesel and blends for the different metals CONTROL TIME B100 0 WEEK 0.8760 2 WEEKS 0.8760 4 WEEKS 0.8750 6 WEEKS 0.8769 8 WEEKS 0.8643 BRASS TIME B100 0 WEEK 0.8760 2 WEEKS 0.8760 4 WEEKS 0.8687 6 WEEKS 0.8925 8 WEEKS 0.8759 GALVANIZED STEEL TIME B100 0 WEEK 0.8760 2 WEEKS 0.8760 4 WEEKS 0.8675 6 WEEKS 0.8931 8 WEEKS 0.8870 STAINLESS STEEL TIME B100 0 WEEK 0.8760 2 WEEKS 0.8760 4 WEEKS 0.8673 6 WEEKS 0.8859 8 WEEKS 0.8624 B20 0.8450 0.8420 0.8334 0.8532 0.8317 B5 0.8390 0.8360 0.8282 0.8432 0.8232 B0 0.8370 0.8340 0.8270 0.8447 0.8208 B20 0.8450 0.8400 0.8358 0.8455 0.8417 B5 0.8390 0.8380 0.8302 0.8389 0.8353 B0 0.8370 0.8370 0.8277 0.8318 0.8309 B20 0.8450 0.8420 0.8338 0.8530 0.8412 B5 0.8390 0.8380 0.8291 0.8417 0.8380 B0 0.8370 0.8340 0.8252 0.8365 0.8383 B20 0.8450 0.8370 0.8334 0.8398 0.8275 B5 0.8390 0.8360 0.8289 0.8346 0.8171 B0 0.8370 0.8340 0.8260 0.8319 0.8149 Iodine values of biodiesel for the different metals B100 CONTROL BRASS GALVANIZED STEEL STAINLESS STEEL 63 | P a g e 0 WEEK 98.525 98.525 98.525 2 WEEKS 81.478 70.819 73.223 4 WEEKS 59.837 50.218 55.741 6 WEEKS 45.233 39.982 40.978 8 WEEKS 32.2115 25.0012 26.9123 98.525 80.315 58.013 44.106 30.6578 Corrosion rate for metals METAL TYPE BRASS GALVANIZED STEEL STAINLESS STEEL CORROSION RATE (mil/year) B100 B20 0.6091 0.5826 B5 0.2482 B0 0.2151 0.3435 0.3171 0.1762 0.1073 0.053 0.0441 0.0353 0.0178 METAL CONTENT ANALYSIS FOR METAL–EXPOSED FUELS S/N SAMPLE ID UNITS IRON COPPER 1 2 3 4 5 BRASS B100 BRASS B20 BRASS B5 BRASS B0 GALVANIZED STEEL B100 GALVANIZED STEEL B20 GALVANIZED STEEL B5 GALVANIZED STEEL B0 STAINLESS STEEL B100 STAINLESS STEEL B20 STAINLESS STEEL B5 STAINLESS STEEL B0 Mg/l NR NR NR NR 2.77 3.00 5.00 5.31 4.72 NR 2.80 NR 3.70 NR 4.56 NR 1.57 NR 4.08 - NR NR NR 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 64 | P a g e Mg/l Mg/l IODINE VALUE FOR BIODIESEL 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 WEEK 2 WEEKS 4 WEEKS 6 WEEKS CONTROL STAINLESS STEEL GALVANIZED STEEL BRASS CORROSION RATE FOR METALS 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 65 | P a g e 8 WEEKS PEROX IDE VALUES FOR BIODIESEL 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 WEEK 2 WEEKS 4 WEEKS 6 WEEKS CONTROL BRASS GALVANIZED STEEL STAINLESS STEEL 8 WEEKS DENSITY 0. 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 1 2 3 4 5 8 DENSITY FOR B5 CONTROL BRASS G STEEL S STEEL 0 2 4 TIME (WEEKS) 66 | P a g e 6 8 DENSITY FOR B20 CONTROL BRASS DENSITY G STEEL S STEEL 0 2 4 TIME (WEEKS) 67 | P a g e 6 8 DENSITY FOR DIESEL (B0) DENSITY 0.85 0.85 0.84 0.84 0.83 0.83 0.82 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.8 CONTROL BRASS G STEEL S STEEL 0 2 4 TIME (WEEKS) 68 | P a g e 6 8 ACID VALUE FOR DIESEL (B0) 1.2 1 AC ID VALUE 0.8 Control 0.6 `Brass G steel 0.4 S steel 0.2 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 TIME (WEEKS) 69 | P a g e 6 7 8 ACID VALUE/TIME FOR B5 1.6 1.4 1.2 AC ID VALUE (mg KOH/g of fuel) 1 Control 0.8 `Brass 0.6 G steel 0.4 S steel 0.2 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 TIME (WEEKS) 70 | P a g e ACID VALUE/TIME CHART FOR B20 2.5 2 AC ID VALUE (mg KOH/g of fuel) 1.5 Control 1 G steel `Brass S steel 0.5 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 TIME (WEEKS) ACID VALUE/TIME CHART FOR B100 3 2.5 2 AC ID VALUE (mg KOH/g of fuel) control Brass 1.5 G Steel 1 S Steel 0.5 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 TIME (WEEKS) 71 | P a g e
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"What was the name of the boat belonging to the character Quinn that was used to hunt for the shark in the novel ""Jaws"" ?" | Jaws | Jaws Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
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A girl named Chrissie Watkins leaves a party on Amity Island and goes skinny dipping. While swimming out near a buoy, she is seized by something from below; it thrashes her around and drags her under the ocean.
Chrissie is reported missing and her remains are later found on the beach by the Deputy of police chief Martin Brody . The medical examiner informs Brody that she was killed by a shark . Brody plans to close the beaches but is overruled by Mayor Larry Vaughan , who fears that reports of a shark attack will ruin the summer tourist season, the town's primary source of income. The medical examiner consequently attributes the death to a boating accident. Brody reluctantly goes along with the explanation. The shark then kills a young boy swimming at the beach. His mother places a bounty on the shark, sparking an amateur shark-hunting frenzy and attracting the attention of local professional shark hunter Quint , who offers to kill the shark for $10,000. Marine biologist Matt Hooper examines Chrissie's remains and determines that she was killed by a shark, not a boat.
A large tiger shark is caught by fishermen, leading the townspeople to believe the problem is solved. Hooper asks to examine its stomach contents, but Vaughan refuses. That evening, Brody and Hooper secretly open the shark's stomach and discover that it does not contain human remains. They head out to sea to find the shark, but instead find the wreckage of a boat belonging to local fisherman Ben Gardner. Hooper explores the vessel underwater and discovers a sizable shark's tooth protruding from the damaged hull before he is startled by Gardner's corpse, causing him to drop the tooth. Without evidence, Vaughan refuses to close the beaches or hire Quint.
Many tourists arrive on the Fourth of July. The children's prank causes panic at the main beach while the shark enters a nearby estuary and kills a man. Brody's son Michael , who narrowly escapes the attack, goes into shock. Brody finally convinces Vaughan to hire Quint, and Quint reluctantly allows Hooper and Brody to join the hunt. The three set out to kill the shark aboard Quint's vessel, The Orca .
Brody is given the task of laying a chum line but an enormous great white looms up behind the boat, and the trio watch it circle the Orca. Quint estimates its size as twenty-five feet in length, with a weight of over three tons. He harpoons it with a line attached to a flotation barrel, but the shark pulls the barrel underwater and disappears.
The men retire to the cabin, where Quint relates his experience with sharks as a survivor of the sinking of the USS Indianapolis. The shark returns, damages the hull and slips away. It reappears in the morning. Brody attempts to call the U.S. Coast Guard, but Quint destroys the radio, enraging Brody. After a long chase, Quint harpoons two more barrels to the shark, and the men tie them both to the stern, but the shark drags the boat backwards, forcing water onto the deck and flooding the engine. Quint severs the line to prevent the transom from being cut. He then heads toward shore, hoping to draw it into shallow waters and suffocate it. In his obsession to kill the shark, Quint burns out the Orca's engine.
With the boat immobilized, the trio attempt a desperate approach: Hooper dons scuba gear and enters the ocean inside a shark proof cage, intending to lethally inject the shark with a hypodermic spear filled with strychnine. The shark attacks and demolishes the cage from behind, causing Hooper to drop the spear before he can inject it. When the shark becomes entangled in the wrecked cage, Hooper escapes and hides in the seabed. The shark then leaps onto the boat and attacks it directly, crushing the transom. Quint slides down the deck and is devoured alive by the shark. When the shark attacks again, Brody shoves a pressurized scuba tank into its mouth, then takes Quint's rifle and climbs the sinking Orca's mast. The shark, with the tank still in its mouth, begins swimming toward Brody, who shoots the tank, causing it to explode and blowing the shark to pieces. Hooper swims to the surface and he and Brody use the barrels to swim back to shore.
The first Amity Incident
Edit
Jaws, is presumedly based on a frightening true incident which occurred in 1973, referred to as 'The Amity Incident'. During the summer months of 1973, a rogue great white shark staked a claim near the coastal community of Amity, Massachusetts, and began to terrorize swimmers which nearly destroyed the local Amitian economy.
According to reports at the time, the mayor of Amity's initial reluctance to comply with the Chief of police's request to catch and kill the shark, directly led to wide spread panic on the Island. Ultimately, the shark was tracked down and purportedly destroyed after a lengthy sea battle which included Police chief Martin Brody, Oceanographer Matt Hooper, and local extreme fisherman, Bartholomew Marion Quint.
Production
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The cast of JAWS.
In May of 1974 production of a feature film, "Jaws", based on 'The Amity Incident' began quietly on what is known as South beach on the coast of Martha's Vineyard. JAWS was later released to overwhelming critical acclaim during the sumer of 1975, now referred to as 'the summer of the shark'. Besides being plagued with countless production problems including a malfunctioning shark and a sinking camera boat, the crew endured and the film was miraculously completed.
Legacy
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Along with red and green what colour appears on the flag of Oman ? | The Cinema: Jaws: Another (deserving) look
The Cinema
Thursday, June 7, 2007
Jaws: Another (deserving) look
"Slow ahead... I can go slow ahead. Come on down and chum some of this shit."
This past weekend, I enjoyed an all-too-short vacation on the beach. Actually, I spent very little time on the beach; I instead sat on a breezy (and shaded) deck, or in cool air-conditioning to catch up on some much-needed reading. Fortunately, in between the lounging and reading, I was able to upkeep a long-standing personal tradition of mine. Since the time I was very young, I have made a habit of watching one of my very favorite “beach” films whenever I’ve been to the beach.
Although most people would probably prefer digging their feet in the sand and engrossing themselves in dark crime novels or unabashed romances while baking in ultraviolet light, I never had a problem sticking to the air conditioning and taking in a “beach watch.” And nothing fits this bill better than Jaws . I say this not to demean the film, as if it was breezy trash designed to “take your mind off things” for a few hours. I instead use the term in the highest regard, because to me Jaws is a very nostalgic film. I saturate myself in its pastel compositions and its incredible ability to contrast the pictaresque townscapes of Amity Island with a more abstract, implacable leviathan of the sea, bringing them together at a shoreline that separates crowded bureacratic establishment and the uncompromising primal instinct of creatures of the sea. I am swept up in this conflict in new ways every time I see the film, but something about breathing in the ocean air on the beach and enjoying the laid back lifestyle of shore houses gives Jaws the extra edge that resonates with me so deeply.
Much has been written about Jaws, from its sexual imagery and symbolic gender relationships to its status as arguably the first true American blockbuster. (While on last year's beach vacation, I read Antonia Quirke's excellent book in the British Film Institute's Modern Classic book series.) The problem with writing on Jaws and countless other classic movies is that it's often hard to write with a fresh perspective since so many approaches have been exhausted, e.g. analyses of any of Alfred Hitchcock's films of the 1950's and 1960's. I devour many of these books and articles and learn a great deal from them, but in instances of films like Jaws or Psycho, much of the literature treads on familiar ground.
There are two opposing issues I have with this. First, sameness in perspective in the literature about a given topic typically breeds a very limited overall approach to the artifact (or movie) in question and makes it so that it would be almost impossible to approach it from another angle. But there is a flip side to this problem. Given the prominence of a certain broad approach to an artifact of study, the critical community may consciously attempt to operate on new ground and yield new perspectives and in doing so become numb to benefit of the dominant consensus. That is why it is much more difficult than it may seem to contribute to the overall critical persective of a film like Jaws. By simply acknowledging the overwhelming emphasis on certain key factors of the movie, I am positioning myself in relation to them and may tend to either assert them too superficially for the sake of comfortable familiarity or potentially pay lip service to crucial details that I don't allow myself to acknowledge due to my inability to really examine a perspective with which I have become so topically familiar. For these reasons, I have elected to focus on specific details about the film's images and how they relate to the overall structure and thematic depth of the film. I will attempt not ignore or privelage the well-tread critical ground concerning Jaws, but instead place them in perspective of some of the film's more subtle moments and compositions.
For many critics, scholars, and movie lovers, any reference to Jaws brings to mind some of the film's most memorable elements: the underwater "shark vision" perspective; the escalating two-note musical motif signaling the shark's closing in on it prey; a skinny dipping young woman violently dragged along the surface of the ocean, disrupting its calmness but not its apathy to her inevitable demise. All of these things are what we remember when recalling Steven Spielberg's 1975 movie. But in focusing on these aspects and examining them from a critical and/or thematic framework, the more subtly stated details of the movie may potentially go undetected, which I think is more likely to happen in a critical and cultural staple such as Jaws.
That is why I honed in on the images, the transitions, the temporal and spatial relationships from shot to shot, scene to scene, the elements of an individual shot, and the structural details of the scenes and how they build together to form a briskly paced and compulsively watchable film. Watching it again recently, the film has revealed to me a number of things. Firstly, minus the inevitable continuity errors of the sun's reflection on the ocean, which at times are glaring, Jaws is nearly compositionally perfect, representing the appropriate combination of deliberately placed elements -- i.e. color palettes, background and foreground stagings, visual thematic details, etc. -- and "accidental" effects, which are necessary for almost all great art to achieve greatness. It is both intensely calculated from a mise-en-scene and framed movement point of view, but it also feels somewhat gritty and natural.
The real beauty of the film is how all of its structural and visual motifs and components interact with each other to form two worlds in the consciousness of the viewer: an innocent vision of Amity island and a bleak nightmare that lurks beneath the surface of its waters in the form of a 25-foot, three-ton weighing shark whose physical presence is only felt in the visera of witnessing its hunt in the film's land based scenes. The spectator, in many ways, becomes the shark that it so desperately wants to see. Thus, Jaws seems to embody a tug of war between representation and embodiment. Are we supposed to identify with the shark or the victim? Do we feel the pain of being enveloped by its teeth, each "the size of a shot glass," or do we feel the pleasure of clamping down on helpless, squirming human flesh? The movie never remains consistent on this, which is partly why it is so effective.
While one could argue that Jaws cleanly adheres to a three-act classical film structure, it is really about the relationship of two distinct sections: a monster story of a relentless predator preying upon an innocent small-town community, and a high seas adventure of male comraderie with a "human vs. nature twist." Aside from the differences of setting, careful detail is provided to each section, in different ways but in similar manners as well. In the "land" section of the film's first hour (roughly), Spielberg builds a beautiful contrast between the recreational activity of a small community, (e.g. beach conversation in which everyone knows each other, a main street parade with kids playing their instruments poorly, and a cloudless sky) with the grisly acknowledgment of death and primal instinct that seemingly corrupts the very innocence that the film works so hard to create. But the shark hardly represents a force deliberately preying upon small town America, but rather an invasion of nature and instinct in a society of people who are "civilized." But the film illustrates that humanity, while distinctly separate from the primal nature of the ocean it so enjoys and builds towns around, is hardly civilized. Amongst the harmless conjecture of the townspeople, we see the slimy actions of Amity's mayor, Larry Vaughn (Murray Hamilton), a bureacratic twit always thinking in the interest of the economic stature of Amity and the monetary gain associated with holidays and the "clean" image of the town.
All of this is established in what I will call the "land" half of the film. In this portion, a relationship is built between three characters, the aforementioned mayor, Chief Martin Brody (Roy Scheider), a family man so eager to make a difference, but touchingly naive in his grappling with his own inability to deal with the simple concerns of townsfolk, and Matt Hooper (Richard Dreyfuss), an oceanologist rich-boy who understands more than his appearance leads on. The focus in this half of Jaws is on the central relations of these characters, specifically Brody and Hooper, and how they team up to work against the arrogance of the mayor. Concerning the shark and its attacks on three individuals (Chrissie, Alex Kitner, and the man in the boat whose leg we remember more than the rest of his body or performance), its presence is always felt despite its surprising lack of involvement. Though the shark isn't in the movie very much in the "land" section, the characters' and spectator's constant acknowledgement of it juxtaposes nicely with the pleasant, sunny atmosphere of the Amity beaches. Even when the shark is devouring its victims, the spectator hardly ever sees it. Instead, we see from its own eyes, which brings to mind the tension of identification mentioned above.
Apart from compositional details, which I will discuss further in my discussion of the "water" portion of the movie, the structural straightforwardness of the "land" section is refreshing and is practically a self-contained movie in its own right, with the mayor finally coming around by the end. After he allows Brody to close down the beaches and go after the shark, mayor Vaughn exits the narrative and the shark hunter, Mr. Quint (Robert Shaw, whose character's first name is never given, or necessary for that matter) takes center stage. The first elongated scene with Quint in his shark sanctuary littered with countless trophies (shark jaws hanging on walls) represents the narrative morphing into almost an entirely new movie: the "water" half, or the ocean hunt. Interestingly, Quint does appear in the "land" section of the movie. Many critics and movie lovers will fondly recall his introduction, slowly scratching his nails down the chalkboard during the town hall meeting, literally and metaphorically disturbing the community culture in which he lives but takes no part. Despite the obvious purpose of the introduction to his character -- in very memorable fashion so that the spectator is more than aware and prepared for his real entry in the film -- Quint's presence on the land-based section of the movie doesn't feel right. He is not a land-based character in the slightest, which is why he doesn't fit. His only home is the sea, which is why his presence in th stagnant town hall feels strange in relation to his more natural environment aboard the Orca, his creaky old boat on which Quint, Brody, and Hooper reside for the remainder of the film.
Although the "land" half of the film represents one long setup due to its practically being a self-contained movie in the sense of the spectator's familiarity and connection to the characters and "world" of the film rather than the narrative arcs, its status as such presents the "water" half of the film as its own narrative as well. The only difference in structure is be the resolution of the two. In the visual depth and thematic unity, the "water" portion of Jaws is entirely different.
This is signaled by the brilliant shot of the Orca leaving the land and heading toward the open sea, as seen through the window of Quint's house, with the vessel framed within the jaws of one of Quint's previous kills. While the camera slowly follows the boat through the jaws, which eventually frame the entire shot, John Williams' music signals the onset of a mythological journey in its muted brass theme complemented by rising strings. But rather than arriving to an end of dramatic spirit and foreshadowing the "man versus nature" duel that makes up film's last hour, Williams instead opts to imbue the images of the Orca's departure with a sense of fun, which, given the preceding setup might seem inappropriate. But the strange thing is, it works. It's as if the narrative is reminding us that it is precisely that: a narrative. The images invite the spectator to take part in the brooding sense of darkness lurking underneath the film's first half as the protagonists now have decided to duel this leviathan in its own territory, but it also reminds the viewer that this will be, plain and simple, a fun ride.
This contrast is present throughout the film, which is reflected in the crisis of identification in the perspective of the stalking/attacks in the first half of the movie. The spectator is constantly torn between enjoying this narrative for pulp adventure and pleasure, and being subjected to a disturbing feeling of being eaten alive as suggested in its exploration of primal fear. But this is all suggested in the many dualistic tensions of the land-based end of the film, e.g. the representation/embodiment of the shark and its relation to its victims and the corruption of bureacracy invading small-town innocence. The simple halfing of "land" and "water" sections is evidence of two opposites coming together. While the two acts are separate, the overriding point seems to be that they take effect due to their individual relation to opposites and their constantly working against each other. The second narrative of Jaws explores these dualities more from the perspective of the viscera of pure adventure and a constant battle between the hunter and the hunted. It becomes a constant battle of strategy among the three members of the Orca but also between the shark and the three men.
The shark's first real appearance in the film is one of pure shock. it is the moment in which the film completely changes gears and is no longer in a "transition" stage. With the unannounced sight of the shark to quickly and unexpectedly, this one shot signals that the rules are now different and that this is the beginning of a massive duel that will dominate the rest of the narrative. In this shot (as seen at the top of the page), Brody stares back over the camera (presumably at Hooper, who is directing the boat) and utters a line that, in my mind at least, has always been more memorable than the one that follows it. Of course, Brody's "You're gonna need a bigger boat" line is one of the classic movie lines in history, I find that his "Slow ahead..." comment is more memorable, mostly due to the context in which it is uttered. The shot consists of his face foregrounded and occupying much of the right half of the frame and his chum tossing and the ocean in the background. A cigarette dangles from his mouth as he speaks comfortably for the first (and only) time aboard the ship. Immediately after he makes the comment "Come on down and chum some of this shit," a gray mass bursts out of the water, encompassing the rest of the frame as it lunges towards the Orca. For me, this is one of the most memorable movie frames I can recall and its purely for the quick burst of energy that was waiting to be unleashed. Before the shark even arrives (note that he does so without his two note motif or three note theme for the first time), there is something uncomfortable about the shot, almost as if it's preparing us for the shock it will contain.
Note that this shot does not resemble that of a contemporary horror film, in which the camera slowly pans over from a character's face to create empty space for an inevitable scare by a killer/monster; those instances are predictable in every fashion. But here, we are given just enough of the ocean in the background to not expect it, yet the elements the composition somehow suggest the inevitable appearance of the shark, perhaps because the nature of the shot differs so much from more elongated takes of the movie. While the movie features plenty of close-ups of Chief Brody, this particular shot is unique because it involves him and the water. By the point, the film has thematically and visually established his fear of water and has kept a distance between Brody and the ocean, but here in this shot they are connected. Another note about the shot is that it scares the hell out of me each time I watch it. I know it's coming, but the details of the frame itself somehow make me uncomfortable in my anticipation of the shark's appearance. There may be a few reasons for this. First, the nature of suspense (as David Bordwell observes in this essential piece ) is much more due to how the viewer processes the elements of composition, i.e. editing, staging, background/foreground, in a film rather than the pure shock of something unexpected happening. Following this idea, the shot's ability to create suspense for me nearly every time I see it may be due to how the shark briefly appears, in full view for the first time, in relation to the viewer's previous knowledge of him based on a lack of sight. Roger Ebert observes in his archived Great Movies review of Jaws :
"When the shark does appear for its closeups, it is quite satisfactorily terrifying... The shark has been so thoroughly established, through dialogue and quasi-documentary material, that its actual presence is enhanced in our imaginations by all we've seen and heard."
This effectively captures the experience of the entire movie. Its motions and moving parts interact so fluidly and so brilliantly, so as to operate on conscious and unconscious levels, that they form relationships with the spectator to the extent that the images remain in memory, despite constantly moving and changing. The spectator's memory of these moments then interact with the present shots, giving them a power and viscera that they might not ordinarily have if seen alone. that is the beauty of cinema, and part of the reason why this film is so brilliant. Whether calculated or accidental, every composition (and its elements) is beautifully presented, working together to create a sense of atmosphere and character. Notably, the film rarely provides single shots of characters that are saying one thing at one time or of one place for the purpose of establishing its presence or purpose in the narrative. Jaws works so effectively because it always has so much going on and it creates an environment and a strong sense of the major and minor characters in its more naturalistic approach to editing and compositional details. Yes, there are one-shots of characters (for the purposes of reaction) here and there, but they are always deliberately and sparing placed so as to compliment the more important shots, featuring many characters, conversations, and events. Furthermore, the score is very restrained and seems to enter at just the right time so as to not call attention to itself. The film is more interested in building the essence of its locations through long, wide shots, the level of activity in them, and the authenticity of real sounds. Iit seems that none of the sound was added in post-production but that the natural sounds of the locations and actual organic sounds are what we hear in the movie.
The complicated activity and busyness of the shots work are so authentic, real, and alive not just due to the framing, design, and details within them, but with the surprisingly subtle performances (given the nature of the genre) coupled with the perfectly written dialogue in the screenplay. The dialogue in Jaws is among the best written for a movie. Whether it is expository exchanges or arbitrary background conversation, every word of it is genuine and unique, true to the characters and the world they inhabit. In discussing the complex details of the film's compostions, one must not ignore the pitch-perfect screenplay, both in structure and dialogue.
Regarding my previous point about the complex compositional details of each frame of the movie and how they build together to form a sense of the Amity Island community, Quint's creaking Orca, or the calmness of the ocean surface, these perfect compositions (along with the said dialogue) play a great role in building revealing moments of character. Sometimes, no diaogue is necessary at all. And this is the wonder of the film: it's amazing structural balance between quiet moments and intense moments, dialogue driven conjecture and character revealing asides. It all gels so smoothly, creating fluid movements and actions that complement each other and form a visual narrative that is utterly unique in its lightfooted ability to balance so many various elements and make them work together.
A great example of one of these small, character revealing moments is a scene in the "land" half in which Brody sits at his dinner table, stressed by the increasing danger of the town's waters. What starts as a wide shot of the dimly lit room pulls back and becomes an intimate moment between Brody and his son; the two positioned in either side of the frame with the foregrounded table in between them and the lit kitchen in the background. This is the establishing shot to a beautiful moment that Spielberg captures simple with the shot decisions and honest performances. (Like all great movies, Jaws is about moments.) After Brody realizes that his son is mimicking him, the film cuts between two one-shots of their reactions to each other as they share a playful, loving exchage underscored by John Williams' delicate and unsentimental music. Somewhere in between the editing between these two shots, Spielberg cuts to Ellen Brody, watching on from the kitchen. The moment ends with a return to the establishing shot -- this time with Mrs. Brody between them in the background with her as Hooper knocks on the door (one shot of her being interrupted by the sound him knocking). It's a scene that almost any other movie might have cut or treated as arbitrary "character development" material, but Spielberg makes it a character revealing scene, one with unique, subtle details that not amount of backstory to a character can create in building a sense of that character.
Jaws is full of these kinds of moments, in both the "land" portion and the sea-based half. In the midst of all the fun chases and silent bits between the chases of the "water" section, the heart of that section (and of the film) is night scene in the cabin of the Orca, with Quint's haunting Indianapolis speech bookended by lighter moments of drunken lunacy. After the great "battle scars" comparison between Hooper and Qunit in one beautiful long shot (with the occasional cut to a reactionar one shot of Brody), Quint takes center stage in the movie's most compelling sequence, an eerie speech which showcases many of the film's high points: beautiful compositions, sublime performances, perfect writing, subtle character interaction, and thematic depth. All of that is in Quint's story, and it's the heart of not just the "water" section, but of the entire movie.
The sequence breaks down in a series of long shots of him, with Hooper in a blurred background, as he recounts his memory of the day the USS Indianapolis sunk. The first shot is more clear, with an overall focus on the entire composition (Quint on the left), and lasts about 40 seconds as he sets up the sinking and what the soldiers did to survive. After a very brief reactionary shot of Brody, the next shot of Quint is similar to the previous one but is more focused, with Hooper and other background details more blurry and Quint more clearly in the foreground. The composition rests entirely on Quint's eyes and their expression as he goes on to talk about the "lifeless, like a doll's" eyes of shark, and the "terrible high pitch screaming" of the victims he watched die, all the while maintaining his steady, hypnotic mumbled speech patterns. Lasting more than a minute (76 seconds), this shot maintains such intensity because of its total locking onto Quint. After another reactionary shot of Brody (and then Hooper), the next shot of Quint puts him more in the center of the frame, practically erasing everything else around him, including Hooper, as he explains why he will never put another life jacket on.
This speech is riveting in its shot design, writing, and performance and exemplifies the coming together of so many brilliant elements to form pure cinematic feeling, which encompasses not just one or two emotions or bodily states but many sensations of abstraction and ambiguity. The mystery and mastery of great cinema is right there to be experienced in that scene and it's something to behold. Yet, for as dark as it is, it is bookended by moments of drunken bonding, which are just as genuine and moving but in a more lighthearted manner. In these moments and the speech, the characters and atmosphere come to life here in a scene that functions as both a self-contained moment of cinematic greatness, but a reflection of the movie; all its themes, relationships, and nuances, taking place in its own unique space (within a rickety cabin aboard Quint's vessel) and time (as it is the only night scene in this portion of the movie).
The remainder of the film is a more focused duel between the the Orca and the shark. Not that the film has ever been operating under any principles of logic, the sea half practically shuts off the entire world the film worked so hard to built in the first half, operating according to its own rules. In this section, as the shark becomes more visible, its personality becomes more vivid rather than its mythological presence in the first half. It is intelligent and relentless in its engaging the Orca in a game of strategy in a battle for the sea. Of course, no shark would exhibit such intelligence and downright vigor, but as it progresses the movie leaves logic aside and hones in on the experience of the adventure and the inevitable conclusion of the duel.
Apart from the outstanding first chase sequence, which follows the Brody/shark shot I analyzed above, there are a number of chase scenes that delve into a real sense of pirate fun that contrast so harshly with the quiet subtlties of Quint's speech and the growing relationship among the trifecta of men. But somehow, these strange juxtapositions seem right. The adventure, the chase, the ripping through the ocean surface in pursuit of "the barrels"; none of it infantilizes the more quiet, dark material, but it instead compliments it. When the music isn't riffing on the two note stalking motif, it's bouncing around playful pirate melodies which are more driven by strings and and winds rather than pounding brass. It's the right sound for all those barrel chases and it complements the quick-moving visual sequences to a tee.
These all culminate in an action-based final 20 minutes, in which the average shot length quickens, the attacks by the shark become more relentless and frequent. In the final sequence in which all three men are together (when they are putting the cage together in an irresistible montage sequence), few words are said. But we know that the trifecta relationship is at a close, and that the narrative is nearly at its end as well. There is a sobering sense of seriousness to the rest of the proceedings as we realize for the first time that we truly care about the fates of these characters. This is the result of the sublime visual narrative that has built to the wacky action-packed finale and the moments before it. In these final moments of the film, Quint's fate within the shark's mouth is sealed as he we him stripped of his armor (his coat and his hat), disheveled, angered, and beaten. Long before he is taken by the shark, we know what's in store for him. Interestingly, this process of Quint's breakdown and humanity begins with his Indianopolis soliloquoy.
I should note that the movie intelligently ends before our heroes arrive back to shore. Something tells me it would have lost something had we been treated to an epilogue. The final shot—a long shot connecting the land and the ocean one a peaceful beachline—represents the perfect finale and culmination of the film's themes, interestingly suggesting the triumph of humanity and "land" over the instinct of the water. The shot is at a distance from the land and ocean it presents, each of which take up about half the shot, in essence bringing together to film's two sections. From there, we can imagine for ourselves where Hooper and Brody go, what they do when they get back, how Amity reacts to the news; but the movie necesarily ends with the destruction of the shark and the suggestion of a more happy union between the land of the humans and the sea of nature.
I could go on forever recalling the small details that account for the movie's mastery and status as an American movie classic, e.g. the fabulous night sequence involving the discovery of Ben Gardner's boat, the many chase sequences, the shark's lifeless body bellowing a roar as it plummits to the bottom of the sea, filling the frame with a red cloud to the perfect descending piano motif in the score. But all of these moments, some of which I've rigorously analyzed above, can only be experienced in the two-hour experience that is Jaws. During its duration, Jaws exemplifies why cinema is such an evocative artistic and narrative medium. Its structural perfection, subtle character-revealing moments, precise but naturalistic compositions, and commitment to visually and viscerally exploring a variety of themes all work together to a build a movie experience that is justified for being such a cultural staple. It is entertaining and thoughtful, subtle and overt, terrifying and fun. Capturing all of this with a nostalgia for the never-changing waves of the beaches' oceans, Jaws may be Steven Spielberg's ultimate cinematic experience.
Posted by Ted Pigeon
| i don't know |
"Which American/British band reached number one in the UK pop charts in January 1980 with the record ""Brass in Pocket"" ?" | UK MUSIC CHARTS, No.1 Singles
1: Al Martino - Here In My Heart - 14/11/1952.
1953
2: Jo Stafford : You Belong To Me - 16/1/1953
3: Kay Starr : Comes A-Long A-Love - 23/1/1953.
4: Eddie Fisher: Outside Of Heaven - 30/1/1953.
Feb
5: Perry Como: Don't Let The Stars Get In Your Eyes - 6/2/1953
March
6: Guy Mitchell: She Wears Red Feathers - 13/3/1953
April
7: Stargazers: Broken Wings - 10/4/1953
8: Lita Roza: (How Much Is) That Doggie In The Window - 17/4/1953
9: Frankie Laine: I Believe - 24/4/1953
June
10: Eddie Fisher: I'm Walking Behind You - 26/6/1953
Aug
11: Mantovani Song: from 'The Moulin Rouge' - 14/8/1953
Sept
12: Guy Mitchell: Look At That Girl - 11/9/1953
Oct
13: Frankie Laine: Hey Joe - 23/10/1953
Nov
14: David Whitfield: Answer Me - 6/11/1953
15: Frankie Laine: Answer Me - 13/11/1953
1954
16: Eddie Calvert: Oh Mein Papa 8/1/1954
March
17: Stargazers: I See The Moon 12/3/1954.
April
18: Doris Day: Secret Love 16/4/1954
19: Johnnie Ray: Such A Night 30/4/1954
July
20: David Whitfield: Cara Mia 2/7/1954
Sept
21: Kitty Kallen: Little Things Mean A Lot 10/9/1954
22: Frank Sinatra: Three Coins In The Fountain 17/9/1954
Oct
23: Don Cornell: Hold My Hand 8/10/1954
Nov
24: Vera Lynn: My Son My Son 5/11/1954
25: Rosemary Clooney: This Ole House 26/11/1954
Dec
26: Winifred Atwell: Let's Have Another Party 3/12/1954
1955
27: Dickie Valentine: Finger Of Suspicion 7/1/1955.
28: Rosemary Clooney: Mambo Italiano 14/1/1955
Feb
29: Ruby Murray: Softly, Softly 18/2/1955
March
30: Tennessee Ernie Ford: Give Me Your Word, 11/3/1955
April
31: Perez Prez Prado & His Orchestra: Cherry Pink And Apple Blossom White 29/4/1955
May
32: Tony Bennett: Stranger In Paradise 13/5/1955
33: Eddie Calvert: Cherry Pink And Apple Blossom White 27/5/1955
June
34: Jimmy Young: Unchained Melody 24/6/1955
July
35: Alma Cogan: Dreamboat 15/7/1955
36: Slim Whitman: Rose Marie 29/7/1955
Oct
37: Jimmy Young: The Man From Laramie 14/10/1955
Nov
38: Johnston Brothers: Hernando's Hideaway 11/11/1955
39: Bill Haley & His Comets: Rock Around The Clock 25/11/1955
Dec
40: Dickie Valentine: Christmas Alphabet 16/12/1955
1956
41: Tennessee Ernie Ford: Sixteen Tons 20/1/1956.
Feb
42: Dean Martin: Memories Are Made Of This 17/2/1956
March
43: Dream Weavers: It's Almost Tomorrow 16/3/1956
44: Kay Starr: Rock And Roll Waltz 30/3/1956
April
45: Winifred Atwell: Poor People Of Paris 13/4/1956
May
46: Ronnie Hilton: No Other Love 4/5/1956
June
47: Pat Boone: I'll Be Home 15/6/1956
July
48: Frankie Lymon And The Teenagers - Why Do Fools Fall in Love 20/7/1956
Aug
49: Doris Day - Whatever Will Be Will Be (Que Sera, Sera) 10/8/1956
Sept
50: Anne Shelton - Lay Down Your Arms 21/9/1956
Oct
51: Frankie Laine - A Woman In Love 19/10/1956
Nov
52: Johnnie Ray - Just Walking In The Rain 16/11/1956
1957
53: Guy Mitchell.. Singing The Blues 4/1/1957
54: Tommy Steele.. Singing The Blues 11/1/1957
55: Frankie Vaughan.. The Garden Of Eden 25/1/1957
Feb
56: Tab Hunter.. Young Love 22/2/1957
April
57: Lonnie Donegan.. Cumberland Gap 12/4/1957
May
58: Guy Mitchell.. Rock-A-Billy 17/5/1957
59: Andy Williams.. Butterfly 24/5/1957
June
60: Johnnie Ray.. Yes Tonight Josephine 7/6/1957
61. Lonnie Donegan.. Puttin' On The Style / Gamblin' Man 28/6/1957
July
62. Elvis Presley.. All Shook Up 12/7/1957
Aug
63. Paul Anka.. Diana 30/8/1957
Nov
64. The Crickets.. That'll Be The Day 1/11/1957
65. Harry Belafonte.. Mary's Boy Child 22/11/1957
1958
66. Jerry Lee Lewis.. Great Balls Of Fire 10/1/1958
67. Elvis Presley.. Jailhouse Rock 24/1/1958
Feb
68. Michael Holliday.. The Story Of My Life 14/2/1958
69. Perry Como.. Magic Moments 28/2/1958
April
70. Marvin Rainwater.. Whole Lotta Woman 25/4/1958
May
71. Connie Francis.. Who's Sorry Now 16/5/1958
June
72. Vic Damone.. On The Street Where You Live 27/6/1958
July
73. Everly Brothers.. All I Have To Do Is Dream / Claudette 4/7/1958
Aug
74. Kalin Twins.. When 22/8/1958
Sept
75. Connie Francis.. Carolina Moon / Stupid Cupid 26/9/1958
Nov
76. Tommy Edwards.. All In The Game 7/11/1958
77. Lord Rockingham's XI.. Hoots Mon 28/11/1958
Dec
78. Conway Twitty.. It's Only Make Believe 19/12/1958
1959
79. Jane Morgan 'The Days The Rains Came' 23/1/1959
80. Elvis Presley 'I Got Stung / One Night' 30/1/1959
Feb
81. Shirley Bassey 'As I Love You' 20/2/1959
March
82. The Platters 'Smoke Gets In Your Eyes' 20/3/1959
83. Russ Conway 'Side Saddle' 27/3/1959
April
84. Buddy Holly 'It Doesn't Matter Anymore' 24/4/1959
May
85. Elvis Presley 'A Fool Such As I / I Need Your Love Tonight' 15/5/1959
June
86: Russ Conway 'Roulette' 19/6/1959
July
87: Bobby Darin 'Dream Lover' 3/7/1959
88: Cliff Richard 'Living Doll' 31/7/1959
Sept
89: Craig Douglas 'Only Sixteen' 11/9/1959
Oct
90: Jerry Keller 'Here Comes Summer' 9/10/1959
91: Bobby Darin 'Mack The Knife' 16/10/1959
92: Cliff Richard 'Travellin' Light' 30/10/1959
Dec
93: Adam Faith 'What Do You Want' 4/12/1959
94: Emile Ford & The Checkmates: What Do You Want To Make Those Eyes At Me For 18/12/1959
1960
95: Michael Holliday 'Starry Eyed' 29/1/1960
Feb
96: Anthony Newley 'Why' 5/2/1960
March
97: Adam Faith 'Poor Me' 10/3/1960
98: Johnny Preston 'Running Bear' 17/3/1960
99: Lonnie Donegan 'My Old Man's A Dustman' 31/3/1960
April
100: Anthony Newley 'Do You Mind' 28/4/1960
May
101: Everly Brothers 'Cathy's Clown' 5/5/1960
June
102: Eddie Cochran 'Three Steps To Heaven' 23/6/1960
July
103: Jimmy Jones 'Good Timin' 7/7/1960
104: Cliff Richard 'Please Don't Tease' 28/7/1960
Aug
105: Johnny Kidd & The Pirates 'Shakin' All Over' 4/8/1960
106: Shadows 'Apache' 25/8/1960
107: Ricky Valence 'Tell Laura I Love Her' 29/9/1960
Oct
108: Roy Orbison 'Only The Lonely' 20/10/1960
Nov
109: Elvis Presley 'It's Now Or Never' 3/11/1960
Dec
110: Cliff Richard 'I Love You' 29/12/1960
1961
111: Johnny Tillotson: Poetry In Motion, 12/1/1961
112: Elvis Presley: Are You Lonesome Tonight, 26/1/1961
Feb
113: Petula Clark: Sailor, 23/2/1961
March
114: Everly Brothers: Walk Right Back, 2/3/1961
115: Elvis Presley: Wooden Heart, 23/3/1961
May
116: The Marcels: Blue Moon, 4/5/1961
117: Floyd Cramer: On The Rebound, 18/5/1961
118: The Temperance Seven: You're Driving Me Crazy, 25/5/1961
June
119: Elvis Presley: Surrender, 1/6/1961
120: Del Shannon: Runaway, 29/6/1961
July
121: Everly Brothers: Temptation, 20/7/1961
Aug
122: Eden Kane: Well I Ask You, 3/8/1961
123: Helen Shapiro: You Don't Know, 10/8/1961
124: John Leyton: Johnny Remember Me, 31/8/196
Sept
125: Shirley Bassey: Reach For The Stars / Climb Ev'ry Mountain, 21/9/1961
Oct
126: Shadows: Kon Tiki - 5/10/1961
127: The Highwaymen: Michael - 12/10/1961
128: Helen Shapiro: Walkin' Back To Happiness - 19/10/1961
Nov
129: Elvis Presley: His Latest Flame - 9/11/1961
Dec
130: Frankie Vaughan: Tower Of Strength - 7/12/1961
131: Danny Williams: Moon River - 28/12/1961
1962
132. Cliff Richard 'The Young Ones' 11/1/1962
Feb
133. Elvis Presley 'Can't Help Falling In Love / Rock-A-Hula Baby' 22/2/1962
March
134. Shadows 'Wonderful Land' 22/3/1962
May
135. B.Bumble & The Stingers 'Nut Rocker' 17/5/1962
136. Elvis Presley 'Good Luck Charm' 24/5/1962
June
137. Mike Sarne with Wendy Richard 'Come Outside' 28/6/1962
jJuly
138. Ray Charles 'I Can't Stop Loving You' 12/7/1962
139. Frank Ifield 'I Remember You' 26/7/1962
Sept
140. Elvis Presley 'She's Not You' 13/9/1962
Oct
142. Frank Ifield 'Lovesick Blues' 8/11/1962
Dec
143. Elvis Presley 'Return To Sender' 13/12/1962
1963
144. Cliff Richard 'The Next Time / Bachelor Boy' 3/1/1963
145. Shadows 'Dance On' 24/1/1963
146. Jet Harris & Tony Meehan 'Diamonds' 31/1/1963
147. Frank Ifield 'Wayward Wind' 21/2/1963
March
148. Cliff Richard 'Summer Holiday' 14/3/1963
149. Shadows 'Foot Tapper' 29/3/1963
April
150. Gerry & The Pacemakers 'How Do You Do It?' 11/4/1963
May
151. Beatles' From Me To You' 2/5/1963
June
152. Gerry & The Pacemakers 'I Like It' 20/6/1963
July
153. Frank Ifield 'Confessin' (That I Love You)' 18/7/1963
Aug
154. Elvis Presley '(You're The) Devil In Disguise' 1/8/1963
155. Searchers 'Sweets For My Sweet' 8/8/1963
156. Billy J. Kramer & The Dakotas 'Bad To Me' 22/8/1963
Sept
157. Beatles 'She Loves You' 12/9/1963
Oct
158. Brian Poole & The Tremeloes 'Do You Love Me' 10/10/1963
159. Gerry & The Pacemakers 'You'll Never Walk Alone' 31/10/1963
Dec
160. Beatles 'I Want To Hold Your Hand' 12/12/1963
1964
161 Dave Clark Five.. Glad All Over 16/1/1964
162 Searchers.. Needles & Pins 30/1/1964
Feb
164 Cilla Black.. Anyone Who Had A Heart 27/2/1964
March
165 Billy J. Kramer & The Dakotas.. Little Children 19/3/1964
April
166. Beatles.. Can't Buy Me Love 2/4/1964
167. Peter & Gordon.. A World Without Love 23/4/1964
May
168. Searchers.. Don't Throw Your Love Away 7/5/1964
169. Four Pennies.. Juliet 21/5/1964
170. Cilla Black .. You're My World 28/5/1964
June
171. Roy Orbison.. It's Over 25/6/1964
July
172. Animals.. The House Of The Rising Sun 9/7/1964
173. Rolling Stones.. It's All Over now 16/7/1964
174. Beatles.. A Hard Day's Night 23/7/1964
Aug
175. Manfred Mann.. Do Wah Diddy Diddy 13/8/1964
176. Honeycombes.. Have I The Right 27/8/1964
Sept
177. Kinks.. You Really Got Me 10/9/1964
178. Herman's Hermits.. I'm Into Something Good 24/9/1964
Oct
179. Roy Orbison.. Oh Pretty Woman 8/10/1964
180. Sandie Shaw.. (There's) Always Something There To Remind Me 22/10/1964
Nov
181. Supremes.. Baby Love 19/11/1964
Dec
182. Rolling Stones.. Little Red Rooster 3/12/1964
183. Beatles.. I Feel Fine 10/12/1964
1965
184. Georgie Fame & The Blue Flames 'Yeh Yeh' 14/1/1965
185. Moody Blues 'Go Now!' 28/1/1965
Feb
186. Righteous Brothers 'You've Lost That Loving Feeling' 4/2/1965
187. Kinks 'Tired Of Waiting For You' 18/2/1965
188. Seekers 'I'll Never Find Another You' 25/2/1965
March
189. Tom Jones 'It's Not Unusual' 11/3/1965
190. Rolling Stones 'The Last Time' 18/3/1965
April
191. Unit Four Plus Two 'Concrete & Clay' 8/4/1965
192. Cliff Richard 'The Minute You're Gone' 15/4/1965
193. Beatles 'Ticket To Ride' 22/4/1965
May
194. Roger Miller 'King Of The Road' 13/5/1965
195. Jackie Trent 'Where Are You Now (My Love)' 20/5/1965
196. Sandie Shaw 'Long Live Love' 27/5/1965
197. Elvis Presley 'Crying In The Chapel' 17/6/1965
198. Hollies 'I'm Alive' 24/6/1965
July
199. Byrds 'Mr Tambourine Man' 22/7/1965
Aug
201. Sonny & Cher 'I Got You Babe' 26/8/1965
Sept
202. Rolling Stones '(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction' 9/9/1965
203. Walker Brothers 'Make It Easy On Yourself' 23/9/1965
204. Ken Dodd 'Tears' 30/9/1965
Nov
205. Rolling Stones 'Get Off Of My Cloud' 4/11/1965
206. Seekers 'The Carnival Is Over' 25/11/1965
Dec
207. Beatles 'Day Tripper / We Can Work It Out' 16/12/1965
1966
208. Spencer Davis Group 'Keep On Running' 20/1/1966
209. Overlanders 'Michelle' 27/1/1966
210. Nancy Sinatra 'These Boots Are Made For Walking' 17/2/1966
March
211. Walker Brothers 'The Sun Ain't Gonna Shine Anymore' 17/3/1966
April
212. Spencer Davis Group 'Somebody Help Me' 14/4/1966
213. Dusty Springfield You 'Don't Have To Say You Love Me' 28/4/1966
May
214. Manfred Mann 'Pretty Flamingo' 5/5/1966
215. Rolling Stones 'Paint It Black' 26/5/1966
June
216. Frank Sinatra 'Strangers In The Night' 2/6/1966
217. Beatles 'Paperback Writer' 23/6/1966
July
218. Kinks 'Sunny Afternoon' 7/7/1966
219. Georgie Fame & The Blue Flames 'Get Away' 21/7/1966
220. Chris Farlowe 'Out Of Time' 28/7/1966
Aug
221. Troggs 'With A Girl Like You' 4/8/1966
222. Beatles 'Yellow Submarine / Eleanor Rigby' 18/8/1966
Sept
223. Small Faces 'All Or Nothing' 15/9/1966
224. Jim Reeves 'Distant Drums' 22/9/1966
Oct
225. Four Tops 'Reach Out I'll Be There' 27/10/1966
Nov
226. Beach Boys 'Good Vibrations' 17/11/1966
Dec
227. Tom Jones 'Green Green Grass Of Home' 1/12/1966
1967
228. Monkees 'I'm A Believer' 19/1/1967
Feb
229. Petula Clark 'This Is My Song' 16/2/1967
March
230. Engelbert Humperdink 'Release Me (And Let Me Love Again)' 2/3/1967
April
231. Frank Sinatra & Nancy Sinatra 'Somethin' Stupid' 13/4/1967
232. Sandie Shaw 'Puppet On A String' 27/4/1967
May
233. Tremeloes 'Silence Is Golden' 18/5/1967
June
234. Procol Harum 'A Whiter Shade Of Pale' 8/6/1967
July
235. Beatles 'All You Need Is Love' 19/7/1967
Aug
236. Scott McKenzie 'San Francisco (Be Sure To Wear Some Flowers In Your Hair)' 9/8/1967
Sept
237. Engelbert Humperdink 'The Last Waltz' 6/9/1967
Oct
238. Bee Gees 'Massachusetts' 11/10/1967
Nov
239. Foundations - 'Baby Now That I've Found You' 8/11/1967
240. Long John Baldry - 'Let The Heartaches Begin' 22/11/1967
Dec
241. Beatles - 'Hello Goodbye' 6/12/1967
1968
242. Georgie Fame - 'The Ballad Of Bonnie & Clyde' 24/1/1968
243. Love Affair - 'Everlasting Love' 31/1/1968
Feb
244. Manfred Mann - 'The Mighty Quinn' 14/2/1968
245. Esther & Abi Ofarim - 'Cinderella Rockefella' 28/2/1968
March
246. Dave Dee, Dozy, Beaky, Mick & Tich - 'Legend Of Xanadu' 20/3/1968
247. Beatles - ''Lady Madonna' 27/3/1968
April
248. Cliff Richard - 'Congratulations' 10/4/1968
249. Louis Armstrong -'What A Wonderful World / Cabaret' 24/4/1968
May
250. Union Gap featuring Gary Puckett -'Young Girl' 22/5/1968
June
251. Rolling Stones- 'Jumpin' Jack Flash' 19/6/1968
July
252. Equals - 'Baby Come Back' 3/7/1968
253. Des O'Connor - 'I Pretend' 24/7/1968
254. Tommy James & The Shondells - 'Mony Mony 31/7/1968
Aug
255. Crazy World of Arthur Brown - 'Fire' 14/8/1968
256. Beach Boys - ''Do It Again' 28/8/1968
Sept
257. Bee Gees - 'I've Gotta Get A Message To You' 4/9/1968
258. Beatles -'Hey Jude' 11/9/1968
259. Mary Hopkin - 'Those Were The Days' 25/9/1968
Nov
260. Joe Cocker - 'With A Little Help From My Friends' 6/11/1968
261. Hugo Montenegro Orchestra - 'The Good The Bad And The Ugly' 13/11/1968
262. Scaffold - 'Lily The Pink' 11/12/1968
1969
263. Marmalade - 'Ob-La-Di Ob-La-Da' 1/1/1969
264. Fleetwood Mac - Albatross 29/1/69
Feb
265. Move - Blackberry Way 05/2/69
266. Amen Corner '(If Paradise Is) Half As Nice' 12/2/1969
267. Peter Sarstedt 'Where Do You Go To My Lovely?' 26/2/1969
March
268. Marvin Gaye 'I Heard It Through The Grapevine' 26/3/1969
April
269. Desmond Dekker & The Aces 'Israelites' 16/4/1969
270. Beatles 'Get Back' 23/4/1969
June
271. Tommy Roe 'Dizzy' 4/6/1969
272. Beatles 'The Ballad Of John & Yoko' 11/6/1969
July
273. Thunderclap Newman 'Something In The Air' 2/7/1969
274. Rolling Stones 'Honky Tonk Women' 23/7/1969
Aug
275. Zager & Evans 'In The Year 2525' (Exorium & Terminus) 30/8/1969
Sept
276. Creedence Clearwater Revival 'Bad Moon Rising' 20/9/1969
Oct
277. Jane Birkin & Serge Gainsbourg 'Je T'Aime... Moi Non Plus' 11/10/1969
278. Bobby Gentry 'I'll Never Fall In Love Again' 18/10/1969
279. Archies 'Sugar Sugar' 25/10/1969
Dec
280. Rolf Harris 'Two Little Boys' 20/12/1969
1970
281. Edison Lighthouse 'Love Grows (Where My Rosemary Goes)' 31/1/1970
March
282. Lee Marvin - 'Wandrin' Star' 7/3/1970
283. Simon & Garfunkel - 'Bridge Over Troubled Water' 28/3/1970
April
284. Dana .. 'All Kinds Of Everything' 18/4/1970
May
285. Norman Greenbaum - 'Spirit In The Sky' 2/5/1970
286. England World Cup Squad -'Back Home' 16/5/1970
June
287. Christie - 'Yellow River' 6/6/1970
288. Mungo Jerry - 'In The Summertime' 13/6/1970
Aug
289. Elvis Presley - 'The Wonder Of You' 1/8/1970
Sept
290. Smokey Robinson & The Miracles 'Tears Of A Clown' 12/9/1970
291. Freda Payne 'Band Of Gold' 19/9/1970
Oct
292. Matthew's Southern Comfort 'Woodstock' 31/10/1970
Nov
293. Jimi Hendrix 'Voodoo Chile' 21/11/1970
294. Dave Edmunds 'I Hear You Knockin' 28/11/1970
1971
295. Clive Dunn - Grandad 9/1/1971
296. George Harrison - 'My Sweet Lord' 30/1/1971
March
297. Mungo Jerry - 'Baby Jump' 6/3/1971
298. T Rex - 'Hot Love' 20/3/1971
May
299. Dave & Ansil Collins - 'Double Barrel' 1/5/1971
300. Dawn - 'Knock Three Times' 15/5/1971
June
301. Middle Of The Road 'Chirpy Chirpy Cheep Cheep' 19/6/1971
July
302. T Rex 'Get It On' 24/7/1971
Aug
303. Diana Ross 'I'm Still Waiting' 21/8/1971
Sept
304. Tams 'Hey Girl Don't Bother Me' 18/9/1971
Oct
305. Rod Stewart 'Maggie May' 9/10/1971
Nov
306. Slade 'Coz I Luv You' 13/11/1971
Dec
307. Benny Hill 'Ernie (The Fastest Milkman In The West)' 11/12/1971
1972
308. New Seekers - 'I'd Like To Teach The World To Sing' 8/1/1972
Feb
309. T Rex 'Telegram Sam' 5/2/1972
310. Chicory Tip 'Son Of My Father' 19/2/1972
March
311. Nilsson' Without You' 11/3/1972
April
312. The Pipes & Drums & Military Band of The Royal Scots Dragoon Guards 'Amazing Grace' 15/4/1972
May
313. T Rex 'Metal Guru' 20/5/1972
June
314. Don McLean 'Vincent' 17/6/1972
July
315. Slade 'Take Me Back 'Ome' 1/7/1972
316. Donny Osmond 'Puppy Love' 8/7/1972
Aug
317. Alice Cooper 'School's Out' 12/8/1972
Sept
318. Rod Stewart 'You Wear It Well' 2/9/1972
319. Slade 'Mama Weer All Crazee Now' 9/9/1972
320. David Cassidy 'How Can I Be Sure' 30/9/1972
Oct
321. Lieutenant Pigeon 'Mouldy Old Dough' 14/10/1972
Nov
322. Gilbert O'Sullivan 'Clair' 11/11/1972
323. Chuck Berry 'My Ding-A-Ling' 25/11/1972
Dec
324. Little Jimmy Osmond 'Long Haired Lover From Liverpool' 23/12/1972
1973
326. Slade 'Cum On Feel The Noize' 3/3/1973
327. Donny Osmond 'The Twelfth Of Never' 31/3/1973
April
328. Gilbert O'Sullivan 'Get Down' 7/4/1973
329. Dawn featuring Tony Orlando 'Tie A Yellow Ribbon Round The Old Oak Tree' 21/4/1973
May
330. Wizzard 'See My Baby Jive' 19/5/1973
June
331. Suzi Quatro 'Can The Can' 16/6/1973
332. 10 CC 'Rubber Bullets' 23/6/1973
333. Slade 'Skweeze Me Pleeze Me' 30/6/1973
July
334. Peters & Lee 'Welcome Home' 21/7/1973
335. Gary Glitter 'I'm The Leader Of The Gang (I Am)' 28/7/1973
Aug
336. Donny Osmond 'Young Love' 25/8/1973
Sept
337. Wizzard 'Angel Fingers (A Teen Ballad)' 22/9/1973
338. Simon Park Orchestra 'Eye Level' 29/9/1973
Oct
339. David Cassidy 'Daydreamer / The Puppy Song' 27/10/1973
Nov
340. Gary Glitter 'I Love You Love Me Love' 17/11/1973
Dec
341. Slade 'Merry Xmas Everybody' 15/12/1973
1974
342. New Seekers 'You Won't Find Another Fool Like Me' 19/1/1974
343. Mud 'Tiger Feet' 26/1/1974
Feb
344. Suzi Quatro 'Devil Gate Drive' 23/2/1974
March
345. Alvin Stardust 'Jealous Mind' 9/3/1974
346. Paper Lace 'Billy Don't Be A Hero' 16/3/1974
April
347. Terry Jacks 'Seasons In The Sun' 6/4/1974
May
349. Rubettes 'Sugar Baby Love' 18/5/1974
June
350. Ray Stevens 'The Streak 15/6/1974
351. Gary Glitter 'Always Yours' 22/6/1974
352. Charles Aznavour 'She' 29/6/1974
July
353. George McCrae 'Rock Your Baby' 27/7/1974
Aug
354. Three Degrees 'When Will I See You Again' 17/8/1974
355. Osmonds 'Love Me For A Reason' 31/8/1974
Sept
356. Carl Douglas 'Kung Fu Fighting' 21/9/1974
Oct
357. John Denver 'Annie's Song' 12/10/1974
358. Sweet Sentation 'Sad Sweet Dreamer' 19/10/1974
359. Ken Boothe 'Everything I Own' 26/10/1974
Nov
360. David Essex 'Gonna Make You A Star' 16/11/1974
Dec
361. Barry White 'You're The First, The Last, My Everything' 7/12/1974
362. Mud 'Lonely This Christmas' 21/12/1974
1975
363. Status Quo 'Down Down' 18/1/1975
364. Tymes 'Ms Grace' 25/1/1975
Feb
366. Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel 'Make Me Smile (Come Up And See Me)' 22/2/1975
March
367. Telly Savalas ''If'' 8/3/1975
368. Bay City Rollers 'Bye Bye Baby 22/3/1975
May
369. Mud 'Oh Boy 3/5/1975
370. Tammy Wynette 'Stand By Your Man 17/5/1975
June
371. Windsor Davies & Don Estelle 'Whispering Grass' 7/6/1975
372. 10 CC 'I'm Not In Love' 28/6/1975
July
373. Johnny Nash 'Tears On My Pillow' 12/7/1975
374. Bay City Rollers 'Give A Little Love' 19/7/1975
Aug
375. Typically Tropical 'Barbados' 9/8/1975
376. Stylistics 'Can't Give You Anything (But My Love)' 16/8/1975
Sept
377. Rod Stewart 'Sailing' 6/9/1975
Oct
378. David Essex 'Hold Me Close' 4/10/1975
379. Art Garfunkel 'I Only Have Eyes For You' 25/10/1975
Nov
380. David Bowie 'Space Oddity' 8/11/1975
381. Billy Connolly 'D.I.V.O.R.C.E'. 22/11/1975
382. Queen 'Bohemian Rhapsody' 29/11/1975
1976
383. Abba 'Mamma Mia' 31/1/1976
Feb
384. Slik 'Forever And Ever' 14/2/1976
385. Four Seasons 'December '63' 21/2/1976
March
386. Tina Charles 'I Love To Love (But My Baby Loves To Dance)' 6/3/1976
387. Brotherhood Of Man ''Save Your Kisses For Me' 27/3/1976
May
396. Chicago 'If You Leave Me Now' 13/11/1976
Dec
397. Showaddywaddy 'Under The Moon Of Love'' 4/12/1976
398. Johnny Mathis 'When A Child Is Born' (Soleado) 25/12/1976
1977
399. David Soul ''Don't Give Up On Us 15/1/1977
Feb
400. Julie Covington 'Don't Cry For Me Argentina 12/2/1977
401. Leo Sayer 'When I Need You 19/2/1977
March
402. Manhattan Transfer 'Chanson D'Amour 12/3/1977
April
403. Abba 'Knowing Me Knowing You 2/4/1977
May
404. Deniece Williams 'Free 7/5/1977
405. Rod Stewart 'I Don't Want To Talk About It / First Cut Is The Deepest 21/5/1977
June
406. Kenny Rogers 'Lucille 18/6/1977
407. Jacksons Show 'You The Way To Go 25/6/1977
July
408. Hot Chocolate 'So You Win Again 2/7/1977
409. Donna Summer 'I Feel Love 23/7/1977
Aug
410. Brotherhood Of Man 'Angelo 20/8/1977
411. Floaters 'Float On 27/8/1977
Sept
412. Elvis Presley 'Way Down 3/9/1977
Oct
413. David Soul 'Silver Lady 8/10/1977
414. Baccara 'Yes Sir I Can Boogie 29/10/1977
Nov
415. Abba 'The Name Of The Game 5/11/1977
Dec
416. Wings 'Mull Of Kintyre / Girls' School 3/12/1977
1978
417. Althia & Donna 'Up Town Top Ranking 4/2/1978
418. Brotherhood Of Man 'Figaro 11/2/1978
419. Abba 'Take A Chance On Me 18/2/1978
March
420. Kate Bush 'Wuthering Heights 11/3/1978
April
421. Brian & Michael 'Matchstalk Men And Matchstalk Cats And Dogs 8/4/1978
422. Bee Gees 'Night Fever 29/4/1978
423. Boney M - 'Rivers Of Babylon / Brown 'Girl In The Ring 13/5/1978
June
424. John Travolta & Olivia Newton John 'You're The One That I Want 17/6/1978
Aug
425. Commodores 'Three Times A Lady 19/8/1978
Oct
426. 10 CC 'Dreadlock Holiday 23/9/1978
427. John Travolta & Olivia Newton 'John Summer Nights 30/9/1978
Nov
428. Boomtown Rats .. 'Rat Trap 18/11/1978
Dec
429. Rod Stewart.. 'Da Ya Think I'm Sexy 2/12/1978
430. Boney M .. 'Mary's Boy Child - Oh My Lord 9/12/1978
1979
431. Village People , Y.M.C.A. 6/1/1979
432. Ian Dury & The Blockheads , Hit Me With Your Rhythm Stick 27/1/1979
Feb
433. Blondie , Heart Of Glass 3/2/1979
March
434. Bee Gees , Tragedy 3/3/1979
435. Gloria Gaynor , I Will Survive 17/3/1979
April
436. Art Garfunkel , Bright Eyes 14/4/1979
May
437. Blondie, Sunday Girl 26/5/1979
June
438. Anita Ward , Ring My Bell 16/6/1979
439. Tubeway Army , Are 'Friends' Electric 30/6/1979
July
440. Boomtown Rats , I Don't Like Mondays 28/7/1979
Aug
441. Cliff Richard , We Don't Talk Anymore 25/8/1979
Sept
442. Gary Numan , Cars 22/9/1979
443. Police , Message In A Bottle 29/9/1979
Oct
444. Buggles - Video Killed The Radio Star 20/10/1979
445. Lena Martell , One Day At A Time 27/10/1979
Nov
446. Dr Hook , When You're In Love With A Beautiful Woman 17/11/1979
Dec
447. Police ,Walking On The Moon 8/12/1979
448. Pink Floyd , Another Brick In The Wall 15/12/1979
1980
449. Pretenders 'Brass In Pocket' 19/1/1980
Feb
450. The Special AKA (Specials) The Specials Live EP (main track: Too Much Too Young) 2/2/1980
451. Kenny Rogers 'Coward Of The County' 16/2/1980
March
453. Fern Kinney 'Together We Are Beautiful '15/3/1980
454. Jam 'Going Underground / Dreams Of Children' 22/3/1980
April
455. Detroit Spinners 'Working My Way Back To You - Forgive Me Girl' 12/4/1980
456. Blondie 'Call Me' 26/4/1980
May
457. Dexy's Midnight Runners 'Geno' 3/5/1980
458. Johnny Logan 'What's Another Year' 17/5/1980
459. Mash 'Suicide Is Painless (Theme from M*A*S*H)' 31/5/1980
June
460. Don McLean 'Crying' 21/6/1980
July
461. Olivia Newton John & Electric Light Orchestra 'Xanadu' 12/7/1980
462. Odyssey 'Use It Up And Wear It Out' 26/7/1980
Aug
463. Abba 'The Winner Takes It All' 9/8/1980
464. David Bowie 'Ashes To Ashes' 23/8/1980
Sept
466. Kelly Marie 'Feels Like I'm In Love' 13/9/1980
467. Police 'Don't Stand So Close To Me' 27/9/1980
Oct
468. Barbra Streisand 'Woman In Love' 25/10/1980
Nov
469. Blondie 'The Tide Is High' 15/11/1980
470. Abba 'Super Trouper' 29/11/1980
Dec
471. John Lennon '(Just Like) Starting Over' 20/12/1980
472. St Winifred's School Choir 'There's No One Quite Like Grandma' 27/12/1980
1981
473. John Lennon 'Imagine' 10/1/1981
Feb
474. John Lennon 'Woman' 7/2/1981
475. Joe Dolce Music Theatre 'Shaddup You Face' 21/2/1981
March
476. Roxy Music 'Jealous Guy' 14/3/1981
477. Shakin' Stevens 'This Ole House' 28/3/1981
April
478. Bucks Fizz 'Making Your Mind Up' 18/4/1981
May
479. Adam & The Ants 'Stand And Deliver' 9/5/1981
June
480. Smokey Robinson 'Being With You' 13/6/1981
481. Michael Jackson 'One Day In Your Life' 27/6/1981
July
482. Specials 'Ghost Town' 11/7/1981
Aug
483. Shakin' Stevens 'Green Door' 1/8/1981
484. Aneka 'Japanese Boy' 29/8/1981
Sept
485. Soft Cell 'Tainted Love' 5/9/1981
486. Adam & The Ants 'Prince Charming' 19/9/1981
Oct
487. Dave Stewart & Barbara Gaskin 'It's My Party' 17/10/1981
Nov
488. Police ''Every Little Thing She Does Is Magic' 14/11/1981
489. Queen & David Bowie ''Under Pressure' 21/11/1981
Dec
490. Julio Iglesias ''Begin The Beguine (Volver A Empezar) 5/12/1981
491. Human League ''Don't You Want Me' 12/12/1981
1982
492. Bucks Fizz - Land Of Make Believe 16/1/1982
493. Shakin' Stevens - Oh Julie 30/1/1982
Feb
494. Kraftwerk - The Model / Computer Love 6/2/1982
495. Jam - A Town Called Malice / Precious 13/2/1982
March
496. Tight Fit - The Lion Sleeps Tonight 6/3/1982
497. Goombay Dance Band Seven - Tears 27/3/1982
April
498. Bucks Fizz - My Camera Never Lies 17/4/1982
499. Paul McCartney & Stevie Wonder - Ebony And Ivory 24/4/1982
May
500. Nicole- A Little Peace 15/5/1982
501. Madness - House Of Fun 29/5/1982
June
502. Adam Ant - Goody Two Shoes 12/6/1982
503. Charlene - I 've Never Been To Me 26/6/1982
July
504. Captain Sensible - Happy Talk 3/7/1982
505. Irene Cara - Fame 17/7/1982
Aug
506. Dexy's Midnight Runners - Come On Eileen 7/8/1982
Sept
507. Survivor - Eye Of The Tiger 4/9/1982
Oct
508. Musical Youth - Pass The Dutchie 2/10/1982
509. Culture Club - Do You Really Want To Hurt Me 23/10/1982
Nov
510. Eddy Grant - I Don't Wanna Dance 13/11/1982
Dec
511. Jam - Beat Surrender 4/12/1982
512. Renee & Renato - Save Your Love 18/12/1982
1983
513. Phil Collins 'You Can't Hurry Love' 15/1/1983
514. Men At Work 'Down Under' 29/1/1983
Feb
515. Kajagoogoo 'Too Shy' 19/2/1983
March
516. Michael Jackson 'Billie Jean' 5/3/1983
517. Bonnie Tyler 'Total Eclipse Of The Heart' 12/3/1983
518. Duran Duran 'Is There Something I Should Know' 26/3/1983
April
519. David Bowie 'Let's Dance' 9/4/1983
520. Spandau Ballet 'True' 30/4/1983
May
521. New Edition 'Candy Girl' 28/5/1983
June
522. Police 'Every Breath You Take' 4/6/1983
July
523. Rod Stewart 'Baby Jane' 2/7/1983
524. Paul Young 'Wherever I Lay My Hat' 23/7/1983
Aug
525. K C & The Sunshine Band 'Give It Up' 13/8/1983
Sept
526. UB 40 'Red Red Wine' 3/9/1983
527. Culture Club 'Karma Chameleon' 24/9/1983
Nov
528 Billy Joel 'Uptown Girl 5/11/1983
Dec
529 Flying Pickets 'Only You 10/12/1983
1984
530. Paul McCartney - Pipes Of Peace 14/1/1984
531. Frankie Goes To Hollywood - Relax 28/1/1984
March
532. Nena - 99 Red Balloons 3/3/1984
533. Lionel Richie - Hello 24/3/1984
May
534. Duran Duran - The Reflex 5/5/1984
June
535. Wham! - Wake Me Up Before You Go-Go 2/6/1984
536. Frankie Goes To Hollywood - Two Tribes 16/6/1984
Aug
537. George Michael - Careless Whisper 18/8/1984
Sept
538. Stevie Wonder - I Just Called To Say I Love You 8/9/1984
Oct
540. Chaka Khan - I Feel For You 10/11/1984
Dec
541. Jim Diamond - I Should Have Known Better 1/12/1984
542. Frankie Goes To Hollywood - The Power Of Love 8/12/1984
543. Band Aid - Do They Know It's Christmas 15/12/1984
1985
544. Foreigner 'I Want To Know What Love Is 19/1/1985
Feb
545. Elaine Paige & Barbara Dickson 'I Know Him So Well 9/2/1985
March
546. Dead Or Alive 'You Spin Me Round (Like A Record) 9/3/1985
547. Philip Bailey & Phil Collins 'Easy Lover 23/3/1985
April
548. USA For Africa 'We Are The World 20/4/1985
May
549. Phyllis Nelson 'Move Closer 4/5/1985
550. Paul Hardcastle '19' 11/5/1985
June
551. Crowd ''You'll Never Walk Alone 15/6/1985
552. Sister Sledge ''Frankie 29/6/1985
July
553. Eurythmics 'There Must Be An Angel (Playing With My Heart) 27/7/1985
Aug
554. Madonna 'Into The Groove 3/8/1985
555. UB 40 & Chrissie Hynde 'I Got You Babe 31/8/1985
Sept
556. David Bowie & Mick Jagger 'Dancing in the Street 7/9/1985
Oct
557. Midge Ure 'If I Was 5/10/1985
558. Jennifer Rush 'The Power Of Love 12/10/1985
Nov
559. Feargal Sharkey 'A Good Heart 16/11/1985
560. Wham! 'I'm Your Man 30/11/1985
Dec
561. Whitney Houston 'Saving All My Love For You 14/12/1985
562. Shakin' Stevens 'Merry Christmas Everyone 28/12/1985
1986
563. Pet Shop Boys 'West End Girls 11/1/1986
564. A-Ha 'The Sun Always Shines On TV 25/1/1986
Feb
565. Billy Ocean 'When The Going Gets Tough, The Tough Get Going 8/2/1986
March
566. Diana Ross 'Chain Reaction 8/3/1986
567. Cliff Richard & The Young 'Ones Living Doll 29/3/1986 The first official Comic Relief single
April
568. George Michael 'A Different Corner 19/4/1986
May
569. Falco 'Rock Me Amadeus 10/5/1986
570. Spitting Image 'The Chicken Song 17/5/1986
June
571. Doctor & The Medics 'Spirit In The Sky 7/6/1986
572. Wham! 'The Edge Of Heaven 28/6/1986
July
573. Madonna 'Papa Don't Preach 12/7/1986
Aug
574. Chris de Burgh 'The Lady In Red 2/8/1986
575. Boris Gardiner 'I Want To Wake Up With You 23/8/1986
Sept
576. Communards 'Don't Leave Me This Way 13/9/1986
Oct
577. Madonna 'True Blue 11/10/1986
578. Nick Berry 'Every Loser Wins 18/10/1986
Nov
579. Berlin 'Take My Breath Away 8/11/1986
Dec
580. Europe 'The Final Countdown 6/12/1986
581. Housemartins 'Caravan Of Love 20/12/1986
582. Jackie Wilson 'Reet Petite 27/12/1986
1987
583. Steve 'Silk' Hurley 'Jack Your Body 24/1/1987
Feb
584. George Michael & Aretha Franklin 'I Knew You Were Waiting (For Me) 7/2/1987
585. Ben E King 'Stand By Me 21/2/1987
March
586. Boy George 'Everything I Own 14/3/1987
587. Mel & Kim 'Respectable 28/3/1987
April
588. Ferry Aid 'Let It Be 4/4/1987
589. Madonna 'La Isla Bonita 25/4/1987
May
590. Starship 'Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now 9/5/1987
June
591. Whitney Houston 'I Wanna Dance With Somebody (Who Loves Me) 6/6/1987
592. The Firm 'Star Trekkin' 20/6/1987
July
593. Pet Shop Boys' It's A Sin 4/7/1987
594. Madonna 'Who's That Girl 25/7/1987
Aug
595. Los Lobos 'La Bamba 1/8/1987
596. Michael Jackson ''I Just Can't Stop Loving You 15/8/1987
597. Rick Astley 'Never Gonna Give You Up 29/8/1987
Oct
598. M/A/R/R/S ''Pump Up The Volume / Anitina (The First Time I See She Dance) 3/10/1987
599. Bee Gees 'You Win Again 17/10/1987
Nov
600. T'Pau 'China In Your Hand 14/11/1987
Dec
601. Pet Shop Boys 'Always On My Mind 19/12/1987
1988
602. Belinda Carlisle 'Heaven Is A Place On Earth 16/1/1988
603. Tiffany 'I Think We're Alone Now 30/1/1988
Feb
604. Kylie Minogue 'I Should Be So Lucky 20/2/1988
March
605. Aswad 'Don't Turn Around 26/3/1988
April
606. Pet Shop Boys 'Heart 9/4/1988
607. S'Express 'Theme from S'Express 30/4/1988
May
608. Fairground 'Attraction Perfect 14/5/1988
609. Wet Wet Wet 'With A Little Help From My Friends 21/5/1988
June
610. Timelords 'Doctorin The Tardis 18/6/1988
611. Bros 'I Owe You Nothing 25/6/1988
July
612. Glenn Medeiros 'Nothing's Gonna Change My Love For You 9/7/1988
Aug
613. Yazz & The Plastic Population 'The Only Way Is Up 6/8/1988
Sept
614. Phil Collins 'A Groovy Kind Of Love 10/9/1988
615. Hollies 'He Ain't Heavy He's My Brother 24/9/1988
Oct
617. Whitney Houston 'One Moment In Time 15/10/1988
618. Enya 'Orinoco Flow (Sail Away) 29/10/1988
Nov
619. Robin Beck 'The First Time 19/11/1988
Dec
620. Cliff Richard 'Mistletoe & Wine 10/12/1988
1989
621. Kylie Minogue & Jason Donovan - Especially For You 7/1/1989
622. Marc Almond with Gene Pitney - Somethings Gotten Hold Of My Heart 28/1/1989
Feb
623. Simple Minds - Belfast Child 25/2/1989
March
624. Jason Donovan - Too Many Broken Hearts 11/3/1989
625. Madonna - Like A Prayer 25/3/1989
April
626. Bangles - Eternal Flame 15/4/1989
May
627. Kylie Minogue - Hand On Your Heart 13/5/1989
628. Gerry Marsden, Paul McCartney, Holly Johnson & Christians - Ferry 'Cross The Mersey 20/5/1989
June
629. Jason Donovan - Sealed With A Kiss 10/6/1989
630. Soul II Soul featuring Caron Wheeler - Back To Life 24/6/1989
July
631. Sonia - You'll Never Stop Me Loving You 22/7/1989
Aug
632. Jive Bunny & The Mastermixers -Swing The Mood 5/8/1989
Sept
633. Black Box - Ride On Time 9/9/1989
Oct
634. Jive Bunny & The Mastermixers - That's What I Like 21/10/1989
Nov
635. Lisa Stansfield - All Around The World 11/11/1989
636. New Kids On The Block - You Got It (The Right Stuff) 25/11/1989
Dec
637. Jive Bunny & The Mastermixers - Let's Party 16/12/1989
638. Band Aid II - Do They Know It's Christmas 23/12/1989
1990
639. New Kids On The Block - Hangin' Tough 16/1/1990
640. Kylie Minogue - Tears On My Pillow 27/1/1990
Feb
641. Sinead O'Connor - Nothing Compares 2 U 3/2/1990
March
642. Beats International Dub Be Good To Me 3/3/1990
643. Snap - The Power 31/3/1990
April
646. England New Order - World In Motion 9/6/1990
647. Elton John - Sacrifice / Healing Hands 23/6/1990
July
648. Partners In Kryme Turtle Power 28/7/1990
Aug
649. Bombalurina - Itsy Bitsy Teeny Weeny Yellow Polka Dot Bikini 25/8/1990
Sept
650. Steve Miller - Band The Joker 15/9/1990
651. Maria McKee - Show Me Heaven 29/9/1990
Oct
652. Beautiful South - A Little Time 27/10/1990
Nov
653. Righteous Brothers - Unchained Melody 3/11/1990
Dec
654. Vanilla Ice - Ice Ice Baby 1/12/1990
655. Cliff Richard - Saviour's Day 22/12/1990
1991
656. Iron Maiden - Bring Your Daughter To The Slaughter 5/1/1991
657. Enigma - Sadness Part 1 19/1/1991
658. Queen - Innuendo 26/1/1991
659. KLF - 3 AM Eternal 2/2/1991
660. Simpsons - Do The Bartman 16/2/1991
March
661. Clash - Should I Stay Or Should I Go 9/3/1991
662. Hale & Pace - The Stonk 23/3/1991 The official Comic Relief single
663. Chesney Hawkes - The One And Only 30/3/1991 .
May
664. Cher - Shoop Shoop Song (It's In His Kiss) 4/5/1991
June
665. Color Me Badd - I Wanna Sex You Up 8/6/1991
666. Jason Donovan - Any Dream Will Do 29/6/1991 .
July
667 Bryan Adams - (Everything I Do) I Do It For You 13/7/1991
Nov
668. U2 - The Fly 2/11/1991
669. Vic Reeves & The Wonder Stuff - Dizzy 9/11/1991
670. Michael Jackson - Black Or White 23/11/1991
Dec
671. George Michael & Elton John - Don't Let The Sun Go Down On Me 7/12/1991
672. Queen - Bohemian Rhapsody / These Are The Days Of Our Lives 21/12/1991
1992
673. Wet Wet Wet.. Goodnight Girl 25/1/1992
Feb
674. Shakespears Sister.. Stay 22/2/1992
April
675. Right Said Fred.. Deeply Dippy 18/4/1992
May
676. KWS.. Please Don't Go / Game Boy 9/5/1992
June
677. Erasure Abba-esque EP 13/6/1992
July
678. Jimmy Nail.. Ain't No Doubt 18/7/1992
Aug
679. Snap.. Rhythm Is A Dancer 8/8/1992
Sept
680. Shamen.. Ebeneezer Goode 19/9/1992
Oct
681. Tasmin Archer.. Sleeping Satellite 17/10/1992
682. Boyz II Men .. End Of The Road 31/10/1992
Nov
683. Charles & Eddie.. Would I Lie To You 21/11/1992
Dec
684. Whitney Houston.. I Will Always Love You 5/12/1992 .
1993
685. 2 Unlimited.. No Limit 13/2/1993
March
686. Shaggy.. Oh Carolina 20/3/1993
April
687. Bluebells.. Young At Heart 3/4/1993
May
688. George Michael & Queen with Lisa Stansfield - Five Live (EP) 1/5/1993
689. Ace Of Base.... All That She Wants 22/5/1993
June
690. UB 40.. (I Can't Help) Falling In Love With You 12/6/1993 .
691. Gabrielle.. Dreams 26/6/1993 .
692. Take That.. Pray 17/7/1993
August
693. Freddie Mercury.. Living On My Own 14/8/1993
694. Culture Beat.. Mr Vain 28/8/1993
Sept
695. Jazzy Jeff & The Fresh Prince (Will Smith).. Boom! Shake The Room 25/9/1993
Oct
696. Take That featuring Lulu.. Relight my Fire 9/10/1993
697. Meat Loaf.. I'd Do Anything For Love (But I Won't Do That) 23/10/1993 .
Dec
698. Mr Blobby.. Mr Blobby 11/12/1993
699. Take That.. Babe 18/12/1993
1994
700. Chaka Demus & Pliers - Twist & Shout 8/1/1994
701. D:Ream - Things Can Only Get Better 22/1/1994
Feb
702. Mariah Carey - Without You 19/2/1994
703. Doop - Doop 19/3/1994
704. Take That - Everything Changes 9/4/1994
705. Prince - The Most Beautiful Girl In The World 23/4/1994
May
706. Tony Di Bart - The Real Thing 7/5/1994
707. Stiltskin - Inside 14/5/1994
708. Manchester United 1994 Football Squad - Come On You Reds 21/5/1994
June
709. Wet Wet Wet - Love Is All Around 4/6/1994
Sept
710. Whigfield - Saturday Night 17/9/1994
Oct
711. Take That - Sure 15/10/1994
712. Pato Banton (with Robin & Ali Campbell) - Baby Come Back 29/10/1994
Nov
713. Baby D - Let Me Be Your Fantasy 26/11/1994
Dec
714. East 17 - Stay Another Day 10/12/1994
1995
715. Rednex.. Cotton Eye Joe 14/1/1995
Feb
716. Celine Dion.. Think Twice 4/2/1995
March
717. Cher,Chrissie Hynde,Neneh Cherry & Eric Clapton.. Love Can Build A Bridge 25/3/1995
April
718. Outhere Brothers.. Don't Stop (Wiggle Wiggle) 1/4/1995
719. Take That.. Back For Good 8/4/1995
May
720. Oasis Some.. Might Say 6/5/1995
721. Livin' Joy.. Dreamer 13/5/1995
722. Robson Green & Jerome Flynn.. Unchained Melody / White Cliffs Of Dover 20/5/1995
June
723. Outhere Brothers.. Boom Boom Boom 8/7/1995
Aug
724. Take That.. Never Forget 5/8/1995
725. Blur.. Country House 26/8/1995
Sept
726. Michael Jackson.. You Are Not Alone 9/9/1995
727. Shaggy - Boombastic 23/9/1995
728. Simply Red - Fairground 30/9/1995
Oct
729. Coolio featuring LV Gangsta's.. Paradise 28/10/1995
Nov
730. Robson & Jerome.. I Believe / Up On The Roof 11/11/1995
Dec
731. Michael Jackson.. Earth Song 9/12/1995
1996
732. George Michael - Jesus To A Child 20/1/1996
733. Babylon Zoo, Spaceman 27/1/1996
March
734. Oasis, Don't Look Back In Anger 2/3/1996
735. Take That, How Deep Is Your Love 9/3/1996 .
736. Prodigy, Firestarter 30/3/1996
737. Mark Morrison, Return Of The Mack 20/4/1996
May
738. George Michael, Fastlove 4/5/1996 .
739. Gina G Ooh Aah Just A Little Bit 25/5/1996
June
740. Baddiel, Skinner & Lightning Seeds.. Three Lions 1/6/1996 .
741. Fugees, Killing Me Softly 8/6/1996
July
742. Gary Barlow, Forever Love 20/7/1996 .
743. Spice Girls, Wannabe 27/7/1996
Sept
744. Peter Andre, Flava 14/9/1996
745. Fugees, Ready Or Not 21/9/1996
Oct
746. Deep Blue Something - Breakfast At Tiffany's 5/10/1996
747. Chemical Brothers, Setting Sun 12/10/1996
748. Boyzone, Words 19/10/1996
749. Spice Girls, Say You'll Be There 26/10/1996
Nov
750. Robson & Jerome, What Becomes Of The Broken Hearted / Saturday Night At The Movies / You'll Never Walk Alone 9/11/1996
751. Prodigy, Breathe 23/11/1996
752. Peter Andre, I Feel You 7/12/1996
753. Boyzone, A Different Beat 14/12/1996
754. Dunblane, Knockin' On Heaven's Door / Throw These Guns Away 21/12/1996
755. Spice Girls, 2 Become 1 28/12/1996
1997
756. Tori Amos, Professional Widow (It's Got To Be Big) 18/1/1997
757. White Town, Your Woman 25/1/1997
Feb
759. LL Cool J,, Ain't Nobody 8/2/1997
760. U2, Discotheque 15/2/1997
761. No Doubt, Don't Speak 22/2/1997
March
762. Spice Girls - Mama / Who Do You Think You Are 15/3/1997 "Who Do You Think You Are" was the official Comic Relief single and sold 672,577 copies.
April
763. Chemical Brothers - Block Rockin' Beats 5/4/1997
764. R Kelly - I Believe I Can Fly 12/4/1997
May
765. Michael Jackson, Blood On The Dance Floor 3/5/1997
766. Gary Barlow, Love Won't Wait 10/5/1997 .
767. Olive, You're Not Alone 17/5/1997
768. Eternal ft. Bebe Winans - I Wanna Be The One 31/5/1997 .
June
770. Puff Daddy & Faith Evans, I'll Be Missing You 28/6/1997
July
771. Oasis, D'you Know What I Mean 19/7/1997
Aug
772. Will Smith, Men In Black 16/8/1997
Sept
773. Verve, The Drugs Don't Work 13/9/1997
774. Elton John, Candle In The Wind 97 / Something About The Way You Look Tonight 20/9/1997
Oct
775. Spice Girls, Spice Up Your Life 25/10/1997
Nov
776. Aqua, Barbie Girl 1/11/1997
777. Various Artists, Perfect Day 29/11/1997
Dec
778. Teletubbies, Teletubbies Say Eh-oh! 13/12/1997
779. Spice Girls, Too Much 27/12/1997
1998
780. All Saints - Never Ever 17/1/1998
781. Oasis - All Around The World 24/1/1998
782. Usher - You Make Me Wanna... 31/1/1998
Feb
783. Aqua - Doctor Jones 7/2/1998
784. Celine Dion - My Heart Will Go On 21/2/1998
785. Cornershop - Brimful Of Asha 28/2/1998
March
787. Run DMC vs Jason Nevins- It's Like That 21/3/1998
May
788. Boyzone - All That I Need 2/5/1998
789. All Saints - Under The Bridge / Lady Marmalade 9/5/1998
790. Aqua - Turn Back Time 16/5/1998
791. Tamperer featuring Maya - Feel It 30/5/1998
June
792. B*Witched - C'est La Vie 6/6/1998
793. Baddiel, Skinner & Lightning Seeds - Three Lions '98 20/6/1998 .
July
794. Billie - Because We Want To 11/7/1998
795. Another Level - Freak Me 18/7/1998
796. Jamiroquai - Deeper Underground 25/7/1998
Aug
797. Spice Girls - Viva Forever 1/8/1998
798. Boyzone - No Matter What 15/8/1998
Sept
799. Manic Street Preachers - If You Tolerate This Your Children Will Be Next 5/9/1998
800. All Saints - Bootie Call 12/9/1998
801. Robbie Williams - Millennium 19/9/1998
802. Melanie B featuring Missy Elliott - I Want You Back 26/9/1998
Oct
803. B*Witched - Rollercoaster 3/10/1998
804. Billie - Girlfriend 17/10/1998
805. Spacedust - Gym & Tonic 24/10/1998
806. Cher - Believe 31/10/1998
807. B*Witched - To You I Belong 19/12/1998
808. Spice Girls - Goodbye 26/12/1998
1999
809. Chef - Chocolate Salty Balls (PS I Love You) 2/1/1999
810. Steps - Heartbeat / Tragedy 9/1/1999
811. Fatboy Slim - Praise You 16/1/1999
812. 911 - A Little Bit More 23/1/1999
813. Offspring Pretty Fly (For A White Guy) 30/1/1999
Feb
814. Armand Van Helden featuring Duane Haeden - You Don't Know Me 6/2/1999
815. Blondie - Maria 13/2/1999
816. Lenny Kravitz - Fly Away 20/2/1999
817. Britney Spears - Baby One More Time 27/2/1999 .
March
818. Boyzone - When The Going Gets Tough 13/3/1999 The official Comic Relief single
819. B*Witched - Blame It On The Weatherman 27/3/1999
April
820. Mr Oizo - Flat Beat 3/4/1999
821. Martine McCutcheon - Perfect Moment 17/4/1999
May
822. Westlife - Swear It Again 1/5/1999
823. Backstreet Boys - I Want It That Way 15/5/1999
824. Boyzone - You Needed Me 22/5/1999
825. Shanks & Bigfoot - Sweet Like Chocolate 29/5/1999
June
826. Baz Luhrmann - Everybody's Free (To Wear Sunscreen): The Sunscreen Song (Class of 99) 12/6/1999
827. S Club 7 - Bring It All Back 19/6/1999
828. Vengaboys - Boom Boom Boom Boom!! 26/6/1999
July
829. ATB - 9PM (Till I Come) 3/7/1999
830. Ricky Martin - Livin' La Vida Loca 17/7/1999
831. Ronan Keating - When You Say Nothing At All 7/8/1999
Aug
832. Westlife - If I Let You Go 21/8/1999
833. Geri Halliwell - Mi Chico Latino 28/8/1999
Sept
834. Lou Bega - Mambo No 5 4/9/1999
835. Vengaboys - We're Going To Ibiza 18/9/1999
836. Eiffel 65 Blue (Da Ba Dee) 25/9/1999
Oct
837. Christina Aguilera - Genie In A Bottle 16/10/1999
838. Westlife - Flying Without Wings 30/10/1999
Nov
839. Five - Keep On Movin' 6/11/1999
840. Geri Halliwell - Lift Me Up 13/11/1999
841. Robbie Williams - She's The One / It's Only Us 20/11/1999
842. Wamdue Project - King Of My Castle 27/11/1999
Dec
843. Cliff Richard - Millennium Prayer 4/12/1999
844. Westlife - I Have A Dream / Seasons In The Sun 25/12/1999
2000
845. Manic Street Preachers - The Masses Against The Classes 22/1/2000
846. Britney Spears - Born To Make You Happy 29/1/2000
Feb
848. Oasis - Go Let It Out 19/2/2000
849. All Saints - Pure Shores 26/2/2000
March
850. Madonna - American Pie 11/3/2000
851. Chicane featuring Bryan Adams - Don't Give Up 18/3/2000
852. Geri Halliwell - Bag It Up 25/3/2000
April
853. Melanie C with Lisa 'Left Eye' Lopes - Never Be The Same Again 1/4/2000
854. Westlife - Fool Again 8/4/2000
855. Craig David - Fill Me In 15/4/2000
856. Fragma Toca's Miracle 22/4/2000
May
857. Oxide & Neutrino - Bound 4 Da Reload (Casualty) 6/5/2000
858. Britney Spears - Oops!... I Did It Again 13/5/2000
859. Madison Avenue - Don't Call Me Baby 20/5/2000
860. Billie Piper - Day & Night 27/5/2000
June
861. Sonique - It Feels So Good 3/6/2000 (3 weeks)
862. Black Legend - You See The Trouble With Me 24/6/2000
July
863. Kylie Minogue - Spinning Around 1/7/2000
864. Eminem - Real Slim Shady 8/7/2000
865. Corrs - Breathless 15/7/2000
866. Ronan Keating - Life Is A Rollercoaster 22/7/2000
867. Five and Queen - We Will Rock You 29/7/2000
Aug
868. Craig David - 7 Days 5/8/2000
869. Robbie Williams - Rock DJ 12/8/2000
870. Melanie C- I Turn To You 19/8/2000
871. Spiller - Groovejet (If This Ain't Love) 26/8/2000
Sept
873. A1 - Take On Me 9/9/2000
874. Modjo - Lady (Hear Me Tonight) 16/9/2000
875. Mariah Carey & Westlife - Against All Odds 30/9/2000
Oct
876. All Saints - Black Coffee 14 Oct
877. U2 - Beautiful Day 21/10/2000
878. Steps - Stomp 28/10/2000
879. Spice Girls - Holler / Let Love Lead The Way 4/11/2000
880. Westlife - My Love 11/11/2000
881. A1 - Same Old Brand New You 18/11/2000
882. LeAnn Rimes - Can't Fight The Moonlight 25/11/2000
Dec
883. Destiny's Child - Independent Women Part 1 2/12/2000
884. S Club 7 - Never Had A Dream Come True 9/12/2000
885. Eminem Stan 16/12/2000
886. Bob The Builder - Can We Fix It 23/12/2000 (3 weeks)
2001
887. Rui Da Silva featuring Cassandra.. Touch Me 13/1/2001
888. Jennifer Lopez.. Love Don't Cost A Thing 20/1/2001
889. Limp Bizkit.. Rollin' 27/1/2001
Feb
890. Atomic Kitten.. Whole Again 10/2/2001 (4 weeks)
March
891. Shaggy featuring Rikrok.. It Wasn't Me 10/3/2001
892. Westlife.. Uptown Girl 17/3/2001
893. Hear'Say.. Pure And Simple 24/3/2001
April
894. Emma Bunton.. What Took You So Long 14/4/2001
895. Destiny's Child.. Survivor 28/4/2001
May
896. S Club 7.. Don't Stop Movin' 5/5/2001
897. Geri Halliwell.. It's Raining Men 12/5/2001
June
898. DJ Pied Piper Do You Really Like It 2/6/2001
899. Shaggy featuring Rayvon.. Angel 9/6/2001
900. Christina Aguilera / Lil' Kim, Mya & Pink.. Lady Marmalade 30/6/2001
July
901. Hear'Say.. The Way To Your Love 7/7/2001
902. Roger Sanchez .. Another Chance 14/7/2001
903. Robbie Williams.. Eternity/The Road To Mandalay 21/7/2001
Aug
904. Atomic Kitten.. Eternal Flame 4/8/2001
905. So Solid Crew.. 21 Seconds 18/8/2001
906. Five.. Let's Dance 25/8/2001
Sept
907. Blue.. Too Close 8/9/2001
908. Bob The Builder.. Mambo No 5 15/9/2001
909. DJ Otzi.. Hey Baby 22/9/2001
910. Kylie Minogue.. Can't Get You Out Of My Head 29/9/2001
Oct
911. Afroman.. Because I Got High 27/10/2001
Nov
912. Westlife.. Queen of My Heart 17/11/2001
913. Blue.. If You Come Back 24/11/2001
Dec
914. S Club 7.. Have You Ever 1/12/2001
915. Daniel Bedingfield.. Gotta Get Thru This 8/12/2001
916. Robbie Williams and Nicole Kidman.. Somethin' Stupid 22/12/2001
2002
917. Aaliyah.. More Than A Woman 19/1/2002
918. George Harrison.. My Sweet Lord 26/1/2002
Feb
919. Enrique Iglesias.. Hero 2/2/2002 (4 weeks)
March
920. Westlife.. World Of Our Own 2/3/2002
921. Will Young.. Anything Is Possible / Evergreen 9/3/2002
922. Gareth Gates.. Unchained Melody 30/3/2002 (4 weeks)
April
923. Oasis.. The Hindu Times 27/4/2002
May
924. Sugababes.. Freak Like Me 4/5/2002
925. Holly Valance.. Kiss Kiss 11/5/2002
926. Ronan Keating.. If Tomorrow Never Comes 18/5/2002
927. Liberty X.. Just a Little 25/5/2002
June
928. Eminem.. Without Me 1/6/2002
929. Will Young.. Light My Fire 8/6/2002
930. Elvis vs JXL.. A Little Less Conversation 22/6/2002 (4 weeks)
July
931. Gareth Gates.. Anyone Of Us (Stupid Mistake) 20/7/2002
Aug
933. Sugababes.. Round Round 24/8/2002
934. Blazin' Squad.. Crossroads 31/8/2002
Sept
935. Atomic Kitten.. The Tide Is High (Get The Feeling) 7/9/2002
936. Pink.. Just Like A Pill 28/9/2002
Oct
937. Will Young & Gareth Gates.. The Long And Winding Road / Suspicious Minds 5/10/2002
938. Las Ketchup.. The Ketchup Song (Asereje) 19/10/2002
939. Nelly feat. Kelly Rowland.. Dilemma 26/10/2002
Nov
940. DJ Sammy & Yanou feat. Do Heaven 9/11/2002
941. Westlife.. Unbreakable 16/11/2002
942. Christina Aguilera.. Dirty 23/11/2002
Dec
943. Daniel Bedingfield.. If You're Not The One 7/12/2002
944. Eminem.. Lose Yourself 14/12/2002
945. Blue feat. Elton John.. Sorry Seems To Be The Hardest Word 21/12/2002
946. Girls Aloud.. Sound Of The Underground 28/12/2002 (4 weeks)
2003
947: David Sneddon: Stop Living The Lie 25/1/2003
Feb
948: Tatu: All The Things She Said 8/2/2003
March
949: Christina Aguilera: Beautiful 8/3/2003
950: Gareth Gates: Spirit In The Sky 22/3/2003
April
951: Room 5 feat. Oliver Cheatham: Make Luv 5/4/2003
May
952: Busted: You Said No 3/5/2003
953: Tomcraft: Loneliness 10/5/2003
954: R Kelly: Ignition 17/5/2003
June
955: Evanescence: Bring Me To Life 14/6/2003
July
956: Beyonce: Crazy In Love 12/7/2003
Aug
957: Daniel Bedingfield: Never Gonna Leave Your Side 2/8/2003
958: Blu Cantrell Feat. Sean Paul: Breathe 9/8/2003
Sept
959: Elton John: Are You Ready For Love? 6/9/2003
960: Black Eyed Peas: Where Is The Love? 13/9/2003 (6 weeks)
Oct
961: Sugababes: Hole In The Head 25/10/2003
Nov
962: Fatman Scoop: Be Faithful 1/11/2003
963: Kylie Minogue: Slow 15/11/2003
964: Busted: Crashed The Wedding 22/11/2003
965: Westlife: Mandy 29/11/2003
966: Will Young: Leave Right Now 6/12/2003
967: Kelly & Ozzy Osbourne: Changes 20/12/2003
968: Michael Andrews feat. Gary Jules: Mad World 27/12/2003
2004
969: Michelle McManus: All This Time 17/1/2004
February
970: LMC V U2: Take Me To The Clouds Above 7/2/2004
971: Sam & Mark: With A Little Help From My Friends / Measure Of A Man 21/2/2004
972: Busted: Who's David 28/2/2004
March
973: Peter Andre: Mysterious Girl 6/3/2004
974: Britney Spears: Toxic 13/3/2004
975: DJ Casper Cha Cha Slide 20/3/2004
976: Usher: Yeah 27/3/2004
977: McFly: Five Colours In Her Hair 10/4/2004
978: Eamon: F**k It (I Don't Want You Back) 24/4/2004 (4 weeks)
May
979: Frankee: F.U.R.B (F U Right Back) 22/5/2004
June
980: Mario Winans feat. Enya & P.Diddy: I Don't Wanna Know 12/6/2004
981: Britney Spears: Everytime 26/6/2004
July
984: Shapeshifters: Lola's Theme 24/7/2004
985: The Streets: Dry Your Eyes 31/7/2004
August
986: Busted: Thunderbirds / 3AM 7/8/2004
987: 3 Of A Kind: Babycakes 21/8/2004
988: Natasha Bedingfield: These Words 28/8/2004
September
989: Nelly: My Place / Flap Your Wings 11/9/2004
990: Brian McFadden: Real To Me 18/9/2004
991: Eric Prydz: Call On Me 25/9/2004
October
992: Robbie Williams: Radio 16/10/2004
November
993: Ja Rule feat. R.Kelly & Ashanti: Wonderful 6/11/2004
994: Eminem: Just Lose It 13/11/2004
995: U2: Vertigo 20/11/2004
996: Girls Aloud: I'll Stand By You 27/11/2004
December
997: Band Aid 20: Do They Know It's Christmas 11/12/2004 (4 weeks)
2005
998: Steve Brookstein - Against All Odds ..8/1/2005 X Factor winner
999: Elvis Presley - Jailhouse Rock .. 15/1/2005 (No.1 Jan 24th 1958)
1000: Elvis Presley - One Night .. 22/1/2005 (No.1 Jan 30th 1959)
1001:Ciara feat. Petey Pablo - Goodies .. 29/1/2005
February
1002: Elvis Presley - It's Now Or Never .. 5/2/2005 (No.1 Nov 3rd 1960)
1003: Eminem - Like Toy Soldiers .. 12/2/2005
1004: U2 - Sometimes You Cant Make It On Your Own .. 19/2/2005
1005: Jennifer Lopez - Get Right .. 26/2/2005
March
1006: Nelly featuring Tim McGraw - Over and Over .. 5/3/2005
1007: Stereophonics - Dakota .. 12/3/2005
1008: McFly - All About You / You've Got A Friend 19/3/2005 Official Comic Relief single
1009: Tony Christie feat. Peter Kay (Is This The Way To) Amarillo .. 26/3/2005 (7) The 2nd Comic Relief single
May
1010: Akon - Lonely .. 14/5/05 (2)
1011: Oasis - Lyla .. 28/5/05 (1)
June
1012: Crazy Frog - Axel F .. 05/6/2005 (4) in@ No.1 (First RINGTONE to chart in UK)
July
1013: 2Pac feat. Elton John - Ghetto Gospel .. 2/7/2005
1014: James Blunt - You're Beautiful .. 23/7/2005
August
1015: McFly - I'll Be OK .. 27/8/2005
September
1016: Oasis - The Importance Of Being Idle .. 3/9/2005
1017: Gorillaz - Dare .. 10/9/2005
1018: Pussycat Dolls Ft Busta Rhymes - Don't Cha .. 17/9/2005
October
1019: Sugababes - Push The Button .. 8/10/2005 (3)
1020: Arctic Monkeys - I Bet You Look Good On The Dancefloor .. 29/10/2005 (1) ..
November
1021: Westlife - You Raise Me Up ..5/11/05 (2)
1022: Madonna - Hung Up .. 19/11/05 (3)
December
1023: Pussycat Dolls - Stickwitu ..10/12/05 (2)
1024: Nizlopi - JCB Song .. 24/12/05 (1)
1025: Shayne Ward - That's My Goal .. 31/12/05 (4) in@ No.1 X Factor winner
2006
1026: Arctic Monkeys - When The Sun Goes Down .. 28/1/06 (1) in@ No.1 ..
February
1027: Notorious BIG/ P Diddy/ Nelly - Nasty Girl .. 4/2/06 (2)
1028: Meck Ft Leo Sayer - Thunder In My Heart Again .. 18/2/06 (2) in@ No.1 ..
March
1029: Madonna - Sorry .. 4/3/06 (1) in@ No.1
1030: Chico - It's Chico Time .. 11/3/06 (2) in@ No.1
1031: Orson - No Tomorrow .. 25/3/06 (1) ..
April
1032: Ne*Yo - So Sick .. 1/4/06 (1)
1033: Gnarls Barkley - Crazy .. 8/4/06 (9) in@ No.1
June
1034: Sandi Thom - I Wish I A Punk Rocker .. 10/6/06 (1) ..
1035: Nelly Furtado - Maneater .. 17/6/06 (3)
July
1036: Shakira Ft Wyclef Jean - Hips Don't Lie .. 8/7/06 (1)
1037: Lily Allen - Smile .. 15/7/06 (2)
1038: McFly - Don't Stop Me Now/please Please .. 29/7/06 (1) in@ No.1 ..
August
r/e. : Shakira Ft Wyclef Jean - Hips Don't Lie .. 5/8/06 (4)
September
1039: Beyonce Ft Jay-z - Deja Vu .. 2/9/06 (1)
1040: Justin Timberlake - Sexyback .. 9/9/06 (1) in@ No.1..
1041: Scissor Sisters - I Don't Feel Like Dancin' .. 16/9/06 (4)
October
1042: Razorlight - America .. 14/10/06 (1)..
1043: My Chemical Romance - Welcome To The Black Parade .. 21/10/06 (2)..
November
1044: McFly - Star Girl .. 4/11/06 (1) in@ No.1 ..
1045: Fedde Le Grand - Put Your Hands Up For Detroit ..11/11/06 (1) ..
1046: Westlife - The Rose .. 18/11/06 (1) in@ No.1
1047: Akon Ft Eminem - Smack That .. 25/11/2006 (1)
December
1048: Take That - Patience .. 2/12/2006 (4)
1049: Leona Lewis - A Moment Like This .. 30/12/2006 (4) in@ No.1 .. X Factor winner
2007
1050: Mika - Grace Kelly .. 27/01/07 (5) ..
March
1051: Kaiser Chiefs - Ruby .. 03/03/07 (1) ..
1052: Take That - Shine .. 10/03/07 (2)
1053: Sugababes Vs Girls Aloud - Walk This Way .. 24/03/07 (2) The official Comic Relief single
1054: Proclaimers/B.Potter/A.Pipkin - I'm Gonna Be (500 Miles) .. 31/03/07 (3) in@ No.1 also released for the Comic Relief charity. Its sales were double that of the "official" Comic Relief single.
April
1055: Timbaland/Nelly Furtado/Justin Timberlake - Give It To Me .. 21/04/07 (1)
1056: Beyonce & Shakira - Beautiful Liar .. 28/04/07 (4) ..
May
1057: McFly - Baby's Coming Back/Transylvania .. 19/05/07 (1) in@ No.1
1058: Rihanna ft Jay.Z - Umbrella .. 26/05/07 (10) in@ No.1
August
1059: Timbaland Ft Keri Hilson - The Way I Are .. 4/08/07 (2)..
1060: Robyn With Kleerup - With Every Heartbeat .. 18/08/2007 (1)
1061: Kanye West - Stronger .. 25/08/2007 (2)
September
1062: Sean Kingston - Beautiful Girls .. 08/09/2007 (4)
October
1063: Sugababes - About You Now .. 06/10/2007 (4)
November
1064: Leona Lewis - Bleeding Love .. 03/11/2007 (7) in@ No.1 ..
December
1065: Eva Cassidy & Katie Melua - What A Wonderful World .. 22/12/2007 (1) in@ No.1 ..
1066: Leon Jackson - When You Believe .. 29/12/2007 (3) in@ No.1 X Factor winner
2008
1067: Basshunter Ft. Dj Mental Theo - Now You're Gone .. w/e 19/01/2008 (5)
February
1068: Duffy - Mercy .. w/e 23/02/2008 (5) in@ No.1
March
1069: Estelle Ft Kanye West - American Boy .. w/e 29/03/2008 (4) in@ No.1 ..
April
1070: Madonna Ft Justin Timberlake - 4 Minutes .. w/e 26/04/2008 (4)
May
1071: Ting Tings - That's Not My Name .. w/e 24/05/2008 (1) in@ No.1
1072: Rihanna - Take A Bow .. 31/05/2008 (2)
June
1073: Mint Royale - Singin' In The Rain .. 14/06/2008 (2) in@ No.1 ..
1074: Coldplay - Viva La Vida .. 28/06/2008 (1) in@ No.1
July
1075: Ne-Yo . - Closer .. 05/07/2008 (1)
1076: Dizzee Rascal /Calvin Harris /Chrome - Dance Wiv Me .. 12/07/2008 (4) in@ No.1
August
1077: Kid Rock - All Summer Long .. 09/08/2008 (1) ..
1078: Katy Perry - I Kissed A Girl .. 16/08/2008 (5)
September
1079: Kings Of Leon - Sex On Fire .. 20/09/2008 (3) in@ No.1 ..
October
1080: Pink - So What .. 11th Oct (3)
November
1081: Girls Aloud - The Promise .. 1st Nov (1) in@ No.1
1082: X Factor Finalists - Hero .. 7th Nov (3) in@ No.1
1083: Beyonce - If I Were A Boy .. 29 Nov (1)
December
1084: Take That - Greatest Day .. 06 Dec (1) in@ No.1 ..
1085: Leona Lewis - Run .. 13 Dec (2) in@ No.1
1086: Alexandra Burke - Hallelujah .. 27 Dec (3) [email protected] X Factor winner
2009
1087: Lady Gaga - Just Dance .. w/e Jan 17th (3)
February
1088: Lily Allen - The Fear.. w/e Feb 07th (4) in@ No.1
March
1089: Kelly Clarkson - My Life Would Suck Without You.. w/e March 07 (1) in@ No.1
1090: Flo Rida Ft Kesha - Right Round.. w/e March 14 (1) in@ No.1 ..
No.2 in the charts .. "Just Can't Get Enough" - The Saturdays .. the first official Comic Relief single not to reach No.1 in 14 years.
1091: Jenkins/West/Jones/Gibb - Islands In The Stream.. w/e March 21 (1) in@ No.1 ..The second Comic Relief 2009 single.
1092: Lady Gaga - Poker Face.. w/e March 28 (3)
April
1093: Calvin Harris - I'm Not Alone.. w/e April 18 (2) in@ No.1
May
1094: Tinchy Stryder Ft N-dubz - Number 1.. w/e May 02 (3) in@ No.1
1095: Black Eyed Peas - Boom Boom Pow.. w/e May 23 (1) in@ No.1
1096: Dizzee Rascal / Armand Van Helden - Bonkers.. w/e May 30 (2) in@ No.1
June
r/e.. : Black Eyed Peas - Boom Boom Pow.. w/e June 13 (1)
1097: Pixie Lott - Mama Do.. w/e June 20 (1) in@ No.1
1098: David Guetta Ft Kelly Rowland - When Love Takes Over.. w/e June 27 (1) ..
July
1099: La Roux - Bulletproof.. w/e July 4 (1) in@ No.1
1100: Cascada - Evacuate The Dancefloor.. w/e 11 July (2) in@ No.1
1101: JLS - Beat Again.. w/e 25 July (1) in@ No.1
August
1102: Black Eyed Peas - I Gotta Feeling.. w/e 08 Aug (1)
1103: Tinchy Stryder Ft Amelle - Never Leave You.. w/e 15 Aug (1) in@ No.1
r/e ..: Black Eyed Peas - I Gotta Feeling.. w/e 22 Aug (1)
1104: David Guetta Ft Akon - Sexy Chick.. w/e 29 Aug (1) in@ No.1 ..
September
1105: Dizzee Rascal - Holiday.. w/e 05 Sept (1) in@ No.1
1106: Jay-Z Ft Rihanna & Kanye West - Run This Town.. w/e 12 Sept (1) in@ No.1 ..
1107: Pixie Lott - Boys & Girls.. w/e 19 Sept (1)
1108: Taio Cruz - Break Your Heart.. w/e 26 Sept (3) in@ No.1
October
1109: Chipmunk - Oopsy Daisy.. w/e 17 Oct (1) in@ No.1 ..
1110: Alexandra Burke ft. Flo Rida - Bad Boys .. w/e 24 Oct (1) in@ No.1 ..
1111: Cheryl Cole - Fight For This Love.. w/e 31 Oct (2) in@ No.1 ..
November
1112: JLS - Everybody In Love.. w/e 14 Nov (1) in@ No.1 ..
1113: Black Eyed Peas - Meet Me Halfway.. w/e 21 Nov (1) ..
1114: X Factor Finalists 2009 - You Are Not Alone.. w/e 28 Nov (1) in@ No.1
December
1115: Peter Kay's Animated All Star Band - BBC Children In Need Medley.. w/e 05 Dec (2)
1116: Lady Gaga - Bad Romance.. w/e 19 Dec (1)
1117: Rage Against the Machine - Killing In The Name.. w/e 26 Dec (1) in@ No.1
2010
1118: Joe McElderry - The Climb.. w/e 02 Jan (1) X Factor winner
r/e....: Lady Gaga - Bad Romance.. w/e 09 Jan (1) ..
1119: Iyaz - Replay.. w/e 16 Jan (2) in@ No.1
1120: Owl City - Fireflies.. w/e 30 Jan (3) ..
February
1121: Helping Haiti - Everybody Hurts.. w/e 20 Feb (2) in@ No.1
March
1122: Jason Derulo - In My Head.. w/e 06 March (1) in@ No.1
1123: Tinie Tempah - Pass Out.. w/e 13 March (2) in@ No.1 ..
1124: Lady Gaga ft. Beyoncé - Telephone.. w/e 27 March (2)
April
1125: Scouting for Girls - This Ain't A Love Song.. w/e 10 April (2) in@ No.1 ..
1126: Usher ft. will.i.am - OMG.. w/e 24 April (1)
May
1127: Diana Vickers - Once.. w/e 01 May (1) in@ No.1
1128: Roll Deep - Good Times.. w/e 08 May (3) in@ No.1 ..
1129: B.o.B ft Bruno Mars - Nothin' On You.. w/e 29 May (1) in@ No.1
June
1130: Dizzee Rascal - Dirtee Disco.. w/e 05 June (1) in@ No.1 ..
1131: David Guetta ft. Chris Willis - Gettin' Over You.. w/e 12 June (1) in@ No.1 ..
1132: Shout ft. Dizzee & James Corden - Shout For England.. w/e 19 June (2) in@ No.1 ..
July
1133: Katy Perry ft.Snoop Dogg - California Gurls.. w/e 03 July (2) in@ No.1 ..
1134: JLS - The Club Is Alive.. w/e 17 July (1) in@ No.1 ..
1135: B.o.B ft. Hayley Williams - Airplanes.. w/e 24 July (1) ..
1136: Yolanda Be Cool Vs D Cup - We No Speak Americano.. w/e 31 July (1) ..
August
1137: Wanted - All Time Low.. w/e 07 Aug (1) in@ No.1 ..
1138: Ne-Yo - Beautiful Monster.. w/e 14 Aug (1) in@ No.1 ..
1139: Flo Rida Club ft. David Guetta - Can't Handle Me.. w/e 21 Aug (1)
1140: Roll Deep - Green Light.. w/e 28 Aug (1) in@ No.1 ..
September
1141: Taio Cruz - Dynamite.. w/e 04 Sept (1) in@ No.1
1142: Olly Murs - Please Don't Let Me Go.. w/e 11 Sept (1) in@ No.1
1143: Alexandra Burke ft. Laza Morgan - Start Without You.. w/e 18 Sept (2) in@ No.1 ..
October
1144: Bruno Mars - Just the Way You Are (Amazing).. w/e 02 Oct (1) in@ No.1 ..
1145: Tinie Tempah - Written In The Stars.. w/e 09 Oct (1) in@ No.1 ..
1146: Cee Lo Green - Forget You.. w/e 16 Oct (2) in@ No.1
r/e...: Bruno Mars - Just the Way You Are (Amazing).. w/e 30 Oct (1) ..
November
1147: Cheryl Cole - Promise This.. w/e 06 Nov (1) in@ No.1
1148: Rihanna - Only Girl (In The World).. w/e 13 Nov (2) ..
1149: JLS - Love You More.. w/e 27 Nov (1) in@ No.1 .
December
1150: The X Factor Finalists 2010 - Heroes.. w/e 04 Dec (2) in@ No.1 .
1151: The Black Eyed Peas - The Time (Dirty Bit).. w/e 18 Dec (1).
1152: Matt Cardle - When We Collide.. w/e 25 Dec (3) in@ No.1 X Factor winner
2011
1153: Rihanna ft. Drake - What's My Name.. w/e 15 Jan (1).
1154: Bruno Mars - Grenade.. w/e 22 Jan (2) in@ No.1.
February
1155: Kesha - We R Who We R.. w/e 05 Feb (1)
1156: Jessie J ft. B.o.B - Price Tag.. w/e 12 Feb (2) in@ No.1
1157: Adele - Someone Like You.. w/e 26 Feb (4)
March
1158: Nicole Scherzinger - Don't Hold Your Breath.. w/e 26 March (1) in@ No.1
April
r/e.,.: Adele - Someone Like You.. w/e 02 April (1)
1159: Jennifer Lopez ft. Pitbull - On The Floor.. w/e 09 April (2) in@ No.1
1160: LMFAO - Party Rock Anthem.. w/e 23 April (4).
May
1161: Bruno Mars - The Lazy Song.. w/e 21 May (1).
1162: Pitbull ft. Ne-Yo, Afrojack & Nayer - Give Me Everything.. w/e May 28 (3)
June
1163: Example - Changed The Way You Kiss Me.. w/e 18 June (2) in@ No.1.
July
1164: Jason Derulo - Don't Wanna Go Home.. w/e 02 July (2) in@ No.1.
1165: DJ Fresh ft. Sian Evans - Louder.. w/e 16 July (1) in@ No.1
1166: The Wanted - Glad You Came.. w/e 23 July (2) in@ No.1
August
1167: JLS ft. Dev - She Makes Me Wanna.. w/e 06 Aug (1) in@ No.1
1168: Cher Lloyd - Swagger Jagger.. w/e 13 Aug (1) in@ No.1
1169: Nero - Promises.. w/e 20 Aug (1) in@ No.1
1170: Wretch 32 ft.Josh Kumra - Don't Go.. w/e 27 Aug (1) in@ No.1
September
1171: Olly Murs ft. Rizzle Kicks - Heart Skips A Beat.. w/e 03 Sept (1) in@ No.1.
1172: Example - Stay Awake.. w/e 10 Sept (1) in@ No.1
1173: Pixie Lott - All About Tonight.. w/e 17 Sept (1) in@ No.1.
1174: One Direction - What Makes You Beautiful.. w/e 24 Sept (1) in@ No.1.
October
1175: Dappy - No Regrets.. w/e 01 Oct (1) in@ No.1
1176: Sak Noel - Loca People .. w/e 08 Oct (1) in@ No.1.
1177: Rihanna ft.Calvin Harris - We Found Love .. w/e 15 Oct (3) in@ No.1 .
November
1178: Professor Green ft.Emeli Sande - Read All About It .. w/e 05 Nov (2) [email protected] .
R / E: Rihanna ft.Calvin Harris - We Found Love .. w/e 26 Nov (3)
December
1179: The X Factor Finalists 2011 - Wishing On A Star .. w/e Dec 10 (1) [email protected]
1180: Olly Murs - Dance With Me Tonight .. w/e Dec 17 (1)
1181: Little Mix - Cannonball .. w/e Dec 24 (1) [email protected] X Factor winner
1182: Military Wives with Gareth Malone - Wherever You Are .. w/e Dec 31 (1) [email protected]
2012
1183: Coldplay - Paradise .. w/e Jan 7 (1)
1184: Flo Rida - Good Feeling .. w/e Jan 14 (1)
1185: Jessie J - Domino .. w/e Jan 21 (2)
February
1186: Cover Drive - Twilight .. Feb 04 (1) [email protected]
1187: David Guetta ft Sia - Titanium .. Feb 11 (1)
1188: Gotye Somebody ft Kimbra - That I Used To Know .. Feb 18 (1)
1189: DJ Fresh ft. Rita Ora - Hot Right Now .. Feb 25 (1)
March
R / E: Gotye ft Kimbra - SomebodyThat I Used To Know .. March 03 (4)
1190: Katy Perry - Part Of Me .. March 31 (1) in@ No.1
April
1191: Chris Brown - Turn Up The Music .. April 07 (1) [email protected]
1192: Carly Rae Jepsen - Call Me Maybe .. April 14 (4)
May
1193: Tulisa - Young .. w/e May 12 (1) [email protected]
1194: Rita Ora ft.Tinie Tempah - R.I.P .. w/e May 19 (2) [email protected]
June
1195: fun ft. Janelle Monae - We Are Young .. w/e June 2 (1)
1196: Rudimental ft. John Newman - Feel The Love .. w/e June 9 (1) [email protected]
1197: Gary Barlow & The Commonwealth Band - Sing .. w/e June 16 (1)
1198: Cheryl - Call My Name .. w/e June 23 (1) [email protected]
1199: Maroon 5 ft. Wiz Khalifa - Payphone .. w/e June 30 (1) [email protected]
July
1200: will.i.am ft. Eva Simons - This Is Love .. w/e July 7 (1) [email protected]
R / E: Maroon 5 ft.Wiz Khalifa - Payphone .. w/e July 14 (1)
1201: Florence + the Machine (Calvin Harris Mix) - Spectrum (Say My Name) .. w/e July 21 (3)
August
1202: Wiley ft. Rymez & Ms D - Heatwave .. w/e Aug 11 (2) [email protected]
1203: Rita Ora - How We Do (Party) .. w/e Aug 25 (1) [email protected]
September
1204: Sam and The Womp - Bom Bom .. w/e Sept 01 (1) [email protected]
1205: Little Mix - Wings .. w/e Sept 08 (1) [email protected]
1206: Ne-Yo - Let Me Love You (Until You Learn To Love Yourself) .. w/e Sept 15 (1) [email protected]
1207: The Script feat. will.i.am - Hall Of Fame .. w/e Sept 22 (2)
October
1208: PSY - Gangnam Style .. w/e Oct 06 (1)
1209: Rihanna - Diamonds .. w/e Oct 13 (1) [email protected]
1210: Swedish House Mafia ft.John Martin - Don't You Worry Child .. w/e Oct 20 (1) [email protected]
1211: Calvin Harris ft.Florence Welch - Sweet Nothing .. w/e Oct 27 (1) [email protected]
November
1212: Labrinth ft. Emeli Sande - Beneath Your Beautiful .. w/e Nov 03 (1)
1213: Robbie Williams - Candy .. w/e Nov 10 (2) [email protected]
1214: One Direction - Little Things .. Nov 24 (1) [email protected]
December
1215: Olly Murs ft. Flo Rida - Troublemaker .. Dec 01 (2) [email protected]
1216: Gabrielle Aplin - The Power Of Love .. Dec 15 (1)
1217: James Arthur - Impossible .. Dec 22 (1) [email protected] the fastest-selling X Factor single of all time (to date) reaching 255,000 downloads within 48 hours
1218: The Justice Collective - He Ain't Heavy He's My Brother .. Dec 29 (1) [email protected].
2013
R/E .: James Arthur - Impossible .. Jan 05 (2)
1219: will.i.am feat. Britney Spears - Scream & Shout .. Jan 19 (2)
February
1220: Bingo Players ft. Far East Movement - Get Up (Rattle) .. Feb 02 (2) [email protected]
1221: Macklemore - Thrift Shop .. w/e Feb 16 (1)
1222: Avicii vs Nicky Romero - I Could Be The One .. w/e Feb 23 (1) [email protected]
March
1223: One Way Or Another (Teenage Kicks) - One Direction .. w/e March 02 (1) [email protected] The official Comic Relief 2013 single.
1224: Justin Timberlake - Mirrors .. w/e March 09 (3)
1225: The Saturdays ft Sean Paul - What About Us .. March 30 (1) [email protected]
April
1226: PJ & Duncan - Let's Get Ready To Rhumble .. April 06 (1) first released July 11th 1994 peaking at No.9. ~ re-released in March 2013, with royalties from sales to be donated to the charity ChildLine.
1227: Duke Dumont ft. A*M*E - Need U (100%) .. April 13 (2) [email protected]
1228: Rudimental ft. Ella Eyre - Waiting All Night .. April 27 (1) [email protected]
May
1229: Daft Punk ft. Pharrell Williams - Get Lucky .. May 04 (4)
June
1230: Naughty Boy ft. Sam Smith - La La La .. June 01 (1) [email protected]
1231: Robin Thicke ft. Pharrell Williams & T.I. - Blurred Lines .. June 08 (4) [email protected]
July
1232: Icona Pop ft. Charli XCX - I Love It .. July 06 (1) [email protected]
1233: John Newman - Love Me Again .. July 13 (1) [email protected]
R/E .: Robin Thicke ft. Pharrell Williams & T.I. - Blurred Lines .. July 20 (1)
1234: Avicii - Wake Me Up .. July 27 (3) [email protected]
August
1235: Miley Cyrus - We Can't Stop .. Aug 17 (1) [email protected]
1236: Ellie Goulding - Burn .. Aug 24 (3) [email protected]
September
1237: Katy Perry - Roar .. Sept 14 (2) [email protected]
1238: Jason Derulo ft. 2 Chainz - Talk Dirty .. Sept 28 (2) [email protected]
October
1239: OneRepublic - Counting Stars .. Oct 12 (1)
1240: Miley Cyrus - Wrecking Ball .. Oct 19 (1) [email protected]
R/E .: OneRepublic - Counting Stars .. Oct 26 (1)
November
1241: Lorde - Royals .. Nov 02 (1) [email protected]
1242: Eminem ft Rihanna - The Monster .. Nov 09 (1) [email protected]
1243: Storm Queen - Look Right Through .. Nov 16 (1)
1244: Martin Garrix - Animals .. Nov 23 (1) [email protected]
1245: Lily Allen - Somewhere Only We Know .. Nov 30 (1)
December
1246: Calvin Harris/Alesso/Hurts - Under Control .. Dec 07 (1) [email protected]
R/E .:.Lily Allen - Somewhere Only We Know .. Dec 14 (2)
1247: Sam Bailey - Skyscaper .. Dec 28 (1) [email protected] Xmas No.1
2014
1248: Pharrell Williams - Happy .. Jan 04 (1).
1249: Pitbull ft Kesha - Timber .. Jan 11 (1) [email protected].
R/E .: Pharrell Williams - Happy .. Jan 18 (2).
February
1250: Clean Bandit ft. Jess Glynne - Rather Be .. Feb 01 (4) [email protected]
March
1251: Sam Smith - Money On My Mind .. March 01 (1) [email protected].
R/E .: Pharrell Williams - Happy .. March 08 (1).
1252: Route 94 ft. Jess Glynne - My Love .. March 15 (1) [email protected].
1253: DVBBS & Borgeous ft Tinie Tempah - Tsunami (Jump) .. March 22 (1) [email protected].
1254: Duke Dumont ft Jax Jones - I Got U .. March 29 (1) [email protected]
April
1255: 5 Seconds Of Summer - She Looks So Perfect .. April 05 (1) [email protected].
1256: Aloe Blacc - The Man .. April 12 (1) [email protected].
1257: Sigma - Nobody To Love .. April 19 (1) [email protected].
1258: Kiesza - Hidaway .. April 26 (1) [email protected]
May
1259: Mr Probz - Waves .. May 03 (1) [email protected].
1260: Calvin Harris - Summer .. May 10 (1) [email protected].
R/E .: Mr Probz - Waves .. May 17 (1).
1261: Rita Ora - I Will Never Let You Down .. May 24 (1) [email protected].
1262: Sam Smith - Stay With Me .. May 31 (1) [email protected]
June
1263: Secondcity - I Wanna Feel .. June 07 (1) [email protected]
1264: Ed Sheeran - Sing .. June 14 (1) [email protected]
1265: Ella Henderson - Ghost .. June 21 (2) [email protected]
July
1266: Oliver Heldens & Becky Hill - Gecko (Overdrive) .. July 05 (1) [email protected]
1267: Ariana Grande ft Iggy Azalea - Problem .. July 12 (1) [email protected]
1268: Will.i.am ft. Cody Wise - It's My Birthday .. July 19 (1) [email protected]
1269: Rixton - Me And My Broken Heart .. July 26 (1) [email protected]
August
1270: Cheryl Cole ft Tinie Tempah - Crazy Stupid Love .. Aug 02 (1) [email protected]
1271: Magic - Rude .. Aug 09 (1)
1272: Nico & Vinz - Am I Wrong .. Aug 16 (2)
1273: David Guetta ft. Sam Martin - Lovers On The Sun .. Aug 30 (1) [email protected]
September
1274: Lilly Wood & Robin Schulz - Prayer in C .. Sept 06 (2) .
1275: Calvin Harris ft. John Newman - Blame .. Sept 20 (1) [email protected]
1276: Sigma ft. Paloma Faith - Changing .. Sept 27 (1)
October
1277: Jesse J / Grande / Minaj - Bang Bang .. Oct 04 (1) [email protected] .
1278: Meghan Trainor - All About That Bass .. Oct 11 (4) .
November
1279: Ed Sheeran - Thinking Out Aloud .. Nov 08 (1)
1280: Cheryl - I Don't Care - Cheryl .. Nov 15 (1) [email protected]
1281: Gareth Malone's All Star Choir - Wake Me Up .. Nov 22 (1) [email protected]
1282: Band Aid 30 - Do They Know It's Christmas .. Nov 29 (1) [email protected]
December
1283: Take That - These Days .. Dec 06 (1) [email protected]
R/E:.: Ed Sheeran - Thinking Out Aloud .. Dec 13 (1)
1284: Mark Ronson ft. Bruno Mars - Uptown Funk .. Dec 20 (1) [email protected]
1285: Ben Haenow - Something I Need .. Dec 27 (1) [email protected]
2015
R/E:.: Mark Ronson ft. Bruno Mars - Uptown Funk .. Jan 03 (6)
February
1286: Ellie Goulding - Love Me Like You Do .. Feb 14 (4) [email protected]
March
1287: Years & Years - King .. March 14 (1) [email protected]
1288: Sam Smith ft.John Legend - Lay Me Down .. March 21 (2) [email protected]
April
1289: Jess Glynne - Hold My Hand .. April 04 (3) [email protected]
1290: Wiz Khalifa ft. Charlie Puth - See You Again .. April 25 (2)
May
1291: OMI - Cheerleader .. May 09 (4)
June
1292: Jason Derulo - Want To Want Me .. June 06 (4) [email protected]
July
1293: Tinie Tempah ft Jesse Glynne - Not Letting Go .. July 04 (1)
WEEK ENDING DATE CHANGES TO FRIDAYS
1294: Lost Frequences - Are You With Me .. July 09 (1)
1295: David Zowie - House Every Weekend .. July 16 (1)
1296: Little Mix - Black Magic .. July 23 (3) [email protected]
August
1297: One Direction - Drag Me Down .. Aug 13 (1) [email protected]
1298: Charlie Puth ft Meghan Trainor - Marvin Gaye .. Aug 20 (1)
1299: Jess Glynne - Don't Be So Hard on Yourself .. Aug 27 (1)
September
1300: Rachel Platten - Fight Song .. Sept 03 (1)
1301: Justin Bieber - What Do You Mean .. Sept 10 (1) [email protected]
1302: Sigala - Easy Love .. Sept 17 (1)
R/E:.: Justin Bieber - What Do You Mean .. Sept 24 (2)
October
1303: Sam Smith - Writing On The Wall .. Oct 08 (1) [email protected].
R/E:.: Justin Bieber - What Do You Mean .. Oct 15 (2)
1304: KDA ft Tinie Tempah & Katy B - Turn The Music Louder (Rumble) .. Oct 29 (1) [email protected]
November
1305: Adele - Hello .. Nov 05 (3) [email protected]
1306: Justin Bieber - Sorry .. Nov 26 (2)
December
1307: Justin Bieber - Love Yourself .. Dec 10 (3)
1308: Lewisham & Greenwich NHS Choir - A Bridge Over You .. Dec 31 (1) [email protected]
2016
January
R/E:.: Justin Bieber - Love Yourself .. Jan 07 (3)
Jan 8th - Jan 14th Justin Bieber holds the 1st, 2nd, 3rd position on the charts; a first in UK chart history
1309: Shawn Mendes - Stitches . . Jan 28 (2)
February
1310: Zayn - Pillowtalk . . Feb 11 (1) in@ No.1
1311: Lukas Graham - 7 Years . . Feb 18 (5)
March
1312: Mike Posner - I Tool A Pill In Ibiza .. March 24 (4)
April
1313: Drake ft. Wizkid & Kyla - One Dance .. April 21 (15)
August
1314: Major Lazer/Justin Beiber/Mo - Cold Water .. Aug 04 (5)
September
1315: Chainsmoker ft Halsey - Closer .. Sept 08 (4)
October
1316: James Arthur - Say You Won't Let Go .. Oct 06 (3)
1317: Little Mix - Shout Out To My Ex .. Oct 27 (3) [email protected]
November
1318: Clean Bandit - Rockabye .. Nov 17 (9) Christmas No.1
2017
January
1319: Ed Sheeran - Shape Of You .. w/e Jan 19 (1) [email protected] "Shape of You" and Ed Sheeran's "Castle on the Hill" debuted on UK Singles Chart at No1 & No.2, the first time in history an artist has taken the top two chart positions with new releases.
UPDATED: January 13th 2016.
A FEW FACTS (UK Singles charts)
Most Consecutive Weeks at No.1
16 weeks: Bryan Adams - (Everything I Do) I Do It For You .. 1991
Most Weeks at No.1
18 weeks: Frankie Laine's - I Believe
In 1953 it topped the chart on three separate occasions
Longest Time For A Track To Get To No.1
33 Years, 3 Months, and 27 Days.
Tony Christie "(Is This The Way To) Amarillo"
w/e November 27th 1971 - it reached No.18.
w/e March 26th 2005 - it reached No.1 with the re-release, after comedian Peter Kaye sung the song and made an amusing video with it, featuring many other celebrities. It was in aid of Comic Relief.
it beat the previous record of
29 Years, 1 Month, and 11 Days
Jackie Wilson -"Reet Petite (The Sweetest Girl in Town)" the original subtitle: (The Finest Girl You Ever Want To Meet)
w/e November 15th 1957 - it reached No.6 in the UK charts
w/e December 29th 1986 - it reached No.1 , two years after his death, when it was re-released after being used on an advert for Levi Jeans .
Until 1983, the chart was made available on Tuesdays.
Due to improved technology, from January 1983 it was released on the Sunday.
The convention of using Saturday as the 'week-ending' date
has remained constant throughout.
JULY 2015 .. WEEK-ENDING DATE CHANGES TO THURSDAYS AND RELEASED ON FRIDAYS
Information up to 2004 is from the
"Guinness Book of British Hit Singles & Albums"
2004 onwards from BBC Radio 1
*****************************************
| The Pretenders |
Which year saw the SAS storm the Iranian Embassy in London ? | Number ones of the 1980s
Number ones of the 1980s
Wednesday, 6 January 2010
Song: Coward of the County
Artist: Kenny Rogers
Number one: 2 weeks (16 February 1980 – 28 February 1980)
Producer: Larry Butler
After a run of number 1s that included bands such as Pink Floyd, The Pretenders and The Specials it is a bit of a surprise to find that it was a country balled that knocked the contraception song off the top slot. The song Coward of the County was incredibly successful, not just earning Rogers a number1 slot in the UK, but also reaching number 1 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart and number three on the Billboard Hot 100 chart.
By the time Coward of the County reached number 1 in the UK Rogers career stretched back to the mid-1950s and had released his first solo single in 1958. Later in the 1960s he formed Kenny Rogers and the First Edition he had his first huge hit with Ruby don’t take your love to town, a track up tempo in its musical and vocal delivery but a close listen reveals a tale of a disable Vietnam veteran who has to lie in bed helpless while his wife prepares herself to see other men. By the mid-1970s Rogers had found a niche singing in a middle of the road style which endeared him to both a pop and a country music audience.
Coward of the County was released on 26 January 1980 from the album Kenny. The album featured an array of musical styles including one song with a jazz feel and several with a disco/rock vibe. Coward of the County was one of the few country songs on the album. The song tells the story of a boy named Tommy, who when he is 10 years old his father dies in prison. Tommy and his uncle come to see him for the last time, and Tommy's father makes him promise not to fight when provoked if at all possible, and that to ‘turn the other cheek’ is not automatically a sign of weakness. This earns Tommy a reputation as the Coward of the County.
Famously, then popular comedians Little and Large did an ‘hilarious’ version of Coward of the County shortly after its release which did no harm at all to the sales.
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Song: The Special A.K.A. Live EP (Too Much Too Young, Guns Of Navarone, Longshot Kick De Bucket,Liquidator, Skinhead Moonstomp)
Artist: The Specials (aka The Special A.K.A.)
Number one: 2 weeks (2 February 1980 – 15 February 1980)
Personnel: Terry Hall, Jerry Dammers, Lynval Golding, Neville Staple, Roddy Byers, Horace Panter, John Bradbury
Producer: Jerry Dammers and Dave Jordan
Released on 27 January 1980 The Special A.K.A. Live EP quickly swept aside the residency of The Pretenders’ Brass in Pocket at the number1 slot. Although containing five tracks, recorded live in Coventry and London, most people today remember the EP for the lead track Too Much Too Young. Based on the 1969 song Birth Control by Lloyd Charmers it was given an up tempo lift by Jerry Dammers to become the first controversial song of the 1980s to hit number 1.
The Specials (aka The Special A.K.A.) were an English 2 Tone ska revival band formed in 1977 in Coventry. The Specials at the time offered a unique position in the post punk landscape - danceable ska and a rocksteady beat with punk's energy and attitude, but with better clothes. They also had a string of fine songs many of which were politically or socially charged. As fine a song as Too Much Too Young was they were yet to achieve their finest hour.
Too Much Too Young offers many unique facts. It was the first EP since Demis Roussos’ The Roussos Phenomenon EP to be at number 1, it was the shortest song in duration at number 1 of the 1980s (2 minutes and 4 seconds) and it was the first song of the 1980s to go straight in at number 1. It was also its record labels (Two-Tone) first number 1 but also proved too much too early for some broadcasters who cut the song short before the line ‘try wearing a cap’ could be heard. All this for £1.05.
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Number one: 2 weeks (11 January 1980 – 18 February 1980)
Personnel: Chrissie Hynde, James Honey-man Scott, Martin Chambers, Pete Farndon
Producer: Chris Thomas
Brass in Pocket was the third single release by The Pretenders and has the distinction of being the first record to get to number one in the 1980s (as opposed to Pink Floyd who got to number in the 1970s). Famously co-song writer Chrissie Hynde hated the song and told producer Chris Thomas that the song would be released over her dead body. It became their biggest chart hit of their career making number two in the Australian charts and peaking at number fourteen in the US charts.
The Pretenders formed in London in 1978 with Hynde shortly after naming the band The Pretenders after The Platters song The Great Pretender. In June 1982 Hynde sacked Pete Farndon from the group for chronic drug problems. Two days later, 16 June 1982, Honeyman-Scott died of a cocaine overdose. In April 1983 Farndon was found dead after passing out and drowning in his bathtub after a heroin overdose. Despite a troubled early career The Pretenders under the guidance of Hynde continued to record and tour and released their ninth album Break up the concrete in August 2008.
Chrissie Hynde, along with Debbie Harry, Poly Styrene, Pauline Black, Siouxsie Siousx and Ari Up, was the latest in a line of women emerging from the punk/new wave scene who were able to escape the clichéd role of women in rock by presenting a strong, powerful, sexy image while being adept at song writing and musicianship.
This writer literally bumped into Martin Chambers at a Neil Young gig at the Hammersmith Odeon in 2008, something perhaps not so surprising as Neil Young inducted The Pretenders into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2005.
Brass in Pocket has baffled fans since its release due to the often incomprehensible lyrics. One thing most fans agree on is that 'brass' refers to money but is it
'diving, detour leaning' or 'driving, Detroit leaning'?
Posted by
Song: Another brick in the wall (part 2)
Artist: Pink Floyd
Number one: 5 weeks (15 December 1979 – 18 January 1980)
Personnel: David Gilmour, Nick Mason, Roger Waters, Richard Wright
Another brick in the wall (part 2) is the second of three songs set to variations of the same basic theme, on Pink Floyd's 1979 rock opera, The Wall. A protest song against rigid schooling in general and boarding schools in particular, the song has become one of Pink Floyds most famous songs.
Being used to in recent years having the X Factor winner at number one at Christmas it is worth remembering that once upon time there used to be something quite good achieving this distinction. Another brick in the wall (part 2) was a notable first on several counts. Firstly, for a band who released very few singles – their last single being Point Me at the Sky in 1968 – it proved to be one of their most popular songs in their career, selling over 4 million copies worldwide. It was also Pink Floyds one and only number single in the UK.
Secondly, Another brick in the wall (part 2) was notable for the being the number one which ushered in the 1980s and was accompanied by possibly the most disturbing 'Christmas' video of all time. Showing students marching in unison to the beat of the song, they follow a path until they fall blindly into an oversized meat-grinder only to re-emerge as clones void of any individual distinction. The video then cuts away to a choir singing the closing section of the song. When producer Bob Ezrin asked sound engineer Nick Griffiths to find a choir Griffiths approached music teacher Alun Renshaw of Islington Green School, London which was just around the corner from the studio where Pink Floyd were recording.
Curiously the number song which closed out 1980 also featured a school choir though this time it was St. Winnifreds School Choir on There’s no one quite like grandma.
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| i don't know |
Which popular four word named organisation, founded in 1844 in London has, as its main motto, 'Empowering Young People' and has its headquarters in Geneva ? It is normally known by its four initials. | Knowledge
Knowledge
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| YMCA |
Along with the Clwyd, which river burst its banks in November 2012 causing devastation to the town of St Asaph ? | Accepts: 8387
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| i don't know |
On August 16th 1952, which town in North Devon saw much devastation and 35 fatalities after its river burst its banks following a violent storm ? | British_weather_in_July.htm
Average rainfall
47
July really is high summer. On average, July is the warmest month of the year, one can really hope for an extreme weather event in July. Location is important as to whether or not you get a really memorable hot spell. This is reflected in some uncertainty in the temperature measurements: hence 1976 and 1983 are generally agreed to be the hottest every (with 1983 just top), and 1990, 1994, 1995 are not far behind; yet locally, 1994 was the hottest. The hottest day of the year usually happens in July (about 44% of the time) - and most often between the 10th and the 20th. Clearly the best time to plan your barbie. July tends to be the wettest month of the year in eastern Scotland. July is also tending to become drier, particularly since 1970 in E and SE England. At the start of the nineteenth century it was the wettest month of the year; it is now among the driest, with rainfall averaging 55 mm. A large part for the explanation of this change is a marked decline in the frequency of thunderstorms. Westerlies increase in July. Hence parts of the west (NW Highlands) are much wetter and cloudier than May and June. Fort Willim averages 173 sunshine hours in May but only 110 July.
There are supposedly some indications that July begins with a westerly cyclonic period until the 9th, followed by a fine interlude. A thundery cyclonic period (from the 25th into August) tends to end the month. The days 3 July to 11 August, when Sirius rises and sets about the same time as the sun, are known as the "Dog days", and are supposed to be particularly warm because the heat of Sirius is added to that of the sun. Whereas the phenomenon is often true the attributed reason certainly is not. The lag between the hottest part of the year and the longest day is due to the lag in which the surface of the earth is heated up. In the 20th century 35C was exceeded 21 times somewhere in Britain; 6 happened before the dog days, 10 in them, and 5 after. Along with August, July is the least windy month ofthe year. Between 1780 and 1830, July was the wettest month of the year; it has since become much drier, so that now it is among the driest months of the year. Indeed, summer in general has become much drier since 1970.
The 12-15 is Buchan's first warm spell. Do not plan your holidays around it. However, the hottest day of the year is likely to be between 1-20 July.
The 15th is St. Swithin's guide; if you wonder if there's anything in this superstition, take a look at 1913 and 1924. St Swithin was a close friend of Egbert, King of Wessex, and was made Bishop of Winchester in 852 AD. He wanted a simple burial, but after his death, plans were made for his old grave to be dug up and the bones moved to a new shrine. The reinterment was scheduled for 15 July, but had to be postponed when it rained for 40 days. (The bones were eventually moved, nevertheless.)
Extremes for July in the 20th century
Highest July average overall = 19.5 (1983)
Lowest July average overall = 13.7 (1922)
Highest maximum = 36.0 (22nd at Greenwich and Epsom, 1911, possibly; 35.9 on the 3rd in 1976 at Cheltenham).
Lowest minimum = -2.5 (15th, Lagganlia, Scottish Highlands, 1977; and on the 9th, St. Harmon, Powys, in 1986)
Some extreme weather events in July in the twentieth century
1900 Warm and sunny - the 11th= hottest of the 1900s. The temperature exceeded 32C (90F) daily from the 16-19th. There were some notable thunderstorms, however, particularly in the north on the 12th. This led to the "Ilkley floods" in Yorkshire: 110mm of rain in 24 hours on the 12th led to severe flooding; 94mm of the rain fell in 75 minutes. Many homes and bridges were destroyed, and the flood left a thick layer of mud. It was 35.1C in Cambridge on the 20th, the highest temperature of the year (and indeed from at least 1875 to 1906). The fine weather broke down with a series of thunderstorms between the 26th and 28th.
1901 One of the warmest of the century in Scotland. Generally sunny and warm. However, 92.2 mm of rain fell in one hour at Maidenhead on the 12th. This is the highest hourly rainfall in Britain, at least for the 20th century (see 1893). The equal highest temperature for Scotland, 32.8C, was set on the 20th at Dumfries; 32C was also seen in Scotland on the 18th and 19th.
1902 Mostly fine and warm.
1903 Very wet. Gales in the north on the 6th. Part of a poor summer. 110mm of rain reported at Buckhurst Hill (Essex) on the 23rd.
1905 Generally fine and dry except in Northern Ireland. 38 mm of rain fell in Liverpool on the 10th.
1906 Hot and fine.
1907 There were some severe thunderstorms on the 22nd. A ferocious hailstorm in South Wales stripped leaves off trees: 80 mm of rain fell at Pandy (Monmouthshire). There was flooding in Watford as 68 mm of rain fell in udner two hours.
1908 The month was most notable for containing Scotland's equal hottest day: 32.8 at Dumfries on the 2nd (a record broken in 2003). The month was very warm at the start, before becoming cool and unsettled from the 4th. It was very wet midmonth. It then became warmer and more settled again, particularly in the south, from the 20th onwards.
1909 Cool and wet. Thunderstorms at the end of the month, with a tornado in Manchester on the 22nd. Violent thunderstorms on the 25th, particularly in Fife: 74mm at Carnbee. More rain on the 27th, including 75mm in Dorset.
1910 Cold, wet, and very dull - just 111 hours of sunshine in London.
1911 A magnificent month in a magnificent summer. Hot, dry, and sunny - part of a famous summer. There was a remarkable hot spell, although it is quite difficult to be certain about the exact temperatures, because of (a) uncertainty about screening, and (b) temperatures were taken in F rather than C. The reading of 38.1C - 100.5F - claimed at Greenwich on the 22nd is now not accepted, as the screening conditions at Greenwich were nonstandard; it is more likely to have been about 36.1C - still quite a temperature, and the record for July (until 2006). 97F (36.1C) was also recorded at Epsom, favoured because there was shelter from the light southerly breeze. There was a thundery outbreak at the end of the month with some heavy downpours (e.g. 28 mm in 15 minutes at South Kensington, London, on the 28th). Of particular interest locally, Perth reached 32.2C (90F) on the 12th, which is one of only 5 times this has happened in Scotland, and is the highest reading for the Tayside region of the century. This month is the only July of the twentieth century that was dry and sunny throughout (but then only in the south). 300 hours of sunshine were widespread across the south and east, with 350 at many coastal southern locations. The highest monthly sunshine total record was set this month: 384 hours at Eastbourne and Hastings. There were 334 hours of sunshine in London. It was probably the sunniest month on record until July 2006. No rain at all was measured at Bath. In many respects the best July of the century in terms of consistent heat and sunshine.
1912 In the cold, wet summer, lucky Clitheroe picked up another 9 thunder-days. The first three weeks of the month were relatively speaking the best of the summer, being farily dry and sunny. 32.8C was recorded at Camden and Tottenham on the 12th, making it the hottest day of the year. It was still duller than average, and the final ten days were very wet. Overall it was dry in the SE but wet in the Midlands.
1913 On the 10th lightning during a severe thunderstorm in London killed a 3-year-old boy. There were 15 hours of heavy rain in the London area on St Swithin's Day (15th): after this, there was rain on only 9 of the 40 following days. In Scotland it was one of the driest Julys of the century. Across the country it was the driest month of the year.
1914 Cloudy and warm. 32.2C was recorded in Surrey on the 1st. There were also some violent thunderstorms across the UK on the 1st; a man was killed by lightning in Rochdale. There was a cool spell between the 25th and 27th.
1915 A cool, wet month acorss England and Wales, with many thunderstoms. There were two notably severe hailstorms on the 4th, one tracking across north Devon, the other from Somerset to Bucks. The second of these was particularly severe. 50 mm hailstones were accompanied by driving winds, destroying trees and smashing glass. The Chew Valley was particularly badly affected.
1916 Cloudy, cool, and dry, although the final week was warm and sunny.
1917 Wet at the end of the month over the southeast.
1918 Warm, dry sunny first week, then cool, with fine end. A wet month. More storms; a hailstorm damaged crops and greenhouses in Surrey on the night of the 16th. -2C recorded at West Linton (near Stirling) on the 10th.
1920 A very poor summer: July was cold, very wet, and dull. Much of Britain had twice the average amount of rainfall, and Bethesda (north Wales) managed 343mm. A strong cold front gave some very low maxima on the 5th. Notable depression on the 17th led to serious flooding in Glasgow and Edinburgh.
1921 Very sunny, very hot (18.5), and very dry, excerbating the prolonged drought. 34C recorded in E and SE England on the 10th and 11th. At times, it was unusually windy for such a hot, dry spell.
1922 The coldest of the twentieth century (13.7C CET). Also very wet in places, particularly the south; there was a total of 185 mm of rain in Norwich. It was windy at the start of the month. There was a wet start to the month, with 62 mm of rainfalling at Newbury being the heaviest fall in heavy rain that affected the south. 69 mm of rain fell at Norwich on the 15th alone. 74 mm of rain fell at Coventry on the 22nd. A dull month too; yuk.
1923 A warm 13th, with the highest reading being 35.6C at London (Camden Square, of course) on the 13th. There were scattered thunderstorms on the 7th, and then some violent thunderstorms: part of Eton chapel destroyed by lightning on the 10th. A cloudburst in the Carrbridge region swept away the rail bridge for the second time in ten years. The month is most notable however month with a heatwave and violent thunderstorms in the second week. The month had a warm if somewhat unsettled start, but it then became very hot: 32C was reached most days somewhere in the country from the 6-13th. The temperature rose to 35C in several places on the 12th and for the thunderstorm that hit London from the SW on the night of the 9-10th; this was one of the most severe and longest storms of the century. The storm contained some of the most vivid and prolonged lightning observed in this country: nearly 7000 (6294 to be precise) lightning flashes were recorded at Chelsea in six hours starting at 11pm - that's nearly 18 flashes a minute! Many houses were struck by lightning, and some caught fire; a house at Walton-on-the-Hill was destroyed. There was some torrential rain - about 50 mm widespread across London and the eastern Home Counties, with nearly 82 mm recorded at Seaford (on the Sussex coast). There were more violent storms on the night of the 10-11th.
1924 There were 13.5 hours of sunshine on St Swithin's Day (15th): it then rained on 30 of the next 40 days. There were some violent storms: 103 mm of rain fell at Wisley on the 22nd; the same day 28 mm of rani fell in 20 minutes at South Kensington, with large hail and ball lightning.
1925 A severe thunderstorm in the London area on the 22nd with damaging hail.
1926 A severe thunderstorm in the SW on the 17-18th with damageing hail around Dorset.
1927 Unsettled and wet, with some notable thunderstorms. On the night of the 6-7th, 78 mm of rain fell at Deal and 72 mm at Clacton. 45 mm of rain fell in a thunderstorm on the 11th in East Anglia. 27 mm fell in 25 minutes in a thunderstorm at Kensington on the 11th.
1928 Cool and wet from the 3rd to 6th, but then warm dry and sunny until the 26th. Many places went 20 days without rain. The temperature reached 92F (33.3C) in London on the 22nd. There were thunderstorms at the end of the month. A very dry month in Yorkshire overall, with just 9 mm at Pontefract. A very sunny month in the Midlands and east, but dull and wet in northern Scotland.1930 A cool (15.2) and wet month. Exceptional rainfall in the North Yorkshire Wolds from the 20-23rd gave almost continual rain for four days, giving 250mm of rain, leading to flooding of the Derwent. The Whitby lifeboat was used for a rescue at Ruswarp, two miles inland. The rivers Esk and Leven were also severely affected, with bridges destroyed. Northerly winds gave a maximum of 11C. This was all caused by a depression lingering off the coast of Lincolnshire. England and Wales rainfall was twice the norm. Castleton (Yorks.) had 300mm for the month. The month had low daytime maxima, particularly from the 10th on, although because it was so cloudy the minima tended to be above average.
1931 Dull and wet with average temperaturs, helped by some mild nights.
1932 Unsettled: Cranwell (Lincs) had 131mm on the 11th and 61mm on the 13th.
1933 Very warm, sunny and dry. It turned very hot at the end of the month, with 34C recorded on the 27th.
1934 Hot and sunny start. Kew recorded 131 hours of sunshine in the first ten days. There was a notable warm spell between the 4th and 12th, with 9 consecutive days over 27C (80F) at Nottingham. Some places reacher 32C, and it was even 31C at Perth in Scotland. The highest temperature was 33.3C at Attenborough (Notts.) on the 11th. 116 mm of rain in 100 minutes fell at West Wickham (London) on the 22nd.
1935 A very dry and sunny month.
1936 Cool and very wet: the wettest of the century over England and Wales (e.g. Cambridge had 350% of the normal amount, and rain fell on every day of the month near Bristol). Also very windy, with some gales in the south. A thundery month: ten thunder days at Wakefield. A vigorous depression on the 3rd gave heavy rain across the south, causing local flooding and damage to crops. Some localised downpours on the 3r6th; 77mm at Fordham (Cambs.). On the 7th there were 78mm at Northwood (Middsx), most of it in about half an hour. Severe thunderstorms on the evening and night of the 9-10th across the south, London, East Anglia, and Midlands. 60mm in Norwich, with very frequent lightning, and 72mm at Erpingham. 46mm in 75 minutes at Sprowston. Heavy hail did much damage: 300 ducks were killed by hail near Thetford (Norfolk). Flooding. 57mm of rain in 80 minutes at Eastbourne. The month continued unsettled. On the 17th Auchnafree (near Perth) had 74mm of rain, most of it in one hours. A notable gale in the south with gusts of over 60mph on the 18th. In contrast, Shetland had a very sunny month.
1937 A very dull month. Torrential rain on St. Swithin's Day (15th) as a result of thunderstorms over England. (I don't know what happened for the next 40 days.) In some places it was described as the worst day in many years. It happened as a cold front moving in from the Atlantic met a depression rising coming north from the Bay of Biscay. Many places across the south recorded over 50mm. Waltham-on-the-Wolds (Leics.) had 145mm, Boston (Lincs.) had 137mm, and Pensford (Somerset) had 106mm. Further to the east downpours were more localised depending on where the thunderstorms were. Stanstead had 68mm. Three thunderstorms affected Bristol, causing double flooding. There was flooding in Weymouth. Traffic disruption, power cut off, lightning damage.
1938 Dull, cool, and wet across most of the country apart from the SE. A notable tornado hit Boxmoor in the Chilterns on 7th. The 90 m track extended for 9 miles, destroying haaystacks and trees and lifting cars.
1939 The temperature fell to -0.1C at the Rickmansworth frost hollow on the 2nd. The month was very wet in Scotland. 80 mm of rain fell at Borrowdale on the 21st. It was a dull month everywhere.
1940 Cool and very wet: the wettest of the century for Scotland. The 10th was a very wet day, with 25mm of rain widely, and over 50mm in places as far apart as Aberden and Berkshire; Scarborough recorded 106mm. Large hailstones at East Kirkby (Lincs.) smashed glass and flattened crops. On the 11th, 80mm more on the Brecon Beacons, and 90mm at Redcar on the 17th. Flooding in Cromarty on the 26th. The end of the month wasn't quite as wet as the rest as high pressure settled over the south of the country. The start of 11 consecutive colder-than-average months - the longest such run of the century.
1941 The hottest month of the war years. There was a warm and mostly dry start; the weather then became hot, before a thundery breakdown and cooler temperatures. 80 mm of rain fell in a 100 minutes at Penn (Bucks.) on the 13th. Sunnier than average in Scotland, duller than average in Scotland and Northern Ireland.
1942 Cool and unsettled.
1943 Generally dry and sunny. Hot final week: 33.9C at Worcester and Croydon on the 31st - the hottest day of the year. There were some violent thunderstorms across eastern England at the very end of the month as two fronts crossed the country.
1944 Generally dry but very dull. Kew, Oxford and Falmouth had the lowest sunshine totals in July for over 60 years: London averaged just three hours of sunshine a day. There was severe flooding followed 118mm of rain in two hours at West Wickham (SE London) on the 22nd.
1945 Overall generally a dry month, particularly in Norfolk and east Yorkshire. There were though some exceptional thunderstorm on the night of the 14-15th. There was incessant lightning all night over the southeast. 80 mm of rain at Old Woking. 43 mm of rain fell in 20 minutes at Neston (Cheshire) on the 15th.
1946 A month with many severe thunderstorms and some damaging hailstorms. There were some exceptional thunderstorm on the 2nd. 131mm of rain in two days led to flooding around Bury St. Edmonds, with hail damage. However, 30.6C was recorded in london on the 2nd. More storms in the south and east on the 3-4. The weather was fine between the 6th and 12th. More storms on the 16th. More storms on the 26th led to flooding, damage, and fatalities in London and the southeast; 30 mm of rain fell at Shoeburyness.
1947 Very warm (17.0C CET). 140 mm of rain in a storm on the 16th at Wisley (Surrey), 102 mm of it in 75 minutes, the ninth highest rainfall rate this century. There was damaging hail across East Anglia.
1948 There was a short but intense heatwave at the end of the month: 35C.0 at Milford (Surrey) on the 28th, and 34.4 at Worcester on the 29th. The high minimum of 23.3 at Westminster (London) was not bettered until 1990. However, the hot spell was preceded by a cold snap: most of July was unusually cool. In spite of some people's claims that "summers were better when we were lads and lasses", the 30s, 40s, and 50s were rather lean for very high temperatures. 1948 was the only year when 35.0C was reached after 1932 and before 1957. The 27.2C recorded at Benbecula on the 30th wremains the highest temperature recorded in the Western Islands.
1949 There was a great deal of warm and sunny weather this month. It reached 33.3C at Worcester on the the 12th, the hottest day of the year. The heat triggered some thunderstorms midmonth. 105 mm of rain fell at March on the 15th. There were some violent thunderstorm in London on the 16th: lightning deaths at Plumstead and Walthamstow. 62mm of rain at Barking. There were some violent thunderstorms in the SW on the next day (17th): 48 mm of rain fell at Cannington (Somerset) in 30 minutes - and then two hours later another 35 mm fell in another 30 minutes! 31.7C (89F) was recorded at Kensington Palace on the 25th. Overall a very warm month (17.4C CET)l the warmest July since 1933.
1950 WWet and unsettled in the south, drier in the north. A sunny month in Scotland. On the 10th, 3000 ducklings were killed by hail at Illington (Norfolk).
1951 The first three weeks of the month were very dry; after the dry June, there was talk of drought. It was warm and anticyclonic from the 13th to the 21st. A trough of low pressure crossed the country on the 22nd, with much colder air following. This led to some violent and unusually widespread thunderstorms: only parts of East Anglia and the East Midlands "escaped" them (or, as those of us who love storms think, were unlucky). 25 mm of rain fell over a very wide area from the SE to Scotland, with much flooding and lightning damage. There were three deaths due to lightning. At Kenton, near Exeter, 25 mm of rain fell in an hour, and 74 mm fell that day, with consequent flooding. 77 mm fell at Farnham. Some main roads in the south were closed due to flooding and road damage.
1952 dry month in the south; less than a quarter of the total from the Wash to the Isle of Wight for the month. Some places had no rain between the 12th and 28th. A heatwave at the start saw 34C in Jersey on the 1st. 33.3C was reached at Camden Square, Heathrow, and Southampton. There were some severe thunderstorms across the Midlands and Northern England on the 1st; 1.73 inches fell at Bredbury (Cheshire), and 1.72 inches fell at Ilkeston (Derbyshire) in half an hour. Temperatures dropped from 90F to 60F from the 1st to 3rd at London Airport. It then became warmer again, with 31C at Mildenhall on the 6th. The month was sunny in NE England and SE Scotland.
1953 Wet in the NW, dry in the east, particularly Fife and East Yorkshire. Sunnier than average in the SW and west but duller in eastern England and Scotland. There were few warm days.
1954 Wet, cool, and very dull. The mean temperature at Birmingham for the month was 13.7C, and Aldegrove (Northern Ireland) had just 86 hours of sunshine.
1955 Mostly sunny, hot (17.7C CET), and very dry. Parts of Suffolk and Cornwall (e.g. around Camborne) had no rain at all this month. In contrast, there were some exceptional deluges in thunderstorms, particularly on the 18th, as very hot air (30C in the south) met a stationary cold front. In particular, there was 279.4mm at Martinstown, Dorset, on the 18th, in 15 hours; 190 mm of this fell in 4.5 hours. This is the British record for daily rainfall. The rain came with storms in two waves, the first starting at 2.30 pm and the second at 9 pm. Heavy rain fell over a large area of Dorset: Dorchester received 187.5 mm and Weymouth 178.8 mm. Flooding in Weymouth. 108 mm of rain at Maidstone and another lightning death at Ramsgate on the same day, which 84 mm of rain (see October this year). Serious flooding in Weymouth. Thunder first broke out on the 11th, as the high pressure slipped south. There were 5 lightning deaths across the country on the 14th, including 3 people sheltering under a tree in my native Southampton (Please do NOT shelter under trees in storms), and a woman leaning on a metal fence at Royal Ascot. It was Wales's sunniest ever month, with 354.3 hours of sunshine at Dale Fort, and probably the sunniest month on record in the NW generally.
1956 Part of the worst post-war summer - cold, dull, and wet. Any sunny spell ended in thunder! It was the wettest July in London since records began. There were some heavy thunderstorms in the south on the 9th: 56 mm of rain fell on Kew. There was also flooding in the east on the 9th. 79 mm of rain in a storm fell early on the 9th at Epsom. Very large hailstones disrupted flights out of Heathrow on the 18th. 82.9mm of rain in a strom at Hascombe (Surrey) on the 18th, and flooding at Swanley (Kent). There was another 39 mm of rain at Kew on the 19th. 98 mm of rain fell in nearly 2 hours (114 minutes) at Staines on the 18-19th. After a short spell of warm weather, there was a violent gale on the 29th, with the pressure falling to 976.6mbars (the deepest July low on record) in Somerset (Yeovilton), disrupting a Channel boat race, and flooding in Blackpool. There were, unfortunately, many fatalities. The south and west were particularly affected by the gale; the highest gust was 93 mph, at the Lizard, but even central London recorded a gust of 69 mph. Many beech trees in Arundel Park were felled. At Ardclach (near Nairn) there was 109 mm on the 29th and 124 mm on the 30th. That's wet.
1957 On the 3rd Plymouth had 60mm of rain in one hour, with flooding and lightning damage. The south-east was badly affected by storms; hail damage to fruit in Kent. Serious flooding in Evesham and Rhyl on the 4th. The fine weather and hot spell across most of the country ended on the 7th, and westerlies dominated the rest of the summer. On the 12th, the River Wharfe at Otley (West Yorks) rose four feet in a few minutes following a thunderstorm. Andover was flooded twice this month. On the 26th, the Royal Welsh Show at Aberystwyth was flooded to three feet. A dull month in Yorkshire after a warm and sunny first few days.
1958 Very wet with some flooding.
1959 Hot (17.3C CET) and very sunny. Part of a superb summer, but some thundery interludes midmonth. There was a very warm spell in the 4-8th. The highest temperature of the year was recorded on the 5th: 35.6C at Gunby (Lincs.; although this reading might have been too high), with a more reliable high of 34.4C at Cromer and 33.3C at London Heathrow and in Norfolk. There were some violent thunderstorms in the south from the 9th to the 11th as low-pressure systems moved NE from Spain across southern England, with some particularly spectacular thunderstorms on the night of the 10-11th. Hailstones with a diameter of 5 cm caused damage at Wokingham on the 9th. At Watford, 19 mm of rain fell in 10 minutes on the 9th. 63.5 mm of rain fell in 20 minutes at Hindolveston in Norfolk on the night of the 10-11th (equal third highest rainfall rate of the century, and is still the highest 20 minute rainfall record for the UK); 59 mm of rain fell in 100 minutes at Heathrow, and 44mm in 30 minutes at Northolt; and a total of 89 mm at Swaffham Priory (Cambs.), with flooding. Then many places had no measurable rain from the 11-25th across the southeast. There were more thunderstorms at the end of the month.; 45 mm of rain in 60 minutes at Garstang on the 26th. As a consequence rainfall totals for the month were very variable across the country.
1960 Rain fell every day over the Pennines. This month there were 303 mm at Darwen (Lancs.), and 235 mm at Princetown (Dartmoor), as five substantial depressions crossed the country.
1961 33.9C was recorded on the 1st in a few locations in the southeast. This was the highest temperature of the decade. Remember, the 60s were where the cold weather was happening at. The next day was much colder, the temperature reaching only 22C in London.
1962 The hottest temperature reading of the year: 27.8 at Writtle (Essex) on the 3rd. This is the lowest yearly maximum of the twentieth century (equal with 1920). It was a changeable month, with beneath average sunshine and rainfall, although heavy rain fell in the SE on the 26th.
1964 55.9 mm of rain fell in 15 minutes at Bolton on the 18th. This is the second highest rainfall rate this century (afeter June 1970).
1965 The month was generally cold (14.0, the third coldest this century, and one of the coldest of the century in Scotland), dull, and wet. Northerly winds at the start of the month brought bright, cold, dry weather. Close to freezing by the 4th in the Midlands. There was heavy rain on the 6-7th. More unsettled midmonth, with some heacy rain as a depression moved NE across the country; 105 mm of rain in 48 hours at Paignton (Devon). The 14th was the warmest day of the month; 25C at Hoddesdon (Herts.). However, 140 mm of rain fell in 220 minutes at Wadebridge (Cornwall). Quiet midmonth. Thundery spell from 19-25th. 29 mm in 18 minutes at Stanstead on the 20th. Tornado at Wisley (Surrey) on the 21st. Flooding in south Lancashire on the 23rd. There was 45 mm of rain at Hastings on the 30th as the month continued unsettled, ending with some snow on the Cairngorms. -0.6 at Newport (Shropshire) on the 31st.
1966 The highest temperature of the month was 29C in Perth on the 21st, as cold easterlies circulating around low pressure affected much of the SE of England.
1967 The second warmest (16.7) month of the 60s. There were some severe thunder and hailstorms on the 13th, particularly around the Chippenham-Melksham area of Wiltshire, where large (57g) hailstones caused devastation to glass.
1968 Generally dull, cool, and wet, especially in the south, but with two exceptional thundery outbreaks. The first ten days were very active. A slow-moving cold front ended June's hot spell on the 1st, which saw temperatures of 33C in London, with severe and prolonged thunderstorms in the north and west, with darkness at noon, from mid-morning on the 1st to late afternoon on the 2nd. A hailstone at Cardiff airport on the 1st measured 7x6 cm. I wouldn't like that to fall on me. Lightning deaths on the 1st. The rainfall on the 1st was accompanied by a notable dustfall, comprising sand carried from the Sahara. The rain was said to be coloured "red and brown", so that on the morning of the 2nd much of the south was covered with brown streaks. On 2 July, 35.7 mm rainfall fell in just under 9 minutes at Leeming Bar (Yorks), giving a sub-10-minute total of 238 mm/hr, a UK record for such a short time (until 2003). 184 mm of ran recorded on the Isle of Man. Deep drifts of hail on the roads in Yorkshire needed bulldozers to clear them. More exceptional storms on the 9th, this time in the southwest. Pressure was high, but then on the evening of the 9th a depression deepened as it moved across southern England. The 10th was very wet. 100 mm of rain fell across a large area of the country from Devon to Lincolshire. 175 mm at Chew Stoke in Somerset mostly in 6 hours, 125 mm in 17 hours at Bristol, leading to flooding and damage. Many bridges were swept away. A large tract of land from Somerset through the south Midlands to Lincolnshire had more than 75mm of rain. The Cheddar Caves were flooded for the first time in living memory. There was then a notable gale on the 11th in thundery weather, particularly affecting the Southend area and the east of England, as the depression finally cleared away. Things quietened down a bit for the rest of the month, which overall was very cool (the next cooler one was 1980), and part of yet another poor 60s summer. It was fine in the north and west from the 18th. There were 75 mm of rain in a thunderstorm at Ilford on the 31st.
1969 With a CET of 16.8, this was the warmest month of the decade (but for comparison, there were 9 hotter months in the 90s). I remember sitting out on the lawn, enjoying the summer heat, reading Arthur Ransome stories. It was 32.8C at Letchworth on the 16th. It wasn't always dry, however. Two days of heavy rain in the SW gave rise on the 28th to fears of a repeat of the August 1952 event at Lynmouth; fortunately, this did not happen.
1970 At 15.2C CET, quite a cool month overall, although an early heatwave saw the hottest day of the year: 32.2C at Aldenham (Herts.) and Stratford-upon-Avon, on the 7th. It was a dull month, largely unsettled, and with frequent NW winds. It was very wet in Tiree with 136 mm of rain, but only 28 mm fell at Walton-on-the-Naze.
1971 Generally warm, sunny, and dry, but with some severe thunderstorms in east Norfolk late in the month. Also 40mm of rain in 14 minutes at Watchet (Somerset) on the 27th, and 88mm at Gorleston on the 28th.
1972 Many parts of the country had to wait until the 12th for the first day of the year over 21C (70F). It was sunny and warm in the middle of the month, but then there were some notable thunderstorms. On the 19th, lightning killed cattle at Romney Marsh. There were landslides around Exeter on the 19th, following 91 mm of rain, 89 mm of it in two hours early in the morning. Lightning strikes caused widespread power outages. On the 23rd, hail was large enough (reported as 27 mm in diameter) to break windows in the Nottingham area; 31 mm of rain fell in half an hour at Newark; and traffic was brought to a halt on the M6 in Staffs, as 44 mm of rain fell in 20 minutes at Farley (Staffs.). There were more thunderstorms begain on 31st July. 50 mm of rain in a couple of hours near Chingford. Lightning damage and injuries across the country. Flooding aroud Manchester. The hottest day of the year was in Perth: 29.4C on the 20th.
1973 On the cool side. A notable thunderstorm caused disruption in SW London on the afternoon of the 6th: 118 mm of rain fell in two hours, leading to flooding. There was flooding in the Pennines on the 15th as a depression came to a halt. Flooding when waters rose ten feet at Burley (Derbys.). Rush hour traffic took 90 minutes to travel two miles between Bramhall and Cheadle Hulme.
1974 At 15.2, a cool month. We'd have to wait until 1980 for one cooler - if that's the kind of thing you like waiting for, of course.
1975 Very warm (17.4C) but often unsettled and thundery, although it was generally very dry over the south. On the 13th temperatures reached 25C in the Midlands, but an early morning storm on the 14th saw some violent thunderstorms across the Midlands, with 55 mm hailstones. There was much damage to cars and glass in Sutton Coldfield. Also on the 14th, 105 mm of rain fell at Inverbeg, near Loch Lomond. A thunderstorm gave 156 mm of rain at Borrowdale in Cumbria on the 22nd.
1976 Wonderfully hot (18.2), particularly notable as part of the whole summer, as high pressure dominated the British Isles. It was even hot in Scotland; Wauchope (Borders) reached 32.4C on the 2nd. Even Braemar reached 30C on the 8th. 27C (80F) was exceeded somewhere in the country every day from 22 June to 16 July. Heathrow had 14 consecutive days above 31C between 23 June and 8 July. Somewhere in the country reached the 90s (32C) for 15 consecutive days from 23 June and 7 July. The summer was quite poor in the Western Isles, however, as fronts coming around the high affected the far NW. Cheltenham reached 35.9C on the 3rd, the highest corroborated maximum. Also very sunny: there was 318 hours of sunshine at Cromer. Fronts moved east on the 9th, bringing some rain to some places, and slighly cooler weather. While there were some high minima in urban districts, clear skies led to ground frosts in the country.
1977 Very dry: the driest July since 1935 in many places. Much of the east saw less than 12 mm of rain, and East Bergholt (Suffolk) had just 0.2 mm. Slightly cooler than average overall. Although the first week was warm, the rest of the month was cool, with winds first from the NE, and then from the NW, as high pressure was located to the north and west of the country. It was however a very sunny month. 20 mm of rain fell in 10 minutes at Penmaen (Wales) on the 8th. There were some cool nights: the lowest July minimum record of -2.5C was set in the Scottish Highlands, at Lagganlia, on the 15th; at the same time, the highest temperature of the year for the UK (30.0C) was recorded in several places in Scotland (Paisley, and Glenlee, 7th; Onich, 11th). The minimum at Santon Downham (Norfolk) on the night of the 29-30th was only 1.3C.
1978 At 14.8C, the coldest July of the 70s. The first week was cool and very showery, with predominantly northwesterliy winds. At Manchester the temperature remained below 15C until the 9th. On the 5th, there was a maximum of only 10C in northern Scotland, and of only 12C in parts of England. It was often windy, too. There were 79 mm of rain at Glenmoire Lodge in the Cairngorms on the 3rd.
1979 About average temperatures overall. A dry month, and some places on the south coast recording no rain until the 28th. There were storms on the 28th and 29th and a 6 year old girl was killed after being struck by Lightning on Skegness Beach on the 29th.
1980 The 1st was one of the coldest July days ever, with maxima of around 10C along the east coast, and only 12C along the south coast. Overall a cold month (14.7C); it was dull and wet in the first three weeks, with a thundery, warmer last week. 77mm of rain fell in the Eastbourne area in east Sussex on the 7t,h causingflooding. 98mm of rain fell at Brixworth (Northants.) on the 26th.
1981 Notable thunderstorms on the 9th. An afternoon storm in central London gave 58mm of rain in forty minutes and caused widespread disruption. Large hail and six lightning flashes per minute, and wind squalls up to 48mph. Flooding around Kings Cross and Tottenham Court Road. Lightning death at Yeovilton (Somerset). As the storm moved northeast, Romford town centre was flooded to two feet deep. Two thunderstorms at Brentwood (Essex) gave 104mm of rain on the 9th. Another storm gave 80mm of rain in 80 minutes at Littleover (Derbyshire). An evening storm gave 54mm in one hour at Bury St Edmunds. On the 11th there was a minor notable downpiour in Glasgow, with 18mm in 15 minutes. There was a cold spell later in the month, with parts of eastern England only reaching 12C on the 24th.
1982 Fairly warm and dry; quite sunny in the north. Some notable thunderstorms in the second week, particularly in the southwest on the 11th. On the night of the 11-12th, Bruton in Somerset (see also events of June 1917 in Bruton) recieved 113 mm of rain in 16 hours; the River Brue burst its banks, leading to flooding. Lightning strikes led tp loss of power. More storms the next night, spreading on the 14-15th over the rest of the south. On the 14th, 22 mm of rain fell in 14 minutes at Stanstead (Essex), with lightning strikes. Prestwick airport recorded 95 hours of sunshine from the 18-24th.
1983 The hottest of the century (19.5C), and indeed the hottest month since records began. Also mostly dry and sunny, but with some severe thunderstorms. A ridge of high pressure extended from the Azores as the month started. The temperature reached the magic 32C somewhere in the country every day from the 12-16th, and the average daily maximum at Heathrow in the month was 27.6C. There were 17 consecutive days above 27C (80F) somewhere in the country between the 3rd and 19th, and 22 days above 27C in total; the temperature exceeded 21C somewhere in the country every day but one. The highest temperature of the month was 33.7C at Liphook (Hants.) on the 16th (although this might be a high reading, with 33.0 at Hampton on the 15th and East Bergholt in Suffolk on the 16th being more reliable). A possible record high of 31.2C for Northern Ireland was set at Downpatrick (Co. Down) on the 14th; a more definite 30.8C was recorded at Shaw's Bridge, Co. Down (near Belfast; Belfast Airport saw 28.6C) on the 12th (the equal confirmed highest for the region, with 30 June 1976). The highes temperature recorded in the Isle of Man was set this month with 28.9C on the 12th. Cardiff recorded its highest ever temperature, of 33.1C, on the 13th. Even Coatbridge in Scotland reached 31.5C on the 12rh. It was also very humid. Some cool mist on North Sea coasts with NE winds; but the east coast improved later in the month as winds became more westerly. Thunderstorms on the 6th and 16-17th. Lightning deaths on the 6th; 95 mm of rain at Sevenoaks and 81mm at Croydon. More lightning deaths in the storms of the 16-17th. 68mm of rain in 45 minutes at Cromer. Severe hailstorms. Flooding in the Pennines. A cold front moved south on the 18th, bringing more normal temperatures to the south for a few days before pressure built again. Penzance was flooded in the 22nd. 70mm of rain in one hour in Dumfries and Galloway led to flooding there. It was very warm again at the end, with 32C at Skegness and Liphook on the 29th. More widespread thunder on the 31st. The heatwave almost exactly coincided with the calendar month. This was my summer of love, and I remember being able to sit out in the sun in the parks of Dundee. Hence I make this the most interesting July for weather of the century.
1984 Mostly dry, sunny and warm, but with some notable thunderstorms. High pressure built during the first week, and 31.7C was recorded at Heathrow on the 8th. As usual, the fine weather then broke down. York Minster was severely damaged by lightning on the 9th. I remember at the time that there was some talk about it being a sign from God. All I can remember that soon after I was in a train from Cardiff going to Newcastle, and I was slightly disappointed that you couldn't see anything from the railway. An earthquake measuring 5.4 on the Richter scale hit north Wales on the 19th. Maidenhead had 21 mm of rain in 1 hour on the 22nd; Bracknell had 43 mm in less than 50 minutes on the 23rd; and 91.5 mm fell at Hayling Island on the 24th.
1985 There were some warm and sunny spells in the southeast. 29C was recorded in Southampton on the 4th. The second week was anticyclonic in the south, but wet in the north. 30C was recorded at Jersey on the 13th; this was followed by a thundery spell. There were some severe thunderstorms in Ireland on the 25th and 26th, with heavy rain and large hailstones. The rain also affected southern and western Scotland: Murrayfield (Edinburgh) had 84 mm of rain in 24 hours. London Heathrow recorded 29.8C on the 25th. On the whole, while the month was warm and sunny in the SE, it was dull and wet in the north.
1986 Slightly cooler than average. The record low of -2.5 was equalled at St. Harmon (Powys) on the 9th.
1987 A month of two very different halves. It was dry, fine and warm for the first half, with 30C recorded in places on the 5th and 6th. However, there were 70 mm of rain in the English-Scottish borders on 10th. Then the period July 14th to August 13th was exceptionally cool, wet, windy at times, and dull. In this period, Luton recorded only 80 hours sunshine, with only 25 hours from July 14th to the end of the month. There were some notable thunderstorms in this period: 88 mm of rain in 5 hours at Slapton on the 17th, and 50 mm fell in 20 minutes at Epping on the 29th.
1988 An unremittingly disturbed month. It was dull and cold (overall CET 14.7, the coldest since 1965); the temperature did not exceed 21C in many places of the south during the whole month. Even London failed to exceed 22C. The highest all month in Plymouth was only 18.3, and at Land's End it was beneath 16C all month. It was the wettest July since 1936 in the south and the wettest of the century in Scotland. It rained every day of the month in Cumbria and western and southern Scotland, and on 23 days over most of the UK. We haven't had a colder July since.
1989 Very warm (18.2), dry, and sunny. Anticyclonic. The high of 34.2 at Heathrow on the 22nd was the highest temperature since 1976 (although of course even better was to come in 1990). The mean maximum at Edinburgh airport (21.7) was the highest since records began in 1948.
1990 Warm (16.9), and very dry: only 7 mm at Heathrow, the driest since records begain in 1947. The first week was cool, windy, and unsettled; it then became consistently hot, sunny, and dry. The temperatures peaked on the 20th and 21st, with temperatures of 32C in parts of the south, and 33.3C at Jersey on the 21st. There were some cool nights at the end of the month, with 0.9 at Glenlivet on the 23rd, and some reports of ground frosts.
1991 Changeable and warm. Very dull in Cornwall. 30.3C at Kinlochewe in Scotland on the 4th. Very wet in the southwest.
1992 Cloudy, wet, but at least warm. Severe thunderstorms over the southeast on the 20-21st, with parts of Sussex, Kent, and East Anglia receiving 40mm.
1993 Unsettled and cool. The dry weather at the end of June continued for the first week. The highest temperature of the year was 29.7C at East Bergholt (Suff.) on the 4 July; this is particularly notable, as it is the only occasion since 1981 when the annual maximum failed to exceed 30C. On the 9th an exceptional cold front brought heavy rain and a large temperature drop to the south, along with a strong northwesterly. Whipsnade had a midday temperature of 7.5C. At Birmingham airport the 1 om reading was 9.8C, Lerwick 8.5C; snow was recorded on some of the higher peaks in Scotland. In some places such as London there was an instant dramatic fall in temperature. At Heathrow the temperature fell from 18.5C to 10.7C in minutes in the early afternoon.
1994 Very warm (18.0C CET) and very dry. It was around 33C in Norflok and London on the 12th, and Lakenheath on the 24th; the highest accepted temperature for the month was 33.4�C, recorded at Morley St Botolph, Norfolk, on July 12. A cold front moved east on the 24th, starting off some thunderstorms over Wales in the morning. Severe thunderstorm at Birmingham on the 24th, with large hail (15mm). There were deaths caused by ightning. There was a particularly damaging hailstorm over south Lincolnshire. 22,000 lightning strikes over east Staffs and north Derbyshire. Flooding. Violent hailstorms around Oxford.Many parts of the southeast had the hottest night of the century at the end, with minima above 20C.
1995 Dry, sunny, and hot (18.6). Widespread readings over 30C from the 20th on, culminating in 32.6 at Heathrow on the 31st.
1996 Dry, sunny, and warm. There were some cool nights at the start of the month, and NW winds brought sunshine, showers, and thunder. It warmed up on the 9th. 33.0C on Jersey on the 22nd. The 16 month period from April 1995 to the end of July 1996 was the driest at Manchester (airport) since records began. Violent thunderstorms on the 23rd, with flooding in Sussex and Aberdeen. Heavy hailstorm at St Albans on the 23rd.
1997 Warm but changeable. The month started with heavy rain across northeast England and Scotland on the 1st, with severe flooding around Elgin, Forres, and Keith, and the Moray Firth. Kinloss recorded 76.6mm of rain in 36 hours, although more probably fell on parts of the Grampians.
1998 Rather cool (15.5) and very dull. Changeable. Dry in the east of England but wet elsewhere, particularly Scotland. A storm at Ferryhill, Durham, gave 68 mm of rain in 3 hours, and 50.6 mm of that in 90 minutes, leading to local flooding. Following heavy rain on the 31st, a landslide blocked the West Coast railway line at Lockerbie.
1999 Very warm, sunny, and dry: the tenth warmest of the century. A very warm spell at the end of the month, with 32C recorded at Worcester. The south of England was particularly dry, recording only 10% of the average rainfall. However, thunderstorms at the start of the month lead to flooding in places. Severe storms on the night of the 2-3rd in the SE: there were 150 flashes in 156 seconds at Denham (Bucks.), and at Cropwell Bishop (Notts.) lightning was continuous enugh to switch off the automatic overhead street lighting! There were more violent storms on the 5th: 122mm of rain at Sible Hedingham (Essex) on the 5th. These storms were accompanied by squally winds, hail, tornadoes (a particularly one at Selly Oak), and flooding (e.g. Manchester, Colne Valley, Andover, and around Cannock). More notable storms on the hot final day, particularly in the SE. 30C was reported several times throughout the month, and Northolt recorded 31C on the 31st.
2000 Very dry in the north, but cool and cloudy in eastern England - elsewhere temperatures were abou normal. It was the driest July for 100 years over most of Scotland and Northern Ireland, with just 20% of average rain. England and Wales were also quite dry. Drought in the Inner Hebrides. Sunny in the far NW (139% at Tiree). Cromer's average of 16.5C was the lowest since 1965. Some localised heavy rain and thunderstorms, with the most severe thunderstorms in the first week. 57.2 mm in 55 minutes at Chaddesden (Derbys.) on the 2nd. Storms led to flooding in Cleveland and Chester. Quite a dull month, particularly in the east (the dullest since 1992). On the 10th snow fell on Cairngorm. After a cool start, warm weather moved in on the 17th.
2001 Warmer than average, except in the far north. Overall an average amount of rainfall, but because recent Julys have tended to be dry, it was the wettest since 1993. Hot and humid beginning and end, with a cooler, unsettled spell sandwiched in between. Hot start, with some notable thunderstorms. Severe storms, with accompanying heavy downpours, affected North Wales and SW Scotland on the 3rd, and south Wales on the 4th. Flooding in Lanrkshire and outskirts of Glasgow on the 3rd. At Wishaw the storm started at 10.45pm, peaking at 60 flashes of lightning a minute, and giving 69.2 mm of rain in one hour. There was flooding in Cardiff, following 67 mm of rain in less than six hours, although it is likely that more than 125 mm fell in parts of mid-Wales. More severe storms affected the south, SW, and Midlands of England on the 5-7th. Meanwhile 32C (90F) was recorded at St Helier (Jersey) on the 3rd, and Rickmansworth (Herts.) on the 5th. After the first week, the weather became much cooler and more unsettled. Norwich recorded 61 hours of sunshine in the first seven days, and only 20 in the next seven. There were some unusually low minima midmonth, with +0.3C recorded at Sennybridge (Powys) on the morning of the 16th, and 3C widespread across the Midlands.There was more heavy rain 17-19th. After the unsettled spell, a ridge of high pressure brought fine, hot weather to England and Wales, with temperatures peaking around 32C in London on the 28th and 29th. It was the dullest July for 10 years across parts of Scotland, while it was sunnier than average across England and Wales.
2002 Overall, very wet: the wettest July since 1988. Very wet first two weeks in the south and east. Some severe thunderstorms at the end of the month, and some flooding in central Scotland. There were 113 mm of rain in 24 hours at Penistone (near Barnsley) on the 30th. Hence although it was a very wet month, most of the rain fell in the first 12 and last 2 days; hence parts of the SE had no rain at all in between these dates. Mean temperatures were slightly beneath average. The beginning of the month was quite cool, but there was a short heatwave near the end of the month before the thundery breakdown right at the end. In this heatwave, 32.6C was reached at Northolt in London on the 29th (the highest July temperature for 6 years). With such disturbed weather overall it was quite a dull month (the dullest for 10 years, in fact). Coltishall (Norfolk) had only 13 hours sunshine up to the 10th.
2003 Very warm. The month had a cool start and unsettled second half, but after the first 5 days it was always warm. There was a heatwave mid month. 33.6C at Wisley (Surrey) on the 15th, the country's highest July maximum since 1989, and it even made 30C at Prestwick in Scotland on the 16th. There were four consecutive days above 30C. Although it turned unsettled and cooler it was still quite warm. The heatwave was followed by somee thunderstorms, particularly in the west, with flooding. Heavy rain fell in the SW and Wales, with around 50 mm, on the 24-25th; and 42 mm fell at Aspatria (Cumbria) on the 29th. The month was slightly wetter than average in the south and west, but drier in the east and north. Sunshine was above average.
2004 Close to being an average month: slightly cooler, wetter, and duller than usual. It was however slightly drier than average in Scotland. Quite wet and cool in the first half, warmer and sunnier in the second. A strong depression early brought north-easterly gales and then heavy rain to the south on the 7-8th. Indeed, in much of the south more than half the month's total; rainfall fell on just the 7th, with up to 30 mm in less than 24 hours across much of the south. This was followed by severe thunderstorms. Wittering, near Peterborough, saw 109 mm in just over 24 hours. It was followed by northerly winds; at Sennybridge the maximum on the 8th did not exceed 10C (9.6C, one of the lowest July maximum since 1993). There was a warmer spell at the end of the month, with 30C being reached at Heathrow on the 29th. However, the period from the middle of June to the middle of Jully was the worst summer spell since 1981.
2005 Overall slightly warmer than average. Slightly wetter than average in the south, dry in the north. Cool and cloudy beginning and end, with hot, sunny spells midmonth. Parts of Scotland have their hottest day for 15 years on the 11th and 12th; 30.3C at Aberfeldy was the highest since 1976. It reached 30.9C at Heathrow on the 14th. The north and east were particularly cool at the end of the month, with a maximum of only 10.9C near Durham on the 28th. A tornado devastates parts of Birmingham on the 28th, causing severe damage in the Kings Heath, Small Heath, Moseley, and Balsall Heath regions, reaching T% intensity and cutting a swath of damage 500 m wide. Several tornadoes affected the Midlands on that day.
2006 The hottest and sunniest month on record (19.7C CET), in both England and Scotland. It was particularly warm across the east and noth (in fact July 1983 was hotter along the south coast and in the west country). Scotland also had its hottest month on record. Shanklin and Eastbourne saw 343 hours of sunshine. On average there as more than 50% sunshine than average (263 hours in England and Wales). There was a heatwave at the start; some violent thunderstorms, particularly in the NW, on the 2nd, as it reaches 32C in London (Heathrow). There was severe flooding in west Yorkshire following the storms. 82 mm of rain fell in a storm at Yare (Glocs.) on the 5-6th. After a cooler spell, the sunshine and heat returned, with a new high temperature of the year, 32.7C, at London Heathrow on the 17th. This didn't last long: on the 19th a new July record maximum is set, beating the previous record of 1911, with 36.5C at Wisley (Surrey) and 36.3C near Gatwick Airport in Sussex. It even reaches 30.5C at Prestiwck in Scotland, and 34.2 (Penhow, Newport) was a new Welsh July record. 30C was reached somewhere in the country on every day from the 16th to the 27th apart from the 23rd. After cooling down slightly, the heat returned, with 34C being recorded at Charlwood (Surrey) on the 25th. There were thunderstorms after the 19th. There were some humid and thundery spells throughout the month.
2007 Very unsettled. Cold and wet with some truly exceptional flooding. It was very wet (with 129.5 mm, 219% of the England and Wales average, it was the wettest July since 1936), cool (the equal coolest since 1993; you have to go back to the miserable 1988 for one colder), with close to average sunshine. Some very heavy rain on Thursday night and Friday 19-20th saw some exceptional flooding in the South and Midlands on the 20th and afterwards. 100 mm of rain (four inches) fell over a wide area from Gloucestershire, Herefordshire, Warwickshire, Oxfordshire, to Wiltshire. Brize Norton (Oxon.) had 127.6 mm, 101 mm of it in 7 hours, and Pershore (Worcs.) had 145.4 mm. This heavy rainfall leads to the worst flooding in living memory, particuarly in Gloucestershire. The last two days were more settled, reaching 24.7 in central London on the 31st, but with some cool nights.
2008 Very cool and wet first three weeks, but warm, sunny, and humid from the 23rd. Overall temperatures were about average. The England and Wales average rainfall total was 104 mm, 79% above average. The temperature reached 29.7 at Kew Gardens, London on the 27th and then 30.2C (the highest temperature of 2008) on the 28th. 59 mm of rain fell in a thunderstorm at Pershore in the afternoon of the 28th. Sunshine was about average overall, although it was dull in east Scotland (and I can vouch for that).
2009 Heatwave at the start of the month. The weather changed on the 5th as the pattern changed to mobile westerlies. Overall slightly beneath the long term temperature, but it was slightly warmer than average in northern and eastern Scotland. It was a wet month,with and England and Wales average of 130.3 mm being 227% of the long-term average. Scotland saw 148% of normal rainfall, and Northern Ireland 151%. It was very slighly less sunny than average (95%). The highest maximum of the month was 31.5C at Stratfield Mortimer (Berks) on the 1st. The minimum on the night of the 1st-2nd was 19.8C at Aberdaron (Caernarvon). The maximum at Spadeadam (Cumbria) on the 17th was only 12.2C.
2010 Dull and very wet in the west, very warm and sunny in the southeast. Overall the CET was above average, and July 2010 was the warmest since 2006. It was the first westerly month since November 2009. Highest temperature of the month was 31.7C at Swanscombe (Kent) on the 9th. The temperature at Olympic Park (London) didn't fall beneath 20C on the the night of the 1-2nd. Overall it was quite a wet month, with an average of 66 mm, 116%. It was very wet in Scotland, with 208% of the average amount. 360 mm fell at Capel Curig in Snowdonia. Overall the pressure was beneath average, and it was quite a windy month at times. Heavy rain in east Scotland on the 20-21, peaking with a tremendous deluge around 9 am, lead to the worst flooding in Perth since January 1993. Oveall it was quite a dull month, with an average of 170 hours, 80% of the 71-00 average, making it the dullest July since 1998.
2011 A cool month, with frequent N and NE winds; the coolest on average since 2007, and locally in the south since 1988. There was a fine, warm beginning and then very unsettled with some heavy rain and thunderstorms. After a dry week 94 mm of rain fell at Aberfeldy between the 4th and 9th. The 5th and 6th were particularly wet in east Scotland.The 18th was a cool day, with maxima of just 12C in the West, Wales, and Orkney and Shetland. It was a warm end to the month in the south and east. The highest temperature of the month was 27.5 at Olympic Park (London) on the 5th; the lowest -0.8C at Kinbrace (Sutherland) on the 13th. It was very slightly wetter than average (62 mm, 108% England and Wales average); Capel Curig in North Wales had 193 mm, while Orkney had just 18 mm. Sunshine was very close to average, although it was sunnier than average in Northern Ireland. St Athan (Glamorgan) saw the most sunshine, with 258 hours, and Lerwick in Shetland the least (with just 64 hours).
2012 Cool, dull, and wet weather. A mostly cyclonic month. Overall the CET was just 15.5C, 1.2 beneath average. The rainfall average for England and Wales was 114mm, 171% of the average. It was also wet in Scotland. Mean sunshine was 165 hours,, 81% of the 81-10 reference period, making it the dullest July since 1998. The first half was very cool and wet. Very heavy rainfall on the 6th leading to severe flooding in the SW and parts of Scotland. The weather improved in the final week. 30.0C was recorded at several locations in the SE on 24 July; with the mini-heatwave peaking at 30.7C at London St James on the 27th. It then became unsettled again at the end of the month.
2013 A very hot month - the warmest since 2006, and the sixth hottest ever, with only 1921, 1976, 1983, and 2006 having been warmer. A notable heat wave with a prolonged period of high temperatures between Saturday 6 July and Wednesday 24 July when 28 C or more was recorded at one or more location on each of those 19 days. The last time the UK saw such a long period of hot weather was August 1997 (also 19 days).The highest temperature of the hot spell was on Monday 22nd, with 33.5C recorded at Heathrow and Northolt. The 17th was a hot day too, with 32.2C at Hampton (London). The 19th saw the highest temperature for Northern Ireland with 30.1C at Castlederg, Scotland with 29.7C at Cupar (Fife), and Wales, with 31.4C at Porthmadog. There were several warm nights, with the minimum of the night of the 22-23 being 20.7C at Heathrow. The end of the heatwave was particularly humid, followed by thunderstorms and widespread downpours, with some locations seeing more than 50 mm of rain in 24 hours. Overall rainfall averages 65.0 mm over England and Wales (98% average), but this was nearly wholly due to the wet final nine days. Goudhurst (Kent) saw just 6 mm. The wettest day was the 27th, which saw an average of 24mm, with Tideswell (Derbyshire) receiving 89 mm that day. It was the second sunniest July on record, since 2006, with 289 hours (142%), St Helier seeing 327 hours.
2014 Warm and sunny - in the top ten percent for both over the last century. The highest temperature was 32.3C (just over 90F) at Swanscombe Marsh (Kent); the lowest 1.2C at Braemar on the 2nd. The England and Wales sunshine average was 258 hours (128% average); St Helier saw 336 and Lerwick only 100. The rainfall average was 54.0 mm, 94% of average. The wettest days was the 20th, with thunderstorms; 75.8 mm fell at Canvey Island leading to local flooding.
2015 A cyclonic month, slightly cooler than average. However the record July maximum of 2006 is beaten, with 36.7C at Heathrow on the 1st. The "heatwave" is limited to one day, as a narrow plume of hot air dragged up from southern Spain covers the southeast. There are thunderstorms elsewhere. It is the new hottest day at Wimbledon too, with 35.7C beating the 34.6C set in 1976. It was a very wet month, with an average of 87.3 mm (131%). The wettest day was the 17th, with 88.3 mm falling at Cambridge Botanic Gardens in a thunderstorm. There were records of large hail across the country the same day. Sunshine was close to average (188 hours average, 99%).
2016 Slightly warmer than average overall. Unsettled first half, then with a fine spell, and a hot spell from the 18th to 29th, before turning thundery, the month finishing unsettled. Rainfall was about average overall (104%) bit better in the NW and drier in the SE, and very dry in the south. It was quite a dull month, with 92% of average sunshine. The highest temperature of the month was 33.5C at Brize Norton (Oxon), and 33.9C at Jersey Airport on the 19th. 97.9 mm of rain fell at Nunraw Abbey (East Lotion) on the 20th.
July in history
16 A Roman fleet in the North Sea was dispersed by a storm.
1233 The Summer Floods devastated much of southern Britain.
1513 The Dry Wednesday of 21 July must have been one of the hottest days of the millennium. There were many heat-related deaths.
1556 The summer of 1556 was one of the best of the last six centuries.
1695 Brrr. A monthly average estimated at only 13.5C.
1707 8 July "Hot Tuesday" - a very hot day, perhaps one of the hottest days recorded in Britain.
1757 Hot (18.4).
1783 Very hot (18.8).
1785 The twelve months from August 1784 were perhaps the driest on record.
1808 There was a memorable heatwave in the middle of the month, particularly affecting the east of the countrry. The spell included "Hot Wednesday": 13 July might have been hotter than any day of the twentieth century. Estimates suggest that it reached 100F, and might well have reached 40C (105F) in places in southern England. There were many heat-related deaths. It was an extraordinary heatwave, concluding with intense thunderstorms on St. Swithins Day. A fireball was noted travelling through Gloucester Cathedral, and destroyed one of the pinnacles at the West End. The 15th saw what was probably the most severe hailstorm to affect the southwest; a 95 km swath was damaged between Bath and Bristol, with 70 mm hailstones, touching perhaps 100 mm in places, causing great damage. Indeed, some in Somerset were reported to be over a foot long (at 333 mm). It was a hot month overall: at 18.4C CET, there would not be a better one until 1921.
1816 "The year without a summer" - only 13.4C.
1818 There was an exceptionally severe hailstorm in the Orkneys - an extraordinary location for an event that saw "goose egg" sized hailstones injuring cattle. Snow was recorded on Cumbrian Fells.
1825 The driest on record - 8.2 mm.
1826 Part of a very hot summer, probably nearly as good as 1976.1828 The wettest on record - 183 mm(231%).
1841 On the 17th there was a heavy hailstorm at Derby, notable for including a fall of fish and frogs (some of them alive).
1852 A very hot month (18.7C CET).
1868 38.1C (100.5F) was reported as being recorded at Tonbridge on the 22nd, although the screening was nonstandard and this temperature is now recognised as being far too high. The temperature was more likely actually around 36.5C (97-98F).
1875 Serious flooding in the Midlands.
1879 A very poor summer - the highest reading of the year was 26.8C at Hillington (Norfolk) on the 29th. This is perhaps the worst summer on record. (There has not been a year on record in which 80F has not been exceeded somewhere in the UK, but 1879 came closest.)
1881 There were some high temperatures on the 14th and 15th: 33.9C was claimed at Manchester, although the screening was unlikely to be standard. It is likely that only the SE exceeded 32C.
1884 Spectacular waterspout off Southwold (Suffolk) on the 20th.
1893 The great drought, which started in early March, finished in early July. There were severe thunderstorms in west Yorkshire on the 7th cause flooding in the Pudsey region, with Tong Bridge swept away. Overall in the south the month was unsettled, cloudy, and with frequent rain. There were some interesting and famous storms. On the Sunday 2nd, a storm gave an enormous downpour over the Cheviots. It is estimated that 186 mm of rain fell in 60 minutes, leading to flash flooding. This is the highest hourly rainfall rate on record the UK. Then on the 8th, 9 cm hailstones fell both in Dumfries and Richmond. This was perhaps the most severe hailstorm ever to affect the north.
1888 Abnormally cold. There was a minimum of -3.3C at Ben Nevis on the 10th. Snow reported at various locations across Britain in the period 7-12th, particularly on the 11th as far south as Oxford and the Isle of Wight, although Philip Eden concludes that wet hail is more likely. The minimum temperature that night was about 6C at Kew. Six inches of snow were reported in the Scottish Highlands, which is a more plausible recording.
Further information
All temperature averages are based on an aggregate measure known as the Central England Temperature index for the twentieth century. The CET series begins in 1659. I have cobbled these data together from as many sources as possible, but particularly Bob Prichard's weather column in the Guardian on a Wednesday, Philip Eden's in the Sunday Telegraph, Philip Eden's indispensable book Weatherwise (MacMillan, 1995, ISBN 0 333 61610 3), the BBC Ceefax service, and Philip Eden's Weather Log in the journal Weather. Many thanks to them all. All temperatures in Celsius (F = (9xC/5) + 32). If there is no decimal place I only have the data to the nearest degree.
If you believe these data to be inaccurate in any way, or you have additions to the list, please let me know by email to t.a.harley@dundee.ac.uk
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Which English writer, born in 1882, committed suicide on 28th March 1941 by walking into the River Ouse and drowning ? | British_weather_in_July.htm
Average rainfall
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July really is high summer. On average, July is the warmest month of the year, one can really hope for an extreme weather event in July. Location is important as to whether or not you get a really memorable hot spell. This is reflected in some uncertainty in the temperature measurements: hence 1976 and 1983 are generally agreed to be the hottest every (with 1983 just top), and 1990, 1994, 1995 are not far behind; yet locally, 1994 was the hottest. The hottest day of the year usually happens in July (about 44% of the time) - and most often between the 10th and the 20th. Clearly the best time to plan your barbie. July tends to be the wettest month of the year in eastern Scotland. July is also tending to become drier, particularly since 1970 in E and SE England. At the start of the nineteenth century it was the wettest month of the year; it is now among the driest, with rainfall averaging 55 mm. A large part for the explanation of this change is a marked decline in the frequency of thunderstorms. Westerlies increase in July. Hence parts of the west (NW Highlands) are much wetter and cloudier than May and June. Fort Willim averages 173 sunshine hours in May but only 110 July.
There are supposedly some indications that July begins with a westerly cyclonic period until the 9th, followed by a fine interlude. A thundery cyclonic period (from the 25th into August) tends to end the month. The days 3 July to 11 August, when Sirius rises and sets about the same time as the sun, are known as the "Dog days", and are supposed to be particularly warm because the heat of Sirius is added to that of the sun. Whereas the phenomenon is often true the attributed reason certainly is not. The lag between the hottest part of the year and the longest day is due to the lag in which the surface of the earth is heated up. In the 20th century 35C was exceeded 21 times somewhere in Britain; 6 happened before the dog days, 10 in them, and 5 after. Along with August, July is the least windy month ofthe year. Between 1780 and 1830, July was the wettest month of the year; it has since become much drier, so that now it is among the driest months of the year. Indeed, summer in general has become much drier since 1970.
The 12-15 is Buchan's first warm spell. Do not plan your holidays around it. However, the hottest day of the year is likely to be between 1-20 July.
The 15th is St. Swithin's guide; if you wonder if there's anything in this superstition, take a look at 1913 and 1924. St Swithin was a close friend of Egbert, King of Wessex, and was made Bishop of Winchester in 852 AD. He wanted a simple burial, but after his death, plans were made for his old grave to be dug up and the bones moved to a new shrine. The reinterment was scheduled for 15 July, but had to be postponed when it rained for 40 days. (The bones were eventually moved, nevertheless.)
Extremes for July in the 20th century
Highest July average overall = 19.5 (1983)
Lowest July average overall = 13.7 (1922)
Highest maximum = 36.0 (22nd at Greenwich and Epsom, 1911, possibly; 35.9 on the 3rd in 1976 at Cheltenham).
Lowest minimum = -2.5 (15th, Lagganlia, Scottish Highlands, 1977; and on the 9th, St. Harmon, Powys, in 1986)
Some extreme weather events in July in the twentieth century
1900 Warm and sunny - the 11th= hottest of the 1900s. The temperature exceeded 32C (90F) daily from the 16-19th. There were some notable thunderstorms, however, particularly in the north on the 12th. This led to the "Ilkley floods" in Yorkshire: 110mm of rain in 24 hours on the 12th led to severe flooding; 94mm of the rain fell in 75 minutes. Many homes and bridges were destroyed, and the flood left a thick layer of mud. It was 35.1C in Cambridge on the 20th, the highest temperature of the year (and indeed from at least 1875 to 1906). The fine weather broke down with a series of thunderstorms between the 26th and 28th.
1901 One of the warmest of the century in Scotland. Generally sunny and warm. However, 92.2 mm of rain fell in one hour at Maidenhead on the 12th. This is the highest hourly rainfall in Britain, at least for the 20th century (see 1893). The equal highest temperature for Scotland, 32.8C, was set on the 20th at Dumfries; 32C was also seen in Scotland on the 18th and 19th.
1902 Mostly fine and warm.
1903 Very wet. Gales in the north on the 6th. Part of a poor summer. 110mm of rain reported at Buckhurst Hill (Essex) on the 23rd.
1905 Generally fine and dry except in Northern Ireland. 38 mm of rain fell in Liverpool on the 10th.
1906 Hot and fine.
1907 There were some severe thunderstorms on the 22nd. A ferocious hailstorm in South Wales stripped leaves off trees: 80 mm of rain fell at Pandy (Monmouthshire). There was flooding in Watford as 68 mm of rain fell in udner two hours.
1908 The month was most notable for containing Scotland's equal hottest day: 32.8 at Dumfries on the 2nd (a record broken in 2003). The month was very warm at the start, before becoming cool and unsettled from the 4th. It was very wet midmonth. It then became warmer and more settled again, particularly in the south, from the 20th onwards.
1909 Cool and wet. Thunderstorms at the end of the month, with a tornado in Manchester on the 22nd. Violent thunderstorms on the 25th, particularly in Fife: 74mm at Carnbee. More rain on the 27th, including 75mm in Dorset.
1910 Cold, wet, and very dull - just 111 hours of sunshine in London.
1911 A magnificent month in a magnificent summer. Hot, dry, and sunny - part of a famous summer. There was a remarkable hot spell, although it is quite difficult to be certain about the exact temperatures, because of (a) uncertainty about screening, and (b) temperatures were taken in F rather than C. The reading of 38.1C - 100.5F - claimed at Greenwich on the 22nd is now not accepted, as the screening conditions at Greenwich were nonstandard; it is more likely to have been about 36.1C - still quite a temperature, and the record for July (until 2006). 97F (36.1C) was also recorded at Epsom, favoured because there was shelter from the light southerly breeze. There was a thundery outbreak at the end of the month with some heavy downpours (e.g. 28 mm in 15 minutes at South Kensington, London, on the 28th). Of particular interest locally, Perth reached 32.2C (90F) on the 12th, which is one of only 5 times this has happened in Scotland, and is the highest reading for the Tayside region of the century. This month is the only July of the twentieth century that was dry and sunny throughout (but then only in the south). 300 hours of sunshine were widespread across the south and east, with 350 at many coastal southern locations. The highest monthly sunshine total record was set this month: 384 hours at Eastbourne and Hastings. There were 334 hours of sunshine in London. It was probably the sunniest month on record until July 2006. No rain at all was measured at Bath. In many respects the best July of the century in terms of consistent heat and sunshine.
1912 In the cold, wet summer, lucky Clitheroe picked up another 9 thunder-days. The first three weeks of the month were relatively speaking the best of the summer, being farily dry and sunny. 32.8C was recorded at Camden and Tottenham on the 12th, making it the hottest day of the year. It was still duller than average, and the final ten days were very wet. Overall it was dry in the SE but wet in the Midlands.
1913 On the 10th lightning during a severe thunderstorm in London killed a 3-year-old boy. There were 15 hours of heavy rain in the London area on St Swithin's Day (15th): after this, there was rain on only 9 of the 40 following days. In Scotland it was one of the driest Julys of the century. Across the country it was the driest month of the year.
1914 Cloudy and warm. 32.2C was recorded in Surrey on the 1st. There were also some violent thunderstorms across the UK on the 1st; a man was killed by lightning in Rochdale. There was a cool spell between the 25th and 27th.
1915 A cool, wet month acorss England and Wales, with many thunderstoms. There were two notably severe hailstorms on the 4th, one tracking across north Devon, the other from Somerset to Bucks. The second of these was particularly severe. 50 mm hailstones were accompanied by driving winds, destroying trees and smashing glass. The Chew Valley was particularly badly affected.
1916 Cloudy, cool, and dry, although the final week was warm and sunny.
1917 Wet at the end of the month over the southeast.
1918 Warm, dry sunny first week, then cool, with fine end. A wet month. More storms; a hailstorm damaged crops and greenhouses in Surrey on the night of the 16th. -2C recorded at West Linton (near Stirling) on the 10th.
1920 A very poor summer: July was cold, very wet, and dull. Much of Britain had twice the average amount of rainfall, and Bethesda (north Wales) managed 343mm. A strong cold front gave some very low maxima on the 5th. Notable depression on the 17th led to serious flooding in Glasgow and Edinburgh.
1921 Very sunny, very hot (18.5), and very dry, excerbating the prolonged drought. 34C recorded in E and SE England on the 10th and 11th. At times, it was unusually windy for such a hot, dry spell.
1922 The coldest of the twentieth century (13.7C CET). Also very wet in places, particularly the south; there was a total of 185 mm of rain in Norwich. It was windy at the start of the month. There was a wet start to the month, with 62 mm of rainfalling at Newbury being the heaviest fall in heavy rain that affected the south. 69 mm of rain fell at Norwich on the 15th alone. 74 mm of rain fell at Coventry on the 22nd. A dull month too; yuk.
1923 A warm 13th, with the highest reading being 35.6C at London (Camden Square, of course) on the 13th. There were scattered thunderstorms on the 7th, and then some violent thunderstorms: part of Eton chapel destroyed by lightning on the 10th. A cloudburst in the Carrbridge region swept away the rail bridge for the second time in ten years. The month is most notable however month with a heatwave and violent thunderstorms in the second week. The month had a warm if somewhat unsettled start, but it then became very hot: 32C was reached most days somewhere in the country from the 6-13th. The temperature rose to 35C in several places on the 12th and for the thunderstorm that hit London from the SW on the night of the 9-10th; this was one of the most severe and longest storms of the century. The storm contained some of the most vivid and prolonged lightning observed in this country: nearly 7000 (6294 to be precise) lightning flashes were recorded at Chelsea in six hours starting at 11pm - that's nearly 18 flashes a minute! Many houses were struck by lightning, and some caught fire; a house at Walton-on-the-Hill was destroyed. There was some torrential rain - about 50 mm widespread across London and the eastern Home Counties, with nearly 82 mm recorded at Seaford (on the Sussex coast). There were more violent storms on the night of the 10-11th.
1924 There were 13.5 hours of sunshine on St Swithin's Day (15th): it then rained on 30 of the next 40 days. There were some violent storms: 103 mm of rain fell at Wisley on the 22nd; the same day 28 mm of rani fell in 20 minutes at South Kensington, with large hail and ball lightning.
1925 A severe thunderstorm in the London area on the 22nd with damaging hail.
1926 A severe thunderstorm in the SW on the 17-18th with damageing hail around Dorset.
1927 Unsettled and wet, with some notable thunderstorms. On the night of the 6-7th, 78 mm of rain fell at Deal and 72 mm at Clacton. 45 mm of rain fell in a thunderstorm on the 11th in East Anglia. 27 mm fell in 25 minutes in a thunderstorm at Kensington on the 11th.
1928 Cool and wet from the 3rd to 6th, but then warm dry and sunny until the 26th. Many places went 20 days without rain. The temperature reached 92F (33.3C) in London on the 22nd. There were thunderstorms at the end of the month. A very dry month in Yorkshire overall, with just 9 mm at Pontefract. A very sunny month in the Midlands and east, but dull and wet in northern Scotland.1930 A cool (15.2) and wet month. Exceptional rainfall in the North Yorkshire Wolds from the 20-23rd gave almost continual rain for four days, giving 250mm of rain, leading to flooding of the Derwent. The Whitby lifeboat was used for a rescue at Ruswarp, two miles inland. The rivers Esk and Leven were also severely affected, with bridges destroyed. Northerly winds gave a maximum of 11C. This was all caused by a depression lingering off the coast of Lincolnshire. England and Wales rainfall was twice the norm. Castleton (Yorks.) had 300mm for the month. The month had low daytime maxima, particularly from the 10th on, although because it was so cloudy the minima tended to be above average.
1931 Dull and wet with average temperaturs, helped by some mild nights.
1932 Unsettled: Cranwell (Lincs) had 131mm on the 11th and 61mm on the 13th.
1933 Very warm, sunny and dry. It turned very hot at the end of the month, with 34C recorded on the 27th.
1934 Hot and sunny start. Kew recorded 131 hours of sunshine in the first ten days. There was a notable warm spell between the 4th and 12th, with 9 consecutive days over 27C (80F) at Nottingham. Some places reacher 32C, and it was even 31C at Perth in Scotland. The highest temperature was 33.3C at Attenborough (Notts.) on the 11th. 116 mm of rain in 100 minutes fell at West Wickham (London) on the 22nd.
1935 A very dry and sunny month.
1936 Cool and very wet: the wettest of the century over England and Wales (e.g. Cambridge had 350% of the normal amount, and rain fell on every day of the month near Bristol). Also very windy, with some gales in the south. A thundery month: ten thunder days at Wakefield. A vigorous depression on the 3rd gave heavy rain across the south, causing local flooding and damage to crops. Some localised downpours on the 3r6th; 77mm at Fordham (Cambs.). On the 7th there were 78mm at Northwood (Middsx), most of it in about half an hour. Severe thunderstorms on the evening and night of the 9-10th across the south, London, East Anglia, and Midlands. 60mm in Norwich, with very frequent lightning, and 72mm at Erpingham. 46mm in 75 minutes at Sprowston. Heavy hail did much damage: 300 ducks were killed by hail near Thetford (Norfolk). Flooding. 57mm of rain in 80 minutes at Eastbourne. The month continued unsettled. On the 17th Auchnafree (near Perth) had 74mm of rain, most of it in one hours. A notable gale in the south with gusts of over 60mph on the 18th. In contrast, Shetland had a very sunny month.
1937 A very dull month. Torrential rain on St. Swithin's Day (15th) as a result of thunderstorms over England. (I don't know what happened for the next 40 days.) In some places it was described as the worst day in many years. It happened as a cold front moving in from the Atlantic met a depression rising coming north from the Bay of Biscay. Many places across the south recorded over 50mm. Waltham-on-the-Wolds (Leics.) had 145mm, Boston (Lincs.) had 137mm, and Pensford (Somerset) had 106mm. Further to the east downpours were more localised depending on where the thunderstorms were. Stanstead had 68mm. Three thunderstorms affected Bristol, causing double flooding. There was flooding in Weymouth. Traffic disruption, power cut off, lightning damage.
1938 Dull, cool, and wet across most of the country apart from the SE. A notable tornado hit Boxmoor in the Chilterns on 7th. The 90 m track extended for 9 miles, destroying haaystacks and trees and lifting cars.
1939 The temperature fell to -0.1C at the Rickmansworth frost hollow on the 2nd. The month was very wet in Scotland. 80 mm of rain fell at Borrowdale on the 21st. It was a dull month everywhere.
1940 Cool and very wet: the wettest of the century for Scotland. The 10th was a very wet day, with 25mm of rain widely, and over 50mm in places as far apart as Aberden and Berkshire; Scarborough recorded 106mm. Large hailstones at East Kirkby (Lincs.) smashed glass and flattened crops. On the 11th, 80mm more on the Brecon Beacons, and 90mm at Redcar on the 17th. Flooding in Cromarty on the 26th. The end of the month wasn't quite as wet as the rest as high pressure settled over the south of the country. The start of 11 consecutive colder-than-average months - the longest such run of the century.
1941 The hottest month of the war years. There was a warm and mostly dry start; the weather then became hot, before a thundery breakdown and cooler temperatures. 80 mm of rain fell in a 100 minutes at Penn (Bucks.) on the 13th. Sunnier than average in Scotland, duller than average in Scotland and Northern Ireland.
1942 Cool and unsettled.
1943 Generally dry and sunny. Hot final week: 33.9C at Worcester and Croydon on the 31st - the hottest day of the year. There were some violent thunderstorms across eastern England at the very end of the month as two fronts crossed the country.
1944 Generally dry but very dull. Kew, Oxford and Falmouth had the lowest sunshine totals in July for over 60 years: London averaged just three hours of sunshine a day. There was severe flooding followed 118mm of rain in two hours at West Wickham (SE London) on the 22nd.
1945 Overall generally a dry month, particularly in Norfolk and east Yorkshire. There were though some exceptional thunderstorm on the night of the 14-15th. There was incessant lightning all night over the southeast. 80 mm of rain at Old Woking. 43 mm of rain fell in 20 minutes at Neston (Cheshire) on the 15th.
1946 A month with many severe thunderstorms and some damaging hailstorms. There were some exceptional thunderstorm on the 2nd. 131mm of rain in two days led to flooding around Bury St. Edmonds, with hail damage. However, 30.6C was recorded in london on the 2nd. More storms in the south and east on the 3-4. The weather was fine between the 6th and 12th. More storms on the 16th. More storms on the 26th led to flooding, damage, and fatalities in London and the southeast; 30 mm of rain fell at Shoeburyness.
1947 Very warm (17.0C CET). 140 mm of rain in a storm on the 16th at Wisley (Surrey), 102 mm of it in 75 minutes, the ninth highest rainfall rate this century. There was damaging hail across East Anglia.
1948 There was a short but intense heatwave at the end of the month: 35C.0 at Milford (Surrey) on the 28th, and 34.4 at Worcester on the 29th. The high minimum of 23.3 at Westminster (London) was not bettered until 1990. However, the hot spell was preceded by a cold snap: most of July was unusually cool. In spite of some people's claims that "summers were better when we were lads and lasses", the 30s, 40s, and 50s were rather lean for very high temperatures. 1948 was the only year when 35.0C was reached after 1932 and before 1957. The 27.2C recorded at Benbecula on the 30th wremains the highest temperature recorded in the Western Islands.
1949 There was a great deal of warm and sunny weather this month. It reached 33.3C at Worcester on the the 12th, the hottest day of the year. The heat triggered some thunderstorms midmonth. 105 mm of rain fell at March on the 15th. There were some violent thunderstorm in London on the 16th: lightning deaths at Plumstead and Walthamstow. 62mm of rain at Barking. There were some violent thunderstorms in the SW on the next day (17th): 48 mm of rain fell at Cannington (Somerset) in 30 minutes - and then two hours later another 35 mm fell in another 30 minutes! 31.7C (89F) was recorded at Kensington Palace on the 25th. Overall a very warm month (17.4C CET)l the warmest July since 1933.
1950 WWet and unsettled in the south, drier in the north. A sunny month in Scotland. On the 10th, 3000 ducklings were killed by hail at Illington (Norfolk).
1951 The first three weeks of the month were very dry; after the dry June, there was talk of drought. It was warm and anticyclonic from the 13th to the 21st. A trough of low pressure crossed the country on the 22nd, with much colder air following. This led to some violent and unusually widespread thunderstorms: only parts of East Anglia and the East Midlands "escaped" them (or, as those of us who love storms think, were unlucky). 25 mm of rain fell over a very wide area from the SE to Scotland, with much flooding and lightning damage. There were three deaths due to lightning. At Kenton, near Exeter, 25 mm of rain fell in an hour, and 74 mm fell that day, with consequent flooding. 77 mm fell at Farnham. Some main roads in the south were closed due to flooding and road damage.
1952 dry month in the south; less than a quarter of the total from the Wash to the Isle of Wight for the month. Some places had no rain between the 12th and 28th. A heatwave at the start saw 34C in Jersey on the 1st. 33.3C was reached at Camden Square, Heathrow, and Southampton. There were some severe thunderstorms across the Midlands and Northern England on the 1st; 1.73 inches fell at Bredbury (Cheshire), and 1.72 inches fell at Ilkeston (Derbyshire) in half an hour. Temperatures dropped from 90F to 60F from the 1st to 3rd at London Airport. It then became warmer again, with 31C at Mildenhall on the 6th. The month was sunny in NE England and SE Scotland.
1953 Wet in the NW, dry in the east, particularly Fife and East Yorkshire. Sunnier than average in the SW and west but duller in eastern England and Scotland. There were few warm days.
1954 Wet, cool, and very dull. The mean temperature at Birmingham for the month was 13.7C, and Aldegrove (Northern Ireland) had just 86 hours of sunshine.
1955 Mostly sunny, hot (17.7C CET), and very dry. Parts of Suffolk and Cornwall (e.g. around Camborne) had no rain at all this month. In contrast, there were some exceptional deluges in thunderstorms, particularly on the 18th, as very hot air (30C in the south) met a stationary cold front. In particular, there was 279.4mm at Martinstown, Dorset, on the 18th, in 15 hours; 190 mm of this fell in 4.5 hours. This is the British record for daily rainfall. The rain came with storms in two waves, the first starting at 2.30 pm and the second at 9 pm. Heavy rain fell over a large area of Dorset: Dorchester received 187.5 mm and Weymouth 178.8 mm. Flooding in Weymouth. 108 mm of rain at Maidstone and another lightning death at Ramsgate on the same day, which 84 mm of rain (see October this year). Serious flooding in Weymouth. Thunder first broke out on the 11th, as the high pressure slipped south. There were 5 lightning deaths across the country on the 14th, including 3 people sheltering under a tree in my native Southampton (Please do NOT shelter under trees in storms), and a woman leaning on a metal fence at Royal Ascot. It was Wales's sunniest ever month, with 354.3 hours of sunshine at Dale Fort, and probably the sunniest month on record in the NW generally.
1956 Part of the worst post-war summer - cold, dull, and wet. Any sunny spell ended in thunder! It was the wettest July in London since records began. There were some heavy thunderstorms in the south on the 9th: 56 mm of rain fell on Kew. There was also flooding in the east on the 9th. 79 mm of rain in a storm fell early on the 9th at Epsom. Very large hailstones disrupted flights out of Heathrow on the 18th. 82.9mm of rain in a strom at Hascombe (Surrey) on the 18th, and flooding at Swanley (Kent). There was another 39 mm of rain at Kew on the 19th. 98 mm of rain fell in nearly 2 hours (114 minutes) at Staines on the 18-19th. After a short spell of warm weather, there was a violent gale on the 29th, with the pressure falling to 976.6mbars (the deepest July low on record) in Somerset (Yeovilton), disrupting a Channel boat race, and flooding in Blackpool. There were, unfortunately, many fatalities. The south and west were particularly affected by the gale; the highest gust was 93 mph, at the Lizard, but even central London recorded a gust of 69 mph. Many beech trees in Arundel Park were felled. At Ardclach (near Nairn) there was 109 mm on the 29th and 124 mm on the 30th. That's wet.
1957 On the 3rd Plymouth had 60mm of rain in one hour, with flooding and lightning damage. The south-east was badly affected by storms; hail damage to fruit in Kent. Serious flooding in Evesham and Rhyl on the 4th. The fine weather and hot spell across most of the country ended on the 7th, and westerlies dominated the rest of the summer. On the 12th, the River Wharfe at Otley (West Yorks) rose four feet in a few minutes following a thunderstorm. Andover was flooded twice this month. On the 26th, the Royal Welsh Show at Aberystwyth was flooded to three feet. A dull month in Yorkshire after a warm and sunny first few days.
1958 Very wet with some flooding.
1959 Hot (17.3C CET) and very sunny. Part of a superb summer, but some thundery interludes midmonth. There was a very warm spell in the 4-8th. The highest temperature of the year was recorded on the 5th: 35.6C at Gunby (Lincs.; although this reading might have been too high), with a more reliable high of 34.4C at Cromer and 33.3C at London Heathrow and in Norfolk. There were some violent thunderstorms in the south from the 9th to the 11th as low-pressure systems moved NE from Spain across southern England, with some particularly spectacular thunderstorms on the night of the 10-11th. Hailstones with a diameter of 5 cm caused damage at Wokingham on the 9th. At Watford, 19 mm of rain fell in 10 minutes on the 9th. 63.5 mm of rain fell in 20 minutes at Hindolveston in Norfolk on the night of the 10-11th (equal third highest rainfall rate of the century, and is still the highest 20 minute rainfall record for the UK); 59 mm of rain fell in 100 minutes at Heathrow, and 44mm in 30 minutes at Northolt; and a total of 89 mm at Swaffham Priory (Cambs.), with flooding. Then many places had no measurable rain from the 11-25th across the southeast. There were more thunderstorms at the end of the month.; 45 mm of rain in 60 minutes at Garstang on the 26th. As a consequence rainfall totals for the month were very variable across the country.
1960 Rain fell every day over the Pennines. This month there were 303 mm at Darwen (Lancs.), and 235 mm at Princetown (Dartmoor), as five substantial depressions crossed the country.
1961 33.9C was recorded on the 1st in a few locations in the southeast. This was the highest temperature of the decade. Remember, the 60s were where the cold weather was happening at. The next day was much colder, the temperature reaching only 22C in London.
1962 The hottest temperature reading of the year: 27.8 at Writtle (Essex) on the 3rd. This is the lowest yearly maximum of the twentieth century (equal with 1920). It was a changeable month, with beneath average sunshine and rainfall, although heavy rain fell in the SE on the 26th.
1964 55.9 mm of rain fell in 15 minutes at Bolton on the 18th. This is the second highest rainfall rate this century (afeter June 1970).
1965 The month was generally cold (14.0, the third coldest this century, and one of the coldest of the century in Scotland), dull, and wet. Northerly winds at the start of the month brought bright, cold, dry weather. Close to freezing by the 4th in the Midlands. There was heavy rain on the 6-7th. More unsettled midmonth, with some heacy rain as a depression moved NE across the country; 105 mm of rain in 48 hours at Paignton (Devon). The 14th was the warmest day of the month; 25C at Hoddesdon (Herts.). However, 140 mm of rain fell in 220 minutes at Wadebridge (Cornwall). Quiet midmonth. Thundery spell from 19-25th. 29 mm in 18 minutes at Stanstead on the 20th. Tornado at Wisley (Surrey) on the 21st. Flooding in south Lancashire on the 23rd. There was 45 mm of rain at Hastings on the 30th as the month continued unsettled, ending with some snow on the Cairngorms. -0.6 at Newport (Shropshire) on the 31st.
1966 The highest temperature of the month was 29C in Perth on the 21st, as cold easterlies circulating around low pressure affected much of the SE of England.
1967 The second warmest (16.7) month of the 60s. There were some severe thunder and hailstorms on the 13th, particularly around the Chippenham-Melksham area of Wiltshire, where large (57g) hailstones caused devastation to glass.
1968 Generally dull, cool, and wet, especially in the south, but with two exceptional thundery outbreaks. The first ten days were very active. A slow-moving cold front ended June's hot spell on the 1st, which saw temperatures of 33C in London, with severe and prolonged thunderstorms in the north and west, with darkness at noon, from mid-morning on the 1st to late afternoon on the 2nd. A hailstone at Cardiff airport on the 1st measured 7x6 cm. I wouldn't like that to fall on me. Lightning deaths on the 1st. The rainfall on the 1st was accompanied by a notable dustfall, comprising sand carried from the Sahara. The rain was said to be coloured "red and brown", so that on the morning of the 2nd much of the south was covered with brown streaks. On 2 July, 35.7 mm rainfall fell in just under 9 minutes at Leeming Bar (Yorks), giving a sub-10-minute total of 238 mm/hr, a UK record for such a short time (until 2003). 184 mm of ran recorded on the Isle of Man. Deep drifts of hail on the roads in Yorkshire needed bulldozers to clear them. More exceptional storms on the 9th, this time in the southwest. Pressure was high, but then on the evening of the 9th a depression deepened as it moved across southern England. The 10th was very wet. 100 mm of rain fell across a large area of the country from Devon to Lincolshire. 175 mm at Chew Stoke in Somerset mostly in 6 hours, 125 mm in 17 hours at Bristol, leading to flooding and damage. Many bridges were swept away. A large tract of land from Somerset through the south Midlands to Lincolnshire had more than 75mm of rain. The Cheddar Caves were flooded for the first time in living memory. There was then a notable gale on the 11th in thundery weather, particularly affecting the Southend area and the east of England, as the depression finally cleared away. Things quietened down a bit for the rest of the month, which overall was very cool (the next cooler one was 1980), and part of yet another poor 60s summer. It was fine in the north and west from the 18th. There were 75 mm of rain in a thunderstorm at Ilford on the 31st.
1969 With a CET of 16.8, this was the warmest month of the decade (but for comparison, there were 9 hotter months in the 90s). I remember sitting out on the lawn, enjoying the summer heat, reading Arthur Ransome stories. It was 32.8C at Letchworth on the 16th. It wasn't always dry, however. Two days of heavy rain in the SW gave rise on the 28th to fears of a repeat of the August 1952 event at Lynmouth; fortunately, this did not happen.
1970 At 15.2C CET, quite a cool month overall, although an early heatwave saw the hottest day of the year: 32.2C at Aldenham (Herts.) and Stratford-upon-Avon, on the 7th. It was a dull month, largely unsettled, and with frequent NW winds. It was very wet in Tiree with 136 mm of rain, but only 28 mm fell at Walton-on-the-Naze.
1971 Generally warm, sunny, and dry, but with some severe thunderstorms in east Norfolk late in the month. Also 40mm of rain in 14 minutes at Watchet (Somerset) on the 27th, and 88mm at Gorleston on the 28th.
1972 Many parts of the country had to wait until the 12th for the first day of the year over 21C (70F). It was sunny and warm in the middle of the month, but then there were some notable thunderstorms. On the 19th, lightning killed cattle at Romney Marsh. There were landslides around Exeter on the 19th, following 91 mm of rain, 89 mm of it in two hours early in the morning. Lightning strikes caused widespread power outages. On the 23rd, hail was large enough (reported as 27 mm in diameter) to break windows in the Nottingham area; 31 mm of rain fell in half an hour at Newark; and traffic was brought to a halt on the M6 in Staffs, as 44 mm of rain fell in 20 minutes at Farley (Staffs.). There were more thunderstorms begain on 31st July. 50 mm of rain in a couple of hours near Chingford. Lightning damage and injuries across the country. Flooding aroud Manchester. The hottest day of the year was in Perth: 29.4C on the 20th.
1973 On the cool side. A notable thunderstorm caused disruption in SW London on the afternoon of the 6th: 118 mm of rain fell in two hours, leading to flooding. There was flooding in the Pennines on the 15th as a depression came to a halt. Flooding when waters rose ten feet at Burley (Derbys.). Rush hour traffic took 90 minutes to travel two miles between Bramhall and Cheadle Hulme.
1974 At 15.2, a cool month. We'd have to wait until 1980 for one cooler - if that's the kind of thing you like waiting for, of course.
1975 Very warm (17.4C) but often unsettled and thundery, although it was generally very dry over the south. On the 13th temperatures reached 25C in the Midlands, but an early morning storm on the 14th saw some violent thunderstorms across the Midlands, with 55 mm hailstones. There was much damage to cars and glass in Sutton Coldfield. Also on the 14th, 105 mm of rain fell at Inverbeg, near Loch Lomond. A thunderstorm gave 156 mm of rain at Borrowdale in Cumbria on the 22nd.
1976 Wonderfully hot (18.2), particularly notable as part of the whole summer, as high pressure dominated the British Isles. It was even hot in Scotland; Wauchope (Borders) reached 32.4C on the 2nd. Even Braemar reached 30C on the 8th. 27C (80F) was exceeded somewhere in the country every day from 22 June to 16 July. Heathrow had 14 consecutive days above 31C between 23 June and 8 July. Somewhere in the country reached the 90s (32C) for 15 consecutive days from 23 June and 7 July. The summer was quite poor in the Western Isles, however, as fronts coming around the high affected the far NW. Cheltenham reached 35.9C on the 3rd, the highest corroborated maximum. Also very sunny: there was 318 hours of sunshine at Cromer. Fronts moved east on the 9th, bringing some rain to some places, and slighly cooler weather. While there were some high minima in urban districts, clear skies led to ground frosts in the country.
1977 Very dry: the driest July since 1935 in many places. Much of the east saw less than 12 mm of rain, and East Bergholt (Suffolk) had just 0.2 mm. Slightly cooler than average overall. Although the first week was warm, the rest of the month was cool, with winds first from the NE, and then from the NW, as high pressure was located to the north and west of the country. It was however a very sunny month. 20 mm of rain fell in 10 minutes at Penmaen (Wales) on the 8th. There were some cool nights: the lowest July minimum record of -2.5C was set in the Scottish Highlands, at Lagganlia, on the 15th; at the same time, the highest temperature of the year for the UK (30.0C) was recorded in several places in Scotland (Paisley, and Glenlee, 7th; Onich, 11th). The minimum at Santon Downham (Norfolk) on the night of the 29-30th was only 1.3C.
1978 At 14.8C, the coldest July of the 70s. The first week was cool and very showery, with predominantly northwesterliy winds. At Manchester the temperature remained below 15C until the 9th. On the 5th, there was a maximum of only 10C in northern Scotland, and of only 12C in parts of England. It was often windy, too. There were 79 mm of rain at Glenmoire Lodge in the Cairngorms on the 3rd.
1979 About average temperatures overall. A dry month, and some places on the south coast recording no rain until the 28th. There were storms on the 28th and 29th and a 6 year old girl was killed after being struck by Lightning on Skegness Beach on the 29th.
1980 The 1st was one of the coldest July days ever, with maxima of around 10C along the east coast, and only 12C along the south coast. Overall a cold month (14.7C); it was dull and wet in the first three weeks, with a thundery, warmer last week. 77mm of rain fell in the Eastbourne area in east Sussex on the 7t,h causingflooding. 98mm of rain fell at Brixworth (Northants.) on the 26th.
1981 Notable thunderstorms on the 9th. An afternoon storm in central London gave 58mm of rain in forty minutes and caused widespread disruption. Large hail and six lightning flashes per minute, and wind squalls up to 48mph. Flooding around Kings Cross and Tottenham Court Road. Lightning death at Yeovilton (Somerset). As the storm moved northeast, Romford town centre was flooded to two feet deep. Two thunderstorms at Brentwood (Essex) gave 104mm of rain on the 9th. Another storm gave 80mm of rain in 80 minutes at Littleover (Derbyshire). An evening storm gave 54mm in one hour at Bury St Edmunds. On the 11th there was a minor notable downpiour in Glasgow, with 18mm in 15 minutes. There was a cold spell later in the month, with parts of eastern England only reaching 12C on the 24th.
1982 Fairly warm and dry; quite sunny in the north. Some notable thunderstorms in the second week, particularly in the southwest on the 11th. On the night of the 11-12th, Bruton in Somerset (see also events of June 1917 in Bruton) recieved 113 mm of rain in 16 hours; the River Brue burst its banks, leading to flooding. Lightning strikes led tp loss of power. More storms the next night, spreading on the 14-15th over the rest of the south. On the 14th, 22 mm of rain fell in 14 minutes at Stanstead (Essex), with lightning strikes. Prestwick airport recorded 95 hours of sunshine from the 18-24th.
1983 The hottest of the century (19.5C), and indeed the hottest month since records began. Also mostly dry and sunny, but with some severe thunderstorms. A ridge of high pressure extended from the Azores as the month started. The temperature reached the magic 32C somewhere in the country every day from the 12-16th, and the average daily maximum at Heathrow in the month was 27.6C. There were 17 consecutive days above 27C (80F) somewhere in the country between the 3rd and 19th, and 22 days above 27C in total; the temperature exceeded 21C somewhere in the country every day but one. The highest temperature of the month was 33.7C at Liphook (Hants.) on the 16th (although this might be a high reading, with 33.0 at Hampton on the 15th and East Bergholt in Suffolk on the 16th being more reliable). A possible record high of 31.2C for Northern Ireland was set at Downpatrick (Co. Down) on the 14th; a more definite 30.8C was recorded at Shaw's Bridge, Co. Down (near Belfast; Belfast Airport saw 28.6C) on the 12th (the equal confirmed highest for the region, with 30 June 1976). The highes temperature recorded in the Isle of Man was set this month with 28.9C on the 12th. Cardiff recorded its highest ever temperature, of 33.1C, on the 13th. Even Coatbridge in Scotland reached 31.5C on the 12rh. It was also very humid. Some cool mist on North Sea coasts with NE winds; but the east coast improved later in the month as winds became more westerly. Thunderstorms on the 6th and 16-17th. Lightning deaths on the 6th; 95 mm of rain at Sevenoaks and 81mm at Croydon. More lightning deaths in the storms of the 16-17th. 68mm of rain in 45 minutes at Cromer. Severe hailstorms. Flooding in the Pennines. A cold front moved south on the 18th, bringing more normal temperatures to the south for a few days before pressure built again. Penzance was flooded in the 22nd. 70mm of rain in one hour in Dumfries and Galloway led to flooding there. It was very warm again at the end, with 32C at Skegness and Liphook on the 29th. More widespread thunder on the 31st. The heatwave almost exactly coincided with the calendar month. This was my summer of love, and I remember being able to sit out in the sun in the parks of Dundee. Hence I make this the most interesting July for weather of the century.
1984 Mostly dry, sunny and warm, but with some notable thunderstorms. High pressure built during the first week, and 31.7C was recorded at Heathrow on the 8th. As usual, the fine weather then broke down. York Minster was severely damaged by lightning on the 9th. I remember at the time that there was some talk about it being a sign from God. All I can remember that soon after I was in a train from Cardiff going to Newcastle, and I was slightly disappointed that you couldn't see anything from the railway. An earthquake measuring 5.4 on the Richter scale hit north Wales on the 19th. Maidenhead had 21 mm of rain in 1 hour on the 22nd; Bracknell had 43 mm in less than 50 minutes on the 23rd; and 91.5 mm fell at Hayling Island on the 24th.
1985 There were some warm and sunny spells in the southeast. 29C was recorded in Southampton on the 4th. The second week was anticyclonic in the south, but wet in the north. 30C was recorded at Jersey on the 13th; this was followed by a thundery spell. There were some severe thunderstorms in Ireland on the 25th and 26th, with heavy rain and large hailstones. The rain also affected southern and western Scotland: Murrayfield (Edinburgh) had 84 mm of rain in 24 hours. London Heathrow recorded 29.8C on the 25th. On the whole, while the month was warm and sunny in the SE, it was dull and wet in the north.
1986 Slightly cooler than average. The record low of -2.5 was equalled at St. Harmon (Powys) on the 9th.
1987 A month of two very different halves. It was dry, fine and warm for the first half, with 30C recorded in places on the 5th and 6th. However, there were 70 mm of rain in the English-Scottish borders on 10th. Then the period July 14th to August 13th was exceptionally cool, wet, windy at times, and dull. In this period, Luton recorded only 80 hours sunshine, with only 25 hours from July 14th to the end of the month. There were some notable thunderstorms in this period: 88 mm of rain in 5 hours at Slapton on the 17th, and 50 mm fell in 20 minutes at Epping on the 29th.
1988 An unremittingly disturbed month. It was dull and cold (overall CET 14.7, the coldest since 1965); the temperature did not exceed 21C in many places of the south during the whole month. Even London failed to exceed 22C. The highest all month in Plymouth was only 18.3, and at Land's End it was beneath 16C all month. It was the wettest July since 1936 in the south and the wettest of the century in Scotland. It rained every day of the month in Cumbria and western and southern Scotland, and on 23 days over most of the UK. We haven't had a colder July since.
1989 Very warm (18.2), dry, and sunny. Anticyclonic. The high of 34.2 at Heathrow on the 22nd was the highest temperature since 1976 (although of course even better was to come in 1990). The mean maximum at Edinburgh airport (21.7) was the highest since records began in 1948.
1990 Warm (16.9), and very dry: only 7 mm at Heathrow, the driest since records begain in 1947. The first week was cool, windy, and unsettled; it then became consistently hot, sunny, and dry. The temperatures peaked on the 20th and 21st, with temperatures of 32C in parts of the south, and 33.3C at Jersey on the 21st. There were some cool nights at the end of the month, with 0.9 at Glenlivet on the 23rd, and some reports of ground frosts.
1991 Changeable and warm. Very dull in Cornwall. 30.3C at Kinlochewe in Scotland on the 4th. Very wet in the southwest.
1992 Cloudy, wet, but at least warm. Severe thunderstorms over the southeast on the 20-21st, with parts of Sussex, Kent, and East Anglia receiving 40mm.
1993 Unsettled and cool. The dry weather at the end of June continued for the first week. The highest temperature of the year was 29.7C at East Bergholt (Suff.) on the 4 July; this is particularly notable, as it is the only occasion since 1981 when the annual maximum failed to exceed 30C. On the 9th an exceptional cold front brought heavy rain and a large temperature drop to the south, along with a strong northwesterly. Whipsnade had a midday temperature of 7.5C. At Birmingham airport the 1 om reading was 9.8C, Lerwick 8.5C; snow was recorded on some of the higher peaks in Scotland. In some places such as London there was an instant dramatic fall in temperature. At Heathrow the temperature fell from 18.5C to 10.7C in minutes in the early afternoon.
1994 Very warm (18.0C CET) and very dry. It was around 33C in Norflok and London on the 12th, and Lakenheath on the 24th; the highest accepted temperature for the month was 33.4�C, recorded at Morley St Botolph, Norfolk, on July 12. A cold front moved east on the 24th, starting off some thunderstorms over Wales in the morning. Severe thunderstorm at Birmingham on the 24th, with large hail (15mm). There were deaths caused by ightning. There was a particularly damaging hailstorm over south Lincolnshire. 22,000 lightning strikes over east Staffs and north Derbyshire. Flooding. Violent hailstorms around Oxford.Many parts of the southeast had the hottest night of the century at the end, with minima above 20C.
1995 Dry, sunny, and hot (18.6). Widespread readings over 30C from the 20th on, culminating in 32.6 at Heathrow on the 31st.
1996 Dry, sunny, and warm. There were some cool nights at the start of the month, and NW winds brought sunshine, showers, and thunder. It warmed up on the 9th. 33.0C on Jersey on the 22nd. The 16 month period from April 1995 to the end of July 1996 was the driest at Manchester (airport) since records began. Violent thunderstorms on the 23rd, with flooding in Sussex and Aberdeen. Heavy hailstorm at St Albans on the 23rd.
1997 Warm but changeable. The month started with heavy rain across northeast England and Scotland on the 1st, with severe flooding around Elgin, Forres, and Keith, and the Moray Firth. Kinloss recorded 76.6mm of rain in 36 hours, although more probably fell on parts of the Grampians.
1998 Rather cool (15.5) and very dull. Changeable. Dry in the east of England but wet elsewhere, particularly Scotland. A storm at Ferryhill, Durham, gave 68 mm of rain in 3 hours, and 50.6 mm of that in 90 minutes, leading to local flooding. Following heavy rain on the 31st, a landslide blocked the West Coast railway line at Lockerbie.
1999 Very warm, sunny, and dry: the tenth warmest of the century. A very warm spell at the end of the month, with 32C recorded at Worcester. The south of England was particularly dry, recording only 10% of the average rainfall. However, thunderstorms at the start of the month lead to flooding in places. Severe storms on the night of the 2-3rd in the SE: there were 150 flashes in 156 seconds at Denham (Bucks.), and at Cropwell Bishop (Notts.) lightning was continuous enugh to switch off the automatic overhead street lighting! There were more violent storms on the 5th: 122mm of rain at Sible Hedingham (Essex) on the 5th. These storms were accompanied by squally winds, hail, tornadoes (a particularly one at Selly Oak), and flooding (e.g. Manchester, Colne Valley, Andover, and around Cannock). More notable storms on the hot final day, particularly in the SE. 30C was reported several times throughout the month, and Northolt recorded 31C on the 31st.
2000 Very dry in the north, but cool and cloudy in eastern England - elsewhere temperatures were abou normal. It was the driest July for 100 years over most of Scotland and Northern Ireland, with just 20% of average rain. England and Wales were also quite dry. Drought in the Inner Hebrides. Sunny in the far NW (139% at Tiree). Cromer's average of 16.5C was the lowest since 1965. Some localised heavy rain and thunderstorms, with the most severe thunderstorms in the first week. 57.2 mm in 55 minutes at Chaddesden (Derbys.) on the 2nd. Storms led to flooding in Cleveland and Chester. Quite a dull month, particularly in the east (the dullest since 1992). On the 10th snow fell on Cairngorm. After a cool start, warm weather moved in on the 17th.
2001 Warmer than average, except in the far north. Overall an average amount of rainfall, but because recent Julys have tended to be dry, it was the wettest since 1993. Hot and humid beginning and end, with a cooler, unsettled spell sandwiched in between. Hot start, with some notable thunderstorms. Severe storms, with accompanying heavy downpours, affected North Wales and SW Scotland on the 3rd, and south Wales on the 4th. Flooding in Lanrkshire and outskirts of Glasgow on the 3rd. At Wishaw the storm started at 10.45pm, peaking at 60 flashes of lightning a minute, and giving 69.2 mm of rain in one hour. There was flooding in Cardiff, following 67 mm of rain in less than six hours, although it is likely that more than 125 mm fell in parts of mid-Wales. More severe storms affected the south, SW, and Midlands of England on the 5-7th. Meanwhile 32C (90F) was recorded at St Helier (Jersey) on the 3rd, and Rickmansworth (Herts.) on the 5th. After the first week, the weather became much cooler and more unsettled. Norwich recorded 61 hours of sunshine in the first seven days, and only 20 in the next seven. There were some unusually low minima midmonth, with +0.3C recorded at Sennybridge (Powys) on the morning of the 16th, and 3C widespread across the Midlands.There was more heavy rain 17-19th. After the unsettled spell, a ridge of high pressure brought fine, hot weather to England and Wales, with temperatures peaking around 32C in London on the 28th and 29th. It was the dullest July for 10 years across parts of Scotland, while it was sunnier than average across England and Wales.
2002 Overall, very wet: the wettest July since 1988. Very wet first two weeks in the south and east. Some severe thunderstorms at the end of the month, and some flooding in central Scotland. There were 113 mm of rain in 24 hours at Penistone (near Barnsley) on the 30th. Hence although it was a very wet month, most of the rain fell in the first 12 and last 2 days; hence parts of the SE had no rain at all in between these dates. Mean temperatures were slightly beneath average. The beginning of the month was quite cool, but there was a short heatwave near the end of the month before the thundery breakdown right at the end. In this heatwave, 32.6C was reached at Northolt in London on the 29th (the highest July temperature for 6 years). With such disturbed weather overall it was quite a dull month (the dullest for 10 years, in fact). Coltishall (Norfolk) had only 13 hours sunshine up to the 10th.
2003 Very warm. The month had a cool start and unsettled second half, but after the first 5 days it was always warm. There was a heatwave mid month. 33.6C at Wisley (Surrey) on the 15th, the country's highest July maximum since 1989, and it even made 30C at Prestwick in Scotland on the 16th. There were four consecutive days above 30C. Although it turned unsettled and cooler it was still quite warm. The heatwave was followed by somee thunderstorms, particularly in the west, with flooding. Heavy rain fell in the SW and Wales, with around 50 mm, on the 24-25th; and 42 mm fell at Aspatria (Cumbria) on the 29th. The month was slightly wetter than average in the south and west, but drier in the east and north. Sunshine was above average.
2004 Close to being an average month: slightly cooler, wetter, and duller than usual. It was however slightly drier than average in Scotland. Quite wet and cool in the first half, warmer and sunnier in the second. A strong depression early brought north-easterly gales and then heavy rain to the south on the 7-8th. Indeed, in much of the south more than half the month's total; rainfall fell on just the 7th, with up to 30 mm in less than 24 hours across much of the south. This was followed by severe thunderstorms. Wittering, near Peterborough, saw 109 mm in just over 24 hours. It was followed by northerly winds; at Sennybridge the maximum on the 8th did not exceed 10C (9.6C, one of the lowest July maximum since 1993). There was a warmer spell at the end of the month, with 30C being reached at Heathrow on the 29th. However, the period from the middle of June to the middle of Jully was the worst summer spell since 1981.
2005 Overall slightly warmer than average. Slightly wetter than average in the south, dry in the north. Cool and cloudy beginning and end, with hot, sunny spells midmonth. Parts of Scotland have their hottest day for 15 years on the 11th and 12th; 30.3C at Aberfeldy was the highest since 1976. It reached 30.9C at Heathrow on the 14th. The north and east were particularly cool at the end of the month, with a maximum of only 10.9C near Durham on the 28th. A tornado devastates parts of Birmingham on the 28th, causing severe damage in the Kings Heath, Small Heath, Moseley, and Balsall Heath regions, reaching T% intensity and cutting a swath of damage 500 m wide. Several tornadoes affected the Midlands on that day.
2006 The hottest and sunniest month on record (19.7C CET), in both England and Scotland. It was particularly warm across the east and noth (in fact July 1983 was hotter along the south coast and in the west country). Scotland also had its hottest month on record. Shanklin and Eastbourne saw 343 hours of sunshine. On average there as more than 50% sunshine than average (263 hours in England and Wales). There was a heatwave at the start; some violent thunderstorms, particularly in the NW, on the 2nd, as it reaches 32C in London (Heathrow). There was severe flooding in west Yorkshire following the storms. 82 mm of rain fell in a storm at Yare (Glocs.) on the 5-6th. After a cooler spell, the sunshine and heat returned, with a new high temperature of the year, 32.7C, at London Heathrow on the 17th. This didn't last long: on the 19th a new July record maximum is set, beating the previous record of 1911, with 36.5C at Wisley (Surrey) and 36.3C near Gatwick Airport in Sussex. It even reaches 30.5C at Prestiwck in Scotland, and 34.2 (Penhow, Newport) was a new Welsh July record. 30C was reached somewhere in the country on every day from the 16th to the 27th apart from the 23rd. After cooling down slightly, the heat returned, with 34C being recorded at Charlwood (Surrey) on the 25th. There were thunderstorms after the 19th. There were some humid and thundery spells throughout the month.
2007 Very unsettled. Cold and wet with some truly exceptional flooding. It was very wet (with 129.5 mm, 219% of the England and Wales average, it was the wettest July since 1936), cool (the equal coolest since 1993; you have to go back to the miserable 1988 for one colder), with close to average sunshine. Some very heavy rain on Thursday night and Friday 19-20th saw some exceptional flooding in the South and Midlands on the 20th and afterwards. 100 mm of rain (four inches) fell over a wide area from Gloucestershire, Herefordshire, Warwickshire, Oxfordshire, to Wiltshire. Brize Norton (Oxon.) had 127.6 mm, 101 mm of it in 7 hours, and Pershore (Worcs.) had 145.4 mm. This heavy rainfall leads to the worst flooding in living memory, particuarly in Gloucestershire. The last two days were more settled, reaching 24.7 in central London on the 31st, but with some cool nights.
2008 Very cool and wet first three weeks, but warm, sunny, and humid from the 23rd. Overall temperatures were about average. The England and Wales average rainfall total was 104 mm, 79% above average. The temperature reached 29.7 at Kew Gardens, London on the 27th and then 30.2C (the highest temperature of 2008) on the 28th. 59 mm of rain fell in a thunderstorm at Pershore in the afternoon of the 28th. Sunshine was about average overall, although it was dull in east Scotland (and I can vouch for that).
2009 Heatwave at the start of the month. The weather changed on the 5th as the pattern changed to mobile westerlies. Overall slightly beneath the long term temperature, but it was slightly warmer than average in northern and eastern Scotland. It was a wet month,with and England and Wales average of 130.3 mm being 227% of the long-term average. Scotland saw 148% of normal rainfall, and Northern Ireland 151%. It was very slighly less sunny than average (95%). The highest maximum of the month was 31.5C at Stratfield Mortimer (Berks) on the 1st. The minimum on the night of the 1st-2nd was 19.8C at Aberdaron (Caernarvon). The maximum at Spadeadam (Cumbria) on the 17th was only 12.2C.
2010 Dull and very wet in the west, very warm and sunny in the southeast. Overall the CET was above average, and July 2010 was the warmest since 2006. It was the first westerly month since November 2009. Highest temperature of the month was 31.7C at Swanscombe (Kent) on the 9th. The temperature at Olympic Park (London) didn't fall beneath 20C on the the night of the 1-2nd. Overall it was quite a wet month, with an average of 66 mm, 116%. It was very wet in Scotland, with 208% of the average amount. 360 mm fell at Capel Curig in Snowdonia. Overall the pressure was beneath average, and it was quite a windy month at times. Heavy rain in east Scotland on the 20-21, peaking with a tremendous deluge around 9 am, lead to the worst flooding in Perth since January 1993. Oveall it was quite a dull month, with an average of 170 hours, 80% of the 71-00 average, making it the dullest July since 1998.
2011 A cool month, with frequent N and NE winds; the coolest on average since 2007, and locally in the south since 1988. There was a fine, warm beginning and then very unsettled with some heavy rain and thunderstorms. After a dry week 94 mm of rain fell at Aberfeldy between the 4th and 9th. The 5th and 6th were particularly wet in east Scotland.The 18th was a cool day, with maxima of just 12C in the West, Wales, and Orkney and Shetland. It was a warm end to the month in the south and east. The highest temperature of the month was 27.5 at Olympic Park (London) on the 5th; the lowest -0.8C at Kinbrace (Sutherland) on the 13th. It was very slightly wetter than average (62 mm, 108% England and Wales average); Capel Curig in North Wales had 193 mm, while Orkney had just 18 mm. Sunshine was very close to average, although it was sunnier than average in Northern Ireland. St Athan (Glamorgan) saw the most sunshine, with 258 hours, and Lerwick in Shetland the least (with just 64 hours).
2012 Cool, dull, and wet weather. A mostly cyclonic month. Overall the CET was just 15.5C, 1.2 beneath average. The rainfall average for England and Wales was 114mm, 171% of the average. It was also wet in Scotland. Mean sunshine was 165 hours,, 81% of the 81-10 reference period, making it the dullest July since 1998. The first half was very cool and wet. Very heavy rainfall on the 6th leading to severe flooding in the SW and parts of Scotland. The weather improved in the final week. 30.0C was recorded at several locations in the SE on 24 July; with the mini-heatwave peaking at 30.7C at London St James on the 27th. It then became unsettled again at the end of the month.
2013 A very hot month - the warmest since 2006, and the sixth hottest ever, with only 1921, 1976, 1983, and 2006 having been warmer. A notable heat wave with a prolonged period of high temperatures between Saturday 6 July and Wednesday 24 July when 28 C or more was recorded at one or more location on each of those 19 days. The last time the UK saw such a long period of hot weather was August 1997 (also 19 days).The highest temperature of the hot spell was on Monday 22nd, with 33.5C recorded at Heathrow and Northolt. The 17th was a hot day too, with 32.2C at Hampton (London). The 19th saw the highest temperature for Northern Ireland with 30.1C at Castlederg, Scotland with 29.7C at Cupar (Fife), and Wales, with 31.4C at Porthmadog. There were several warm nights, with the minimum of the night of the 22-23 being 20.7C at Heathrow. The end of the heatwave was particularly humid, followed by thunderstorms and widespread downpours, with some locations seeing more than 50 mm of rain in 24 hours. Overall rainfall averages 65.0 mm over England and Wales (98% average), but this was nearly wholly due to the wet final nine days. Goudhurst (Kent) saw just 6 mm. The wettest day was the 27th, which saw an average of 24mm, with Tideswell (Derbyshire) receiving 89 mm that day. It was the second sunniest July on record, since 2006, with 289 hours (142%), St Helier seeing 327 hours.
2014 Warm and sunny - in the top ten percent for both over the last century. The highest temperature was 32.3C (just over 90F) at Swanscombe Marsh (Kent); the lowest 1.2C at Braemar on the 2nd. The England and Wales sunshine average was 258 hours (128% average); St Helier saw 336 and Lerwick only 100. The rainfall average was 54.0 mm, 94% of average. The wettest days was the 20th, with thunderstorms; 75.8 mm fell at Canvey Island leading to local flooding.
2015 A cyclonic month, slightly cooler than average. However the record July maximum of 2006 is beaten, with 36.7C at Heathrow on the 1st. The "heatwave" is limited to one day, as a narrow plume of hot air dragged up from southern Spain covers the southeast. There are thunderstorms elsewhere. It is the new hottest day at Wimbledon too, with 35.7C beating the 34.6C set in 1976. It was a very wet month, with an average of 87.3 mm (131%). The wettest day was the 17th, with 88.3 mm falling at Cambridge Botanic Gardens in a thunderstorm. There were records of large hail across the country the same day. Sunshine was close to average (188 hours average, 99%).
2016 Slightly warmer than average overall. Unsettled first half, then with a fine spell, and a hot spell from the 18th to 29th, before turning thundery, the month finishing unsettled. Rainfall was about average overall (104%) bit better in the NW and drier in the SE, and very dry in the south. It was quite a dull month, with 92% of average sunshine. The highest temperature of the month was 33.5C at Brize Norton (Oxon), and 33.9C at Jersey Airport on the 19th. 97.9 mm of rain fell at Nunraw Abbey (East Lotion) on the 20th.
July in history
16 A Roman fleet in the North Sea was dispersed by a storm.
1233 The Summer Floods devastated much of southern Britain.
1513 The Dry Wednesday of 21 July must have been one of the hottest days of the millennium. There were many heat-related deaths.
1556 The summer of 1556 was one of the best of the last six centuries.
1695 Brrr. A monthly average estimated at only 13.5C.
1707 8 July "Hot Tuesday" - a very hot day, perhaps one of the hottest days recorded in Britain.
1757 Hot (18.4).
1783 Very hot (18.8).
1785 The twelve months from August 1784 were perhaps the driest on record.
1808 There was a memorable heatwave in the middle of the month, particularly affecting the east of the countrry. The spell included "Hot Wednesday": 13 July might have been hotter than any day of the twentieth century. Estimates suggest that it reached 100F, and might well have reached 40C (105F) in places in southern England. There were many heat-related deaths. It was an extraordinary heatwave, concluding with intense thunderstorms on St. Swithins Day. A fireball was noted travelling through Gloucester Cathedral, and destroyed one of the pinnacles at the West End. The 15th saw what was probably the most severe hailstorm to affect the southwest; a 95 km swath was damaged between Bath and Bristol, with 70 mm hailstones, touching perhaps 100 mm in places, causing great damage. Indeed, some in Somerset were reported to be over a foot long (at 333 mm). It was a hot month overall: at 18.4C CET, there would not be a better one until 1921.
1816 "The year without a summer" - only 13.4C.
1818 There was an exceptionally severe hailstorm in the Orkneys - an extraordinary location for an event that saw "goose egg" sized hailstones injuring cattle. Snow was recorded on Cumbrian Fells.
1825 The driest on record - 8.2 mm.
1826 Part of a very hot summer, probably nearly as good as 1976.1828 The wettest on record - 183 mm(231%).
1841 On the 17th there was a heavy hailstorm at Derby, notable for including a fall of fish and frogs (some of them alive).
1852 A very hot month (18.7C CET).
1868 38.1C (100.5F) was reported as being recorded at Tonbridge on the 22nd, although the screening was nonstandard and this temperature is now recognised as being far too high. The temperature was more likely actually around 36.5C (97-98F).
1875 Serious flooding in the Midlands.
1879 A very poor summer - the highest reading of the year was 26.8C at Hillington (Norfolk) on the 29th. This is perhaps the worst summer on record. (There has not been a year on record in which 80F has not been exceeded somewhere in the UK, but 1879 came closest.)
1881 There were some high temperatures on the 14th and 15th: 33.9C was claimed at Manchester, although the screening was unlikely to be standard. It is likely that only the SE exceeded 32C.
1884 Spectacular waterspout off Southwold (Suffolk) on the 20th.
1893 The great drought, which started in early March, finished in early July. There were severe thunderstorms in west Yorkshire on the 7th cause flooding in the Pudsey region, with Tong Bridge swept away. Overall in the south the month was unsettled, cloudy, and with frequent rain. There were some interesting and famous storms. On the Sunday 2nd, a storm gave an enormous downpour over the Cheviots. It is estimated that 186 mm of rain fell in 60 minutes, leading to flash flooding. This is the highest hourly rainfall rate on record the UK. Then on the 8th, 9 cm hailstones fell both in Dumfries and Richmond. This was perhaps the most severe hailstorm ever to affect the north.
1888 Abnormally cold. There was a minimum of -3.3C at Ben Nevis on the 10th. Snow reported at various locations across Britain in the period 7-12th, particularly on the 11th as far south as Oxford and the Isle of Wight, although Philip Eden concludes that wet hail is more likely. The minimum temperature that night was about 6C at Kew. Six inches of snow were reported in the Scottish Highlands, which is a more plausible recording.
Further information
All temperature averages are based on an aggregate measure known as the Central England Temperature index for the twentieth century. The CET series begins in 1659. I have cobbled these data together from as many sources as possible, but particularly Bob Prichard's weather column in the Guardian on a Wednesday, Philip Eden's in the Sunday Telegraph, Philip Eden's indispensable book Weatherwise (MacMillan, 1995, ISBN 0 333 61610 3), the BBC Ceefax service, and Philip Eden's Weather Log in the journal Weather. Many thanks to them all. All temperatures in Celsius (F = (9xC/5) + 32). If there is no decimal place I only have the data to the nearest degree.
If you believe these data to be inaccurate in any way, or you have additions to the list, please let me know by email to t.a.harley@dundee.ac.uk
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What was the name of the farm in Buckinghamshire that saw the Great Train robbers hide out for five days after the robbery ? | The Great Train Robbery | Real Life Villains Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
The Great Train Robbery
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The Great Train Robbery (originally called the Cheddington Mail Van Raid) is the name given to the £2.6 million train robbery (the equivalent of £41 million today) committed on 8 August 1963 at Bridego Railway Bridge, Ledburn near Mentmore in Buckinghamshire, England. The bulk of the stolen money was not recovered. Three robbers were never found, two convicted robbers escaped. One convicted was most likely never involved, and died in prison. Though there were no firearms involved, the standard judgment was 30 years.
Contents
The robbery
Planning
The robbery was planned by several parties with no overall mastermind. Although the robbery operation itself was planned and executed by the late Bruce Reynolds, the target and the information came from a still unknown individual dubbed the "Ulsterman". The key field organisers were Gordon Goody, Buster Edwards and Charlie Wilson, with Brian Field being the key link between the robbers and the informant.
Royal Mail train
At 6:40 PM on Wednesday 7 August 1963 the travelling post office (TPO) "Up Special" train set off from Glasgow Central Station , Scotland en route to Euston Station in London . The train was hauled by an English Electric Type 4 (later Class 40) diesel-electric locomotive numbered at the time as D326 (later renumbered 40 126). The train consisted of 12 carriages and carried 72 Post Office staff who sorted mail during the journey.
Mail was loaded onto the train at Glasgow and also during station stops en route, as well as from line-side collection points where local post office staff would hang mail sacks on elevated track-side hooks which were caught by nets deployed by the on-board staff. Sorted mail on the train could also be dropped off at the same time. This process of exchange allowed mail to be distributed locally without delaying the train with unnecessary station stops. One of the carriages involved in the robbery is preserved at the Severn Valley Railway .
The second carriage behind the engine was known as the HVP (High Value Packages) coach, which carried large quantities of money, as well as registered mail for sorting. Usually the value of the shipment was in the region of £300,000, but because there had been a Bank Holiday weekend in Scotland , the total on the day of the robbery was £2.6 million (equivalent to about £43 million in 2012 RPI terms).
Stopping the train
Just after 3 AM the driver, Jack Mills from Crewe , stopped the train on West Coast Main Line at a red signal light in Ledburn, at a place known as 'Sears Crossing', between Leighton Buzzard in Bedfordshire and Cheddington in Buckinghamshire . However, unknown to him, the signal equipment had been tampered with by the robbers. They had covered the green signal light and connected a six-volt Ever Ready battery to power the red signal light. The locomotive's second crew-member, known as the secondman, was 26-year-old David Whitby (also from Crewe). He climbed down from the cab to call the signalman from a railway track-side telephone, only to find the cables had been cut. Returning to the train, he was thrown down the embankment of the railway track by one of the robbers.
The robbers now encountered a problem. They had to move the train to a suitable location in order to load their ex-army dropside truck with the stolen money and had decided to do so at bridge No.127 (known as 'Bridego Bridge'), approximately half a mile (800m) further along the track. One of the robbers had spent months befriending railway staff and familiarising himself with the layout and operation, but it was decided that it would be better to use an experienced train driver to move the train from the signals to the bridge after uncoupling the carriages containing the rest of the sorters and the ordinary mail. However, the person they selected (later referred to as "Stan Agate") was unable to operate the English Electric Class 40 mainline diesel-electric locomotive, because he was only experienced with shunting (switching) type locomotives on the Southern Region . It was quickly decided that the original locomotive driver, Jack Mills, should move the train to the stopping point near the bridge, which was indicated by a white sheet stretched between poles on the track. Mills was initially reluctant to move the train so one of the gang struck him on the head. Since Ronnie Biggs ' only task was to supervise "Stan Agate's" participation in the robbery, when it became obvious that Stan was not needed to drive the train, he and Ronnie were banished to the waiting truck to help load the mail bags.
Removing loot
The train was duly stopped at Bridego bridge and the robbers' "assault force" attacked the High Value Packages (HVP) carriage. Frank Dewhurst was in charge of the three other postal workers (Leslie Penn, Joseph Ware and John O'Connor) in the HVP carriage. Thomas Kett, Assistant Inspector in charge of the train from Carlisle to London Euston was also in the carriage. Both Dewhurst and Kett were hit with coshes when they made a vain attempt to prevent the robbers' storming of the carriage. Once the robbers had entered the carriage, the staff could put up no effective resistance and there was not a single police officer or security guard on board to assist them. The postal workers were quickly detained in a corner of the carriage and made to lie face down on the floor. Mills and Whitby were then brought into the carriage, handcuffed together and put down beside the sorters.
The robbers removed all but 7 of the 128 sacks from the HVP carriage, which they transferred in about 25 minutes to the waiting truck by forming a human chain. The gang departed some 30 minutes after the robbery had begun in their Austin Loadstar truck and, in an effort to mislead any potential witnesses, they used two Land Rover vehicles, both of which had the registration plates BMG 757A.
Getaway and planned clean-up
The gang then headed along back-roads listening for police broadcasts on a VHF radio, and arrived at Leatherslade Farm, a run-down farm 27 miles (43 km) from the crime scene, situated between Oakley and Brill in Buckinghamshire. The farm had been bought two months earlier for use as their hideout.
At the farm they counted the proceeds of the robbery and divided it into 17 full shares and several 'drinks' (smaller sums of money intended for associates of the gang). The precise amounts of the split differ according to the source, but the full shares came to approximately £150,000 each.
From listening to their police-tuned radio, the gang learned that the police calculated they had gone to ground within a 30-mile radius (or half-hour drive) of the attack scene rather than dispersing with their haul, so the gang's plan for leaving the farm was brought forward to Friday instead of Sunday. The vehicles they had driven to the farm could no longer be used because they had been seen by the train staff. Brian Field came to the farm on Thursday to pick up his share of the loot and to take Roy James to London to find an extra vehicle. Bruce Reynolds and John Daly picked up cars, one for Jimmy White and the other for Reynolds, Daly, Biggs and the replacement train driver. Field, his wife Karin and his associate "Mark" brought the vans and drove the remainder of the gang to 'Kabri' to recover.
Field had arranged with "Mark" to carry out a comprehensive clean-up and set fire to the farm after the robbers had left, even though the robbers had already spent much time wiping the place down to be free of prints. According to Buster Edwards, he 'nicked' £10,000 in ten- shilling notes to help pay "Mark's" drink. However, on Monday, when Charlie Wilson rang Brian Field to check whether the farm had been cleaned, he did not believe Field's assurances. He called a meeting with Edwards, Reynolds, Daly and James and they agreed that they needed to be sure. They called Field to a meeting on Tuesday, where he was forced to admit that he had failed to "torch" the farm. In the IVS 2012 retrospective documentary film The Great Train Robbery, Nick Reynolds (son of Bruce Reynolds) said "...the guy who was paid to basically go back to the farm and burn it down did a runner." Wilson would have killed him [Brian Field] there and then but was restrained by the others. By the time they were ready to go back to the farm, however, they learned that police had found the hide-out.
The loot
£2,631,684 was stolen from the train. The bulk of the haul was in £1 notes and £5 notes (both the older white note and the newer blue note, which was half its size). There were also ten- shilling notes and Irish and Scottish money. Because a 30-minute time-limited had been set by Reynolds, 8 out of 126 bags were not stolen. Statistically, this could be £131,000 or 4.7% left behind. The total weight of the bags removed was 2½ tons, according to Buckinghamshire police officer John Woolley.
Raising the alarm
The robbers had cut all the telephone lines in the vicinity, but one of the trainmen caught a slow train to Cheddington, which he reached at 4:30 a.m. to raise the alarm.
Robbers and accomplices
The gang of train robbers consisted of 17 full members who were to receive an equal share, including 15 people who were at the actual robbery and two key informants.
The gang of 15 men from London was led by Bruce Reynolds, and assisted by Gordon Goody, Charlie Wilson and Ronald "Buster" Edwards. Their key electronics expert was Roger Cordrey, who was already an accomplished train robber. The two informants who brought the idea to the robbers' attention were solicitor's clerk Brian Field and a man known as the "Ulsterman", who has never been identified. The best known member of the gang, Ronnie Biggs , had only a minor role, which was to recruit the replacement train driver, a man known variously as "Old Pete" or "Stan Agate".
Bruce Reynolds
The unofficial leader of the gang and the acknowledged brains behind the strategy to rob the train, Bruce Richard Reynolds was born on 7 September 1931 at Charing Cross Hospital , Strand , London, to Thomas Richard and Dorothy Margaret (née Keen). His mother died in 1935, and he had trouble living with his father and stepmother, so he often stayed with one or other of his grandmothers. He was jailed for three years on several counts of breaking and entering, and upon his release quickly started re-offending. He soon joined a gang with future best friend Harry Booth and future brother-in-law John Daly. Later on, he did some work with Jimmy White and met Buster Edwards at Charlie Richardson's club. Richardson in turn introduced him to Gordon Goody.
After the train heist, Reynolds escaped to Mexico with his wife, Angela, and young son, Nick Reynolds (who later became a member of the band Alabama 3 , whose song " Woke Up This Morning " was the opening theme of The Sopranos ]) and lived lavishly with his share of the take, approximately 150,000 British pounds. When that money ran out, Reynolds moved his family to Canada and then France under false identities, in search of work, before returning to England to pursue opportunities promised by his old criminal contacts. He was arrested in 1968 in Torquay and sentenced to 25 years in jail. He was released a decade later.
Reynolds was reincarcerated in the mid-1980s for dealing amphetamines.WIth the son in law of one of the birmingham six john payne. He has produced occasional journalism pieces, consulted on movie and book projects about the train heist, and published a well-regarded crime memoir, Crossing the Line: The Autobiography of a Thief (1995).
In a 2003 interview, Reynolds recalled: "from an early age I always wanted a life of adventure." He was rejected by the Royal Navy because of poor eyesight, and then tried to become a foreign correspondent, but his highest achievement in that vein was to become a clerk at the Daily Mail tabloid. While his life in crime did provide excitement, Reynolds said in 2003, "I've always felt that I can't escape my past". "And in many ways I feel that it is like a line from the ' Ancient Mariner ' and that the notoriety was like an albatross around my neck." [7 ]
Reynolds died at age 81. [6 ] He is survived by his son Nick, [7 ] who reported his father died on 28 February 2013 after a brief illness. [8 ]
Douglas Gordon Goody
Douglas Gordon Goody is often described as the gang's deputy leader and he was clearly a key organiser. Of Irish descent, he was born in Putney , London in March 1930. In the early 1960s he joined Buster Edwards' gang and helped rob various easy targets. [9 ]
Charles Frederick (Charlie) Wilson
The most dangerous of the Great Train Robbers was 'the Silent Man' Charlie Wilson. He was born on 30 June 1932 to Bill and Mabel Wilson in Battersea , London. Possessing a heavy build and handsome appearance, Wilson was, from an early age, an intimidating presence with his piercing blue eyes. His friends from childhood were Jimmy Hussey, Tommy Wisbey, Bruce Reynolds and Gordon Goody. Later on, he met Ronald 'Buster' Edwards and the young driving enthusiasts Mickey Ball and Roy James, who had taken up car theft. From 1948 to 1950 he was called up for national service , and in 1955 he married Patricia (Pat) Osbourne, with whom he had three children. He turned to crime early in life and spurned his father's legitimate but low-income wage. While he did have legitimate work in his in-laws' grocer's shop, he also was a thief and his criminal proceeds went into buying shares in various gambling enterprises. He went to jail for short spells for numerous offences. In 1960, he began to work with Bruce Reynolds and planned to get into the criminal big league.
Ronald "Buster" Edwards
Ronald Christopher Edwards was born on 27 January 1932 at Lambeth , London, the son of a barnman. After leaving school, he worked in a sausage factory, where he began his criminal career by stealing meat to sell on the post-war black market. During his national service in the RAF he was detained for stealing cigarettes. When he returned to South London , he ran a drinking club and became a professional criminal. He married June Rose in 1952. They had a daughter, Nicky.
Brian Field
Brian Arthur Field was born on 15 December 1934 and was immediately put up for adoption. He served two years in the Royal Army Service Corps , seeing service during the Korean War . Although soldiers in the Service Corps were considered combat personnel, they were primarily associated with transport and logistics. When he was discharged from the military, it was with "a very good character".
Field later became a solicitor's managing clerk for John Wheater & Co. Although he was only 28 at the time of the robbery, he was already apparently more prosperous than his boss, John Wheater. Field drove a new Jaguar and had a house, "Kabri" (an amalgam of Karin and Brian [Field]), with his wife at the Bridle Path, Whitchurch Hill, Oxfordshire, while his boss owned a battered Ford and lived in a run-down neighbourhood. Part of the reason for Field's prosperity was that he was not averse to giving Goody and Edwards information about what his clients had in their country houses, making them prime targets for the thieves. On one occasion he described the contents and layout of a house near Weybridge where wife Karin had once been a nanny.
Prior to the robbery Field had represented Buster Edwards and Gordon Goody. He had arranged Edwards's defence when he had been caught with a stolen car and had met Goody at a nightclub in Soho . Field was called upon to assist in Goody's defence in the aftermath of the "Airport Job", which was a robbery carried out on 27 November 1962 at a branch of Barclays Bank at London Airport . This was the big practice robbery that the South West Gang had done before the Great Train Robbery. Field was successful in arranging bail for Goody and Charlie Wilson.
Captures
Roger Cordrey
The first gang member to be caught was Roger Cordrey. He was with his friend, William Boal, who was helping him lie low in return for the payment of old debts. They were living in a rented, fully furnished flat above a florist's shop in Wimborne Road, Moordown, Bournemouth . The Bournemouth police were tipped off by police widow Ethel Clark, when Boal and Cordrey paid rent for a garage (in Tweedale Road off Castle Lane West), three months in advance, all in used ten-shilling notes.
William Boal, who was not involved in the robbery, was sentenced to 24 years and died in prison in 1970. Police later acknowledged that he was the victim of a miscarriage of justice, and more pertinently of the guilty criminals who never spoke up to clear him, either in court or during the years of his imprisonment.
Others
Other arrests followed. Eight of the gang members and several associates were caught. The other arrests were made by Sgt. Stan Davis and Probationary Constable Gordon 'Charlie' Case.
On Friday 16 August 1963, two people who had decided to take a morning stroll in Dorking Woods discovered a briefcase, a holdall and a camel-skin bag, all containing money. They called police, who also discovered another briefcase full of money in the woods. In total, a sum of £100,900 was found. They also found a camel-skin bag with a receipt inside, from the Cafe Pension Restaurant, Sonnenbichel, Hindelang , Prov. Allgäu . It was made out in favour of a Herr and Frau Field. The Surrey police delivered the money and the receipt to Fewtrell and McArthur in Aylesbury, who knew by then that Brian Field was a clerk at James and Wheater who had acted in the purchase of Leatherslade Farm. They quickly confirmed through Interpol that Brian and Karin Field had stayed at the Pension Sonnebichel in February that year. In addition, they knew that Field had acted for Gordon Goody and other criminals.
Several weeks later, the police went to "Kabri" to interview Field, who calmly (for someone whose relatives had dumped a large part at least of the loot) provided a cover story that implicated Lennie Field as the purchaser of the farm and his boss John Wheater as the conveyancer. He admitted to visiting the farm on one occasion with Lennie Field, but said he assumed it was an investment of his brother (Alexander Field), whom Brian Field had unsuccessfully defended in a recent court case. Field, not knowing the police had found a receipt, readily confirmed that he and his wife had been to Germany on a holiday and gave them the details of the place at which they had stayed. On 15 September 1963 Brian Field was arrested and his boss John Wheater was arrested two days later. Lennie Field had already been arrested on 14 September.
Jack Slipper was involved in the capture of Roy James, Ronald Biggs, Jimmy Hussey and John Daly.
Trial, 1964
The trial of the robbers began at Aylesbury Assizes , Buckinghamshire, on 20 January 1964. Because it would be necessary to accommodate a large number of lawyers and journalists, the existing court was deemed too small and so the offices of Aylesbury Rural District Council were specially converted for the event. The defendants were brought to the court each day from Aylesbury Prison in a compartmentalised van, out of view of the large crowd of spectators. Mr Justice Edmund Davis presided over the trial, which lasted 51 days and included 613 exhibits and 240 witnesses. The jury retired to the Grange Youth Centre in Aylesbury to consider their verdict.
On 11 February 1964, there was a sensation when John Daly was found to have no case to answer. His counsel, Mr Raeburn QC , claimed that the evidence against his client was limited to his fingerprints being on the Monopoly set found at Leatherslade Farm and the fact that he went underground after the robbery. Raeburn went on to say that Daly had played the Monopoly game with his brother-in-law Bruce Reynolds earlier in 1963, and that he had gone underground only because he was associated with people publicly sought by the police. This was not proof of involvement in a conspiracy. The judge agreed, and the jury were directed to acquit him. Frank Williams was shocked when this occurred because, due to Tommy Butler's refusal to share information, he had no knowledge of the fact that Daly's prints were only on the Monopoly set. If Williams had known this, he could have asked Daly questions about the Monopoly set and robbed him of his very effective alibi. Daly was clever in avoiding having a photo taken when he was arrested until he could shave his beard. This meant that there was no photo to show the lengths he had gone to, in order to change his appearance. No action was taken against Butler for his mistake in not ensuring the case against Daly was more thorough.
On 15 April 1964 the proceedings ended with the judge describing the robbery as "a crime of sordid violence inspired by vast greed" and passing sentences of 30 years' imprisonment on seven of the robbers.
Sentencing
The 11 men sentenced all felt aggrieved at the sentences handed down, particularly Bill Boal (who died in prison) and Lennie Field, who were later found innocent of the charges against them. The other men (aside from Wheater) resented what they considered to be the excessive length of the sentences, which were longer than those given to many murderers or armed robbers at the time. At that period, there was no parole system in place and prisoners served the full term of the sentence. Train robbers who were sentenced later, and by different judges, received shorter terms.
Appeals, July 1964
On 13 July 1964, the appeals by Lennie Field and Brian Field (no relation) against the charges of Conspiracy to Rob were allowed. This meant that their sentences were effectively reduced to five years only. On 14 July 1964, the appeals by Roger Cordrey and Bill Boal were allowed, with the convictions for Conspiracy to Rob quashed, leaving only the receiving charges. Justice Fenton Atkinson concluded that a miscarriage of justice would result if Boal's charges were upheld, given that his age, physique and temperament made him an unlikely train robber. Luckily for him, as the oldest robber, Cordrey was also deemed to be innocent of the conspiracy because his prints had not been found at Leatherslade Farm. Brian Field was only reluctantly acquitted of the robbery. Justice Atkinson stated that he would not be surprised if Field were not only part of the conspiracy, but also one of the robbers. The charges against the other men were all upheld. In the end Lennie Field and Bill Boal got some measure of justice, but Boal died in prison in 1970 after a long illness.
Prison escapes
Immediately after the trial, two of the criminals, Charlie Wilson and Ronnie Biggs , escaped from captivity.
On 12 August 1964, Wilson escaped from Winson Green Prison in Birmingham in under three minutes, the escape being considered unprecedented in that a three-man team had broken into the prison to extricate him. His escape team was never caught and the leader, nicknamed "Frenchy", had disappeared from the London criminal scene by the late 1960s. Two weeks after his escape Wilson was in Paris for plastic surgery.
By November 1965, Wilson was in Mexico City visiting old friends Bruce Reynolds and Buster Edwards. Wilson's escape was yet another dramatic twist in the train robbery saga.
11 months after Wilson's escape, in July 1965, Ronnie Biggs escaped from Wandsworth Prison , only 15 months into his sentence. A furniture van was parked alongside the prison walls and a ladder was dropped over the 30-foot-high wall into the prison during outside exercise time, allowing four prisoners to escape, including Biggs. The escape was planned by recently released prisoner Paul Seaborne, with the assistance of two other ex-convicts, Ronnie Leslie and Ronnie Black, with support from Biggs' wife, Charmian. The plot saw two other prisoners interfere with the warders, and allow Biggs and friend Eric Flower to escape. Seaborne was later caught by Butler and sentenced to four-and-a-half years and Ronnie Leslie received three years for being the getaway driver. The two other prisoners who took advantage of the Biggs escape were captured after three months. Biggs and Flower paid a significant sum of money to be smuggled to Paris for plastic surgery. Biggs said he had to escape because of the length of the sentence and what he alleged to be the severity of the prison conditions.
The escape of Wilson and Biggs meant that five of the robbers were now on the run, with Tommy Butler in hot pursuit.
Pursuit of fugitives
With the other robbers on the run and fled out of the country, only Jimmy White was left in the United Kingdom.
Jimmy White was a renowned locksmith/thief and had already been on the run for ten years before the robbery. He was said to have "a remarkable ability to be invisible, to merge with his surroundings and become the ultimate Mr Nobody." He was a wartime paratrooper and a veteran of Arnhem . According to Piers Paul Read in his 1978 book The Train Robbers, Jimmy White was "a solitary thief, not known to work with either firm, he should have had a good chance of remaining undetected altogether, yet was known to be one of the Train Robbers almost at once - first by other criminals and then by the police". He was unfortunate in that Brian Field's relatives had dumped luggage containing £100,000 only a mile from a site where White had bought a caravan and hidden £30,000 in the panelling. In addition, a group of men purporting to be from the Flying Squad broke into his flat and took a brief case containing £8,500. Throughout his three years on the run with wife Sheree and baby son Stephen, he was taken advantage of or let down by friends and associates. On 10 April 1966 a new friend recognised him from photos in a newspaper and informed police. They arrested him at Littlestone while he was at home. He only had £8,000 to hand back to them. The rest was long gone. He was tried in June 1966 at Leicester Assizes and Justice Nield sentenced him to only 18 years' jail (considerably less than the 30 years given to other principal offenders).
Charlie Wilson took up residence outside Montreal, Canada , on Rigaud Mountain in an upper-middle-class neighbourhood where the large, secluded properties are surrounded by trees. Wilson lived under the name Ronald Alloway, a name borrowed from a Fulham shopkeeper. He joined an exclusive golf club and participated in the activities of the local community. It was only when he invited his brother-in-law over from the UK for Christmas that Scotland Yard was able to track him down and recapture him. They waited three months before making their move, in the hope that Wilson would lead them to Reynolds, the last suspect still to be apprehended. Wilson was arrested on 25 January 1968 by Tommy Butler. Many in Rigaud petitioned that his wife and three daughters be allowed to stay in the Montreal area.
Bruce Reynolds was the last of the robbers to be caught.
Bruce Reynolds
Bruce Reynolds was released from prison on 6 June 1978 after serving 10 years. Reynolds, then aged 47, was helped by Gordon Goody to get back on his feet, before Goody departed for Spain.
By October 1978, day-release ended and he had to report to a parole officer. Frank Monroe, one of the three robbers who was never caught, temporarily gave Reynolds a job, but did not want to attract undue attention by employing him for too long. Reynolds later got back together with his wife Angela and son Nicholas. He was arrested in 1983 for drug-related offences (Reynolds denied having any involvement). He was released again in March 1985 and dedicated himself to helping his wife recover from a mental breakdown. In 2001, he and his son Nicholas travelled with reporters from The Sun newspaper to take Ronnie Biggs back to Britain. In 2010, he wrote the afterword for Signal Red, Robert Ryan's novel based on the Great Train Robbery, and he regularly commented on the robbery. He died in his sleep, aged 81, on 28 February 2013.
Douglas (Gordon) Goody
He was released from prison on 23 December 1975, aged 46 years old and went to live with his ill mother in her small cottage in Putney. Unlike the other robbers, Goody was exceptionally lucky in that the man he left in charge of his affairs was loyal and successful so he was able to live a relatively well-off life. He later moved to Mojacar, Spain, where he bought property and a bar and settled down, believing it safer to be out of the United Kingdom. He was at one point accused of cannabis smuggling but ultimately cleared. He continues to reside in Mojacar.
Charlie Wilson
He was released from prison in 1978 (after serving about one-third of his sentence) and was found shot dead at his villa in Marbella , Spain , on 24 April 1990. His murder was thought to be related to suspected cheating in drug-dealing activity. He is buried in Streatham Cemetery .
Ronald "Buster" Edwards
Edwards was released from prison in 1975 and became a flower seller outside Waterloo Station . His story was dramatised in the 1988 film Buster , with Phil Collins in the title role. Edwards committed suicide by hanging himself in a garage in November 1994. His family continued to run the flower stall after his death.
Brian Field
After being sentenced on 16 April 1964, Field served four years of his five-year sentence. He was released in 1967.
While Brian Field was in prison, his wife Karin divorced him and married a German journalist. Karin wrote an article for the German magazine Stern . She confirmed that she took Roy James to Thame railway station so he could go to London and that she led a convoy of two vans back to "Kabri", where the gang were joined by wives and girlfriends for a big party to celebrate the crime.
When Bruce Reynolds returned to Great Britain in 1968, he tried to contact Field as this was the only way he could get in touch with the "Ulsterman". It seems that Field was ambushed upon his release from prison by a recently released convict, "Scotch Jack" Buggy, who presumably roughed up or even tortured Field with a view to extorting some of the loot from the robbery. Subsequently Field went to ground and Buggy was killed shortly after. Reynolds gave up trying to find Field.
Field changed his name to Brian Carlton in order to disappear. Sometime after his release from prison, he married Welsh-born Sian. In the mid/late 1970s they worked for the Children's Book Centre (since sold) located on Kensington High Street in London. Field and his wife Sian were responsible for the company's operations in central and Southern Europe, to where they shipped English language books and held book fairs at international English schools. (The schools were given a certain percentage of the revenue in exchange for hosting the book fairs for several days.) Much of this time was spent in Spain, where Field demonstrated his guile during a customs warehouse strike in Madrid that was holding up the release of a shipment of books, endangering a number of scheduled book fairs. Field, along with Tony Saez, who ran the book fairs in Madrid, and under the glare of the burly warehouse workers, simply drove into the warehouse, loaded a van full of boxes, and drove away. During this time, Field also got to know the Prince of Spain's English tutor, and convinced her to bring Prince Felipe and his two sisters, then in their early teenaged years, to a book fair being held at King's College, an international English school in Madrid. During their extended stays in Madrid, the Fields stayed in the penthouse of the Hotel Aristos on Avenida Pio XII.
Field, aged 44 years, and his wife Sian, in her late 20s, died in a car crash on the M4 motorway on the 27 April 1979, a year after the last of the robbers had completed their sentence. The accident occurred as they returned from a visit with Sian's parents in Wales. A Mercedes driven by the pregnant 28-year old daughter of well known hairdresser Raymond Bessone (a.k.a. Mr. Teasy Weasy) crossed a damaged section of the guard rail and slammed into Brian's oncoming Porsche. Field and Sian, along with Teasy Weasy's daughter, her husband and two children, were all killed instantly in the horrific crash. It was several weeks after the accident that Field's true identity was discovered. It is not clear whether his wife Sian ever knew of his past.
Ronnie Biggs
Ronnie Biggs received a 30-year sentence following the robbery and served 15 months initially.
Biggs fled to Paris , where he acquired new identity papers and underwent plastic surgery . In 1970, he quietly moved to Adelaide, Australia , where he worked as a builder and lived a relatively normal life. He was tipped off by persons unknown and moved to Melbourne , later escaping to Rio de Janeiro , Brazil , after police discovered his Melbourne address. Biggs could not be extradited because there was no reciprocal extradition treaty between Britain and Brazil, a condition for the Brazilian process of extradition. Additionally, he became father to a Brazilian son, which afforded him legal immunity since the father of a Brazilian minor can not be extradited from Brazil. As a result, he lived openly in Rio for many years, safe from the British authorities. In 1981, Biggs's Brazilian son became a member of a successful band Turma do Balão Mágico , bringing a new source of income to his father. In a short time, however, the band faded into obscurity and dissolved, leaving father and son relatively short of funds again.
In May 2001, aged 71 and having suffered three strokes , Biggs voluntarily returned to England. His son, Michael Biggs, said in a press release that, contrary to some press reports, Biggs had not returned to the UK simply to receive free health care. According to Michael, health care was available in Brazil and he had many friends and supporters who would certainly have contributed to any such expenses. Biggs's stated desire was to "walk into a Margate pub as an Englishman and buy a pint of bitter ". Biggs was aware that he would be arrested and jailed. After detention and a short court hearing he was sent back to prison to serve the remainder of his sentence. He served another 8 years of his sentence.
On 2 July 2009, Ronnie Biggs was denied parole by British Justice Secretary Jack Straw , who considered Biggs to be still "wholly unrepentant." Biggs himself has stated that the thirty-year term was "out of order" for the crime committed, and that is why he planned an escape.
On 6 August 2009, Ronnie Biggs was granted release from prison on "compassionate grounds" due to a severe case of pneumonia, after serving only part of the sentence imposed at trial. Ronnie Biggs's son has said publicly that his father expressed remorse for the robbery, but not for his life on the run. By the time he was released he had served more jail time than any of the robbers, despite his relatively minor role.
The other robbers
Roy James (born August 1935), went back to motor racing following his release on 15 August 1975. However, he crashed several cars and his chances of becoming a driver quickly faded. After the failure of his Formula One career, he returned to his trade as a silversmith. He produced trophies for the Formula One World Championship due to his acquaintance with Bernie Ecclestone . In 1982, he married a younger woman, but the marriage soon broke down. By 1983, James and Charlie Wilson had become involved in an attempt to import gold without paying excise duty. James was acquitted in January 1984 for his part in the swindle. In 1993, he shot and wounded his father in-law and pistol-whipped and partially strangled his ex-wife, after they had returned their children for a day's outing. He was sentenced to six years in jail.
In 1996, James underwent triple-bypass surgery and was subsequently released from prison in 1997, only to die almost immediately afterwards on 21 August after another heart attack. He was the fifth member of the gang to die, despite being the youngest.
The South Coast Raiders did not fare too well in general. Bob Welch (born March 1929) was released on 14 June 1976. He was the last of those convicted in Aylesbury to be released. Welsh moved back in with his wife June and his son. He threatened the man left in charge of his share of the theft in order to retrieve the remainder. A leg injury sustained in prison saw him undergo several operations and he was left semi-crippled as a result. Frank Monroe, who was never caught, worked as a film stunt man for a while before starting a paper and scrap metal recycling business. Jim Hussey was released on 17 November 1975 and married girlfriend Gill (whom he had met just before the robbery). His share of the loot had been entrusted to a friend of Frank Monroe and had been squandered despite Monroe periodically checking on its keeper. Roger Cordrey (born May 1922) was the first of the robbers released, but his share of the theft had almost entirely been recovered by the police. He went back to being a florist at his sister's business upon his release.
Tommy Wisbey (born April 1930) was luckier than most of the others, in that his loot had been entrusted to his brothers, and when he emerged, he had a house in South London and a few other investments to keep him going. Unfortunately, during his prison stint, his daughter Lorraine had died in a car accident. He took a while to learn how to live harmoniously with his wife Rene (his daughter Marilyn having moved out upon his return). Shortly after his release, Wisbey was imprisoned on remand over a swindle involving travellers' cheques. The judge acknowledged the minor nature of his role.
Thomas Wisbey and James Hussey fell back into crime and were jailed in 1989 for cocaine dealing, with Wisbey sentenced to ten years and Hussey to seven years. In her book Gangster's Moll, Marilyn Wisbey recounts that on 8 June 1988, after returning home from a visit to an abortion clinic and lying down for a nap they were raided by the Drugs Squad. Her parents were staying with her and her son Jonathan while their tenants moved out of their house (they had been away on a long trip to the USA). The raid uncovered 1 kg of cocaine and Rene and Marilyn Wisbey were arrested along with Jimmy Hussey, who had been spotted accepting a package from Tommy Wisbey in a park. Wisbey himself was captured a year later in Wilmslow, Cheshire. He was allegedly staying with another woman, to the shock of his wife and daughter. In return for Hussey and Wisbey pleading guilty, the two women were unconditionally freed. Upon their release from prison, both men retired from work.
Tommy Wisbey later explained: "We were against drugs all our lives, but as the years went on, towards the end of the '70s, it became more and more the 'in' thing. Being involved in the Great Train Robbery, our name was good. They knew we had never grassed anyone, we had done our time without putting anyone else in the frame". On 26 July 1989, the two men pleaded guilty and admitted at Snaresbrook Crown Court, London that they were a part of a £500,000 cocaine trafficking ring. Wisbey's grandson has also had trouble with the law in Cyprus.
In later years, the robbers generally came together only for the funerals of their fellow gang members. At Wilson's funeral on 10 May 1990, Reynolds saw Roy James (who got into a verbal argument with the press), Buster Edwards, Bob Welch (hobbling on crutches) and Jimmy White (who went unnoticed most due to his ability to blend into the background). At Edward's funeral in 1994, Reynolds only saw Bob Welch there, with Hussey, Wisbey and James all in prison.
Accomplices
John Wheater was released from prison in February 1966 and managed his family's laundry business in Harrogate. He later wrote two articles in the Sunday Telegraph.
Lenny Field was released in 1967 and went to live in North London. He disappeared from the public eye.
The replacement train driver was never found. He had no criminal record and in the end Mills drove the train anyway, with police having no reason to suspect the other's involvement.
Jack Mills - robbery victim
Mills had constant trauma headaches the rest of his life. He died in 1970 from leukaemia . Mills' assailant was one of three members of the gang who was never identified. Frank Williams (at the time a Detective Inspector) claims that at least three men who were directly involved are still at liberty and enjoying to the full their share of the money stolen and the profits from the way they invested it. One of them is the man responsible for the attack on the train driver. The train driver's assailant is not some phantom figure lurking in the criminal underworld. Williams traced him, identified him and took him to Scotland Yard where, with Tommy Butler, Williams questioned him.[ citation needed ] He could not be charged because of lack of evidence; there were no fingerprints or identifiable marks anywhere. None of those arrested informed on him although he had completely disobeyed instructions and used violence during the robbery.
David Whitby - robbery victim
Like Jack Mills, David Whitby was also from Crewe. David was traumatised by his track-side assault and subsequent rough treatment and never recovered from his ordeal.[ clarification needed ] He was 25 years old at the time of the robbery. He was able to resume his career as a secondman . However he subsequently died from a heart attack on 6 January 1972 at the age of 34.
The police
After his success in securing White and Edwards, Tommy Butler got the Metropolitan Police Commissioner, Sir Joseph Simpson, to suspend his retirement on his 55th birthday so he could continue to hunt the robbers. This paid off with the arrests of first Wilson, then Reynolds. When asked by a reporter after the sentencing of Reynolds whether that was the end of it, Butler replied that it was not over until Biggs was caught. In 1969 he was finally forced to accept compulsory retirement, and later died in 1970, aged 57 years. That same day, Biggs's memoirs were published in The Sun newspaper.
Butler's deputy, Frank Williams, was passed over to be his replacement as head of the Flying Squad because of his deal with Edwards (which he thought would seal his promotion) and his deal with another of the robbers who was never caught. Following this, he left the force to become head of security for QANTAS . He wrote his autobiography No Fixed Address, which was published in 1973.
Jack Slipper of the Metropolitan Police was promoted to Detective Chief Superintendent . He became so involved in the case that he continued to hunt many of the escaped robbers after he retired. He believed Biggs should not be released after returning to the UK in 2001 and he often appeared in the media to comment on any news item connected with the robbery before his death on 24 August 2005 at the age of 81.
Detective Chief Superintendent Ernest Malcolm Fewtrell, Head of the Buckinghamshire Crime Investigation Department (CID) was born on 29 September 1909 and died on 28 November 2005, aged 96 years. He retired on the last day of the trial after the verdicts were handed down (at the then compulsory retirement age of 55). This allowed him (with Ronald Payne of The Sunday Telegraph , who was involved in the paper's coverage of the case) to be the first of the investigators to write a book The Train Robbers on the robbery investigation in 1964. In the book he expressed some frustration with the Flying Squad although he mostly had praise for individual officers. His one regret was that he had the search for the hideout carried out radiating outwards from the scene of the robbery rather than an inwards search from a 30-mile (48 km) perimeter. He worked as an Accommodation Officer for Portsmouth Polytechnic before retiring to live by the sea near Swanage. He continued to express disgust at any film that he felt glamorised the robbers. It has been said that he bore a striking resemblance to John Thaw , who was the star of Inspector Morse , which, perhaps coincidentally, was a television series about a detective in the Thames Valley Police Force (the modern-day successor to Buckinghamshire Constabulary). Fewtrell was assisted and later succeeded in the investigation by John Woolley, who served in the Buckinghamshire Constabulary from 1959 to 1984.
George Hatherill (1898–1986) had his service extended by one year because of the need to complete the investigation of the Great Train Robbery. He visited Canada and the USA as a lecturer on police matters. He died on 17 June 1986 at the age of 87.
Gerald MacArthur died aged 70 years on 21 July 1996. He was famous for breaking up the Richardson Gang at a time when a significant number of London-based detectives were known to be corrupt.
Ernest (Ernie) Millen (1911–1988) was regarded as one of the finest-ever detectives from Scotland Yard by the time of his retirement.
The crime scene
One of the post-office carriages involved is preserved at the Nene Valley Railway at Peterborough , Cambridgeshire, and is being restored. The locomotive was no. D326 (later no. 40126). It was involved in a number of serious operating incidents throughout its operational life. The retrieved Monopoly board used by the robbers at their Leatherslade Farm hideout, as well as a genuine £5 note from the robbery, are on display at the Thames Valley Police museum in Sulhamstead , Berkshire .
The government
The audacity and scale of the robbery was yet another controversy with which the Conservative government of Harold Macmillan had to cope. Macmillan resigned in October 1963, claiming poor health. He did not contest his seat at the next election in September 1964, which the Labour Party won under Harold Wilson .
Recovery of the money
£2,631,684 was stolen from the train (although the police report claims that £2,595,997 was the actual amount stolen). The bulk of the haul was in £1 notes and £5 notes (both the older white note and the newer blue note which was half its size). The £5 notes were bundled in batches of £2,500, the £1 notes in batches of £500. There were also ten-shilling notes in batches of £250. A quantity of Irish and Scottish money was also stolen. With the exception of a few 'drinks' for associates, the loot was split into 17 equal shares of around £150,000 each (George Hatherill claims that there were 18 shares).
With a few notable exceptions, the money was quickly laundered or divided by friends, family and associates of the robbers. Much was laundered through bookmakers (Wilson and Wisbey were themselves bookmakers) although, astonishingly, only a few hundred pounds were identifiable by serial number so the robbers could have spent the money without fear of being traced. There were 1,579 notes whose serial numbers were known and the rest of the money was completely untraceable.
The £5 notes on the train were of two different types, because in 1957 the British Government had begun to replace the large white notes with smaller blue ones. The final changeover had not been completed by the time of the robbery. The white notes quickly became far more conspicuous to use, making it harder for them to be spent.
Although within six months of the robbery ten of the robbers had been locked up awaiting trial and three others were wanted criminals on the run, very little of the money had actually been recovered. This has caused speculation that there is a great deal of robbery loot still out there. In fact, the money was quickly seized and spent by predatory gangsters and greedy associates, relatives and lawyers. So the proceeds of the greatest cash robbery in British history were quickly used up, with few of the robbers receiving any real long-term benefit from the stolen money.
Less than £400,000 was eventually recovered. Over half of this consisted of the shares of Roger Cordrey (£141,017) and (allegedly) Brian Field (£100,900). A further £36,000 was recovered from Jimmy White's caravan. Roy James was carrying £12,041 when captured. The final sum recovered was £47,245 that was found in a telephone box in Great Dover Street, Newington , South London.
Telephone box controversy
The £47,245 recovered from a telephone box included 57 notes whose serial numbers had been recorded by the bank in Scotland. This money was allegedly part of a deal struck with Frank Williams by "Alf Thomas". Piers Paul Read, in The Train Robbers, claimed that the police were feeling the pressure because although they had caught many of the robbers, they had failed to recover much of the money. While no evidence had been found against "Thomas", who only had a reputation as a minor thief, some of the identifiable bank notes had been traced back to him through friends who had been charged with receiving. Given that the police had no evidence against "Thomas", either at Leatherslade Farm or connection with either of the two gangs, Butler was prepared to let him go. Williams convinced Butler to pull "Thomas" in for questioning and in return for releasing him and not charging his friends with more serious crimes, £50,000 was to be returned. On 3 December 1963, which happened to be the same day that Roy James was taken into custody, the police received an anonymous tip directing them to the money in the phone box. The money was driven up to Aylesbury and taken into custody by Detective Superintendent Fewtrell, who wondered how his London colleagues could know how much money there was. He had to bring in bank clerks to count the damp and musty money to determine the final sum.
However, Williams made no admission to the recovery of the money being the result of a deal with "Thomas". Despite claiming that his negotiations were responsible for the return of this money, Williams in his book No Fixed Address (1973) claimed not to know the identity of the person who had returned the money, although he did mention several robbers to whom he had offered deals through intermediaries. He noted that it seemed to him that Butler was sceptical of his efforts and that at the press conference Hatherill and Millen did not reveal the circumstances behind the find and that he was never asked to talk with them about it. Despite "Alf Thomas" being the man identified as the assailant of the train driver, Jack Mills, by Bruce Reynolds (albeit indirectly), Williams only makes mention of the assailant once in his book. In this section (often quoted by other sources), he confirms that, with Tommy Butler, he questioned the man they knew to be the assailant but that they had no evidence to convict him. Strangely, however, he makes no further mention of him. This lends credence to the claim that a deal was done with "Alf Thomas" which later caused outrage in the police hierarchy. It is hinted in several books that the deals done by Williams were responsible for him being overlooked for promotion and that Williams was unhappy his efforts were not recognised by Butler, but were instead hidden from superiors.
For his part, George Hatherill, in his book A Detective's Tale, stated that the motive behind the return of the money was not known for certain. He said that the money was returned by "one about whom extensive inquiries had been made and who in fact was interrogated at length. But in spite of our strong suspicions, nothing could be proved against him and so no charge could be brought. My belief is that he thought we knew more about him than we did, and thinking things were getting hot, he decided to get rid of the money to avoid being found in possession with it". Hatherill does not mention Williams at all in his book. He retired on the last day of the trial at Aylesbury.
Legal fees
The ten gang members who were arrested shortly after the robbery had to spend a large amount on legal fees (approximately £30,000 each). Nine of them were sentenced to lengthy jail terms even though one-fifth of the proceeds of their theft was spent on lawyers. Additionally, several associates of the robbers were charged with receiving several hundred pounds of the money, but the lawyers defending the robbers obtained many times more in fees.
Money spent
The robbers who spent much time on the run overseas - Reynolds, Wilson and Edwards - had very little left when finally arrested, having had to spend money avoiding capture and indulging in lavish lifestyles without finding employment. Much of Jimmy White's money was taken from him.
According to Marilyn Wisbey, her father's share was hidden by his father Tommy Wisbey Senior in the panels in the doors of his home. Butler raided them three times but he never found the train money. The majority of the money was reputedly entrusted to Wisbey's father and also to his younger brother Ron, who coincidentally had saved some money of his own that was confiscated by the police. (It was returned to Ron three months later). By the time Wisbey was released from jail all of his share had either been spent or invested. Marilyn agrees with Piers Paul Read's assessment of how her father's share of approximately £150,000 was spent. Although the Wisbey share was one that was not taken by other criminals, Marilyn Wisbey is still bitter that her relatives got to spend a fair amount of the loot while the overall sum dwindled away. However, her grandfather used some of the money to buy them a house in Upper Norwood.
Six of the robbers escaped punishment in one way or another - the mysterious "Ulsterman" whose fate is unknown, three robbers who were never caught, John Daly who was lucky to have his charges dismissed at the trial and Ronnie Biggs who escaped jail and managed to avoid being taken back to the UK. John Daly had entrusted his money to another crook. This man had betrayed him to the police and had absconded with the money. He died before Daly could catch up to him. Upon the release of the others in the mid-1970s, "Bill Jennings"Who is this? got in touch with Buster Edwards and "Frank Monroe" got in touch with the South Coast Raiders. Both said that they had no money left. "Alf Thomas" had disappeared and John Daly at the time was said to be living on the dole in West Country. Ronnie Biggs quickly spent his share getting a new life (the ultimate goal of some criminals). He loved his new life in Australia, although by the time his family arrived in 1966, all but £7,000 had been spent. £55,000 had been paid as a package deal to get him out of the UK. The rest had gone on legal fees and expenses.
| leatherslade |
Alma Reville who died in 1982 was the wife and collaborator of which famous British character who was knighted in 1980 ? | The Great Train Robbery Crime Magazine
by Mark Pulham
The train didn’t seem to be anything special. It had a single diesel locomotive at the front, pulling a number of coaches, 12 in all, through the night, heading for its final destination, Euston Station in London. The only difference was that the coaches didn’t have windows. This was the overnight mail train from Scotland to London.
The train, known as the “Up Special” made the same journey every night, and had been doing so for 125 years. There had never been any major incidents.
But all that was about to change.
In 1963, there were many events which would be considered significant or noteworthy. In the United States, the year began with George Wallace taking over as the governor of Alabama after a landslide victory the previous November. In his inaugural speech he spoke the line for which he will always be remembered, “I say segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever.” Later on in the year, he would stand in the doorway of the University of Alabama to stop the enrollment of black students, only stepping aside when confronted by federal marshals, the deputy attorney general, and the Alabama National Guard.
The end of the year came with the assassination of John F. Kennedy.
In between those two events, Alcatraz closed as a penitentiary, the first James Bond film, Dr. No, had its North American premiere, and Martin Luther King gave his 17-minute “I Have A Dream” speech from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C.
In Great Britain, it was the swinging sixties. Heavy snow dominated the beginning of the year, with snow remaining on the ground in many places right into April. It was the worst winter in 16 years. The end of the year would see the police in Ashton-under-Lyne begin a fruitless search for a missing 12-year-old boy named John Kilbride.
Kim Philby, a high ranking member of British Intelligence, would turn out to be a double agent spying for the Russians. He would disappear and resurface later in Moscow. It was an embarrassment for the Conservative Government. One of Philby’s fellow double agents, Guy Burgess would die later in the year.
In Gorton, Manchester, 16-year-old Pauline Reade went missing, the first victim of the Moors Murderers, Brady and Hindley.
Harold Wilson became the leader of the Labour Party after the sudden death of Hugh Gaitskill; The Beatles released their first album “Please, Please Me” which went to number one and sparked Beatlemania. The album would remain at the top for 30 weeks until finally being toppled by their second album.
Following the Philby spy humiliation, the Conservative Government was hit by a second scandal, when 48-year-old John Profumo, the Secretary of State for War, resigned after admitting that he had been having a “secret” affair with a 21-year-old woman named Christine Keeler, a call girl. The problem was that Profumo wasn’t the only one having an affair with Keeler. Also sharing her bed was Yevgeny Ivanov, a senior naval attaché, and spy, at the Soviet Embassy in London. When Keeler was interviewed, she used the term “nuclear payload,” a term not used by the general public at the time. It was clear that John Profumo liked to talk in bed. The Profumo Affair would eventually bring down the Government.
In other news, Pope John XXIII died, and in the Soviet Union Valentina Tereshkova became the first woman in space.
And in the middle of it all, in August, 15 men, plus a few accomplices, would commit a crime so audacious that it would go down in history as one of the greatest robberies of all time, one that all others would be compared to: The Great Train Robbery.
The Fixer – Brian Field
Brian Field was a 28-year-old solicitor’s managing clerk working for the company James and Wheater. Despite his young age, he was already very successful, both in his personal life and his professional. He had a beautiful German wife, Karin, and lived in a large house in Oxfordshire named Kabri. His boss, John Wheater, was not as well off as his young employee. Wheater lived in a run down neighborhood, and where Field drove a brand new Jaguar, Wheater travelled around in a battered old Ford.
But then, Wheater was honest, while Brian Field was decidedly not. Many of Field’s clients were wealthy, with large houses in the country, filled with artwork, antiques, and jewelry. A great many of his other clients were career criminals, for whom he would arrange alibis, find friendly witnesses, and give out the odd bribe here and there. Naturally, for a small take in the proceeds, Field would supply his less than honest clients an inventory of what could be found in the homes of his other clients.
On November 27, 1962, three businessmen entered Comet House at Heathrow Airport. With their dark suits and two of them wearing bowler hats, it was clear that these were “city gents,” possibly bankers, there to do business, probably with the airport’s own bank.
While the businessmen waited, another group of people were making its way to Comet House. Three security guards from the now defunct BOAC airline had left the Hatton Cross branch of Barclay’s Bank, 300 yards away, and were heading to the building. They were escorting a steel strongbox, a transfer of money between the two banks. The three security men were in one car, followed by a security van containing the strongbox, and a radio car following at the rear.
As they pulled up, they must have noticed the two Jaguar cars and a van that were parked nearby. Inside one of the cars was a chauffeur and, sitting next to him, a woman. It was clear that they were waiting for someone.
The strongbox was taken from the security van and loaded onto a trolley. The three security men wheeled their cargo into Comet House and over to the elevators. While the elevator descended, the three security guards noticed the city gents in bowler hats coming down the stairs, but didn’t take much notice of them.
The elevator arrived and the doors opened. Inside were five men, all wearing balaclavas and masks, and carrying pick axe handles and iron bars. The men jumped out at the guards, and the three businessmen joined in the attack. Within a few moments, two of the security men were unconscious on the floor, while the third one was overpowered.
The robbers wheeled the strongbox back outside and got it into the van, then they all climbed into the van and the two Jaguars and raced away around the back of the hangars. The getaway vehicles stopped at a disused gate that opened onto the A30 motorway, and one man got out. In his hand was a pair of bolt cutters, which he used to cut the chain holding the gate closed. Once the gate was open, the vehicles sped through and joined the traffic heading for London on the Great West Road.
The whole robbery had been planned and timed with military precision, and had taken just two minutes. Inside the strongbox was £62,500, the equivalent today of £1,050,000, or $1,690,000.
Several suspects were picked up by the police and put on an identity parade. But there was a problem for the police. The “city gent” suspects all wore false moustaches, bowler hats, and business suits, which meant that the people in the identity parade had to be similarly disguised.
With the level of skill shown in the robbery, the police were fairly confident as to who had carried it out, and had picked up two suspects that they were sure of, Gordon Goody and Charlie Wilson. Both men were picked out by the guards at the identity parade, and when a search of Goody’s address was carried out, the police turned up false moustaches and chauffeurs hats.
The two men were put on trial, and much to the surprise of the police, they were both acquitted, thanks to a defense team that included Brian Field.
A Mysterious Irishman Known as “The Ulsterman”
The idea to rob the mail train had, according to some sources, been floating around London for a few years. Who came up with the plan in not known, though it is most likely a mysterious Irishman known only as “The Ulsterman” who was well known in the underworld as a man who came up with the ideas, and then sold them on to a gang for a cut in the proceeds. Eventually, the Ulsterman brought the idea to Brian Field, who in turn shopped it around to a few London gangs.
This was a robbery that would that would need someone who could gather together a team of professionals, someone who could plan the robbery meticulously. Such as those who pulled off the Heathrow heist. Brian called his old friend and client, Gordon Goody.
Douglas Gordon Goody was a 33-year-old hairdresser, and the deputy leader of the South West Gang. He was also one of the gang’s key organizers. Brian set up a meeting between himself, the Ulsterman, and Goody. Goody had brought along another member of the South West Gang, Buster Edwards.
Ronald Christopher “Buster” Edwards was born on January 27, 1932 in Lambeth, South London. After he left school, he began working in a sausage factory, and it was while he was working there that he began his criminal career, when he started stealing meat to sell in the post-war black market. He became a club owner, was an ex-boxer, and a small time crook who robbed easy targets along with a friend of his, Gordon Goody.
The four men met, and Goody listened to what the Ulsterman had to say.
The “Up Special” Train
The Up Special
The “Up Special” mail train was a mobile post office sorting room, where some 70 post office workers sorted the mail during the 414- mile trip between Glasgow and London. There were 12 coaches, all pulled by a single diesel locomotive. Ten of the coaches were used to sort the ordinary mail, but the first two coaches directly behind the locomotive were different. The first was the baggage wagon, and the second was the High Value Package coach, or HPV.
The HPV carried the registered mail, which included money that the banks sent down from their local branches in the north to the main branches in London. Most of the time, the money carried in the HPV would be around £300,000, a good haul. However, if the robbery took place just after a bank holiday, then the amount carried by the train would be significantly higher. Best of all, the HPV coach was virtually unprotected.
Bruce Reynolds – The Leader of the South West Gang
Bruce Reynolds
Goody and Edwards thought the idea was a good one, and they would take it to other members of the gang.
The unofficial leader of the South West Gang was Bruce Reynolds, a London antique dealer and the acknowledged planner of the gang. Goody told Reynolds about the train.
Bruce Richard Reynolds was born in London on September 7, 1931, the son of a trade union activist at the Ford car plant in Dagenham. After his mother died in 1935, his father remarried, and Bruce had trouble getting along with his father and his new wife, so Bruce spent a great deal of his time with his grandmothers.
Bruce started breaking and entering, and subsequently spent some years in prison. But the jail time didn’t cure him. Once he was released, he went straight back into a life of crime. Eventually, he set himself up as an antiques dealer, and carried on his criminal career.
Gordon Goody
Reynolds, Goody, and Edwards discussed the idea with the fourth member of the gang, Charlie Wilson, who was acquitted along with Goody of the Heathrow robbery.
Born in Battersea, South London, on June 30, 1932, Charlie was the most popular of the gang members, and the most dangerous. He was a career criminal from an early age, and the proceeds from his crimes went to pay for his shares in various gambling ventures.
Career criminals are always on the look out for the “big one,” a masterpiece of crime, and Bruce Reynolds was no different. It was clear to him right from the outset that this was it, this was the one. It was, as he called it, his “El Dorado.”
An “Old Mark Firm”
Buster Edwards, Tommy Wisbey, Jimmy White, Bruce Reynolds, Roger Cordrey, and Charlie Wilson
What was also clear right from the beginning was that the South West Gang was too small to handle a job of this size on its own. They had to recruit more people and create a pick and mix gang, what is known as an “Odd mark firm.”
They also needed someone who knew how to stop a train, and for this, they called on Tommy Wisbey. Tommy was a member of another criminal gang, the South Coast Raiders. Wisbey was a 33-year-old bookmaker and a “heavy” for the gang. He knew the members of the South West Gang and had been friends with them since childhood. He joined the odd mark firm, and brought in other members of the South Coast Raiders, including Bob Welch, James “Big Jim” Hussey, and one particular member, Roger Cordrey, who was an electronics expert and knew exactly what would be needed to stop a train.
Another six men were recruited to bring the number up to 15. One was Jimmy White, who acted as the firm’s quartermaster. White was a thief who generally acted alone, but he had known Reynolds for a long time, and agreed to join the firm. Two getaway drivers were also recruited. One was Reynolds’s brother-in-law, John Daly, and the other was Roy James.
Roy James was born in August 1935, and was already well known, though not for his criminal activities. He was a popular racing driver who that same year won the Formula Junior Race at Brands Hatch. But motor racing is an expensive sport, and he had turned to crime to finance his passion, becoming a cat burglar. The gang knew that he was a good driver; he was one of the getaway drivers on the Heathrow job.
Ronnie Biggs at the time of the robbery
The last one was Ronnie Biggs. Born in Lambeth, South London, on August 8, 1929, Ronald Arthur Biggs was a small time criminal who had been stealing things since his early teens. In 1950, while he was doing time in Wormwood Scrubs, he met another inmate, Bruce Reynolds.
By 1963, Ronnie Biggs had gone straight. In jail, he had learned how to be a carpenter, and had set up his own firm with a friend named Ray Stripp. On paper, the firm was doing well, but with slow paying customers, it was sometimes difficult to meet the payroll. With a second child recently born, Biggs decided to contact an old friend to borrow £500 to tide him over. He called on Bruce Reynolds.
Reynolds told Biggs that he wished he could help, but all of his money was tied up in a bit of business. Reynolds wondered if Ronnie would be interested in joining. They met that weekend, and Ronnie was reluctant, as he was now married and with a family. Reynolds said okay, but said he could guarantee 40 grand. Ronnie asked for time to think about it. Reynolds said if he wanted to take part, he would have to come up with someone who could drive a train.
Maybe it was fate, but Biggs, at the time, was doing some building work for a train driver, replacing the windows in his house. A few days later, while at the train driver’s house, Biggs casually asked what he would do for £40,000. The driver, “Peter” said he’d do anything for that type of money. Peter may have thought that he was joking at first, but it was clear that Ronnie was serious, and Peter was in.
The gang was all set.
The Plan
The plan had been basically worked out, but now, with everything in place, Reynolds worked on the plan some more, giving it a final polish until he was satisfied. Reynolds had been supplied with the route the train took, and with Roger Cordrey, they had worked out where to stop the train. Cordrey determined that the train should be stopped at Sears Crossing, just outside of Cheddington in Buckinghamshire. They could then move the train just a mile along the track to Bridego Bridge.
Reynolds needed to take a closer look at the bridge where the unloading would take place. He joined a fishing club in the area, and as he sat there fishing, he took photographs of the bridge and the trains that ran past, taking notes and adding to the plan.
The Safe House
Leatherslade Farm
Bridego Bridge was perfect, a barely used stretch of track miles from anywhere, and with a road running right underneath it.
The plan also needed a “safe house” where the gang could hole up before and after the robbery. They decided on Leatherslade Farm, at Oakley in Buckinghamshire, just 28 miles away from Bridego Bridge where the unloading of the train would take place. Brian Field was to arrange the purchase of the farm, an isolated property consisting of a ramshackle two storey farmhouse and several small run down outbuildings.
For the next couple of months, the gang planned and rehearsed again and again. Finally, they were ready. Knowing that the next bank holiday was on August 5, Reynolds set the date for the robbery for the day after, and waited for confirmation from the Ulsterman.
Early on Tuesday, August 6, 1963, Ronnie Biggs left home and caught the train from Redhill Station, heading for Victoria Station in London. Also on board, though travelling separately, was “Peter” the train driver.
Once they arrived in London, they went around the corner to a café where, waiting for them, were Bruce Reynolds, John Daly, Jimmy White, and a big man known only as “Mr. Three.”
After a cup of tea and something to eat, the six men left and climbed into a green army Land Rover. Peter was relaxed and impressed by the Land Rover. Naïve, Peter innocently said, “Nice vehicles, these Land Rovers. Who do they belong to?” Jimmy White said he didn’t know, “We nicked it the night before last in the Strand.”
Peter looked shocked. “Nicked it!” he said, “Christ! You can get pinched for that kind of thing.” Everyone in the Land Rover started laughing.
Charlie Wilson
By the time they reached Leatherslade Farm it was mid morning, and after unpacking the Land Rover, they settled down to wait for the other gang members to arrive. Late that afternoon, an Austin army truck pulled in to the farm, stolen earlier. Inside were Buster Edwards, Tommy Wisbey, Bob Welch, and Jim Hussey. Two others were with them, “Mr. One” and “Mr. Two.” Shortly after the arrival of the truck, a second Land Rover pulled in, with Charlie Wilson and Roy James. Roger Cordrey arrived later on a bicycle.
The only one missing from the group was Gordon Goody. He was staying with Brian Field at his house in Pangbourne, waiting for a phone call from the Ulsterman letting them know that the money was on the way.
As the gang members waited at the farm, they amused themselves by playing cards and “Monopoly.” At around 11 p.m., Gordon Goody arrived. He told them they could all relax, nothing was going to be happening that night. They all settled down for a night of rest, though most of them couldn’t sleep right away, and instead played cards and drank beer until they were tired.
The next day, they had a visitor, a Mr. Wyatt. He was a neighboring farmer who used to hire a meadow at Leatherslade when the old owners were there. He wondered if he could have the same arrangement with the new owners. Bruce Reynolds told him that they were only there to redecorate before the new owners moved in, but he would pass on the message.
They sat around all day, waiting. They went over the plan once again. The plan was for the gang to pose as an army unit engaged in night time military exercises. They were using army vehicles and they would all be dressed in army uniforms. Bruce would be the officer in charge, and he even had forged official papers in case someone asked.
Stopping the train would be fairly simple. As with cars on the road, trains also had to obey similar lights along the track, green for go, amber to slow down, and red to stop. It would just be a matter of rigging the lights to show the colors they needed to bring the train to a halt.
The “Up Special” Departs Glasgow Central Station for London
While the gang did its final review of the plan, in Glasgow, the train was almost ready to depart.
On Wednesday, August 7, 1963, around 6:50 p.m., the “Up Special” pulled out of Glasgow Central Station in Scotland for its regular trip to Euston Station in London. On board, there were 72 post office workers, sorting the mail as the train made its way down to London. There were several stops along the way, where more mail was collected and sorted mail was dropped off. Mail was also collected and dropped off using the track side hooks.
Around 10 p.m., Goody went back to Brian Field’s house to get news from the Ulsterman. When he returned some time later, he had the news that everyone had been waiting for. The train was on its way, and it was carrying an unusually large amount of money.
The gang got ready, loaded the vehicles, and just after midnight on Thursday, August 8, coincidentally, Ronnie Biggs birthday, they headed out toward Leighton Buzzard in Bedfordshire.
The lead Land Rover was driven by Mr. Two who was accompanied by Ronnie Biggs, Bruce Reynolds, John Daly, Roger Cordrey, and Peter the train driver.
The truck followed behind them, driven by Mr. One, and carrying almost all of the rest of the gang, with the exception of Gordon Goody, Jimmy White, and Roy James, who followed along in the second Land Rover. Within the hour, they were all at their designated posts.
The first Land Rover dropped John Daly and Roger Cordrey just outside Leighton Buzzard, where there was a signal light known as the “Distant Signal.” If there is no traffic on the line ahead and the track is okay, then this signal will show a green light. If, however, traffic is heavy or if there is a problem with the line ahead, then this signal would show amber. The driver would then know that it is okay to carry on, but to slow the train down as the next signal, known as the “Home Signal” may be red, which meant the train would have to stop.
After dropping off Cordrey and Daly, the Land Rover continued on to Bridego Bridge, where it met up with the rest of the gang. They all put on blue overalls over their army uniforms, an added precaution from Reynolds, who believed that if they were seen on the tracks, they would just be taken for railway maintenance workers doing repairs to the track.
Biggs and Peter climbed the embankment and made their way along the railway track to Sears Crossing, not far from Ledburn in Buckinghamshire, between Leighton Buzzard and Cheddington to the south, and the location of the Home Signal.
Roy James cut the telephone wires for the trackside emergency call box and then helped Bruce Reynolds cut the public telephone lines so that no one could call the police. In the meantime, other members of the gang unrolled markers that would show where the train had to be stopped.
Once this was done, Reynolds got one of the Land Rovers and headed further up the track to his position at the Ledburn Road rail bridge, where he would keep a lookout for the train as it approached. Once he had identified the train, he would call the others and let them know it was coming. At Sears Crossing, Biggs and Peter were joined by the rest of the gang, apart from Bruce, and John Daly who was stationed at the Distant Signal. Now all they could do was settle down and wait. Peter the train driver was so relaxed, he took out a pipe. As he struck the match, the flare seemed brilliant in the darkness of the night. Charlie Wilson came scrambling over from the other side of the embankment and put it out. Wilson looked at Peter and said, “Look at the old fucker. You’d think he was on his holiday.”
Knowing when the train had left Glasgow gave them a fair idea of when it would reach Leighton Buzzard, and it would be a couple of hours. Several trains went through during that time, but none were the “Up Special.” Finally, just after 3 a.m., right on time, Reynolds saw the “Up Special” coming along the tracks. He picked up his walkie-talkie and said, “This is it, this is it, this is it.”
John Daly covered the green signal with a glove and black paper, making it impossible to be seen from the train drivers cab. Cordrey had wired up an amber light to a set of batteries, which Daly now switched on.
At the home signal, a similar device had been set up, this time with a red light. The green light was covered.
The Robbery
Train Driver Jack Mills
The train driver, 57-year-old Jack Mills, saw the amber light ahead and knew that the next light would probably be red. He slowed the train down and continued along. At Sears Crossing, 1,300 yards beyond the distant signal, Jack Mills saw the expected red signal light, and applied the brakes.
He was confused to see, further along the track, a green signal light, which suggested to Mills and his 25-year-old fireman David Whitby, that there may be a fault in the red signal light.
David Whitby climbed down from the cab and walked along the track to the emergency phone, but found on arrival that the phone was dead and saw that the lines had been cut. Moments later, a man appeared, wearing blue overalls. He told Whitby to follow him, and Whitby, thinking the man was a railway maintenance worker, followed along. Whitby was wrong, it was Buster Edwards.
Suddenly, Whitby was grabbed by several men wearing balaclavas and rolled down the embankment. Whitby was handcuffed and one of the men clapped a hand across his mouth and whispered, “If you shout, I will kill you.”
In the meantime, other members of the gang had climbed up into the cab. The idea was to restrain the driver, but Jack Mills resisted, and Mr. Three, the biggest member of the gang, hit him with an iron cosh. Mills collapsed, striking his head again as he went down.
Two coaches back, Roy James and Jimmy White were busy uncoupling the 10 rear coaches from the HVP coach. The 10 ordinary coaches would be left behind while the engine and the first two coaches would be driven just under a mile along the track to Bridego Bridge.
Everything was going well, but now, they hit a snag. The train had been uncoupled, and now the plan was to move it down the line. But Peter, who was unnerved by the sight of the blood from Jack Mills, was not familiar with this type of engine. Brake pressure had gone down, and Peter told Goody he was waiting for the brake pressure to build back up. Frustrated and anxious, Goody told Biggs to get Peter out of there, and he got Mills up instead.
Goody told him to move the train and he’ll tell him where to stop. Wilson reassured Mills, bleeding profusely from his injury, that no more harm will come to him and he was not to worry.
Mills drove the train down to Bridego Bridge, leaving the 10 remaining coaches behind with the workers carrying on as usual, sorting the mail, unaware of what had happened outside. The first stage of the robbery had taken around two minutes.
Mills stopped the train at the markers that had been placed on the bridge, and where Bruce Reynolds, in his officer’s uniform, waited for them. Bruce told Biggs to take Peter down to the Land Rover and wait there with him. Biggs sat with Peter and they watched as the robbery continued.
At Bridego Bridge, the robbers attacked the HVP coach with sledgehammers and axes, smashing through the windows. Normally, the HVP coach would have been fairly secure, but this particular coach was not the one that was normally used. The three HVP coaches that were usually used on the “Up Special” were out of commission with various faults, allowing for the less secure coach to be used on this particular night. It is unlikely that this was just a fortuitous coincidence, but more likely an act of deliberate sabotage.
Inside the HVP coach, the five workers, who had guessed exactly what was going on, had barricaded the doors with mailbags. One of the gang called out to get the guns, and hearing this, the postal workers inside took down the barricade, not realizing that the robbers were not armed.
Once the gang was inside, the workers were tied up and made to lie on their stomachs. Jack Mills and David Whitby were brought from the locomotive and were similarly tied up.
The gang then formed a human chain and began to move the mailbags out of the coach and down the embankment, where they were loaded into the vehicles. Quickly, quietly, and efficiently, the bags were loaded until the truck was full. Bruce Reynolds, knowing that dawn was rapidly approaching, gave the order to move out.
The postal workers on the floor of the coach were told to stay where they were and not move for half an hour, and then the gang all got into their vehicles and drove away. They had taken 120 mailbags, leaving just seven behind on the train.
Thanks to the meticulous planning of Bruce Reynolds, the whole robbery, from the time the train was stopped to the getaway, had taken less than 40 minutes.
By this time, the postal workers who had been left behind in the 10 coaches had begun to wonder why they had been stuck there for so long. Some of them emerged from the coaches and discovered that the front part of the train was missing. They realized what must have happened.
One of the guards used his lamp to stop a train that was passing and got a ride down to Cheddington Station, arriving at around 4:15 a.m. He telephoned the Buckinghamshire Police to report the robbery.
Back to the Safe House to Tally the Take: A staggering £2,650,000.
The gang made its way back to Leatherslade Farm, with Ronnie Biggs monitoring the police band on the radio. It was just beginning to get light when they pulled into the farmyard, and the radio, which had remained silent all through the drive, now burst into life. The robbery had been reported.
The vehicles were unloaded by the tired men and the Land Rovers and the truck were hidden out of sight in one of the out buildings. Now came the task of counting the money, which nobody seemed anxious to do, this being the boring part. But once the bags had been opened and the sight of all the money was in front of them, they changed their minds.
Bruce Reynolds gave each of the gang members an assignment. Some men were sent to keep a lookout, some were to open all of the bags to see if they had been fitted with tracking devices. Ronnie Biggs, Mr. Two, and Bruce himself, were to unwrap the money and pass it along to Cordrey and Wilson, who were to do the counting.
The haul was made up of 10 shilling notes, £1 notes, and £5 notes, both the older white ones and the new blue notes, which were about half the size. It took a few hours to count the money. When they had reached £1,000,000, they were all called in to take a look at it. Gordon Goody began singing Tony Bennett’s “It’s The Good Life.” While Charlie Wilson started dancing the Twist and singing Gerry and the Pacemakers, “I Like It.” He would like it even more at the end of the count. The total, in used bills and completely untraceable, was almost a staggering £2,650,000. Today, that would be £44,000,000 or $68,500,000.
The plan to rob the mail train had gone like clockwork, thanks to the precision military style planning of Bruce Reynolds. But like many great plans, it just needed one weak link to bring it crashing down . . . and the robbers had one.
One Weak Link
Malcolm Fewtrell (centre) investigating the robbery
Chief Superintendent Malcolm Fewtrell, aged 54, was the head of the Buckinghamshire Criminal Investigation Department. He was called and arrived at the scene of the crime at around 5 a.m., and joined later by Leonard “Nipper” Read from the London Metropolitan Police. Fewtrell began supervision of the evidence gathering before heading off to Cheddington Station, where he spoke to Jack Mills, David Whitby, and the postal workers.
It was clear that there were about 15 men involved, all, according to the witnesses, wearing blue overalls. But other than that, there was very little to go on.
But something one of the witnesses said made Fewtrell stop and think. The witness told how one of the robbers told them not to move for a half hour. This suggested that the robbers may have been hiding out somewhere within a 30 minutes drive from the scene of the crime. This would make sense. If they tried to get back to London, there was the chance that the crime would be discovered and roadblocks set up before they made it.
Fewtrell held a press conference later and gave this information to them. But the press mistakenly reported that the police were searching within 30 miles.
For the most part, public opinion on the robbery clearly put them on the side of the gang, who they saw as Robin Hood types, who had taken from the establishment. The general attitude of the man on the street was good luck to them. This no doubt incensed the government and the police, who spared no effort in tracking the robbers down.
The gang had planned to lie low at Leatherslade Farm until the heat died down, possibly a couple of weeks, and they had brought in enough food to last them a length of time. But when they heard on the radio of Fewtrell’s plan to search within 30 miles of the crime scene, their plans were suddenly changed. They could not stay there, they would be found.
Hurriedly, they wiped down the building to get rid of any prints, and left as soon as they could. They had made arrangements with Brian Field that after they were gone, he would send in a cleaning crew to do a thorough cleaning of the farm, assuring that there was nothing left that could link it to the robbers. If it was necessary, they would even burn the place to the ground.
The following Monday, Charlie Wilson called Brian Field and asked if the farm had been cleaned. Field assured Wilson that it had, everything had been taken care of and there was no problem. Whether it was something Field had said or his general tone, something made Wilson suspicious. He didn’t believe Field. Wilson called for a meeting with Bruce Reynolds, Buster Edwards, Roy James, and John Daly. Wilson told them of his concerns, and they all agreed that they needed to be certain.
The next day, they called Brian Field and arranged a meeting for later that day. Confronted by the others, Brian Field cracked and admitted that he could not be sure if the farm had been cleaned or not. Brian Field was their weak link. Charlie Wilson was infuriated. If the others had not been there to hold him back, Charlie Wilson would have killed Brian Field right there.
Police Find the Safe House
There was only one solution. They had to go back to the farm and do it themselves. But they were too late. The police had received a tip from a farm laborer, who told them he had seen a suspicious looking vehicle at Leatherslade Farm a few days before. Initially, this tip was overlooked, but eventually, police followed up on it. Leatherslade Farm was investigated on Monday, August 13, the day before the gang confronted Field.
A police sergeant and a constable came to the farm and started to look around. A truck that had hurriedly been painted yellow was soon found. They also found both of the Land Rovers, both bearing the same number plate. The overjoyed police gave the news to reporters. The gang’s hideout had been found.
Inside, the police found bedding and sleeping bags, and a large amount of food that indicated they had planned on being there some time. They also found mail sacks, bank note wrappers, and registered mail packets.
It was clear that the place had been hurriedly cleaned, but some places had been missed by the robbers. Fingerprints were found, including one on a bottle of ketchup and a couple on the Monopoly board. According to some sources, the robbers played Monopoly after the robbery, but instead of the game money, they used the real money they had just stolen.
“The Grey Fox” from Scotland Yard Forms a Train Robbery Squad
By this time, Scotland Yard’s Flying Squad, headed by the newly promoted Detective Chief Superintendent Tommy Butler, had become involved, investigating the London end of the case. Tommy Butler, known as the “Grey Fox” for his shrewdness, was a relentless hunter of criminals, whose dedication to the job bordered on the fanatical.
Butler swiftly formed a Train Robbery Squad, made up of six men. They were Detective Inspector Frank Williams, four detective sergeants, Jack Slipper, Steve Moore, Jim Nevill, and Lou Van Dyck, and Detective Constable Tommy Thorburn.
A £10,000 reward was posted by Postmaster General Reginald Bevins for “the first person giving information leading to the apprehension and conviction of the persons responsible for the robbery.”
With the fingerprints from Leatherslade Farm, it was soon known who some members of the gang were. A decision was made to publish the photographs of the known suspects, a decision that was strongly protested against by Tommy Butler, knowing that the robbers would go underground.
Sure enough, once the photographs were out, the robbers went into hiding, with Buster Edwards and Bruce Reynolds fleeing the country.
Roger Cordrey went to Bournemouth, Dorset, where he stayed with a friend named William Boal. They rented a fully furnished apartment above a flower shop in Wimborne Road. Cordrey needed to rent a garage and found one in Tweedale Road. He paid the owner, Ethel Clarke, for three months rent in advance, all in used ten shilling notes. With the news of the robbery in all of the newspapers and on the television, it was a stupid thing to do. It was made worse by the fact that Ethel Clarke was a police widow, and she soon tipped off the police.
Nabbing the Robbers, One at a Time
Cordrey was picked up and brought in for questioning. Jack Slipper came down from London to carry out the interrogation and soon noticed that Cordrey was squirming in his chair. Eventually, Cordrey told Slipper why he was uncomfortable. He had the ignition key for a car hidden inside his rectum. The key was retrieved, and the car, a Ford Anglia, was found in a Bournemouth car park.
Inside the car the police found £140,000. Roger Cordrey was the first of the train robbers to be arrested. William Boal, Cordrey’s friend, was also arrested with him.
On the morning of August 16, a middle aged couple was taking an early morning stroll through Dorking Woods when they came across a briefcase and a couple of bags. Curious, they opened them and found them to be filled with money. The couple contacted the police, who came and found another briefcase, also containing money. It totaled £100,900. One of the robbers had got scared and had just dumped the money.
But who had dumped the money? It was a question that was soon answered, as also found along with the cash was evidence pointing to his identity. Inside one of the bags was a receipt from the Cafe Pension Restaurant in Sonnenbichl, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, in Germany. It had been made out to Herr and Frau Field. The weak link had struck again.
The money and the receipt were sent to Malcolm Fewtrell in Buckinghamshire, who by this time had also discovered the identity of the person who had purchased Leatherslade Farm. That person was Brian Field, who was not only stupid enough to purchase the farm in his own name, but also to put the purchase through the company he worked for, James and Wheater.
Fewtrell contacted Interpol, who confirmed that in February that year, Brian and Karin Field had stayed at the Pension Sonnenbichl. Fewtrell also discovered that Field had acted for several criminals, including Goody and Wilson.
With a crime this well planned and executed, the police knew that only a few career criminals were capable of carrying it out, and at the top of their list was Bruce Reynolds. Now with the connection with Field to Goody and Wilson, known associates of Reynolds, their suspicions were confirmed.
Bruce Reynolds caught
Within a week, Charlie Wilson was arrested in London. The police announced that they were looking for Bruce Reynolds, Jimmy White, Buster Edwards, and Roy James. Other arrests soon followed. Ronnie Biggs was arrested on September 4, and Jim Hussey three days later, followed by Tommy Wisbey on September 11.
Brian Field had been interviewed a couple of times, and finally, on September 15, the gang’s weak link was also arrested. Two days later, for his part in the purchase of Leatherslade Farm, Brian Field’s boss, John Wheater, was also arrested.
Gordon Goody had been questioned, but had been released on lack of evidence. However, on October 10, he was also arrested and charged. By December 10, Bob Welch, John Daly, and Roy James were also in custody, James after a dramatic chase across the rooftops including a bold 30 foot jump to the ground.
“Mr. Three” Cashes Out
On December 3, 1963, money totaling £47,245 was discovered in a London telephone box in Great Dover Street. According to South London gang leader Fred Foreman, this money was supposed to be part of a deal made by Detective Inspector Frank Williams with one of the train robbers. The deal was brokered by Foreman, who had a good relationship with Frank Williams. The train robber was never charged with the crime due to lack of evidence, but it is believed that the robber was Mr. Three, the man who struck Jack Mills.
But not much of the money would be found. Of the £2,631,684 that was stolen, less than £400,000 was ever recovered.
An Escape Plan
Ronnie Biggs, Charlie Wilson, Jim Hussey, Bob Welch, and Tommy Wisbey, had all been kept together at Bedford Prison in Bedfordshire to await their trial. At first, they all believed that they had been “fitted up” for the crime just because they were known associates of Bruce Reynolds. But when Ronnie Biggs’s wife, Charmaine, came for a visit, they learned that it was because their fingerprints had been found at Leatherslade Farm. Ronnie’s were on the ketchup bottle.
In Bedford, the gang thought about making an escape, but before anything could be put into action, they were moved to Aylesbury Prison in Buckinghamshire where the rest of the gang had been sent
They learned that the evidence against them was strong, and once again they contemplated an escape. They managed to befriend one of the guards, and he helped, in exchange for a little cash, to smuggle in things that they needed. Over the next few weeks, the guard got them some hacksaw blades, a set of needle files, a watch, a wood chisel, and a key blank.
They filed down the key blank to make a key that would unlock the cells, and arrangements were made for a car to be waiting for them at the back of the prison hospital. But Bill Boal got cold feet and the plan was told to the head warden. The cells were searched and all the items that had been smuggled in were found and confiscated. Security was tightened and there were no outside visits or communication between the prisoners. The gang members found themselves in permanent lockdown.
The Trial
On January 20, 1964, the trial of the Great Train Robbers began at Aylesbury Assizes. Presided over by Mr. Justice Edmund Davies, the trial lasted for 51 days, with 240 people appearing as witnesses, and 613 pieces of evidence. Roger Cordrey was not in attendance, he had already pleaded guilty, hoping for a reduced sentence. John Daly had also considered pleading guilty, but was persuaded against it.
Jack Mills gave his evidence to a hushed court, the reporters writing down his damaging testimony.
On the 14th day of the trial, Detective Inspector Basil Morris of Reigate CID took the stand to testify on his questioning of Ronnie Biggs. One question from the prosecution caused an upset. “Did you, Inspector Morris, ask Mr. Biggs if he knew any of the men wanted for the train robbery in Buckinghamshire?”
Morris said that he did, and when asked what Biggs answered, Morris said, “He said, ‘I know Reynolds. I met him when we were doing time together.’” Morris had inadvertently told the court, and more importantly the jury, that Ronnie Biggs had spent time in prison. This meant that they jury could no longer be impartial, and Ronnie Biggs was sent back to jail to await a retrial.
By February, the prosecution had rested its case, and the defense team began its turn. With so much evidence, supporting witnesses, and the number of people accused of the robbery, the trial dragged on into March, when the closing arguments began.
However, by this time, one of the accused had already got his break. John Daly’s fingerprints had been found at the farm only on the Monopoly board. His lawyer saw an advantage. He told the court that his client’s fingerprints were found only on the Monopoly board, but nowhere else in the farm. His fingerprints, therefore, could have been on the game before it was taken to the farm. The jury agreed that this was possible. A stunned John Daly was acquitted and released, thankful that he changed his mind about pleading guilty.
The jury retired on March 23 to consider its verdict, and two days passed before the jurors returned to the courtroom. All were found guilty of conspiracy to rob, while six of the accused, Gordon Goody, Charlie Wilson, Roy James, Jim Hussey, Tommy Wisbey, and Bob Welch, were also found guilty of robbery with violence.
Sentencing would be delayed until after Ronnie Biggs had his retrial, which began on April 8, and lasted barely a week. Ronnie Biggs was found guilty on all counts.
Sentencing
The next day, the robbers were brought back to court and one by one they heard their sentences. Expectations were that the sentences would be high. Fifteen years is a long sentence, but the robbers had made the government and the police angry, so they knew they were facing 18 to 20 years.
Roger Cordrey was the first, and as he pleaded guilty, expected a reduced sentence. He got 20 years. William Boal was next, told by the judge that he had showed no remorse and had continued to plead his innocence, his sentence was 24 years. The rest of the gang, Goody, Wilson, James, Wisbey, Welch, Hussey, and Biggs, each got 30 years. Cordrey, it seemed, had got a reduced sentence.
Brian Field was sentenced to 25 years on the conspiracy charge, and sentenced to five years to run concurrently, for obstruction of justice. His boss, John Wheater, got three years.
Everyone, not only the robbers, was shocked at the severity of the sentences. It was double the amount one would get for murder. It was clear that an example was being made of them. In the public eye, the robbers were now the victims.
They all appealed the sentences, but it was a waste of time for most of them. Roger Cordrey, whose prints were never found at Leatherslade Farm, successfully got his sentence reduced to 14 years, as did Bill Boal, when it was concluded that his age, 50 at the time of the robbery, temperament and physique made him unlikely to be one of the actual robbers, and considered that it may result in a miscarriage of justice. Brian Field also got his sentence reduced to just five years on the charge of obstruction of justice, the conspiracy to rob charge being, reluctantly, overturned.
Charlie Wilson Escapes
On August 12, 1964, just after 3 a.m., Charlie Wilson was lying on his bed at Winson Green Prison in Birmingham, waiting. The cell door opened, and in walked three men dressed in dark clothing and wearing black masks. They tossed a bundle of clothes to Wilson. Hurriedly, Wilson dressed in the black roll neck sweater and the dark trousers, he slipped on the black trainers and pulled the black balaclava over his head. Then Wilson and the three men left the cell and quietly made their way down the corridor. An elderly guard lay on the floor, bound and gagged, and unconscious after being hit.
As they passed through the open doors, the intruders closed and locked them behind them, and made their way outside. Keeping within the shadows, the men crossed to the 20 foot wall and the rope ladder that hung from the top.
After climbing the wall, they dropped down into a builder’s yard, then out to a towpath that ran along next to a canal. There, they climbed into two waiting cars and sped off.
From the time his cell door opened until the time the cars drove away, the escape of Charlie Wilson had taken just three minutes.
Where he went immediately after is unknown, but one story has him living in a London apartment for a few months, while another has him being driven to an abandoned airfield and flown to France.
Also a mystery is how his rescuers managed to get hold of a set of keys. Only one member of the prison staff has a set of keys, yet somehow, they had obtained a duplicate set.
With the escape of Charlie Wilson, the rest of the gang was placed on “Special Watch” to make sure they didn’t escape as well. Ronnie Biggs was in the tough Wandsworth Prison in South West London, a jail considered to be Britain’s equivalent of Alcatraz and the largest prison in London. Also inside was Paul Seabourne, and later, Eric Flower. Eric was an old friend of Biggs, and the three of them decided to arrange an escape. Paul was due to be released, and he would be their outside man.
Ronnie Biggs Escapes
Less than a year after Charlie Wilson’s escape, on Thursday, July 8, 1965, Ronnie Biggs escape plan went into action. On weekdays, the Special Watch prisoners had their exercise in the prison yard by the main prison wall. At around 3:10 p.m., a removal van pulled up on the other side of the wall. Moments later, a head covered by a stocking appeared on the top of the wall, swiftly followed by some rope ladders. As Biggs, Flowers and a couple of other prisoners, scrambled up the ladders, a few of the other inmates interfered with the guards that were racing to catch them.
The roof of the removal van had been cut open so a platform could be pushed through to give the height needed to reach the top of the 25 foot wall. Once over, the prisoners dropped through the hole in the van roof onto a pile of mattresses, then out of the doors to a waiting car. The crowded vehicle sped off toward the main road and into a cul-de-sac where the car was dumped and the passengers ran down a footpath where they got into another car. Ronnie Biggs was away.
By 3:30 p.m., they were in a semi-detached house in Dulwich, okay for a short time, but they needed somewhere safer. He and Eric were moved to a tenement building in Bermondsey, then, a week later, to Camberwell. A short while later, they moved to the seaside resort of Bognor Regis in West Sussex.
They spent some months in Bognor, then it was back to Camberwell before they were smuggled across the English Channel to Antwerp, then on to Paris, where, for a price, they were given new passports, new clothes, and thanks to plastic surgery, new faces.
With the escape of Ronnie Biggs, five of the train robbers were loose. Along with Biggs and Wilson, Buster Edwards was not in jail, neither were Jimmy White, or the mastermind, Bruce Reynolds.
But the freedom, for most of them, was not to last.
Tracking Down Bruce Reynolds and Re-capturing Charlie Wilson
Buster Edwards fled to Mexico after the hunt for the robbers began, and he stayed hidden until 1966. But a life on the run is not as glamorous as it seems. Money soon began to run out, and Buster was also feeling homesick. Buster made negotiations with Detective Inspector Frank Williams for a return to England. Once he was home, Buster was arrested, tried, and sentenced to 15 years in prison, the sentence length more lenient now that an example had been made with the others.
Jimmy White never left England, and on April 10, 1966, one of his new friends recognized him from a newspaper photograph. The friend called the police and White was arrested. He was sentenced to 18 years.
In January, 1966, Charlie Wilson flew from Brussels to Montreal, Canada under the name of Ronald Alloway and settled down at Riguad, Quebec along with his wife and children. For a while, he worked as a car salesman, and later became a dealer in silverware.
Police eventually tracked him down to his hideout, but decided to wait for a few months, keeping him under surveillance in the hope that he would lead them to Bruce Reynolds.
Charlie Wilson being brought home from Canada by Tommy Butler
The surveillance was fruitless, and on January 25, 1968, Tommy Butler arrested Wilson, who was brought home to serve out the rest of his sentence. His wife and five daughters stayed in Canada.
Bruce Reynolds freedom lasted less than a year after Wilson was captured. As with Buster Edwards, Reynolds fled first to Mexico, then back to London, and finally, he settled down in Torquay, Devon. When the police spotted a known associate of Reynolds in the Chelsea Potter pub in Kings Road, they traced his phone calls. One of them was to a Mr. Hiller, living in Torquay. The police were suspicious. They knew that Reynolds, while living in Mexico, had gone under the name of Miller. The similarity in the names couldn’t be a coincidence.
Early in the morning of November 9, 1968, police surrounded the elegant property known as “Cap Martin” in Torquay and Bruce Reynolds, after more than five years on the run, was finally captured. He was sentenced to 25 years.
Ronnie Biggs Becomes a Celeb
But for Ronnie Biggs, things would be very different.
Ronnie Biggs was only a minor player in the actual robbery, but he would go on to become the most famous.
After he recovered from the plastic surgery, Biggs, using the name Terence Furmiger, flew to Australia, where he would later be reunited with his family. After some time in Sydney, then Adelaide, Biggs and family finally settled down in Melbourne. Life for Ronnie Biggs was fairly normal. He had begun work as a builder, and for a few years, nothing happened.
But by the end of 1969, Eric Flower had been captured in Sydney, and there was word going around that Biggs was likely hiding in Melbourne. There was nothing for it; Ronnie Biggs had to go on the run again.
His wife, Charmaine, decided that the best thing was for them to split up, and she remained behind in Australia with the kids. Life with Charmaine was, effectively, over.
On the evening of February 5, 1970, the S.S.Ellinis departed from Australia heading for Panama, with Ronnie Biggs on board, travelling under the name Michael Haynes. Panama was only a stop over for Biggs, who bought an airline ticket for a flight to Rio de Janeiro and flew there on Sunday, March 11.
Ronnie Biggs settled into life in Rio, making new friends, and entertaining a long line of women. But Biggs missed his family, and he was almost broke. A life on the run is expensive, and a large amount of his money had been spent keeping him a long way from the reach of the police.
To make matters worse, financially, he had started living with a girlfriend named Raimunda, and she announced one day that she was pregnant. Now Biggs was desperate for money to support both his English family, and his new Brazilian family. Biggs called a friend and asked him to contact the major newspapers in Britain. For £50,000, one of the newspapers would be given the exclusive rights to the Ronnie Biggs story, and the story of him giving himself up.
In January, 1974, the Daily Express offered to buy the story, and they sent one of their reporters, Colin Mackenzie, out to Rio. Mackenzie told Biggs that the newspaper had only authorized £35,000, not the £50,000 Biggs had asked for. But Biggs was desperate, and needed the money. He accepted the offer.
Biggs and Mackenzie began working on the story in Mackenzie’s hotel room where, a few days later, they were sitting when a knock came on the door. When it opened, a group of men entered. One was the British Consul-General, one was the Brazilian Vice-Consul, and the other three were policemen, one from Brazil, and the other two from Scotland Yard. One of the British policemen was Biggs’s nemesis, Detective Chief Superintendent Jack Slipper.
For the next month, there was a lot of legal squabbling, which was further complicated by the fact that Brazil had no extradition agreement with Britain. Until further enquiries could be made and the whole thing sorted out, Ronnie Biggs would be kept in jail in Brasilia for 90 days.
While on the plane to Brasilia, Biggs was given a newspaper to read, and there, Biggs saw the truth. The Daily Express had set him up. They would get his story, bring him back to England, and not pay one penny for it.
But there was a flaw to their plan. Biggs learned from his fellow prisoners that it was very unlikely that he would be extradited, not with a child on the way. Mackenzie came to see Biggs in Brasilia and told him that he had no idea that his newspaper had set him up, which Biggs believed as Mackenzie also wanted to write a book with Biggs, something that would not happen if he was in on the trick. A few weeks later, Mackenzie told Biggs that Granada Publishing had advanced £65,000 for the rights to his book.
Biggs’s fellow prisoners were right. Biggs was released on May 6, 1974 and was told that as long as he remained in Brazil, he was a free man. A few weeks later, his wife Charmaine, who had visited him in prison, came to Rio to visit. During this visit, they decided to end their marriage.
In August, Raimunda gave birth to a boy, who they named Michael.
Biggs in 1985
By this time, Biggs, no longer having to hide under a false name, had become a criminal celebrity, giving interviews and getting offers for films and books. He was approached by Malcolm McLaren, the manager of the Sex Pistols, who asked Biggs if he would appear with them when they were in Rio. Biggs was delighted, and not only appeared with them, but also wrote a song with them, called “No One Is Innocent.”
In March 1981, among the many requests for interviews, was one from National Geographic. He was supposed to meet with their journalists at a local restaurant, and arrived there at 9 p.m. Instead of journalists, however, he was grabbed by several men wearing masks and bundled into a waiting van.
The men were all ex-military, led by a man named John Miller. The van stopped and Biggs was dragged out and on to a plane, flown to Belém in northern Brazil, just over 2,000 miles away. From there, Biggs was taken on a dinghy to a yacht and sailed to Barbados. Miller’s plan was to sell Biggs to the highest bidder. However, it has also been suggested that Miller was paid by the British Government for the kidnapping, using this method so they could deny any responsibility.
When the yacht reached Barbados, it was impounded. Ronnie was fingerprinted and sent to a local jail to await a hearing in court. The yacht and its occupants were sent on their way.
The court case ended with Biggs being told he would be deported back to Britain, but he appealed the decision, and it was overturned. Once again, Ronnie Biggs was a free man. Two television stations chartered a Lear jet to take him back to Brazil.
Over the years, Ronnie Biggs became a tourist attraction, with people meeting him at his home and having their photographs taken with him. Bruce Reynolds visited, as did Albert Spaggiari, the man who organized and broke into the Société Générale bank in Nice , France in 1976. Another visitor was a member of the Police, this time not the law but the group, Sting.
There were autographs and even tee shirts that read “I met someone who went to Brazil and met Ronnie Biggs – honest.” It kept Ronnie in money, but not enough to live a life of luxury.
In 1991, Ronnie was once again a pop star, this time with the German punk band Die Toten Hosen and again in 1993 with an Argentianian punk band called Pilsen. The following year, he published his autobiography, Odd Man Out.
In 1997, an extradition treaty was ratified between Brazil and the U.K., and by this time, Ronnie had said that he would not oppose extradition. The British wasted no time and requested an extradition. The Brazilian court rejected it. Ronnie Biggs could stay in Brazil for the rest of his life, a free man.
But by 2001, Ronnie Biggs wanted to return home so he could, as he put it, “walk into a Margate pub as an Englishman and buy a pint of bitter.” and added, “I hope I live long enough to do that.”
Sun newspaper on Biggs return
Ronnie contacted the Sun newspaper and announced to them that he was willing to return to Britain, knowing that he would be arrested the moment he set foot on British soil. The Sun paid for a private jet which landed Northrop RAF airbase in Middlesex on May 7, 2001. Ronnie Biggs was home.
After suffering three strokes and now very ill, the 71-year-old Biggs was met by Detective Chief Superintendent John Coles, the head of Scotland Yard’s Serious and Organized Crime Group, who took Biggs into custody. Later that day, Ronnie Biggs appeared in court where he was ordered to serve out the remaining 28 years of his original sentence. He had been on the run for 36 years.
His son, Michael, continued to campaign for his fathers release on the grounds of ill health, and was continuously turned down until, finally, on August 6, 2009, Ronnie Biggs was freed on compassionate grounds.
But Ronnie Biggs was not going to fade from the public eye. On November 17, 2011, the updated version of his 1994 biography, now re-titled Odd Man Out – The Last Straw, was released, and Biggs gave his first UK press conference since the robbery. Now unable to speak and confined to a wheelchair after another series of strokes, the frail 82-year-old answered questions by pointing at a letter board. Asked how he would like to be remembered, he said as a loveable rogue.
| i don't know |
In which 1960s and 70s TV sitcom did Brian Wilde play a character called 'Bloody Delilah' ? | Brian Wilde - Found a GraveFound a Grave
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Brian Wilde (Brian George Wilde)
Though born in Ashton-under-Lyne, Lancashire, he was brought up in Devon and Hertfordshire and attended Hertford Grammar School. He trained as an actor at RADA. He had a small part in the horror film Night of the Demon (1957). He had an earlier role as a small time crook in the 1954 film “Forbidden Cargo” (uncredited) starring Jack Warner and Nigel Patrick. Early television roles included the series The Love of Mike (1960) and supporting Tony Hancock in episodes of his ATV series in 1963. He also played Detective Superintendent Halcro in a series of two-part thrillers about undercover Scotland Yard officers, The Men from Room Thirteen (BBC, 1959–61). He had minor roles in films such as Life for Ruth (1962), The Bargee (1964), The Jokers (1967) and Carry On Doctor (1967), and on television in Room at the Bottom (1966–67) as Mr Salisbury. His first major television success was in 1970 as refuse depot manager “Bloody Delilah” in the ITV sitcom The Dustbinmen. He showed his sinister side as the mischievous magician Mr Peacock in the children’s drama series Ace of Wands between 1970 and 1972. That year he starred as a murderer in The Uninvited, an episode of the BBC’s supernatural thriller series Out of the Unknown. Also in 1971, in the television drama Elizabeth R, Wilde played the efficient, merciless ‘rackmaster’ Richard Topcliffe, who was charged with the torture of prisoners in the Tower of London. He also played a character in the 1970s British comedy series on Children’s TV The Ghosts of Motley Hall” by Richard Carpenter.
In 1973, he starred as a different kind of gaoler in the second episode of Seven of One, a series of seven individual stories, all of which starred Ronnie Barker. In the episode, entitled “Prisoner and Escort”, Wilde played Mr Barrowclough, one of two prison officers whose job it is to escort Barker’s character Fletcher across the moors to his prison (The other was Mister MacKay, played by Fulton Mackay). The episode proved popular and a series was commissioned by the BBC, called Porridge. Wilde reprised his role as the timid and eager-to-please Barraclough. Porridge was popular and successful; it ran until 1977, with a film version being made in 1979. Wilde gained and established another role in 1976, when he took over from Michael Bates as the third member of a trio of old men in the BBC sitcom Last of the Summer Wine. The character, Walter “Foggy” Dewhurst, was a determined ex-army man who planned the group’s misadventures with military precision and a painstaking eye for detail. Wilde saw the long-running series gather momentum and continue its success; he stayed with the series for nine years, before leaving in 1985 to work on other projects. Foggy was written out of the series – it was said that he had moved to Bridlington to take over the family egg painting business – and was replaced by Michael Aldridge as Seymour Utterthwaite until 1990.
When Aldridge left Last of the Summer Wine, Wilde returned as Foggy in 1990, reuniting the series’ most popular and enduring line-up. Suffering from pneumonia, Wilde stood down for the first five episodes of the 1998 series in case his illness worsened. His temporary absence was covered by Frank Thornton; Wilde himself suggested Thornton as a replacement. The filming of a Christmas special made to introduce Thornton’s character resulted in a scheduling problem that made it impossible for Wilde, who was by then fully fit, to return in that series. Producer Alan J.W. Bell said, “Since then, he has been invited to return many times, but says he feels he has ‘done it now’ and doesn’t want to go back. I am sure that one day he will make an appearance – we still have his costume standing by,” but Wilde never did return to the role and the show ran for another thirteen years, the last series being filmed the year after Wilde’s death. In 1967 the ABC TV series The Avengers episode “The Fear Merchants” original air date (UK) 21 January 1967. He played Jeremy Raven a ceramics manufacturer caught up in a sinister plot to get rid of the competition. In 1988 he starred in his own BBC series, Wyatt’s Watchdogs as Major Wyatt, a retired soldier, who forms his own neighbourhood watch group. As a stuffy ex-army member who leads a motley bunch of comic characters, Wyatt was quite similar to Foggy. The programme, which co-starred Trevor Bannister, was written by Miles Tredinnick and ran for one series of six episodes. He also supplied the voice of the magician Meredith in the children’s animated series Alias the Jester and has narrated an animated series, Microscopic Milton, about a microscopic little chap who lives in a clock on the mantelpiece, in the parlour of the house that belongs to a lady called Mrs. Witherspoon. In 1978, Wilde voiced the public information film series Play Safe, highlighting the dangers of overhead power lines to children. Wilde suffered a fall in January 2008 from which he never recovered. He died in his sleep on the morning of 20 March 2008 at his home in Ware, Hertfordshire and was survived by Eva, his wife, and their son and daughter. His son, Andrew Wilde, had been film editor on Last of the Summer Wine since the mid-1990s, working initially on many of the episodes that had starred his father and later on the Frank Thornton editions.
Born
| The Dustbinmen |
Ridden by jockey Pat Taffe, which horse won the 1970 Grand National at odds of 15 / 1 ? | Bryan Pringle | The Independent
Character actor of diverse talents and down-to-earth looks
Thursday 23 May 2002 23:00 BST
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The Independent Online
Bryan Pringle, actor: born Glascote, Staffordshire 19 January 1935; married 1958 Anne Jameson (died 1999; one son, one daughter); died London 15 May 2002.
Two television roles, more than 20 years apart, demonstrated the diverse talents of Bryan Pringle. He became a household face, if not name, as "Cheese and Egg" in Jack Rosenthal's sitcom The Dustbinmen. The comedy was crude, offensive and abhorred by "Clean Up TV" campaigners, but it was also very funny.
Cheese and Egg, complete with beret and round-rimmed spectacles, was leader of the crew of Thunderbird Three, a corporation lorry cruising the streets of a northern town. The group's misadventures, observations on life and schemes to avoid work formed the storylines in a programme whose first series of six episodes topped the television ratings every week.
Later, in the original 1991 mini- series of Prime Suspect, Pringle's scenes as the pathologist Felix Norman set the tone for the gritty police drama featuring Helen Mirren as a woman detective tackling horrific murders and facing discrimination from male officers. The opening shots showed the bearded Norman at the scene of a prostitute's murder, recording his initial impressions, before exclaiming: "OK, OK, lads. Mortuary!" Back on home ground, he explained matter-of-factly to investigating officers the injuries sustained by the mutilated woman, and the likely murder weapon – a screwdriver.
Pringle's craggy, down-to-earth looks made him a perfect character actor. Born in Staffordshire, the son of a vicar, in 1935, but brought up in Lancashire, he trained at RADA, where he won the Bancroft Gold Medal (1954). He then gained a good grounding in the classics with the Old Vic Theatre company (1955-57).
Alongside regular stage work, he landed occasional parts in films, playing policemen in The Challenge (starring Jayne Mansfield, 1960), Berserk! (with Joan Crawford, 1967) and Diamonds for Breakfast (1968). He also had small roles in Saturday Night and Sunday Morning (1960) and Lawrence of Arabia (1962).
Between straight parts in a string of television plays, Pringle appeared in the three-part BBC surreal sitcom Three Rousing Tinkles (1966), acting the first of several people to be found by a suburban couple in their spare room on returning from shopping.
Then came The Dustbinmen, which ran to three series (1969-70) after growing out of Jack Rosenthal's 1968 play There's a Hole in Your Dustbin, Delilah, with Pringle taking over the role played by Jack MacGowran in Granada Television's "Playhouse" production. Other members of the cast were John Woodvine as the depot boss Bloody Delilah (later acted by Brian Wilde), Graham Haberfield as the soccer fanatic Winston, John Barrett as "Smellie" Ibbotson, Trevor Bannister as Heavy Breathing and Tim Wylton as the dim-witted Eric.
Pringle subsequently sported a moustache for Roy Clarke's sitcom The Growing Pains of PC Penrose (1975) to play Sergeant Flagg, under whose wing the innocent young probationer (Paul Greenwood) was taken. His duties changed to that of the senior waiter, Charles Spooner, when he starred in Room Service (1979), created by Jimmy Perry and set in the five-star Prince Henry Hotel in London.
Then, in The Management (1988), featuring the comedians Hale and Pace as the Two Rons in a sitcom developed from their stand-up characterisations, Pringle joined Vilma Hollingberry to play Mr and Mrs Crusty, part of the team hired by the gangland pair to run a nightclub they had inherited in a seedy part of London.
Pringle's sidekick in the comedy-drama Once Upon a Time in the North (starring Bernard Hill, 1994) was a revolting dog called Pablo. As Mr Bebbington, a Yorkshireman living in the annexe of a working-class family's home and occasionally dispensing words of wisdom, he once told the family's teenaged daughter: "You don't want to rush your forbidden fruit. If you drink, smoke and have sex at 16, all you've got to look forward to is driving a heavy goods vehicle."
On television, his straight roles included Mr Monk in The Pallisers (1974), Mr Garland in The Old Curiosity Shop (1975), Pistol in BBC productions of Henry IV, Part II (1979) and Henry V (1979), the butler Smith in A Dance to the Music of Time (1997) and Raggles in Vanity Fair (1998). He was particularly moving in the "Play of the Week" On Giant's Shoulders (1979), teaming up with Judi Dench as a middle-aged, childless couple who adopt a black boy affected by Thalidomide.
He also acted Arthur Pringle in the second series of Auf Wiedersehen Pet (1986) and was one of the members of a struggling 1930s touring concert party in Alan Plater's nine-part television adaptation of J.B. Priestley's novel The Good Companions (1980-81) .
Pringle's other films included The Boy Friend (Ken Russell's homage to Hollywood musicals, 1971), Brazil (1985) and American Friends (1991). Among his many theatre roles were that of the blaspheming father in Billy (starring Michael Crawford at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, 1974), Herod in The Passion (directed by Bill Bryden at the National Theatre), Smudger in The Long and the Short and the Tall (directed by Lindsay Anderson at the Royal Court Theatre), Stanley in The Birthday Party (a Royal Shakespeare Company production at the Aldwych Theatre, directed by the play's author, Harold Pinter) and Alfred Doolittle in a national tour of My Fair Lady (directed by Simon Callow).
Anthony Hayward
| i don't know |
Which novel, published in 1880,was co-titled 'A Tale of the Christ' ? | Lew Wallace's novel, Ben-Hur:
View the step-by-step solution to:
Lew Wallace's novel, Ben-Hur:
Lew Wallace's novel, Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ, published in 1880, was a best-selling novel that inspired a successful pantomime in the 1890s, a spectacular Broadway production that ran from 1899-1920, and film versions in 1907, 1925, 1959, 2003, and 2010. You have read most of the novel in your Workbook, and you have seen most of the 1959 version of the film in class. Write a paper (3-5 pages, double spaced) analyzing the differences between the novel and the film.
Student posted a question · Apr 26, 2012 at 11:20pm
| Ben-Hur |
Which town in Malta contains the replica of a World War II bomb in the roof of its local dome ? | Lew wallace''s novel, Lew Wallace's novel, Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ, published in, Term Paper
Lew wallace''s novel
Lew wallace''s novel
Lew Wallace's novel, Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ, published in 1880, was a best-selling novel that inspired a successful pantomime in the 1890s, a spectacular Broadway production that ran from 1899-1920, and film versions in 1907, 1925, 1959, 2003, and 2010. You have read most of the novel in your Workbook, and you have seen most of the 1959 version of the film in class. Write a paper (3-5 pages, double spaced) analyzing the differences between the novel and the film.Â
Request for Solution File
| i don't know |
Which brand of beer was advertised on TV with the slogan 'The pint that thinksit's a quart' ? | UK television adverts 1955-1985
• Children’s songs and games
Drinks (alcoholic)
There were virtually no advertisements for spirits into the 1960s (due to a secret cartel between the manufacturers)
Ansells Bitter: 1983
Showing lads’ night out, with laughing and drinking.
Ansell's Bitter men, you can’t beat them.
Babycham (1)
[with a baby chamois deer]
Babycham? I’d love a Babycham,
The genuine champagne perry.
Mine’s a Babycham!
Babycham (3)
A man in a bar asks for a Babycham, and it goes very quiet and everyone looks on in horror
Cool, tough-looking black guy: Hey, I’ll have a Babycham!”
Then everybody wants one.
Bring out your best — Bud light
Budweiser (3)
For all you do, this Bud’s for you!
Budweiser (4)
Budweiser — the King of beers!
Budweiser (5)
When you say “Budweiser” you’ve said it all!
Budweiser (6)
This Bud’s for you. True.
Bulmers Cider: 1968
Bulmer’s Strongbow Cider (1)
[William Tell shooting apple off his son’s
head: but what were the words?]
Bulmer’s Strongbow Cider (2)
Live to loaf!
Bulmer’s Strongbow Cider (3)
... It's refreshing and clean
If you know what I mean,
And sparkles a bit in the glass....
So the next time you're out
for the evening and ...
A change is as good as a rest
Have a Strongbow or two
And keep smiling through,
’Cos Strongbow's a pint of the best.
Bulmer’s Strongbow Cider (4): c.1970
Strong as your thirst!
Based on “Je suis un rock star” by Bill Wyman
Girl:
Went to a cocktail bar … in Leicester Square
Met this bloke …said he was a millionaire,
Bought me a drink … called Calviere
Sounds a bit French … and it’s made with pears.
Man:
C’est Française … like what I am,
Je suis un rock star … j’ai un residarnce,
Un grand château …à la south of France.”
Girl: Get away! You work in the chip shop around the corner!
[Screenshot of Calviere being poured into a Babycham type glass with a cherry]
Campari: 1977
Gentleman: It’s very odd, I don’t even know your name — but after this one Campari and soda, I feel I almost know you. May I freshen your glass? Er, soda of course?
Cockney girl: No, lemonade!
Cockney girl: Yeah, nice colour innit?
Voice-over: Campari with soda, with lemonade, with tonic — but always with pleasure.
Gentleman: Were you truly wafted here from paradise?
Cockney girl: No, Luton airport!
[with Lorraine Chase]
I bet he drinks Carling Black Label.
Carling Black Label (3)
An old fisherman salt battles with a giant squid and torrential weather, then bursts through the pub door saying: I’ve never known a night like it … and I ain’t looking forward to the journey home neither!
One customer to another: I bet he drinks Carling Black Label!
Then the pub is shown -- built on a small island in the middle of a boating lake, with a sign outside saying “Row boats for hire”….
Carling Black Label (4)
Scene: Two men flying in an aeroplane, and a window cleaner starts working on the outside of their window
First passenger: Bet he drinks Carling Black Label!
Second passenger: Naaah! he’s missed a bit.
Carling Black Label (5)
Your best bet for a fuller flavour — Carling Black Label lager.
Carling Black Label (5): 1981
Carling (Carling Black label)
I’ve got it right — my Jack’s favourite one!
He says it saves him money!
Carling Black Label
I’ve got this — he’s got that!
I’ve got it right — end of chat!
Carling Black Label — get it right!
[A variant commercial has: “We’ve got it right: no frills, no fuss, it’s OK by us!” as the spoken lines.]
?Carling: 1970s
Scene: a Birmingham curry house. A man is quietly scoffing the main course in mixed company, who begin to notice his apparent discomfort and that he’s beginning to puff, obviously feeling the heat.
Woman companion: Eh, ’e’s looking really flushed….
Curry eater: Nah, it’s all right this.
The lager they order for him clearly quenches his needs.
Woman companion: Bet that’s cooled his biryani.
Carlsberg lager: 1973
Mankind sometimes sees things in a rather peculiar way.
We often admire works of art almost because of their imperfections.
(a few bars of the unfinished symphony played here)
The Danes however, believe there are one … or two exceptions.
(Two pints of Carlsberg shown)
Carlsberg! probably the best lager in the world!
Cherry B
Cherry B, Cherry B, Cherry B,
It’s the cherry wine with the zing, zing, zing!
Cherry B, Cherry B, Cherry B,
It’s the sparkling drink for me!
Cherry Heering liqueur
Of all the bars in the world, you had to walk into mine.
Cinzano Bianco (2): 1970
Cinzano Bianco … with the bright lights taste!
Cinzano Bianco (3): 1978
[Spanish restaurant: Leonard Rossiter as “Nebbish” opposite Joan Collins as “Melissa”]
Nebbish: Erm, do you have a Cinzano of some sort, por favor?
Waiter: Yes sir, there is Cinzano Rosso, Dry, Bianco, and Rosé.
Nebbish: Ah, the complete set! I’ll have a Cinzano Bianco — shaken not stirred hah! Gracias! Aah! How they still achieve that blend of herbs and spices, I’ll never know!
Melissa: Hello!
Nebbish: Ah, Melissa darling — you’re early! [Looks at his watch and spills his drink down Melissa’s front] Would you like a Cinzano?
Melissa: No thank you — I’ve just had one!
Cinzano Bianco (4)
[Aeroplane: Leonard Rossiter as “Nebbish” opposite Joan Collins as “Melissa”]
Stewardess: Your Cinzano Bianco, Signora.
Melissa: Thank you.
Nebbish: Ah yes, gracias.
Stewardess: Ah due?
Nebbish: On, no, no, no, no, mine was a Cinzano as well…. Ah, now that’s better. Oh, can’t you just smell those Italian wines, suffused with herbs and spices from four continents!
Melissa (in unison): … suffused with herbs and spices from four continents!
Nebbish: I’m being boring. [Knocks into Melissa] Oh, sorry. Sorry. [Tips Melissa’s seat right back] Getting your head down, dear? Jolly good idea.
Voiceover: From the House of Cinzano: Cinzano Bianco.
Coates Cider
Coates comes up from Somerset,
Where the cider apples grow,
There’s nothing like sweet cider
To make a party go.
[Understood to have been sung by Adge Cutler and The Wurzels]
Cockburn’s Special Reserve port: 1980
Set on a Titanic-style lifeboat, with upper- and working-class survivors. The captain, played by Robin Bailey has only managed to save one bottle of port. A lady (played by Rosalind Knight) says:
Did anyone bring the petits fours?
Cockburn’s Vintage Port
(Scene: Port wine cellar in the Douro Valley)
Elderly local man (subtitles are used): When do you think it will be ready?
Cellar man: Five … maybe six years.
Elderly local: So soon?!
Voiceover: Cockburn’s Vintage Port — better late than never!
Cointreau (1)
The juice of or-an-ges, ripened in the midday sun.
Cointreau (2): 1974
Thees Cointreau and ice is like zee warmth of we French and zee cool of you Engleesh….
Voilà! zee ice she melts!
Colt 45 (American malt beer) (1)
Any Tom Mack or Walt
Who likes the taste of malt,
Will enjoy the malt in a Colt 45.
Colt 45 (American malt beer) (2): 1960s
If you feel like a malt liquor,
Don’t be tempted to drink it quicker,
Drink it with grace,
Sip it at a snail’s pace,
And remember … Never bolt a Colt.
Courage AK Bitter [?]: 1970s
Two men are sitting in a bar
Voiceover: Both these men fancied a change from their usual pint. George here's trying a pint of crème de coconut shandy lime, with a stick of celery and topped with three maraschino cherries — very different from his usual pint. Charlie's trying a pint of ?Courage AK bitter, a clean tasting beer with a slightly more bitter taste than his usual pint.
[Cut to glasses side-by-side with the levels going down … or not]
Barman's voice: Same again Charlie?
Charlie: Yes, please.
Barman's voice: Same again George?
George: No thanks.
Voiceover: Courage AK bitter(?). Different … but not that different!
Courage Beer (1)
It’s what your right arm’s for!
Courage Beer (2)
Mine’s a pint of Best, gertcha, Courage Best!
Courage Tavern Keg Bitter, c.1970
Barmaid (Andrea Lawrence) serving a man with a pint of Tavern Keg) tells him that she doesn’t know what men see in beer. The customer offers her a taste of his pint, and sshe laboriously picks it up with both hands, takes a small sip, and pulls a face.
Barmaid: Oooh, I don’t like it. But I like the men who drink it!
Croft Original Sherry: 1985
Bertie: You know Jeeves — there’s only one snag about spending the weekend here with Lord Glastonbury …
Jeeves: His Lordship’s sherry, Sir?
Bertie: Absolutely Jeeves!
Jeeves: That’s why, Sir, I took the liberty of bringing a bottle of your Croft Original.
Bertie: Oh Jeeves! Top hole! Beats me why the old buffer doesn’t get some in!
Jeeves: Well, Glastonbury is very set in his ways, Sir. I fear he regards a cream sherry like Croft Original— with its light delicate colour — as somewhat too modern for him!
Bertie: Sheer nectar Jeeves! Compared to this jolly old brown stuff, Croft’s a clear winner! I say Jeeves: clear winner! That’s a joke!
Jeeves: Very nearly, Sir!
Voice-over: Croft Original Pale Cream Sherry — one instinctively knows when something is right!
Cutty Sark Whisky (1): 1973
Don’t give up the ship!
Cutty Sark Whisky (2)
Davenport’s Beer at Home: 1960s
Beer at home means Davenports!
That’s the beer!
The finest malt with hops and yeast,
Turns a snack into a feast.
Straight from breweries to your home,
Why collect?
Soon you’ll know why folks all say:
“Beer at home means DAVENPORTS”!
De Kuyper cherry brandy
(Seasonal Christmas UK TV Promo, c.1966)
This year buy cherry brandy from Ke Duyper … Kuyp Deer! … er Keep Dyar! … (ahem) …
This year buy cherry brandy from De Kuyper!”
Dewar’s Scotch Whisky
Amber bright, plenty of body!
Double Diamond — the beer the men drink!
Double Diamond (2): 1968
A Double Diamond works wonders,
Works wonders, works wonders,
A Double Diamond works wonders,
So drink one today!
[Tune: “There’s a hole in my bucket”]
Double Diamond (3)
I’m only here for the beer: it’s Double Diamond!
Double Diamond (4): mid-1970s
My uncle brews beer in a plastic dustbin,
He keeps it in the yard for days on end.
A pint costs half a p
But it tastes like stagnant tea,
A sniff of it would drive you round the bend.
So if I go and stay with my old uncle,
I have to take an extra case with me.
Wherever you may roam
You’re never far from home
’Cos you know where you are with DD.
“No thank you, Uncle!”
You know where you are with DD!
Double Maxim
Oh, pour me a Double Maxim,
The one with the special flavour,
Oh, pour me a Double Maxim,
The greatest of beers!
Oh we all love a Double Maxim,
The one with the special flavour,
Oh we all love a Double Maxim,
The greatest of beers!
(1) Dubonnet, s’il vous plaît.
(2) Do ’ave a Dubonnet.
Emva Cream Sherry: 1983
[One of a series of Emva adverts starring “Hinge and Bracket”]
Dame Hilda Bracket: (Singing at the piano) Tra-la-la, cough, cough.
Dr Evadne Hinge:You sound in need of lubrication!
Hilda: Lubrication dear?! I’m no Morris Minor dear!
Evadne: No, but something rich, warming — Emva Cream perhaps?
Hilda: Emva Cream! … Delicious! I feel I can hit a top C and hold it for hours!
Evadne: Well, don’t expect me to accompany you!
Hilda: Oh no dear, and for high C’s I shall choose a sailor! Ha-ha!
Voice-over: Emva Cream — by appointment to the upper bracket!
Emva Cream Sherry (2): 1983
(Evadne is at the piano — Hilda enters the room)
Hilda: That’s a pretty piece dear!
Evadne: It’s Verdi’s Drinking Song dear!
Hilda: Ah-hah! and … you want your Emva Cream don’t you?
Evadne: Frankly, I thought you’d never ask!
Hilda: Oh sorry dear … patience is a virtue as well as an opera, ha-ha-ha!
Evadne: Mm, delicious Emva Cream dear — such a pleasure after wrestling with Verdi for hours!
Hilda: Who-o won?
Voice-over: Emva Cream Cyprus sherry — by appointment to the upper bracket!
Flowers Fine Ales
For the best picket in a brew flade, pick Flowers (Stanley Unwin)
Foster’s lager (1)
Strewth! There’s a bloke down there with no strides on!”
[Paul Hogan at the ballet]
Foster’s lager (2)
Scene: London Underground. Paul Hogan walks past a Japanese tourist, who is looking at a map
Japanese tourist: Excuse me. Do you know the way to Cockfosters?
Paul Hogan: Yeah. Drink it warm, mate!
Foster’s lager (3): 1981
(A group of Greek men are sea-fishing from a rocky pier)
Paul Hogan: G’day! This takes me back to me shark fishing days … back in Oz. Wrestle with one of those fellas for a few rounds and it really sets you up for a pint of the golden throat charmer!
(Drinks from a pint glass labelled Foster’s … while the fishermen, to great excitement, land a huge fish)
Scuse me mate — mind if I borrow some of your bait?
(Takes the prized fish and puts it on a hook … ready to cast)
Ta sport!
Voiceover: Foster’s — the Australian for lager!
Foster’s lager (4): 1984
Hogan: What’s that, Fred?
Fred: Morris dancing.
Hogan: Which one’s Maurice?
[Paul Hogan sitting outside an English country pub]
Golden Godwin: c.1955
Diana Dors (wearing a tight fishtail skirt):
I never say no to a Golden Godwin!
Gordon’s Gin
(1) It’s got to be Gordon’s!
(2) Born London 1769
Grants of St James’s wines: 1970s
There are many ways of choosing a good wine …
by the clarity … the bouquet … the taste.
But with Grants of St James’s on the label …
whatever you choose you needn’t take too long about it!
Grants of St James’s means good wines!
Get to know Grants of St James’s!
Greenall Whitley beer (1)
Smile please, you’re in Greenall Whitley land!
Greenall Whitley beer (2): 1970s
I wish I was in Greenall Whitley land,
Where hearts are warm
The girl I left behind,
Perhaps you think of me, as I think of you,
The jokes, the warmth, the fun, the girl behind the bar,
But most of all, Greenall Whitley’s, most of all I’m missing you,
Some day I’m going back, to the taste I know so well.
Guinness
(1) Guinness is good for you!
(2) My goodness, My Guinness!
(3) See what one or toucan do!
(4) Good things come to those who wait.
(5) Get together with a Guinness (c.1973)
Haig whisky
Don’t be vague: ask for Hague!
Harp lager (1): 1974
H. A. R. P. – hear the call.
Harp lager (2)
I’ve got this friend called Malcolm, well I wouldn’t say he’s tight,
But his wallet would make a quiet place for moths to spend the night,
He’s first out of the taxi and last into the pub,
Then says “I’d like to buy a drink but” (and here’s the rub)
He’s “just a little short right now” and could he “have a sub”?
I stood him for another and he swore he’d “get them in”
Then, going over to the mic, I announced above the din:
“Tonight is Malcolm’s birthday and the drinks are all on him.”
Harp — stays sharp to the bottom of the glass.
Harp lager (3): 1980s
Off down at the local on a Saturday night,
Met this girl from Birmingham, and she was all right.
She was very intellectual (“Ta very much!”),
The way she ate her crisps had a feminine touch!
But the gorilla she had in tow was just a bit much!
(Stay sharp! Harp stays sharp till the bottom of the glass!)
I said I was her brother, so I stayed and had another!
The cool fresh flavour didn’t waver by a quaver!
She said it was a pity but had to hurry home –
Her 80-year-old mother was all on her own!
So she kissed him very nicely and said she’d phone!
(Stay sharp! Harp stays sharp till the bottom of the glass!)
Harp lager (4)
It’s the full 43% Irish!
Harp Lager (5)
Harp puts out the fire!
Harveys Bristol Cream (1): 1970s
The best sherry in the world.
Harveys Bristol Cream c.mid-1980s
Heineken (1)
Drink, drink, drink your Heineken
[Parody of Men’s Chorus from “The Student Prince”: what were the rest of the words?]
Heineken (2)
How refreshing, how Heineken.
Heineken (3)
In his dairy in Switzerland, Hans Schnitzel makes magnificent cheeses. The holes in them are works of art! But today Hans is about to be very cheesed off, because his son Peter’s very first cheese contains not a single, solitary hole! Obviously, Peter’s hole-making skill lacks refreshment.
(Hans reaches for two cans of Heineken and hands one to Peter)
Fortunately, his father knows an old remedy … the cold Heineken. Now, fully refreshed, Peter prepares another cheese. Let’s come back in six months.
One, two, three, four, five, six.
Ah! sure enough, the cheese is good and hole-some!
Only Heineken can do this — because it refreshes the parts other beers cannot reach, thus making Peter feel a hole lot better!
Heineken: 1984
Scene: The School of Street Credibility. Ron, the voice tutor (played by Bryan Pringle) points to a board which says: “The water in Majorca don’t taste like what it oughta” and is trying to teach a posh girl (played by Sylvestra La Touzel) how to say it in Cockney.
Posh girl: The water in Ma-York-ah doesn’t taste like what it ought to.
Ron: No! no, no, no! The wart-er in Ma-jaw-ca don’t taste like what it oughta!
Posh girl: The water in Ma-York-a doesn’t taste quite how it should?
Ron: Ma-jaw-ca!
Posh girl: Ma-York-ah?
An exasperated Ron: Oy, Del — any danger of some refreshment in ’ere?
Del: ’Ere y’are — get yer laughin’ gear round that! (hands a can of Heineken to the girl)
Posh Girl: Oh golly! …. The wart-er in Majawca (Ron: Wassat?) don’t taste like what it oughta. Oh gosh! The wart-er in Ma-jaw-ca don’t taste like what it oughta! (Sniff)
Ron: She’s crackin’! She’s only cracked it!
Del: Yah, absolutely Ron!
Voice-over: Heineken — refreshes the parts what other beers cannot reach!
[A parody of Pygmalion or My Fair Lady, voted one of the best UK ads ever in a Channel 4 poll. “Majawca” (for Majorca) has stuck with many Brits ever since.]
Heineken Draught Lager Beer: 1970
With James Hayter (who also did the Mr Kipling adverts) drinking a pint and sitting in a draught
There’s a terrific draught in here.
There’s a terrific draught at your local,
The world famous lager is here,
There’s a terrfic draught at your local,
Heineken, Heineken, draught lager beer!
Hemeling lager
Wouldn’t you rather be Hemeling?
Hofmeister lager
For great lager, follow the bear!
Holsten Pils: c.1983
(Griff Rhys-Jones in one of the black and white, well-loved “Old Movies” Holsten adverts (1983–88). The adverts featured black and white remakes of famous film stars, and in this one Nobby was Humphrey Bogart)
Griff: Hello Nobby! I brought you some Holsten Pils — most of the sugar turns to alcohol you know!
Nobby: Funny, us three back together again!
Griff: Yeh, you, me and a bottle of Holsten Pils. I’ll save this for you until you get out … how long is that?
Nobby: Nine more years and six months in this hole!
Griff: Mm, shame to let it go flat then!
(Nobby is taken away by the prison guard)
Griff calls out: I’ll bring you another one to look at next week Nobby! Cheers, cheers!
Ind Coope Light Ale: mid-1970s
For the Southerner, it’s the governor!
John Bull home beer kit: 1970s
So good, it could put the pubs out of business!
John Smith’s: c.1983
Go and have a pint of magic.
Go and have a pint of magic.
Smooth, dark and satisfying — John Smith’s magic!
Go and have a pint of magic
John Smith’s beer (1): 1984
Got me LA shirt and me disco trousers
All topped off with an Elvis quiff
The night is young, and I smell like a surfer —
Got some mates to go out with …
Got a mate called Jones and a mate called Brown —
And now I’ve got a mate called Smith!
[Tune:Stop the Cavalry]
John Smith’s beer (2): early 1980s
Two furnace workers invite their new Asian workmate to the pub after work and he downs his pint in one
Furnace worker: Blimey! You’d think ’e were born ’ere!
Asian: Ah were, lad … Ah were.
John Smith’s lager: 1984
Say hello to El Billo, El Jimmo, and El Siddo
After two weeks in the sun
I think we’re nearly done
But me two and a half twister’s gone a bit skew whiff —
So I chat this senorita
By the name of Juanita,
But her sister Margarita’s
Who I end up with.
She says I drive her frantic
But her shoulders are gigantic!
And I really miss my mate called Smith!
John Smith’s lager — with that little bite bueno!
It’s not easy for a fella
Facing mountains of paella
And be sitting in a cellar —
Full of sangria.
Well they never let you near
And it’s time that we weren’t ’ere,
So we’re off to see our mate
At the local for a jar.
When you’ve ’ad enough of jets
And clickin’ castanets …
You’re glad to see your mate called Smith!
[Tune: Stop the Cavalry]
John Smith’s Yorkshire Bitter: 1983
(Two men and a dog in the pub)
Like your new dog Arkwright! Here boy — up-up — down — sit — heel — fetch … don’t do much does ’e?
Arkwright: Fancy a drop of John Smith’s?
(The dog springs to life, jumps up, spins, turns cartwheels, juggles …)
Arkwright: He just needs a bit of motivation!
Voice-over: John Smith’s Bitter — a tough act to follow!
Johnny Walker Black Label Whisky
If you want to impress someone, put him on your Black list!
Jubilee Stout: c.1960
Jubilee, Jubilee, Jubilee suits me,
And you'll find it suits you too!
Lamot Belgian lager (1973)
Long Life Beer (1): 1972
Opening time is anytime with Long Life!
Long Life Beer (2): 1973
Long live Long Life!
Look in at the local
(with Mr & Mrs Bobby Moore)
Bobby: Tina’s not the best dart player in the world, but she enjoys a game while she’s waiting for me. After a match we often meet our wife in the local: it’s a nice friendly place. Tina reckons I’ve rigged the darts. It’s not true. Anyway, it’s great to get together for an evening out.
Voiceover: Like Mr & Mrs Bobby Moore, look in at the local!
McEwans beer
(Tune: “The More we are Together the Merrier we Shall be”)
McEwans is the best buy, the best buy, the best buy,
McEwans is the best buy, the best buy in Beer
Aye McEwans, the best buy in beer!
Mackeson (1)
When old Ned Dyson fell off the church steeple, the first thing he said was, “Force a drop of Mackeson between me lips.”
Drop! ha-ha-ha — he didn’t leave a drop in the bottle! Next thing he was up on his feet. Well, Mackeson would put anybody on their feet
It looks good, tastes good, and by golly it does you good.
Mackeson — beautiful
Mackeson, Mackeson, makes you feel so good:
Enjoy life, enjoy life, exactly as you should!
Mackeson (3)
An Eskimo is fishing on a lake in his kayak but is very cold, so breaks a bit off his kayak and set fire to it. He is warm for a few minutes until the fire goes out, so he breaks off a bit more and sets fire to it. So it goes on until the kayak sinks
And that’s the origin of the Mackeson maxim “You can’t have your kayak and heat it too.”
Mackeson (4)
An advert involving a gnu
And that’s the origin of the Mackeson maxim “You can’t teach an old gnu [pronounced 'new'] dog tricks.”
Mackenson (5)
A skunk decides to bathe in nice perfumes before going to a party with lots of food. When he arrives, the other skunks will not let him in because he doesn’t smell right. So he wanders off and rolls around in the smelliest things he can find and then goes back to the party where the other skunks welcome him with open arms
And that’s the origin of the Mackeson maxim “A niff is as good as a feast.”
Mackeson Milk Stout
It does you double good!
Mackeson [or Manns?]
A middle-aged man is thinking back to what his wife used to look like – a pretty sweet young thing. Then suddenly he is snapped back to the present time with her extremely loud cackling laughter. He looks at her with some derision, blows hard, and says as he sips his drink:
At least some things never change.
Malibu (1)
The sun always shines when it pours!
Malibu (2): 1985
(Young chap is chatting-up a beautiful girl in a bar)
We’d better hurry if we’d like another, they close at … er … ten-thirty!
To waiter: Malibu on the rocks and … er … and one with pineapple.
To girl: Did you know that it… er… comes from a lost island paradise? Oh yes! Apparently, the Malibu islanders blended the finest white rum with tropical coconuts — as an offering to their Gods. In fact — I’m thinking of shooting my next movie on Malibu Island. I’ll call a cab… chauffeur’s night off.
Waiter to girl: Huh — you didn’t believe that did you?
Girl: No-o-o! I know you close at eleven!
Voice-over: Malibu — it comes from paradise and tastes like heaven!
Mann’s Brown Ale
Mann’s is the best brown ale,
Best brown ale, best brown ale,
Mann’s is the best brown ale,
Let’s have one now.
Say “Mann’s brown, Mann’s brown”.
Say “Mann’s brown, Mann’s brown”.
Mann’s is the best brown ale,
Let’s have one now.
Martini (1): 1971
Any time any place, anywhere,
There’s a wonderful world we can share,
It’s the right one, the bright one,
It’s Martini.
This is the Martini time of day
Martini Rosso
Any time, any place anywhere
Because Martini is the right one
Martini & Rossi vermouth
For people who share a taste for excitement!
Newcastle Brown
Sung by Owen Brannigan in a Geordie accent, to to tune of "Cushie Butterfield"
Scene: a small cosy bar
If you want a beer that’s perfection indeed
I give you a guide to fulfilling your need,
At home by the fireside, in club or in bar
The sign of good taste is the famous blue star.
It’s the strong beer, it’s the bottled beer
With the North’s biggest sale,
For complete satisfaction
(repeat on falling notes) Newcastle Brown Ale.
Noilly Prat vermouth (1): early 1960s
At the bar at the Europa Hotel (now the Marriott), with Pete Murray (then a dashing youngish DJ) swanning in to meet a couple of the “beautiful people” with much clinking of ice in glasses.
When Pete meets his friends for a drink at the Europa, What do they drink? — Noilly Prat!
Noilly Prat vermouth (2): early 1960s
When we say Noilly Prat vermouth is extra dry, we mean it’s extra dry!
Oranjeboom
Put your money on a Pony,
The little drink with the big kick.
Sandeman’s Port
The Sandeman Man used to wear a black hat and a long black cloak. All you saw of him was the cloak swirling around as he was chased. When he was finally caught all that was left was the cloak and hat in a heap on the floor, and a bottle of Sandemans port.
Murder mystery in Agatha Christie style at a dinner party in stately home. The shadow shape of the Sandeman caught in various locations causes speculation as to the “suspect”, who is finally illuminated in the doorway and is revealed as the Jeeves-like butler with the Stilton aloft on a board looking in silhouette like the Sandemans Spanish hat.
Woman dinner guest: It’s the Sandeman Partners Port … now I’ve got it.
Host: Yes, but please pass it round.
Seagers Egg Flip: 1950s
Don’t flop — have a flip!
Skol lager (1)
Skol lager, ?lovely lager, lager Skol.
Skol lager (2): 1976
Skol drinking. It's the taste that makes you do it.
Skol lager (3): Early 1980s
(An impromptu party at Harry’s place)
Harry has eight cans of Skol.
He drinks one himself, then gives one each to Bert and Jack.
Then Jim pops in with four more cans — but he’s got Val and Samantha with
him — and they all have one each.
Then Paul and Malcolm turn up with a couple of friends — and they drink
another four.
Being a Skolar, Harry has calculated that he’s still able to enjoy a quiet
can of Skol …
When you know lager … you’re a Skolar!
Skol lager (4): 1985
(Hagar the Horrible and his many pals are in the pub singing)
Skol, Skol, Skol, Skol,
At Stella Artois we’ve never contemplated using cheap hops.
We’ve never, never been tempted to use cheap barley —
And as for maturing our lager in a hurry … perish the thought!
Yet, apparently, some people still can’t get used to our prices!
Stella Artois! Reassuringly expensive!
[Background music: “We’re in the money”]
Stone’s bitter
It goes down great guns!
[The bottle had a cannon on the label]
Taunton cider: 1973
Arthur Moore, master cider maker, came to Taunton in 1911. I suppose you could say he’s responsible for the ciders we sell today, because though old Arthur’s long gone now, his art, and it is an art, remains.
Autumn Gold and Blackthorn — from The Taunton Cider Company —
where I’m happy to say the cider-maker’s art is still recognised.
Tetley’s Bitter
If you can’t beat ’em, join ’em!
Tetley Mild (early 1980s)
Man in a pub at the bar with a pint of mild and saying to the camera:
Ready when you are, Bob!
Tia Maria (1)
I drink Warninks — Warninks Advocaat.
Watney’s Ale (1)
What we want is Watney’s!
Watney’s Ale (2)
Watney’s Brown, Watney’s Pale,
What we want is Watney’s Ale!
Watney’s Ale (3): c.1970
We’ll drink a drink a drink
To make you think a think a think
Of Watney’s Pale,
So you can keep your medicinal compound
Now we’ve discovered Watney’s Pale.
W-e-e-e’ll drink a drink a drink
To make you think a think a think,
Of Watney’s Pale,
[The Scaffold, to the tune of “Lily The Pink”]
Watney's Pale Ale: c.1970
Sung by the group Mungo Jerry on a Wild West stagecoach
to the tune of "Going Up Country" by Canned Heat
Hit the pale trail
Oh hit the pale trail,
With Watney's ale!
Watney’s Red Barrel (1)
Red Barrel! Red Barrel!
Red Barrel men say “The same again”
To a fistful of flavour,
First-class beer.
Watney’s Red Barrel (2): c.1970
The Red Revolution.
Watney’s Red Barrel (3): c. 1970
Roll out the barrel!
Watney’s Red: from 1972
Watney’s dropped the “barrel” from their beer’s name for this campaign
(spoken): “Watney’s Red, that’s the best thing you’ve said!”
Webster’s Green Label
(A beer that was brewed at the now closed Fountainhead brewery in Halifax)
If ah were a drinking man
Which after t’match I am sir,
The soort o’ beer that ah would drink
Would be Webster’s Green Label.
Ah sup it up,
We all sup it up together,
We’ll be all reet on a Saturday neet,
Suppin’ it up together!
Webster’s horses conversing over stable door
Horse 1: Can I have a pint of Websters?
Horse 2: It’s “may”.
Horse 1: Sorry?
Horse 2: It’s not “can”, it’s “may” — “May I have a pint of Webster’s?”
Horse 1: Oh, OK, may I have a pint of Webster’s?
Horse 2: No you cannot.
Whitbread Tankard (1): 1970s
Cartoon character Stanley leaping chasms on horseback and other derring do.
Questioner: How do you do it, Stanley?
Stanley: Well it’s Tankard that helps me excel, after one I do anything well!
Whitbread Trophy Bitter: 1976
Whitbread (big head) Trophy Bitter,
The pint that thinks it’s a quart!
It’s got the body, the body that satisfies
It can’t be modest no matter how it tries
’Cos it’s the Whitbread Bitter, Trophy Bitter —
The best that you ever bought (give him a trophy)
Whitbread, Whitbread, Trophy Bitter
The pint that thinks it’s a quart!
Woodpecker Cider (1)
Woodpecker, Woodpecker, yes I would!
Woodpecker Cider (3): c.1972
When the Woodpecker knocks, be sure to let him in…
Voiceover: Be sure it’s Woodpecker Cider, by Bulmer’s.
Worthington Beer: 1960s
Oh, what about a Worthington?
Britain’s finest beer.
It makes you want to cheer
It’s clean and bright and full of life …
(A man interjects something like) What about a kick in the rear?
Oh What about a Worthington? …
Worthington E (1)
Worthington E’s the Beer,
There’s satisfaction here,
It’s the Worthington taste that satisfies,
Your worthy Worthington.
We make E the way you like it — really like it!
E’s so easy!
Worth passing a few pubs for.
Bailey’s Irish Cream
Bell’s Whisky (Was “Afore ye go” used on television?)
Blue Nun
Dewar’s White Label Scotch whisky
Emva Cream
| whitbread trophy bitter |
In which US state can you find the popular Daytona Beach ? | UK television adverts 1955-1985
• Children’s songs and games
Drinks (alcoholic)
There were virtually no advertisements for spirits into the 1960s (due to a secret cartel between the manufacturers)
Ansells Bitter: 1983
Showing lads’ night out, with laughing and drinking.
Ansell's Bitter men, you can’t beat them.
Babycham (1)
[with a baby chamois deer]
Babycham? I’d love a Babycham,
The genuine champagne perry.
Mine’s a Babycham!
Babycham (3)
A man in a bar asks for a Babycham, and it goes very quiet and everyone looks on in horror
Cool, tough-looking black guy: Hey, I’ll have a Babycham!”
Then everybody wants one.
Bring out your best — Bud light
Budweiser (3)
For all you do, this Bud’s for you!
Budweiser (4)
Budweiser — the King of beers!
Budweiser (5)
When you say “Budweiser” you’ve said it all!
Budweiser (6)
This Bud’s for you. True.
Bulmers Cider: 1968
Bulmer’s Strongbow Cider (1)
[William Tell shooting apple off his son’s
head: but what were the words?]
Bulmer’s Strongbow Cider (2)
Live to loaf!
Bulmer’s Strongbow Cider (3)
... It's refreshing and clean
If you know what I mean,
And sparkles a bit in the glass....
So the next time you're out
for the evening and ...
A change is as good as a rest
Have a Strongbow or two
And keep smiling through,
’Cos Strongbow's a pint of the best.
Bulmer’s Strongbow Cider (4): c.1970
Strong as your thirst!
Based on “Je suis un rock star” by Bill Wyman
Girl:
Went to a cocktail bar … in Leicester Square
Met this bloke …said he was a millionaire,
Bought me a drink … called Calviere
Sounds a bit French … and it’s made with pears.
Man:
C’est Française … like what I am,
Je suis un rock star … j’ai un residarnce,
Un grand château …à la south of France.”
Girl: Get away! You work in the chip shop around the corner!
[Screenshot of Calviere being poured into a Babycham type glass with a cherry]
Campari: 1977
Gentleman: It’s very odd, I don’t even know your name — but after this one Campari and soda, I feel I almost know you. May I freshen your glass? Er, soda of course?
Cockney girl: No, lemonade!
Cockney girl: Yeah, nice colour innit?
Voice-over: Campari with soda, with lemonade, with tonic — but always with pleasure.
Gentleman: Were you truly wafted here from paradise?
Cockney girl: No, Luton airport!
[with Lorraine Chase]
I bet he drinks Carling Black Label.
Carling Black Label (3)
An old fisherman salt battles with a giant squid and torrential weather, then bursts through the pub door saying: I’ve never known a night like it … and I ain’t looking forward to the journey home neither!
One customer to another: I bet he drinks Carling Black Label!
Then the pub is shown -- built on a small island in the middle of a boating lake, with a sign outside saying “Row boats for hire”….
Carling Black Label (4)
Scene: Two men flying in an aeroplane, and a window cleaner starts working on the outside of their window
First passenger: Bet he drinks Carling Black Label!
Second passenger: Naaah! he’s missed a bit.
Carling Black Label (5)
Your best bet for a fuller flavour — Carling Black Label lager.
Carling Black Label (5): 1981
Carling (Carling Black label)
I’ve got it right — my Jack’s favourite one!
He says it saves him money!
Carling Black Label
I’ve got this — he’s got that!
I’ve got it right — end of chat!
Carling Black Label — get it right!
[A variant commercial has: “We’ve got it right: no frills, no fuss, it’s OK by us!” as the spoken lines.]
?Carling: 1970s
Scene: a Birmingham curry house. A man is quietly scoffing the main course in mixed company, who begin to notice his apparent discomfort and that he’s beginning to puff, obviously feeling the heat.
Woman companion: Eh, ’e’s looking really flushed….
Curry eater: Nah, it’s all right this.
The lager they order for him clearly quenches his needs.
Woman companion: Bet that’s cooled his biryani.
Carlsberg lager: 1973
Mankind sometimes sees things in a rather peculiar way.
We often admire works of art almost because of their imperfections.
(a few bars of the unfinished symphony played here)
The Danes however, believe there are one … or two exceptions.
(Two pints of Carlsberg shown)
Carlsberg! probably the best lager in the world!
Cherry B
Cherry B, Cherry B, Cherry B,
It’s the cherry wine with the zing, zing, zing!
Cherry B, Cherry B, Cherry B,
It’s the sparkling drink for me!
Cherry Heering liqueur
Of all the bars in the world, you had to walk into mine.
Cinzano Bianco (2): 1970
Cinzano Bianco … with the bright lights taste!
Cinzano Bianco (3): 1978
[Spanish restaurant: Leonard Rossiter as “Nebbish” opposite Joan Collins as “Melissa”]
Nebbish: Erm, do you have a Cinzano of some sort, por favor?
Waiter: Yes sir, there is Cinzano Rosso, Dry, Bianco, and Rosé.
Nebbish: Ah, the complete set! I’ll have a Cinzano Bianco — shaken not stirred hah! Gracias! Aah! How they still achieve that blend of herbs and spices, I’ll never know!
Melissa: Hello!
Nebbish: Ah, Melissa darling — you’re early! [Looks at his watch and spills his drink down Melissa’s front] Would you like a Cinzano?
Melissa: No thank you — I’ve just had one!
Cinzano Bianco (4)
[Aeroplane: Leonard Rossiter as “Nebbish” opposite Joan Collins as “Melissa”]
Stewardess: Your Cinzano Bianco, Signora.
Melissa: Thank you.
Nebbish: Ah yes, gracias.
Stewardess: Ah due?
Nebbish: On, no, no, no, no, mine was a Cinzano as well…. Ah, now that’s better. Oh, can’t you just smell those Italian wines, suffused with herbs and spices from four continents!
Melissa (in unison): … suffused with herbs and spices from four continents!
Nebbish: I’m being boring. [Knocks into Melissa] Oh, sorry. Sorry. [Tips Melissa’s seat right back] Getting your head down, dear? Jolly good idea.
Voiceover: From the House of Cinzano: Cinzano Bianco.
Coates Cider
Coates comes up from Somerset,
Where the cider apples grow,
There’s nothing like sweet cider
To make a party go.
[Understood to have been sung by Adge Cutler and The Wurzels]
Cockburn’s Special Reserve port: 1980
Set on a Titanic-style lifeboat, with upper- and working-class survivors. The captain, played by Robin Bailey has only managed to save one bottle of port. A lady (played by Rosalind Knight) says:
Did anyone bring the petits fours?
Cockburn’s Vintage Port
(Scene: Port wine cellar in the Douro Valley)
Elderly local man (subtitles are used): When do you think it will be ready?
Cellar man: Five … maybe six years.
Elderly local: So soon?!
Voiceover: Cockburn’s Vintage Port — better late than never!
Cointreau (1)
The juice of or-an-ges, ripened in the midday sun.
Cointreau (2): 1974
Thees Cointreau and ice is like zee warmth of we French and zee cool of you Engleesh….
Voilà! zee ice she melts!
Colt 45 (American malt beer) (1)
Any Tom Mack or Walt
Who likes the taste of malt,
Will enjoy the malt in a Colt 45.
Colt 45 (American malt beer) (2): 1960s
If you feel like a malt liquor,
Don’t be tempted to drink it quicker,
Drink it with grace,
Sip it at a snail’s pace,
And remember … Never bolt a Colt.
Courage AK Bitter [?]: 1970s
Two men are sitting in a bar
Voiceover: Both these men fancied a change from their usual pint. George here's trying a pint of crème de coconut shandy lime, with a stick of celery and topped with three maraschino cherries — very different from his usual pint. Charlie's trying a pint of ?Courage AK bitter, a clean tasting beer with a slightly more bitter taste than his usual pint.
[Cut to glasses side-by-side with the levels going down … or not]
Barman's voice: Same again Charlie?
Charlie: Yes, please.
Barman's voice: Same again George?
George: No thanks.
Voiceover: Courage AK bitter(?). Different … but not that different!
Courage Beer (1)
It’s what your right arm’s for!
Courage Beer (2)
Mine’s a pint of Best, gertcha, Courage Best!
Courage Tavern Keg Bitter, c.1970
Barmaid (Andrea Lawrence) serving a man with a pint of Tavern Keg) tells him that she doesn’t know what men see in beer. The customer offers her a taste of his pint, and sshe laboriously picks it up with both hands, takes a small sip, and pulls a face.
Barmaid: Oooh, I don’t like it. But I like the men who drink it!
Croft Original Sherry: 1985
Bertie: You know Jeeves — there’s only one snag about spending the weekend here with Lord Glastonbury …
Jeeves: His Lordship’s sherry, Sir?
Bertie: Absolutely Jeeves!
Jeeves: That’s why, Sir, I took the liberty of bringing a bottle of your Croft Original.
Bertie: Oh Jeeves! Top hole! Beats me why the old buffer doesn’t get some in!
Jeeves: Well, Glastonbury is very set in his ways, Sir. I fear he regards a cream sherry like Croft Original— with its light delicate colour — as somewhat too modern for him!
Bertie: Sheer nectar Jeeves! Compared to this jolly old brown stuff, Croft’s a clear winner! I say Jeeves: clear winner! That’s a joke!
Jeeves: Very nearly, Sir!
Voice-over: Croft Original Pale Cream Sherry — one instinctively knows when something is right!
Cutty Sark Whisky (1): 1973
Don’t give up the ship!
Cutty Sark Whisky (2)
Davenport’s Beer at Home: 1960s
Beer at home means Davenports!
That’s the beer!
The finest malt with hops and yeast,
Turns a snack into a feast.
Straight from breweries to your home,
Why collect?
Soon you’ll know why folks all say:
“Beer at home means DAVENPORTS”!
De Kuyper cherry brandy
(Seasonal Christmas UK TV Promo, c.1966)
This year buy cherry brandy from Ke Duyper … Kuyp Deer! … er Keep Dyar! … (ahem) …
This year buy cherry brandy from De Kuyper!”
Dewar’s Scotch Whisky
Amber bright, plenty of body!
Double Diamond — the beer the men drink!
Double Diamond (2): 1968
A Double Diamond works wonders,
Works wonders, works wonders,
A Double Diamond works wonders,
So drink one today!
[Tune: “There’s a hole in my bucket”]
Double Diamond (3)
I’m only here for the beer: it’s Double Diamond!
Double Diamond (4): mid-1970s
My uncle brews beer in a plastic dustbin,
He keeps it in the yard for days on end.
A pint costs half a p
But it tastes like stagnant tea,
A sniff of it would drive you round the bend.
So if I go and stay with my old uncle,
I have to take an extra case with me.
Wherever you may roam
You’re never far from home
’Cos you know where you are with DD.
“No thank you, Uncle!”
You know where you are with DD!
Double Maxim
Oh, pour me a Double Maxim,
The one with the special flavour,
Oh, pour me a Double Maxim,
The greatest of beers!
Oh we all love a Double Maxim,
The one with the special flavour,
Oh we all love a Double Maxim,
The greatest of beers!
(1) Dubonnet, s’il vous plaît.
(2) Do ’ave a Dubonnet.
Emva Cream Sherry: 1983
[One of a series of Emva adverts starring “Hinge and Bracket”]
Dame Hilda Bracket: (Singing at the piano) Tra-la-la, cough, cough.
Dr Evadne Hinge:You sound in need of lubrication!
Hilda: Lubrication dear?! I’m no Morris Minor dear!
Evadne: No, but something rich, warming — Emva Cream perhaps?
Hilda: Emva Cream! … Delicious! I feel I can hit a top C and hold it for hours!
Evadne: Well, don’t expect me to accompany you!
Hilda: Oh no dear, and for high C’s I shall choose a sailor! Ha-ha!
Voice-over: Emva Cream — by appointment to the upper bracket!
Emva Cream Sherry (2): 1983
(Evadne is at the piano — Hilda enters the room)
Hilda: That’s a pretty piece dear!
Evadne: It’s Verdi’s Drinking Song dear!
Hilda: Ah-hah! and … you want your Emva Cream don’t you?
Evadne: Frankly, I thought you’d never ask!
Hilda: Oh sorry dear … patience is a virtue as well as an opera, ha-ha-ha!
Evadne: Mm, delicious Emva Cream dear — such a pleasure after wrestling with Verdi for hours!
Hilda: Who-o won?
Voice-over: Emva Cream Cyprus sherry — by appointment to the upper bracket!
Flowers Fine Ales
For the best picket in a brew flade, pick Flowers (Stanley Unwin)
Foster’s lager (1)
Strewth! There’s a bloke down there with no strides on!”
[Paul Hogan at the ballet]
Foster’s lager (2)
Scene: London Underground. Paul Hogan walks past a Japanese tourist, who is looking at a map
Japanese tourist: Excuse me. Do you know the way to Cockfosters?
Paul Hogan: Yeah. Drink it warm, mate!
Foster’s lager (3): 1981
(A group of Greek men are sea-fishing from a rocky pier)
Paul Hogan: G’day! This takes me back to me shark fishing days … back in Oz. Wrestle with one of those fellas for a few rounds and it really sets you up for a pint of the golden throat charmer!
(Drinks from a pint glass labelled Foster’s … while the fishermen, to great excitement, land a huge fish)
Scuse me mate — mind if I borrow some of your bait?
(Takes the prized fish and puts it on a hook … ready to cast)
Ta sport!
Voiceover: Foster’s — the Australian for lager!
Foster’s lager (4): 1984
Hogan: What’s that, Fred?
Fred: Morris dancing.
Hogan: Which one’s Maurice?
[Paul Hogan sitting outside an English country pub]
Golden Godwin: c.1955
Diana Dors (wearing a tight fishtail skirt):
I never say no to a Golden Godwin!
Gordon’s Gin
(1) It’s got to be Gordon’s!
(2) Born London 1769
Grants of St James’s wines: 1970s
There are many ways of choosing a good wine …
by the clarity … the bouquet … the taste.
But with Grants of St James’s on the label …
whatever you choose you needn’t take too long about it!
Grants of St James’s means good wines!
Get to know Grants of St James’s!
Greenall Whitley beer (1)
Smile please, you’re in Greenall Whitley land!
Greenall Whitley beer (2): 1970s
I wish I was in Greenall Whitley land,
Where hearts are warm
The girl I left behind,
Perhaps you think of me, as I think of you,
The jokes, the warmth, the fun, the girl behind the bar,
But most of all, Greenall Whitley’s, most of all I’m missing you,
Some day I’m going back, to the taste I know so well.
Guinness
(1) Guinness is good for you!
(2) My goodness, My Guinness!
(3) See what one or toucan do!
(4) Good things come to those who wait.
(5) Get together with a Guinness (c.1973)
Haig whisky
Don’t be vague: ask for Hague!
Harp lager (1): 1974
H. A. R. P. – hear the call.
Harp lager (2)
I’ve got this friend called Malcolm, well I wouldn’t say he’s tight,
But his wallet would make a quiet place for moths to spend the night,
He’s first out of the taxi and last into the pub,
Then says “I’d like to buy a drink but” (and here’s the rub)
He’s “just a little short right now” and could he “have a sub”?
I stood him for another and he swore he’d “get them in”
Then, going over to the mic, I announced above the din:
“Tonight is Malcolm’s birthday and the drinks are all on him.”
Harp — stays sharp to the bottom of the glass.
Harp lager (3): 1980s
Off down at the local on a Saturday night,
Met this girl from Birmingham, and she was all right.
She was very intellectual (“Ta very much!”),
The way she ate her crisps had a feminine touch!
But the gorilla she had in tow was just a bit much!
(Stay sharp! Harp stays sharp till the bottom of the glass!)
I said I was her brother, so I stayed and had another!
The cool fresh flavour didn’t waver by a quaver!
She said it was a pity but had to hurry home –
Her 80-year-old mother was all on her own!
So she kissed him very nicely and said she’d phone!
(Stay sharp! Harp stays sharp till the bottom of the glass!)
Harp lager (4)
It’s the full 43% Irish!
Harp Lager (5)
Harp puts out the fire!
Harveys Bristol Cream (1): 1970s
The best sherry in the world.
Harveys Bristol Cream c.mid-1980s
Heineken (1)
Drink, drink, drink your Heineken
[Parody of Men’s Chorus from “The Student Prince”: what were the rest of the words?]
Heineken (2)
How refreshing, how Heineken.
Heineken (3)
In his dairy in Switzerland, Hans Schnitzel makes magnificent cheeses. The holes in them are works of art! But today Hans is about to be very cheesed off, because his son Peter’s very first cheese contains not a single, solitary hole! Obviously, Peter’s hole-making skill lacks refreshment.
(Hans reaches for two cans of Heineken and hands one to Peter)
Fortunately, his father knows an old remedy … the cold Heineken. Now, fully refreshed, Peter prepares another cheese. Let’s come back in six months.
One, two, three, four, five, six.
Ah! sure enough, the cheese is good and hole-some!
Only Heineken can do this — because it refreshes the parts other beers cannot reach, thus making Peter feel a hole lot better!
Heineken: 1984
Scene: The School of Street Credibility. Ron, the voice tutor (played by Bryan Pringle) points to a board which says: “The water in Majorca don’t taste like what it oughta” and is trying to teach a posh girl (played by Sylvestra La Touzel) how to say it in Cockney.
Posh girl: The water in Ma-York-ah doesn’t taste like what it ought to.
Ron: No! no, no, no! The wart-er in Ma-jaw-ca don’t taste like what it oughta!
Posh girl: The water in Ma-York-a doesn’t taste quite how it should?
Ron: Ma-jaw-ca!
Posh girl: Ma-York-ah?
An exasperated Ron: Oy, Del — any danger of some refreshment in ’ere?
Del: ’Ere y’are — get yer laughin’ gear round that! (hands a can of Heineken to the girl)
Posh Girl: Oh golly! …. The wart-er in Majawca (Ron: Wassat?) don’t taste like what it oughta. Oh gosh! The wart-er in Ma-jaw-ca don’t taste like what it oughta! (Sniff)
Ron: She’s crackin’! She’s only cracked it!
Del: Yah, absolutely Ron!
Voice-over: Heineken — refreshes the parts what other beers cannot reach!
[A parody of Pygmalion or My Fair Lady, voted one of the best UK ads ever in a Channel 4 poll. “Majawca” (for Majorca) has stuck with many Brits ever since.]
Heineken Draught Lager Beer: 1970
With James Hayter (who also did the Mr Kipling adverts) drinking a pint and sitting in a draught
There’s a terrific draught in here.
There’s a terrific draught at your local,
The world famous lager is here,
There’s a terrfic draught at your local,
Heineken, Heineken, draught lager beer!
Hemeling lager
Wouldn’t you rather be Hemeling?
Hofmeister lager
For great lager, follow the bear!
Holsten Pils: c.1983
(Griff Rhys-Jones in one of the black and white, well-loved “Old Movies” Holsten adverts (1983–88). The adverts featured black and white remakes of famous film stars, and in this one Nobby was Humphrey Bogart)
Griff: Hello Nobby! I brought you some Holsten Pils — most of the sugar turns to alcohol you know!
Nobby: Funny, us three back together again!
Griff: Yeh, you, me and a bottle of Holsten Pils. I’ll save this for you until you get out … how long is that?
Nobby: Nine more years and six months in this hole!
Griff: Mm, shame to let it go flat then!
(Nobby is taken away by the prison guard)
Griff calls out: I’ll bring you another one to look at next week Nobby! Cheers, cheers!
Ind Coope Light Ale: mid-1970s
For the Southerner, it’s the governor!
John Bull home beer kit: 1970s
So good, it could put the pubs out of business!
John Smith’s: c.1983
Go and have a pint of magic.
Go and have a pint of magic.
Smooth, dark and satisfying — John Smith’s magic!
Go and have a pint of magic
John Smith’s beer (1): 1984
Got me LA shirt and me disco trousers
All topped off with an Elvis quiff
The night is young, and I smell like a surfer —
Got some mates to go out with …
Got a mate called Jones and a mate called Brown —
And now I’ve got a mate called Smith!
[Tune:Stop the Cavalry]
John Smith’s beer (2): early 1980s
Two furnace workers invite their new Asian workmate to the pub after work and he downs his pint in one
Furnace worker: Blimey! You’d think ’e were born ’ere!
Asian: Ah were, lad … Ah were.
John Smith’s lager: 1984
Say hello to El Billo, El Jimmo, and El Siddo
After two weeks in the sun
I think we’re nearly done
But me two and a half twister’s gone a bit skew whiff —
So I chat this senorita
By the name of Juanita,
But her sister Margarita’s
Who I end up with.
She says I drive her frantic
But her shoulders are gigantic!
And I really miss my mate called Smith!
John Smith’s lager — with that little bite bueno!
It’s not easy for a fella
Facing mountains of paella
And be sitting in a cellar —
Full of sangria.
Well they never let you near
And it’s time that we weren’t ’ere,
So we’re off to see our mate
At the local for a jar.
When you’ve ’ad enough of jets
And clickin’ castanets …
You’re glad to see your mate called Smith!
[Tune: Stop the Cavalry]
John Smith’s Yorkshire Bitter: 1983
(Two men and a dog in the pub)
Like your new dog Arkwright! Here boy — up-up — down — sit — heel — fetch … don’t do much does ’e?
Arkwright: Fancy a drop of John Smith’s?
(The dog springs to life, jumps up, spins, turns cartwheels, juggles …)
Arkwright: He just needs a bit of motivation!
Voice-over: John Smith’s Bitter — a tough act to follow!
Johnny Walker Black Label Whisky
If you want to impress someone, put him on your Black list!
Jubilee Stout: c.1960
Jubilee, Jubilee, Jubilee suits me,
And you'll find it suits you too!
Lamot Belgian lager (1973)
Long Life Beer (1): 1972
Opening time is anytime with Long Life!
Long Life Beer (2): 1973
Long live Long Life!
Look in at the local
(with Mr & Mrs Bobby Moore)
Bobby: Tina’s not the best dart player in the world, but she enjoys a game while she’s waiting for me. After a match we often meet our wife in the local: it’s a nice friendly place. Tina reckons I’ve rigged the darts. It’s not true. Anyway, it’s great to get together for an evening out.
Voiceover: Like Mr & Mrs Bobby Moore, look in at the local!
McEwans beer
(Tune: “The More we are Together the Merrier we Shall be”)
McEwans is the best buy, the best buy, the best buy,
McEwans is the best buy, the best buy in Beer
Aye McEwans, the best buy in beer!
Mackeson (1)
When old Ned Dyson fell off the church steeple, the first thing he said was, “Force a drop of Mackeson between me lips.”
Drop! ha-ha-ha — he didn’t leave a drop in the bottle! Next thing he was up on his feet. Well, Mackeson would put anybody on their feet
It looks good, tastes good, and by golly it does you good.
Mackeson — beautiful
Mackeson, Mackeson, makes you feel so good:
Enjoy life, enjoy life, exactly as you should!
Mackeson (3)
An Eskimo is fishing on a lake in his kayak but is very cold, so breaks a bit off his kayak and set fire to it. He is warm for a few minutes until the fire goes out, so he breaks off a bit more and sets fire to it. So it goes on until the kayak sinks
And that’s the origin of the Mackeson maxim “You can’t have your kayak and heat it too.”
Mackeson (4)
An advert involving a gnu
And that’s the origin of the Mackeson maxim “You can’t teach an old gnu [pronounced 'new'] dog tricks.”
Mackenson (5)
A skunk decides to bathe in nice perfumes before going to a party with lots of food. When he arrives, the other skunks will not let him in because he doesn’t smell right. So he wanders off and rolls around in the smelliest things he can find and then goes back to the party where the other skunks welcome him with open arms
And that’s the origin of the Mackeson maxim “A niff is as good as a feast.”
Mackeson Milk Stout
It does you double good!
Mackeson [or Manns?]
A middle-aged man is thinking back to what his wife used to look like – a pretty sweet young thing. Then suddenly he is snapped back to the present time with her extremely loud cackling laughter. He looks at her with some derision, blows hard, and says as he sips his drink:
At least some things never change.
Malibu (1)
The sun always shines when it pours!
Malibu (2): 1985
(Young chap is chatting-up a beautiful girl in a bar)
We’d better hurry if we’d like another, they close at … er … ten-thirty!
To waiter: Malibu on the rocks and … er … and one with pineapple.
To girl: Did you know that it… er… comes from a lost island paradise? Oh yes! Apparently, the Malibu islanders blended the finest white rum with tropical coconuts — as an offering to their Gods. In fact — I’m thinking of shooting my next movie on Malibu Island. I’ll call a cab… chauffeur’s night off.
Waiter to girl: Huh — you didn’t believe that did you?
Girl: No-o-o! I know you close at eleven!
Voice-over: Malibu — it comes from paradise and tastes like heaven!
Mann’s Brown Ale
Mann’s is the best brown ale,
Best brown ale, best brown ale,
Mann’s is the best brown ale,
Let’s have one now.
Say “Mann’s brown, Mann’s brown”.
Say “Mann’s brown, Mann’s brown”.
Mann’s is the best brown ale,
Let’s have one now.
Martini (1): 1971
Any time any place, anywhere,
There’s a wonderful world we can share,
It’s the right one, the bright one,
It’s Martini.
This is the Martini time of day
Martini Rosso
Any time, any place anywhere
Because Martini is the right one
Martini & Rossi vermouth
For people who share a taste for excitement!
Newcastle Brown
Sung by Owen Brannigan in a Geordie accent, to to tune of "Cushie Butterfield"
Scene: a small cosy bar
If you want a beer that’s perfection indeed
I give you a guide to fulfilling your need,
At home by the fireside, in club or in bar
The sign of good taste is the famous blue star.
It’s the strong beer, it’s the bottled beer
With the North’s biggest sale,
For complete satisfaction
(repeat on falling notes) Newcastle Brown Ale.
Noilly Prat vermouth (1): early 1960s
At the bar at the Europa Hotel (now the Marriott), with Pete Murray (then a dashing youngish DJ) swanning in to meet a couple of the “beautiful people” with much clinking of ice in glasses.
When Pete meets his friends for a drink at the Europa, What do they drink? — Noilly Prat!
Noilly Prat vermouth (2): early 1960s
When we say Noilly Prat vermouth is extra dry, we mean it’s extra dry!
Oranjeboom
Put your money on a Pony,
The little drink with the big kick.
Sandeman’s Port
The Sandeman Man used to wear a black hat and a long black cloak. All you saw of him was the cloak swirling around as he was chased. When he was finally caught all that was left was the cloak and hat in a heap on the floor, and a bottle of Sandemans port.
Murder mystery in Agatha Christie style at a dinner party in stately home. The shadow shape of the Sandeman caught in various locations causes speculation as to the “suspect”, who is finally illuminated in the doorway and is revealed as the Jeeves-like butler with the Stilton aloft on a board looking in silhouette like the Sandemans Spanish hat.
Woman dinner guest: It’s the Sandeman Partners Port … now I’ve got it.
Host: Yes, but please pass it round.
Seagers Egg Flip: 1950s
Don’t flop — have a flip!
Skol lager (1)
Skol lager, ?lovely lager, lager Skol.
Skol lager (2): 1976
Skol drinking. It's the taste that makes you do it.
Skol lager (3): Early 1980s
(An impromptu party at Harry’s place)
Harry has eight cans of Skol.
He drinks one himself, then gives one each to Bert and Jack.
Then Jim pops in with four more cans — but he’s got Val and Samantha with
him — and they all have one each.
Then Paul and Malcolm turn up with a couple of friends — and they drink
another four.
Being a Skolar, Harry has calculated that he’s still able to enjoy a quiet
can of Skol …
When you know lager … you’re a Skolar!
Skol lager (4): 1985
(Hagar the Horrible and his many pals are in the pub singing)
Skol, Skol, Skol, Skol,
At Stella Artois we’ve never contemplated using cheap hops.
We’ve never, never been tempted to use cheap barley —
And as for maturing our lager in a hurry … perish the thought!
Yet, apparently, some people still can’t get used to our prices!
Stella Artois! Reassuringly expensive!
[Background music: “We’re in the money”]
Stone’s bitter
It goes down great guns!
[The bottle had a cannon on the label]
Taunton cider: 1973
Arthur Moore, master cider maker, came to Taunton in 1911. I suppose you could say he’s responsible for the ciders we sell today, because though old Arthur’s long gone now, his art, and it is an art, remains.
Autumn Gold and Blackthorn — from The Taunton Cider Company —
where I’m happy to say the cider-maker’s art is still recognised.
Tetley’s Bitter
If you can’t beat ’em, join ’em!
Tetley Mild (early 1980s)
Man in a pub at the bar with a pint of mild and saying to the camera:
Ready when you are, Bob!
Tia Maria (1)
I drink Warninks — Warninks Advocaat.
Watney’s Ale (1)
What we want is Watney’s!
Watney’s Ale (2)
Watney’s Brown, Watney’s Pale,
What we want is Watney’s Ale!
Watney’s Ale (3): c.1970
We’ll drink a drink a drink
To make you think a think a think
Of Watney’s Pale,
So you can keep your medicinal compound
Now we’ve discovered Watney’s Pale.
W-e-e-e’ll drink a drink a drink
To make you think a think a think,
Of Watney’s Pale,
[The Scaffold, to the tune of “Lily The Pink”]
Watney's Pale Ale: c.1970
Sung by the group Mungo Jerry on a Wild West stagecoach
to the tune of "Going Up Country" by Canned Heat
Hit the pale trail
Oh hit the pale trail,
With Watney's ale!
Watney’s Red Barrel (1)
Red Barrel! Red Barrel!
Red Barrel men say “The same again”
To a fistful of flavour,
First-class beer.
Watney’s Red Barrel (2): c.1970
The Red Revolution.
Watney’s Red Barrel (3): c. 1970
Roll out the barrel!
Watney’s Red: from 1972
Watney’s dropped the “barrel” from their beer’s name for this campaign
(spoken): “Watney’s Red, that’s the best thing you’ve said!”
Webster’s Green Label
(A beer that was brewed at the now closed Fountainhead brewery in Halifax)
If ah were a drinking man
Which after t’match I am sir,
The soort o’ beer that ah would drink
Would be Webster’s Green Label.
Ah sup it up,
We all sup it up together,
We’ll be all reet on a Saturday neet,
Suppin’ it up together!
Webster’s horses conversing over stable door
Horse 1: Can I have a pint of Websters?
Horse 2: It’s “may”.
Horse 1: Sorry?
Horse 2: It’s not “can”, it’s “may” — “May I have a pint of Webster’s?”
Horse 1: Oh, OK, may I have a pint of Webster’s?
Horse 2: No you cannot.
Whitbread Tankard (1): 1970s
Cartoon character Stanley leaping chasms on horseback and other derring do.
Questioner: How do you do it, Stanley?
Stanley: Well it’s Tankard that helps me excel, after one I do anything well!
Whitbread Trophy Bitter: 1976
Whitbread (big head) Trophy Bitter,
The pint that thinks it’s a quart!
It’s got the body, the body that satisfies
It can’t be modest no matter how it tries
’Cos it’s the Whitbread Bitter, Trophy Bitter —
The best that you ever bought (give him a trophy)
Whitbread, Whitbread, Trophy Bitter
The pint that thinks it’s a quart!
Woodpecker Cider (1)
Woodpecker, Woodpecker, yes I would!
Woodpecker Cider (3): c.1972
When the Woodpecker knocks, be sure to let him in…
Voiceover: Be sure it’s Woodpecker Cider, by Bulmer’s.
Worthington Beer: 1960s
Oh, what about a Worthington?
Britain’s finest beer.
It makes you want to cheer
It’s clean and bright and full of life …
(A man interjects something like) What about a kick in the rear?
Oh What about a Worthington? …
Worthington E (1)
Worthington E’s the Beer,
There’s satisfaction here,
It’s the Worthington taste that satisfies,
Your worthy Worthington.
We make E the way you like it — really like it!
E’s so easy!
Worth passing a few pubs for.
Bailey’s Irish Cream
Bell’s Whisky (Was “Afore ye go” used on television?)
Blue Nun
Dewar’s White Label Scotch whisky
Emva Cream
| i don't know |
In which US state can you find the popular Waikiki Beach ? | Aston Waikiki Beach Hotel in Honolulu | Hotel Rates & Reviews in Orbitz
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Located in Waikiki, Aston Waikiki Beach Hotel is within a 10-minute walk of popular sights such as Honolulu Zoo and Waikiki Aquarium. This 3.5-star hotel has 645 rooms and welcomes guests with 2 restaurants, an outdoor pool, and a fitness center. On the beach, it's also near Diamond Head and University of Hawaii at Manoa.
Dining
Enjoy dining at Tiki s Grill and Bar, one of 2 onsite restaurants. Entertain your taste buds with a beverage at the bar/lounge or 2 coffee shops/cafés. For your convenience, a cooked-to-order breakfast is served for a fee each morning from 7 AM to 10:30 AM.
Rooms
Aston Waikiki Beach Hotel's 645 air-conditioned rooms provide lanais, refrigerators, and safes. Guests can expect to find WiFi, wired Internet, and 32-inch flat-screen TVs with pay movies and video-game consoles. Bathrooms offer hair dryers and free toiletries. Ironing boards are also available.
Property features
Guests of Aston Waikiki Beach Hotel have access to an outdoor pool, a fitness center, and free WiFi in public areas. Valet parking is available for USD 32.00 per day. The front desk is staffed 24/7 to help with dry cleaning/laundry, tours or tickets, and securing valuables. Other amenities at this beach hotel include 2 meeting rooms, conference space, and a business center.
Highlights
Walking distance to Honolulu Zoo and Waikiki Aquarium
Free WiFi in public areas
Onsite dining
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Aston Waikiki Beach Hotel
Hotel Amenities
Room Amenities
Aston Waikiki Beach Hotel offers 645 air-conditioned accommodations with video-game consoles and safes. Rooms open to lanais. 32-inch flat-screen televisions come with pay movies.
Bathrooms include shower/tub combinations, complimentary toiletries, and hair dryers. This Honolulu hotel provides wired and wireless high-speed Internet access for a surcharge. Housekeeping is provided daily.
Video-game console
In-room climate control (air conditioning)
Air conditioning
| Hawaii |
Which science fiction novel of 1957 by John Wyndham tells the story of a mysterious object whcih appears in a village and then disappears again leaving all the women of the village pregnant ? | Waikiki Beach Marriott Resort & Spa on Oahu | Hawaii.com
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Waikiki Beach Marriott Resort & Spa
Conveniently located just steps away from one of the world’s most famous beaches and the vast Pacific Ocean, Waikiki Marriott Resort & Spa invites you to retreat to paradise, and play in the sun and sand as you find your home away from home here. With lush resort grounds that span an impressive 5.2 acres, the resort’s breathtaking beauty alone is worth a stay. Priding itself on perfectly blending the Aloha spirit with an atmosphere that is warm, comfortable and soothing, Waikiki Beach Marriott Resort & Spa invites you to unwind and relax, letting your worries wash away with the nearby ocean’s tides.
Amenities
Two heated freshwater pools and whirlpool
24-hour fitness center
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Which American tennis player won his only Wimbledon singles title in 1992 ? | American winners of Wimbledon during the Open Era | Sporting News
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American winners of Wimbledon during the Open Era
When she steps on the grass, Serena Williams might feel she has a bull's-eye painted on her back. After all, she is the No. 1 seed at Wimbledon; she has won the past three grand slam tournaments; and she seeking her fourth title at the legendary grounds in England. She also has a mission: complete her Serena slam and push ahead of sister Venus in single titles. Serena already has legendary company in Americans to win at Wimbledon. (Getty Images)
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Billie Jean King
King won six times, including twice before professional players were officially allowed into Wimbledon competition. Here titles included a three-peat (1966, 1967, 1968), a repeat (1972, 1973) and a grand finale in 1975. (Getty Images)
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Stan Smith
Smith became the first American to win the men's title in the open era when his beat Ilie Nastase in the 1972 finals. He was runner-up to John Newcombe a year earlier. (AP Photo)
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Jimmy Connors
The bad-boy era arrived when Connors and Nastase won the doubles title in 1973, and hit full rant when the "Belleville Brat" won the singles title in '74. He would win again in 1982. (Getty Images)
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Chris Evert
It was billed as the love match: Evert, the new queen of women's tennis, and Connors were an item when they both won 1974 singles titles. Evert would win twice more, in 1976 and 1981, in her celebrated career. (Getty Images)
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Arthur Ashe
Ashe would fall one short of a grand slam, failing to win the French Open, in becoming the first great black male tennis player. He retired in 1980 and died in 1983 of AIDS, having contracted the disease from tainted blood during a heart transplant. He won Wimbledon in his ninth try, supplanting Connors. (AP Photo)
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John McEnroe
Yes, we can be serious: McEnroe stands among the best American men's tennis players. But he made a mockery of the Wimbledon term "gentleman" with argumentative responses. He even outstripped Connors in brattish attitude. He won three times, 1981, 1983 and '84. (AP Photo)
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Martina Navratilova
When she turned pro in 1975, Czechoslovakia stripped Navratilova of her citizenship (she was too American), so she applied for asylum in the United States. She became an American citizen in 1981. In the process, she would become the most dominant women in Wimbledon history, with nine titles — 1978, 1979, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987 and 1990. She would finish her career with more than 1,400 titles. King calls Navratilova is the greatest player of all time. (Steve Powell/Allsport)
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Andre Agassi
The Agassi era was just beginning with the kid from Las Vegas won his only Wimbledon title in 1992. Agassi was the harbinger of a new class of American tennis stars, and he would become a grand slam winner as well as a constant championship contender. (Getty Images)
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Lindsay Davenport
Davenport towered over most opponents at 6-2, and she chose tennis over volleyball, which her parents played. She missed a chance to be a grand slam player with six losses in the Australian Open final, and 1999 would be her only Wimbledon title. She played with baseline with the best of them and combined range and power to make up for a lack of speed and agility. (Getty Images)
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Venus Williams
The greatest sister act in tennis began in 2000 when Venus won the first of two consecutive titles. She enters 2015 with five Wimbledon crowns, including 2005 and a double in '07 and '08. Like Davenport, she is tall and strong on the baseline. She also was among the biggest servers in her heyday and could get to the net. The ball exploded off her racquet, especially on the backhand. Venus remains a threat at age 35. (Getty Images)
13
| Andre Agassi |
"""The Potato Eaters"" in 1885, ""The White Orchard"" in 1888 and ""Sheaves of Wheat"" in 1890 are all works by which famous artist ?" | Hall of Fame – TalkTennis
E-mail: [email protected]
The achievements of some of the most famous Tennis stars in the history of the sport are listed below.
Andre Agassi
Andre Agassi finally retired in 2006 at the age of 36, after enjoying one of the most successful Tennis careers in living memory. Agassi remains one of only five players in the history of the sport to have won all four Grand Slam titles. As for many players, the victory which alluded Agassi for the longest was the Men’s Singles title at the French Open. After making a dramatic comeback from a two set deficit, he finally claimed the title in 1999, by defeating Andrei Medvedev 1-6, 2-6, 6-4, 6-3, 6-4 in the Final of the tournament.
During the course of his career, Agassi won eight Grand Slam tournaments. He was one of the most popular players of the 1990s, frequently drawing attention to himself with his well-developed sense of fashion. His rivalry with compatriot Pete Sampras drew a great deal of public interest; any match which saw them pitched against each other was always guaranteed to draw a large audience.
Agassi was the object of great tabloid scrutiny for a time in 1996 following his split with the actress Brooke Shields. His personal troubles led to a slump in his career, but he recovered quickly and enjoyed a further ten years as a professional player before a back injury forced him into retirement. Agassi married fellow Tennis star Steffi Graf in 2001.
Those interested in learning more about Agassi and his career can visit the star’s Official website or his Online Fan Club.
Boris Becker
Boris Becker stormed onto the international Tennis stage in 1985, when he defeated Kevin Curran to become the youngest ever player to win Wimbledon, at the age of just 17. His power was immediately admired by observers and he acquired the nick-name ‘Boom Boom Becker’ on account of his formidable serve. He would win Wimbledon again in 1986 and 1989. He was finally ranked as the World Number One after his impressive performance in the 1991 Australian Open. By the end of his career, Becker had won 49 Singles titles (including 6 Grand Slams) and 15 Doubles titles. He also won a Gold medal for Germany with Michael Stich in the Men’s Doubles in the 1992 Barcelona Olympics.
Björn Borg
Björn Borg was born in Stockholm in 1956. He enjoyed a successful Tennis career which included eleven Grand Slam titles, including an impressive six victories at the French Open. Borg’s notorious icy exterior meant Tennis commentators tagged him with the nickname ‘Ice Borg’ relatively early in his career. This name never seemed more apt than when Borg faced his nemesis John McEnroe.
The intensity of McEnroe and Borg’s rivalry was never greater than during the famous Wimbledon Men’s Singles Final of 1980. Unfortunately for Borg, most Tennis fans look back nostalgically at McEnroe’s dramatic fourth set victory, and sometimes forget that Borg was the eventual victor in what is generally considered to be one of the greatest finals in the history of the tournament. The final score was 1-6, 7-5, 6-3, 6-7 (16-18), 8-6. During the course of his career, Borg amassed over $3 million in prize money. His achievements were recognised when he was inducted to the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1987.
Jimmy Connors
Connors won 109 titles during his career, including two Wimbledon Men’s Singles titles, off the back of his fantastic array of shots, most notably his incredible backhand. He also distinguished himself by becoming the only player to win the U.S. Open on all three surfaces on which it has been played: grass, clay and the hard court. A contemporary of Björn Borg and John McEnroe, the 1970s and early 1980s were the heyday of Connors’ career. In 1974, he came close to grasping a Golden Grand Slam, managing to win three of the four Grand Slam tournaments; only the French Open alluded him that year, as it would for the duration of his career.
For further study of Jimmy Connors then check out his specialist page here on TalkTennis.
Roger Federer
Roger Federer looks set to become one of the greatest Tennis players of all time. Federer is currently the undisputed World Number One and has already won ten Grand Slam tournaments and won over $30 million in prize money. He has become particularly skilled on grass, and took the Wimbledon Men’s Singles title with relative ease for four consecutive years between 2003 and 2006.
Born in 1981 in Basel, Switzerland, the esteem with which Federer is held by his compatriots was recently made plain by the commission of a postage stamp bearing the Tennis star. Such an honour is unprecedented in Switzerland, as this accolade is usually reserved for long-dead national heroes. More information about Federer’s achievements and developments in his career can be found on his Official Website.
Steffi Graf
Steffi Graf is an undisputed Tennis legend. A number of pundits and polls have claimed that the former German star might even have been the greatest female player of the 20th Century. During the course of her career Graf won an incredible 22 Grand Slam tournaments, and accomplished the rare feat of winning all four Grand Slams in a single year (1988). She is also the only player to have won each of the four Grand Slams at least four times.
Graf was comfortable on all surfaces, reflected in the 377 weeks she spent ranked as the World Number One by the Women’s Tennis Association. Her Grand Slam victories were also complemented by many other Singles titles, two Olympic Gold medals (in 1984 and 1988) and a Silver medal in 1992. Graf was a member of the Fed Cup team for seven years.
Steffi Graf retired from professional Tennis in August 1999 at the relatively young age of 30 due to persistent knee problems. In the same year, she delighted tabloid editors by becoming involved with fellow Tennis player Andre Agassi. The couple were married in 2001 and have two children together.
For more on Steffi Graf then click here
Martina Hingis
Martina Hingis was born in Slovakia (formally Czechoslovakia) in 1980. She became the youngest ever Wimbledon Champion when she and her partner Helena Suková won the Ladies Doubles title when Hingis was only fifteen years old. By 1997, she had reached Number One in the world rankings, had won the Wimbledon Ladies’ Singles title and the Australian Open. She had also managed to deny Venus Williams the Women’s Singles U.S Open title. While injuries forced her to withdraw from the game in 2001, she made a return to professional Tennis in the 2006/2007 season.
Hingis has had quite a career – to read more about it then check out our page dedicated to her.
Billie Jean King
Billie Jean King was born in California in 1943. By the end of her career she had amassed a whopping 39 Grand Slam victories (12 Singles, 16 Ladies’ Doubles and 11 Mixed Doubles) and over $1 million in prize money at a time when tournaments did not have the immense purses typical today.
The American was ranked fourth in the world by 1960 when she was only seventeen years old, and first won a Wimbledon title, the Ladies’ Doubles, a year later. King’s contribution to Tennis did not end with her incredible achievements on the court. Both during her career and after her retirement, King’s dedication to securing equal opportunities (and, controversially, equal prize money) for women has been second to none. In recent years, the dedication of King and other advocates for complete equality has paid off; the French Open and Wimbledon will pay the winners of the Ladies’ and Men’s Finals equal amounts for the first time in 2007. Such developments have not been without serious debate though.
King is well remembered for defeating Bobby King in a match broadcast to over 50 million people from the Houston Astrodome in 1973. She defeated King 6-4, 6-4, 6-3 in the match which became known as the "Battle of the Sexes".
John McEnroe
When most people think of John McEnroe, they recall his notoriously short fuse. His frequent displays of temper, including explosions such as "You cannot be serious!", earned him the nick-name "the Super-brat".
McEnroe is remembered for the tense Men’s Singles Final of 1980, when he finally succumbed to his great rival Björn Borg in the fifth set, despite an impressive victory in the fourth. He exacted his revenge on Borg later in 1980, and again in 1981, when he defeated the Wimbledon Champion at the U.S. Open. He took particular pride in representing the United States in the Davis Cup, an honour he perhaps took particularly seriously as a consequence of his father’s military background. Indeed, McEnroe was born in Germany, where his father was serving, in 1959 before moving back to New York as a toddler.
While McEnroe might have almost as many tantrums as aces to his name during his career, he will ultimately be remembered for consistently ranking amongst the top ten male players in the world for ten consecutive years. During that time, he accumulated an impressive seventeen Grand Slam titles: seven Singles'; nine Men’s Doubles; and one Mixed Doubles. McEnroe is now a popular tennis commentator.
Fred Perry
As visitors enter the All England Club to watch Wimbledon each summer, they walk past a statue of Britain’s greatest Tennis hero. Fred Perry is the most successful British male Tennis star of all time. His achievements are all the more remarkable considering that he did not take up Tennis until he was eighteen years old; prior to being introduced to the sport, Perry had been a World Table Tennis Champion.
Born in Stockport in Cheshire in 1909, Perry went on to win each of the Grand Slam tournaments during the course of his career; the so-called Career Golden Grand Slam. He ranked amongst the top ten players in the world between 1931 and 1936, and was consistently ranked at Number One from 1934-6. Perry represented Great Britain a number of times in the Davis Cup, leading the team to the success which has alluded the national team in recent years. He died in Australia in 1995.
For more on the last male English Wimbledon Champion this click here .
Pete Sampras
Pete Sampras was born in 1971 in Washington D.C. He first captured international attention when he beat Andre Agassi in the final match of the U.S. Open at the age of only nineteen. The roots of a long rivalry were born during the match.
Sampras was always at his most comfortable on the lawns of Wimbledon. He often referred to Centre Court as his "Cathedral". He won his first Wimbledon title in 1993 and would dominate Centre Court for the duration of the 1990s, losing out only to Dutchman Richard Krajicek in the 1996 semi-finals. Fans who flocked to Wimbledon to see Sampras play became even more excited when he was pitched against Agassi. Yet his success was not restricted to Wimbledon alone; from 1993-8 Sampras was ranked as the World Number One on the basis of his success in a variety of Championships.
Those interested in learning more about Sampras might want to look at his Official Website or the Pete Sampras Fan Site .
Monica Seles
Monica Seles was born in Novi Sad in the former Yugoslavia in 1973. Seles has also represented the United States, as she became a U.S citizen in 1994. She became the youngest ever Champion of the French Open in 1990. She went on to win a further eight Grand Slam tournaments.
Seles’ career was interrupted in 1993 when she was stabbed in the back during a match in Hamburg in front of 6000 spectators. Her attacker turned out to be a mentally unstable man who was unhappy that Seles had usurped Steffi Graf from the Number One ranking. Fortunately, Seles’ injuries were not life threatening and she recovered quickly.
For more on Monica Seles then read our page on her.
Serena Williams
There are few professional Tennis players who have had the experience of battling their way through the initial stages of a Grand Slam tournament only to look across the net in the Final to be confronted by their own sibling. This is, however, a scenario which the Williams sisters have become accustomed to in recent years. Venus and Serena are the two youngest of the five daughters of Richard Williams. They were raised in the rough L.A. suburb of Compton. Determined for his daughters to find a way out of their deprived neighbourhood, Richard Williams drilled them in the fundamentals of Tennis. When Serena and Venus showed clear aptitude for the sport, he started them on a carefully regimented training programme and began to enter them in youth competitions.
Serena was born in Michigan in 1981. Despite being a year younger than Venus, she managed to win a Grand Slam tournament before her sister. She subsequently won another seven Grand Slams and a number of other Singles and Doubles titles. Before 2002, Serena existed somewhat in the shadow of Venus, but emphatically bucked that trend when she won the French Open, Wimbledon and the U.S. Open that year. Since that point, she has been a prominent figure in women’s tennis, although her forays in other areas such as fashion have seen her influence dwindle.
Venus Williams
Venus Williams was born in Lynnwood, California in 1980. Venus has had a career marked by winning and losing streaks, but her losing streaks have not detracted from an extraordinary record. She entered her first Grand Slam tournament, the U.S. Open, in 1997, where she became the first unseeded player to reach the Final. She was denied the title in that year, however, by Martina Hingis.
Venus fulfilled a dream in 2000 when she won Wimbledon after beating her sister in the the semi-final and her compatriot Lindsay Davenport in the Final. On the following day, she also claimed the Ladies’ Doubles title, with Serena as her partner. The sisters also played together in the 2000 Sydney Olympics, when they took home a Gold medal on behalf of the United States. Venus also managed to win the Gold medal in the Women’s Singles event.
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What is the more common eight letter name of the common human condition known as Seborrheic Dermatitus ? | Types of Eczema: Atopic Dermatitis, Seborrheic Dermatitis, and More
Eczema is a common problem that causes the skin to become inflamed. People often also call it dermatitis .
Eczema comes in many forms. But the different types of eczema tend to cause these symptoms:
Itching . The itching can be intense. The damage to the skin during eczema is often due to scratching.
Scaling. The surface of the skin can flake off, giving the skin a rough, scaly appearance.
Redness. The affected skin may bleed and appear blotchy.
Fluid-filled blisters . These can ooze and form crusts.
Cracking. Severely affected skin may develop painful, deep cracks, also called fissures.
Depending on the cause, eczema may flare up and cause severe symptoms. But it can also become a chronic problem with less intense symptoms.
Here's a look at the types of eczema and their treatments.
Atopic Dermatitis
The hands are especially vulnerable to developing contact dermatitis. People can develop contact dermatitis even if they don't have atopic dermatitis.
Treatments for irritant contact dermatitis include:
Moisturizers for the skin
Steroid medications
Treatments for contact dermatitis from allergic triggers also include steroid drugs. These are rubbed on the skin or taken as a pill.
For either type of contact dermatitis, antibiotics may be necessary. Avoiding future contact with the irritant or allergy trigger is also important. Wearing gloves can help protect the skin on the hands, which are often affected.
Dyshidrotic Dermatitis
This type of eczema affects the hands and feet. The cause is unknown.
The first symptom may be severe itching. Blisters may then appear, which give way a few weeks later to scaly patches. Sometimes deep cracks can appear on the hands or fingers.
This type of eczema may become chronic and painful.
Treatments include:
Steroid drugs that are rubbed onto the skin or taken by mouth
Psoralen combined with ultraviolet A therapy
Nummular Dermatitis
This type of eczema more often affects men than women. Men usually don't get their first outbreak before their mid-50s. Women tend to get it in their teen years or early adulthood.
Nummular dermatitis causes coin-shaped red marks. The marks appear most often on the:
Legs
Inside and behind the ear
People may scratch affected areas during the day without realizing it. They may also scratch while asleep.
Usually, neurodermatitis causes a skin outbreak that doesn't get any bigger. But the irritated skin can grow thick and deeply wrinkled. Infections may also develop in the irritated areas.
The main treatment for this type of eczema is to stop scratching it. In the meantime, steroid medicines that are rubbed onto the skin can help treat symptoms.
When neurodermatitis affects the scalp, it can be harder to treat. In these cases, it may require the steroid medication prednisone , which is taken by mouth .
Seborrheic Dermatitis
This type of eczema is better known as dandruff . In infants, it affects the scalp. In adults, it also often affects these areas:
Eyebrows
Groin
Center of chest
Seborrheic dermatitis causes skin to fall off in flakes. The condition may be due to an overgrowth of a type of yeast that normally lives in these areas, as well as an overgrowth and rapid shedding of cells on the scalp. It may be especially hard to treat in people whose immune systems aren't working properly, including people with AIDS .
Treatments vary between infants and people with the condition later in life. The treatments include:
Shampoo containing salicylic acid , selenium sulfide, zinc pyrithione, or coal tar
Antifungal treatments or steroid lotions that are rubbed onto affected areas
Steroid lotions
Stasis Dermatitis
This type of eczema can develop in people when the veins in their lower legs don't properly return blood to their heart .
Stasis dermatitis can arise quickly, causing weeping and crusting of the skin. Over time, this type of eczema can cause the skin to develop brown stains.
Treatments include:
| Dandruff |
Which American businesswoman, who died in 2002, is probably best remembered for her role in the creation of the popular toy Barbie doll in 1959 ? | Seborrheic Dermatitis and Cradle Cap | Cleveland Clinic
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What is seborrheic dermatitis?
Seborrheic dermatitis is a skin condition that causes white-to-yellow greasy scales to form on the scalp, ears, and face. If it occurs on the scalp in babies, it is called "cradle cap." If it appears on the scalp in adults, it is known as dandruff.
Seborrheic dermatitis can cause various areas of the skin to be flaky or itchy. It usually affects the scalp, but can also affect other parts of the body. Common sites include the sides of the nose, eyebrows, ears, eyelids, and chest. It can also occur in the navel (belly button) and in the creases of the arms, legs, or groin.
What are the symptoms of seborrheic dermatitis?
Seborrhea of the scalp causes dandruff, which appears as loose, white flakes of skin that may itch. Seborrhea on other areas of the body can produce patches of skin that are red and scaly.
Cradle cap in infants appears as crusty yellow or brown scales on the scalp. This scaling can also be found on the eyelids, around the nose, and in the groin, and may itch. Scratching may cause additional inflammation in the area and may cause breaks in the skin, which can lead to mild infections or bleeding.
Who gets seborrheic dermatitis?
Seborrheic dermatitis occurs most often in infants younger than three months old and in adults between the ages of 30 and 60. It is more common in men than in women.
What are the causes of seborrheic dermatitis?
Seborrheic dermatitis can have many different causes. Hormones may play a role. A yeast called Malassezia, which is normally present on the skin, may overgrow and cause skin problems.
Other factors that can cause seborrheic dermatitis include:
Family history (other members of your family have it)
Stress
Infrequent shampoos or skin cleaning
Using alcohol-based lotions
Other skin disorders
Certain conditions such as Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, stroke, and head injury can cause seborrheic dermatitis.
How is seborrheic dermatitis diagnosed?
For most patients, seborrheic dermatitis is diagnosed based on the appearance of the affected skin and where it appears on the body. There is usually no need for blood, urine, or allergy tests. If the condition does not respond to treatment, a skin biopsy or other test may be performed to rule out another disease.
How is seborrheic dermatitis treated?
Treatment depends on your age and the area of the body that is affected.
In adolescents and adults, seborrheic dermatitis may clear up on its own. Dandruff can be treated with an over-the-counter dandruff shampoo that contains tar, salicylic acid, selenium sulfide, zinc pyrithione, or ketoconazole. The scalp and hair should be washed at least every other day. Steroid lotions may be used to treat other affected skin areas.
In babies, cradle cap usually clears up without treatment when the child is between 8 and 12 months old. It may be treated with daily cleansing, using a mild baby shampoo. Massage or brush the scalp with a soft brush several times a day and after each shampoo. Be careful not to cause a break in the skin, which can lead to infection. If the problem continues, or the baby seems uncomfortable and scratches the scalp, contact your pediatrician or dermatologist. He or she may prescribe a prescription shampoo or lotion. Other areas of affected skin may be treated with a gentle steroid lotion.
What is the prognosis (outlook) for patients who have seborrheic dermatitis?
In infants, cradle cap usually disappears on its own when the child is between 8 and 12 months old.
In adolescents and adults, dandruff can be a lifelong condition that can be controlled with treatment. The condition improves quickly with regular treatment.
See your healthcare provider if your condition doesn't respond to self-treatment, or if the affected area becomes red or painful, forms crusts, or drains fluid or pus.
References
American Academy of Dermatology. Seborrheic dermatitis Accessed 11/9/2016.
National Eczema Association. Seborrheic dermatitis Accessed 11/9/2016.
© Copyright 1995-2016 The Cleveland Clinic Foundation. All rights reserved.
This information is provided by the Cleveland Clinic and is not intended to replace the medical advice of your doctor or health care provider. Please consult your health care provider for advice about a specific medical condition. This document was last reviewed on: 11/9/2016…#14403
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Which analgesic drug, first isolated in 1804, was named after the Greek god of dreams ? | The Beauty of Poppies, the Allure of Opium | Opioids: Medications or Main Street?
The Beauty of Poppies, the Allure of Opium
Opioids: Medications or Main Street?
Module 1
The Beauty of Poppies, the Allure of Opium
Opium is extracted from the juice of poppies, and it contains a complex mixture of chemicals that are related to morphine, named for Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams. It has been used medicinally and socially for thousands of years to produce euphoria, analgesia, and sleep, and to prevent diarrhea.
Papaver somnifera
Source: Wikimedia Commons.
The poppy plant Papaver somniferum and its effects were known to the Persian, Egyptian, and Mesopotamian cultures. Poppy plants were first mentioned in Sumerian writing around 4000 B.C., where they were referred to as “plants of joy.” A significant advance in opium processing occurred in the sixteenth century when it was discovered that the alkaloids found in opium are significantly more soluble in alcohol than in water. Paracelsus (1490–1541) produced “laudanum” by extracting opium into brandy, creating a tincture of morphine.
By the nineteenth century, vials of laudanum and raw opium were freely available in English pharmacies and grocery stores. In eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Britain, opium was taken orally as a tincture of laudanum, and addiction to it was a sign of social status. British opium imports more than tripled from 45 tons in 1830 to 140 tons by 1860, and despite extensive British control of Indian production, imports of Turkish opium proved to have greater morphine content (A Brief History of Opium, 1999).
Opium was also well known in ancient China, where people ate parts of the flower or drank liquid extracts. By the seventh century, Turkish and Islamic cultures of western Asia discovered that the smoking of opium was more powerful. Widespread use of opium in China escalated after pipes for smoking were delivered by Dutch traders in the 1600s. Indians usually ate opium, whereas the Chinese smoked it, with and without tobacco. By the late 1700s, the British East India Company controlled the prime Indian poppy-growing areas and dominated the Asian opium trade and, though demand already existed, they had a created a monopoly and could control both supply and prices.
Opium was already a heavily used recreational drug in China; seeing this as detrimental to the people, the Imperial court banned its importation and use—but smuggling continued. In 1839 the Qing Emperor ordered his ministers to act, initiating the First Opium War with the British. The Chinese were defeated and forced to sign the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842, whereby the British opium trade was to continue, and the Chinese had to pay a large settlement, open five new ports to foreign trade, and cede Hong Kong to Britain.
After 14 years, the Second Opium War started over Western demands to increase the opium trade. China was defeated again by 1860 and opium importation to China was formally legalized, leading to even greater use. By 1900 an estimated 25% of adult male Chinese were addicted (A Brief History, 1999).
* * *
Morphine was first isolated from opium in 1805 by a German pharmacist. Doctors had searched for alternatives to oral administration of drugs, and opium in particular caused unpleasant gastric problems. With the invention of the hypodermic syringe in the mid-nineteenth century, injection of purified morphine was even more potent and rapid acting than opium itself. Morphine addiction became widespread in the United States following its extensive use by maimed soldiers on both sides of the Civil War. Opiates were cheap, legal and prevalent in the United States of the late 1800s. It was mistakenly believed that injecting morphine was not addictive, whereas ending habitual opium use caused flu-like symptoms and depression that morphine could easily alleviate.
From a calendar of 1886. Source: U.S. National Library of Medicine, NIH.
A powerful non-addictive alternative to opium and morphine would be ideal. In 1874 an English pharmacist boiled morphine and acetic acid (vinegar), acetylating both of the hydroxyl groups on morphine, to produce diacetylmorphine. This was synthesized and marketed commercially by the German pharmaceutical giant, Bayer, in 1898. Bayer launched the best-selling drug brand of all time, Heroin, as “the sedative for coughs.” The new drug enjoyed widespread acceptance in the medical community and among patients.
Bayer was actively selling Heroin to dozens of countries, with free samples given to physicians. It was several years before the risk of addiction became obvious to doctors, who noted the extraordinary use of Heroin-based cough medicine. Heroin was not the miracle cure for morphine or opium addiction that some had hoped, so in 1913 Bayer halted production and erased the drug from their official company history. Bayer then focused on marketing their second blockbuster drug, aspirin.
Eventually in 1910, after 150 years of failed attempts to rid the country of opium, the Chinese were successful in convincing the British to dismantle the India–China opium trade. By the 1920s, many Western countries had made opiate use illegal, unless by prescription with medical care. As recently as 2007, Afghanistan’s poppy production rose an estimated 15% over that in 2006 (Washington Post, 2007). The U.S. State Department’s top counter-narcotics official, Tom Schweich, claims that Afghanistan is now “providing close to 95% of the world’s heroin.”
| Morphine |
What is the morecommon three word name of the human condition that is known as Spastic Colon ? | (opioids) Morphine Mega Thread & FAQ'S
(opioids) Morphine Mega Thread & FAQ'S
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Morphine was first isolated from opium in 1805 by a German pharmacist, Wilhelm Sert�rner. Sert�rner described it as the Principium Somniferum. He named it morphium - after Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams. Today morphine is isolated from opium in substantially larger quantities - over 1000 tons per year - although most commercial opium is converted into codeine by methylation. On the illicit market, opium gum is filtered into morphine base and then synthesized into heroin. [1]
What is it? – Morphine is a highly potent opiate analgesic psychoactive drug, is the principal active ingredient in Papaver somniferum (opium), is considered to be the prototypical opioid. Like other opioids, morphine acts directly on the central nervous system (CNS) to relieve pain. Morphine has a high potential for addiction; tolerance and both physical and psychological dependence develop rapidly. [2]
Popular types of morphine solutions
Pharmer.org - huge list of different morphine tabs out there for you to identify.
MS Contin; MS IR; Oramorph; Roxanol; Avinza; Kapanol; Kadian
Composition of Australian Mundipharma MsContins
Originally Posted by mims
Composition
Active. Morphine sulfate BP.
Inactive. Tablets. Lactose (5, 10, 15, 30, and 60 mg tablets only), hydroxyethylcellulose, cetostearyl alcohol, magnesium stearate and talc. All tablets are coated with hypromellose, macrogol 400 and titanium dioxide (E171). The coatings also contain: iron oxide red (E172) (10 mg tablet); iron oxide black (E172) (10 and 100 mg tablets); iron oxide yellow (E172) (10, 15 and 100 mg tablets); quinoline yellow (E104) (15, 60 and 200 mg tablets); brilliant blue FCF (E133) (15 and 200 mg tablets); indigo carmine (E132) (15, 30 and 100 mg tablets); erythrosine (E127) and sunset yellow FCF (E110) (30 and 60 mg tablets).
Suspension. Xanthan gum, polystyrene sulfonate - hydrogen, xylitol, raspberry flavour 52354T, purified water, brilliant scarlet 4R (E127) as colouring.
How is morphine used? – Morphine comes in oral preparations (IR an ER and oramorph solution), vials for IM, SC and IV injection.
Addiction – Morphine is a highly addictive opiate. Tolerance, physical and psychological dependency happens in a short time. Withdrawals are like most other drugs of this class; nausea, tearing, yawning, chills, body aches, insomnia, loss of appetite, dysphoria and excessive sweating, etc lasting anywhere up to a week or more as well as the following PAWS (Post Acute Withdrawal Symptoms)
Addicted and need help? Check out these links.
Possible Interaction with Other drugs include [3] –
• Alcohol
• Certain analgesics such as Talwin, Nubain, Stadol, and Buprenex
• Drugs that control vomiting, such as Compazine and Tigan
• Drugs classified as MAO inhibitors, such as the antidepressants Nardil and Parnate
• Major tranquilizers such as Thorazine and Haldol
• Muscle relaxants such as Flexeril and Valium
• Sedatives such as Dalmane and Halcion
• Tranquilizers such as Librium and Xanax
• Water pills such as Diuril and Lasix
Legal Classifications
• In the United Kingdom, morphine is listed as a Class A drug under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 and a Schedule 2 Controlled Drug under The Misuse of Drugs Regulations 2001.
• In the United States, morphine is classified as a Schedule II drug under the Controlled Substances Act.
• In Australia, morphine is classified as a Schedule 8 drug under the variously titled State and Territory Poisons Acts.
Note - These guides aren't universal for every kind of morphine tablet or capsule out on the market. They act as exactly that, a guide, not a be all end all of all preparations.
Routes of Administration Bio-Availability
IV - BA = 100%
Preparation for Insufflation for morphine tablets (snorting)
what you need: morphine tablets, a spoon, A4 piece of paper, a pill crusher (ideal) otherwise a Bankcard or similar, razor or even a cigarette lighter, flat surface. a Pestle and Mortar would be ideal!
1) Take your desired dose of morphine, wether they be MS IR's or MsContins.
2A) If you have a mortar and pestle, crush the pill. Make sure you remove any coating that the pill may have using a knife to scrape it or running it under a tap (make sure you pluf the sink up
if not, go to step b...
2b) Place the pill, preferably broken into pieces, on a clean A4 sheet of paper and fold it over the pill
3) Using your spoon crush the pill under the paper until it is as fine as you can get it. You will find the paper folded over it prevents you from loosing any chunks that could have potentially flown from underneath the piece of paper.
4) Using your card or razor you can now finely chop the crushed pill and split into whatever sized lines you desire
5) Snort away!
If you have Kadian or Kapanol or another morphine capsule you simply crush the beads as tablet was done.
Preparation for Plugging Morphine Tablets
what you need:
a spoon, A4 piece of paper,
Bankcard or similar or razor or even a cigarette lighter,
flat surface,
a needless syringe (your choice of size),
sterile water,
some lubricant.
AND MOST IMPORTANTLY : AN EMPTY BOWEL!
1) Use steps 1 -4 of insufflating the tablet to get it into a fine powder.
2) Dump the powder into a spoon
3) Draw enough sterile water into the syringe and empty it into the spoon, mixing the solution as well as possible
4) Suck the solution back up into the syringe.
5) Get into a comfortable position, laying on your side down on the ground
6) Lube up your rectum, depending on the size of your syringe (and how loose your arse is!)
7) Start inserting the syringe slowly, until you reach about 2 knuckles deep (your finger is deep within the borderline now isn't it pal?)
Once you have the syringe in place, slowly push down on the plunger and empty the solution in. Slowly take out the syringe now.
You will feel some resistance in your rectum, like you need to take a dump. Don't be alarmed, this is normal. Your sphincter muscle will tighten and stop the solution from coming out. It takes a certain amount of self control as well. The more you do it, the more you become acquanted with the feeling.
Now go wash you hands, stink finger!
Preparation for IV please note that not all Morphine pills are suitable for the injection process. ie there is conflicting arguments as to whether MsContins are suitable as people have them gel up along with other brands. If you have experience with morphine and know what does and doesn't gel then please PM me and I will edit in where appropriate
Before you start anything. Do you have fresh needles? Do you have sterilising/alcohol pads? Do you have a wheel or micron filter? If you answered no to any of these I strongly recommend you rectify that! Make sure you're working in a clean environment. Sterilise and clean your preparation space. Clean your hands! Clean your intended injection site! Sterilise your working space and utensils!
what you need:
Bankcard or similar or razor or even a cigarette light,
flat surface.
A Micron Filter or Wheel Filter. If you only have a cotton tip, you will have to make do.
Sterile Water
Alcohol Swabs
Fresh Syringes. 27G-31g are best suited. the smaller the guage, the less harm it will do to you. A fresh syringe for every poke!
Someone as a sitter! This is highly recommended in the case of an OD
A phone with credit on hand in case of emergency. Make sure you know your emergency contact numbers. 911 for America, 000 for australia.
1) Use steps 1 -4 of insufflating the tablet to get it into a fine powder.
2) Now sterilise your spoon and wash it out with the sterile water
3) Dump the powder into the spoon
4) Add a sufficient amount of sterile water and mix the solution together with the plunger. DO NOT add any heat to this solution. it will only cause unwanted fillers and binders mix into the solution. It's bad enough shooting pills as it is, you don't want to do anymore harm to yourself.
5) Attaching your Micron or Wheel filter onto the syringe and slowly draw up the solution. Now with the tip facing toward the sky give the barrel a few taps so the air bubbles rise to the top. Push the plunger up, getting rid of any air in the needle.
6) Swab the area you intend to use for the injection site.
7) Get your tourniquet (if you require one) and apply it to approximately 6 inches above your intended injection site.
Pump your fist until you see the vein popping through.
9) Pierce into the vein with the needle as parallel to your vein as possivle and pull back on the plunger to register. Make sure the bevel on the syringe is aimed upward.
10) Once you see you have registered, slowly push down on the plunger. If you are new to IVing you should re-register half way through your shot to make sure you're still in the vein although you will feel a huge stinging sensation if you are out and missing the vein. Stop pushing on the plunger immediately if you feel stinging. Re-register before you continue on with the shot.
11) Once you have finished your shot, place the cap back on your syringe and dispose of it into the Sharps Bin.
If you are unable to obtain saline/sterile solution at least make the effort to boil a cup of water instead of using it straight from the tap. Boiling the water will kill of some possible contaminants or bacteria, some, NOT ALL.
If you are having trouble finding a vein here are some solutions to help out:
Take a hot shower. The hot water helps the veins rise to the surface of your skin.
Do some push-ups or lift some weights.
Clench and tighten your fist for a short period of time
A tourniquet will help as well.
The safest and recommended spots for injecting are on top of the wrist, your forearm, the crook of your elbow and up the bicep. Keeping the injection site above your heart allows for the best blood flow possible. Stay away from places like your legs and feet. The blood flow isn't as strong in those area further away from the heart and can cause complications.
here are some guides to injection spots, but before that is an image of a used needle to really put into perspective what happens to the tip after 6 uses.
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/24440.../038P15_25.jpg is a detailed view of the forearm/crook
the dorsal veonous network and cephallic vein are easiest to hit.
Safety and Vital Information
FINDING VEINS
Tying off with a touniquet really helps. Be sure to take the tie off after the needle is in and registered and before you shoot. The pressure could cause you to miss the shot.
Gravity Helps - Just standing up and letting your arms hang can bring veins out.
Body heat brings veins to the surface. Preparing your shot in a warm environment may assist as well as things like wearing a warm hat (beanie etc) and jumpers, tracksuits. Also wrapping your arm in glad-wrap or cellophane will help.
Take your time!
Anytime you hit something that feels like a vein, but hurts, PULL OUT! There are no exceptions.
Reasons the needle may hurt:
1 You hit an artery. Injecting here could hurt you bad. PULL OUT
2 You hit a nerve. Injecting here could hurt you bad. PULL OUT!
3 You aren’t in a vein. This will waste your shot and cause infections or an abscess.
How you know you’ve hit an Artery
- The colour of the blood is bright red.
- The blood may be a little foamy or frothy
- It might hurt a lot
- It has a lot of force behind it. Sometimes the plunger won’t need to be pulled back, the force will push it back.
- Blood can enter the syringe like spurts from a heart beat.
If any of these things happen, PULL OUT. Apply pressure to the place where you pulled out. If possible hold the place where you hit over you head. If bleeding doesn’t stop seek medical attention immediately.
How you know you’ve hit a Nerve
- It hurts a lot!
- No blood comes into the syringe when you try and register
- If this happens, PULL OUT.
Information extracted from http://www.harmreduction.org//downloads/arteries.pdf
What is a missed hit?
You’ll know it by an immediate stinging sensation and a swelling around an injection site during or immediately after injection. It may be caused by fluid entering the tissue surrounding the vein because the needle has:
• not entered the vein properly
• entered the vein and slipped out again
• entered the vein and gone through the opposite wall
• entered the vein correctly but excess pressure caused the vein to split.
A ‘missed hit’ will mean that the drug is absorbed much more slowly by the body, so that the effect will be less pronounced. It can also lead to other problems such as abscesses, cellulitis, and cutaneous foreign body granulomas.
Reducing your chances of a missed hit
• Check that the needle is in a vein by gently pulling back on the plunger to see that venous blood (a dark red colour) enters the syringe
• Always release the tourniquet before injecting
• Maintain a steady hand whilst injecting
• If you are in withdrawal from heroin, smoke a small amount before injecting so your hands will be steadier
• Use the smallest possible needle and syringe barrel
• Inject at the correct angle (i.e. in line with the vein)
• Inject the fluid slowly.
First aid for missed hits
Remove the needle and apply pressure to the site, preferably a hot or frozen wool swab, otherwise anything cold and sterile. You should get missed hits or any other problems checked out by a doctor, Accident & Emergency at your nearest hospital, or at your local Needle Syringe Program. Massaging the area of the missed shot will also help the drug absorb into your muscle.
DO NOT COME ONTO OD POSTING AN URGENT POST ASKING FOR HELP, THERE IS NOTHING WE CAN DO TO AID YOU. IF AN ABSCESS IS STARTING TO FORM SEEK MEDICAL ATTENTION ASAP.
Information extracted from - http://www.saferinjecting.net/injecting-missed-hits.htm
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Which American tennis player won his only Wimbledon Singles title in 1975 ? | BBC ON THIS DAY | 5 | 1975: Ashe's Wimbledon win makes history
1975: Ashe's Wimbledon win makes history
American tennis player Arthur Ashe has become the first black man to win the Wimbledon singles' championship.
New Yorker Althea Gibson was the first black woman to take the Wimbledon title in 1958.
Ashe beat defending champion Jimmy Connors three sets to one on Centre Court.
Speaking after the game Ashe said: "I always thought I would win because I was playing so well and was so confident."
Everything he did was good
Jimmy Connors
Although Ashe won the US Open in 1968 his 6-1, 6-1, 5-7, 6-4 victory today - at the age of 31- surprised many at the All England Club.
The son of a policeman from Richmond, Virginia, Ashe was reluctant to discuss his tactics, as he expects to meet Connors again.
Connors, 22, admitted: "I couldn't find an opening. Whether I served wide balls, or kicks he was there. Everything he did was good: fine returns, short and long, and hard serves and volleys."
The older man won his first service game to love and quickly broke his opponent's serve in the first set.
The pressure on Connors began to show - causing derision in the crowd - as he angrily threw his towel under the umpire's chair and released a chain of expletives.
Ashe took the first set in just 19 minutes and secured a second 6-1 rout almost as quickly.
Tension mounted in the third set as Connors found his rhythm to recover a 6-5 lead - after trailing 3-1 - before winning the set.
His friend and Wimbledon semi-finalist Ile Nastase watched anxiously from the players' stand, along with his mother Gloria and manager Bill Riordan.
Ashe kept his cool and broke Connors' serve in the ninth game of what was to be the final set.
The match ended swiftly as Ashe reached 40-15 with his service game and punched home a winning volley after a weak two-handed return by Connors.
| Arthur Ashe |
Which curry flavoured soup of Anglo-Indian origin has many variations on its recipe and takes its name from the Tamil for 'Fire Water' ? | Tennis – ‘the golden age’ of the 1960s–70s and beyond | australia.gov.au
Tennis – ‘the golden age’ of the 1960s–70s and beyond
Tennis – ‘the golden age’ of the 1960s–70s and beyond
Mark Woodforde, Doubles Champion 1989–2000
Australians dominated world tennis in the 1950s and 1960s in major events known as Grand Slam tournaments: the Australian, French and United States Open, and Wimbledon in the UK. This period was known as the ‘golden age’ of Australian tennis.
In the 1960s, men's tennis open titles were dominated by six Australian men: Rod Laver, Roy Emerson, John Newcombe, Tony Roche, Ken Rosewall, and Fred Stolle. Between 1961 and 1970, Australian men's tennis champions won at least one Open Singles title every year at either Wimbledon or the French or US Opens, as well as the Australian Open titles. In men's tennis, the golden age culminated in 1969 with Rod Laver's second Grand Slam win, as well as four major titles in the same year.
Margaret Court, courtesy of Australian Open
In 1970, Margaret Court also completed the Grand Slam. Court is one of only three women ever to win four international tennis open titles in one year. Indigenous player Evonne Goolagong Cawley was also a strong force in women's tennis in Australia in the 1970s with wins at Wimbledon, the French and the Australian Opens.
The ‘golden age’ for Australian tennis players declined from 1969 when amateur players were joined by professionals. Also by the 1980s, the Australian Open synchronised its dates to begin in January in line with the European, UK and USA players events schedule, which greatly widened the pool of players.
Yet even following the decline of Australia's dominance in the Grand Slam tournaments, tennis remained popular in urban areas and the Australian Open grows in popularity as a spectator sport.
Early tennis development 1900s–1950s
The golden age of Australian tennis was built on the early successes of both men's and women's tennis with Grand Slam tournament winners: Norman Brookes in the 1900s to 1919, Jack Crawford in the early 1930s, and Harry Hopman from 1929–39. This was in tandem with the consistent wins and popularity of women's tennis from the 1920s to the 1950s. Daphne Akhurst reached the Wimbledon final in 1925 and won the Doubles in 1928. From the1930s to the 1950s, Nancy Bolton got to the USA Singles Open and won other titles with her doubles partner, Thelma Long. Bolton was ranked No.4 in 1947 and stayed in that position until 1949.
This series of wins in the amateur Grand Slam tournament titles of the 1940s and 1950s was made possible by extensive community and industry support, and investment in the development and administration of amateur tennis players.
Harry Hopman, courtesy of Australian Open
Harry Hopman was a captain turned coach of 22 Australian Davis Cup teams between 1939 and 1967. As coach Hopman guided Australian male tennis players to 15 Davis Cup victories in 20 years. Ken Rosewall, Frank Sedgeman, John Bromwich, Evonne Goolagong Cawley, Lew Hoad and Margaret Smith Court were all either trained by Harry Hopman or managed by Nell Hopman. ( The Hopman Era: Australia on the Rise)
Amateurs, tennis community and industry in the 1960s
By 1969 the game started to change. Professional players were invited to join the amateurs at the Grand Slam tournaments and prize money was offered for the first time, different tennis court surfaces and different game strategies emerged, and metal racquets were introduced.
Professional versus amateur
In 1969, the Australian Open Championships became 'open' to amateurs and professionals. This followed in the footsteps of the French Open, Roland Garros, Wimbledon, UK, and the USA Open. Rod Laver returned to win his second grand slam in 1969.
The advantages to amateur Australian champions who had enjoyed the riches of the Davis Cup endorsements soon disappeared with the advent of ‘open’ tennis. The end of the golden age was seen in the average age of the Davis Cup team, which was 35 years. It was another 18 years until Pat Cash, another Australian man, won the men's singles title at Wimbledon in 1987.
Balls and tennis racquet with carbon fiber reinforced polymer frame
Different surfaces – different game strategies, racquet evolution
Different surfaces require different game strategies, maintenance and care. Tennis was originally played on grass courts but in the 1970s many other surfaces were common. These included dried cow faeces (mainly in India), wood, synthetic carpets, anthill grit (in Australia), concrete, crushed brick, clay, asphalt, canvas, rebound ace and plexicusion, to name just a few.
In the 1960s and 1970s metal racquets were introduced. The next step in the evolution of the tennis racquet came with a material called graphite, which made the racquet lighter and stiffer. Soon after, a number of new materials were being used in racquets, including Kevlar, ceramic, and titanium.
Prize pool changes
It wasn't until the' introduction of truly ‘open’ tennis in 1968 that players were paid for their efforts on court. Prize money for singles titles has changed dramatically. In 1969 the Australian Open offered $4,500 (AUD) to the winning man and $1,750 (AUD) to the winning woman. The largest prize pool at this time was the US Open with the man taking home $15,068 (AUD) and the winning woman getting $6,457 (AUD).
However this is a small amount compared to prize money in more recent times. In 2009 both the winning man and woman at the Australian Open received $2,000,000 (AUD). This was also the highest amount given at the four Grand Slams that year.
The 'golden age' of men's tennis – the 1960s
In the 1960s, men's tennis open titles were dominated by six Australian men: Rod Laver, Roy Emerson, John Newcombe, Tony Roche. Ken Rosewall, and Fred Stolle. Between 1961 and 1970, Australian men's tennis champions won at least one Open Singles title every year at either Wimbledon, the French or US Opens, as well as the Australian Open titles.
Roy Emerson, champion 1959–71
Roy Emerson was Australian Singles champion in 1961 and then five consecutive times between 1963 and 1967. Emerson also won the men's singles titles in the French, US and Wimbledon Opens, winning each of them twice between 1963 and 1967.
His feats in doubles champions were extraordinary. Emerson won three Australian Open titles, five consecutive French titles from 1960 to 1965, four US titles between 1959 and 1966, and three Wimbledon titles between 1959 and 1971. Emerson came close to completing the Grand Slam in 1964 but fell in the French quarterfinals. Emerson played in eight winning Davis Cup teams, which was an incredible achievement.
Ken Rosewall, champion 1953–1972
Ken Rosewall, Courtesy of Australian Open
Ken Rosewall was a great singles champion, winning eight open titles between 1953 and 1972, Australian, French and US. He was one of the finest players to not win Wimbledon singles. Rosewall also won nine doubles champion titles, a total of 17 major titles, and achieved a career doubles Grand Slam. Rosewall, ‘Muscles’ to his friends, continued his tennis career into his 40s.
Ken Rosewall is known as one of Australia's greatest tennis players. When he was 17 years of age, Ken was selected to play for the Australian Davis Cup team, travelling with Davis Cup captain and coach Hary Hopman. This kick-started his career playing amateur, professional and open tennis. In 1953 he won his first Grand Slam title in the Australian Open Singles tournament and then went on to win 17 more titles during his career of over 30 years.
Fred Stolle, champion 1961–69
Fred Stolle won the French and US Opens in 1965 and 1956 respectively and was runner-up at Wimbledon three times (1963, 1964 and 1965) and twice at the Australian championships (1964 and 1965). Yet, Stolle won all four doubles opens, winning 15 titles from 1961 to 1969. Tall and competitive, Fred Stolle was known for his powerful serve, accurate volleys and fluid backhand.
Rod Laver, Grand Slam winner 1961 and 1969, and champion 1959–71
Rod Laver, no source
Rod Laver became the only Australian to win the Grand Slam twice in 1962 and 1969. Laver dominated Australian men's tennis in the 1960s although his competitors in Australia were also world champions. Laver won Wimbledon Singles titles four times – in 1961 and 1962 and in 1968 and 1969, the Australian Open three times, and the French and the United States Open twice each. Laver was Australian doubles champion four times, as well as winning at the French and Wimbledon titles.
Dubbed ‘Rocket’ Rod Laver by then Davis Cup captain Harry Hopman, Laver ‘was a powerful left-hander who sent the ball hurtling over the net laden with topspin’. Laver was a driven competitor whose attacking play won him many titles, winning 17 of his 20 titles in this decade. Laver racked up a formidable 20-4 win-loss record in Davis Cup ties and was part of five winning teams during his career. In January 2000, centre court at Melbourne Park was named Rod Laver Arena in honour of Laver's achievements.
1969 Australian Open, Brisbane – Rod Laver and Margaret Court
The tournament was contested on Milton's grass courts in Brisbane between a men's field of 48 and a women's field of 32. Rod Laver's semifinal victory over Tony Roche was played in 105-degree heat. Their contest dragged on for more than four hours, 7-5 22-20 9-11 1-6 6-3, both players putting wet cabbage leaves in their hats to help them keep cool.
Laver went on to win the title, defeating Andres Gimeno of Spain 6-3 6-4 7-5, claiming $5,000 in prize money and the first leg of his second Grand Slam. Margaret Smith Court beat Billie Jean King 6-4 6-1 to take the $1,500 prize.
Australian Open History, 1969)
1970–75 – Australian Open men's draw depleted of players
In 1970 the Australian Open men's draw was depleted by the absence of Laver, Ken Rosewall, Andres Gimeno, Pancho Gonzales, Roy Emerson and Fred Stolle. They were all professional players signed to a tour-specific contract with the National Tennis League and ‘they were banned from entering the Australian Open because the tournament's financial guarantees were deemed too low’. It was in this field, or lack of it, that Arthur Ashe became the first non-Australian to win the title since 1959.
Margaret Court and Evonne Goolagong by Ern McQuillan,1971. Courtesy of National Portrait Gallery.
In 1972, the gulf between professional players and amateurs widened with a dispute between the International Lawn Tennis Federation (ILTF) and World Championship Tennis (WCT) which impacted on players in events between January and July 1972. In a bid to subvert the ban, Australian Open organisers started their tournament on December 27. However, the December dates did nothing to attract European players who boycotted the Australian Open for another decade because of the clash with Christmas.
In 1973 there was only marginal competition from overseas players. Nine of 12 men's seeds were Australian with no.1 seed and defending champion Ken Rosewall losing in the second round to Karl Meiler of Germany. On the women's side all but three of the 12 seeds were Australians.
The Australian Open's timing, slap-bang in the middle of the holiday season, was a continued bone of contention with international players, the legendary Bjorn Borg boycotting the tournament saying, ‘I was trying to make a statement. My point was that a player requires some time to himself. He can't keep rushing from one court to another all the time without a break.‘
Australian Open, history, 1973
John Newcombe (right) with American Jimmy Connors, 1974, Australian Open, Courtesy Courier Mail
Australian players like John Newcombe also objected to the event date in the December Christmas period. In 1975, Newcombe ranked as no 2, only entered at the last minute on hearing that the American Jimmy Connors, ranked as no.1, would be making the trip. It was the first Australian Open match televised in America, on CBS, and was Connors' last competitive match in Australia. Newcombe won 7-5 3-6 6-4 7-6.
John Newcombe, champion 1965–75
John Newcombe is best remembered for his 12 doubles open titles with Tony Roche, which was more than any other men's team in tennis history. Newcombe also won the singles open titles in 1973–75, Wimbledon in 1967, 1970–71, and the US in 1967 and 1973, winning all bar the French title.
As a player, John Newcombe was strong, athletic and a great competitor. His serve, volley and forehand were his most formidable weapons and he used them to devastating effect.
Tony Roche, Champion 1965–74, Courtesy of Australian Open
Tony Roche, champion 1965–74
Tony Roche (b. 1945) enjoyed startling success on the doubles court with his long-time partner John Newcombe. Between 1965 and 1974 the pair snared 12 major doubles titles together, including five Wimbledon championships, four Australian and two French Open titles, and one US Open title.
Roche possessed a difficult left-hand serve and was skilled in attacking his opponent with volleys. These skills helped him claim the 1966 French title, which was his only major singles win. He finished runner-up in the single titles on several occasions – twice at the French (1965 and 1967), twice in the United States (1969 and 1970), and once at Wimbledon (1968). After retiring, Roche became a successful coach and has mentored world no.1 players including Ivan Lendl, Patrick Rafter, Lleyton Hewitt, and Roger Federer.
Women's tennis
Women players made their marks in the 1960s and 1970s. Lesley Bowrey won 13 major titles between 1961 and 1967. After Margaret Court completed the Grand Slam in 1971, Evonne Goolagong Cawley dominated women's tennis in Australia in the 1970s winning the Wimbledon Singles title and the French Open in 1971, followed by four consecutive Australian Singles titles from 1974 to 1977.
Lesley Bowrey, champion 1961–67
Lesley Bowrey. Courtesy of Australian Open
Lesley Bowrey (b. 1942) from Trangie, NSW was the first Australian women to win two French Open Singles titles, in 1963 and 1964. Overall Bowery won 13 major titles including seven international doubles – the Australian, French, Wimbledon and the United States Open titles – as well as four mixed doubles champions in Australian Open and at Wimbledon between 1961 and 1967. She was a runner-up on 14 occasions in Grand Slam tournaments.
Bowrey participated in the inaugural Federation Cup competition in 1963 and went on to captain Australia's Federation Cup team between 1994 and 2000.
Margaret Court, Grand Slam, 1970 and champion 1960–75
Margaret Court nee Smith (b. 1942) is Australia's most successful women's tennis player on the world circuit. Court was dubbed ‘The Arm’ by Billie Jean King. Court amassed a list of tournament wins that is yet to be rivalled. She won:
the Australian Singles champion ten times,
the French Open Singles four times,
the United States Open five times; and,
Wimbledon three times.
Altogether, Margaret Court collected 62 major titles in singles, doubles and mixed. Her closest rival is Martina Navratilova with 56 titles. A strong player known for her heavy ground strokes and powerful serve, she was the world's number one seeded player three times – in 1969, 1970 and 1973.
In 1970, Margaret Court completed the Grand Slam, winning four international tennis open titles in one year. Court is one of only three women ever to complete this feat.
Evonne Goolagong Cawley, champion 1971–80
Evonne Goolagong, 1971, courtesy of Australian Open
Evonne Goolagong Cawley (b. 1951) dominated women's tennis in Australia in the 1970s with four consecutive Australian Singles titles from 1974 to 1977. Prior to this Goolagong Cawley won the Wimbledon Singles title in 1971, as well as the French Open in the same year and, the Wimbledon Singles again in 1980. Goolagong Cawley was ranked in the top 10 for nine years and climbed to the top of the rankings for one week in 1976.
Goolagong was a poster girl for aspiring country players in the 1970s, a darling of the circuit with a song written about her achievements and popularity.
A player renowned for her grace and speed around the court, Goolagong Cawley started playing as a young girl by hitting a ball against a wall with the paling from an apple crate board. Goolagong Cawley came close to completing a career Grand Slam in 1971 with a doubles win in the Australian Open but, the US Open title eluded her.
Wendy Turnbull, champion 1978–82
Wendy Turnbull (b. 1952) made the final of every Open except Wimbledon, achieving a top 10 year-end world ranking for eight consecutive years (1977–1984) and a year-end top 20 ranking for 10 straight years (1977–1986). Turnbull's Open titles were in Doubles – Wimbledon (1978), the French (1979), and the US (1979 and 1982). She was also the Mixed Doubles champion five times across the French, Wimbledon and US titles between 1979 and 1980. Turnbull was renowned for her foot speed around the court.
Australian Open 1980s–90s: a set venue and date but controversies
Davis Cup final at Kooyong, 1986. Courtesy of Herald Weekly Times Image Library
Whilst Melbourne's Kooyong Lawn Tennis Club had been the Australian Open's 'permanent' home since 1972, by 1980 there were suggestions that the Australian Open no longer deserved its 'big four' status. This was fuelled by the absence of Bjorn Borg and John McEnroe who had won the previous three Slams between them and who were indisputably the top two players in the world.
It was not until 1986 that organisers decided to move the tournament away from the Christmas/New Year period, scheduling it in a new, permanent timeslot in January, hoping to attract international players.
In 1988 the Australian Open was held in a new modern Melbourne Park Tennis Centre, constructed with hard courts and a unique retractable roof over the centre court. However in 1995, the centre court's sliding roof was no match for Melbourne's weather, and rainfall during the Agassi – Aaron Krickstein semifinal flooded the arena, turning the stands into waterfalls. In 1996, the Australian Open benefitted from a facilities upgrade that effectively doubled the size of the venue. An investment of $23 million bought two new show courts, one seating 3,000 the other seating 800, and eight new Rebound Ace courts. The Centre Court was renamed the Rod Laver Arena.
Pat Cash, champion 1987
Pat Cash in action during the 1986 Davis Cup final at Kooyong. Courtesy of Herald Weekly Times Image Library
Pat Cash (b. 1965) won the men's singles title at Wimbledon in 1987 and made the final of the Australian Open twice in 1987 and 1988. Cash was renowned for his serves and volleys and his best games were played on grass.
Sportsmanship controversies – Cash pelted and McEnroe (USA) disqualified
Two issues, the truly open nature of sport and sportsmanship came to the fore in 1987 and 1990 at the Australian Open.
The open nature of sport, of having open selection trials and selecting representative teams, was an issue for international competition. In South Africa, the apartheid policies of the government and the sporting bodies deliberately excluded South Africa's non-white people from participating in representative sport. (ANC, International Boycott of Apartheid Sport, 25 May 1971, With special reference to the campaigns in Britain by the Anti-Apartheid Movement, Paper prepared for the United Nations Unit on Apartheid in 1971)
Since the 1960s, the anti-apartheid movement in South Africa and internationally had campaigned to boycott international players and teams from participating in South African sports events until the government and sports administrators permitted open selection trails, mixed sports games and access to facilities. At the 1987 Australian Open, Australian Pat Cash was the reigning South African Open champion.
Cash … was booed by banner-wielding anti-apartheid protesters and pelted with black tennis balls at the seventh-game change of end. … Cash shrugged off the distraction to reach the final for a second consecutive year. He lost to Mats Wilander in a 6-3 6-7(3) 3-6 6-1 8-6 epic regarded as the best Slam decider of the season.
Australian Open, History, 1987
McEnroe disqualified for unsportsmanlike conduct, 1990. Australian Open, still
Good sportsmanship is the 'golden rule' of sports. It means treating the people you play with and against as you'd like to be treated yourself. Good sportsmanship is seen to be demonstrated when players show respect for themselves, their teammates, and their opponents, for the coaches on both sides, and for the referees, judges, and other officials. Being polite, courteous and not losing tempers on the court is part of the practice of ‘good sportsmanship’. (What is sportsmanship?, Greater Brisbane Junior Tennis)
The question of what is acceptable sportsmanship was tested when John McEnroe (USA) disagreed with and swore at the umpire at the 1990 Australian Open. McEnroe was called for unsportsmanlike conduct, verbal abuse and tennis code violation. (McEnroe defaulted at Australian Open 1990)
In 1990 … umpire Gerry Armstrong and chief supervisor Ken Farrar putting a rocket under John McEnroe in his fourth round match, disqualifying him for unsportsmanlike conduct under the new ‘three strikes you're out’ rule.
Australian Open, History, 1990
| i don't know |
Which poisonous chemical compund was named after the Greek for blue, having been first identified during the production of the dye 'Prussian Blue' in the early 18th century ? | Colour Pigments: Types, History of Fine Art Colours
Champs de Ble and Restaurant at Bougival
(1905-6) Musee d'Orsay, Paris.
By the great colourist Maurice de Vlaminck.
See below for an A-Z List of the best-known artist-colours, lakes and glazes. It includes traditional pigments used by prehistoric cave painters and artists from Ancient Antiquity, as well as colours which appeared in palettes of the Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo and Impressionist periods. Since the late-19th century, the majority of pigments employed by most painters are improved synthetic variants of older colours. Nowadays, most natural colourants are obsolete, an exception being the costly Ultramarine, made from the precious Lapis Lazuli. Modern artificial colours tend to be more lightfast, more permanent, more intense and considerably cheaper and safer to use. It's amazing how many of the older pigments (both natural and early synthetic variants) were highly toxic compounds containing lead, mercury, chrome, arsenic - even cyanide. Given the workaholic nature of many Old Masters and modern-era painters, one wonders how many of them were adversely affected by constant contact with such unhealthy chemical colourants.
Alizarin Crimson
Alizarin Crimson is the synthetic version of the pigment found in Madder plants. It was first synthesized in 1868 by the German chemists, Grabe and Lieberman, as a more lightfast substitute to Rose Madder. Madder lakes, which were produced in a variety of shades of red, from brownish to purplish to bluish, made good glazing colours that spread well in oil, and were also prepared in a form for use in watercolour painting. However, some painters found that the synthetic variety was less saturated and brilliant than natural Madder. Moreover, late 20th-century tests revealed that Alizarin Crimson pigment was much less lightfast than its natural parent.
Antimony Vermilion
A brightly coloured, lightfast pigment whose reputation suffered in the mid-19th century as it reacts with lead pigments and turns black. Now obsolete.
Antwerp Blue
A variant of Prussian Blue, containing 75 percent extender. Not a reliable pigment. Now obsolete.
Asphaltum
Asphaltum comprises a solution of asphalt in oil or turpentine, which has been employed since Antiquity, if not earlier, as a protective coating. Rembrandt, for instance, is said to have used Asphaltum successfully in a number of his paintings. It was later used to give an "Old Master" look to canvases. Unfortunately, in some cases it caused noticeable darkening and cracking. It persisted as a pigment until the end of the 19th century. Now obsolete.
Atramentum (Atramentum Librarium)
An old generic type of term referring to the colour of ink - mainly blacks, but also reds, greens, and violets which were the traditional colours used by classical artists and calligraphers.
Aureolin
Also known as Cobalt Yellow, Aureolin superceded Gamboge, an earlier pigment which was an Asian yellow gum in used until the 19th century. Aureolin - an intense medium yellow pigment - was synthesized in 1848 by N.W. Fischer in Germany, and was employed in oil and watercolour painting until the late 19th century, when less expensive, and more lightfast pigments (eg. the Cadmiums) were introduced.
Azurite
A greenish blue pigment named after the Persian word "lazhward" meaning "blue", it is chemically close to the green colourant malachite. Azurite was known from Ancient times and became extremely popular during the Middle Ages and Renaissance era, as Egyptian Blue declined. Used in oil painting , it performed best as a water-based pigment and was often employed in Tempera paint under an oil glaze. Superceded by Prussian blue in the early 18th century, and rendered obsolete after the synthesisation of Ultramarine and the development of Cobalt Blue.
Barium Yellow
A relatively opaque white-yellow pigment, it is a form of Barium Chromate, and is also known as Lemon Yellow. Permanent in most media, it performed best in watercolour paints. Now obsolete.
Bismuth White
Developed in the early 19th century it was replaced by Zinc White by the 1830s. It had the advantage of being much less toxic than many other colours, but it was prone to darkening when combined with pigments containing sulfur.
Bistre
An unreliable brown pigment made by burning Beech wood. Now obsolete.
Black
See Carbon Black (below).
Bole
A form of natural red iron oxide. The closest modern pigment to Bole would be light red in colour. Now obsolete.
Bone White
Obsolete; it was made by burning bones to a white ash. Cennino Cennini in his Il Libro dell'Arte says 'the best bones are from the second joints and wings of fowls and capons; the older they are, the better; put them into the fire just as you find them under the table.' It was used as a ground for panels.
Bremen Blue
A synthetic copper blue pigment without the permanency of Azurite. It was manufactured in numerous shades and had many common names. Used until the early 20th century, mainly because of its attractive hue.
Burnt Carmine
A fugitive dark red type of Carmine but less permanent. After roasting it was typically mixed with Van Dyke Brown to obtain the richest shades. Now obsolete.
Burnt Sienna
An iron oxide pigment, coloured a warm mid-brown. Made by burning raw sienna (Terra di Sienna).
Burnt Umber
See Umber (below).
Cadmium Pigments
A family of pigments based on the metal cadmium, in hues of yellow, orange and red. Cadmium yellow is cadmium sulfide, to which increasing amounts of selenium may be added to extend the colour-range. Viridian is added to Cadmium yellow to produce the bright, pale green pigment cadmium green. The brightness of Cadmium colours tends to fade in murals and fresco painting . Although Cadmium was discovered by Stromeyer in 1817, production of pigments was delayed until after 1840 due to scarcity of the metal. All of the cadmiums possessed great colour brilliance with the deeper shades having the greatest tinting strength. Cadmium pigments were used in both oil painting and watercolour but could not be combined with copper-based pigments.
Cadmium Orange
See Cadmium Pigments (above).
Carbon Black
An ancient black pigment, it was traditionally made by charring organic materials like wood or bone. It was a pure form of carbon, and was referred to by a variety of names, depending on how it was made. For example: "Ivory black" was produced by burning ivory or bones; "Vine black" was made by charring dried grape vines; "Lamp black" was made from soot collected from oil lamps. Synthetic versions have now replaced these traditional organic forms, except in certain specialized arts, like calligraphy and Oriental painting.
Carmine (Cochineal and Kermes)
Used since Antiquity, Carmine is a natural organic crimson pigment/dye made from the dried bodies of the female insect Coccus cacti (Cochineal), which inhabits the prickly-pear cactus, and also from a wingless insect living on certain species of European live oaks (Kermes). The cactus insects were first heated in ovens, then dried in the sun, to produce "silver cochineal" from which the finest pigment was made. Cochineal is still made in Mexico and India.
Celadon Green
A variant of Green Earth pigment containing celadonite which gives it a greyish pale green colour. Most of these versions of Green Earths have been mined to exhaustion and are no longer easily available.
Cerulean Blue
Named after the Latin word "caeruleum" (meaning sky or heavens) which was used in classical times to describe various blue pigments, Cerulean is a highly stable and lightfast greenish-blue pigment, first developed in 1821 by Hopfner, but not widely available until its reintroduction in 1860 by George Rowney in England, as a paint-pigment for aquarelle watercolour art and oil painting. Although based on cobalt, it lacked the opacity and richness of cobalt blue. Even so, in oil, it maintained its colour better than any other blue and was especially popular with landscape painters for skies.
Ceruse (Obsolete name for Lead White, Flake white, also Nottingham White)
Basic lead carbonate. In use since the prehistoric Greek period, the second oldest artificially produced pigment. It was the only white oil-colour available to artists until the middle of the 19th century.
Chrome Orange, Chrome Yellow, Chrome Red
A family of inexpensive natural pigments made from lead chromate, first developed in about 1800 by the French chemist Louis Vauquelin, which became very popular (and a welcome alternative to both Turner's Patent yellow and Orpiment) due to their opacity, their bright colours and low price. However, their tendency to darken over time, coupled with their lead content, has led to their replacement by the Cadmium family.
Chrysocolla
A natural green copper pigment first used by the Ancient Egyptians alongside Malachite. It was superceded by Egyptian Green.
Cinnabar (Zinnober)
This natural ore (Mercuric Sulfide) was a popular source for a red-orange artist-pigment also known as Vermilion. In fact the terms "cinnabar" and "vermilion" were used interchangeably to refer to either the natural or the later synthesized colour until around the 17th century when vermilion became the more common name. By the late 18th century, the name cinnabar was applied only to the unground natural mineral. An opaque red pigment, Cinnabar production was dominated by the Chinese who found an early means of making it that remained the best method for over 1,000 years. Unfortunately, it is highly toxic. Most natural vermilion comes from cinnabar mines in China, hence its alternative name of China red. It was replaced by the Cadmium Reds during the 19th century. See also Vermilion (below).
Cobalts
A family of pigments originally derived from mineral mines in Bohemia. They were named Cobalt after the word "kobolds" - the Bohemian word for spirits or ghosts, which the miners believed inhabited the pigment and caused them difficulties.
Cobalt Blue
An expensive but highly stable pure blue pigment discovered by Thénard in 1802, it was a great improvement on smalt - the pigment made from cobalt blue glass. It is now the most important of all the cobalt pigments. Following the development of smalt by the Swedish chemist Brandt, and the German scientists Gahn and Wenzel, Louis Jaques Thénard discovered his new cobalt blue through experiments at the Sevres porcelain factory. It is totally stable in watercolour and fresco painting and a good substitute for ultramarine blue when painting skies.
Cobalt Green
A semi-transparent but highly permanent moderately bright green pigment discovered by the Swedish chemist Rinmann in 1780, it is used in all painting techniques. However its poor tinting strength and high cost of cobalt green has kept its use limited.
Cobalt Violet
Cobalt Violet was developed around 1860, and like its older sister Cobalt Green suffered from high cost and weak colouring power which restricted its use among artists. It has been superceded by the cleaner, stronger pigment Manganese Violet.
Cobalt Yellow
Discovered in 1848 in Breslau by the German scientist N W. Fischer, this pure yellow pigment was popular for a brief period due to its good mixing quality with other pigments and for good tints in watercolour. It is also lightfast. However, like most of the Cobalts, it is both expensive and of limited power.
Copper Resinate
Known since the mid-Byzantine era (c.800 CE), this is a transparent jade-green glaze made by dissolving copper salts in Venice turpentine. It was used particularly by Post-Renaissance 16th-century Italian oil painters, to colour foliage. It was commonly combined with azurite paint, and layered over lead white or lead-tin yellow pigments.
Cornflower blue: A blue dye made from the petals of the flower, and which was used by some water-colourists in the 18th century.
Cremnitz White
See White Lead (below).
Dragon's Blood: A warm ruby-red resinous exudation of Calamus draco found in eastern Asia. Its use in Europe in painting dates back to the 1st century. Medieval illuminators employed it. Pliny the Elder expounded his fanciful idea that the substance was actually the mixed blood of those legendary enemies, the dragon and the elephant, which was spilt during their mortal combat.
Egyptian Blue
Also known as Egyptian Blue Frit, this dark blue pigment (calcium copper silicate) is arguably the first ever synthetic pigment, and arose out of the manufacture of dark blue glass by glass-makers in Ancient Egypt. The glass was ground into a deep permanent blue pigment of great visual beauty. It was used throughout antiquity as a blue pigment to colour a variety of differing mediums like stone, wood, plaster, papyrus, and canvas. Despite its relatively weak colouring power, it remained the only dark blue paint colour until the development of Ultramarine four Millennia later. In the 17th century an improvement to the original formula was developed known as Smalt (Alexandria Blue), which was used until the successful synthesis of Ultramarine in the 19th century.
Egyptian Brown
Another name for Mummy (see below).
Egyptian Green
A variant of Egyptian Blue (see above) that was developed in the later part of Ancient Egyptian times. It has similar properties to Egyptian Blue. Now obsolete.
Emerald Green
Also known as Schweinfurt Green, Parrot Green, Imperial Green, Vienna Green, and Mitis Green, this beautiful but poisonous of pigments was also marketed under the name Paris Green as a rat poison. As a paint-pigment, it was prone to fading in sunlight (an effect which could be reduced in oil paintings by isolating the pigment in between coats of varnish) and also reacted chemically with other colours. For instance, it could not be combined with sulfur-containing colours, like cadmium yellow, vermilion or ultramarine blue, as the mixture resulted in a deep brown colour. However, it had a brilliance unlike any other copper green known to modern chemistry. It is said that Emerald Green was the favourite pigment of the Post-Impressionist Paul Cezanne. In some of his watercolours, thin washes containing the colour have browned, but thicker applications have remained bright green. Van Gogh was another avid user. Modern imitations include "Emerald Green" or "Permanent Green".
Folium
A deep violet, sometimes bluish, or reddish colour made from Turnsole or Woad (see below), it was a general name for such colours employed by book illuminators and illustrators. The name stems from "folia" the latin word for pages in a book.
French White
A synonym for White Lead (see below).
Fustic
A yellow dye that is obtained from the plant Chlorophona tinctoria, native to the Americas, introduced to Europe in the 16th century. It had a limited use with water-colour. Older name was ffusticke yealowe.
Gallstone
Prepared from the gallstone of an ox and gives a reasonably dark yellow. Nicholas Hilliard found it useful for shading with miniature work. John Payne in the 18th century found that dishonest colourmen were selling an inferior substitute. He suggested in his book on miniature-painting that artists should approach slaughter-houses and that the men there should be on the watch for gallstones. In 1801 it was one of the top four most expensive colours, Ackerman's showing a charge of five shillings a cake.
Gamboge
A native yellow gum from Thailand. A bright transparent golden yellow for glazing or water-colour, it is not a true pigment. It has been in use since medieval times. J Smith in The Art of Painting in Oyl, published in 1701, describes a method for preparing the colour, which usually comes in rough cylinders about 2.5 in (6 cm) in diameter. 'For a Yellow Gumboge is the best, it is sold at Druggist in Lumps, and the way to make it fit for use, is to make a little hole with a knife in the lump, and put into the hole some water, stir it well with a pencil till the water be either a faint or a deeper Yellow, as your occasion requires, then pour it into a Gally-Pot, and temper up more, till you have enough for your purpose.' (Pencil here would mean a small, soft, hair brush.)
Geranium Lake
A fugitive pigment made from Eosine that was in vogue during the late 19th century and early 20th century. Van Gogh used it in versions of his Sunflowers. Now obsolete.
Giallorino
A lead yellow pigment likely to have been Naples Yellow. The Florentine painter Cennino Cennini mentions that Giallorino is associated with volcanoes but artificially made. This coincides with Naples yellow, which in Antiquity was collected as natural deposits from Mount Vesuvius, but by Cennini's time had been synthesised. Another possibility is that the name refers to Lead-Tin Yellow (see below).
Green Earth
Also known as Terre Verte, Stone Green, Verdetta, and Celadonite, it is a natural green pigment varying in composition and shade of colour. It has weak hiding power but is resistant to light and chemicals. Highly popular in medieval painting for underpainting of flesh tones, it fell from favour after the Renaissance.
Gypsum
The favourite white pigment of Ancient Egypt, Gypsum is a natural mineral Calcium Sulfate which performs well in water based mediums but not in oils.
Han Blue, Han Purple
Also known as Chinese purple and Chinese blue, these synthetic barium copper silicate pigments were formulated in China around 250 BCE, and used extensively by Chinese artists from the Western Zhou period (1207-771 BCE) until the end of the Han dynasty (c.220 CE). Pure Han purple - the more popular of the two, as Azurite Blue was also in wide use - is actually a dark blue, similar to electric indigo. It was first used to paint parts of the Terracotta Army Warriors (the huge army of clay figurines found near the tomb of Emperor Qin Shi Huang). Both pigments were used to colour ceramic ware, metalwork, and mural painting .
Hooker's Green
The earliest forms of this pigment were a mixture of Gamboge and Prussian Blue. Later, more lightfast variants were created with Aureolin. Modern Hooker's Green is typically a blend of Phthalo Blue and Cadmium Yellow.
Indian Yellow
This clean, deep and luminescent yellow pigment (also called Puree, Peoli, or Gaugoli), was introduced to India from Persia during the 15th century. Indian Yellow was produced by heating the urine of cattle fed on mango leaves, a cruel process ultimately banned in 1908. The pigment was popular with both oil and watercolour painters because of its body and depth of tone. Relatively stable, it could be combined with all other pigments and its lightfastness in oil paintings was enhanced when isolated between layers of varnish.
Indigo
A deep blue colour pigment made from the Indigofera family of plants until 1870, when it was created synthetically. It was used by ancient Egyptian, Greek and Roman painters. The pinkish skies to be seen in English watercolours of the 18th and early 19th centuries were originally greyish-blue, except the Indigo they contained has now faded to leave the ochre element of the original mixture used by the watercolourist. Natural Indigo was superceded in the 19th century by a synthetic colour. See Woad (below).
Lac
A red colourant originally made in India, which gave rise to the term "Lake", meaning any transparent dye-based colour precipitated on an inert pigment base, used for glazing. During the High Renaissance in Italy, Lac was the third most expensive pigment (after gold and Ultramarine), but most artists thought it worth the expense.
Lapis Lazuli (Ultramarine)
The source of the fabulous, absolutely permanent and non-toxic natural blue pigment Ultramarine, the precious stone Lapis Lazuli is found in Central Asia, notably Afghanistan. It was employed in Ancient times as a simple ground up mineral (Lapis Lazuli or Lazuline Blue) with weak colour power. Then Persian craftsmen discovered a means of extracting the colouring agent, creating at a stroke a hugely important art material. Ultramarine arrived in Venice on Arab boats, during the Renaissance, and was named the pigment from overseas ("ultra marine"). Such was its brilliance that it rapidly attained a price that only princes and large wealthy religious organizations could afford it. Although strongly associated with Renaissance art, it is still widely used by contemporary painters, especially since prices and supply have improved. Synthetic Ultramarine is chemically identical, although typically appears in a more reddish shade. However its far lower price will no doubt ensure that genuine Ultramarine remains in limited usage.
Lead-Tin Yellow
A highly stable bright opaque yellow was used from around 1250 until the mid-17th century, when its use ceased abruptly for no obvious reason. Experts believe that its formula might have been lost due to the death of its producer. Very popular with Renaissance painters, who used it in foliage along with earth pigments, Lead-Tin Yellow seems to have many of the attributes of modern Cadmium Yellow, but little was known about it until the 1940s. Since then it has enjoyed a modest recovery.
Lead White
Also called Flake White, Flemish White, Cremnitz White, and Silver White, this is one of the most ancient of man-made pigments and the oldest white colourant still employed by modern artists. Used since Ancient Antiquity, lead white was the only white pigment in European easel-painting until the 19th century. Among its many attributes, it has the warmest masstone of all the white pigments. In addition, it possesses a heavy consistency, a very slight reddish-yellow undertone and dries faster than any similar colour, making ideal for 'alla prima' techniques. And while its lead carbonate is toxic, and therefore not incorporated into water soluble paints, its use in oils appears relatively safe. It still appears on the palettes of artists today, but has been largely superceded by titanium white.
Lemon Yellow
An umbrella term for three yellows introduced during the 1830s: Strontium Yellow, Barium Yellow and Zinc Yellow. All were semi-transparent and used in both oil and watercolour paints. Strontium Yellow was a cool, light yellow, more permanent and richer in tone than Barium Yellow. Rarely used today.
Logwood
A blackish colourant derived from a South American tree, available in a wide range of colours including blues and black, reds and purples. As a painting pigment it was used largely as an ink, although the brownish and reddish hues would sometimes be employed as transparent glazes.
Madder
A natural plant colourant obtained from Madder plants in a process dating back to Antiquity.
It was brought back to Europe during the time of the Crusades. It was one of the most stable natural pigments. Dyes derived from the root of the Madder plant were used in ancient Egypt for colouring textiles. Later natural madder pigments were used by 15th and 16th-century painters. After a synthetic version was invented in 1868 by the German chemists, Grabe and Lieberman, natural production virtually ceased.
Malachite
A comparatively permanent pigment of varying colour, notably bright green, Malachite (also known as Mineral Green or Verdeazzuro) is said to be the oldest known green pigment. Traces of it have been discovered in Ancient Egyptian tomb paintings as far back as the Fourth dynasty. Since Antiquity, it was most popular during the European Renaissance period. Eventually synthesized, it was marketed under the name Bremen Green. Now obsolete.
Manganese Blue
A form of Barium Manganate, Manganese Blue has been produced since the 19th century. A synthetic variation was created in 1935, but both have been superceded by more intense blues. Now obsolete.
Manganese Violet
Developed by the German chemist E. Leykauf in 1868, this pigment - also referred to as Permanent Violet, Nuremberg Violet and Mineral Violet - superceded Cobalt Violet in 1890. It proved a cleaner alternative with less toxicity and improved opacity.
Massicot
An obsolete pigment prepared from lead oxide with possibly tin oxide. In use from the 14th to the 18th century in Europe. Hilliard found it helpful and told that it should be used with sugar candy, which could have made for problems as massicot is very poisonous. It tended to discolour and turn grey with exposure to the air.
Maya Blue
A highly resilient bright blue to greenish-blue pigment, developed by the Maya and Aztec cultures of pre-Columbian art in Mesoamerica. It is a composite of organic and inorganic compounds, notably indigo dye from the Indigofera suffruticosa plants. Originating at the beginning of the 9th century CE, it was in use as late as the 16th century in Mexico, in the paintings of the Indian Juan Gerson. It survived in Cuba until the 19th century.
Minium
The Roman term for Red Lead pigment, a popular paint colour used in medieval book illustration and calligraphy. A rather dull red prone to darkening, it has not been used by modern painters for many decades.
Mosaic Gold
An imitation gold pigment (also known as Aurium Musicum and Purpurinus), it was used extensively by Renaissance painters and book illuminators. Now obsolete.
Mummy
Also called Egyptian brown, this warm dark-brown colourant was obtained from the ground remains of Egyptian mummies, a ghoulish practice which was eventually banned. Now obsolete.
Naples Yellow
Also called Antimony Yellow and Juane Brilliant, Naples Yellow is a pale but warm yellow pigment derived from Lead Antimoniate. Its use as a painting-pigment can be traced back to around 1400 BCE, making it one of the oldest synthetic pigments. It possesses very good hiding power and good stability. Now obsolete, due to its toxicity. See Giallorino (above).
Neutral Grey Tint
A prepared artist's colour made up from lampblack, Winsor blue and a little alizarin crimson. Popular for monochrome work or rendered drawings.
Ochres (Red/Yellow Ochre)
The most ancient of all natural colourants, ochre is naturally tinted clay containing ferric oxide, and produces an earthy pigment varying in colour from cream and light yellow to brown or red. Used widely in prehistoric rock art, notably in cave murals at Lascaux and Chauvet, and also at Blombos cave. Ochres vary considerably in transparency - some are opaque, while others are used as transparent glazes. Can be safely mixed with other pigments.
Orpiment
A rich lemon or canary yellow with reasonable covering power and moderate chemical stability, Orpiment is a very ancient natural pigment first used in the Middle East and Asia around 3100 BCE. It was imported into Venice from Turkey during the Renaissance - yet another reason why Venice led the way in artist pigments and colourism. It could not be combined with lead or copper pigments such as lead white, lead-tin yellow, or verdigris, as the mixture is prone to darkening. A synthetic version of Orpiment, called Kings Yellow, was eventually produced but proved highly toxic due to its high level of arsenic. Both were rendered obsolete by Cadmium Yellow.
Payne's Grey
Named after the 18th century watercolourist William Payne, this very dark blue-grey colourant combines ultramarine and black, or Ultramarine and Sienna. It was used by artists as a pigment, and also as a mixer instead of black.
Palette
For details of colour palettes and for details of pigments, dyes and colours associated with different
eras in the history of art, see: Prehistoric Colour Palette (Hues used by Stone Age cave painters);
Egyptian Colour Palette (Hues used in Ancient Egypt); Classical Colour Palette (Pigments used by painters in Ancient Greece and Rome); Renaissance Colour Palette (Colourts used by oil-painters and fresco artists in Florence, Rome and Venice); Eighteenth Century Colour Palette (Hues used by Rococo and other artists). Nineteenth Century Colour Palette (Pigments used by Impressionists and other 19th century artists).
Persian Red
Also known as Persian Gulf Red, this is a deep reddish orange earthy iron pigment from the Persian Gulf, made from a silicate of iron and alumina, combined with magnesia. It is also known as artificial vermillion. See also Venetian Red (below).
Phthalocyanine Blue
A very powerful blue lake, produced from copper phthalocyanine. In its prime state it is so strong that there is no sign of blue, almost black with a coppery sheen. Introduced into England in 1935, replacing Prussian blue for many artists. Trade names include Monastral, Winsor, Thalo and Bocour blue.
Pink
The word pink was used for yellow when referring to a yellow pigment certainly up to the end of the 17th century and it is likely well into the 18th. The pink (yellow) was made by a skill in cooking. Several ingredients were used including: unripe buckthorn berries, weld, broom. Norgate in his treatise mentions 'callsind eg shels and whitt Roses makes rare pinck that never starves'.
Platina Yellow
An expensive lemon yellow pigment obtained from platinum. Now obsolete, it was replaced by the Chrome yellows - Strontium Yellow, Barium Yellow, and Zinc Yellow.
Prussian Blue
Known also as Berlin Blue, Bronze Blue, Chinese Blue, Iron Blue, Milori Blue, Parisian Blue, Paste Blue, and Steel Blue, this dark-blue was the first modern, man-made pigment. It was developed accidentally by the Berlin chemist Diesbach in about 1704, and became available to artists' palettes from 1724, Prussian Blue has excellent tinting strength but is only fairly permanent to light and air. A popular alternative at the time to Indigo dye, Smalt, and Tyrian purple, all of which tend to fade, and the extremely costly ultramarine, the first famous painters to use it included Pieter van der Werff and Antoine Watteau. Outside Europe, the pigment was taken up by Japanese painters and woodblock print artists. Prussian Blue turns slightly dark purple when dispersed in oil paint.
Quercitron Yellow
Obsolete yellow obtained from the bark of the black quercitron oak from America. It was introduced to Europe by Edward Bancroft, a Doctor of Medicine and Fellow of the Royal Society, in 1775. It appeared in Ackermann's treatise in 1801 masquerading as: 'Ackermann's Yellow, another new Colour, lately discovered, is a beautiful warm rich Yellow, almost the tint of Gallstone, works very pleasant, and is very useful in Landscapes, Flowers, Shells, etc.'
Realgar
A red-orange pigment chemically related to the yellow orpiment, the mineral ore Realgar is an ancient pigment used in Egypt, Mesopotamia and Asia Minor until the 19th century. Now obsolete.
Red Iron Oxide Artist Pigments
Ever since Paleolithic artists began painting cave murals, Red Iron oxide ore has been a common source for a wide variety of artist hues. Locations of its extraction are evident in some of the pigment names used, such as Venetian Red, Sinopia, Venice Red, Turkey Red, Indian Red, Spanish Red, Pompeian Red, and Persian Red. A variant of the latter (Persian Gulf Red) is still reputed to be the best grade for the natural pigment. Nowadays, most Red Iron Oxide colours are manufactured synthetically.
Safflower Pigment
Commonly known as Carthame, this fugitive red lake derives from the flowers of the Safflower plant. Now obsolete.
Saffron
Another fugitive yellow dye created from the flowers of an Indian plant, Saffron pigments were used from Antiquity until the 19th century. Still in use by traditional craftspeople on the Indian sub-continent and in South-East Asia.
Sandaraca
A Greco-Roman term used to describe a number of lead and arsenic yellows, as well as Cinnabar and even red earths.
Sap Green
Derived from the unripe berries of the Buckthorn shrub. It is highly fugitive, as is a sister-pigment, Iris Green which comes from the sap of the Iris Flower. During the Middle Ages, Sap Green was reduced to a heavy syrup and sold in liquid form. Today's synthetic Sap Greens are lakes obtained from coal tar.
Saxon Blue
Alternative name for Smalt (see below).
Scheele's Green
Also known as Schloss Green, this yellowish-green pigment was invented in 1775 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele and was used by artists in the 18th and 19th centuries. It is related to the later Emerald Green. By 1900, these greens (both being highly toxic and prone to darkening) were made obsolete by zinc oxide and cobalt green, also known as zinc green.
Sepia
Originally an 18th century replacement for the brown pigment Bistre, this natural organic colourant is made from the ink sacs of the cuttlefish. Originally used by artists in ink painting , illustration and calligraphy, the name Sepia is now used in connection with modern oil paints derived from Burnt Umber, Van Dyke Brown and Carbon Black.
Sienna
A native clay that contains iron and manganese. In the raw state it has the appearance of dark and rich yellow ochre. Burnt sienna is made by calcining or roasting the raw sienna in a furnace. The two, raw and burnt siennas are amongst the most stable pigments on the painter's palette.
Sinopia
An ancient name for native red iron oxides, it takes its name from the town of Sinope in Asia Minor. Cennini says in Il Libro dell' Arte of its unsuitability for fresco and tempera. Well watered down it was much employed by artists for laying in the under-drawing for fresco work on the arriccio.
Smalt
Made from ground blue-coloured glass, Smalt was the earliest of the cobalt pigments. It emerged as a European replacement for Egyptian Blue, which was derived from copper. Despite its weak tinting power it remained popular until the development of synthetic Ultramarine and Cobalt Blue in the 19th century. Production continued intermittently until 1950.
Terra Marita
A fugitive Yellow lake derived from the Saffron plant.
Titanium White
The strongest, most brilliant, most stable white pigment available to painters in the history of art. Although discovered in 1821, mass-production of the artist-quality oil pigment only began in the early 1920s. Its masstone, neither warm nor cool, lies mid-way between lead white and zinc white. It is now the world's primary pigment for whiteness, brightness and opacity. Available for oils, watercolours and acrylic painting .
Turner's Yellow
Named for the inventor, not the English watercolourist artist, this lead pigment was popular for a spell due to its cheap cost, although it was prone to both impermanence and blackening. Hues ranged from bright yellow to orange. Now obsolete.
Turnsole
A natural purplish pigment (also called Heliotropum) obtained from the Mediterranean Heliotrope plant of the borage family. Used as an artists colourant, it makes a number of lakes in blue and red colours. Was sometimes mistaken for the similarly coloured Woad. Both Turnsole and Woad were employed in book illumination under the umbrella term Folium (see above).
Turpeth Mineral
Mercuric sulphate. Highly poisonous. Valued at one time for the fine greens it produced when mixed with Prussian blue. Discarded because it decomposed and turned black in some mixtures.
Tyrian Purple
A colour derived from shell fish by the Phoenicians and made famous as the colour worn by Roman Caesars. Also used by artists in Antiquity as a glazing pigment. Available in shades of violet, true purple, and an exceptionally deep crimson, its use was limited by its huge cost of production.
Ultramarine
Natural Ultramarine, made from the precious stone Lapis Lazuli, was (and remains) one of the world's most expensive artists' pigments. A cool deep blue hue, it was first used in 6th century Afghanistan, and the pigment achieved its zenith during the Italian Renaissance as it harmonized perfectly with the vermilion and gold of illuminated manuscripts and Italian panel painting. (See also: Titian and Venetian Colour Painting .) However, being vulnerable to even minute traces of mineral acids and acid vapours, it was only used for frescoes when it was applied "secco" (when the pigment was mixed with a binding medium and applied over dry plaster) as in Giotto di Bondone's famous fresco cycle in the Cappella degli Scrovegni Chapel in Padua. Ultramarine was finally synthesized independently by both the Frenchman Jean Baptiste Guimet and the German chemist Christian Gottlob Gmelin in the late 1820s/ early-1830s. The artificial colourant was non-toxic and as permanent as the natural variety but darker and less azure. It was formulated for both oil and watercolour paints.
Ultramarine Ashes
The secondary product remaining after the prime quality Ultramarine Blue has been removed from the Lapis Lazuli stone. Containing only traces of the genuine Ultramarine, it is a permanent but weak grey-blue colour.
Ultramarine Green
This variant of synthetic Blue Ultramarine is a weak bluish green of low tinting strength. In vogue between about 1850 and 1960, it is rarely seen today.
Uranium Yellow
A bright light yellow pigment with green efflorescence, its production as a colourant was banned due to its perceived radioactivity. In fact it emitted no more than the human body.
Umber
Used as a paint-colourant since prehistoric times, Umber is a natural brown clay pigment containing iron and manganese oxides. Heating intensifies the colour, and the resulting pigment is commonly called burnt umber. It was originally mined in Umbria, a region of central Italy, although the finest quality umber comes from Cyprus.
Van Dyke Brown
Known also as Cassel Earth, Rubins Brown, and Cologne Brown, this transparent brown pigment dates from the 17th century and is a mixture of clay, iron oxide, humus and bitumen. Its transparency made it superior to umbers and ochres for glazing, although it was prone to fading and, because of its bitumen (Asphaltum) component, to cracking.
Venetian Red
The term Venetian Red usually refers to a specific bluish tone of Red Oxide, although some variations can be orange-ish or violet in hue. See also Persian Red (above).
Verdaccio
A neutral greenish colour usually obtained from mixing together left over paint on the palette, it was commonly used during Renaissance times for working up a drawing to the painting stage, or for underpainting flesh tones in Medieval art.
Verdigris
A common synthetic green pigment used from Classical Antiquity until the 19th century, it was the most vibrant green available during the Renaissance and Baroque eras. Its relative transparency led to it being frequently combined with lead white or lead-tin yellow, or used as a glaze. The name derives from the Old French word "vertegrez", meaning "green of Greece". Its use declined sharply from the 18th century onwards.
Vermilion (Vermillion)
An orange-ish red pigment with fine hiding power and good permanence, but high toxicity. Natural Vermilion, known to the Romans as Minium, comes from the mineral ore Cinnabar (see above), and the name Vermilion is most commonly used to describe the synthetic version of the pigment, which nowadays is usually obtained by reacting mercury with molten sulfur. In Antiquity, Vermilion/Cinnabar was highly prized, being ten times more expensive than red ochre. Later it was an important colourant in illuminated manuscripts, although it remained prohibitively expensive until the 14th century when a synthetic version was first produced. Vermilion was the traditional red pigment in Chinese art, and is the colourant used in Chinese red lacquer. Today, Vermilion has been replaced in painting by the pigment cadmium red.
Viridian Green
Discovered in 1797 by the French chemist Vauquelin, it wasn't fully developed into an artist paint hue until about 1840. A very stable, powerful cold green it possessed excellent permanence and lack of toxicity, and superceded a fugitive colour known as Emerald Green, whose name it took until it became widely known as Viridian.
Weld
A common plant-based Yellow Lake, it was one of the most popular organic yellows before the introduction of the modern synthetics. Quercitron and Buckthorn berries were better known but no more common among painters than Weld. More suitable than its rivals for creating opaque yellows, it was used as an alternative to Orpiment.
White Lead
See Lead White (above).
Woad
An ancient pigment obtained from the woad or dyerswoad herb of the mustard family, grown for its blue/indigo dye and pigment. Derived from the Saxon word "waad", it is the weaker European equivalent of the more famous colourant made from the Indigofera plant, with which it was sometimes mixed.
Zinc White
Zinc oxide was recognized as a possible source of artist-white by the French in the 1780s. After the discovery of zinc deposits in Europe during the 18th century, patents were granted for the manufacture of zinc oxide to the English colourmaker John Atkinson, and others. By the early 1830s, Zinc White was accepted as a watercolour although it took longer to formulate it for use in artist oil paints. In 1834, Winsor and Newton, Limited, of London, presented a dense form of zinc oxide which was sold as Chinese white. The name stemmed from the popular oriental porcelain in circulation in the 19th century. But the chemist George H. Backhoffner of London who lectured widely in the Art Academies recommended Flemish white (Lead White) as superior so in 1837, Winsor and Newton published a convincing response to Backhoffner. In 1844, a superior Zinc White for oils was produced by LeClaire in Paris. In comparison with Lead White, Zinc White is a slower drying pigment, less opaque, more permanent and less prone to blackening. It is also non-toxic and more economical. Tints made with Zinc White show greater nuances than tints made with other whites. Also, Zinc White has a much colder, cleaner, whiter masstone than the best grades of lead white or even titanium white. Its drawback is that it makes a rather brittle dry paint film when used unmixed with other colours, which can cause cracks in paintings relatively quickly.
Zinc Yellow
A pale greenish semi opaque pigment more suitable for oil paint than watercolours, this synthetic Zinc Chromate was available for some 150 years (c.1850-1990) and possessed excellent lightfastness. But its chrome content made it quite toxic.
TO SEARCH FOR A PARTICULAR MOVEMENT,
For a guide to the use of pigment by painters, see: Colour in Painting .
For tips and advice about combining colours on your palette, see: Colour Mixing Tips .
For information about the concepts and ideas involved in colour, see: Colour Theory in Painting .
For the definition and meaning of colour terminology in painting, see: Colour Glossary For Artists .
For information about painting, see: Visual Arts Encyclopedia .
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF FINE ART
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Amazing Facts
100 amazing & unknown facts!
# Our eyes remain the same size from birth onward, but our nose and ears never stop growing.
# The Barbie doll’s full name is Barbara Millicent Roberts.
# The Mona Lisa has no eyebrows.
# Ants never sleep!
# When the moon is directly overhead, you will weigh slightly less.
# Alexander Graham Bell, the inventor of the telephone, never called his wife or mother because they were both deaf.
# An ostrich’s eye is bigger than its brain.
# “I Am” is the shortest complete sentence in the English language.
# Babies are born without knee caps – actually, they’re made of cartilage and the bone hardens between the ages of 2 and 6 years.
# Happy Birthday (the song) is copyrighted.
# Butterflies taste with their feet.
# A “jiffy” is an actual unit of time for 1/100th of a second.
# It is impossible to sneeze with your eyes open.
# Leonardo Da Vinci invented the scissors.
# Minus 40 degrees Celsius is exactly the same as minus 40 degrees Fahrenheit.
# No word in the English language rhymes with month, orange, silver or purple.
# Shakespeare invented the words “assassination” and “bump.”
# Stewardesses is the longest word typed with only the left hand.
# Elephants are the only animals that cannot jump.
# The names of all the continents end with the same letter that they start with.
# The sentence, “The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog” uses every letter in the English language.
# The shortest war in history was between Zanzibar and England in 1896. Zanzibar surrendered after 38 minutes.
# The strongest muscle in the body is the tongue.
# The word “lethologica” describes the state of not being able to remember the word you want.
# Camels have three eyelids to protect themselves from the blowing desert sand.
# TYPEWRITER is the longest word that can be made using the letters on only one row of the keyboard.
# You can’t kill yourself by holding your breath.
# Money isn’t made out of paper. It’s made out of cotton.
# Your stomach has to produce a new layer of mucus every two weeks or it will digest itself.
# The dot over the letter “i” is called a tittle.
# A duck’s quack doesn’t echo. No one knows why!
# The “spot” on the 7-Up comes from its inventor who had red eyes – he was an albino. ’7′ was because the original containers were 7 ounces and ‘UP’ indicated the direction of the bubbles.
# Chocolate can kill dogs, as it contains theobromine, which affects their heart and nervous system.
# Because metal was scarce, the Oscars given out during World War II were made of plaster.
# There are only two words in the English language that have all five vowels in order: “abstemious” and “facetious.”
# If one places a tiny amount of liquor on a scorpion, it will instantly go mad and sting itself to death.
# Bruce Lee was so fast that they actually had to slow film down so you could see his moves.
# The original name for butterfly was flutterby.
# By raising your legs slowly and laying on your back, you cannot sink into quicksand.
# Dogs and cats, like humans, are either right or left handed.
# Charlie Chaplin once won the third prize in a Charlie Chaplin look-alike contest.
# Sherlock Holmes NEVER said “Elementary, my dear Watson”.
# The Guinness Book of Records holds the record for being the book most often stolen from Public Libraries.
# Bats always turn left when exiting a cave.
# The shortest English word that contains the letters A, B, C, D, E, and F is “feedback.”
# All Polar bears are left-handed.
# In England, the Speaker of the House is not allowed to speak.
# “Dreamt” is the only English word that ends in the letters “mt.”
# Almonds are a member of the peach family, and apples belong to the rose family.
# Peanuts are one of the ingredients of dynamite.
# The only 15 letter word that can be spelled without repeating a letter is “uncopyrightable”.
# In most advertisements, the time displayed on a watch is 10:10
# Tigers have striped skin, not just striped fur.
# Alfred Nobel, in whose name the Nobel prizes are instituted, was the inventor of dynamite.
# The planet Venus does not tilt, so consequently, it has no seasons. It is the only planet that rotates clock-wise.
# Honey is the only food that doesn’t spoil.
# The word “set” has more definitions than any other word in the English language.
# Molecularly speaking, water is actually much drier than sand.
# Human tonsils can bounce higher than a rubber ball of similar weight and size, but only for the first 30 minutes after they’ve been removed.
# US President John F. Kennedy was an accomplished ventriloquist.
# Coca-Cola was originally green.
# Moths are unable to fly during an earthquake.
# Contrary to popular belief, the white is not the healthiest part of an egg. It’s actually the shell.
# Nearly three percent of the ice in Antarctic glaciers is penguin urine.
# Hot water will turn into ice faster then cold water.
# “Rhythm” is the longest English word without a vowel.
# Like fingerprints, every person’s tongue print is different.
# No piece of normal-size paper can be folded in half more than 7 times.
# The tongue is the only muscle that is attached from one end only.
# Pumice is the only rock that floats in water.
# Camel’s milk does not curdle.
# Your foot is the same length as your forearm, and your thumb is the same length as your nose. Also, the length of your lips is the same as the index finger.
# Natural pearls melt in vinegar.
# Buttermilk does not contain any butter.
# The human brain is 80% water.
# Men’s shirts have the buttons on the right while women’s shirts have the buttons on the left.
# Human fingernails grow nearly 4 times faster than toenails.
# The Great Pyramid at Giza in Egypt holds a constant temperature of 68 degrees Fahrenheit.
# The liquid inside young coconuts can be used as a substitute for blood plasma.
# Oak trees do not produce acorns until they are fifty years of age.
# It takes approximately 2 million flowers for a bee to make 1 pound of honey.
# Human saliva has a boiling point three times that of regular water.
# It is physically impossible to urinate and give blood at the same time.
# The letter J does not appear anywhere in the periodic table of the elements.
# The right lung of a human is larger than the left one. This is because of the space and placement of the heart.
# Watermelons, which are 92% water, originated from the Kalahari Desert in Africa.
# The hair of some cancer patients treated with chemotherapy can grow back in a different colour, and sometimes even be curly or straight.
# The markings that are found on dice are called “pips.”
# 111,111,111 x 111,111,111 = 12,345,678,987,654,321
# The cigarette lighter was invented before the match.
# Leonardo Da Vinci never signed or dated his most famous painting, the Mona Lisa.
# The ampersand (&) was the last letter of the Latin alphabet.
# The palms of your hands and the soles of your feet cannot tan, or grow hair.
# Dolphins can swim and sleep at the same time, as they sleep with one eye open.
# Each nostril of a human being registers smell in a different way. Those by the right nostril are more pleasant than the left.
# The longest single-syllable word in the English language is “screeched.”
# The word “Checkmate” in chess comes from the Persian phrase “Shah-Mat,” which means “the king is dead”.
# Each king in a deck of playing cards represents a great king from history: Spades – King David, Clubs – Alexander the Great, Hearts – Charlemagne, and Diamonds – Julius Caesar.
# In Gulliver’s Travels, Jonathan Swift described the two moons of Mars, Phobos and Deimos, giving their exact size and speeds of rotation. He did this more than 100 years before either moon was discovered!
# If a statue in the park of a person on a horse has both front legs in the air, the person died in battle; if the horse has one front leg in the air, the person died as a result of wounds received in battle; if the horse has all four legs on the ground, the person died of natural causes.
Amazing Facts
Indonesia consists only of islands - 13,667 total
During World War II, the very first bomb dropped on Berlin by the Allies killed the only elephant in the Berlin Zoo
People who ride on roller coasters have a higher chance of having a blood clot in the brain
The tallest freestanding sculpture in the world is Chief Crazy Horse in South Dakota, USA
Marie Curie, the Nobel prize winning scientist who discovered radium, died of radiation poisoning
898 tornadoes were recorded to have occurred in the United States in the year 2000.
The word Popcorn is derived from the middle English word "poppe," which means "explosive sound"
The food that is digested in your stomach is called "chyme."
Alcohol beverages have all 13 minerals necessary for human life
The sentence "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog." uses everyletter in the alphabet. (Developed by Western Union to Test telex/twxcommunications)
The word housekeeping was invented by Shakespeare
The only two days of the year in which there are no professional sportsgames (MLB, NBA, NHL, or NFL) are the day before and the day after theMajorLeague All-Star Game.
In the great fire of London in 1666 half of London was burnt down but only 6 people were injured
Lack of sleep can affect your immune system and reduce your ability to fight infections
All dogs are the descendant of the wolf. These wolves lived in eastern Asia about 15,000 years ago
It is not possible to tickle yourself. The cerebellum, a part of the brain, warns the rest of the brain that you are about to tickle yourself. Since your brain knows this, it ignores the resulting sensation
Parma ham is only Parma ham if it is made in the Parma region of Italy. The British chain supermarket Asda, made and packaged its own "Parma ham" and was successfully sued by the real Parma ham people (Parma Ham Trade Association)
With winds of 50 miles per hour, The Statue of Liberty sways three inches and the torch sways five inches
A famous bullfighter, Lagarijo, killed 4,867 bulls in the 19th century.
Police detectives have used snapping turtles to help them locate dead bodies
In most advertisements, including newspapers, the time displayed on a watch is 10:10
The national sport of Japan is sumo wrestling
The early occurrence of a fetus yawning is at eleven weeks after conception
In a month, a fingernail grows an eighth of an inch
Edward VIII did not officially become the King of England as he abdicated the throne to marry an American divorcee
The book "Little Red Riding Hood" was banned in 1990 by two school districts in California. They did this because in the book there was a picture of a basket that had a bottle of wine in it
The reason why golf balls have dimples on them is because it helps in the ball to move a farther distance by reducing drag
Americans consume the most peanut butter in the world
Celtic warriors sometimes fought their battles naked, their bodies dyed blue from head to toe
To make butter more attractive in colour, carrot juice was used by people in the Middle Ages
Early hockey games allowed as many as 30 players a side on the ice
Most fleas do not live past a year old
It takes seven to ten days to make a jelly belly jellybean
Some asteroids have other asteroids orbiting them
Maine is the only state whose name is just one syllable
The male praying mantis cannot copulate while its head is attached to its body. The female initiates sex by ripping the males head off
There is enough concrete in the Hoover Dam to pave a two lane highway from San Francisco to New York
Americans on the average eat 18 acres of pizza every day
Every 238 years, the orbits of Neptune and Pluto change making Neptune at times the farthest planet from the sun
There is a certain species of kangaroo that is only 2.5 centimetres long when it is born
In a lifetime, the average house cat spends approximately 10,950 hours purring
The real name of Toto the dog in "The Wizard Of Oz" was Terry
Stannous fluoride, which is the cavity fighter found in toothpaste is made from recycled tin
It takes 12 honeybees to make one teaspoon of honey
Thomas Watson, who was the chairman of IBM in 1943 predicted that their would probably only be a world market for five computers.
The largest hamburger cooked in the world weighed in at 6,040 pounds
The first lighthouse was in Alexandria in 290 B.C
Heinz first started making ketchup in 1876 and the recipe has remained the same ever since
The largest wedding chapel in Las Vegas is the Viva Las Vegas Chapel, which can seat 100 people
The most popular name for a pet in the United States is Max
Spiral staircases in medieval castles are running clockwise. This is because all knights used to be right-handed. When the intruding army would climb the stairs they would not be able to use their right hand which was holding the sword because of the difficulties of climbing the stairs. Left-handed knights would have had no troubles, except left-handed people could never become knights because it was assumed that they were descendants of the devil
The largest shopping mall in the world is the West Edmonton Mall located in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
The CN Tower located in Toronto, Ontario Canada took a total construction time of 40 months to complete at an original cost of $63 million
The 20th president of the United States, James Garfield, was able to write Greek with one hand and Latin with the other at the same time
The country of Andorra has a zero percent unemployment rate
In Los Angeles, there are fewer people than there are automobiles
A woman has approximately 4.5 litres of blood in her body, while men have 5.6 litres
In India, pickled ginger, minced mutton and a cottage cheese like substance are popular pizza toppings
Oral-B were the first toothbrushes to go to the moon when they were aboard the Apollo 11 mission
A maple tree is usually tapped when the tree is at least 45 years old and has a diameter of 12 inches
In 1998, a law passed in the U.S. state of Virginia allows drivers to keep their road kill, as long as they report it within 12 hours. updated
A language becomes extinct in this world every two weeks
An acre of trees can remove about 13 tons of dust and gases every year from the surrounding environment
The decomposition point of Olive Oil is 220 degrees Celsius
Ten radishes only contain eight calories
Annually a thousand people are killed by scorpions in Mexico
Every year, 100 million sharks are killed by people
Tug of war was an Olympic event from 1900-1920
Of all the countries, Brazil has the most plant species, with over 56,000
One female mouse can produce up to 100 babies a year
Impotence is grounds for divorce in 26 U.S. states
Women who are romance novel readers are reported to make love 74% more often with their partners than women who do not read romance novels.
The average lifespan of a human taste bud is ten days
The monogram "RR" for Rolls-Royce has never been altered, except for when Sir Henry Royce passed away in 1933. Then it was changed from red to black.
People with darker skin will not wrinkle as fast as people with lighter skin
Fido means faithful in Latin
Pebbles cereal was actually named after the shape of the cereal and not the Pebbles Flintstone character
A group of kangaroos is called a mob
Cat's urine glows under a blacklight.
Every three seconds, a new baby is born
More than 260,000 people have been killed by volcanic activity since 1700 AD.
The only predator that polar bears have are humans
Many insects can carry 50 times their own body weight
The last land battle of the U.S. Civil War was fought in Texas
Annually 7 million tons of textiles and clothing is thrown out. Out of this, only 12% is used again or recycled
A scorpion can have up to 12 eyes
A snake charmer in Bangladesh once found 3,500 poisonous cobras and their eggs hidden underneath the floors of two suburban homes
The IRS employees tax manual has instructions for collecting taxes after a nuclear war
There are approximately fifty Bibles sold each minute across the world
The pectin that is found in apples aids in lowering cholesterol levels
Post-It Notes, which are adhesive notes, were invented while looking for a way to improve the acrylate adhesive found in tapes
Crayola Crayons currently has over 120 different crayon colours
Odontophobia is the fear of teeth
The width of a tornado can range from less than ten yards to more than a mile.
In Johannesburg, the average car will be involved in an accident once every four years.
The youngest actress to be nominated as best actress is Keisha Castle-Hughes who was nominated at just 13 years old
The Taj Mahal was actually built for use as a tomb
According to studies, an average roll of toilet paper lasts about five days in the bathroom
Almonds are members of the peach family
The oldest known disease in the world is leprosy
A fall of 30 feet can be survived my most cats
The largest member of the dolphin family are orcas
In 1477, the first diamond engagement ring was given to Mary of Burgundy by Archduke Maximillian of Austria
The hormone replacement drug "Premarin" is made from the urine of pregnant horses
TWIX Caramel Cookie Bars were first introduced in 1979
Nintendo was first establish in 1889 and they started out making special playing cards
People over the age of fifty will start to lose their dislike for foods that taste bitter
In Kentucky, 50 percent of the people who get married for the first time are teenagers
Elephants have been known to learn up to 60 commands
On average 1,668 gallons of water are used by each person in the United States daily
Copper is the second most used metal in the world.
Milton Bradley originally wanted to name the game Twister, Pretzel; but he could not since the name was copyrighted
According to studies, men prefer to have white bedrooms and women prefer to have blue bedrooms
If someone was to fly once around the surface of the moon, it would be equal to a round trip from New York to London
St. Patrick never really drove out any snakes from Ireland. This story was an analogy of how he drove paganism out of Ireland
Fat is important for the development of children and normal growth
The most common seasonings found in American homes are chili powder, cinnamon, and seasoned salts
People who have eaten beetles say that it tastes like apples
Montreal was named after a local mountain "Mont Royal."
Millie the White House dog earned more than 4 times as much as President Bush in 1991. And, rightfully so
In an average lifetime, a person will spend 4 years travelling in an automobile and six months waiting at a red light.
A small drip from a faucet can waste up to 50 gallons of water daily, which is enough water to run a dishwasher twice on a full cycle
Kotex was first manufactured as bandages, during W.W.I
The longest Monopoly game ever played was 1,680 hours long, which is seventy straight days
The first known contraceptive was crocodile dung, used by Egyptians in 2000 B.C
Over 1,600 people in North America have been victims of trunk entrapment (being locked inside of a car trunk)
A rhinoceros horn is made of compacted hair
In 1992, when EuroDisney first opened in France, the public beat some of the park characters because at the time most people had been against the park being built
A jiffy is an actual unit of time for 1/100th of a second. Thus the saying, I will be there in a jiffy.
There is a muppet named Kami that appears on the South African version of the T.V. show "Sesame Street" that is HIV-positive
There are approximately one hundred million people in the United States that have a chronic illness
The oldest working Post Office in the world is located in the village of Sanquer, located in the Scottish Lowlands. It has been operating since 1712
Columbia University is the second largest landowner in New York City, after the Catholic Church
Approximately three jars of peanut butter are sold every second
In Australia, the average person uses 876 gallons of water daily. In Switzerland they use only 77 gallons of water per person daily
Every person has a unique tongue print
Hair will fall out faster on a person that is on a crash diet
In 1890, there was no sunshine for the whole month of December in Westminster in London.
Charles Darwin spent 39 years studying earthworms
The Boeing 737 is nicknamed the Fat Albert
Florida has twice as many lightning injuries and deaths than any other state
Chocolate can be fatal to dogs. Chocolate contains a chemical theobromine, which is poisonous to dogs
In China, there is a species of yam that is used to make a dye
Annually, approximately 46 millions Cokes, five million pounds of french fries, and seven million hamburgers are consumed at Walt Disney World Resort
The Chihuahua Desert is the largest desert in North America, and is over 200,000 square miles
Every continent begins and ends in the same letter. eg AfricA, EuropE
Baseball games between college teams have been played since the Civil War
The real name of actress Whoopi Goldberg is Caryn Elaine Johnson
Researches have discovered that eating five or more apples a week is linked to better functioning of the lungs
Boeing completed more than 15,000 hours of wind-tunnel testing on the first 747
The most popular ethnic food in the United States is Italian food
Parts of the Dead Sea Scrolls appeared for sale in the June 1, 1954 issue of the Wall Street Journal
If the population of China walked past you in single file, the line would never end because of the rate of reproduction
The YKK that you see on zippers stands for Yoshida Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha which is the name of the founder of the zipper manufacturing company in Japan
The theme song of the Harlem Globetrotters is "Sweet Georgia Brown."
27% of female lottery winners hid their winning ticket in their bras
To lose one pound of fat, a person has to burn approximately 3,500 calories
In 1969, the American side of Niagara Falls was stopped completely for several months
The name for insect poop is frass
A can of Pepsi has 41 grams of sugar. This amount to about seven teaspoons of sugar
Montreal is actually located on an island
There are over 2,000 species of butterflies in the rainforests of South America
The world record for the number of body piercings on one individual is 702, which is held by Canadian Brent Moffat
Before toilet paper was invented, French royalty wiped their bottoms with fine linen
The earliest known example of an organized market for equities dates from Rome, second century B.C
There are over 2,000 different species of cactuses
Each day 400 gallons of recycled blood are pumped through the kidneys
Ten percent of the Russian government's income comes from the sale ofvodka.
Apples, not caffeine, are more efficient at waking you up in the morning
Bananas were discovered by Alexander the Great in 327 B.C. when he conquered India
Levan, which is located in Utah, got its name from "navel" which is levan spelt backwards. It was named this because it is in the center of Utah
Approximately one out of four injuries by athletes involve the wrist and hand
Former U.S. President Abraham Lincoln suffered a nervous breakdown in 1836
Musk is extracted from the bottom of a civet, and is used as an ingredient to make perfumes.
The first human heart transplant happened on December 3, 1967. Unfortunately the patient only lived for eighteen days, succumbing in the end to pneumonia
In New York City there are 6,374.6 miles of streets
The sound made by the Victoria Falls in Zimbabwe is so loud that it can be heard 40 miles away
Ancient Egyptians used to think having facial hair was an indication of personal neglect
In Czechhoslovakia, there is a church that has a chandelier made of human bones
The largest hotel in the world is the MGM Grand, which has 5,034 rooms and is located in Las Vegas, Nevada
The plastic things on the end of shoelaces are called aglets
The fleshy bulbs on each side of your nose are called the Alea (AY-lee) singular Ala (AY-luh)
Male koalas mark their territory by rubbing their chests on a tree. Male koalas have a dark scent gland in the middle of their chest
An octopus has three hearts
Roses generally need around 6 hours of sunlight to grow properly.
Buttermilk does not contain any butter, but is a cultured milk product which is usually made from fat free milk
Pineapples were first called "anana", which is Caribbean for "excellent fruit."
Human birth control pills work on gorillas
The tallest woman that ever lived was Zeng Jinlian who was 8 feet 2 inches tall of China. Shed died at the age of 17
An adult "Gold Frog" measures to be 9.8 millimeters in body length
Each day, anywhere from 35-150 species of life go extinct
Alexander Graham Bell, the inventor of the telephone, never telephoned his wife or mother because they were both deaf
Alexander the Great made his troops eat onions as he believed it would prove their vitality
Bill Russell was the first black head coach of a major league pro sports team
In 1945, a seven ounce bathroom cup was the first item Tupperware marketed
Central air conditioners use 98% more energy than ceiling fans.
The king of hearts is the only king without a mustache
Men can read smaller print than women; women can hear better
Everyday, U.S. business use enough paper to circle the Earth over 20 times
The Welwitschia plant can live up to 1,000 years
The dromedary camel can drink as much as 100 litres of water in just 10 minutes
According to the American Institute of Stress, job stress approximately costs the U.S. industry over $300 billion dollars per year
It takes 72 minutes for the restaurant at the top of the CN Tower to make one revolution
Coffee beans were chewed for more than 400 years before the first cup of coffee was brewed
All of the Peking ducks in the United States are descendents from three ducks and one drake imported to Long Island, New York in 1873
The first British ship to use the SOS distress signal was the Titanic
The Spring peeper (a frog) can survive the winter season with 65% of its body water as ice
Studies have shown that the scent of Rosemary can help in better mental performance and make individuals feel more alert
The search engine Google got its name from the word "googol," which refers to the number one with a hundred zeros after it
The Goliath beetle is about the size of your fist and can weigh as much as 3-4 ounces
If you fart consistently for 6 years and 9 months, enough gas is produced to create explosion that is equal to an atomic bomb
Humans have about the same number of hair follicles as a chimpanzee has
Studies indicate that listening to music is good for digestion
The Chihuahua was named after the Mexican state where they were discovered
There are no snakes in New Zealand
The most popular grown bulbs are tulips
Every day the human stomach produces about 2 liters of hydrochloric acid
The country of Bolivia is named after a fighter Simon Bolivar
Peanuts are one of the ingredients of dynamite
The first state to give the right to women to vote was Wyoming
In 1949 UNICEF produced the first charity Christmas card. The picture shown on the card was painted by a seven year old girl
Archeologists report that cannabis was most likely the first plant cultivated by humans. Cannabis was used for linen, paper, and garments
The garfish has green bones
Women who drink more than two cups of coffee a day have a higher chance of developing osteoporosis
The banana was officially introduced in 1876 in the U.S. at the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition. The bananas were wrapped in tinfoil and were sold for 10 cents each
A yawn usually lasts for approximately six seconds
Thirty-five percent of the people who use personal ads for dating are already married
The food that people crave the most is cheese
Every day more money is printed for Monopoly than the US Treasury
The only animal, besides humans that can get leprosy is the Armadillo
In 1894, the carnival made its debut in North America
The artist Vincent Van Gogh sliced part of his ear off in madness
According to Scientists, vampire bat saliva is the best known medicine for keeping blood from clotting.
People from North America prefer pickles with warts, where as Europeans prefer pickles with no warts
People that suffer from gum disease are twice as likely to have a stroke or heart attack
Close to 50% of the water used in a home originates from the bathroom
After the Krakatoa volcano eruption in 1883 in Indonesia, many people reported that, because of the dust, the sunset appeared green and the moon blue. The moon was said to appear blue for almost two years.
The country with the highest consumption of chocolate per capita is Switzerland, with 22 pounds per person, per year
In China, September 20 is "Love Your Teeth Day."
Actor Richard Gere was considered to play the role of John McClane in the movie Die Hard. Bruce Willis played the part instead
The record for the world?s worst drivers is a toss-up between two candidates: First, a 75-year-old man who received 10 traffic tickets, drove on the wrong side of the road four times, committed four hit-and-run offenses, and caused six accidents, all within 20 minutes on October 15, 1966. Second, a 62-year-old woman who failed her driving test 40 times before passing it in August, 1970 (by that time, she had spent over $700 in lessons, and could no longer afford to buy a car)
Tigers have striped skin, not just striped fur
Left-handed people are better at sports that require good spatial judgment and fast reaction, compared to right-handed individuals
Half of a cup of figs will give you just as much calcium as half a cup of milk
A "hairbreadth away" is 1/48 of an inch
In 1281, the Mongol army of Kublai Khan tried to invade Japan but were ravaged by a hurricane that destroyed their fleet
Walt Disney was afraid of mice
Studies show that couples that smoke during the time of conception have a higher chance of having a girl compared to couples that do not smoke
The reason why some people get a cowlick is because the growth of their hair is in a spiral pattern, which causes the hair to either stand straight up, or goes to a certain angle
Approximately 50% of Americans admit they have ran a red light
In 1755, the first Canadian post office opened in Halifax, Nova Scotia. The fist Deputy Postmaster General was American inventor Benjamin Franklin who was later dismissed for sympathizing with the American revolutionary cause
Reno, Nevada is west of Los Angeles, California.
On average, 90% of the people that have the disease Lupus are female
Unlike other four legged mammals, kangaroos cannot walk backwards
The itch from a mosquito bite can be soothed by cutting open a clove of garlic and rubbing it on the bite
If you have three quarters, four dimes, and four pennies, you have $1.19. You also have the largest amount of money in coins without being able to make change for a dollar
Most American car horns honk in the key of F
A superstition in baseball is to never lend your bat to anyone or you will be jinxed
Bats always turn left when exiting a cave
Penguins can jump as high as 6 feet in the air
In 1998, approximately 1.6 billion tree seedlings were planted in the United States. This amounts to about five trees per American
There are species of fish that can walk on land in search of water when its water source dries up. Some can survive as long as three days on land such as the snakehead fish
Racecar driver Lee Petty once left a pitstop and did a full lap at Nascar with a pit crew member still on the hood
The first fashion house to be set up was in 1858 by Charles Worth. He opened his store in Paris with the idea of having pre-made gowns presented on models to his customers
St. Patrick explained the Holy Trinity to King Laoghaire, using the shamrock to illustrate the trinity
More twins are born in the Western world than in the Eastern world
Nine egg yolks have been found in one chicken egg
The record for the longest Monopoly game played in a bathtub is ninety-nine hours
The flea can jump 350 times its body length, that is like a 6 foot-tall human jumping the length of 7 football fields
The 1988 move "Big" which was directed by Penny Marshall was the first movie by a female director to gross over $100 million domestically
When the Galileo Probe entered Jupiter's atmosphere, it was traveling at a speed of 106,000 miles per hour. This is the fastest impact speed ever achieved by a man-made object.
In 1972, a gorilla by the name of "Koko" was taught ASL (American Sign Language) for the deaf. By the year 2000, the gorilla could understand approximately 2,000 English words
3000 children die every day in Africa because of malaria
The reason why hair turns gray as we age is because the pigment cells in the hair follicle start to die, which is responsible for producing "melanin" which gives the hair colour
Approximately 125 people die in the United States from an anaphylaxis to foods each year
The word "vamp" is used to describe the upper front top of a shoe
Construction on the White House began in October of 1792
A galactic year is 250 million Earth-years. This is the time it takes for our solar system to make one revolution around the Milky Way Galaxy.
Leonardo da Vinci was dyslexic, and he often wrote backwards
The male platypus has poisonous spurs on its legs
Polar bears can smell seal from 20 miles away
Canadians Scott Abbott and Chris Haney invented Trivial Pursuit. They were planning on playing Scrabble and realized that some of the pieces were missing so they came up with the idea of making their own game; Trivial Pursuit
On average, there is about three molecules of ozone for every 10 million air molecules.
A person uses approximately fifty-seven sheets of toilet paper each day
The Barbie doll has more than 80 careers
James Buchanan was the only unmarried president of the United States
The Stanley Cup originally was only seven and a half inches high
In 1991, during an attempted political coup on Russian President Boris Yelstin, food supplies had dwindled down at the parliament buildings so they ordered Pizza Hut to deliver pizzas
Some people drink the urine of pregnant women to build up their immune system
The five Olympic rings represent the five continents linked together in friendship
Ray Kroc bought McDonalds for $2.7 million in 1961 from the McDonald brothers
It is possible to lead a cow upstairs but not downstairs
Shark cartilage has been used to make artificial skin for human burn victims
The first person to die in the electric chair was William Kemmler, an ax murderer from New York on August 6, 1890
Finland has 187,888 lakes and 179,584 islands
The average adult has approximately six pounds of skin
A crocodile can open and close its jaw but cannot move it side to side
There are over 1,000,000 swimming pools in Florida, eventhough the ocean is no farther than 80 miles away
99% of the blueberries that are produced in the United States are produced in the state of Maine
On May 9, 1999 approximately 600,000 gallons of whiskey flowed into the Kentucky River during a fire at Wild Turkey Distillery in Lawrenceburg
Thomas Jefferson had three achievements placed on his headstone at his request, "Here Was Buried Thomas Jefferson/Author Of The Declaration Of American Independence/Of The Statute Of Virginia For Religious Freedom/And Father Of The University of Virginia.? He never mentioned being President of the United States
Humans and cows have the same gestation period, which is about nine months
In the Victoria era, red tulips were a declaration of love
The sport Lacrosse was initially played by Native American Indians. They played the sport to prepare for war
It takes a sloth up to six days to digest the food it eats
According to Scandinavian traditions, if a boy and girl eat from the same loaf of bread, they are bound to fall in love
In 1796, Napoleon was only 26 years old when he took command of the French Army of Italy
A bomb dropped by the Allies on Berlin during World War II killed every animal in the Berlin Zoo except the elephant, which escaped and roamed the city. When a Russian commander saw hungry Germans chasing the elephant and trying to kill it, he ordered his troops to protect it and shoot anyone who tried to kill it
The expression "Tying the Knot" comes from an old Roman custom where the brides clothes were tied up all in knots and the groom was supposed to untie the knots
Snake is a delicacy in China
In 1999, All Nippon Airlines, had one of its jets fully decorated with Pokemon characters from nose to tail on its exterior
The Dead Sea has been sinking for last several years
Uranus has 27 moons
Actress Sally Field was paid $4,000 a week for her role in the TV show The Flying Nun
More pollution is emitted from the average home compared to the average car.
The snow leopard protects itself from extreme cold when it sleeps by wrapping its 3-foot-long tail around its nose
Only 4% of babies are born on their actual due date
In the 1940s, the FCC assigned television's Channel 1 to mobile Services(two-way radios in taxicabs, for instance) but did not re-number theotherchannel assignments. That is why your TV set has channels 2 and up, butnochannel 1.
A man named Charles Osborne had the hiccups for approximately sixty-nine years
There are more Subway restaurants in Canada than there are McDonald restaurants
The CN Tower, in Toronto, is the tallest freestanding structure in the world with a height of about 553 metres
The term "the whole 9 yards" came from W.W.II fighter pilots in the South Pacific. When arming their airplanes on the ground, the .50 caliber machine gun ammo belts measured exactly 27 feet, before being loaded into the fuselage. If the pilots fired all their ammo at a target, it got "the whole 9 yards."
Construction on the Leaning Tower of Pisa began on August 9th, 1173
President Lyndon Johnson used to smoke three packs of cigarettes a day
The Tibetan name for Mount Everest is Chomolungma
The word "laser" stands for "Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission by radiation."
In a lifetime, on average a honey bee produces 1/12th of a teaspoon of honey
There are 315 species of parrot in the world
The TV show Doctor Who, when it was popular, had an audience of 110 million people
The cost to build the Empire State Building was $40,948,900
A person who smokes a pack of cigarettes a day will on average lose two teeth every ten years
Wasps that feed on ferment occasionally get drunk and pass out
The largest cereal company in the world is Quaker Oats, located in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, USA
The first Olympic games only had one event - a foot race
Colonel Sanders traveled over 250,000 miles a year visiting various parts of his Kentucky Fried Chicken Empire
Some desert snails have been known to sleep for three to four years
Over 80% of the brain is water
From the age of thirty, humans gradually begin to shrink in size
Jackrabbits can reach a speed of fifty miles per hour and can leap as far as twenty feet
There are 40 official jelly belly flavours
Early sewing machines were destroyed by mobs or workers who felt their jobs were threatened by automation
In 1992, the Antarctic Ozone hole was larger than the continent of North America.
Someone gets divorced every ten to thirteen seconds
There is a certain type of Hawk Moth caterpillar from Brazil that inflates its thorax, which makes its head look like a head of a snake when it feels it is in danger or alarmed
The CIA has made a disk camera that is as big as a quarter. This gadget can take many pictures at a time when the disk is opened.
The Sanskrit word for "war" means "desire for more cows."
In Hong Kong, delivery times are primarily influenced by traffic conditions on elevators. It often takes drivers longer to travel vertically than horizontally, as access to elevators is so congested during "high peak" hours. This is due to the volume of people residing in high rises
The ancient Greeks had a fascination with the planet Mars. They attributed the planet to Ares, their god of war, because of its red colour
The only lizard that has a voice is the Gecko
In Israel, religious law forbids picking your nose on Sabbath
In twins, there is a great chance that one will be left handed
In the 1920's, Q-Tips were invented by Leo Gerstenzang who got the idea after watching his wife clean their baby's ears with cotton stuck onto a toothpick.
In the Pacific Islands when people get burns they often use a banana leaf as treatment
Acorns were used as a coffee substitute during the American Civil War
An airplane mechanic invented Slinky while he was playing with engine parts and realized the possible secondary use for the springs. Barbie was invented by Ruth Handler after watching her daughter play with baby dolls imagining then in grown up roles
When the female grasshopper lays eggs, she covers her eggs with a pasty liquid that protects the eggs throughout the winter
The longest recorded duration of a total solar eclipse was 7.5 minutes.
On average, an American makes three pounds of garbage in a day
Even if you eat food standing on your head, the food will still end up in your stomach
Only one person in two billion will live to be 116 or older.
The most common name in the world is Mohammed
Apple seeds are poisonous as they contain a cyanide compound
The word breakfast was coined due to the fact that after sleeping for hours, we are "breaking our fast."
The cardigan was originally made to be a military jacket made of knitted wool
The month of December is the most popular month for weddings in the Philippines
The deepest cave in the world is the "Lamprechtsofen-Vogelshacht" cave which can be found in Salzburg, Austria. The cave is 5,354 feet deep
The capital of Vermont, Montpelier is the only state capital in the United States that does not have a McDonalds
The longest engagement lasted 67 years, and the couple ended up marrying when they were 82 years old
Our eyes are always the same size from birth, but our nose and ears. never stop growing
Milk and cheese can aid in the reduction of tooth decay
On average, a strawberry has 200 seeds on it
Coconuts kill more people in the world than sharks do
The average person spends two weeks of their life kissing
Research has indicated that indoor pollution is 10 times more toxic than outdoor pollution
Eating a banana at night can help in falling asleep
The stapler was invented in Spring Valley, Minnesota.
The first television newscaster was Kolin Hager, who used to broadcast farm and weather reports in 1928
Pixie, a Siberian Husky, gave birth to 7 puppies, one of which was bright green
Back in 1953, it took 27 hours to make one Marshmallow Peep. Now it takes only six minutes
On average, an ear of a corn has 16 rows and approximately 800 kernels
The green ring that is formed around the yolk of eggs that have been cooked too long is formed by the chemical reaction from the iron in the yolk and the sulphur in the white part of the egg
The silk that is produced by spiders is stronger than steel
The first president to have a picture taken was John Quincy Adams
Some brands of toothpaste contain glycerin or glycerol, which is also an ingredient in antifreeze
1 in 2000 babies are born with a tooth that is already visible
It was during World War II that clothes with elastic waists were introduced. This is because the metal used in zippers was badly needed for the war
In 1902, the game table tennis was brought to the U.S. from Europe by Parker Brothers
Hershey's Kisses are called that because the machine that makes themlooks like it's kissing the conveyor belt.
The fat from sheep, which is called tallow can be used to make soap and candles
Next to bone marrow, hair is the fastest growing tissue in the human body
Sigmund Freud had a morbid fear of ferns
When playing competitive darts the player must be 7 feet 9 1/4 inches back from the dartboard. Also the board must be 5 feet 8 inches above the floor
In England, the Speaker of the House is not allowed to speak
Earthworms have 5 hearts
If all the gold sitting in the oceans and seas were mined, every person on this plant would get about 20 kilograms of gold each.
To make an espresso 42 coffee beans are needed
The oil that is found in poison ivy is called "urushiol."
Of all the days of the week, the most popular day for people to eat ice cream is Sunday
The first museum in Moscow that was set up in 1791 was the Natural History Laboratory at Moscow University. This later was changed to the Zoological Museum
A surfer once sued another surfer for "stealing his wave." The case was thrown out because the court was unable to put a price on "pain and suffering" endured by the surfer watching someone else ride "his" wave
Many people in parts of China eat insects. Some common insects are bean worms, scoprions, and locusts
The largest dog in the world is the Irish Wolfhound
Ernest Vincent Wright wrote a fifty thousand-word novel, "Gadsby," without any word containing the letter "e."
The projection light used for IMAX theaters can be seen from space.
The human liver performs over 500 functions
Ballroom dancing is a course at Brigham Young University in Utah
The word "maverick" came into use after Samuel Maverick, a Texan, refused to brand his cattle. Eventually any unbranded calf became known as a Maverick
Finnish folklore states that when Santa comes to Finland to deliver gifts, he leaves his sleigh behind and rides on a goat named Ukko instead
More than $1 billion is spent each year on neck ties in the United States
In the 18th century, potatoes were given out as a dessert. They were served in a napkin, salted and hot
The only poisonous birds in the world are the three species of Pitohui. The Hooded Pitohui from Papua New Guinea is the most deadliest out of the three
Pretzels were originally invented for Christian Lent. The twists of the pretzels are to resemble arms crossed in prayer
The American Airlines Center in Dallas has more toilets per capita than any other sports and entertainment venue in the country
After 8 months, babies are more likely to get a diaper rash
The first modern toothbrush was invented in China. Its bristles came from hogs hair or the mane of a horse that were then put into ivory handles
The New Zealand Kiwi bird cannot fly
66% of wedding cards are hand delivered by people
Heavier lemons produce more, and tastier, juice
The leading cause of poisoning for children under the age of six in the home is liquid dish soap
The same amount of calories are burned by doing 6 sessions that are 5 minutes each of an activity and doing 1 session of that activity for 30 minutes
General William Booth is the founder of the Salvation Army
Iguanas can stay under water for up to thirty minutes
The fastest flying butterfly is the Monarch, which has been clocked with a speed as high as 17 miles per hour
Egyptian pyramid builders used to eat a lot of garlic because they thought it would increase their strength
The average office document gets copied 19 times
In just the first 56 days of life, the larva of the polyphemus moth eats about 86,000 times its birthweight
Every hour one billion cells in the body must be replaced
American actor Jack Nicholson, and American singer Bobby Darrin were raised believing their grandmothers were their mothers and their mothers were their older sisters
The first Ford cars had Dodge engines
The average height of an NBA basketball player is 6 feet 7 inches
One in five Americans move homes every year
The chocolate chip cookie was invented in 1933
The capital of Burkina Faso is Ouagadougou
A catfish has about 100,000 taste buds
The Liberty Bell was the first mechanical slot machine, which was invented by Charles Fey, a car mechanic in 1895.
A Russian man who wore a beard during the time of Peter the Great had to pay a special tax
The silkworm moth has lost the ability to fly ever since it has been domesticated
The first cheerleaders in the U.S. were men
The name Jeep came from the abbreviation used in the army for the "General Purpose" vehicle, G.P
The odds of having quadruplets are 1 in 729,000
In 1965, the price for an issue of TV Guide was 15 cents
In 1565 In St. Augustine, Florida the first orange trees were planted
Nose prints are used to identify dogs, much like humans use fingerprints
In the United States, six tubs of Cool Whip, a brand of whipping cream, are sold every second
The most popular chocolate bar in the United Kingdom for the last 15 years has been Kit Kat
White-Out was invented by Bette Nesmith Graham, who is the mother of Michael Nesmith from the "The Monkees."
There are over 2,000 different types of cheese in the world
The giant squid has the largest eyes in the world
Owls swallow their prey whole because they have no teeth. After approximately 12 hours they cough up the feathers, bones, and fur in a shape of a football pellet
Historically, a blue ribbon has been awarded for first prize
Seventy-one percent of households report they have at least one snorer. Forty-five percent of those surveyed admit they snore, 35% said their partner snores, 12% said their child snores and 9% reported their pet snores
The original meaning of the word grocer was referring to a person who traded food in wholesale. These people would usually sell in large quantities, or by the "gross."
Research indicates that mosquitoes are attracted to people who have recently eaten bananas
Actress Michelle Pfeiffer was the first choice to play Clarice Starling in the movie "Silence of the Lambs." She turned down the role because she found it too scary
The White House has 35 bathrooms, 3 elevators, 132 rooms, and 412 doors in it
Due to the deforestation of the forests in North China, over one million tons of sands blows into Beijing from the Gobi desert. It sometimes causes the sky to turn yellow.
Cows are able to hear lower and higher frequencies better than human beings
Approximately 60% of the water used by households during the summer is used for watering flowers, and lawns
The largest diamond that was ever found was 3106 carats.
In 1970, Chip maker Intel purchased a pear orchard to build their corporate headquarters on
The mating call of a male toadfish, who are underwater, is so loud that it can be heard by humans above water
The most popular jelly belly jellybean flavour is buttered popcorn
The Nike swoosh was invented by Caroline Davidson back in 1971. She received $35 for making the swoosh. The first shoe with the swoosh was introduced in 1972
Slaves under the last emperors of China wore pigtails so they could be picked out quickly
A crocodile cannot stick its tongue out
Kiwis are the only known bird to have nostrils located at the tip of their beak
An adult esophagus can range from 10 to 14 inches in length and is one inch in diameter
A squash ball moving at 150 kilometers per hour has the same impact of a .22 bullet
Telephonophobia is the fear of telephones
The word alligator comes from the Spanish word El Lagarto, which means "The Lizard."
While still in college, Bill Gates and Paul Allen once built a special purpose machine called "Traff-O-Data." It was a machine that would analyze information gathered by traffic monitors. They never found any buyers.
The citric acid found in lemon juice is said to be able to dissolve a pearl
Robert Southey wrote the story "Goldilocks and the Three Bears" in 1834
The tallest woman in the world is American Sandy Allen who is 7 feet 7 inches
American Airlines saved $40,000 in 1987 by eliminating one olive from each salad served in first-class
Astronauts get taller when they are in space
Only 5 to 10 percent of cheetah cubs make it to adulthood
Dentyne gum was invented in 1899 by a druggist from New York named Franklin V. Canning
It takes about three hours for food to be broken down in the human stomach
When former Texas Governor James Hogg was on his deathbed he made a special request that a pecan tree be planted at the head of his grave instead of a tombstone. The governor passed away on March 2, 1906, which is Texas Independence Day. The pecan tree is now the state tree of Texas
In a year, there are 60,000 trampoline injuries that occur in the U.S
There is an organization called SCROOGE in Charlottesville, Virginia that stands for Society to Curtail Ridiculous, Outrageous, and Ostentatious Gift Exchanges. This was formed to keep gift giving affordable and simple
The first World Series baseball playoffs occurred in 1903
Archipelago is the word to describe a large group of islands that are located close together
The life expectancy of a garbage disposal is about 5 to 10 years
In the original movie "101 Dalmatians," there are exactly 6,469,952 spots on all 101 Dalmatians as they are shown in 113,760 frames of the film combined
The average North American car contains 300 pounds of plastics
A person who is a specialist in wine making is called an oenologist
You can only smell 1/20th as well as a dog
The number one cause of rabies in the United States are bats
The music for "The Star Spangled Banner" comes from a British drinking song named "Anacreon."
27 percent of U.S. male college students believe life is "a meaningless existential hell." (big surprise, eh?)
Close to fifty percent of the bacteria in the mouth lives on the surface of our tongue
Less than 1% of the women in the world will ever be able to wear a diamond that is the size of a carat or more
Ketchup originated in China as a pickled fish sauce called ke-tsiap
An ostrich's eye is bigger that it's brain.
In Britain, The Red Lion is the most common name for a pub
In 1997, the record for the highest skydive by a dog at 4,572 feet was established by a dog named Brutus
The majority of burglaries occur during the daytime when people are not home
Traditionally, wild cabbage was used as an aphrodisiac
Tiger Woods was introduced to golf at nine months of age by his father
A person will burn 7 percent more calories if they walk on hard dirt compared to pavement
It would take 29 million years for a car travelling 100 miles per hour to reach the nearest star
Blue Jays can imitate the calls of hawks
There are over three trillion craters on the moon, with some being having a diameter over three feet
In India, a 9-year-old girl was "married" to a stray dog, which tribal custom requires in order to protect a child whose first tooth appears on the upper gum
There is now an ATM at McMurdo Station in Antarctica, which has a winter population of two hundred people
In Canada, men are three times more likely than women to have seen a doctor in the last year
The most expensive spice in the world is saffron
In one night, an adult hippopotamus eats approximately 150 pounds of grass
The U.S. paid Russia $7.2 million for Alaska in 1867
Cows can detect odors up to five miles away
There are about 125 million multiples (twins, triplets, etc.) worldwide
Arthur Giblin was the inventor of the first "flushable" toilet
Consuming chocolate was once considered a sin during the 16th and 17th century. During that time it was provided in the form of a drink and since drinking wine during lent was a sin, so was drinking chocolate
Approximately 40% of the states in the U.S. have severe, or extreme pollution problems
Wendel Clark holds the record for the longest span between NHL All-Star appearances, with 13 years (1986-1999)
Ancient Egyptians believed that onions would keep evil spirits away
Dill seeds are so small that approximately 10,000 dill seeds would be required to make an ounce
To make one pound of whole milk cheese, 10 pounds of whole milk is needed
If all the insects in the world were put on a scale, they would out weigh all creatures
Women smile more than men do
A ripe cranberry will bounce. Another name for a cranberry is bounceberry
Termites work 24 hours per day -- they do not sleep
The Romans used to clean themselves with olive oil since they did not have any soap. They would pour the oil on their bodies, and then use a strigil, which is type of blade, to scrape off any dirt along with the oil
The act of stretching and yawning is referred to as pandiculation
In the 1960 movie "Psycho" by Alfred Hitchcock, chocolate syrup was used to show the blood in the shower scene
Carolyn Shoemaker, famous astronomer, has discovered 32 comets and approximately 300 asteroids
The longest fangs of a snake are found on the Gaboon Viper (Bitis gabonica), and can reach over 2 inches in length
Once a human reaches the age of 35, he/she will start losing approximately 7,000 brain cells a day. The cells will never be replaced
The only king without a moustache in a deck of cards is the king of hearts
Approximately 100,000 people get married in Las Vegas each year
Amish people do not believe in the use of aerosal air fresheners
Coca-cola used to use the slogan "Good to the last drop," in 1908. This slogan was later used by Maxwell House
The blind cavefish is born with eyes, but they fall off as the fish grows
In ancient Egypt, Priests plucked EVERY hair from their bodies including their eyebrows and eyelashes
The Indian election in 1984 was the largest election of any country. Over 379,000,000 voters were eligible to vote at over 480,000 polling stations
A single chocolate chip gives enough energy to a human being to walk 150 feet
There are 54 bones in your hands including the wrists
The name for Oz in "The Wizard of Oz" was thought up when the creator, Frank Baum, looked at his filing cabinet and saw A-N, and O-Z, hence "Oz."
The town of Churchill, Manitoba, located in Canada, is known as the "Polar Bear Capital of the World"
Amtrak is the combination of the words "American" and "Track"
On average, an American relocates 11 times in their life
Fires onland generally move faster uphill than downhill
The cartoon character Popeye was actually based on a real person named Frank "Rocky" Fiegel who was a tough guy who was quite similar to Popeye physically
Frisbee got its name from William Russel Frisbee, who was a pie baker. He used to sell his pies in a thin tin pan, which had Frisbee written on it. When Walter Frederick Morrison thought of the idea of making saucer like disks to play catch, he visited the campus of Yale and noticed people there were using the pie pan to play catch so he therefore renamed his invention to Frisbee
Some arthritis medications contain gold salts, which is used as an anti-inflammatory
Lemon juice can aid in reducing the swelling caused by insect bites
LSD is made from lysergic acid, which is found in ergot, a type of fungus
DC-10, the name of an airplane stands for "Douglas Commercial."
In approximately 18 months, the papaya tree can grow to be 20 feet tall
Parrots cannot eat chocolate because it is poisonous to their body
Americans are responsible for generating roughly 20% percent of the garbage in the world
Termites are roasted and eaten like popcorn in South Africa
The official state tree of Illinois is The White Oak
It takes 3,000 cows to supply the NFL with enough leather for a year'ssupply of footballs.
In 1971, the postal code was introduced in Ottawa, Ontario
The tridacna clam can grow up to four feet long and weigh up to 500 pounds
The state that has the most diners in the world is New Jersey, which is referred to as the "Diner Capital of the World."
Approximately 1-2 calorie are burned a minute while watching T.V
The first recipe for a lasagna type dish was found to be from a British cookbook in the 14th century. Therefore, Italians were not the first ones to come up with the popular dish as believed
Only one person in two billion will live to be 116 or older
If an identical twin grows up without having a certain tooth, the other twin will most likely also grow up with that tooth missing
Albert Einstein was offered the presidency of Israel in 1952, but he declined
According to legend, tea originated in China when tea leaves accidentally blew into a pot of boiling water
When you sneeze, all your bodily functions momentarily stop, including your heart
Kite flying is a professional sport in Thailand
Urine from men?s public urinals was sold as a commodity in Ancient Rome. It was used as a dye and for making clothes hard
All 50 states are listed across the top of the Lincoln Memorial on the back of the $5.00 bill
1 out of 350,000 Americans get electrocuted in their life
New Mexico is known as the "Land of Enchantment."
In 1890, Scott Paper produced the first toilet paper to be available on a roll
An elephant in the wild can eat anywhere from 100 - 1000 pounds of vegetation in a 16 hour period
Some of the other names that were thought of for the dwarfs in the Disney movie "Snow White" were Awful, Dirty, Shifty, Hotsy, and Jumpy
In the U.S., over 35 million people have used some sort of illegal drug in the last year
96% of candles that are purchased are by women
The oldest bird on record was Cocky, a cockatoo, who died in the London Zoo at the age of 82
A cow averages 40,000 jaw movements a day
The reason the soft drink Dr Pepper is called that is because the inventor Wade Morrison named it after Dr. Charles Pepper who had given him his first job
Annually 17 tons of gold is used to make wedding rings in the United States
Sex acts like a natural antihistamine, in can clear up a stuffy nose
Women on average live seven years longer than men do
A British term for slot machine is "fruit machine" or "one-armed bandit."
Most dust particles in your house are made from dead skin
Even though the rose does not bear any fruit, the rose hips have more Vitamin C than most vegetables and fruits
In 1946 Danon Yogurt were the first to add fruit to commercially produced yogurt in U.S
The first domain name ever registered was Symbolics.com on March 15, 1985.
American Airlines saved $40,000 in 1987 by eliminating one olive from each salad served in first class
The first flavour of a cheese ball was called "Cheddy Blue."
Over 500 million gallons of Kool-Aid drink are consumed each year
The waste produced by one chicken in its lifetime can supply enough electricity to run a 100-watt bulb for five hours
Hydrogen solid is the most dense substance in the world, at 70.6g/cc
Missouri has been to most NCAA tournaments than any other college without reaching the final four
The hump of a camel can weigh up to 35 kilograms
Lake Malawi has the largest number of fish species in the world
The country of Fiji is made up of 332 islands
The first Labor Day holiday was celebrated on Tuesday, September 5, 1882, in New York City
The word "sophomore" means "sophisticated moron."
Jim Bristoe, an American, invented a 30-foot-long, 2-ton pumpkin cannon that can fire pumpkins up to five miles.
There are about 61,300 pizza restaurants in the United States of America
To tell if a egg is fully cooked or raw, just spin it. If the egg wobbles then it is still raw, and if it easily spins it is fully cooked
Used in art the word "sfumato" refers to the subtle blending of an outline by gradually blending one tone into another
There is a species of bird, Antpitta avis canis Ridgley, that barks like a dog
The flu pandemic of 1918 killed over 20 million people
Approximately 20% of Americans have a passport
The Nobel prize was first awarded in 1901
The reason why milk is white is because it contains a protein called Casein, which is white. Milk also contains fat, which is also white
After twenty-seven years, Betty Rubble made her debut as a Flintstones Vitamin in 1996
When telephone companies first began hiring telephone operators, they chose teenage boys for the job. They switched to women because the teenage boys were wrestling instead of working and pulling pranks on callers
In a lifetime, the heart pumps about one million barrels of blood
The Sears Tower in Chicago contains enough steel to build 50,000 automobiles
The first words that Thomas A. Edison spoke into the phonograph were, "Mary had a little lamb."
There are 400 species of bacteria in the human colon
On average, 100 people choke to death on ballpoint pens every year.
In the 20th century, over three million people have died from earthquakes
It is impossible to sneeze with your eyes open
People still cut the cheese shortly after death
In ancient Egypt, the only person who was allowed to wear cotton was the High Priest
Blueberries have more antioxidents than any other fruit or vegetables
The Mount Horeb Mustard Museum which is located in Wisconsin has the biggest collection of prepared mustards. They have approximately 4,000 different jars and tubes from all over the world
Bananas trees are not really trees. They are considered to be giant herb plants
Sponge Candy was invented in Buffalo, NY
When the volcano Krakatoa off the Java islands exploded in 1883, it was so loud that it woke some people up in South Australia
Pearls are rarely found in North American oysters
The average cocoon contains about 300-400 metres of silk
Lake Nicaragua boasts the only fresh-water sharks in the entire world
Boxing champion Gene Tunney taught Shakespeare at Yale University
The most popular pickle is the Dill pickle
Diabetes is the fourth leading cause of death in the U.S., accounting for about 180,000 deaths per year
Every year approximately 3,000 people choke to death
Cow is a Japanese brand of shaving foam
The fastest running bird is the Ostrich, which has been clocked at 97.5 kilometres per hour
When the divorce rate goes up in the United States, toy makers report that the sale of toys also rise
Q-Tip Cotton Swabs were originally called Baby Gays
The Pacific island of Tonga once issued a stamp that was banana shaped
A mole can dig a tunnel three hundred feet long in a single night
The glue on Israeli postage stamps is certified kosher
The only commercial aircraft that is able to break the sound barrier is the Concorde.
U.S. Postal Service processes 38 million address changes each year
In 1984, Ronald Reagan declared the month of July to be "National Ice Cream Month."
The small intestine in the human body is about 2 inches around, and 22 feet long
In 1905, the first pizzeria in the U.S. opened in New York City
In the early nineteenth century some advertisements claimed that riding the carousel was good for the circulation of blood
For the blockbuster movie "The Terminator," O.J. Simpson was considered to play the role of the Terminator, but producers did not choose him as they thought he would not be taken seriously
The actor who played the T-1000 in Terminator 2 (Robert Patrick) and the lead singer of Filter are brothers
The sole purpose of a drone bee is to mate with the queen bee
There are more plastic flamingos in America than real ones
Walt Disney had a fear of mice
Cleopatra married two of her brothers
In an average lifetime, people spend four years traveling in cars and six months waiting for red light to turn green
At one time, pumpkins were recommended for removing freckles
In just one drop of liquid, 50 million bacteria can be present
The Montreal Canadians hockey team has won the most Stanley Cups with 24
Nylon is a man-made fibre that is made from coal and petroleum
When the First Lady, Eleanor Roosevelt, received an alarming number of threatening letters, soon after her husband became President at the height of the Depression, the Secret Service insisted that she carry a pistol in her purse
Swiss engineer George de Mestral, who got the idea after noticing burrs were sticking to his pants after his regular walks through the woods, invented Velcro.
Bees can communicate with other bees by dancing. Their dance can alert other bees as to which direction and the distance nectar and pollen is located
The steepest street in the world is Baldwin Street located in Dunedin, New Zealand. It has an incline of 38%
One billion pounds of pasta would need approximately 2,021,452,000 gallons of water to cook it. This is equivalent to 75,000 Olympic-size swimming pools
Nutmeg is extremely poisonous if injected intravenously
The average Super Bowl party has 18 people
An ant can detect a movement through 5 centimeters of earth
One out of 200 women is colorblind
On average, the rainfall across the Amazon is 7 feet annually.
Passion fruits have a tranquilizing effect on the body
It is physically impossible for pigs to look up into the sky
A snail can sleep for 3 years
"Dreamt" is the only English word that ends in the letters "mt"
There is a large brass statue of Winnie-the-Pooh in Lima, Peru
In 1982, Larry Walters tied 24 weather balloons to his lawn chair in Los Angeles and climbed to an altitude of 16,000 feet
Centuries ago in India, a person could get their nose chopped off for breaking the law
The sound of E.T. walking was made by someone squishing her hands in Jello
The total number of steps in the Eiffel Tower are 1665
The amount of blood a female mosquito drinks per serving is five millionths of a liter
An adult porcupine has approximately 30,000 quills on its body, which are replaced every year
The name for Ivory Soap was inspired by a verse from the Bible. Harley Proctor got though of the name when the minister read from Psalms 45:8, "All thy garments smell of myrrh and aloes and cassia, out of the ivory palaces whereby they have made thee glad."
A survey done by Clairol 10 years ago came up with 46% of men stating that it was okay to color their hair. Now 66% of men admit to coloring their hair
The name of the squiggly line "~" is called a tilde
In 1747, the first American mention of the Christmas tree occurred. However, it was a not a tree but instead a pyramid made out of wood and decorated with apples and evergreen boughs
There are more Barbie dolls in Italy than there are Canadians in Canada
The study of ants is called Myrmecology
In the United States, you are more likely to be killed by a bee sting than a shark attack
Coca-Cola was the first soft drink to be consumed in outer space
Frozen food can be just as nutritious as fresh food
Fourteen people die each day from asthma in the United States
The average amount of time spent kissing for a person in a lifetime is 20,160 minutes
The human body has approximately 37,000 miles of capillaries
The most expensive shoes in the world are ruby slippers located in Harrods in London, which cost $1.6 million, has a full time security guard. The shoes are made from platinum thread and has 642 rubies in them. It took over 700 hours to produce the shoe
Only 55% of all Americans know that the sun is a star
The city of Denver was originally chosen to host the 1976 Winter Olympics, but had to withdraw because Colorado voters rejected to finance it
The longest bout of sneezing recorded was by Donna Griffith. It began in January 13 1981 and continued until September 16 1983 and lasted for 978 days
The Taj Mahal, located in Agra, India, was actually built for use as a tomb by Mogul ruler Shah Jehan for his wife, Arjuman Banu Begum
In 1943, the July issue of "Transportation Magazine" had an article entitled "1943 Guide to Hiring Women."
Spotted skunks do handstands before they spray
A dime has 118 ridges around the edge
Scientists with high-speed cameras have discovered that rain drops are not tear shaped but rather look like hamburger buns.
Ancient Egyptian women used to wear perfume cones made of wax that would melt in the heat letting out a nice fragrance
Mardi Gras means "Fat Tuesday." This is the festival that New Orleans, Louisiana is famous for having every year
There was once a fish caught in Delaware Bay with a watch still ticking inside
In Singapore, it is illegal to sell or own chewing gum
During the female orgasm, endorphines are released, which are powerful painkillers. So headaches are in fact a bad excuse not to have sex
Donkeys kill more people annually than plane crashes
The nut "filbert" got its name from St. Philbert which is celebrated on August 22nd, which is also when the nut matures
Every time Beethoven sat down to write music, he poured ice water over his head
Some species of dolphin sleep with one eye open
The chewing gum Juicy Fruit has 10 calories. This is approximately the same as a bite of whole wheat bread
In ancient Egypt, doctors used jolts from the electric catfish to reduce the pain of arthritis
In order to scare away predators, Giant petrels, a type of seabird, throw up all over the intruder
Elvis Presley used to be a truck driver before he started singing
The average cow produces about 2,305 gallons of milk each year
Former U.S. president Ronald Reagan worked as a lifeguard in his youth at a beach near Dixon, Illinois and saved over 77 lives
In 2000, there were 1,579,566 drug arrests in the United States. Of those, close to half were for marijuana
Just like fingerprints, every cats nose pad is different
Popeye is 34 years old, weighs 158 lbs, and is 5 feet 6 inches tall
Researchers have shot footage of Orcas (killer whales) attacking and killing great white sharks
The three most valuable brand names on earth: Marlboro, Coca Cola, and Budweiser, in that order
One bushel of wheat can make enough sandwiches that you could eat three sandwiches a day for over six months
In 1992, approximately 750 deaths occurred in the United States due to workplace violence
In the movie "Babe", the piglet was played by over 30 different piglets they outgrew the part so quickly during the production of the film
Research indicates that people prefer the colour blue for their casual clothing
The leading cause of deaths for children between the ages of 1 and 4 are motor vehicle crashes
The first toilet being flushed in a motion picture was in the movie "Psycho."
The human brain has about 100,000,000,000 (100 billion) neurons
One acre of wheat can produce enough bread to feed a family of four people for about ten years
Queen Victoria used marijuana, to help relieve menstrual cramp pain
On a ship a toilet is called a head
About 1 in 5,000 North Atlantic lobsters are born bright blue
Approximately 10.5 gallons of water is used in a dishwasher. Washing the dishes by hand can use up to 20 gallons of water
The thing that hangs from the top of the beak of a turkey is called the snood
Ticks can be as small as a grain of rice and grow to be as big as a marble
An American chews an average of 300 sticks of gum in a year
Most cows give more milk when they listen to music
Giant flying foxes, which are a type of bat, that live in Indonesia have wingspans of nearly six feet
Heavier lemons contain more and tastier juice
Since 1950, over 230 million eggs of Silly Putty have been sold
Oral-B is a combination of oral hygiene and the letter B, which stands for the word better
Frank Wathernam was the last prisoner to leave Alcatraz prison on March 21, 1963
A blink lasts approximately 0.3 seconds
In 1903 Mary Anderson invented the windshield wipers
Both Thomas Jefferson and Jimmy Carter, U.S. presidents, were peanut farmers at one time
A cow releases about 125 gallons of gas per day
The Apollo 17 crew were the last men on the moon
Spartacus led the revolt of the Roman slaves and gladiators in 73 B.C
The Mexican version of the Tooth Fairy is known as the Tooth Mouse, which takes the tooth and leaves treasures in its place
In a day the blue whale calf drinks approximately 130 gallons of milk
Right-handed people live, on average, nine years longer than left-handed people do
All racehorses in the U.S. celebrate their birthday on January 1st
A person would have to drink more than 12 cups of hot cocoa to equal the amount of caffeine found in one cup of coffee
The oldest documented footwear found was a 8,000 year-old sandal found in a cave located in Missouri, USA
Broccoli was first introduced into France during the royal marriage of Catherine de Medici to Henry II of France
By federal law, for a noodle to actually be a noodle it must have 5.5 percent egg solids in it, otherwise it cannot be called a noodle
The first female guest host of Saturday Night Live was actress Candace Bergen
The human heart beast roughly 35 million times a year
People that use mobile phones are 2.5 time more likely to develop cancer in areas of the brain that are adjacent to the ear they use to talk on the mobile phone
Turkeys can have heart attacks. When the Air Force was conducting test runs and breaking the sound barrier, fields of turkeys dropped dead because of heart attacks
The act of sneezing is referred to as sternutation
The average medium size piano has about 230 strings
A study revealed that men that were born with a low birth weight were less likely to get married
It takes about 63,000 trees to make the newsprint for the average Sunday edition of The New York Times
On average, you would need 12.5 gallons of milk to make one gallon of ice cream
A leech can gorge itself up to a maximum of five times its body weight
There are places in Saskatchewan called Elbow, Eyebrow, and Drinkwater
A butterfly has to have a body temperature greater than 86 degrees to be able to fly
The beeswax that is produced by Honey bees comes from eight paired glands that are located on the underside of their stomach
People in low-income homes spend 50% more time playing video games than people in high-income homes
Lighthouse keepers were nicknamed "wickies" because they tended the lamps wick
Taco Bell serves over 35 million consumers each week in the USA
During the Roman times, people used urine, called lotium in Latin, as a hair product
There are approximately 90 people that have been frozen after their death.
The smallest will ever written was 3.8 cm in diameter. It had 40 words written on it and was signed by two witnesses
The length of a human esophagus is 25 centimeters
In 1942 the Jello company introduced Cola flavored jello, which only lasted a year
Males account for 60% of toy injuries that occur in the U.S
The company "Sony" was originally called "Totsuken." They felt the name "Sony" would be easier to pronounce. The name was invented by a cross between the name "sonus" and "sonny." The name sound and sonic are derived. Sonny was used to represent a young man or boy, which would show a energetic young company
The Red Cross is called the Red Crescent in Arab countries
The Olympics were originally held for the Greek god Zeus
The oldest inhabited house in Scotland is the Traquair Castle. The castle has had 27 kings as visitors
Four billion pounds of watermelon were grown in the United States in 1999
Wham-O manufactured twenty-thousand hula-hoops a day at the peak of hula-hoop popularity in 1958
JELL-O was declared The "Official State Snack" of Utah in January 2001
Elvis Presley was obsessed with brushing his teeth
When the Statue of Liberty was moved from France to the United States, 214 crates were used to transport it. The Statue was also reduced to 350 pieces
There are approximately 2000 thunderstorms that are active at the same time which results in 100 lightning flashes a second.
In-vitro babies are born in Australia more than any other country in the world
Uranus? winter and summer seasons last the equivalent of 21 Earth years
More people die from eating sharks then from being eaten by them. This is due to a poison in shark meat
The murder rate in the United States is about four times greater than in Japan. In Japan, no private citizen can buy a handgun legally
The rarest chocolate bar in the world is the Porcelana bar. There are only 20,000 of these bars produced a year, and they sell for $90 per pound
The reason why locusts swarm are because when they are in groups, a "hot-spot" behind their hind legs is stimulated, which in turn causes their destructive nature. A large swarm of locusts can eat eighty thousand tons of corn in a day
There are an equivalent number of cows and people in Friesland, Netherlands
Centipedes always have an uneven pairs of walking legs
A chicken once had its head cut off and survived for over eighteen months, headless
The largest diamond found in the United States was a 40.23 carat white diamond. It was found in 1924 and nicknamed the "Uncle Sam."
Following directions off the Internet and chemicals obtained from a mail order company, a team of U.S. scientists created an identical copy of the polio virus.
Every day, the Hubble telescope transmits enough data to fit 10,000 standard computer disks
The average number of people that go to a party for the Super Bowl is 17
The amount of Kit Kat chocolate bars that are made at the York factory every 15 minutes are enough to outstack the Eiffel Tower
The skin of a shark is made up of "tiny teeth" which are called dermal denticles
The strongest gust of wind was recorded at the Mount Washington Observatory on April 12th, 1934, and measured 231 miles per hour.
The company Chanel claims that every 30 seconds, somewhere in the world, a bottle of Chanel No 5 is sold
In their lifetime, house cats spend approximately 10,950 hours purring
The reason why bubbles are round is because this is the most efficient shape that the soap film can take for the amount of air trapped inside
It is very common for babies in New Zealand to sleep on sheepskins. This is to help them gain weight faster, and retain their body heat
From 1526 to 1707, the first six Mogul emperors of India ruled in unbroken succession from father to son
A one kilogram packet of sugar will have about 5 million grains of sugar
Bats emit ultrasonic sounds to communicate with each other
Rats can survive up to 14 days without any food
Canola oil is actually rapeseed oil but the name was changed in Canada for marketing reasons
Three consecutive strikes in bowling is called a turkey
In a year, about 90 million jars of Skippy Peanut Butter are sold. This works out to three jars sold every second
In a lifetime, an average man will shave 20,000 times
The Pentagon has 284 restrooms
From 1967-1976, the town of Tororo located in Uganda had thunder 251 out of the 365 days in a year for those years.
Children grow faster in the springtime than any other season during the year
Another name for licorice is "Sweet Wood" or "Spanish Juice."
The reason the Animal Crackers box is designed with a string handle is because when the popular circus theme was introduced in 1902 they thought it would also be a good idea to package them with a string as a Christmas novelty so they could be hung from Christmas trees
Sheep can detect other sheep faces like humans do. They can remember up to 50 sheep faces
The loudest insect in the world is the male cicadas, which are like crickets. When they rub their abdomens, the sound made can be heard from 1300 feet
Each year 96 billion pounds of food is wasted in the U.S
In the past 60 years, the groundhog has only predicted the weather correctly 28% of the time. The rushing back and forth from burrows is believed to indicate sexual activity, not shadow seeking
Pretzel snacks have been around for over 1300 years. A European monk invented the snack using used leftover bread dough
Sharks are capable of surviving on average six weeks without eating. The record observed in an aquarium is fifteen months by a species of shark known as the "swell shark."
The destruction of the Berlin Wall began when private citizens began to demolish entire sections of the Wall without interference from government officials on November 9, 1989
Most American women have their first baby when they are 24.3 years old
Frogs do not need to drink water as they absorb the water through their skin
A group of larks is called an exaltation
The Kool Aid Man used to be known as "Pitcher Man" when he was first introduced in 1975
Wheel of Fortune star Vanna White holds the record for putting her hands together approximately 140,000 times to clap
Men sweat more than women. This is because women can better regulate the amount of water they lose
Research has indicated that approximately eleven minutes are cut off the life of an average male smoker from each cigarette smoked
The triangular shape that Toblerone chocolates are packaged in, is protected by law
In 1945, the first "floating ice cream parlor" was built for sailors in the western Pacific. This "floating ice cream parlour" could produce ten gallons of ice cream every seven seconds
The formula for Coca-cola has never been patented
The average day is actually 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4.09 seconds. We have a leap year every four years to make up for this shortfall
Before its name was changed, the African Penguin used be called the Jackass Penguin because of its donkey-like braying call
During the high feeding season, it has been estimated that an adult blue whale can eat up to 40 million krill in one day. (Krill are shrimp like creatures)
Pound for pound, leopards are said to be seven times stronger than humans
One average, men spend 60 hours a year shaving
Botanically a rhubarb is a vegetable. It was changed to a fruit in 1947 by a U.S. Custom Court
Sawney Beane, his wife, 8 sons, 6 daughters, and 32 grandchildren were a family of cannibals that lived in the caves near Galloway, Scotland in the early 17th Century. Although the total number is not known, it is believed they claimed over 50 victims per year. The entire family was taken by an army detachment to Edinburgh and executed, apparently without trial
The movie that grossed the most money that was adapted from a T.V. cartoon is Scooby-Doo
There are five million scent receptors located in a human beings nose
When Coca-Cola was invented, American tourists that visited Spain were surprised to see that Coke was three times as expensive as a glass of brandy
Some silkworms can spin cocoons that contain more than two miles of silk
The mother of famous astronomer Johannes Kepler was accused of being a witch
At one time, Pumpkins were recommended for the removal of freckles and curing snake bites
The Eisenhower interstate system requires that one mile in every five must be straight. These straight sections are usable as airstrips in times of war or other emergencies
Approximately 200 pets are buried in a pet cemetery out of the thousands of pets that die each day
The average Hostess Twinkie is 68 percent air as measured by volume according to university researchers
In Haiti, only 1 out of every 200 people own a car. This is ironic considering approximately 33% of the country's budget on import is spent on equipment for fuel and transportation.
Every U.S. bill regardless of denomination costs just 4 cents to make
About 30% of American admit to talking to their dogs or leaving messages on their answering machines for their dogs while they are away
A duck’s quack doesn’t echo, and no one knows why
Caterpillar means "hairy cat" in Old French
The ostrich has two toes on each feet which gives it greater speed
On September 3, 1970, a hailstone was found in Coffeyville, Kansas that was eight inches in diameter and weighed 1.67 pounds.
Honorificabilitudinitatibus is the longest English word that consists strictly of alternating consonants and vowels
It can take up to a month for a rattlesnake to re-supply its venom
Close to 3 billion movie tickets are sold in India every year
The word racecar and kayak are the same whether they are read left to right or right to left
There were approximately 2,228 people on board the Titanic when it sank. Of this, only 706 people survived
An elephant can live up to the age of seventy, or in some cases even more
The giant squid has the largest eyes in the world
Elephants can't jump. Every other mammal can.
The name "cranberry" comes from German and Dutch settlers. The berry was intially called "crane berry." The reason it was called this was because when the flowers bloom, the petals of the flowers twist backwards and look very much like the head of a crane. Eventually the name was shortened down to be "cranberry."
In New Mexico, over eleven thousand people have visited a tortilla chip that appeared to have the face of Jesus Christ burned into it
On average, he ratio of yellow kernels to white kernals in a bag of popcorn is 9:1
The first toilet stall in a public washroom is the least likely to be used. It is also the cleanest
In 1955, only 330 Volkswagen Beetle's were sold at a price of $1800 each in the United States.
Printed on the tablet being held by the Statue of Liberty is July IV, MDCCLXXVI
The country of Fiji is made up of 332 islands
Orville Wright, a pilot, was involved in the first aircraft accident. His passenger, a Frenchman, was killed.
The first company to mass produce teddy bears was the Ideal Toy Company
Princess Anne from the British royal family competed in the 1976 Summer Olympics
Brazil produces the most oranges in the world
Average life span of a major league baseball: 7 pitches.
The eyeball of a human weighs approximately 28 grams
A human head remains conscious for about 15 to 20 seconds after it is been decapitated
Witchcraft means "Craft of the Wise Ones."
500,000 kids in the US live in same sex households
In July 1874, a swarm of Rocky Mountain locusts flew over Nebraska covering an area estimated at 198,600 square miles. It is estimated that the swarm contained about 12.5 trillion insects. These insects became extinct thirty years later
Tropical rainforests cover about 7% of the Earth and receive over 80 inches of rain every year
The feet have approximately 250,000 sweat glands
Approximately 7.5% of all office documents get lost
The desert tortoise can live without having to drink any water. It extracts the water it needs from the vegetation it eats
There were 13 couples celebrating their honeymoon on the Titanic
A cat has 32 muscles in each ear
There are 336 dimples on a regulation golf ball
Elvis Presley had a twin brother named Jesse Garon Presley who died at birth
Robert Wadlow is the tallest man recorded in history. He grew to be eight feet and eleven inches and weighed 490 pounds when he died
Bank robber John Dillinger played professional baseball
Research indicates that plants grow healthier when they are stroked.
France is known as the perfume capital of the world
According to psychologists, the shoe and the foot are the most common sources of sexual fetishism in Western society
Constipation is caused when too much water is absorbed in the large intestine and the feces become dry
One ton of grapes can produce 720 bottles of wine
Eating about twenty tart cherries a day could reduce inflammatory pain and headache pain
In 2001, the five most valuable brand names in order were Coca-Cola, Microsoft, IBM, GE, and Nokia
Milk chocolate was invented in Switzerland by David Peter in 1876
In November 1999, two women were killed by a lightning bolt. The underwire located in their bras acted as a electrical conductors, and when the lightning bolt hit the bra they left burn marks on their chest
Basketball was invented by Canadian James Naismith in 1891
Over 100,000 birds and sea animals are killed every year due to plastic garbage
The big toe is the foot reflexology pressure point for the head
85% of weddings are held in a synagogue or church
The sport of surfing originated in Hawaii
It is possible to lead a cow upstairs...but not downstairs
Before soccer referees started using whistles in 1878, they used to rely on waving a handkerchief
Tobacco kills more Americans each year than alcohol, cocaine, crack, heroin, homicide, suicide, car accidents, fire and AIDS combined
The best time for a person to buy shoes is in the afternoon. This is because the foot tends to swell a bit around this time
Dead cells in the body ultimately go to the kidneys for excretion
Americans, on average, spend 18% of his or her income on transportation as compared to only 13% spent on food
There are some species of snails that are venomous. Their venom can be fatal to humans
The first box of Crayola that was ever sold had the same eight colours that are sold in the box today consisting of red, blue, yellow, green, violet, orange, black and brown. The box was sold for a nickel in 1903
A turtle can breathe through its butt.
The rarest coffee in the world is Kopi Luwak, which is found in Indonesia. It cost about $300 a pound
The average America online user spends 70 minutes day online
The song with the longest title is "I?m a Cranky Old Yank in a Clanky Old Tank on the Streets of Yokohama with my Honolulu Mama Doin? Those Beat-o, Beat-o Flat-On-My-Seat-o, Hirohito Blues" written by Hoagy Carmichael in 1945. He later claimed the song title ended with ?Yank? and the rest was a joke
People of Ancient China believed that swinging your arms could cure a headache
In 1938, Cliquot Club ginger ale was the first soft drink to be canned
The largest apple pie ever baked was forty by twenty three feet
Roughly 44% of junk mail is thrown away unopened
Catfish have tastebuds located on their whiskers
The laundry detergent Tide, has a market share of about forty percent market
A Canadian, Troy Hurtubise, spent $100,000 and almost went bankrupt building a RoboCop style suit so that he could withstand a bear attack
The 3 most valuable brand names on earth: Marlboro, Coca-Cola, andBudweiser, in that order.
The only two days of the year in which there are no professional sports games (MLB, NBA, NHL, or NFL) are the day before and the day after the Major League all-stars Game
In the United States, 8.5 million cosmetic surgical and non-surgical procedures were done in the year 2001
The Bible has been translated into Klingon.
Ian Fleming named his character "James Bond" after real-life ornithologist and author
Most dinosaurs walked on their toes.
On December 17 1991, the Cleveland Cavaliers beat the Miami Heat 148-80, the largest margin of victory in an NBA game
There are mirrors on the moon. Astronauts left them so that laser beams could be bounced off of them from Earth. These beams help give us the distance to the moon give or take a few metres.
The U.S. army packs Tabasco pepper sauce in every ration kit that they give to soldiers
The trunk of an elephant can hold up to two gallons of water
Every year, an igloo hotel is built in Sweden that has the capacity to sleep 100 people
During the holiday season, approximately $220 million worth of Poinsettias are sold
A newborn kangaroo weighs approximately 0.03 ounces and is small enough to fit in a teaspoon
When Scott Paper Co. first started manufacturing toilet paper they did not put their name on the product because of embarrassment
The most senior crayon maker Emerson Moser retired after making 1.4 billion crayons for Crayola. It was then that he revealed that he was actually colorblind
The highest point in Pennsylvania is lower than the lowest point inColorado.
Scientists have determined that having guilty feelings may actually damage your immune system
"Go." is the shortest complete sentence in the English language
There are more than 250,000 rivers in the United States, which amounts to 3.5 million miles of rivers
Forty-one percent of women apply body and hand moisturizer at least three times a day
Pretzel that have no salt on them are called "baldies."
The 1912 Olympics was the last Olympics that gave out gold medals that were made entirely out of gold
Monopoly is the best-selling board game in the world
There was a book written fourteen years before the sinking of the Titanic happened titled "Futility" by Morgan Robertson. This book was remarkably similar to the tragedy that happened to the Titanic in 1912
One ounce of chocolate has about 20 mg of caffeine in it
A giraffe can go longer without water than a camel
Vikings, after killing their enemies, used their skulls as drinking vessels
Studies have shown that classical music helps cows produce more milk
Two out of five people end up marrying their first love
The Hawaiian alphabet only has 12 letters
The name "Muppet" was coined by Jim Henson. The word was made from a combination of the word "marionette" and "puppet."
In the Sahara Desert, there is a town named Tidikelt, which did not receive a drop of rain for ten years
The Christmas season begins after sunset on December 24th and lasts until January 5th. This is also known as the Twelve Days of Christmas
Mosquitoes are attracted to the color blue more than any other color
In Italy, Santa Claus is known by the name Babbo Natale
Two objects have struck the earth with enough force to destroy a whole city. Each object, one in 1908 and again in 1947, struck regions of Siberia. Not one human being was hurt either time
When blue whales are first born, they gain as much as 200 pounds a day while they are calves
Families who do turn off the television during meals tend to eat healthier. This was regardless of family income, or education
About 25 percent of all the energy consumed in the US is from natural gas
American novelist Mark Twain was the first known author to submit a typed manuscript
If you fart consistently for 6 years and 9 months, enough gas is produced to create the energy of an atomic bomb
Canada is the only country not to win a gold medal in the Summer Olympic games while hosting the event
The sound made by the toadfish when mating underwater is so loud that it can be heard by humans on the shore
In America, approximately 20% of children between the ages of 2 - 7 have televisions in their rooms
Traveling by air is the safest means of transportation.
In 1996, toy company Mattel released a "Harley Davidson" Barbie. This dolls distinctive feature is a birth mark on her face that changes position with every new release of the doll
The most common injury caused by cosmetics is to the eye by a mascara wand
There have been close to 200 coups and counter-coups in the country of Bolivia
On average, pigs live for about 15 years
Roughly 42% of people in the United Kingdom snore
No NFL team which plays its home games in a domed stadium has ever won a Superbowl
Beluga whales which are also called "white whales" are not born white. They are born grey in color, and by the age of six become completely white
Tiger Woods is the first athlete to has been named "Sportsman of the Year" by magazine Sports Illustrated two times
The eight most popular foods to cause food allergies are: milk, eggs, wheat, peanuts, soy, tree nuts, fish, and shellfish
Club Direct, a travel insurance company in Britain, provides insurance plans for protection from falling coconuts
There are some bananas that are red instead of yellow
Only one out of every three people wash their hands when leaving a public bathroom
570 gallons of paint would be needed to paint the outside of the White House
Baby robins eat 14 feet of earthworms every day
Every three seconds a baby is born somewhere in the world
The total mileage driven by all U-Haul trucks in a year is enough to move a person from the Earth to the moon five times a day for an entire year
The Eisenhower interstate system requires that one mile in every fivemust be straight. These straight sections are usable as airstrips intimes ofwar or other emergencies.
Pluto was discovered on February 10, 1930 by Clyde Tombaugh
Termites have been around for over 250 million years
The average person changes their career every 13 years
The New York Yankees have appeared in the World Series a league leading 38 times and won 26 titles
Approximately 18 billion disposable diapers end up in landfills each year. These diapers can takes as long as 500 years to finally decompose
Over 4.5 billion sticks have Trident gum have been chewed. If the stick of gum were laid out end to end they could circle the globe approximately 1.8 times
Oak trees can live 200 or more years
The brain of an ant has about 250,000 brain cells
About 26 per cent of all indoor water used by households in Sydney, Australia are for laundry
A rainbow can occur only when the sun is 40 degrees or less above the horizon
If you spray an antiseptic spray on a polar bear, its fur will turn purple
Over $7 billion a year is spent on chocolates by consumers
During World War II, Russians used dogs strapped with explosives to blow up German tanks. They trained the dogs to associate the tanks with food and ended up destroying about 25 German tanks using this method
Butterflies taste with their feet
St. Louis, Missouri was the first U.S. city to host the summer Olympics in 1904
The phrase "rule of thumb" is derived from an old English law whichstated that you couldn't beat your wife with anything wider than yourthumb.
Every year Alaska has about 5,000 earthquakes, 1,000 of which measure above 3.5 on the Richter scale
A fetus develops fingerprints at eighteen weeks
It takes about a half a gallon of water to cook macaroni, and about a gallon to clean the pot
The cornea is the only living tissue in the human body that does not contain any blood vessels
In the U.S. peanuts account for 66% of all snack nuts
There are approximately 7,000 feathers on an eagle
Sharks can sense a drop of blood from a mile away
As a defense mechanism, the North American Opossum closes its eyes and becomes totally limp. Basically it plays dead
The longest town name in the world has 167 letters
A sneeze zooms out of your mouth at over 600 m.p.h
A cesium atom in an atomic clock that beats over nine billion times a second.
The mythical Scottish town of Brigadoon appears for one day every one hundred years
Kermit the frog delivered the commencement address at Southampton College located in the state of New York in 1996
In World War II, the German submarine U-120 was sunk by a malfunctioning toilet
The phrase "Often a bridesmaid, but never a bride," actually originates from an advertisement for Listerine mouthwash from 1924
Over 50% of lottery players go back to work after winning the jackpot
The largest cultivated crop in the United States is corn
Walt Disney holds the record for the most Oscar nominations with sixty-four
On average, Americans eat one hundred acres of pizza a day. This amounts to about three hundred fifty slices per second
As an iceberg melts, it makes a fizzing sound because of the compressed air bubbles popping in the ice
The Arctic Ocean covers an area of about 14,056,000 sq miles
The first known contraceptive was crocodile dung, used by Egyptians in 2000 B.C
Most toilets flush in E flat
Bile produced by the liver is responsible for making your feces a brownish, green colour
At one time the group "Grateful Dead" were called "The Warlocks."
Bats can detect food up to 18 feet away and what type of insect the food may be using their sense of echolocation
At the equator the Earth spins at about 1,038 miles per hour
People whose mouth has a narrow roof are more likely to snore. This is because they have less oxygen going through their nose
In one day, a human sheds 10 billion skin flakes. This amounts to approximately two kilograms in a year
On average, an American home has 3-10 gallons of hazardous materials
On average, 35 meters of hair fibre is produced on the adult scalp
Dalmatian puppies do not have any spots on them when they are born. They actually develop them as they get older
Male goats will pee on each other in order to attract mates
A dog by the name of Laika was launched into space aboard the Russian spacecraft Sputnik 2 in 1957
In 2002, dogs have killed more people in the U.S. than the Great White shark has killed in the past 100 years
The study of twins is known as gemellology
On an American one-dollar bill, there is an owl in the upper right-hand corner of the "1" encased in the "shield" and a spider hidden in the front upper right-hand corner
During one seven year period, Thomas Edison obtained approximately three hundred patents. In is whole life he obtained over one thousand patents.
When Black Jack Ketchum was hung back in 1901 in Clayton New Mexico, the noose actually ended up taking his head off. The head had to be sewn back on so Black Jack could be buried properly
Every 40,000 children are killed by fires
The highest recorded speed of a sneeze is 165 km per hour
In 1985, a pregnant women was falsely accused of shoplifting a basketball
In every episode of Seinfeld there is a Superman somewhere
The adult electric eel can produce a five hundred volt shock, which is enough to stun a horse
When the are in danger, kangaroos will beat the ground loudly with their hind feet
To manufacture a new car approximately 148,000 liters of water is needed.
In 410 A.D. Alaric the Visigoth demanded that Rome give him three thousand pounds of pepper as ransom
Actress Jamie Lee Curtis invented a special diaper for babies that has a pocket
Honeybees use the sun as a compass which helps them navigate
An average driver spends approximately 2 hours and 14 minutes kissing in their car in a lifetime
In gangster slang, a boxing match that is fixed is called a "barney."
| i don't know |
Which Hungarian bon inventor, who diedin 2003, had the nickname 'The Father of the Hydrogen Bomb'? | Atomic John - The New Yorker
Atomic John
A truck driver uncovers secrets about the first nuclear bombs.
By
David Samuels
John Coster-Mullen conducted a decade of research to build the first accurate replica of the Hiroshima bomb.CreditIllustration by John Ritter
The single, blinding release of pure energy over Hiroshima, Japan, on August 6, 1945, marked a startling and permanent break with our prior understandings of the visible world. Yet for more than sixty years the technology behind the explosion has remained a state secret. The United States government has never divulged the engineering specifications of the first atomic bombs, not even after other countries have produced generations of ever more powerful nuclear weapons. In the decades since the Second World War, dozens of historians have attempted to divine the precise mechanics of the Hiroshima bomb, nicknamed Little Boy, and of the bomb that fell three days later on Nagasaki, known as Fat Man. The most prominent is Richard Rhodes, who won a Pulitzer Prize, in 1988, for his dazzling and meticulous book “The Making of the Atomic Bomb.” But the most accurate account of the bomb’s inner workings—an unnervingly detailed reconstruction, based on old photographs and documents—has been written by a sixty-one-year-old truck driver from Waukesha, Wisconsin, named John Coster-Mullen, who was once a commercial photographer, and has never received a college degree.
I first came across Coster-Mullen’s name in January of 2004, after I attended an exhibit by the artist Jim Sanborn, at the Corcoran Gallery of Art, in Washington, D.C. The show, called “Critical Assembly,” included what appeared to be spookily exact replicas of the interior mechanism of the first atomic bomb, which Sanborn had manufactured according to Coster-Mullen’s specifications. A year later, I read an article in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists that mentioned a six-hundred-mile trip Coster-Mullen had taken across the Midwest with a full-scale model of the Hiroshima bomb in the back of a Penske rental truck. He had built the replica with the help of his son, Jason, in his garage, basing it, in part, on his analysis of sixty-year-old screws, bolts, and fragments of machined steel that had been stored in rural basements and attics.
The mention of Coster-Mullen’s journey led me back to the November/December, 2004, issue of the Bulletin, which included a review of a book by Coster-Mullen titled “Atom Bombs: The Top Secret Inside Story of Little Boy and Fat Man.” The review, written by the eminent atomic historian Robert S. Norris, began, “For many years, Coster-Mullen has been printing his manuscript at Kinko’s (adding to and revising it along the way) and selling spiral-bound copies at conferences or over the Internet.” Norris clearly considered Coster-Mullen’s understanding of the bomb superior to his own. It was known that Little Boy and Fat Man brought together two masses of fissile material inside a bomb casing, forming a critical mass that set off a nuclear explosion. Little Boy shot one mass of highly enriched uranium into the other with a gunlike mechanism; Fat Man used explosives to squeeze together two hemispheres of plutonium. But the exact details of how these devices worked were unknown. Norris said of Coster-Mullen’s work, “Nothing else in the Manhattan Project literature comes close to his exacting breakdown of the bomb’s parts. Coster-Mullen describes the size, weight, and composition of many of Little Boy’s components, including the nose section and its target case; the uranium-235 target rings and tamper; the arming and fuzing system; the forged steel 6.5-inch-in-diameter gun barrel through which the uranium-235 projectile was fired at the target rings; and the tail section—to cite just a few.”
My own copy of “Atom Bombs” soon arrived in the mail, along with a sheet of testimonials from Harold Agnew, the former director of the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, who was aboard the Enola Gay when it annihilated Hiroshima (a “most amazing document”); Philip Morrison, one of the physicists who helped invent the bomb (“You have done a remarkable job”); and Paul Tibbets, the commander and pilot of the Enola Gay (“I was very much impressed”). * “Atom Bombs” consists of densely interlocking sentences, nearly all of which contain dimensional information that contradicts the assertions of previous authorities. “A circular steel plate was positioned inside the 17.0″-diameter tail cylinder at the front of the tail tube and another towards the rear of the tube,” Coster-Mullen writes. “These allowed the tail to be slid over the 10.5″-diameter gun tube during assembly. The forward plate was positioned 26.5″ in front of the aft plate and was welded to the front of the tail tube.”
Though the book’s specificity about dimensions, shapes, and materials was mind-numbing, the accumulation of detail was strangely seductive. As Coster-Mullen described how the different parts of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs fit together, I felt that I could practically assemble an atomic weapon myself.
The text was followed by more than a hundred pages of declassified photographs extracted from half a dozen government archives, which showed the weapons at various stages of completion—surrounded by scientists in New Mexico or by tanned, shirtless crew members on Tinian Island, in the Western Pacific, just before the bombs were dropped. Coster-Mullen’s book concluded with thirty-five pages of end notes, including a hilariously involved discussion of the textural differences in the gold foil used to separate the plutonium hemispheres for the first atomic bomb, Trinity (dimpled), and the Nagasaki bomb (flat).
Coster-Mullen sees his project as a diverting mental challenge—not unlike a crossword puzzle—whose goal is simply to present readers with accurate information about the past. “This is nuclear archeology,” he told me, in a late-night phone call. “It’s like any other kind of archeology.” Though the government does not make a practice of providing Coster-Mullen with timely responses to his technical inquiries, no official has actively discouraged him from pursuing his research. After a period of mild equivocation, he decided to publish all the details he had uncovered about the mechanics and production of the bomb, even though the subject remains classified. “I was acting like a classification officer,” he recalls. “ ‘I can have the truth and you can’t.’ Who am I to say that?”
Among other things, Coster-Mullen’s book makes clear that our belief in the secrecy of the bomb is a theological construct, adopted in no small part to shield ourselves from the idea that someone might use an atomic bomb against us. Surely, hostile powers could easily obtain the kind of information that Coster-Mullen has acquired, however painstakingly, in his spare time. Any nation that can master the challenges of the atomic-fuel cycle and produce a critical mass of uranium or plutonium, as Iran is reported to be on the verge of doing, would have little difficulty in producing a workable bomb. Given a sufficient quantity of highly enriched uranium, a small number of engineers working for a terrorist group like Al Qaeda or Hezbollah could easily assemble a homemade nuclear device.
I recently wrote to Coster-Mullen and suggested that we take a trip across the country to visit his Little Boy replica, which is currently housed at Wendover, a decommissioned Air Force base in Utah. After some negotiation, we agreed to ride together on his late-night delivery route between Waukesha and Chicago. We would then drive to Wendover. Along the way, he would explain the inner workings of the first atomic bombs, and I would learn how he got it right and the experts got it wrong.
Coster-Mullen and I met in the darkened parking lot of a regional distribution center for a big-box retailer, some ten miles outside Waukesha. Dressed in Lee jeans and a tan shirt with the J. B. Hunt logo, he had titanium-frame glasses, blue-gray eyes, and a full head of silvery hair. The distribution center was the size of seven or eight football fields; fans roaring overhead and an enormous conveyor belt drowned out the beeps of cabs backing up to trailers. Coster-Mullen picked up his sheet for the night, which involved stops at Store 1950, in Streamwood, Illinois, and Store 1889, in downtown Chicago. He was to drop off a container filled with lawn furniture in Streamwood, and haul back “sweep” merchandise—cardboard boxes, defective items, coat hangers—from Chicago. We walked outside and hooked up Coster-Mullen’s truck to trailer No. 537427, with a solid click. It was seven o’clock on a Sunday night. He calmly recited a safety checklist (“My lights are on, my flashers are on”) and we set off.
Buy a cartoon
Over the years, Coster-Mullen told me, he had held nearly a dozen jobs, including working at camera stores in and around Milwaukee; doing inventory control for the Beloit Corporation, which manufactured paper-making equipment; taking photographs of industrial equipment for Trane, the heating and air-conditioning company, and then for Mercury Marine, which makes high-quality engines for boats; working as a studio photographer for Pohlman Studios, in Milwaukee; and running his own photography business. These jobs had provided him with the skills, he says, that helped him solve the puzzle of the bomb. I asked him how he wound up driving a truck. “They are always hiring,” he said. “I figured if people with the brains of a squirrel could drive a truck, maybe I could drive a truck.”
The highway cut through scrubland, and by nightfall Coster-Mullen was driving past Old World Wisconsin, a tourist attraction that features restorations of prairie homesteads. Making long cross-country drives, Coster-Mullen said, had given him plenty of time to reëxamine the three-dimensional diagram of the bomb that he keeps in his head, like a Buddhist monk contemplating the Karmic wheel. His truck routes also made it easy for him to maintain connections with sources. Twelve years ago, Coster-Mullen pulled into a Wal-Mart parking lot in North Carolina and got into the car of a retired machinist in his late seventies, who showed him photographs of metal pieces that he had fashioned for the Trinity bomb, which was set off in the desert outside Alamogordo, New Mexico, in July, 1945. Coster-Mullen said that machinists often hid the fragments in their shoes and pants cuffs, in order to have something to show their grandchildren. Two years after meeting the machinist, in 1998, Coster-Mullen, while driving through Nebraska with three cars in front of him, figured out the exact shape and weight of the pieces of uranium inside Little Boy. “I’m sitting there with my pocket calculator, going, ‘If the core had this diameter, and the length is this, what’s the volume?’ “ he recalled. “I went, ‘That’s it!’ And then I got on the horn—urh-urh.”
Arriving at the drop-off point in Streamwood, we unhooked the truck’s electric and air lines, then turned the crank on the landing gear forty times. We picked up another container, got back in the truck, and headed south, toward Chicago. At four in the morning, we passed the Sears Tower. Coster-Mullen gingerly navigated the pillars inside an indoor parking garage and pulled up to the loading dock.
The trailer, which contained thirty-one thousand pounds of
FAK
—“freight of all kinds”—wasn’t ready yet, so we checked out the bales of sweep merchandise: crushed boxes of cookies, dented cans, ripped jeans. Finally, we hooked up the trailer and hit the road. As we headed north, Coster-Mullen explained to me the likely blast effects of a Hiroshima-size nuclear device exploding in a container truck in downtown Chicago. He said, “All you need to do is take two subcritical masses of uranium and smash them into each other to form a critical mass. Neutrons strike the heavy uranium nucleus, which splits, releasing a tremendous jolt of energy along with two or more neutrons, which split more nuclei, setting off a chain reaction that grows and grows and finally manifests itself as a huge fireball over a populated area, blinding, asphyxiating, incinerating, or crushing every living being within a five-mile radius.” As he elaborated on the scenario, the sun began to rise, and I fell asleep with my face against the window.
We arrived at Coster-Mullen’s home, in Waukesha, around eight o’clock that morning. He lives in a ranch house on a cul-de-sac in a pleasant subdivision. His wife, Mary, is a retired social worker who spends most of her time reading and knitting. They have two children together, and Coster-Mullen has a third from a previous marriage. Asters, black-eyed Susans, and coral bells blossomed beneath the trees in the back yard. Coster-Mullen, in anticipation of my visit, had arrayed his kitchen with some of his atom-bomb memorabilia, including a roof tile from the hypocenter of the Hiroshima blast, which he purchased for eighty-nine dollars from a former member of the U.S. radiation-survey team. He also owns a brick of graphite from Enrico Fermi’s lab at the University of Chicago—the site of the first reactor pile—which he was given by two physicists who were fans of his book; a small marine fossil that was underneath the Trinity bomb when it exploded in the New Mexico desert, which Coster-Mullen dug out of the ground himself during a visit to the site; silicone molds of the detonator for the Trinity bomb; a chunk of uranium; and a sphere of beryllium, a component of modern atomic bombs.
He handed me a leaflet that had been dropped over Japan by B-29 bombers in late July, 1945. “Attention Japanese People,” the leaflet says. “In the next few days, four (or more) of the cities named on the reverse side will be destroyed by American bombs. These cities contain military installations and workshops or factories that produce military goods. We are determined to destroy all of the tools of the military clique.”
On the kitchen counter sat something seemingly unconnected to atomic weapons: a hobbyist’s model of the Joan of Arc chapel, on the campus of Marquette University, in Milwaukee. In fact, Coster-Mullen told me, the model, which he completed in 1993, had helped spark his obsession with building his own bomb. He had built the model in the hope of launching a business. Marquette alumni and other visitors, he had figured, would eagerly buy replicas of the chapel and display them in their homes. Constructing the model was difficult, he recalled: “I was using dental picks and surgical 3-D glasses and I learned how to carve little eyes in the wood benches.” Like most of his business ideas, before and since, the project showed both a fanatical devotion to detail and a hazy grasp of what ordinary consumers might pay for. He placed the chapel models in local gift shops on consignment, but few sold. After this failure, Coster-Mullen decided to make replicas of something with wider commercial appeal.
In December, 1993, he persuaded his son, Jason, who was then seventeen, to accompany him on a road trip to the National Atomic Museum, in Albuquerque, where Coster-Mullen could examine the empty ballistic casing of an atomic bomb at first hand and make sketches that he could use to build an accurate scale model. After driving two thousand miles to the museum, he was distressed to find that the atomic-weapons area was closed for renovation. He protested until his contact at the museum finally appeared and let them in. He and Jason spent hours measuring the bomb casings on display. (In the early nineties, after the fall of the Soviet Union, no one was particularly disturbed by the sight of a father and son poking measuring tape inside the casings of fifty-year-old bombs.) The Coster-Mullens were soon measuring weapons casings around the country, including at the Wright-Patterson base, in Ohio; the West Point Museum, in the Hudson Valley; and the Smithsonian, in Washington, D.C. They also saw the Fat Man display at the Bradbury Science Museum, in Los Alamos.
During these and other excursions, Coster-Mullen discovered that much of the dimensional information about the bombs in history books was wrong. “Rhodes and others said that Little Boy is twenty-nine inches in diameter—but it’s not, it’s twenty-eight,” he said, in the friendly, matter-of-fact tone he uses to soften the force of his obsession. Wondering what other errors the historians had made, he began to attend reunions of the 509th Composite Group, the military unit that dropped the bombs. He went to his first reunion in 1994, in Chicago. Before the gathering, he wrote a draft of a pamphlet about the bomb and sent it to Frederick Ashworth, a naval commander who was in charge of the Fat Man weapon. “The Monday of the reunion week, I get this letter back from Admiral Ashworth, who, justifiably, took me to task,” Coster-Mullen recalls. “He said, ‘Either treat this subject with the seriousness it deserves or drop it.’ So I chose the former.”
Coster-Mullen spent the next ten years of his life mastering a body of recondite technical data. He extracted photographs from government archives and scrutinized them with a magnifying glass; he interviewed one retired machinist after another, as well as scientists and engineers. Researching the bomb provided Coster-Mullen with an outlet for a sensibility that might have been equally at home collecting tropical butterflies or double-print stamps. To suggest that Coster-Mullen is a garden-variety classification freak, however, is like comparing a high-school trumpet player to Miles Davis. Driven by his desire to solve a great puzzle, he is personally affronted by recycled information and secondary sourcing, which often leads him to express contempt for people who are lazier than he is—a category that includes virtually everyone.
“This place would be so bucolic without you.”
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The first edition of “Atom Bombs” was completed in 2003. With the publication of the book, which has since undergone several hundred revisions, Coster-Mullen became a leading member of the loosely organized scholarly fraternity dedicated to challenging the ethic of secrecy behind the atomic security state. Its dozen or so members included Richard Rhodes; Chuck Hansen, a computer programmer whose Freedom of Information Act requests helped him assemble “The Swords of Armageddon,” a twenty-nine-hundred-page, seven-volume archive of documentary information about the U.S. nuclear arsenal; Howard Morland, who published the first detailed sketch of a thermonuclear weapon, in The Progressive, in 1979; and Carey Sublette, a programmer in California, who has posted a wealth of data about atomic weapons on the Internet.
Coster-Mullen fulfills orders for “Atomic Bombs” himself, by running off copies and then mailing them. (The book is available through Amazon, and costs $49.95.) According to a recent log of purchase information, “Atomic Bombs” is sought after mainly by people whose e-mail addresses identify them as members of the nation’s secret nuclear archipelago: LANL, LLNL, SNL, ORNL, ANL, Pantex, Fermilab, the Hanford and Savannah River nuclear plants, the F.B.I.
“Thanks again for the great book,” a nuclear worker named Lee recently wrote to Coster-Mullen. “As soon as I finish it, my son, who’s on the 61 program”—maintaining the stockpile of variants of the original B-61 nuclear bombs—“will be reading it, probably in one of the assembly bays.”
Many customers seem to enjoy thumbing their noses at U.S. security officials, who remain determined to keep the bomb’s precise technical specifications a mystery. Harold Agnew, the former director of Los Alamos, recently wrote to Coster-Mullen, “The real problem with the security people is that they are basically ignorant and maybe just plain stupid. I guess if they just say no to everything they believe they have job security and won’t get into trouble with their equally stupid bosses.” Agnew added that he had suggested to security officials at Los Alamos that they invite Coster-Mullen to give a talk on how he did his research—“so in the future if there really is something they want to keep close, they might have a clearer idea as to how to do it.”
In March, 2007, after an extended debate within the community of civilian nuclear obsessives, Coster-Mullen’s revisionist diagrams of Little Boy and the core of the Fat Man bomb were posted on Wikipedia. Accurate information about how a simple nuclear bomb is made, and how it works, is now available to anyone with Internet access. “Before 9/11, I found our government’s emphasis on secrecy abhorrent,” Richard Rhodes told me. “I find it even more so now.” Rhodes considers absurd the idea that a foreign government or terrorist might build a bomb based on Coster-Mullen’s diagrams. “Everyone who is sufficiently sophisticated in these matters hardly needs the help of us poor souls, who aren’t even scientists,” he said. Rhodes said of the U.S. government’s classification efforts, “The point is to keep the bombs out of sight, to make us feel that the bombs aren’t real, and that is John’s real contribution. The notion that we are safer because we have all these bombs tucked away is a huge fraud.”
Coster-Mullen is a man of rigid preferences. He loves Diet Coke, but under no circumstances will he drink Diet Pepsi, which he describes as having a sugary, chemical aftertaste that makes him feel nauseated. Even a teasing mention of Diet Pepsi can set off a rant that will momentarily eclipse talk of the bomb. Other subjects capable of replacing the bomb in his mind for short periods of time are his wife and children; the stupidity of Christian beliefs; the stupidity of religion in general; the prevailing etiquette at truck stops; and stories about rescued cats. The longest he has ever gone in my company without mentioning the atomic bomb is thirty-seven minutes, a record he achieved on a particularly beautiful stretch of road running through the sun-baked canyons east of Salt Lake City. To say that Coster-Mullen actually went that long without speaking about the atomic bomb is an exaggeration, as he referred to nuclear weapons twice in passing, and because he was aware that I was timing him with a stopwatch.
Coster-Mullen had agreed to drive us from Waukesha to Wendover, while I sat in the passenger seat of my rental car and asked questions. (I’m a lousy driver.) Research materials shared the back seat with a small cooler that plugged into the dashboard cigarette lighter and contained cheese, salami, and four twenty-ounce bottles of Diet Coke, which Coster-Mullen consumes at the rate of one per hour. When he finished a bottle, he tossed it onto the back seat. After two or three empties accumulated, he refilled them with soda from a two-litre mother-ship bottle that he kept in a shopping bag on the floor.
Soon after we had begun the car trip, we passed the industrial city of Beloit, Wisconsin. As a young photographer on the Beloit Daily News, in 1973, he was responsible for one front-page picture and five inside photos per day. He spent hours in the darkroom each week, and the knowledge that he gained about the technical side of photography proved indispensable when he began researching his book, and subjecting declassified photographs from government archives to detailed analysis.
Coster-Mullen’s techniques for assessing the size and nature of objects depicted in photographs are familiar to photo editors, intelligence analysts, and others whose job is to glean detailed information from images, but they were new to the community of civilian atomic researchers. His first such intimate examination was of a famous photograph from July 15, 1945, of the scientists Herb Lehr and Harry Daghlian lugging a wooden crate containing a portion of the Trinity device’s “physics package”—the plutonium part—to a car parked outside the McDonald Ranch House, a test site in New Mexico. A retired master machinist at Los Alamos, whom Coster-Mullen interviewed, had once measured the plug of Fat Man’s physics package, and recalled that it was eleven or twelve inches long, and had been inserted into an aluminum sphere that was at least two feet in diameter. If Coster-Mullen could figure out the size of the box in the picture, he reasoned, he could determine the maximum size of the object inside. “They’re backing around the corner of that open door,” he noted, gesturing at a copy of the photograph that I held on my lap as we drove through Dixon, Illinois—Ronald Reagan’s home town. “The height of the box is in line with the front edge of the door.”
There were distinctive-looking suicide doors on the vehicle, which made him think that he could identify the model, so he took the photograph to an antique-car dealer south of Milwaukee. Together, they examined the dealer’s collection of Clymer manuals, which contain mechanical specifications for major American cars. American manufacturers stopped building cars for civilians after the 1942 model year and didn’t resume making them until the 1946 model year, which made it easy to identify the car in the McDonald Ranch House photo as a 1942 Plymouth.
A few weeks later, Coster-Mullen was driving with his wife past an antique-auto show, where he found two 1942 Plymouths. “I showed the photograph and I said, ‘I’d like to measure the height of that door,’ “ he recalled. “The photographer’s taking that with a normal camera lens, and he’s back about twenty feet from the car, so you wouldn’t get any foreshortening. So I measure the height and applied proportional measuring. A is to B as C is to D. And it turned out that that box was only about ten and a half inches long. So, obviously, something eleven or twelve inches long couldn’t even fit in that box.”
Later, when we took a break at a truck stop in Iowa, he told me about another early discovery: a declassified report about the death of Harry Daghlian, who died of radiation poisoning at Los Alamos after he dropped a block of tungsten carbide onto a bomb assembly containing a plutonium sphere, on August 21, 1945. The report contained a photograph in which another physicist recreated Daghlian’s accident. A ruler was helpfully positioned on a tungsten block, which allowed Coster-Mullen to determine that the plutonium sphere, which was identical to those used in the first atomic bomb, was 3.62 inches in diameter. All it took, he said, was a set of digital calipers and a little high-school geometry.
A few hours after leaving the truck stop, we passed by a town in Iowa called Stuart—a deduction I made upon seeing a huge white windmill with the word “
STUART
” painted vertically on its base. A road sign informed us that Omaha was ninety-three miles to the west.
“That beryllium sphere that you showed me yesterday,” I said. “Where did that come from?”
“Luckily, our retirement funds are entirely in double lattes.”
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“eBay!” Coster-Mullen replied. “It cost about thirty bucks. I bought it because it was roughly the same size as one of those polonium-beryllium initiators they used in Fat Man.” Polonium is also readily available on the Internet, he said. He said that it was possible, though not easy, for a rogue figure to acquire material for an atomic weapon. “They proved in a test that you can use reactor-grade plutonium in a bomb,” he said. “I believe it took place in the seventies or eighties, at a Nevada test site. Supposedly, thorium can be used to make uranium. Well, thorium was in camper gas lanterns. Oh, you’d have to have quite a few. Americium, which is the key element in smoke detectors, is supposedly a fissile material. But it would probably be suspicious, because you’d need to order about a million smoke detectors to extract enough material.”
At midmorning, we reached the outskirts of Omaha, where we visited the Strategic Air and Space Museum, whose grounds are marked by a towering Atlas D ballistic missile. Energized by forty ounces of Diet Coke, Coster-Mullen ignored the SR-71 Blackbird spy plane hanging over the entrance to the museum and headed straight to the front desk, where he corralled a retired armed-services veteran who was volunteering his time. Smooth jazz played in the background.
“Do you have any casings of Little Boy or Fat Man?” he asked.
No, the veteran said.
By the time we left the museum, the sky had gone dark and storm clouds were on the horizon. As Coster-Mullen drove, I examined a scale drawing of Little Boy that he had begun drafting in 1995. When he had visited the Bradbury Science Museum earlier that year, he noticed that a diagram of the exterior of the bomb had been mislabelled; it placed a contact fuse on the nose of Little Boy. An archivist agreed to send Coster-Mullen a copy of the flawed diagram in the mail. Also included in the package was a partial diagram of the bomb’s interior, a document that Los Alamos had never before released. The diagram revealed that a long gun barrrel had been screwed directly into an adapter attached to the target case. This was the first piece of hard information that researchers had about how the mechanism inside Little Boy was actually assembled.
Not long afterward, Coster-Mullen told me, he read a coffee-table book about the Enola Gay. The text described Little Boy’s gun barrel as having been made of wood, a suggestion that was clearly preposterous, and could have passed muster only with a publisher of art books. The book also said that the gun barrel was fifty-two inches long; the statement caught Coster-Mullen’s eye, as it was virtually the only piece of specific dimensional information in the book. “I figured that number might be a clue,” he recalled. “It probably came from somewhere else, since the author clearly didn’t understand what he was writing about.”
That year, the Smithsonian commemorated the bomb’s fiftieth anniversary with an exhibition about the Enola Gay that featured the casing of a Little Boy. (Perhaps a dozen Little Boys were produced.) The bomb had originally been intact, save for its uranium, but in 1986 agents of the Department of Energy arrived at the museum and took the weapon away. Government officials were worried that a terrorist group with access to sufficient quantities of highly enriched uranium might commandeer the bomb, load it with fissile material, and set it off. The bomb was taken to an underground facility—supposedly situated in Los Alamos, beneath a McDonald’s—where its insides were removed. The gutted artifact was returned to the museum in 1993.
A small number of visitors to the Smithsonian exhibit may have noticed that the bomb had been modified in a peculiar way. Whereas the exterior casing of the bomb had previously been covered in a uniform coat of dark-green paint, the surface now had a series of cryptic markings and numbers, including a “36” and a “52.” The nose of the bomb was marked with what looked like a “12.” Pictures of the altered bomb casing began circulating among atomic researchers.
When Coster-Mullen saw the “52” on the bomb casing, he immediately thought of the fifty-two-inch gun barrel that was mentioned in the Enola Gay book. The “12,” in turn, made him think about a book called “Project W-47,” by James Rowe, who was in charge of the bomb-assembly teams at Wendover, where the crew of the Enola Gay had trained before shipping out to the Pacific.
“At one point, Rowe gave a description where he looked inside the target case from the back end of the bomb, and he said it was bored out to two-thirds the length of the target case,” Coster-Mullen recalled. “Well, the target case is thirty-six inches long, so two-thirds is twenty-four inches.” The “12” on the nose of the bomb, he guessed, might correspond to the remaining twelve inches, which is where the front end of the physics package began. It was a typical Coster-Mullen moment: he treats the world’s most destructive invention as an ordinary clocklike mechanism, made of simple parts that must fit together according to readily discernible laws.
He knew from other archival investigations that Little Boy’s projectile was sixteen inches long. He realized that, by adding thirty-six and sixteen, he ended up with fifty-two—a number that almost certainly corresponded to the placement of the front of the projectile that would be shot down the gun barrel at the uranium target situated twenty-six inches away. He had figured out the essential geometry of the bomb.
Coster-Mullen surmised that the numbers on the casing had been written by whoever had been given the job of disassembling the bomb and removing its interior mechanisms. During the process of gutting the bomb and shipping it back to the Smithsonian, no one had bothered to wipe the bomb clean.
We were making our way toward Wyoming, through an empty stretch of Nebraska farmland. A hummingbird perched on a wire fence outside my window. A yellow school bus with no wheels was marooned by the edge of the highway. In the middle of a field, some inventive local person had used aluminum tubing to fashion what looked like a dinosaur skeleton. We drove by a herd of cows. “A feed lot,” Coster-Mullen said, looking off to his left. A biotic stench soon vied against the pleasant fresh-leather scent that the car-rental place had sprayed on our seats.
As we drove, I paged through declassified memos from the machine shops at Los Alamos; these documents had provided Coster-Mullen with several crucial details about the bomb. I read aloud from a checklist used by Captain William Parsons, who loaded the gunpowder into the bomb. The various items—“Insert breech wrench,” “Unscrew breech plug (about 16 turns, remove, place on pad)”—were meaningless to me.
“Sixteen turns is important,” Coster-Mullen said. Learning the number of turns had helped him to gauge the length of the breech plug—which Captain Parsons removed in order to slip in the four silk bags filled with cordite that fired the gun that sent the uranium projectile smashing into its target. Coster-Mullen made his estimation by looking up the standard Acme thread sizes from 1945 in a machinists’ book at the Milwaukee Public Library, where he got his first library card.
The subdivision outside Milwaukee where Coster-Mullen grew up was constructed for returning veterans. Everyone got a narrow lot with a nice back yard and a smaller front yard. His parents’ house, built after the war, had a fireplace, a basement, three bedrooms, an upstairs bath. Coster-Mullen, who was adopted, told me that his parents’ surname was Mullen. When I asked him where “Coster” came from, he gave me a sheepish look, then explained that he had added his wife’s last name to his own. Hyphenated names are not exactly common among truck drivers, he said.
When Coster-Mullen was a child, he and his friends often spent Saturday afternoons at the Fox Bay theatre, a movie house with curved plaster walls, where popcorn was fifteen cents. Coster-Mullen loved the newsreels that came first, describing wars and new weapons and the conquest of space. He also enjoyed visiting his great-aunt’s house, in northern Wisconsin. There was a little town square with a gazebo and a Civil War cannon. Attached to the side of the cannon was a metal box, and inside it was a brush with sharp steel bristles, which park workers used to clean out the cannon. It thrilled Coster-Mullen to reach inside the dark box and feel the brush pricking his finger.
The Milwaukee Public Museum was a twenty-five-cent bus ride from Coster-Mullen’s home, and it was one of the best places in America for an inquisitive child to spend an afternoon. A generation of German artists had immigrated to the city and introduced the art of creating full-sized dioramas filled with cunningly imagined and finely worked details that took full advantage of the laws of perspective and the taxidermic craft. In a scene set in the Grand Canyon, a stuffed mountain lion was depicted in midair, ready to pounce on two mule deer. In a Pacific Northwest diorama, you could see a salmon drying on a rock, with giant trees and ice-capped mountains in the background. At the nearby Milwaukee County Historical Society, there was an intricate scale model that allowed viewers to gaze upon, in every direction, the chaos of the Battle of Gettysburg.
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In grade school, John Mullen woke up every morning at six o’clock to watch a fifteen-minute educational television program in which scientists like Ernest Lawrence, who invented the cyclotron, stood in front of a blackboard and lectured on the basic principles of physics. His favorite teacher in high school, Darwin Kaestner, had worked at the University of Chicago during the Second World War, in a metallurgical lab that was part of the Manhattan Project. The lab was run by Glenn Seaborg, who discovered plutonium. Kaestner said tantalizingly little about his experiences. Coster-Mullen and Kaestner made a bubble chamber out of glass, in which they detected the movement of subatomic particles. Working as Kaestner’s lab assistant, Coster-Mullen became an apprentice to a man who, two decades earlier, had helped to produce the initial quantities of plutonium that were used in the first atom bomb.
Coster-Mullen’s next big breakthrough on Little Boy came in 1995, when he obtained a curved fragment of the tungsten-carbide tamper from one of the dozens of test units built by the Manhattan Project. An engineer had saved the fragment from the Anchor Ranch test site, in Los Alamos. The purpose of the cylindrical tamper was to reflect neutrons back into the critical assembly, thus containing the chain reaction for a fraction of a second, until enough matter was converted into energy to destroy Hiroshima. The tamper fragment was half an inch wide, an inch long, and two inches deep. It bore a notable resemblance to the State of Illinois.
“It occurred to me that perhaps I could get some dimensional information by analyzing the fragment’s curvature,” Coster-Mullen recalled. He took the piece to a friend’s brother, who worked in the quality-control department of a large manufacturing facility in Milwaukee. “They have huge granite-block tables for making precise measurements of finished machine pieces,” he said. A spring-loaded probe touched the curved surface at twenty different points. Thirty seconds later, a number popped up on a screen indicating that the original diameter of the tungsten-carbide cylinder was 13.1513 inches. “That was a big clue,” Coster-Mullen explained. The diameter of the cylinder gave him a maximum distance of one inch between the cylinder and the outer casing. He was getting closer and closer to a full understanding of the inner workings of the atomic bomb.
We had driven more than nine hundred miles and been on the road for about sixteen hours. As we approached Scott’s Bluff, Nebraska, the clouds, set against a cornflower-blue sky, seemed to glow from inside with a pale, marvellous light. A tanker truck was on the road ahead of us, passing a field of wind turbines. Behind the turbines was a freight train loaded with containers.
“You see how they are stacked two high, one on top of the other?” Coster-Mullen asked, pointing at two containers. “They put one on top of the other in the same clamp holes that would hold it to a chassis.” The landscape rolled by his window, like an engineer’s blueprint.
The initial years of Coster-Mullen’s research were marked by dozens of small revelations about the bomb’s mechanics. But, starting in 1998, he began to uncover the most tantalizing of Little Boy’s secrets—a finding that completely revised the received understanding of how the Hiroshima bomb worked. Coster-Mullen’s discovery revolved around what might be called the “sex” of the bomb.
In the standard historical accounts, the way that the bomb’s gun mechanism worked was by shooting a cylindrical “male” uranium projectile into a concave, stationary uranium target. This act of atomic coitus created a mass sufficient to produce a critical reaction. The mass of the projectile was said to be 38.5 kilograms, and the mass of the target was said to be 25.6 kilograms. But no matter how many times Coster-Mullen did the math the numbers never quite worked out in a way that allowed the projectile and the target to fit inside the gun barrel while remaining subcritical.
The source of the error, Coster-Mullen recognized, was an assumption that every (male) researcher who studied the subject had made about the relation between projectile and target. These scholars had apparently been unable to conceive of an arrangement other than a “missionary position” bomb, in which a solid male projectile penetrated a vessel-like female target. But Coster-Mullen realized that a female-superior arrangement—in which a hollow projectile slammed down on top of a stationary cylinder of highly enriched uranium—yielded the correct size and mass.
The atomic-research community was initially dubious about Coster-Mullen’s argument. But even Richard Rhodes, after examining the evidence, admitted that Coster-Mullen was right. Little Boy was female. (Rhodes told me that the drawings in his own book are “seriously deficient,” and said of Coster-Muller, “He came out of left field and really did something that I think is pretty dazzling. He worked out a way to see through the ballistic casing of the weapons to see what’s inside.”)
Coster-Mullen said that his insight into the sex of the bomb was connected to a discussion that he had, in 1994, with an engineer named Harlow Russ, who had worked on Project Alberta—the code name for the bomb-delivery portion of the Manhattan Project. Russ was old and sounded shaky when Coster-Mullen interviewed him over the phone, and he refused to answer basic questions about the size of the project’s nuclear stockpile, or to say how many nuclear weapons he had manufactured. But there was one point that he needed to make sure was on the record. As Coster-Mullen recalls it, “In the middle of the interview, he just blurts out, ‘You know the projectile was hollow, didn’t you?’ I said, ‘What do you mean, hollow?’ “ Russ’s description of a hollow projectile was at odds with the diagrams in every history book and every museum display about the bomb. At the time, Coster-Mullen had suspected that Russ was senile. But he stored the incident in his memory, along with an injunction from a Los Alamos archivist to “trust Harlow.”
A year later, Coster-Mullen received in the mail copies of four file cards from the National Archives, which contained a detailed synopsis of an eighty-two-page paper that had once been in the archives but was withdrawn. The paper summarized on the cards may or may not have been, in turn, a summary of a longer and more detailed secret history of the Little Boy program. The file cards were also withdrawn, but not before they were copied by a civilian researcher who distributed copies to people he judged to have the capacity to do meaningful work on the history of the bomb (and who weren’t likely to report him to the government). The four-by-six-inch cards contained vital statistics about the Little Boy combat unit, including when each of the bomb’s major components was tested and the product numbers of those components. They gave the exact length of the bomb’s projectile: sixteen and a quarter inches. The cards also indicated that the uranium-tipped projectile contained nine stacked rings of active material, with a total mass of 38,531.12 grams; and that the uranium target contained six stacked disks of active material, with a total mass of 25,616.44 grams.
“It didn’t work out to my satisfaction, no matter how many times I tried,” Coster-Mullen told me. “By now, I’m driving trucks, and I was all alone on the interstate with very few cars, and I’ve got my pocket calculator in one hand and a little sketchbook on my lap, and I’m writing down numbers and calculating the numbers, and finally I determined that Harlow Russ was right.”
It was the end of the second day of our journey. We were now in Wyoming, driving in deep-purple darkness; high mountains were distantly visible, looking as if they had been spray-painted on velvet. “If you could see this in daylight, you would be even more impressed,” Coster-Mullen said. His bladder was about to burst, he confessed. Over the past three hours, he had consumed three twenty-ounce bottles of Diet Coke.
There is an absurdity as well as a grandeur to Coster-Mullen’s investigations. After all, a man like Harlow Russ, the bomb engineer, could have spared him thousands of hours of trouble simply by explaining how the device worked. But the men who built the bomb weren’t talkers. They were proud of keeping secrets, just as they were proud of what they had done to defeat Japan. When the war was won, the country turned in on itself, in order to safeguard the deadly knowledge that the gadget-builders had acquired. We remain fascinated by the story of the bomb, in part, because it shows us who we were at the exact moment that we became the people we are now.
I asked Coster-Mullen what he thought about the fact that so many eminent historians got the story of the bomb wrong. “I now read everything with a jaundiced eye,” he said. “People use my book as a source, they rewrite it, rehash it, and their work still comes out wrong. And, actually, I read their books and go, ‘This is really good!’ If I didn’t know anything about the subject, I’d be raving that this is a really terrific book. It’s easy to read, it’s exciting. Absolutely! Sure! But it’s wrong.”
“Could our co-op secede from the United States and govern itself?”
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The next morning, we were in Wendover, the base where Coster-Mullen’s replica of Little Boy was housed. We had arrived late the previous night, and checked into the Montego Bay Casino Resort. Coster-Mullen had woken up at five o’clock. “I don’t sleep much,” he told me. We got in the car and headed to Wendover Air Field, where the crew of the Enola Gay trained for six months. I shaded my eyes from the glare bouncing off the Utah salt flats. The sharp sunlight led me to notice a crack in the left lens of Coster-Mullen’s glasses. When light hit the crack, it appeared as a tiny bright star floating in front of his eyeball.
The Enola Gay crew arrived at Wendover on December 17, 1944, on the forty-first anniversary of the day that the Wright brothers proved that men could fly. The bombing and gunnery range at the base eventually came to encompass three and a half million acres of desert, salt flats, and mountains, making it the world’s largest military reserve. B-29 crews dropped hundreds of weighted bomb casings, in order to develop ballistics tables for the elephantine munitions that ended the war. By February, 1945, Wendover had more than six hundred buildings, and nearly twenty thousand residents.
Now the only sign of habitation in this atomic ghost town was a handwritten sign that said “Laundromat.” Here and there, inside the sun-bleached barracks with shattered windows, I detected the sound of fluttering wings. The eeriness of the place was heightened by the unnaturally flat, bright sunlight, which resembled the light used on television shows to illustrate near-death experiences.
Two F-16 fighter jets disrupted the quiet. Coster-Mullen, who was slathered in sunscreen, drove us to the secure areas of the old base, near where the Enola Gay practiced its maneuvers. We parked next to two coffin-like pits in the desert floor. The wind sounded like the hiss on old-fashioned tape recorders.
Coster-Mullen climbed down into one of the pits, which were each six feet deep, twenty feet long, and twelve feet wide; they had once been used as loading bays for the test units. In preparation for bombing Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the pilots of the 393rd Bombardment Squadron dropped a hundred and fifty-five Little Boy and Fat Man test units in the desert, honing the sharp turns that they would need to escape the blast. We returned to the car and drove to two barely discernible concrete patches on the desert floor, where the bombs had been assembled, inside huts whose floors had been covered in copper and attached to grounding wires, in order to eliminate any static that might accidentally set off a bomb. When the war was over, the huts were disassembled and sent to Sandia National Laboratories, in Albuquerque, where they became the world’s first nuclear-bomb-assembly factories. “There was also a circus tent that they used for a while,” Coster-Mullen added, scanning the floor for stray bits of copper to stick in his pockets.
We walked over to a nearby enclosure surrounded by barbed wire. In the middle of it was a four-by-eight-foot concrete block that looked like an ideal place to sacrifice a sheep. In fact, machinists and engineers had used the block as an operating table for Little Boy. I walked across the concrete to examine the altarpiece of the atomic age. A large crack ran through it.
Our last stop at Wendover Air Field was the departure lounge of the small airport that serves charter flights from Salt Lake City. Past the security-screening area was a coffeemaker; next to it, cream and sugar were laid out in old Army helmets. Coster-Mullen’s bomb was in a Lucite case across from the coffeemaker, next to a soda machine.
“This is a replica of the Uranium bomb that was dropped on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945,” a placard read. “It was dropped from an altitude of 30,000 feet and exploded 1,500 feet above the ground.” The actual height of the explosion, Coster-Mullen explained, was closer to nineteen hundred feet.
Up close, Little Boy is a comfortingly handmade submarine-shaped object, painted hunter green and covered with plugs and wires. Inscribed on the surface of Coster-Mullen’s replica are the names of the Enola Gay flight-crew members, who signed it, in 2004, at a ceremony in Wichita, Kansas. When Little Boy was deployed, Coster-Mullen said, wires on top of the device were attached to a solenoid unit on the roof of the bomb bay. When the bomb dropped out, the wires came loose from switches inside the clock-box—the brain that told the bomb to drop for forty-five seconds before detonating. On top of the bomb were three green “safing” plugs, arranged in an L shape; as the crew got ready to drop the bomb, they replaced the green plugs with red arming plugs. Beneath were six barometric switches made in Delavan, Wisconsin, which is on one of Coster-Mullen’s delivery routes.
I told Coster-Mullen that the bomb looked like something that he had put together in his garage. He agreed: “In today’s terminology, this would be a garage bomb.” I asked him if there wasn’t something obscene about an exhibit that commemorates the incineration of ninety thousand civilians, who were among the last victims of a war that was pretty much over. “Well, there was no indication that they were going to surrender,” Coster-Mullen said. He added that most of the fifty million people who died in the Second World War were civilians.
I asked Coster-Mullen why the government insists on classifying even the least significant details about this decades-old device. He shrugged. Actually, he said, nothing about the bomb is secret. He smiled and added, “The secret of the atomic bomb is how easy they are to make.”
Coster-Mullen began driving home to Wisconsin through the verdant plains and mountain passes of the American West. It was late afternoon, when color contrasts heighten and objects take on an unusually warm glow; photographers, he noted, call this time the golden hour. He pointed to a clump of trees on a nearby ridge: “Look at the stand of trees by itself, illuminated.”
Coster-Mullen seemed to know the history behind everything that could be seen from the highway. “You see those three crosses there, up on the bluff?” he said, pointing out the window. “There’s some millionaire who pays homeless people to put them up.” Still, there were things about Little Boy that continued to elude him. “Even the placement of where the uranium core is centered, front to back—that’s still up for grabs,” he told me. Nor has he accounted for the entire weight of the weapon; government documents have offered figures ranging from eighty-nine hundred to ninety-seven hundred pounds.
Tired and hungry, we drove for hundreds of miles and talked some more about the bomb. At one point, though, he changed the subject and told me about the person he admires the most: Gene Smith. “He was a photographer who used to work for Life,” he said. “I wouldn’t say he was exactly temperamental, but he had a specific vision.”
One of the pioneers of American photojournalism, Smith is probably most famous for his photo essay “Country Doctor,” which chronicled the practice of Dr. Ernest Ceriani, of Kremmling, Colorado. In the series printed in Life, Ceriani was pictured in a hospital emergency room stitching up a two-year-old girl who had been kicked in the head by a horse. “Gene Smith told what life was really like in America,” Coster-Mullen said, when I asked why he admires Smith so much. “You would just sit with a collection of his photographs and wonder how could you have reached that exact point in three-dimensional space to make that image of somewhere so ambiguous and beautiful.” Smith was famous for his fights with editors; everyone who ever worked with Gene Smith described him as a pain in the ass. But his photographs helped redefine the way that Americans see.
“One in particular, I remember, was a black-and-white photograph that he took in Japan,” Coster-Mullen said, as we drove through the darkness. “On the left side of the photo was the sweep of a passenger train with the engine off in the distance, and the cars running out of the frame. The remainder of the photograph was a rural scene with two Japanese farmers talking to each other in the middle of a very white roadway.”
What bothered and fascinated Coster-Mullen was the question of where, exactly, the photographer had been standing in order to capture two utterly separate moments in a single frame. Coster-Mullen said that he used to wonder: “Was he standing on a bridge, or up on a berm or an embankment? Was he photographing just the train, and then he happened to notice the two farmers? Or was he concentrating on the perfect composition of these two people communicating with each other, and the train just happened to go by at that exact moment?” He was in his early twenties at the time, and just starting his career as a photographer. The question of where Gene Smith stood nagged at him.
In the late sixties, Coster-Mullen got to spend a day with Smith, when he visited the University of Wisconsin. “I asked him respectfully about how he had created that particular photograph. He told me, ‘It was simple. I was on the train.’ ”
“It is the consensus of this committee that you return with your request in two weeks along with a comprehensive restructuring plan.”
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Coster-Mullen recently had a chance to put his research to the test. In May, he flew to London to examine the Imperial War Museum’s version of Little Boy—which he believed to be the only version of the bomb that had not been gutted by the Department of Energy. During a long correspondence with the museum staff, Coster-Mullen had portrayed himself as a kindly, unaffiliated researcher who wanted to take a few measurements for an independent history of the atom bomb. He was careful not to tell them that the Department of Energy had disembowelled the four Little Boys available for public display in the U.S.
Accompanied by his son, Jason, who works on secure-communications equipment for the Iraqi government, in Baghdad, Coster-Mullen and I turned up at 7:30
A.M
. at the museum, which once housed Bedlam, the old lunatic asylum. We waited outside, next to a section of the Berlin Wall, for the museum staff to arrive. (The museum opens to the public at ten.) In Coster-Mullen’s hand was a soft-sided briefcase that contained a folder with black-and-white photographs of bomb parts from his book, along with five photocopies of a cross-section diagram of the bomb (“in case I fuck one up”) and a device that Coster-Mullen called the Gizmo—a modified version of a SeeSnake digital camera, which resembles the flexible metal probe used by plumbers to clear blocked drains. Coster-Mullen had modified the business end of the SeeSnake with a tiny homemade ruler; he had also outfitted it with a foam mount that would let him shoot video with a Canon pocket camera. It was easy to see why his work is addictive. With each new bit of information, Coster-Mullen was edging closer to cracking the code—“like a safecracker listening to those little clicks,” as he put it.
Coster-Mullen kept up an easy patter with the museum curator as we walked past the old rockets, guns, and tanks on display. He casually extracted a pen that a museum staffer had stuffed into the open bolt hole in the nose of the bomb case, in order to block visitors from peeking inside. Then he began quoting facts and figures about the weapon, with the dual aim of authenticating his status as a bomb expert and convincing the museum director that he was a harmless bore. The curator, a stolid Northerner, gamely stayed with Coster-Mullen for an hour. I sidled up to Jason and asked him how he deals with his father’s fire-hose-like intensity. “I try to curb it, but that usually doesn’t work,” he said, with good humor. Coster-Mullen’s wife and children appear to have little interest in the mechanics of the first atom bombs; it is easy to come away with the impression that they see John’s profound engagement with his favorite subject as a waste of time, a pose that on later examination seems like a Midwestern way of showing pride in his accomplishments while guarding against the possibility of a swelled head.
Coster-Mullen ran his tape measure in and out of the bolt hole and across the bomb’s surface, for comparison with the mysterious numbers on the gutted bomb that had been returned to the Smithsonian. “What the hell are these slots? That’s a new wrinkle!” Coster-Mullen said, peering through the SeeSnake into the bomb’s innards. “Hey, Jason, put a piece of white tape right at that point,” he instructed his son. The museum director politely stifled a yawn, then left.
Coster-Mullen relaxed, and started rubbing his hands together and mumbling with fervor. “Aha, look at that, here are the vents,” he said, pointing to four of them. “Now watch me rotate it,” he went on, moving the SeeSnake around, and letting me peer inside the bomb. “So that’s how they did that!” he said more than once. The bomb gives up its secrets reluctantly. What Coster-Mullen had found was not the holy grail of an intact target block that he had been hoping for. But it was a significant discovery nonetheless: the gun barrel had been configured to vent the air displaced by the hollow uranium projectile when it was fired toward its target. “I suspected there were vents, but I didn’t know how they were configured,” he said. “This is totally off the wall! This will shake them.”
The Imperial War Museum’s bomb was now covered in numbered tape, and surrounded by black-and-white photographs, sectional diagrams, and homemade tools. With visitors already trickling in, Coster-Mullen took out a clean cross-section diagram and began to inscribe his new discoveries. “Nobody knows about the position of the vents,” he told me. The four vents beyond the gun tube were “the last big thing I’ve been dying to see. I can’t tell you how many times I’ve disassembled the bomb in my dreams.”
Human beings are proud of what they create—no matter how controversial or deadly. Edward Teller revealed the essential secrets of the hydrogen bomb in a popular encyclopedia article. In 1995, Robert Henderson, the chief engineer for the Manhattan Project, sent back to Coster-Mullen an early version of the “Atom Bombs” manuscript, with comments such as “shit” and “pure shit,” and then went on to explain the exact (and still classified) process by which engineers made the lens molds that cast the explosives that squeezed the core of Fat Man until it achieved critical mass. Reading through President Truman’s diaries, at the Truman Library, in Independence, Missouri, Coster-Mullen found an entry dated July 25, 1945, in which the President marvelled that “13 pounds of the explosive” had made the shot tower at Alamogordo, New Mexico, disappear—a pretty accurate estimate of the amount of nuclear material contained in Fat Man.
Coster-Mullen’s research project can be construed as a danger to mankind or as a useless antiquarian endeavor. Given that a functional atomic weapon can be constructed in myriad ways, why does it matter precisely how the first bomb worked? Yet Coster-Mullen is proud to have helped establish “a public, permanent record of the facts” about the Manhattan Project. As maddening as his personality can be, it is hard to imagine what America would look like without the small and shrinking number of people who engage in painstaking, firsthand research in order to separate the truth from the body of supposed facts, and who keep the rest of us honest. A corollary of this insight, of course, is that much of what we think we know is wrong.
Coster-Mullen is still trying to figure out more about the bomb, and the U.S. government has little interest in helping him. The knowledge that his bomb will always be a partial and imaginative construction—that it can only asymptotically approach the actual bomb dropped on Hiroshima—is, at times, difficult for him to accept. “Nobody is ever going to take me over to Los Alamos and say, ‘O.K., you can play with it,’ “ he said, wistfully. “I want to know. But it will never happen.” ♦
* Correction, January 23, 2009: Harold Agnew is the former director of the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, not the Los Alamos National Laboratory, as previously stated. He was aboard an observation plane behind the Enola Gay, not on board the Enola Gay.
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Which five letter astronomical word is derived from the Greek for 'long tailed'? | English-Armenian translation :: Robert :: Dictionary
The definition of word "Robert":
1. male first name
2. born July 3, 1728, Kirkcaldy, Fife, Scot. died March 3, 1792, London, Eng. Scottish architect and designer. Son of the architect William Adam, he apprenticed in his father's offices. He traveled in Europe in 1754–58, studying architectural theory and Roman ruins. On his return to London, he and his brother James (1732–94) developed an essentially decorative style; known as the Adam style; that was marked by a new lightness and freedom in the use of the Classical elements of architecture. This style is most remembered for its application in interiors, which were characterized by contrasting room shapes and delicate Classical ornaments. Robert Adam's executed works, mainly remodeled interiors and exteriors of private houses, include Osterley Park (1761–80) in Middlesex and Kedleston Hall (ƹ 1765–70) in Derbyshire. Other works include the Adelphi development in London (1768–72) and the University of Edinburgh (1789). He was also a leading furniture designer; his style, popularized by designer George Hepplewhite, was meant to harmonize with his interior architecture down to the last detail.
3. born August 9, 1918, Cranston, R.I., United States died Dec. 5, 1983, Los Angeles, Calif. United States film director and producer. He held various jobs at RKO from 1941, working under such directors as Jean Renoir and Charlie Chaplin. After directing his first feature film, The Big Leaguer (1953), he formed his own production company and earned a reputation for socially conscious yet often violent films, including Apache (1954), Kiss Me Deadly (1955), What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962) and The Dirty Dozen (1967).
4. born February 20, 1925, Kansas City, Mo., United States U.S. film director. He learned filmmaking by directing industrial films, then directed several television series before making his first feature film, Countdown (1967). The successful antiwar comedy M*A*S*H (1970) established his reputation as an independent director whose work emphasizes character and atmosphere over plot. His most acclaimed films include McCabe and Mrs. Miller (1971), Nashville (1976), The Player (1992) and Short Cuts (1993).
5. born July 10, 1943, Richmond, Va., United States died February 6, 1993, New York, New York United States tennis player. He won his first grand-slam singles title (the 1968 United States Open) as an amateur. The first African American member of the United States Davis Cup team, he helped win five championships (1963, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1978). In 1975 he won the Wimbledon singles title and received World Championship Tennis top ranking. He retired in 1980 and became captain of the United States Davis Cup team (to 1985). Off the court he was a critic of racial injustice, including South Africa's apartheid policy. In 1992 he revealed that he had been infected with HIV by a transfusion following surgery and he thereafter devoted time to increasing public awareness of AIDS. The United States Open is now played at Arthur Ashe Stadium, which opened at the National Tennis Center in Flushing, New York, in 1997.
6. born 1725, Dishley, Leicestershire, Eng. died October 1, 1795, Dishley; English agriculturist. He revolutionized English sheep and cattle breeding by methodical selection, inbreeding and culling. He was one of the first to breed sheep and cattle for meat and the first to establish on a large scale the practice of letting animals for stud. His farm became famous as a model of scientific management.
7. born May 12, 1804, York, Upper Canada; died Dec. 9, 1858, Toronto; Canadian politician. Called to the bar in 1825, Baldwin began his political career as a member of the Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada for York (1829–30). In 1842–43 he and Louis Hippolyte LaFontaine formed the first Liberal Party administration; when the Liberals returned to power in 1848, they were able to establish responsible, or cabinet, government. He resigned in 1851.
8. born 1942, Wichita, Kan., United States U.S. oceanographer and marine geologist. He grew up near San Diego, Calif. As a marine scientist at the Woods Hole (Mass.) Oceanographic Research Institution, he pioneered the use of deep-diving submersibles, participated in the first manned exploration of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and discovered warm water springs and their unusual animal communities in the Galápagos Rift. He is best known for his dramatic discovery of the wreck of the Titanic in 1985. Since then he has gone on to discover ships lost in battle during World War II.
9. born September 15, 1889, Worcester, Mass., United States died November 21, 1945, New York, New York, United States U.S. drama critic, actor and humorist. Benchley graduated from Harvard University and joined the staff of Life magazine in 1920. A regular member of the Algonquin Round Table, he was drama critic for The New Yorker 1929–40, for which he also wrote "The Wayward Press" column under the pseudonym Guy Fawkes. He had bit parts in many feature films, but he is best known for more than 40 short subjects, including How to Sleep (1934, Academy Award). His writing was warmly humorous, his satire sharp but not cruel.
10. born September 15, 1889, Worcester, Mass., United States died November 21, 1945, New York, New York, United States U.S. drama critic, actor and humorist. Benchley graduated from Harvard University and joined the staff of Life magazine in 1920. A regular member of the Algonquin Round Table, he was drama critic for The New Yorker 1929–40, for which he also wrote "The Wayward Press" column under the pseudonym Guy Fawkes. He had bit parts in many feature films, but he is best known for more than 40 short subjects, including How to Sleep (1934, Academy Award). His writing was warmly humorous, his satire sharp but not cruel.
11. born Dec. 23, 1926, Madison, Minn., United States U.S. poet and translator. Bly attended Harvard University and the University of Iowa. In 1958 he founded the magazine The Fifties (later The Sixties), which published the works of young poets. He helped found American Writers Against the Vietnam War and he donated his 1968 National Book Award prize money (received for The Light Around the Body) to a draft resisters' organization. His best-selling Iron John (1990) probed the male psyche and Bly became the best-known leader of the "men's movement." In 2001 he published The Night Abraham Called to the Stars, poems utilizing the Arabic ghazal form. He is also known for his translations of a wide range of poetry.
12. born Dec. 23, 1926, Madison, Minn., United States U.S. poet and translator. Bly attended Harvard University and the University of Iowa. In 1958 he founded the magazine The Fifties (later The Sixties), which published the works of young poets. He helped found American Writers Against the Vietnam War and he donated his 1968 National Book Award prize money (received for The Light Around the Body) to a draft resisters' organization. His best-selling Iron John (1990) probed the male psyche and Bly became the best-known leader of the "men's movement." In 2001 he published The Night Abraham Called to the Stars, poems utilizing the Arabic ghazal form. He is also known for his translations of a wide range of poetry.
13. in full Robert Brackett Elliott and Raymond Walter Goulding; born March 26, 1923, Boston, Mass., U.S.(born March 20, 1922, Lowell, Mass.; died March 24, 1990, Manhasset, New York) United States comedy team. They met while working at a Boston radio station and soon established their comic style in a program of parodies and satire (1946–51). The Bob and Ray Show was nationally syndicated (1951–53) and their comedy sketches were popular in the 1950s and '60s on several networks. They also performed in the theatre and starred in the Broadway show The Two and Only (1970).
14. born June 26, 1854, Grand Pré, Nova Scotia; died June 10, 1937, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Prime minister of Canada (1911–20). He practiced law in Halifax, Nova Scotia, from 1874 and later founded one of the largest law firms in the Maritime Provinces. In 1896 he was elected to the Canadian House of Commons; he became leader of the Conservative Party in 1901. As prime minister, he implemented conscription in World War I and represented Canada in Britain's imperial war cabinet. He insisted on separate Canadian membership in the League of Nations, which helped transform Canada from a colony to an independent country.
15. born June 26, 1854, Grand Pré, Nova Scotia; died June 10, 1937, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Prime minister of Canada (1911–20). He practiced law in Halifax, Nova Scotia, from 1874 and later founded one of the largest law firms in the Maritime Provinces. In 1896 he was elected to the Canadian House of Commons; he became leader of the Conservative Party in 1901. As prime minister, he implemented conscription in World War I and represented Canada in Britain's imperial war cabinet. He insisted on separate Canadian membership in the League of Nations, which helped transform Canada from a colony to an independent country.
16. orig. David Robert Jones; born January 8, 1947, London, Eng. British rock singer. In the mid-1960s Bowie sang in a number of bands in his native London. He changed his name in 1966 to avoid confusion with the lead singer of the Monkees. His first hit recording, "Space Oddity" (1969) and albums such as The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders From Mars (1972) ushered in the glam rock trend, marked by theatricality and androgyny. His style varied widely, from the disco romanticism of Young Americans (1975) to the avant-garde austerities of Low (1977) to the mainstream pop of Let's Dance (1983). Bowie also acted in stage plays and in films such as The Man Who Fell to Earth (1976). He continued to record and perform into the 21st century.
17. born January 25, 1627, Lismore Castle, County Waterford, Ire. died Dec. 31, 1691, London, Eng. Irish-born English chemist and natural philosopher. The son of Richard Boyle, the "Great Earl of Cork" (1566–1643), he settled at Oxford in 1654 and, with his assistant Robert Hooke, began his pioneering experiments on the properties of gases, including those expressed in Boyle's law. He demonstrated the physical characteristics of air, showing that it is necessary in combustion, respiration and sound transmission. In The Sceptical Chymist (1661) he attacked Aristotle's theory of the four elements (earth, air, fire and water), espousing a corpuscular view of matter that presaged the modern theory of chemical elements. A founding member of the Royal Society of London, he achieved great renown in his lifetime. His brother Roger Boyle, earl of Orrery (1621–79), was a general under Oliver Cromwell but eventually helped secure Ireland for Charles II.
18. born September 25, 1901, Bromont-Lamonthe, Puy-de Dôme, France; died Dec. 18, 1999; French film director. He worked as a painter and photographer before making his first film in 1934. His feature-length Les Anges du péché (1943) established his austere, intellectual style. Noted for intense psychological probing and the subordination of plot to visual imagery, he also directed The Diary of a Country Priest (1950), A Man Escaped (1956), Pickpocket (1959), Balthazar (1966), Lancelot of the Lake (1974) and L'Argent (1983).
19. born October 23, 1844, Walmer, Kent, Eng. died April 21, 1930, Boar's Hill, Oxford; English poet. He published several long poems and poetic dramas, but his reputation rests on the lyrics collected in Shorter Poems (1890, 1894), which reveal his mastery of prosody. His 1916 edition of the poetry of his friend Gerard Manley Hopkins rescued it from obscurity. He was poet laureate of England from 1913 until his death.
20. born October 23, 1844, Walmer, Kent, Eng. died April 21, 1930, Boar's Hill, Oxford; English poet. He published several long poems and poetic dramas, but his reputation rests on the lyrics collected in Shorter Poems (1890, 1894), which reveal his mastery of prosody. His 1916 edition of the poetry of his friend Gerard Manley Hopkins rescued it from obscurity. He was poet laureate of England from 1913 until his death.
21. born Dec. 21, 1773, Montrose, Angus, Scot. died June 10, 1858, London, Eng. Scottish botanist. The son of a clergyman, he studied medicine in Aberdeen and Edinburgh before entering the British army as an ensign and assistant surgeon (1795). He obtained the post of naturalist aboard a ship bound to survey the coasts of Australia (1801) and on the journey he gathered some 3,900 plant species. He published some of the results of his trip in 1810 in his classic Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae..., laying the foundations of Australian botany and refining prevailing plant classification systems. In 1827 he transferred Joseph Banks's botanical collection to the British Museum and became keeper of the museum's newly formed botanical department. The following year he published his observation of the phenomenon that came to be called Brownian motion. In 1831 he noted the existence in plant cells of what he called the nucleus. He was the first to recognize the distinction between gymnosperms and angiosperms (flowering plants).
22. born May 7, 1812, London, Eng. died Dec. 12, 1889, Venice, Italy; British poet. His early works include verse dramas, notably Pippa Passes (1841) and long poems, including Sordello (1840). In the years of his marriage (1846–61) to Elizabeth Barrett Browning, spent in Italy, he produced little other than Men and Women (1855), which contains dramatic lyrics such as "Love Among the Ruins" and the great monologues "Fra Lippo Lippi" and "Bishop Blougram's Apology." Dramatis Personae (1864), including "Rabbi Ben Ezra" and "Caliban upon Setebos," finally won him popular recognition. The Ring and the Book (1868–69), a book-length poem, is based on a 1698 murder trial in Rome. Browning influenced many modern poets through his development of the dramatic monologue (with its emphasis on individual psychology) and through his success in writing about the variety of modern life in language his contemporaries found often difficult as well as original.
23. born March 31, 1811, Göttingen, Westphalia; died August 16, 1899, Heidelberg, Baden; German chemist. With Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, he observed (ƹ 1859) that each element emits light of a characteristic wavelength, opening the field of spectrochemical analysis. They discovered several new elements (including helium, cesium and rubidium) by spectroscopy. His only book discussed methods of measuring volumes of gases. He invented the carbon-zinc battery, grease-spot photometer, filter pump, ice calorimeter and vapour calorimeter. Though often credited with inventing the Bunsen burner, he seems to have made only a minor contribution to its development.
24. born March 31, 1811, Göttingen, Westphalia; died August 16, 1899, Heidelberg, Baden; German chemist. With Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, he observed (ƹ 1859) that each element emits light of a characteristic wavelength, opening the field of spectrochemical analysis. They discovered several new elements (including helium, cesium and rubidium) by spectroscopy. His only book discussed methods of measuring volumes of gases. He invented the carbon-zinc battery, grease-spot photometer, filter pump, ice calorimeter and vapour calorimeter. Though often credited with inventing the Bunsen burner, he seems to have made only a minor contribution to its development.
25. born January 25, 1759, Alloway, Ayrshire, Scot. died July 21, 1796, Dumfries, Dumfriesshire; National poet of Scotland. The son of a poor farmer, he early became familiar with orally transmitted folk song and tales. His father's farm failed and a farm he started himself quickly went bankrupt. Handsome and high-spirited, he engaged in a series of love affairs, some of which produced children and celebrated his lovers in his poems. His Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect (1786) brought acclaim but no financial security and he eventually took a job as an exciseman. He later began collecting and editing hundreds of traditional airs for James Johnson's Scots Musical Museum (1787–1803) and George Thomson's Select Collection of Original Scotish Airs (1793–1818); he substantially wrote many of these songs, though he did not claim them or receive payment for them. Among his best-known songs are "Auld Lang Syne," "Green Grow the Rashes, O," "John Anderson My Jo," "A Red, Red Rose," and "Ye Banks and Braes o' Bonnie Doon." He freely proclaimed his radical opinions, his sympathies with the common people and his rebellion against orthodox religion and morality.
26. 1577–1640 British scholar and writer. He spent most of his life as a vicar at Oxford. His great Anatomy of Melancholy (1621) describes the kinds, causes, symptoms and cures of melancholy in a lively, elegant and sometimes humorous style; a mine of classical erudition and curious information, it is an index to the philosophical and psychological ideas of its time. His Latin comedy Philosophaster (1606) is a vivacious exposure of charlatanism.
27. born 1378, Tournai, Fr. died April 26, 1444, Tournai; Flemish painter. He is identified with the Master of Flémalle on stylistic grounds. Documents show that Campin was a master painter in Tournai in 1406; two students are listed as entering his studio in 1427: Rogier van der Weyden and Jacques Daret. Campin's principal surviving works are two large panels of an altarpiece once believed to have come from a nonexistent Abbey of Flémalle. The famous Mérode Altarpiece, a triptych of the Annunciation formerly regarded as his masterpiece, is now thought to be by a member of his workshop or circle. Characterized by a naturalistic conception of form and a poetic representation of the objects of daily life, Campin's work marks the break with the prevailing International Gothic style and prefigures the achievements of the painters of the Northern Renaissance. Despite much uncertainty about his life and work, he was one of the most important and influential Flemish artists of the 15th century.
28. orig. Andrei Friedmann; born 1913, Budapest, Hung. died May 25, 1954, Thai Binh, Viet. Hungarian-born United States photojournalist. In Paris he presented his photographs as the work of a fictitious rich American, Robert Capa; the deception was soon discovered but he kept the name. He first achieved fame as a war correspondent in the Spanish Civil War (1936). In World War II he covered the fighting in Africa, Sicily and Italy for Life magazine; images of the Normandy invasion are among his most memorable works. In 1947 he founded Magnum Photos with Henri Cartier-Bresson and David Seymour. He was killed by a land mine while photographing the French Indochina war for Life.
29. orig. Robert Leroy Parker; born April 13, 1866, Beaver, Utah, United States died 1909?, Concordia Tin Mines, near San Vicente, Bol.?; United States outlaw. Taking his name from an older outlaw mentor, Cassidy was a cattle rustler and a robber from the mid-1880s. In 1900 he became the criminal partner of Harry Longabaugh, the "Sundance Kid" (1870–1909?), whose nickname derived from a town where he had once been imprisoned. They became the foremost members of the Wild Bunch, a group of bank and train robbers. The two eluded Pinkerton detectives by escaping to South America in 1901. They bought a ranch in Argentina but returned to a life of outlawry in 1906. In 1909, trapped by soldiers in Bolivia, Sundance was mortally wounded and Cassidy shot himself. The time, place and circumstances of their deaths vary widely in different accounts.
30. born June 18, 1769, Dublin, Ire. died August 12, 1822, London, Eng. British politician. He was elected to the Irish Parliament in 1790 and later served in the British Parliament (1794–1805, 1806–22). As chief secretary for Ireland (1798–1801), Castlereagh singlehandedly forced the Act of Union through the Irish Parliament in 1800. He served as Britain's secretary for war (1805–06, 1807–09) and as secretary for foreign affairs and leader of the House of Commons (1812–22). Considered one of the most distinguished foreign secretaries in British history, he played a leading role in bringing together the Grand Alliance that overthrew Napoleon and in deciding the form of the peace settlements at the Congress of Vienna. Beset with paranoia and believing that he was being blackmailed, he eventually committed suicide.
31. born Dec. 8, 1947, Chicago, Ill., United States U.S. biochemist, molecular biologist and Nobel laureate. He received his Ph.D. from UC-Berkeley in 1975. In 1982 he became the first to show that an RNA molecule could catalyze a chemical reaction. He and Sidney Altman were awarded a 1989 Nobel Prize for their independent discoveries that RNA, previously thought to be only a messenger of genetic information, can also catalyze cellular chemical reactions essential to life.
32. born September 14, 1864, London, Eng. died November 24, 1958, Tunbridge Wells, Kent; British statesman. The son of the marquess of Salisbury, he served during World War I as minister of blockade and as assistant secretary of state for foreign affairs. He was one of the principal draftsmen of the League of Nations covenant in 1919 and, as president of the League of Nations Union (1923–45), one of the League's most loyal workers until it was superseded by the United Nations. In 1937 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
33. born June 1, 1563, London, Eng. died May 24, 1612, Marlborough, Wiltshire; English statesman. Trained in statesmanship by his father, William Cecil, Robert entered the House of Commons in 1584. He became acting secretary of state in 1590 and was formally appointed to the post by Elizabeth I in 1596. He succeeded his father as chief minister in 1598 and guided the peaceful succession of Elizabeth by James I, for whom he continued as chief minister from 1603 and lord treasurer from 1608. He negotiated the end of the war with Spain in 1604 and allied England with France.
34. born September 29, 1725, Styche, Shropshire, Eng. died November 22, 1774, London; British soldier and colonial administrator. In 1743 he was sent to Madras (Chennai) for the East India Company, where hostilities between it and the French East India Company allowed him to demonstrate his military skills. He made a fortune and returned to England in 1753 but was sent back to India in 1755. In 1757 his victory over the nawab of Bengal at the Battle of Plassey made him the virtual master of Bengal. His first government, though tainted by corruption and duplicity, was a model of generalship and statecraft. Back in England, he was elected to Parliament (1760) but failed to become a national statesman. He returned to India as governor and commander in chief of Bengal (1765–67). His reorganizing of the colony, including his fight against corruption, helped establish Britain's power in India. He himself was attacked by Parliament on charges of corruption; though exonerated, he later committed suicide.
35. born September 29, 1725, Styche, Shropshire, Eng. died November 22, 1774, London; British soldier and colonial administrator. In 1743 he was sent to Madras (Chennai) for the East India Company, where hostilities between it and the French East India Company allowed him to demonstrate his military skills. He made a fortune and returned to England in 1753 but was sent back to India in 1755. In 1757 his victory over the nawab of Bengal at the Battle of Plassey made him the virtual master of Bengal. His first government, though tainted by corruption and duplicity, was a model of generalship and statecraft. Back in England, he was elected to Parliament (1760) but failed to become a national statesman. He returned to India as governor and commander in chief of Bengal (1765–67). His reorganizing of the colony, including his fight against corruption, helped establish Britain's power in India. He himself was attacked by Parliament on charges of corruption; though exonerated, he later committed suicide.
36. born January 22, 1571, Denton, Lancashire, Eng. died May 6, 1631, London?; English antiquarian. From ƹ 1585 Cotton collected ancient records, manuscripts, books and coins and welcomed scholars to his library. He entered Parliament in 1601 and was favoured at court until ƹ 1615. His acquisition of so many public documents aroused misgivings and after he wrote several works criticizing policies of Charles I, his library was sealed in 1629. After his death his son regained possession of the library and his great-grandson presented it to the nation in 1700. The Cottonian Library's historical documents formed the basis of the manuscript collection of the British Library.
37. in full Robert Joseph Cousy; born August 9, 1928, New York, New York, United States U.S. basketball player and coach. He played collegiate ball at Holy Cross College and joined the Boston Celtics in 1950. One of the game's great ball-handling guards and playmakers, he led the NBA in assists from 1953 to 1960. He left the Celtics to coach at Boston College (1963–69), but he eventually returned to the professional game as coach of the Cincinnati Royals (1969–73).
38. born August 20, 1943, Philadelphia, Pa., United States U.S. cartoonist. He had no formal art training but was obsessed with drawing as a child. In 1960 he moved to Cleveland, Ohio, to work for a greeting-card company. In 1967 he moved to San Francisco and became a prominent member of the hippie counterculture and a founder of the genre of underground "comix," satirical magazines that poked fun at United States culture. His often obscene strips with their various obsessive themes, starring such characters as Fritz the Cat, the Furry Freak Brothers and Mr. Natural, had great influence and are still regarded as classics of the genre.
39. born February 12, 1809, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, Eng. died April 19, 1882, Downe, Kent; British naturalist. The grandson of Erasmus Darwin and Josiah Wedgwood, he studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh and biology at Cambridge. He was recommended as a naturalist on HMS Beagle, which was bound on a long scientific survey expedition to South America and the South Seas (1831–36). His zoological and geological discoveries on the voyage resulted in numerous important publications and formed the basis of his theories of evolution. Seeing competition between individuals of a single species, he recognized that within a local population the individual bird, for example, with the sharper beak might have a better chance to survive and reproduce and that if such traits were passed on to new generations, they would be predominant in future populations. He saw this natural selection as the mechanism by which advantageous variations were passed on to later generations and less advantageous traits gradually disappeared. He worked on his theory for more than 20 years before publishing it in his famous On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859). The book was immediately in great demand and Darwin's intensely controversial theory was accepted quickly in most scientific circles; most opposition came from religious leaders. Though Darwin's ideas were modified by later developments in genetics and molecular biology, his work remains central to modern evolutionary theory. His many other important works included Variation in Animals and Plants Under Domestication (1868) and The Descent of Man... (1871). He was buried in Westminster Abbey.
40. born August 17, 1943, New York, New York, United States U.S. film actor. He made his debut in 1968 and played in minor films until his critically acclaimed performance in Bang the Drum Slowly (1973). He starred in Mean Streets (1973) and other films directed by Martin Scorsese, including Taxi Driver (1976), Raging Bull (1980, Academy Award) and GoodFellas (1990). Noted for his intensely committed performances, he also starred in The Godfather, Part II (1974, Academy Award), The Deer Hunter (1978), Once upon a Time in America (1984), Heat (1997) and Meet the Parents (2000). He directed his first film, A Bronx Tale, in 1993.
41. born April 12, 1885, Paris, Fr. died October 25, 1941, Montpellier; French painter. He spent his early career as a part-time designer of stage scenery and came under the influence of Neo-Impressionism, Fauvism and Cubism. In 1909–11 his colour experiments culminated in a series of paintings of the Eiffel Tower, which combined fragmented Cubist forms with dynamic movement and vibrant colour. The introduction of bright colour to Cubism; a style that came to be known as Orphism; distinguished his work from that of the more orthodox Cubist painters and influenced the artists of Der Blaue Reiter. With his wife, the Ukrainian-born painter and textile designer Sonia Terk Delaunay (1885–1979), he painted abstract mural decorations for the 1937 Paris Exposition.
42. born 1693, Germiston, near Glasgow, Scot. died July 27, 1770, Clifton, Bristol, Eng. British colonial administrator. He entered government service in 1727 and was appointed surveyor general for the southern part of America (1739–51). As lieutenant governor of Virginia, he sent George Washington in 1753 to prevent the French from controlling the western frontier, an action that helped precipitate the French and Indian War. He tried to obtain intercolonial cooperation for the war effort, an issue taken up at the Albany Congress. In 1758 he returned to England.
43. in full Robert Joseph Dole; born July 22, 1923, Russell, Kan., United States U.S. politician. Seriously wounded while fighting in World War II, he recovered from near-total paralysis but permanently lost the use of his right arm and hand. He returned to Kansas, earned a law degree and held state elective office as a Republican before serving in the United States House of Representatives (1961–69) and the Senate (1969–96). He was the running mate of Pres. Gerald R. Ford in 1976. In 1984 Dole became Republican Party leader in the Senate and he twice served as majority leader (1984–86, 1994–96). After clinching his party's nomination for president in 1996, he retired from the Senate to devote himself wholly to the campaign. He was defeated in the election by Democrat Bill Clinton. His wife, Elizabeth Hanford Dole; born 1936;, ran unsuccessfully for the Republican nomination in 2000 but was elected to the United States Senate from North Carolina in 2002.
44. born September 6, 1895, Giessen, Ger. died June 27, 1980, Baden-Württemberg; German-born United States engineer. From 1932, with Wernher von Braun, he began to perfect the rocket engine. During World War II he directed construction of the V-2 rocket, the forerunner of all postwar spacecraft. In the United States after the war, he worked as an adviser on guided missiles for the United States Air Force. In the 1950s he participated in the Air Force–NASA project Dyna-Soar, which eventually became the space shuttle program.
45. orig. Robert Allen Zimmerman; born May 24, 1941, Duluth, Minn., United States U.S. singer and songwriter. He grew up in the iron-range town of Hibbing, Minn., adopted the name of the poet Dylan Thomas and traveled to New York in search of idol Woody Guthrie. In the early 1960s he performed professionally in Greenwich Village coffeehouses and released albums that made him the darling of critics and folk music devotees. "Blowin' in the Wind" and "The Times They Are a-Changin'" became anthems of the civil rights movement. In 1965 he adopted electrically amplified instruments and the rhythms of rock and roll in a major departure. The landmark albums Highway 61 Revisited (1965) and Blonde on Blonde (1966) established him as a leading figure in rock music and his lyrics, influenced partly by the Beat movement, brought poetic complexity to pop music. After a motorcycle accident in 1966, he underwent another musical turnabout and released several albums (notably Nashville Skyline, 1969) characterized by country music elements and a muted, reflective tone. Among the most praised of his many later albums are Blood on the Tracks (1975), Time Out of Mind (1997) and Love and Theft (2001). He is perhaps the most admired and influential American songwriter of his time.
46. born June 12, 1897, Windlestone, Durham, Eng. died January 14, 1977, Alvediston, Wiltshire; British politician. After combat service in World War I, he was elected to the House of Commons in 1923. He became foreign secretary in 1935 but resigned in 1938 to protest Neville Chamberlain's policy of appeasement. He held the post again in 1940–45 and in 1951–55 and he helped to settle the Anglo-Iranian oil dispute and arranged an armistice in Indochina. Succeeding Winston Churchill as prime minister in 1955, he attempted to ease international tension by welcoming to Britain Nikita Khrushchev and Nikolay A. Bulganin of the Soviet Union. His fall began when Egypt seized the Suez Canal and he supported an Anglo-French intervention in Egypt. He resigned in 1957, citing ill health.
47. born November 10, 1567, Netherwood, Herefordshire, Eng. died February 25, 1601, London; English soldier and courtier. He was the son of the 1st earl of Essex. As a young man, he became the aging Elizabeth I's favorite, though their relationship was stormy. In 1591–92 he commanded the English force in France that helped Henry IV fight the French Roman Catholics and in 1596 he commanded forces in the sack of Cádiz. In 1599 Elizabeth sent him to Ireland as lord lieutenant, where he fought an unsuccessful campaign against Irish rebels and concluded an unfavorable truce, leading Elizabeth to deprive him of his offices in 1600. In 1601 he made an unsuccessful attempt to raise the populace of London in revolt against Elizabeth; he was captured, tried by his former mentor Francis Bacon and beheaded.; Robert Devereux, 2nd earl of Essex, detail of a painting after Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger, late... Courtesy of The National Portrait Gallery, London
48. born 1591, London, Eng. died September 14, 1646, London; English military commander. Son of the 2nd earl of Essex, he began his military career in 1620 and commanded forces for Charles I until the Long Parliament deposed Charles's ministers (1640). As the English Civil Wars began, he was appointed to command the Parliamentary army. He fought against the Royalists at the indecisive Battle of Edgehill (1642) and advanced on London in 1643. His army was besieged at Lostwithiel, Cornwall, in 1644 and all surrendered except Essex, who escaped by sea. He resigned his command in 1645.
49. orig. Robert William Andrew Feller; born November 3, 1918, Van Meter, Iowa, U.S; United States baseball pitcher. Feller played for the Cleveland Indians from 1936 to 1956, frequently leading the American League in strikeouts and games won, earning the nickname "Rapid Robert" for his fastball. He was the first 20th-century pitcher to pitch three no-hit games (1940, 1946, 1951) and his record of 348 season strikeouts (1946) stood for 19 years. He ended his career with the outstanding win-loss record of 266–162.
50. orig. Robert James Fischer; born March 9, 1943, Chicago, Ill., United States U.S. chess master. He became a grandmaster at age 15, then a record. In 1972 Fischer defeated Boris Spassky to become the only American to win the world chess championship. An intense and eccentric personality, he was a devout Christian fundamentalist who frequently condemned the Soviet Union for godlessness; he was deprived of his title in 1975 after refusing to meet his Soviet challenger, Anatoly Karpov. He remained out of the game thereafter except for a victorious private rematch with Spassky in Yugoslavia in 1992; the game violated United States sanctions against Yugoslavia and Fischer has remained abroad ever since.; Bobby Fischer, 1971. AP/Wide World Photos
51. born February 16, 1884, Iron Mountain, Mich., United States died July 23, 1951, Dummerston, Vt. United States filmmaker, considered the father of the documentary. He grew up in remote northern Canada and later led explorations of the area (1910–16). He lived with the Eskimos for 16 months and filmed their way of life. His resulting film, Nanook of the North (1922), was an international success and established the model for the documentary film. His later documentaries include Moana (1926), Tabu (1931), Man of Aran (1934), The Land (1942) and Louisiana Story (1948).
52. born February 16, 1884, Iron Mountain, Mich., United States died July 23, 1951, Dummerston, Vt. United States filmmaker, considered the father of the documentary. He grew up in remote northern Canada and later led explorations of the area (1910–16). He lived with the Eskimos for 16 months and filmed their way of life. His resulting film, Nanook of the North (1922), was an international success and established the model for the documentary film. His later documentaries include Moana (1926), Tabu (1931), Man of Aran (1934), The Land (1942) and Louisiana Story (1948).
53. orig. Robert Louis Fosse; born June 23, 1927, Chicago, Ill., United States died September 23, 1987, Washington, D.C. United States theatre and film choreographer and director. Born into a vaudeville family, Fosse began dancing professionally at age 13. He won his first Tony Award for choreographing the Broadway musical The Pajama Game (1954) and went on to win six more Tonys for his choreography, which was known for its sensuality, precision and jazz sensibility. His later hit shows included Damn Yankees (1955) and Sweet Charity (1966); both starring his wife, Gwen Verdon (1925; 2000); as well as Pippin (1973) and Dancin' (1978). He directed the film musical Cabaret (1972, Academy Award); his film All That Jazz (1979) was a thinly disguised autobiography.
54. born March 31, 1926, Leigh upon Sea, Essex, Eng. British novelist. His richly allusive and descriptive works combine psychological probings; chiefly of sex and love; with an interest in the social and philosophical context of human behaviour. His first novel, The Collector (1963; film, 1965), about a shy man who kidnaps a girl in a hapless search for love, was followed by The Magus (1966; film, 1968) and The French Lieutenant's Woman (1969; film, 1981), his most famous work, set in Victorian England. Later works include The Ebony Tower (1974; film made for television, 1984) and Daniel Martin (1977).
55. born November 9, 1924, Zürich, Switz. Swiss-born United States photographer. In the 1940s he worked as a fashion photographer for Harper's Bazaar in Paris. He abandoned fashion work in 1947 to travel in the United States and South America and explore the use of the 35-mm camera. His collection The Americans (1959), with its gritty, discordant images of 1950s America, had enormous influence and established him as a major figure. After 1959 Frank turned to filmmaking; his short film Pull My Daisy (1959), a collaboration with Jack Kerouac, became an underground classic. A major later collection is Robert Frank: Moving Out (1994).
56. orig. Robert Franz Knauth; born June 28, 1815, Halle, Saxony; died October 24, 1892, Halle, Ger. German song composer. In 1842 he became director of the Singakademie of his native Halle and organized choral festivals there. He sent Robert Schumann a set of songs, which Schumann had published in 1843 without consulting Franz. Franz Liszt became another influential supporter and published his own book about Franz in 1872. By 1867 Franz had become almost completely deaf and was obliged to relinquish his posts, including his professorship at the University of Halle. He was mentally unstable in his later years, when honours were increasingly heaped upon him. His more than 300 songs are remarkable for their sensitive musical prosody; he is a significant figure in the history of the lied.
57. born March 26, 1874, San Francisco, Calif., United States died January 29, 1963, Boston, Mass. United States poet. Frost's family moved to New England early in his life. After stints at Dartmouth College and Harvard University and a difficult period as a teacher and farmer, he moved to England and published his first collections, A Boy's Will (1913) and North of Boston (1914). At the outbreak of war he returned to New England. He closely observed rural life and in his poetry endowed it with universal, even metaphysical, meaning, using colloquial language, familiar rhythms and common symbols to express both its pastoral ideals and its dark complexities. His collections include New Hampshire (1923, Pulitzer Prize), Collected Poems (1930, Pulitzer Prize), A Further Range (1936, Pulitzer Prize) and A Witness Tree (1942, Pulitzer Prize). He was unique among American poets of the 20th century in simultaneously achieving wide popularity and deep critical admiration. Many of his poems, including "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening," "Birches," "The Death of the Hired Man," "Dust of Snow," "Fire and Ice," and "Home Burial," are widely anthologized.; Robert Frost, 1954. Ruohomaa; Black Star
58. born March 26, 1874, San Francisco, Calif., United States died January 29, 1963, Boston, Mass. United States poet. Frost's family moved to New England early in his life. After stints at Dartmouth College and Harvard University and a difficult period as a teacher and farmer, he moved to England and published his first collections, A Boy's Will (1913) and North of Boston (1914). At the outbreak of war he returned to New England. He closely observed rural life and in his poetry endowed it with universal, even metaphysical, meaning, using colloquial language, familiar rhythms and common symbols to express both its pastoral ideals and its dark complexities. His collections include New Hampshire (1923, Pulitzer Prize), Collected Poems (1930, Pulitzer Prize), A Further Range (1936, Pulitzer Prize) and A Witness Tree (1942, Pulitzer Prize). He was unique among American poets of the 20th century in simultaneously achieving wide popularity and deep critical admiration. Many of his poems, including "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening," "Birches," "The Death of the Hired Man," "Dust of Snow," "Fire and Ice," and "Home Burial," are widely anthologized.; Robert Frost, 1954. Ruohomaa; Black Star
59. born November 14, 1765, Lancaster county, Pa., United States died February 24, 1815, New York, New York United States inventor and engineer. Born to Irish immigrant parents, he studied painting with Benjamin West in London but soon turned to engineering. After designing a system of inland waterways, he tried unsuccessfully to interest the French and British governments in his prototypes of submarines and torpedoes. In 1801 he was commissioned by Robert R. Livingston to build a steamboat and in 1807 Fulton's Clermont made the 150-mi (240-km) journey up the Hudson River from New York City to Albany in 32 hours, cutting 64 hours off the usual sailing time. It became the first commercially successful steamboat in the United States He later designed several other steamboats, including the world's first steam warship (1812). He was a member of the commission that recommended building the Erie Canal.
60. born June 4, 1916, Charleston, S.C., United States U.S. pharmacologist. He received his Ph.D. from Northwestern University. With Louis J. Ignarro and Ferid Murad, he found that nitric oxide acts as a signaling molecule in the cardiovascular system. Furchgott demonstrated that cells in the endothelium of blood vessels produce a molecule called endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF), which signals smooth muscle cells in blood vessel walls to relax, dilating the vessels. Ignarro later concluded that EDRF was nitric oxide. The research done by Furchgott, Murad and Ignarro was key to the development of the drug Viagra, which treats impotence. The three men shared a 1998 Nobel Prize.
61. orig. Pack Robert Gibson; born November 9, 1935, Omaha, Neb., United States U.S. baseball pitcher. Gibson was an outstanding high-school baseball and basketball player. As a right-handed pitcher for the St. Louis Cardinals (1961–75) who was at his best in crucial games, Gibson won seven of the nine World Series games in which he pitched. In 1968 he started 34 games, completed 28 and had an earned run average of 1.12. He pitched quickly and his best pitches were a fastball and a slider. During his career he had 3,117 strikeouts, making him the first pitcher to accumulate more than 3,000 since Walter Johnson in the 1920s.
62. born November 22, 1857, Wakefield, Yorkshire, Eng. died Dec. 28, 1903, Saint-Jean-de-Luz, France; British novelist. He had a brilliant academic career but an unhappy personal life; twice involved in miserable marriages, he experienced the life of near poverty and constant drudgery that he described in New Grub Street, 3 vol. (1891), his best-known work and The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft (1903). Inspired by Honoré de Balzac, he wrote a cycle of 22 novels, which included Born in Exile (1892) and The Odd Women (1893). His realistic novels of lower-middle-class life are noted for their acute perception of women's social position and psychology.
63. born October 5, 1882, Worcester, Mass., United States died August 10, 1945, Baltimore, Md. United States inventor, regarded as the father of modern rocketry. He received his doctorate (1911) from Clark University, where he taught for much of his career. In laboratory work there, he proved that thrust and consequent propulsion can take place in a vacuum and was the first to develop a rocket engine using liquid propellants (static tested in 1925). In 1926 Goddard successfully launched the world's first liquid-fueled rocket (gasoline and liquid oxygen) from a farm in Massachusetts. In 1935, having relocated his testing site to New Mexico, he was the first to send a liquid-fueled rocket faster than the speed of sound. He patented the first practical automatic steering apparatus for rockets, developed staged rockets designed to gain great altitudes and developed the first rocket-fuel pumps, self-cooling rocket engines and other components of a propulsion system designed for space exploration. Much of his work anticipated that of Wernher von Braun in Germany but was ignored by the United States government until after his death at the end of World War II.
64. born July 24/26, 1895, London, Eng. died Dec. 7, 1985, Deyá, Majorca, Spain; British man of letters. He served as an officer at the Western Front during World War I and his first three volumes of poetry were published during that time; they include some of the finest English love poems of the century. In 1926 he began a 13-year relationship with the American poet Laura Riding (1901–91), with whom he founded a press, briefly published a journal and collaborated as a writer. After 1929 he lived principally in Majorca, Spain. The most famous of his more than 120 books are Good-bye to All That (1929), a grim memoir of the war; the historical novel I, Claudius (1934; televised in 1976); and erudite, controversial studies in mythology, notably The White Goddess (1948).
65. born 1796, Dublin, Ire. died March 20, 1853, Dublin; Irish physician. In 1821 he set up the Park Street School of Medicine, where he gave his advanced students responsibility for patients (under supervision) and lectured in English, not Latin. He was a founder and editor of the Dublin Journal of Medical Science. His Clinical Lectures on the Practice of Medicine (1848) established his reputation. He introduced timing of the pulse by watch and giving patients with fevers nourishment instead of withholding it. He was a leader of the Irish (Dublin) school of diagnosis, which stressed observation of patients and was one of the first to fully describe exophthalmic goitre (Graves disease).
66. born July 24/26, 1895, London, Eng. died Dec. 7, 1985, Deyá, Majorca, Spain; British man of letters. He served as an officer at the Western Front during World War I and his first three volumes of poetry were published during that time; they include some of the finest English love poems of the century. In 1926 he began a 13-year relationship with the American poet Laura Riding (1901–91), with whom he founded a press, briefly published a journal and collaborated as a writer. After 1929 he lived principally in Majorca, Spain. The most famous of his more than 120 books are Good-bye to All That (1929), a grim memoir of the war; the historical novel I, Claudius (1934; televised in 1976); and erudite, controversial studies in mythology, notably The White Goddess (1948).
67. born 1175, Suffolk, Eng. died October 9, 1253, Buckden, Buckinghamshire; English bishop and scholar. He introduced Latin translations of Greek and Arabic writings in philosophy and science to Europe. After serving as chancellor of the University of Oxford (ƹ 1215–21), he served as first lecturer in theology to the Franciscans, whom he greatly influenced. As bishop of Lincoln from 1235, he promoted a belief in the importance of the cure of souls, a centralized, hierarchical view of the church and a belief in the superiority of the church over the state.
68. born February 2, 1861, Philadelphia, Pa., United States died November 3, 1949, New York, New York Businessman and art collector. He became a partner in his father's Swiss embroidery import business. He also worked in the family mining industry and was a director of many family companies. After retiring from business in 1919, he devoted his time to collecting modernist paintings. He established the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation (1937), which provided the funds for the Solomon Guggenheim Museum (1959).
69. born Dec. 5, 1661, London, Eng. died May 21, 1724, London; English politician. Elected to Parliament in 1688, he led a coalition of Whigs and moderate Tories. He was speaker of the House of Commons (1701–05) and secretary of state (1704–08). A favourite of Queen Anne, he changed his politics to ally with the Tories. He became chancellor of the Exchequer and head of the Tory ministry in 1710. Created earl of Oxford (1711) and lord treasurer, he secured a reasonable peace at the Peace of Utrecht (1713). He was exiled from power by the Hanoverian succession and imprisoned (1715–17), after which he retired from politics.
70. born November 15, 1862, Bad Salzbrunn, Silesia, Prussia; died June 6, 1946, Agnetendorf, Ger. German playwright and poet. He studied sculpture before turning to literature in his early 20s. His first play, the starkly realistic social drama Before Dawn (1889), made him famous and signaled the end of highly stylized German drama. His naturalistic plays on themes of social reality and proletarian tragedy, including The Weavers (1892), The Beaver Coat (1893) and Drayman Henschel (1898), made him the most prominent German playwright of his era. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1912. In his novels, stories, epic poems and later plays, he abandoned naturalism for mystical religiosity and mythical symbolism.; Gerhart Hauptmann, etching by Hermann Struck, 1904; in the Schiller-Nationalmuseum, Marbach, Ger. By courtesy of the Schiller-Nationalmuseum, Marbach, Ger.
71. in full Robert Lee Hayes; born Dec. 20, 1942, Jacksonville, Fla., United States died September 18, 2002, Jacksonville; United States sprinter and football player. He was a star sprinter and running back for Florida A&M University. In 1963 he set a world record (9.1 seconds) in the 100-yard dash that stood for 11 years. At the 1964 Olympic Games in Tokyo he won gold medals in the 100-m event and the 4 �D7; 100-m relay; his remarkable performance in the latter event; his relay split was 8.6 seconds; helped earn him the unofficial title "World's Fastest Human." He later joined the Dallas Cowboys football team of the NFL as a wide receiver (1965–76) and kick returner and was a member of the 1972 team that won the Super Bowl.
72. born November 10, 1791, Colleton District, S.C., United States died September 24, 1839, Asheville, N.C. United States politician. In 1823 he entered the United States Senate, where he became a spokesman for the South and the doctrine of states' rights. In his famous 1830 debate with Daniel Webster on the Constitution, he argued that the federal Constitution was a compact among the states and that any state might nullify a federal law that it considered in violation of the constitutional compact. At the South Carolina nullification convention in 1832, he developed an ordinance that declared federal tariff laws null and void in the state. Resigning from the Senate in 1832, he served as governor of South Carolina (1832–34) and as mayor of Charleston (1834–37).
73. born July 7, 1907, Butler, Mo., United States died May 8, 1988, Carmel, Calif. United States science-fiction writer. He pursued graduate study in physics and mathematics and began his writing career in the pulp magazine Astounding Science Fiction in the 1930s. The first of his many novels and story collections was Rocket Ship Galileo (1947). Stranger in a Strange Land (1961), his best-known work, attracted a large cult following. His other books include Double Star (1956), Methuselah's Children (1958), Starship Troopers (1959), The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress (1966) and I Will Fear No Evil (1970). He won an unprecedented four Hugo Awards and his sophisticated works did much to develop the genre.
74. born April 9, 1909, Mount Gambier, Austl. died September 28, 1986, Sydney; Australian ballet dancer, choreographer, actor and director. After dancing and acting in Australia, in 1933 he went to London to study, joining the Vic-Wells Ballet (later Royal Ballet), where he became a regular partner of Margot Fonteyn. His own ballets included Hamlet (1942), Miracle in the Gorbals (1944) and Adam Zero (1946). He danced in the films The Red Shoes and Tales of Hoffmann, acted in many Shakespeare plays and also directed several plays. He was artistic codirector of the Australian Ballet (1965–76).
75. born April 9, 1909, Mount Gambier, Austl. died September 28, 1986, Sydney; Australian ballet dancer, choreographer, actor and director. After dancing and acting in Australia, in 1933 he went to London to study, joining the Vic-Wells Ballet (later Royal Ballet), where he became a regular partner of Margot Fonteyn. His own ballets included Hamlet (1942), Miracle in the Gorbals (1944) and Adam Zero (1946). He danced in the films The Red Shoes and Tales of Hoffmann, acted in many Shakespeare plays and also directed several plays. He was artistic codirector of the Australian Ballet (1965–76).
76. orig. Robert Henry Cozad; born June 25, 1865, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States died July 12, 1929, New York, New York United States painter. He studied in Philadelphia and Paris, taught art in Philadelphia, and, after settling in New York City in 1900, became the leader of the young realist artists known as The Eight. He exhibited with The Eight in 1908 and later at the Armory Show (1913). As a portrait painter he demonstrated facile brushwork, lively colours and an ability to catch fleeting gestures and expressions. He is best remembered as a teacher, principally at New York's Art Students League (1915–28), where he became one of the most influential art teachers in the United States and a powerful force in turning young artists away from academicism and toward the rich subject matter of modern city life. His belief in the artist as a social force led to the formation of the Ash Can school.
77. baptized August 24, 1591, London, Eng. died October 1674, Dean Prior, Devonshire English poet. Educated at Cambridge and later ordained, he became known as a poet in the 1620s and by the end of that decade had become a country vicar in Devonshire. A disciple of Ben Jonson, he wrote classically influenced lyrics whose appeal is in their freshness and their perfection of form and style. The only book he published was Hesperides (1648), containing 1,400 poems, mostly short, many of them epigrams. He is best remembered for the line "Gather ye rosebuds while ye may.";; Robert Herrick, detail of an engraving by W. Marshall, from the frontispiece to Hesperides,... By courtesy of the trustees of the British Museum; photograph, J.R. Freeman & Co. Ltd.
78. born 1802, Perth, Scot. died May 17, 1870, Newington;; born 1821, Berunside, Scot. died January 1848, St. Andrews; Scottish photographers. Hill, originally a painter, was a founding member of the Royal Scottish Academy and its secretary for 40 years. In 1843 he enlisted the help of Adamson, a chemist experienced in photography, in photographing the delegates to the founding convention of the Free Church of Scotland. They used the calotype process, by which an image was developed from a paper negative. In these and other portraits they demonstrated a masterly sense of form and composition and a dramatic use of light and shade. Their five-year partnership resulted in some 3,000 photographs, including many views of Edinburgh and small fishing villages. Before Adamson died at age 27, they produced some of the greatest photographic portraits of the 19th century.
79. born October 29, 1784, Hoes, Leicestershire, Eng. died January 4, 1833, New York, New York, U.S.; born September 12, 1812, New York, New York, United States died June 7, 1886, Florence, Italy; Father and son, inventors. Robert immigrated to the United States in 1803. In New York City he cofounded a printing-equipment company and in 1827 introduced the cast-iron frame, which soon replaced the standard wooden frames used for printing presses. His improved version of the Napier cylinder printing press supplanted all English-made presses in the United States Richard joined the company in 1827 and became its head when his father died. He replaced the flatbed press with the first successful rotary press (patented 1847). He followed this innovation with the web press (1865) and the web perfecting press (1871), revolutionary improvements that made the large-circulation daily newspaper possible.
80. born October 29, 1784, Hoes, Leicestershire, Eng. died January 4, 1833, New York, New York, U.S.; born September 12, 1812, New York, New York, United States died June 7, 1886, Florence, Italy; Father and son, inventors. Robert immigrated to the United States in 1803. In New York City he cofounded a printing-equipment company and in 1827 introduced the cast-iron frame, which soon replaced the standard wooden frames used for printing presses. His improved version of the Napier cylinder printing press supplanted all English-made presses in the United States Richard joined the company in 1827 and became its head when his father died. He replaced the flatbed press with the first successful rotary press (patented 1847). He followed this innovation with the web press (1865) and the web perfecting press (1871), revolutionary improvements that made the large-circulation daily newspaper possible.
81. born January 28, 1922, Urbana, Ill., United States died February 11, 1993, Los Gatos, Calif. United States biochemist. He received his Ph.D. from Cornell University. Holley and others showed that transfer RNA was involved in the assembly of amino acids into proteins. He was the first to determine the sequence of nucleotides in a nucleic acid, a process that required digesting the molecule with enzymes, identifying the pieces and then figuring out how they fit together. It has since been shown that all transfer RNA has a similar structure. He shared a 1968 Nobel Prize with Marshall Warren Nirenberg and Har Gobind Khorana.
82. born July 18, 1635, Freshwater, Isle of Wight, Eng. died March 3, 1703, London; English physicist. From 1665 he taught at Oxford University. His achievements and theories were bewilderingly diverse. His important law of elasticity, known as Hooke's law (1660), states that the stretching of a solid is proportional to the force applied to it. He was one of the first to build and use a reflecting telescope. He suggested that Jupiter rotates on its axis and his detailed sketches of Mars were later used to determine its rate of rotation. He suggested that a pendulum could be used to measure gravitation and he attempted to show that the Earth and Moon follow an elliptical orbit around the Sun. He discovered diffraction and proposed the wave theory of light to explain it. He was one of the first proponents of the theory of evolution. He was the first to state in general that all matter expands when heated and that air is made up of particles separated from each other by relatively large distances. He invented a marine barometer, contributed improvements to clocks, the quadrant and the universal joint and anticipated the steam engine.
83. in full Robert Martin Hull; born January 3, 1939, Point Anne, Ontario, Canada Canadian ice-hockey player. He played centre and left wing for the Chicago Blackhawks (1957–72) in the National Hockey League (NHL), where his booming slap shot and fast skating made him a dominant figure; he scored 50 or more goals in each of five seasons. Throughout his NHL career he scored 610 goals, 560 assists and 1,170 points. He also played in the now-defunct World Hockey Association (1972–81).; Bobby Hull, 1969. Canada Wide/Pictorial Parade
84. born January 17, 1899, Brooklyn, New York, United States died May 17, 1977, Santa Barbara, Calif. United States educator and foundation president. He attended Oberlin College and graduated from Yale University (A.B., 1921) and Yale Law School (LL.B., 1925), becoming dean of Yale Law School in 1927. At the University of Chicago as president (1929–45) and chancellor (1945–51), he encouraged liberal education based on the study of the great books of the Western tradition, deplored any tendency toward vocationalism and dismantled the intercollegiate athletic program. Hutchins later headed various foundations, including the Ford Foundation. He served as chairman of the board of editors of Encyclopædia Britannica (1943–74) and edited the 54-volume Great Books of the Western World (1952). He expounded his views on education in Higher Learning in America (1936).
85. orig. Robert Clark; born September 13, 1928, New Castle, Ind., United States U.S. painter, sculptor and graphic artist. After studies at the Art Institute of Chicago, he settled in New York City and became a leading exponent of Pop art. He achieved wide recognition for paintings and prints featuring geometric shapes emblazoned with lettering and vivid colours. In 1964 he collaborated with Andy Warhol on the film Eat and was commissioned to produce an EAT sign for the New York pavilion at the New York World's Fair. His most famous image, LOVE, first lettered on canvas in 1965, became a universal symbol for the hippie generation.
86. born February 13, 1892, Spring Creek, Pa., United States died October 9, 1954, Washington, D.C. United States jurist. He pleaded his first case while still a minor and was a lawyer by age 21. He became corporation counsel for Jamestown, New York As general counsel for the United States Bureau of Internal Revenue (1934), he successfully prosecuted Andrew W. Mellon for income-tax evasion. He served as United States solicitor general (1938–39) and attorney general (1940–41). In 1941 he was appointed by Pres. Franklin Roosevelt to the United States Supreme Court, where he served until 1954. He infused his well-worded opinions with a blend of liberalism and nationalism. In 1945–46 he served as chief United States prosecutor in the Nürnberg trials.
87. born January 4, 1901, Tunapuna, Trin. died May 31, 1989, London, Eng. Trinidadian writer and political activist. As a young man he moved to Britain, where his first work, The Life of Captain Cipriani, was published in 1929. His study of Toussaint-Louverture, The Black Jacobins (1938), was a seminal work. During James's first stay in the United States (1938–53), he became friends with Paul Robeson. Eventually deported to Britain because of his Marxism and labour activism, James wrote on cricket for The Guardian. His Beyond the Boundary (1963) mixes autobiography with commentary on politics and sports. He returned to the United States in 1970 but eventually settled permanently in Britain.
88. orig. Abdullah Jaffa Bey Khan; born Dec. 24, 1930, Seattle, Wash., United States died March 25, 1988, New York, New York United States dancer and choreographer, founder-director of the Joffrey Ballet. He was the son of an Afghan father and an Italian-born mother. He studied dance in Seattle and later in New York, opened a ballet school in 1953 and in 1954 formed the first of several groups. In 1956 he founded the Robert Joffrey (later simply Joffrey) Ballet with Gerald Arpino (b. 1928). The company gained international fame and toured widely. In 1965 it became affiliated with the New York City Center. Joffrey's ballets include Persephone (1952), Astarte (1967), Remembrances (1973) and Postcards (1980). After Joffrey's death, Arpino became director; in 1995 he moved the company to Chicago, renaming it the Joffrey Ballet of Chicago.
89. born 1911, Hazlehurst, Miss., United States died August 16, 1938, near Greenwood, Miss. United States blues guitarist, singer and songwriter. Born to a sharecropping family, he learned harmonica and guitar, probably influenced by personal contact with Delta bluesmen such as Eddie "Son" House and Charley Patton. He traveled widely throughout the South and as far north as Chicago and New York City, playing at house parties, juke joints and lumber camps. In 1936–37 he recorded songs by House and others, as well as originals such as "Me and the Devil Blues," "Hellhound on My Trail," and "Love in Vain." He is said to have died, at age 27, after drinking strychnine-laced whiskey (possibly the work of a jealous husband) in a juke joint. His eerie falsetto and masterly slide guitar influenced many later blues and rock musicians.
90. born, February 15, 1845, Carbondale, Pa., United States died February 7, 1910, New Brunswick, N.J. United States manufacturer. He began his career as a pharmacist and drug broker. In 1885 he founded medical supply company Johnson & Johnson with his brothers and he served as its president until his death. An early proponent of the teachings of Joseph Lister, Johnson worked to make his products as germ-free as possible and the firm's high-quality and inexpensive medical supplies, including antiseptic bandages and dressings, proved of great value to surgery. The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation is a major philanthropic institution.
91. born November 20, 1925, Brookline, Mass., United States died June 6, 1968, Los Angeles, Calif. United States politician. The son of Joseph P. Kennedy, he interrupted his education at Harvard University to serve in World War II; he was graduated from Harvard in 1948 and received a law degree from the University of Virginia in 1951. He managed the United States Senate campaign of his brother John F. Kennedy in 1952. In 1957 he became chief counsel to the Senate committee investigating labour racketeering; he resigned the post in 1960 to manage his brother's presidential campaign. As United States attorney general (1961–64), he led a drive against organized crime that resulted in the conviction of labour leader Jimmy Hoffa. In 1964 he was elected to the United States Senate from New York. He became a spokesman for liberal Democrats and a critic of the Vietnam policy of Lyndon B. Johnson. In 1968, while campaigning for the Democratic presidential nomination in Los Angeles, he was assassinated by Sirhan Sirhan, a Palestinian immigrant.
92. born March 12, 1824, Königsberg, Prussia; died October 17, 1887, Berlin, Ger. German physicist. Kirchhoff's laws (1845) allow calculation of the currents, voltages and resistances of electrical networks (he was the first to show that current flows through a conductor at the speed of light) and generalized the equations describing current flow to three dimensions. With Robert Bunsen, he demonstrated that every element emits coloured light when heated at wavelengths specific to it, a fact that is the basis of spectrum analysis. They used this new research tool to discover cesium (1860) and rubidium (1861) and began a new era in astronomy when they applied it to the spectrum of the sun.
93. born Dec. 11, 1843, Clausthal, Hannover; died May 27, 1910, Baden-Baden, Ger. German physician. As the first to isolate the anthrax bacillus, observe its life cycle and develop a preventive inoculation for it, he was the first to prove a causal relationship between a bacillus and a disease. He perfected pure-culture techniques, based on Louis Pasteur's concept. He isolated the tuberculosis organism and established its role in the disease (1882). In 1883 he discovered the causal organism for cholera and how it is transmitted and also developed a vaccination for rinderpest. Koch's postulates remain fundamental to pathology: the organism should always be found in sick animals and never in healthy ones; it must be grown in pure culture; the cultured organism must make a healthy animal sick; and it must be reisolated from the newly sick animal and recultured and still be the same. Awarded a Nobel Prize in 1905, he is considered a founder of bacteriology.
94. born Dec. 11, 1843, Clausthal, Hannover; died May 27, 1910, Baden-Baden, Ger. German physician. As the first to isolate the anthrax bacillus, observe its life cycle and develop a preventive inoculation for it, he was the first to prove a causal relationship between a bacillus and a disease. He perfected pure-culture techniques, based on Louis Pasteur's concept. He isolated the tuberculosis organism and established its role in the disease (1882). In 1883 he discovered the causal organism for cholera and how it is transmitted and also developed a vaccination for rinderpest. Koch's postulates remain fundamental to pathology: the organism should always be found in sick animals and never in healthy ones; it must be grown in pure culture; the cultured organism must make a healthy animal sick; and it must be reisolated from the newly sick animal and recultured and still be the same. Awarded a Nobel Prize in 1905, he is considered a founder of bacteriology.
95. born June 14, 1855, Primrose, Wis., United States died June 18, 1925, Washington, D.C. United States politician. He served as a county district attorney in Wisconsin (1880–84) and in the United States House of Representatives (1885–91). Advocating progressive reforms, he was elected governor of Wisconsin (1901–06). In the United States Senate (1906–24), he sponsored bills to restrict the power of the railroad companies. He founded La Follette's Weekly (1909) to broaden his reform movement and he led Republican opposition to the policies of Pres. William H. Taft. He opposed United States entrance into World War I and policies of Pres. Woodrow Wilson that favoured big business. After the war he worked vigorously to expose corruption in government, including in the Teapot Dome scandal. As the presidential candidate of the Progressive Party in the 1924 election, he won five million votes, one-sixth of the total national vote. He died the next year; his son Robert (1895–1953) held his Senate seat from 1925 until 1947, when he was defeated by Joseph McCarthy.
96. born November 22, 1643, Rouen, France; died March 19, 1687, near Brazos River (now in Texas, U.S.); French explorer. In 1666 he left France for North America and was granted land near Montreal. He explored the Ohio River region (1669) and then worked with the count de Frontenac to extend French influence. He helped establish Fort Frontenac on Lake Ontario, where as seigneur he controlled the fur trade. He obtained authority from Louis XIV to explore the western frontier of New France and build new forts. He sailed down the Illinois River and with Henri de Tonty (1650?–1704) canoed down the Mississippi River to the Gulf of Mexico. There in 1682 La Salle claimed the entire Mississippi Basin for France, naming it Louisiana after Louis XIV. Back in France, he received authority to build a fort at the mouth of the Mississippi. Beset by losses of men and ships, he mistakenly landed at Matagorda Bay, Texas. After fruitless attempts to locate the Mississippi, he was killed by mutineers.
97. born June 19, 1782, Saint-Malo, France; died February 27, 1854, Paris; French priest and philosopher. With his brother Jean, he sketched a program of church reform in Reflections on the State of the Church (1808) and in 1814 produced a defense of ultramontanism (papal authority). Ordained a priest in 1816, he wrote the acclaimed Essay on Indifference Toward Religion (1817–23), which argued for the necessity of religion. After the July Revolution (1830), he cofounded the journal L'Avenir to advocate democratic principles and church-state separation. Its principles were condemned by the pope in 1832. Lamennais's The Words of a Believer (1834), written in response, provoked another papal encyclical and led to Lamennais's severance from the church. Thereafter he wrote in the cause of republicanism and socialism.
98. born January 19, 1807, Stratford, Westmoreland county, Va., United States died October 12, 1870, Lexington, Va. United States and Confederate military leader. He was the son of Henry Lee. After graduating from West Point, he served in the engineering corps and in the Mexican War under Winfield Scott. He transferred to the cavalry in 1855 and commanded frontier forces in Texas (1856–57). In 1859 he led United States troops against the slave insurrection attempted by John Brown at Harpers Ferry. In 1861 he was offered command of a new army being formed to force the seceded Southern states back into the Union. Though opposed to secession, he refused. After his home state of Virginia seceded, he became commander of Virginia's forces in the American Civil War and adviser to Jefferson Davis, president of the Confederacy. Taking command of the Army of Northern Virginia (1862) after Joseph Johnston was wounded, Lee repulsed the Union forces in the Seven Days' Battles. He won victories at Bull Run, Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville. His attempts to draw Union forces out of Virginia by invading the North resulted in failures at Antietam and Gettysburg. In 1864–65 he conducted defensive campaigns against Union forces under Ulysses S. Grant that caused heavy Union casualties. Lee ended his retreat behind fortifications built at Petersburg and Richmond. By April 1865 dwindling forces and supplies forced Lee, now general of all Confederate armies, to surrender at Appomattox Court House. After several months of recuperation, he accepted the post of president of Washington College (later Washington and Lee University), where he served until his death.; Robert E. Lee, 1865. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
99. born June 24, 1532/33; died September 4, 1588, Cornbury, Oxfordshire, Eng. English courtier and favourite of Elizabeth I. Imprisoned in 1553 for aiding the attempt by his father, the duke of Northumberland, to put Lady Jane Grey on the throne, he was released in 1554. Handsome and ambitious, he won Elizabeth's affection upon her accession (1558) and was made a privy councillor in 1559. When his wife died in 1560, it was rumoured that he had murdered her in order to marry Elizabeth. He became an active suitor of Elizabeth; though he failed to win the queen's hand, they remained close friends. In 1585 he was sent in command of an English force to assist the Netherlands in its revolt against Spain; he proved incompetent and was recalled (1587).
100. orig. Robert Traill Spence Lowell, Jr. born March 1, 1917, Boston, Mass., United States died September 12, 1977, New York, New York United States poet. Lowell was a descendant of a distinguished family that included James Russell Lowell and Amy Lowell. Though he turned away from his Puritan heritage, it forms the subject of much of his poetry. His first major work, Lord Weary's Castle (1946, Pulitzer Prize), contains "The Quaker Graveyard in Nantucket." Life Studies (1959) contains an autobiographical essay and 15 complex, confessional poems largely based on his family history and personal life, which included time in mental institutions. His activities in liberal causes in the 1960s influenced his next three volumes, including For the Union Dead (1964). His later collections include The Dolphin (1973, Pulitzer Prize).
101. born May 25, 1927, New York, New York, United States died March 12, 2001, Naples, Fla. United States author of spy thrillers. He worked in the theatre as an actor and a successful producer and acted for television before turning to writing. Among his best-sellers were The Scarlatti Inheritance (1971), The Osterman Weekend (1972; film, 1983), The Matarese Circle (1979) and The Bourne Identity (1980; film, 1988, 2002). Though critics often found his plots unlikely and his prose uninspired, his fast-paced combination of international espionage, conspiracy and mayhem proved enormously popular.
102. orig. Helen Merrell; born September 26, 1892, New Albany, Ind., United States died November 1, 1970, Warren, Conn.; born March 17, 1894, La Grange, Ill., United States died January 30, 1982, Warren, Ohio; United States sociologists. The Lynds taught for several decades at Columbia University and Sarah Lawrence College, respectively. In their collaboration on the studies Middletown (1929) and Middletown in Transition (1937), classics of sociological literature as well as popular successes, they became the first scholars to apply the methods of cultural anthropology to the study of a modern Western city (Muncie, Ind.).
103. born April 17, 1882, Stornoway, Outer Hebrides, Scot. died June 15, 1970, New York, New York, United States Scottish-born United States sociologist and political scientist. He taught at the University of Aberdeen and later at Canadian and United States universities, principally Columbia (1915–26). He believed in the compatibility of individualism and social organization and saw societies as evolving from highly communal states to states in which individual functions and group affiliations were extremely specialized. His works included The Modern State (1926), Leviathan and the People (1939) and The Web of Government (1947).
104. born June 3, 1810, Dublin, Ire. died November 5, 1881, London, Eng. Irish civil engineer and scientific investigator. He studied at Trinity College and in 1831 took charge of his father's Victoria foundry, which he expanded into the dominant foundry in Ireland. His commissions included the construction of railroad terminals, the Nore viaduct, the Fastnet Rock lighthouse and several swivel bridges over the Shannon. His major innovation in bridge technology was buckled-plate flooring. He built an early form of seismograph and advanced the technique of making large castings of iron, such as heavy cannon.
105. born February 14/17, 1766, Rookery, near Dorking, Surrey, Eng. died Dec. 23, 1834, St. Catherine, near Bath, Somerset; British economist and demographer. Born into a prosperous family, he studied at the University of Cambridge and was elected a fellow of Jesus College in 1793. In 1798 he published An Essay on the Principle of Population, in which he argued that population will always tend to outrun the food supply; that the increase of population will take place, if unchecked, in a geometrical progression, while the means of subsistence will increase only in an arithmetical progression. He believed population would expand to the limit of subsistence and would be held there by famine, war and ill health. He enlarged on his ideas in later editions of his work (to 1826). He argued that relief measures for the poor should be strictly limited since they tended to encourage the growth of excess population. His theories, though largely disproven, had great influence on contemporary social policy and on such economists as David Ricardo.
106. born November 4, 1946, New York, New York, United States died March 9, 1989, Boston, Mass. United States photographer. He attended the Pratt Institute (1963–70). By the mid 1970s he was pursuing what were to remain his favourite subjects throughout his career: still lifes, flowers, portraits of friends and celebrities and homoerotic explorations of the male body. His compositions were generally stark, with his combination of cold studio light and precise focus creating dramatic tonal contrasts. His muscular male models were generally framed against plain backdrops, sometimes engaged in sexual activity or posed with sadomasochistic props such as leather and chains. His clear, unflinching style challenged viewers to confront this imagery. Moreover, the combination of his choice of subject matter with the photographs' formal beauty and grounding in art-historical traditions created what many saw as a tension between pornography and art. A posthumous retrospective exhibition of his work in 1990, funded partly by the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA), stirred a debate about government subsidies of "obscene" art and provoked Congress to enact restrictions on future NEA grants.
107. orig. Robert Nesta Marley; born February 6, 1945, Nine Miles, St. Ann, Jam. died May 11, 1981, Miami, Fla., United States Jamaican singer and songwriter. Raised in the Kingston slum known as Trenchtown, Marley apprenticed himself to a welder. In the early 1960s he formed the Wailers with Peter Tosh, Bunny Livingston (later called Bunny Wailer) and others. In the 1970s they became the first international reggae stars with releases such as Catch a Fire (1973), Exodus (1977) and Uprising (1980). He died of cancer at age 36. Marley's music, an amalgamation of American, African and Jamaican styles, reflected his Rastafarian beliefs in universal peace, love, equality and hope and of unification and empowerment for blacks. Since his death he has attained near-legendary stature. His wife, Rita and son Ziggy also recorded successfully.
108. in full Robert Bruce Mathias; born November 17, 1930, Tulare, Calif., United States U.S. decathlete. He suffered from anemia as a child and turned to athletics to gain strength. In 1948, at age 17, he won a gold medal in the Olympic decathlon, becoming the youngest gold medalist ever to win an Olympic track-and-field event. He won a second decathlon gold medal in 1952; that same year he played fullback on Stanford University's gridiron football team at the Rose Bowl. He won all 11 decathlon competitions he entered in his career. He later served in the United States House of Representatives.
109. orig. Jan Ludvik Hoch; born June 10, 1923, Slatina-Selo, Czech. died November 5, 1991, at sea off the Canary Islands; Czech-British publisher. Of Jewish origin, he lost many family members in the Holocaust but managed to reach Britain and become an army officer. After the war he founded Pergamon Press, which became a major publisher of trade journals and scientific books. In the 1980s he revived the British Printing Corp. and purchased the Mirror Group Newspapers, though his financial practices were officially questioned. Among the United States acquisitions of Maxwell Communications were the New York Daily News (1991) and the publishing house Macmillan. The revelation of fraudulent financial dealings aimed at bolstering his collapsing empire was followed by his death by drowning from his yacht in the Atlantic. It was assumed to have been a suicide.
110. orig. Jan Ludvik Hoch; born June 10, 1923, Slatina-Selo, Czech. died November 5, 1991, at sea off the Canary Islands; Czech-British publisher. Of Jewish origin, he lost many family members in the Holocaust but managed to reach Britain and become an army officer. After the war he founded Pergamon Press, which became a major publisher of trade journals and scientific books. In the 1980s he revived the British Printing Corp. and purchased the Mirror Group Newspapers, though his financial practices were officially questioned. Among the United States acquisitions of Maxwell Communications were the New York Daily News (1991) and the publishing house Macmillan. The revelation of fraudulent financial dealings aimed at bolstering his collapsing empire was followed by his death by drowning from his yacht in the Atlantic. It was assumed to have been a suicide.
111. known as Colonel McCormick; born July 30, 1880, Chicago, Ill., United States died April 1, 1955, Wheaton, Ill. United States newspaper editor and publisher. He was a grandnephew of Cyrus H. McCormick and grandson of Joseph Medill, editor and publisher of the Chicago Tribune. He was president of the Chicago Tribune Co. from 1911 and sole editor and publisher of the Tribune from 1925. Under his direction the paper achieved the largest circulation among United States standard-sized newspapers and led the world in newspaper advertising revenue. His idiosyncratic editorials made him the personification of reactionary journalism in the U.S.
112. born June 9, 1916, San Francisco, Calif., United States U.S. secretary of defense (1961–68). He graduated from the University of California at Berkeley (1937), earned a graduate degree at the Harvard Business School (1939) and later joined the Harvard faculty. He developed logistical and statistical systems for the military during World War II. After the war, he was one of the "Whiz Kids" hired to revitalize the Ford Motor Company and in 1960 he became the first president of the company who was not a member of the Ford family. In 1961 he was appointed secretary of defense by John F. Kennedy. Though initially a supporter of United States involvement in the Vietnam War, by 1967 he advocated peace negotiations; his opposition to the bombing of North Vietnam caused him to lose influence with Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson. He resigned in 1968 to become president of the World Bank (1968–81).
113. born Dec. 20, 1894, Jeparit, Victoria. Austl. died May 16, 1978, Melbourne; Australian statesman and prime minister (1939–41, 1949–66). A successful lawyer, he served as Australia's attorney general (1934–39). Leader of the United Australia Party, he served as prime minister (1939–41). He organized the Liberal Party in 1944 and again became premier in 1949. In the 1950s he fostered industrial growth in Australia and immigration from Europe. He strengthened military ties with the United States and encouraged the ANZUS Pact and Australia's membership in the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization. He retired in 1966 after the longest ministry in Australian history.
114. born Dec. 20, 1894, Jeparit, Victoria. Austl. died May 16, 1978, Melbourne; Australian statesman and prime minister (1939–41, 1949–66). A successful lawyer, he served as Australia's attorney general (1934–39). Leader of the United Australia Party, he served as prime minister (1939–41). He organized the Liberal Party in 1944 and again became premier in 1949. In the 1950s he fostered industrial growth in Australia and immigration from Europe. He strengthened military ties with the United States and encouraged the ANZUS Pact and Australia's membership in the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization. He retired in 1966 after the longest ministry in Australian history.
115. orig. Meyer R. Schkolnick; born July 4, 1910, Philadelphia, Pa., United States died February 23, 2003, New York, New York United States sociologist. After receiving a Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1936, Merton taught there and at Tulane University before moving to Columbia University, where he was a professor from 1941 to 1979. His diverse interests included deviant behaviour, the sociology of science and mass communications and he generally advanced a functionalist approach to the study of society. He was awarded a National Medal of Science in 1994. Among his writings are Mass Persuasion (1946), Social Theory and Social Structure (1949), On the Shoulders of Giants (1965) and The Sociology of Science (1973).
116. born March 22, 1868, Morrison, Ill., United States died Dec. 19, 1953, San Marino, Calif. United States physicist. He received his doctorate from Columbia University and taught physics at the University of Chicago (1896–1921) and the California Institute of Technology (from 1921). To measure electric charge, he devised the Millikan oil-drop experiment. He verified Albert Einstein's photoelectric equation and obtained a precise value for the Planck constant. He was awarded a 1923 Nobel Prize.
117. born March 22, 1868, Morrison, Ill., United States died Dec. 19, 1953, San Marino, Calif. United States physicist. He received his doctorate from Columbia University and taught physics at the University of Chicago (1896–1921) and the California Institute of Technology (from 1921). To measure electric charge, he devised the Millikan oil-drop experiment. He verified Albert Einstein's photoelectric equation and obtained a precise value for the Planck constant. He was awarded a 1923 Nobel Prize.
118. born August 6, 1917, Bridgeport, Conn., United States died July 1, 1997, Santa Barbara county, Calif. United States film actor. Expelled from high school in New York City, he spent his teenage years wandering the country and working odd jobs. After joining an acting company in California, he made his screen debut in 1943, acting in several Hopalong Cassidy westerns. He won praise for his role in The Story of G.I. Joe (1945). With his trademark sleepy-eyed, tough-guy appearance, he usually played loners and villains, in movies (many of them B movies that have grown in critical esteem over time) such as Out of the Past (1947), The Lusty Men (1952), The Night of the Hunter (1955), Thunder Road (1958), Cape Fear (1962), The Friends of Eddie Coyle (1973) and Farewell, My Lovely (1975). In his later years, he starred in the television miniseries Winds of War (1983) and War and Remembrance (1988–89).
119. born August 6, 1917, Bridgeport, Conn., United States died July 1, 1997, Santa Barbara county, Calif. United States film actor. Expelled from high school in New York City, he spent his teenage years wandering the country and working odd jobs. After joining an acting company in California, he made his screen debut in 1943, acting in several Hopalong Cassidy westerns. He won praise for his role in The Story of G.I. Joe (1945). With his trademark sleepy-eyed, tough-guy appearance, he usually played loners and villains, in movies (many of them B movies that have grown in critical esteem over time) such as Out of the Past (1947), The Lusty Men (1952), The Night of the Hunter (1955), Thunder Road (1958), Cape Fear (1962), The Friends of Eddie Coyle (1973) and Farewell, My Lovely (1975). In his later years, he starred in the television miniseries Winds of War (1983) and War and Remembrance (1988–89).
120. born January 31, 1734, Liverpool, Merseyside, Eng. died May 8, 1806, Philadelphia, Pa., United States British-born American financier and politician. He immigrated to join his father in Maryland in 1747 and entered a Philadelphia mercantile firm the following year. As a member of the Continental Congress in the American Revolution, he practically controlled the financial operations of the war from 1776 to 1778, borrowing money from the French, requisitioning from the states and even advancing money from his own pocket. He established the Bank of North America (1781) and served as United States superintendent of finance (1781–84) under the Articles of Confederation. He was a delegate to the Annapolis Convention and the Constitutional Convention and served in the United States Senate (1789–95). After investing heavily in land speculation, he went bankrupt and spent more than three years in a debtors' prison before his release in 1801.
121. born February 9, 1931, Kansas City, Mo., United States U.S. artist. His first one-man exhibition of paintings was held in San Francisco in 1957. In 1960, while living in New York City, he began producing large, monochromatic geometric sculptures, groups of which he exhibited in specific spatial relationships. His work of this period greatly affected the Minimalist movement, which sought to reduce art to its essence by eliminating personal expression and historical allusion. From the late 1960s, however, Morris moved toward a more spontaneous, if anonymous, expressiveness. He experimented in a wide variety of forms, including the "happening"; "dispersal pieces," in which materials were strewn in apparent randomness on the gallery floor; and environmental projects. His work of the 1970s showed a preoccupation with paradoxes of mental and physical imprisonment.
122. born Dec. 18, 1888, New Haven, Conn., United States died July 29, 1981, West Islip, New York United States public official. He began his long career in public service in New York City's bureau of municipal research. In 1919 Gov. Alfred E. Smith appointed him chief of staff of the New York state reconstruction commission and, in 1924, head of both the New York and Long Island state park commissions. For 40 years in these and related positions, Moses supervised the vast expansion of the park system and the construction of numerous roads, bridges, tunnels and housing projects in and around the city, reshaping it on a grand scale in often controversial ways.
123. born January 24, 1915, Aberdeen, Wash., United States died July 16, 1991, Provincetown, Mass. United States painter, writer and teacher. He received an art scholarship at 11, but he earned degrees from Stanford and Harvard before deciding to become a serious painter. He espoused Abstract Expressionism from the beginning of his career and his erudite writings were largely responsible for the intellectual tone of the movement. In his Elegy to the Spanish Republic painting series, begun in 1949 and continued over three decades, he developed a limited repertory of simple, serene black forms that were applied to the picture plane in a way that created a sense of slow, solemn movement. Though he worked in various styles, his reputation rests on his pioneering work as a founder and principal exponent of Abstract Expressionism.; Motherwell, photograph by Arnold Newman, 1959; © Arnold Newman
124. born February 21, 1924, Kutama, Southern Rhodesia; First prime minister (1980–87) and executive president (from 1987) of Zimbabwe. With Joshua Nkomo, Mugabe led a Marxist-inspired guerrilla war that forced the white-dominated government of Ian Smith to accept universal elections, which Mugabe's party, Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), easily won. He formed a coalition government with Nkomo's Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), but he removed Nkomo in 1982. In 1984 the two parties were merged as ZANU–Patriotic Front, as Mugabe moved to convert Zimbabwe from a parliamentary democracy into a one-party socialist state. His rule was marked by violence and intimidation and by a decreasing tolerance of political opposition.
125. born February 21, 1924, Kutama, Southern Rhodesia; First prime minister (1980–87) and executive president (from 1987) of Zimbabwe. With Joshua Nkomo, Mugabe led a Marxist-inspired guerrilla war that forced the white-dominated government of Ian Smith to accept universal elections, which Mugabe's party, Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), easily won. He formed a coalition government with Nkomo's Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), but he removed Nkomo in 1982. In 1984 the two parties were merged as ZANU–Patriotic Front, as Mugabe moved to convert Zimbabwe from a parliamentary democracy into a one-party socialist state. His rule was marked by violence and intimidation and by a decreasing tolerance of political opposition.
126. born October 24, 1932, Kingston, Ontario, Canada Canadian-born economist who received the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences in 1999 for his work on monetary dynamics and optimum currency areas. Mundell earned degrees from the University of British Columbia (B.A., 1953), the University of Washington (M.A., 1954) and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Ph.D., 1956). He taught economics at the University of Chicago (1956–57) and Columbia University (1974– ). Through research for the International Monetary Fund, Mundell analyzed the effect of exchange rates on monetary policies. In 1961 he theorized that an economic region characterized by free movement of labour and trade could support a single currency. His theories contributed to the creation of the euro, the single currency adopted by the European Union on January 1, 1999.
127. born 1811, Coleford, Gloucestershire, Eng. died January 1891, Coleford; British steelmaker. He was the son of the ironmaster David Mushet (1772–1847). Robert's discovery in 1868 that adding tungsten to steel greatly increases its hardness even after air cooling produced the first commercial steel alloy, a material that formed the basis for the development of tool steels for the machining of metals. Mushet also discovered that the addition of manganese to steel produced by the Bessemer process improved the steel's ability to withstand rolling and forging at high temperatures.
128. born Dec. 13, 1780, Lisbon, Port. died March 23, 1862, St. Petersburg, Russia; Russian statesman. After serving in the Russian diplomatic service, he acted as minister of foreign affairs (1822–56) and as chancellor (1845–62). He sought to influence the Ottoman Empire with the Treaty of Hünkâr ‚skelesi (1833) and the Straits Convention (1841). He supported aid to Austria in suppressing the Hungarian uprising (1848). His policy of promoting Russia's influence in the Balkans helped precipitate the Crimean War. He negotiated the subsequent treaty at the Congress of Paris.
129. born Dec. 12, 1927, Burlington, Iowa, United States died June 3, 1990, Austin, Texas; United States engineer. He received a Ph.D. from MIT. In 1957 he launched Fairchild Semiconductor, one of the first electronics firms in what came to be called Silicon Valley. Simultaneously but independently, he and Jack Kilby invented the integrated circuit computer chip in 1959. With his colleague Gordon Moore, he founded Intel Corporation. in 1968. In 1988 Noyce became president of Sematech, Inc., a research consortium formed and financed jointly by industry and the United States government to keep the United States semiconductor industry at the forefront of semiconductor manufacturing technology.
130. born Dec. 12, 1927, Burlington, Iowa, United States died June 3, 1990, Austin, Texas; United States engineer. He received a Ph.D. from MIT. In 1957 he launched Fairchild Semiconductor, one of the first electronics firms in what came to be called Silicon Valley. Simultaneously but independently, he and Jack Kilby invented the integrated circuit computer chip in 1959. With his colleague Gordon Moore, he founded Intel Corporation. in 1968. In 1988 Noyce became president of Sematech, Inc., a research consortium formed and financed jointly by industry and the United States government to keep the United States semiconductor industry at the forefront of semiconductor manufacturing technology.
131. born, April 22, 1904, New York, New York, United States died February 18, 1967, Princeton, N.J. United States theoretical physicist. He graduated from Harvard University, did research at Cambridge University and earned a doctorate from Göttingen University. He returned to the United States to teach at the California Institute of Technology (1929–47). His research focused on energy processes of subatomic particles and he trained a generation of American physicists. In World War II he was named director of the army's atomic-bomb project, later known as the Manhattan Project and set up the laboratory in Los Alamos, N.M., that remains a principal weapons-research laboratory. He directed the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton (1947–66). He strongly opposed the development of the hydrogen bomb and in 1953 he was suspended from secret nuclear research as an alleged communist sympathizer and a security risk; the case, which pitted him against Edward Teller, became a worldwide cause célèbre. In 1963 he was reinstated and awarded the Enrico Fermi Award.
132. born, April 22, 1904, New York, New York, United States died February 18, 1967, Princeton, N.J. United States theoretical physicist. He graduated from Harvard University, did research at Cambridge University and earned a doctorate from Göttingen University. He returned to the United States to teach at the California Institute of Technology (1929–47). His research focused on energy processes of subatomic particles and he trained a generation of American physicists. In World War II he was named director of the army's atomic-bomb project, later known as the Manhattan Project and set up the laboratory in Los Alamos, N.M., that remains a principal weapons-research laboratory. He directed the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton (1947–66). He strongly opposed the development of the hydrogen bomb and in 1953 he was suspended from secret nuclear research as an alleged communist sympathizer and a security risk; the case, which pitted him against Edward Teller, became a worldwide cause célèbre. In 1963 he was reinstated and awarded the Enrico Fermi Award.
133. in full Robert Gordon Orr; born March 20, 1948, Parry Sound, Ontario, Canada Canadian-born United States ice-hockey player. He was signed to a junior amateur contract by Boston Bruins scouts when he was 12. He joined the Bruins in 1966 and played with them for 10 seasons, helping them to the playoffs in eight consecutive seasons and to two Stanley Cup victories (1970, 1972). The first defenseman to lead the National Hockey League in scoring (1970, 1975), he is the only player ever recognized as the most valuable defenseman eight years in a row (1967–68 to 1974–75).; Orr (number 4), 1968; Canada Wide; Pictorial Parade/EB Inc.
134. born May 14, 1771, Newtown, Montgomeryshire, Wales; died November 17, 1858, Newtown; Welsh manufacturer and philanthropist. At his New Lanark cotton mills (Lanarkshire, Scot.), in partnership with Jeremy Bentham, he set up innovative social and industrial welfare programs, including improved housing and schools for young children. In A New View of Society (1813) he contended that character is wholly formed by one's environment. By 1817 his work had evolved into ideas presaging socialism and the cooperative movement, ideas he would spend much of his life preaching. He sponsored several experimental utopian communities of "Owenites" in Britain and the U.S., including one at New Harmony, Ind. (1825–28); where Owen lost some 80% of his fortune; all of which proved short-lived. He strongly supported early labour unions, but opposition and repression swiftly dissolved them and it was two generations before socialism again influenced unionism. He was the father of Robert Dale Owen.
135. born November 9, 1801, Glasgow, Scot. died June 24, 1877, Lake George, New York, United States U.S. social reformer. In 1825 he emigrated with his father, Robert Owen, to establish a community at New Harmony, Ind. He edited the local newspaper, the New Harmony Gazette, until 1827, when he became associated with Fanny Wright. The two eventually settled in New York City, where Owen edited the Free Enquirer and both were active in the Workingmen's Party. Owen returned to New Harmony in 1832. After serving in the Indiana legislature, he was elected to the United States House of Representatives (1843–47), where he introduced a bill establishing the Smithsonian Institution. He later served as United States minister to Italy (1855–58). A strong advocate of emancipation, he urged an end to slavery in an 1861 letter to Abraham Lincoln that was said to have influenced the president greatly.
136. orig. Leroy Robert Paige; born July 7, 1906?, Mobile, Ala., United States died June 8, 1982, Kansas City, Mo. United States baseball pitcher. Paige earned legendary fame during his many years pitching in the Negro leagues for a myriad of teams that included the Birmingham Black Barons, the Pittsburgh Crawfords, the Kansas City Monarchs and the New York Black Yankees. He also barnstormed in exhibition games and played in the Caribbean during the off season. He was about 42 years old when he was finally allowed to enter the major leagues in 1948, shortly after Jackie Robinson broke baseball's race barrier. Joining the Cleveland Indians; the oldest player to make his debut in the major leagues; he helped that team win the World Series in his first season. He retired after the 1953 season. A right-handed, loose-jointed "beanpole," standing 6 ft 4 in. (1.93 m), Paige had considerable pitching speed and a comprehensive mastery of slow-breaking deliveries. He is reputed to have won 2,000 of a total of 2,500 games pitched during his nearly 30-year career. Among Paige's many oft-quoted comments is the admonition "Don't look back, something might be gaining on you.";; Satchel Paige, 1942. UPI
137. born March 11, 1731, Boston, Mass. died May 11, 1814, Boston, Mass., United States U.S. jurist. A lawyer in his native Boston from 1757, he gained recognition as a prosecuting attorney in the murder trial of the British soldiers involved in the Boston Massacre. He was a member of the Continental Congress and a signer of the Declaration of Independence. He also served as Massachusetts' first attorney general (1777–90) and as a judge in the state supreme court (1790–1804).
138. born February 14, 1864, Harveyville, Pa., United States died February 7, 1944, Nashville, Tenn. United States sociologist. After 11 years as a newspaper reporter, Park attended various universities and studied with scholars such as John Dewey, William James, Josiah Royce and Georg Simmel. He then worked for Booker T. Washington and later taught at the University of Chicago; where he was a leading figure in the "Chicago school" of sociology, characterized by empirical research and the use of human ecology models; and at Fisk University. He is noted for his work on ethnic groups, particularly African Americans and on human ecology, a term he has been credited with coining. Park wrote Introduction to the Science of Sociology (1921) and The City (1925) with Ernest W. Burgess; Race and Culture (1950) and Human Communities (1952) were published posthumously.
139. born May 6, 1856, Cresson, Pa., United States died February 20, 1920, Washington, D.C. United States explorer. He joined the United States Navy in 1881 but was granted leaves of absence to pursue his Arctic expeditions. He explored Greenland by dog sled in 1886 and 1891, finding evidence that it was an island and returned there in 1893–94, 1895 and 1896 to transport large meteorites to the United States After announcing his intention to reach the North Pole, he made several attempts between 1898 and 1905, sailing on a specially built ship and sledding to within 175 mi (280 km) of the pole. On April 6, 1909, accompanied by Matthew Henson (1866–1955) and four Eskimo, he reached what he thought was the pole and he became widely acknowledged as the first explorer to attain that goal. (The claim of his former colleague Frederick A. Cook to have reached the pole in 1908 was later discredited.) In 1911 Peary retired from the navy with the rank of rear admiral. Examination of Peary's expedition diary and new documents in the 1980s suggested that the point he reached may have been 30–60 mi (50–100 km) short of the pole.
140. born February 5, 1788, Bury, Lancashire, Eng. died July 2, 1850, London; British prime minister (1834–35, 1841–46) and principal founder of the Conservative Party. A member of Parliament from 1809, Peel served as chief secretary for Ireland (1812–18) and resisted efforts to admit Catholics to Parliament. As home secretary (1822–27, 1828–30), he reorganized England's criminal code. He established London's first disciplined police force, whose members were nicknamed after him "bobbies" or "peelers." After a brief first term as prime minister, Peel led the newly formed Conservative Party to a strong victory in the 1841 elections and became prime minister again. He imposed an income tax, reorganized the Bank of England and initiated reforms in Ireland. Favouring reduced tariffs on imports, he repealed the Corn Laws, which caused his government to fall, but he continued to support free-trade principles in Parliament. He was the chief architect of the mid-Victorian age of stability and prosperity that he did not live to see.; Sir Robert Peel, detail of an oil painting by John Linnell, 1838; in the National Portrait Gallery,... Courtesy of The National Portrait Gallery, London
141. born October 20, 1940, Long Branch, N.J., United States American poet and critic. Pinsky was poetry editor of The New Republic from 1979 to 1986. His own poems, many of which are to be found in The Figured Wheel: New and Collected Poems (1996), often explore the meaning of ordinary acts. He also did a notable verse translation of Dante's Inferno (1994). Pinsky was poet laureate consultant from 1997 to 2000.
142. orig. Milton Rauschenberg; born October 22, 1925, Port Arthur, Texas, United States U.S. painter and graphic artist. He studied under Josef Albers. His "combine" paintings of the 1950s, incorporating objects such as soda bottles, traffic barricades and stuffed birds, anticipated the Pop art movement. In later work, he used silkscreen and other techniques to transfer images from commercial print media and his own photographs to canvas, reinforcing the images and unifying them compositionally with bold strokes of paint. His work has roots in Dada and the ready-mades of Marcel Duchamp.
143. born August 18, 1937, Santa Monica, Calif., United States U.S. film actor and director. He made his Broadway debut in 1959 and won acclaim in Barefoot in the Park (1963; film, 1967). The blond, appealing Redford began acting in films in the mid-1960s. He appeared with Paul Newman in the hits Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1969) and The Sting (1973) and also starred in The Candidate (1972), Jeremiah Johnson (1972), All the President's Men (1976), The Natural (1984), Out of Africa (1985) and Indecent Proposal (1993). His directorial debut, Ordinary People (1980, Academy Award), was followed by The Milagro Beanfield War (1988), A River Runs Through It (1992), Quiz Show (1994), The Horse Whisperer (1998) and The Legend of Bagger Vance (2000). He received an honorary Academy Award in 2001. In 1980 he founded the Sundance Institute to sponsor young filmmakers' works and by the 1990s its film festival was the major showcase for United States independent films.
144. born July 26, 1815, Posen, Prussia; died August 29, 1865, Kissingen, Bavaria; German embryologist and neurologist. He discovered and named the three germ layers of cells that develop in the early embryo: the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. He also discovered Remak fibres (nerve fibres with no myelin sheath) and Remak ganglia (neurons in the heart) and was a pioneer in electrotherapy for nervous diseases. He achieved enough eminence to obtain a lectureship at the University of Berlin despite Prussian laws barring Jews from teaching.
145. orig. Robert MacGregor; (baptized March 7, 1671, Buchanan, Stirlingshire, Scot. died Dec. 28, 1734, Balquhidder, Perthshire) Scottish Highland outlaw. Nephew of the chief of the MacGregor clan, he became a freebooter and apparently engaged in the time-honoured Border practices of cattle stealing and blackmail. After the penal laws against the MacGregors were reintroduced (1693), he took the surname Campbell and frequently signed himself Rob Roy ("Red Rob"), in reference to his red hair. He became a brigand after his financial ruin in 1712 and exacted tribute for protection against thieves. Arrested in 1722, he was pardoned in 1727. He was glamorously portrayed as a Scottish Robin Hood in Walter Scott's novel Rob Roy.
146. orig. John Stewart, earl of Carrick; born 1337; died April 4, 1406, Rothesay, Bute, Scot. King of Scotland (1390–1406). After having ruled in the name of his father, Robert II, from 1384 to 1388, he assumed the throne in his own right on his father's death. Physically disabled by a kick from a horse in 1388, he was never the real ruler of Scotland. His brother Robert, earl of Fife, later duke of Albany, governed during Robert II's last years and continued to govern throughout Robert III's reign, except for three years when Robert III's eldest son, David, duke of Rothesay, took his place. Robert III's other son became James I.
147. known as Robert Curthose; born 1054; died February 1134, Cardiff, Wales; Duke of Normandy (1087–1106). The eldest son of William I, he was named heir to Normandy but rebelled twice (ƹ 1077, ƹ 1082). Robert was exiled to Italy but returned as duke on his father's death. He pawned Normandy to his brother William II and joined the First Crusade, in which he fought bravely and helped capture Jerusalem (1099). He led an unsuccessful invasion of England after Henry I became king (1100); Henry then invaded Normandy (1105–06) and captured Robert, who spent the rest of his life as a prisoner.
148. born March 2, 1316; died April 19, 1390, Dundonald, Ayrshire, Scot. King of Scotland (1371–90). Grandson of Robert I, he served as regent during the periods of exile and of imprisonment by the English of his uncle, David II and took the throne on David's death in 1371 as the first Stuart king and thus was the founder of the house of Stuart. His reign proved anticlimactic; he had little effect on political and military affairs, taking no active part in the renewed war with England (1378–88). Succession after his death was disputed by his numerous children (legitimate and illegitimate) and their descendants.
149. known as Robert the Bruce; born July 11, 1274; died June 7, 1329, Cardross, Dumbartonshire, Scot. King of Scotland (1306–29). Though Robert was of Anglo-Norman ancestry and held lands in both England and Scotland, he sided with the Scots against England and supported the rebel William Wallace. He gained the Scottish throne in 1306 after stabbing a rival to death in a quarrel. Twice defeated by Edward I (1306), he became a fugitive, hiding on a remote island off the Irish coast. Within a year, Robert returned to Scotland and began gathering supporters and in 1314 he defeated Edward II at the Battle of Bannockburn. Edward III finally recognized him and confirmed Scottish independence in 1328.
150. Adam Robert
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Which six letter astronomical word is derived from the Greek for 'milk'? | Search Detail for astronomy - BeingSearch.com
Being Search helps find more words for games such as Combination,Permutation,Scrabble and Word With Friends, astronomy.See more.
Search Detail for astronomy
1 : A treatise on, or text-book of, the science.
2 : The science which treats of the celestial bodies, of their magnitudes, motions, distances, periods of revolution, eclipses, constitution, physical condition, and of the causes of their various phenomena.
3 : Astrology.
4 : The art or science of good eating; epicurism; the art of good cheer.
(4) words is found which contain astronomy in our database
For astronomy word found data is following....
2 : Astronomy
n.
The science which treats of the celestial bodies, of their magnitudes, motions, distances, periods of revolution, eclipses, constitution, physical condition, and of the causes of their various phenomena.
The art or science of good eating; epicurism; the art of good cheer.
This word astronomy uses (9) total characters with white space
This word astronomy uses (9) total characters with white out space
This word astronomy uses 8 unique characters: A M N O R S T Y
Number of all permutations npr for astronomy word is (40320)
Number of all combination ncr for astronomy word is (40320)
Similar matching soundex word for astronomy
This article is about the scientific study of celestial objects. For other uses, see Astronomy (disambiguation).
A star-forming region in the Large Magellanic Cloud, an irregular galaxy.
A giant Hubble mosaic of the Crab Nebula, a supernova remnant
Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It applies mathematics, physics, and chemistry, in an effort to explain the origin of those objects and phenomena and their evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, galaxies, and comets; while the phenomena include supernovae explosions, gamma ray bursts, and cosmic microwave background radiation. More generally, all astronomical phenomena that originate outside Earth's atmosphere are within the purview of astronomy. A related but distinct subject, physical cosmology, is concerned with the study of the Universe as a whole.[1]
Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences. The early civilizations in recorded history, such as the Babylonians, Greeks, Indians, Egyptians, Nubians, Iranians, Chinese, and Maya performed methodical observations of the night sky. Historically, astronomy has included disciplines as diverse as astrometry, celestial navigation, observational astronomy and the making of calendars, but professional astronomy is now often considered to be synonymous with astrophysics.[2]
During the 20th century, the field of professional astronomy split into observational and theoretical branches. Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring data from observations of astronomical objects, which is then analyzed using basic principles of physics. Theoretical astronomy is oriented toward the development of computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena. The two fields complement each other, with theoretical astronomy seeking to explain the observational results and observations being used to confirm theoretical results.
Astronomy is one of the few sciences where amateurs can still play an active role, especially in the discovery and observation of transient phenomena. Amateur astronomers have made and contributed to many important astronomical discoveries, such as finding new comets.
^
Unsöld, Albrecht; Baschek, Bodo (2001). Classical Astronomy and the Solar System - Introduction. p. 1.
Unsöld, Albrecht; Baschek, Bodo (2001). Classical Astronomy and the Solar System. pp. 6–9.
Rhymes: -ɒnəmi
Etymology[edit]
Borrowing from Old French astronomie, from Latin astronomia, from Ancient Greek ἀστρονομία (astronomía), from ἄστρον (ástron, “star”), from Proto-Indo-European *h₂stḗr (“star”) + νόμος (nómos, “arranging, regulating”), related to νέμω (némō, “I deal out”). Surface analysis astro- + -nomy.
Noun[edit]
astronomy (usually uncountable, plural astronomies)
The study of the physical universe beyond the Earth's atmosphere, including the process of mapping locations and properties of the matter and radiation in the universe.
Usage notes[edit]
The study of the physical processes which control matter and energy in the universe is commonly called astrophysics. The investigation of the origin, evolution, and fate of the universe itself is called cosmology.
Synonyms[edit]
| Galaxy (disambiguation) |
Which children's TV series, first shown in 1960, featured a town sheriff named Tex Tucker ? | Search Detail for astronomy - BeingSearch.com
Being Search helps find more words for games such as Combination,Permutation,Scrabble and Word With Friends, astronomy.See more.
Search Detail for astronomy
1 : A treatise on, or text-book of, the science.
2 : The science which treats of the celestial bodies, of their magnitudes, motions, distances, periods of revolution, eclipses, constitution, physical condition, and of the causes of their various phenomena.
3 : Astrology.
4 : The art or science of good eating; epicurism; the art of good cheer.
(4) words is found which contain astronomy in our database
For astronomy word found data is following....
2 : Astronomy
n.
The science which treats of the celestial bodies, of their magnitudes, motions, distances, periods of revolution, eclipses, constitution, physical condition, and of the causes of their various phenomena.
The art or science of good eating; epicurism; the art of good cheer.
This word astronomy uses (9) total characters with white space
This word astronomy uses (9) total characters with white out space
This word astronomy uses 8 unique characters: A M N O R S T Y
Number of all permutations npr for astronomy word is (40320)
Number of all combination ncr for astronomy word is (40320)
Similar matching soundex word for astronomy
This article is about the scientific study of celestial objects. For other uses, see Astronomy (disambiguation).
A star-forming region in the Large Magellanic Cloud, an irregular galaxy.
A giant Hubble mosaic of the Crab Nebula, a supernova remnant
Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It applies mathematics, physics, and chemistry, in an effort to explain the origin of those objects and phenomena and their evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, galaxies, and comets; while the phenomena include supernovae explosions, gamma ray bursts, and cosmic microwave background radiation. More generally, all astronomical phenomena that originate outside Earth's atmosphere are within the purview of astronomy. A related but distinct subject, physical cosmology, is concerned with the study of the Universe as a whole.[1]
Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences. The early civilizations in recorded history, such as the Babylonians, Greeks, Indians, Egyptians, Nubians, Iranians, Chinese, and Maya performed methodical observations of the night sky. Historically, astronomy has included disciplines as diverse as astrometry, celestial navigation, observational astronomy and the making of calendars, but professional astronomy is now often considered to be synonymous with astrophysics.[2]
During the 20th century, the field of professional astronomy split into observational and theoretical branches. Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring data from observations of astronomical objects, which is then analyzed using basic principles of physics. Theoretical astronomy is oriented toward the development of computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena. The two fields complement each other, with theoretical astronomy seeking to explain the observational results and observations being used to confirm theoretical results.
Astronomy is one of the few sciences where amateurs can still play an active role, especially in the discovery and observation of transient phenomena. Amateur astronomers have made and contributed to many important astronomical discoveries, such as finding new comets.
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Unsöld, Albrecht; Baschek, Bodo (2001). Classical Astronomy and the Solar System - Introduction. p. 1.
Unsöld, Albrecht; Baschek, Bodo (2001). Classical Astronomy and the Solar System. pp. 6–9.
Rhymes: -ɒnəmi
Etymology[edit]
Borrowing from Old French astronomie, from Latin astronomia, from Ancient Greek ἀστρονομία (astronomía), from ἄστρον (ástron, “star”), from Proto-Indo-European *h₂stḗr (“star”) + νόμος (nómos, “arranging, regulating”), related to νέμω (némō, “I deal out”). Surface analysis astro- + -nomy.
Noun[edit]
astronomy (usually uncountable, plural astronomies)
The study of the physical universe beyond the Earth's atmosphere, including the process of mapping locations and properties of the matter and radiation in the universe.
Usage notes[edit]
The study of the physical processes which control matter and energy in the universe is commonly called astrophysics. The investigation of the origin, evolution, and fate of the universe itself is called cosmology.
Synonyms[edit]
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"About which controversial Irish individual did Margaret Thatcher say, in 1981, ""crime is crime, it is not political"" shortly before his death ?" | Margaret Thatcher - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Margaret Thatcher
Thatcher redirects here. For other meanings see Thatcher (disambiguation) .
The Rt Hon. Baroness Thatcher, LG, OM, PC, FRS
Sir Denis Thatcher, Bt.
Signature
Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, LG , OM , PC , FRS (born 13 October 1925 ) was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990.
Thatcher was the longest-serving British Prime Minister since William Gladstone , and had the longest continuous period in office since Lord Liverpool in the early nineteenth century. She is also the only woman to have served as Prime Minister, one of only two women to have led a major political party in the UK, and one of only two to have held any of the four great offices of state (the second being Margaret Beckett ). Undoubtedly one of the most significant British politicians in recent political history, she is also one of the most divisive, being loved and loathed on different sides of the political spectrum.
Contents
12 External links
[ edit ] Early life and education
Thatcher was born Margaret Hilda Roberts in the town of Grantham in Lincolnshire , England . Her father was Alfred Roberts , who owned a grocer's shop in the town, was active in local politics (serving as an Alderman ), and was a Methodist lay preacher . Roberts came from a Liberal family but stood—as was then customary in local government—as an Independent. He lost his post as Alderman in 1952 after the Labour Party won its first majority on Grantham Council in 1950. Her mother was Beatrice Roberts née Stephenson, and she had one sister, Muriel (1921-2004). Thatcher was brought up a devout Methodist and has remained a Christian throughout her life. [1]
Thatcher performed well academically, attending Kesteven and Grantham Girls' School and subsequently going up to Somerville College , Oxford in 1944 to study Chemistry . She became President of the Oxford University Conservative Association in 1946, the third woman to hold the post. She graduated with a second-class degree and worked as a research chemist for British Xylonite and then J. Lyons and Co. , where she helped develop methods for preserving ice cream . She was a member of the team that developed the first soft frozen ice cream. She was also a member of the Association of Scientific Workers .
[ edit ] Political career between 1950 and 1970
At the 1950 and 1951 elections, Margaret Roberts fought the safe Labour seat of Dartford , and was at the time the youngest ever female Conservative candidate for office. While active in the Conservative Party in Kent , she met Denis Thatcher , whom she married in 1951. Denis was a wealthy businessman and he funded his wife's studies for the Bar . She qualified as a barrister in 1953, the same year that her twin children Carol and Mark were born. As a lawyer she specialised in tax law.
Thatcher then began to look for a safe Conservative seat and was narrowly rejected as candidate for Orpington in 1954. She had several other rejections before being selected for Finchley in April 1958. She won the seat easily in the 1959 election and took her seat in the House of Commons . Unusually, her maiden speech was in support of her Private Member's Bill ( Public Bodies (Admission to Meetings) Act 1960 ) to force local councils to hold meetings in public, which was successful. In 1961 she went against her party's line by voting for the restoration of birching .
She was given early promotion to the front bench as Parliamentary Secretary at the Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance in September 1961, retaining the post until the Conservatives lost power in the 1964 election . When Sir Alec Douglas-Home stepped down Thatcher voted for Edward Heath in the leadership election over Reginald Maudling , and was rewarded with the job of Conservative spokesman on Housing and Land. Shrewdly she adopted the policy of selling Council Houses to their tenants that had been developed by her colleague James Allason : it would prove popular in succeeding elections [1] . She moved to the Shadow Treasury team after 1966.
Thatcher was one of few Conservative MPs to support Leo Abse 's Bill to decriminalise male homosexuality , and she voted in favour of David Steel 's Bill to legalise abortion . However, she was opposed to the abolition of capital punishment and voted against making divorce more easily attainable. She made her mark as a conference speaker in 1966, with a strong attack on the high-tax policies of the Labour Government as being steps "not only towards Socialism , but towards Communism ". She won promotion to the Shadow Cabinet as Shadow Fuel Spokesman in 1967, and was then promoted to shadow Transport and, finally, Education before the 1970 election .
[ edit ] In Heath's Cabinet
When the Conservative party under Edward Heath won the 1970 general election, Thatcher became Secretary of State for Education and Science . In her first months in office, forced to administer a cut in the Education budget, she was responsible for the abolition of universal free milk for school-children aged seven to eleven (Labour had already abolished it for secondary schools). This led to one of the more unflattering names for her, "Mrs. Thatcher, Milk Snatcher". Cabinet papers show that she spoke against the move in Cabinet, but was forced, due to the concept of collective responsibility, to implement the will of her fellow ministers. [2] This provoked a storm of public protest. She also successfully resisted library book charges.
Her term was marked by support for several proposals for more local education authorities to close grammar schools and adopt comprehensive secondary education , even though this was widely perceived as a left-wing policy. Thatcher also saved the Open University from being abolished. The Chancellor Anthony Barber actually wanted to abolish it as a budget-cutting measure, for he viewed it as a gimmick by Harold Wilson . Thatcher believed it was a relatively inexpensive way of extending higher education and insisted that the University should experiment with admitting school-leavers as well as adults. In her memoirs, Thatcher wrote that she was not part of Heath's inner circle, and had little or no influence on the key government decisions outside her department.
After the Conservative defeat in February 1974 , she was moved again, to Shadow Environment Secretary. In this position she promised to abolish the rating system that paid for local government services, which proved a popular policy within the Conservative Party.
[ edit ] As Leader of the Opposition
Margaret Thatcher as Leader of the Opposition in 1975
Thatcher agreed with Sir Keith Joseph and the CPS that the Heath Government had lost control of monetary policy -- and had lost direction -- following its 1972 U-turn . After her party lost the second election of 1974 , Joseph decided to challenge Heath's leadership but later withdrew. Thatcher then decided that she would enter the race on behalf of the Josephite/CPS faction. Unexpectedly she outpolled Heath on the first ballot, forcing him to resign the leadership. On the second ballot, she defeated Heath's preferred successor William Whitelaw , by 146 votes to 79, and became Conservative Party leader on 11 February 1975 . She appointed Whitelaw as her deputy. Heath remained bitter towards Thatcher to the end of his life for what he perceived as her disloyalty in standing against him.
On 19 January 1976 , she made a speech in Kensington Town Hall in which she made a scathing attack on the Soviet Union . The most famous part of her speech ran:
"The Russians are bent on world dominance, and they are rapidly acquiring the means to become the most powerful imperial nation the world has seen. The men in the Soviet Politburo do not have to worry about the ebb and flow of public opinion. They put guns before butter , while we put just about everything before guns."
In response, the Soviet Defence Ministry newspaper Krasnaya Zvezda (" Red Star ") gave her the nickname " Iron Lady ", which was soon publicised by Radio Moscow . She took delight in the name and it soon became associated with her image as an unwavering and steadfast character.
Thatcher appointed many Heath supporters to the Shadow Cabinet and throughout her administrations sought to have a cabinet that reflected the broad range of opinions in the Conservative Party. This was particularly true in the 1976-9 period as Thatcher had won the leadership as an outsider and had little power base of her own within the party. Thatcher had to act cautiously to convert the Conservative Party to her monetarist beliefs. She reversed Heath's support for devolved government for Scotland . In an interview for Granada Television 's World in Action programme in January 1978, she said "people are really rather afraid that this country might be rather swamped by people with a different culture", arousing particular controversy at the time. [3] She received 10,000 letters thanking her for raising the subject and the Conservatives gained a lead against Labour in the opinion polls, from both parties at 43% before the speech to 48% for Conservative and 39% for Labour immediately after. [2]
During the 1979 General Election , most opinion polls showed that voters preferred James Callaghan as Prime Minister even as the Conservative Party maintained a lead in the polls. The Labour Government ran into difficulties with the industrial disputes, strikes, high unemployment, and collapsing public services during the winter of 1978-9, dubbed the ' Winter of Discontent '. The Conservatives used campaign posters with slogans such as "Labour Isn't Working" (see [4] ) to attack the government's record over unemployment and its over-regulation of the labour market.
James Callaghan 's Labour government fell after a successful Motion of no confidence in spring 1979 and in the general election of 1979 the Conservatives won a 44-seat majority in the House of Commons and Margaret Thatcher became the United Kingdom's first female Prime Minister. On arriving at 10 Downing Street , she famously said, in a paraphrase of St. Francis of Assisi :
"Where there is discord, may we bring harmony. Where there is error, may we bring truth. Where there is doubt, may we bring faith. And where there is despair, may we bring hope."
[ edit ] As Prime Minister
Margaret Thatcher and Kenneth Kaunda
Thatcher became the first female Prime Minister on 4 May 1979 , with a mandate to reverse the UK's economic decline and to reduce the role of the state in the economy. Thatcher was incensed by one contemporary view within the Civil Service , that its job was to manage the UK's decline from the days of Empire , and she wanted the country to assert a higher level of influence and leadership in international affairs . She was a philosophic soulmate of Ronald Reagan , elected in 1980 in the United States , and to a lesser extent Brian Mulroney , who was elected in 1984 in Canada . It seemed for a time that conservatism might be the dominant political philosophy in the major English-speaking nations for the era.
In May 1980, one day before she was due to meet the Irish Taoiseach , Charles Haughey , to discuss Northern Ireland , she announced in the House of Commons that "the future of the constitutional affairs of Northern Ireland is a matter for the people of Northern Ireland, this government, this parliament, and no-one else."
In 1981, a number of Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) and Irish National Liberation Army prisoners in Northern Ireland 's Maze prison (known in Ireland as 'Long Kesh', its previous name) went on hunger strike to regain the status of political prisoners , which had been revoked five years earlier under the preceding Labour government. Bobby Sands , the first of the strikers, was elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for the constituency of Fermanagh and South Tyrone a few weeks before he died.
Thatcher refused at first to countenance a return to political status for republican prisoners, famously declaring "Crime is crime is crime; it is not political." However, after nine more men had starved themselves to death and the strike had ended, and in the face of growing anger on both sides of the border and widespread civil unrest, some rights relating to political status were restored to paramilitary prisoners.
Thatcher also continued the policy of " Ulsterisation " of the previous Labour government and its Secretary of State for Northern Ireland , Roy Mason , believing that the Unionists of Northern Ireland should be at the forefront in combating Irish republicanism . This meant relieving the burden on the mainstream British army and elevating the role of the Ulster Defence Regiment and the Royal Ulster Constabulary .
As a monetarist, Thatcher started out in her economic policy by increasing interest rates to slow the growth of the money supply and thus lower inflation. She had a preference for indirect taxation over taxes on income, and value added tax (VAT) was raised sharply to 15%, with a resultant actual short-term rise in inflation. These moves hit businesses -- especially the manufacturing sector -- and unemployment quickly passed two million, doubling the one million unemployed under the previous Labour government.
Political commentators harked back to the Heath Government's "U-turn" and speculated that Mrs Thatcher would follow suit, but she repudiated this approach at the 1980 Conservative Party conference, telling the party: "To those waiting with bated breath for that favourite media catch-phrase—the U-turn—I have only one thing to say: you turn if you want to; the Lady's not for turning." [3] That she meant what she said was confirmed in the 1981 budget, when, despite concerns expressed in an open letter from 364 leading economists, taxes were increased in the middle of a recession. In January 1982, the inflation rate dropped to single digits and interest rates were then allowed to fall. Unemployment continued to rise, reaching an official figure of 3.6 million — although the criteria for defining who was unemployed were amended allowing some to estimate that unemployment in fact hit 5 million. However, Norman Tebbit has suggested that, due to the high number of people claiming unemployment benefit whilst working, unemployment never reached three million.
By 1983, manufacturing output had dropped 30% from 1978.
Main article: Falklands War
In the Argentina of the 1980s an unstable military junta held power and was keen on reversing its widespread unpopularity caused by the country's poor economic performance. On 2 April 1982 , it invaded the Falkland Islands , known to the Argentinians as Islas Malvinas , the only invasion of a British territory since World War II . Argentina has claimed the islands since an 1830s dispute on their settlement. Within days, Thatcher sent a naval task force to recapture the Islands. Despite the huge logistical difficulties, the task force was successful, resulting in a wave of patriotic enthusiasm and support for her, at a time when her popularity had been at an all-time low for a serving Prime Minister.[ citation needed ]
[ edit ] 1983 General Election
This 'Falklands Factor', along with signs of economic recovery in early 1983, greatly aided the government's cause. The Labour party had split, and there was a new challenge to the political centre, the SDP-Liberal Alliance , formed by an electoral pact between the Social Democratic Party and the Liberal Party . However, this grouping of uncertain cohesion failed to make its intended breakthrough, despite briefly holding an opinion poll lead. In the June 1983 general election , the Conservatives won 42.4% of the vote, the Labour party 27.6% and the Alliance 25.4% of the vote. Although the Conservatives' share of the vote had fallen slightly (1.5%) since 1979, Labour's vote had fallen by far more (9.3%) and the large lead over the second-place party was translated by Britain's system of first past the post into a Conservative landslide . Under Margaret Thatcher, the Conservatives had won with a majority of 144 over the other parties.
[ edit ] 1983–1987
Thatcher was committed to reducing the power of the trade unions but, unlike the Heath government, adopted a strategy of incremental change rather than a single Act. Several unions launched strikes in defence of their rights to represent workers, [ citation needed ] but all the actions eventually collapsed without successfully effecting any real change to the policy. Gradually, Thatcher's reforms reduced the power and influence of workers' unions, the successive pieces of legislation restricting the permitted mandates of union representation ever further. The changes were chiefly focused upon preventing the recurrence of the large-scale industrial actions of the past, but were also intended to assure that the consequences for the participants would be severe if any future action was taken. The reforms were also aimed,Thatcher claimed, to democratise the unions, and return power to the members. The most significant measures were to make secondary industrial action illegal, to make it illegal for a union leadership to call strike action without first winning a ballot of the union membership, and to make the closed shop illegal. Further laws banned workplace ballots and imposed postal ballots.
The strikes carried out in 1984-85 by the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) in opposition to proposals to close a large number of mines, proved decisive. Thatcher had made preparations to counter a strike by the NUM long in advance by building up coal stocks, ensuring that cuts in the electricity supply, like those experienced during the industrial disputes of 1972, would not be required to protect the supply. Police tactics during the strikes greatly concerned civil libertarians , but the images of crowds of militant miners attempting to prevent other miners from working proved a shock even to some supporters of the strikes. Mounting desperation and poverty of the striking families - who went without any income at all whilst committed to the strike - led to divisions being formed between the miners. A group of workers, resigned to the impending failure of the actions and worn down by months of protests, began to defy the Union's rulings, starting splinter groups and advising workers that return to work was the only option remaining: the battle had already been lost.
The Miners' Strike lasted a full year before the NUM leadership conceded without a deal. The Conservative government proceeded to close all but 15 of the country's pits, with the remaining 15 being sold off and privatised in 1994. Private companies have since then acquired licences to open new pits and open-cast sites, with the majority of the original mines being destroyed and the land redeveloped. The defeat of the miners' strike led to a long period of demoralization in the whole of the trade union movement.
Following the arrest of the Coventry Four for breaching the UN arms embargo against apartheid South Africa in March 1984, and their repatriation to South Africa on bail, Thatcher invited apartheid South Africa 's president, P.W. Botha , and foreign minister, Pik Botha , to Chequers in June 1984 in an effort to stave off growing international pressure for the imposition of economic sanctions against South Africa, where Britain had invested heavily. She reportedly urged President Botha to end apartheid; to release Nelson Mandela ; to halt the harassment of black dissidents; to stop the bombing of African National Congress (ANC) bases in front-line states; and to comply with UN Security Council resolutions and withdraw from Namibia . [4] However Botha ignored these demands.
In an interview with Hugo Young for The Guardian in July 1986, Thatcher expressed her belief that economic sanctions against South Africa would be immoral because they would make thousands of black workers unemployed. [5] Because Pik Botha refused to allow the Coventry Four to return to England for their trial in the autumn of 1984, the £200,000 bail money had to be surrendered to the High Court. [6]
On the early morning of October 12 , 1984 , the day before her 59th birthday, Thatcher escaped injury in the Brighton hotel bombing when the hotel she was staying in for the Conservative Party Conference was bombed by the Provisional Irish Republican Army. Five people died in the attack, including Roberta Wakeham, wife of the government's Chief Whip John Wakeham , and the Conservative MP Sir Anthony Berry . A prominent member of the Cabinet, Norman Tebbit , was injured, along with his wife Margaret, who was left paralysed. Thatcher herself would have been injured if not for the fact that she was delayed from using the bathroom (which suffered more damage than the room she was in at the time the IRA bomb detonated). [5] Thatcher insisted that the conference open on time the next day and made her speech as planned in defiance of the bombers, a gesture which won widespread approval across the political spectrum.
On November 15 , 1985 , Thatcher signed the Hillsborough Anglo-Irish Agreement with Irish Prime Minister Garret FitzGerald , the first time a British government gave the Republic of Ireland a say (albeit advisory) in the governance of Northern Ireland. The agreement was greeted with fury by Northern Irish unionists. The Ulster Unionists and Democratic Unionists made an electoral pact and on January 23 , 1986 , staged an ad-hoc referendum by resigning their seats and contesting the subsequent by-elections, losing only one, to the nationalist Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP). However, unlike the Sunningdale Agreement of 1974, they found they could not bring the agreement down by a general strike. This was another effect of the changed balance of power in industrial relations .
Thatcher's political and economic philosophy emphasised free markets and entrepreneurialism . Since gaining power, she had experimented in selling off a small nationalised company, the National Freight Company, to its workers, with a surprisingly positive response. After the 1983 election, the Government became bolder and, starting with British Telecom , sold off most of the large utilities which had been in public ownership since the late 1940s. Many in the public took advantage of share offers, although many sold their shares immediately for a quick profit. The policy of privatisation , while anathema to many on the left, has become synonymous with Thatcherism . Wider share-ownership and council house sales became known as " popular capitalism " to its supporters.
In the Cold War , Mrs Thatcher supported Ronald Reagan 's policies of deterrence against the Soviets. This contrasted with the policy of détente which the West had pursued during the 1970s, and caused friction with allies who still adhered to the idea of détente. US forces were permitted by Mrs. Thatcher to station nuclear cruise missiles at British bases, arousing mass protests by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament . However, she later was the first Western leader to respond warmly to the rise of reformist Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev , declaring that she liked him and describing him as "a man we can do business with" after a meeting in 1984, three months before he came to power. This was a start of a move by the West back to a new détente with the USSR under Gorbachev's leadership which coincided with the final erosion of Soviet power prior to the turbulence of 1991 and the collapse of the Union. Thatcher outlasted the Cold War, which ended in 1989, and voices who share her views on it credit her with a part in the West's victory, by both the deterrence and détente postures.
Also in 1985, as a deliberate snub, the University of Oxford voted to refuse her an honorary degree in protest against her cuts in funding for education. [6] This award had always previously been given to Prime Ministers that had been educated at Oxford.
She supported the US bombing raid on Libya from bases in the UK in 1986 in defiance of other North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) allies. Her liking for defence ties with the United States was demonstrated in the Westland affair when she acted with colleagues to allow the helicopter manufacturer Westland , a vital defence contractor, to refuse to link with the Italian firm Agusta in order for it to link with the management's preferred option, Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation of the United States. Defence Secretary Michael Heseltine , who had pushed the Agusta deal, resigned in protest at her style of leadership, and remained an influential critic and potential leadership challenger. He would, eventually, prove instrumental in Thatcher's fall in 1990.
In 1986, her government controversially abolished the Greater London Council (GLC), then led by radical left-winger Ken Livingstone , and six Metropolitan County Councils (MCCs). The government claimed this was an efficiency measure. However, Thatcher's opponents held that the move was politically motivated, as all of the abolished councils were controlled by Labour, had become powerful centres of opposition to her government, and were in favour of higher public spending by local government. Several of them had however rendered themselves vulnerable by committing hard-pressed public funds to causes widely seen as political and even extreme.
Thatcher had two noted foreign policy successes in her second term.
In 1984, she visited China and signed the Sino-British Joint Declaration with Deng Xiaoping on 19 December , which committed the People's Republic of China to award Hong Kong the status of a "Special Administrative Region". Under the terms of the so-called One Country, Two Systems agreement, China was obliged to leave Hong Kong's economic status unchanged after the handover on July 1 , 1997 for a period of fifty years – until 2047.
At the Dublin European Council in November 1979, Mrs Thatcher argued that the United Kingdom paid far more to the European Economic Community than it received in spending. She famously declared at the summit: "We are not asking the Community or anyone else for money. We are simply asking to have our own money back". Her arguments were successful and at the June 1984 Fontainbleau Summit, the EEC agreed on an annual rebate for the United Kingdom, amounting to 66% of the difference between Britain's EU contributions and receipts. This still remains in effect, although Tony Blair later agreed to significantly reduce the size of the rebate. It periodically causes political controversy among the members of the European Union .[ citation needed ]
[ edit ] 1987–1990
By winning the 1987 general election , on the economic boom and against a Labour opposition advocating unilateral nuclear disarmament, with a 102 majority, she became the longest continuously serving Prime Minister of the United Kingdom since Lord Liverpool (1812 to 1827), and the first to win three successive elections since Lord Palmerston in 1865 . Most United Kingdom newspapers supported her—with the exception of The Daily Mirror , The Guardian and The Independent —and were rewarded with regular press briefings by her press secretary, Bernard Ingham . She was known as "Maggie" in the tabloids , which inspired the well-known protest slogan " Maggie Out !", chanted throughout that period by some of her opponents. Her unpopularity on the left is evident from the lyrics of several contemporary popular songs: "Stand Down Margaret" ( The Beat ), "Tramp The Dirt Down" ( Elvis Costello ), "Dear Margaret" ( The Kinks ), "Margaret On The Guillotine" ( Morrissey ), some songs from Pink Floyd's ¨The Final Cut¨, and "Mother Knows Best" ( Richard Thompson ).
Though an early backer of decriminalization of male homosexuality (see above), Thatcher, at the 1987 Conservative party conference, issued the statement that "Children who need to be taught to respect traditional moral values are being taught that they have an inalienable right to be gay". Backbench Conservative MPs and Peers had already begun a backlash against the 'promotion' of homosexuality and, in December 1987, the controversial ' Section 28 ' was added as an amendment to what became the Local Government Act 1988 . This legislation has since been abolished by Tony Blair's Labour administration.
Welfare reforms in her third term created an adult Employment Training system that included full-time work done for the dole plus a £10 top-up, on the workfare model from the US .
In the late 1980s, Thatcher, a former chemist, became concerned with environmental issues, which she had previously dismissed: "When you've spent half your political life dealing with humdrum issues like the environment, it's exciting to have a real crisis on your hands", she said in relation to the Falklands conflict.
In 1988, she made a major speech accepting the problems of global warming , ozone depletion and acid rain . In 1990, she opened the Hadley Centre for climate prediction and research. [7] . In her book Statecraft (2002), she described her later regret in supporting the concept of human-induced global warming, outlining the negative effects she perceived it had upon the policy-making process. "Whatever international action we agree upon to deal with environmental problems, we must enable our economies to grow and develop, because without growth you cannot generate the wealth required to pay for the protection of the environment" (452).
At Bruges, Belgium , in 1988, Thatcher made a speech in which she outlined her opposition to proposals from the European Community for a federal structure and increasing centralisation of decision-making. Although she had supported British membership, Thatcher believed that the role of the EC should be limited to ensuring free trade and effective competition, and feared that new EC regulations would reverse the changes she was making in the UK. "We have not successfully rolled back the frontiers of the state in Britain, only to see them re-imposed at a European level, with a European super-state exercising a new dominance from Brussels". She was specifically against Economic and Monetary Union , through which a single currency would replace national currencies, and for which the EC was making preparations. The speech caused an outcry from other European leaders, and exposed for the first time the deep split that was emerging over European policy inside her Conservative Party.
Thatcher's popularity once again declined, in 1989, as the economy suffered from high interest rates imposed to stop an unsustainable boom . She blamed her Chancellor, Nigel Lawson , who had been following an economic policy which was a preparation for monetary union; in an interview for the Financial Times, in November 1987, Thatcher claimed not to have been told of this and did not approve. [8]
At a meeting before the Madrid European Community summit in June 1989, Lawson and Foreign Secretary Geoffrey Howe forced Thatcher to agree the circumstances under which she would join the Exchange Rate Mechanism , a preparation for monetary union. At the meeting, they both claimed they would resign if their demands were not agreed to by Thatcher. [7] Thatcher took revenge on both by demoting Howe and by listening more to her adviser Sir Alan Walters on economic matters. Lawson resigned that October, feeling that Thatcher had undermined him.
That November, Thatcher was challenged for the leadership of the Conservative Party by Sir Anthony Meyer . As Meyer was a virtually unknown backbench MP, he was viewed as a stalking horse candidate for more prominent members of the party. Thatcher easily defeated Meyer's challenge, but there were sixty ballot papers either cast for Meyer or abstaining, a surprisingly large number for a sitting Prime Minister. Her supporters in the Party, however, viewed the results as a success, claiming that after ten years as Prime Minister and with approximately 370 Conservative MPs voting, the opposition was surprisingly small. [9]
Thatcher's new system to replace local government taxes, outlined in the Conservative manifesto for the 1987 election, was introduced in Scotland in 1989 and in England and Wales in 1990. The rates were replaced by the Community Charge (more widely known as the " poll tax "), which applied the same amount to every individual resident, with discounts for low earners. This was to be the most universally unpopular policy of her premiership.
Additional problems emerged when many of the tax rates set by local councils proved to be much higher than earlier predictions. Opponents of the Community Charge banded together to resist bailiffs and disrupt court hearings of Community Charge debtors . The Labour MP, Terry Fields , was jailed for 60 days for refusing on principle to pay his Community Charge. As Mrs Thatcher continued to refuse to compromise on the tax, up to 18 million people refused to pay,[ citation needed ] enforcement measures became increasingly draconian, and unrest mounted and culminated in a number of riots . The most serious of these happened in London on March 31 , 1990 , during a protest at Trafalgar Square , London , which more than 200,000 protesters attended. The huge unpopularity of the tax was a major factor in Thatcher's downfall.
One of Thatcher's final acts in office was to put pressure on US President George H. W. Bush to deploy troops to the Middle East to drive Saddam Hussein 's army out of Kuwait . Bush was somewhat apprehensive about the plan, but Thatcher famously told him that this was "no time to go wobbly!"
On the Friday before the Conservative Party conference in October 1990, Thatcher ordered her new Chancellor of the Exchequer John Major to reduce interest rates by 1%. Major persuaded her that the only way to maintain monetary stability was to join the Exchange Rate Mechanism at the same time, despite not meeting the 'Madrid conditions'. The Conservative Party conference that year saw a large degree of unity; few who attended could have imagined that Mrs Thatcher had only a matter of weeks left in office.
[ edit ] Fall from power
See also: Conservative Party (UK) leadership election, 1990
Mrs Thatcher's political "assassination" was, according to witnesses such as Alan Clark, one of the most dramatic episodes in British political history. The idea of a long-serving prime minister - undefeated at the polls - being ousted by an internal party ballot, might at first sight seem like an improbable one. However, by 1990, opposition to Thatcher's policies on local government taxation, her Government's perceived mishandling of the economy (in particular, high interest rates of 15%, which were eroding her support base among homeowners and businesspeople), and the divisions opening in the Conservative Party over European integration made her and her party seem increasingly politically vulnerable.
On 1 November 1990 , Sir Geoffrey Howe , one of Thatcher's oldest and staunchest supporters, resigned from his position as Deputy Prime Minister in protest at Thatcher's European policy. In his resignation speech in the House of Commons two weeks later, he suggested that the time had come for "others to consider their own response to the tragic conflict of loyalties" with which he stated that he had wrestled for perhaps too long. Her former cabinet colleague Michael Heseltine subsequently challenged her for the leadership of the party, and attracted sufficient support in the first round of voting to prolong the contest to a second ballot. Though she initially stated that she intended to contest the second ballot, Thatcher decided, after consulting with her Cabinet colleagues, to withdraw from the contest. On 22 November , at just after 9.30 a.m., she announced to the Cabinet that she would not be a candidate in the second ballot. Shortly afterwards, her staff made public what was, in effect, her resignation statement:
Having consulted widely among my colleagues, I have concluded that the unity of the Party and the prospects of victory in a General Election would be better served if I stood down to enable Cabinet colleagues to enter the ballot for the leadership. I should like to thank all those in Cabinet and outside who have given me such dedicated support.
Neil Kinnock , Leader of the Opposition, proposed a motion of no confidence in the government; and Margaret Thatcher seized the opportunity this presented on the day of her resignation to deliver one of her most memorable performances:
"... a single currency is about the politics of Europe, it is about a federal Europe by the back door. So I shall consider the proposal of the Honourable Member for Bolsover ( Mr. Skinner ). Now where were we? I am enjoying this."
She supported John Major as her successor and he duly won the leadership contest. After her resignation a MORI poll found that 52% agreed that "On balance she had been good for the country", with 48% agreeing that she had been "bad". [8] In 1991, she was given a long and unprecedented standing ovation at the party's annual conference, although she politely rejected calls from delegates for her to make a speech. She did, however, occasionally speak in the House of Commons after she was Prime Minister. She retired from the House at the 1992 election .
[ edit ] Post-political career
Margaret Thatcher visits the former Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet during his house arrest in London, in 1998
In 1992, Margaret Thatcher was raised to the House of Lords by the conferment of a life peerage as Baroness Thatcher, of Kesteven in the County of Lincolnshire, upon her. She did not take a hereditary title, as she had recommended for Harold Macmillan , later Earl of Stockton, on his ninetieth birthday in 1984. She has explained that she thought she hadn't sufficient means to 'support' an hereditary title [ citation needed ]. By virtue of the life barony, she entered the House of Lords . She made a series of speeches in the Lords criticising the Maastricht Treaty , describing it as "a treaty too far" and in June 1993 told the Lords: "I could never have signed this treaty". [10] She also advocated a referendum on the treaty, citing A. V. Dicey , since all three main parties were in favour of it and that therefore the people should have their say. [11]
In August 1992, she called for NATO to stop the Serbian assault on Gorazde and Sarajevo in order to end ethnic cleansing and to preserve the Bosnian state. She claimed what was happening in Bosnia was "reminiscent of the worst excesses of the Nazis ". [9] In December of that same year she warned that there could be a "holocaust" in Bosnia and, after the first massacre at Srebrenica in April 1993, Thatcher thought it was a "killing field the like of which I thought we would never see in Europe again". She reportedly said to Douglas Hurd, the Foreign Secretary: "Douglas, Douglas, you would make Neville Chamberlain look like a warmonger". [10]
She had already been honoured by the Queen in 1990, shortly after her resignation as Prime Minister, when she was appointed to the Order of Merit , one of the UK's highest distinctions. In addition, her husband, Denis Thatcher, had been given a baronetcy in 1991 (ensuring that their son Mark would inherit a title). This was the first creation of a baronetcy since 1965. In 1995, Thatcher was raised to the Order of the Garter , the United Kingdom's highest order of Chivalry .
In July 1992, she was hired by tobacco giant Philip Morris Companies , now the Altria Group , as a "geopolitical consultant" for US$250,000 per year and an annual contribution of US$250,000 to her Foundation.
From 1993 to 2000, she served as Chancellor of the College of William and Mary , Virginia, USA, which was established by Royal Charter in 1693. She was also Chancellor of the University of Buckingham , the UK's only private university. She retired from the post in 1998.
She wrote her memoirs in two volumes, The Path to Power and The Downing Street Years. In 1993 The Downing Street Years were televised by the BBC, where she described the Cabinet rebellion that brought about her resignation as "treachery with a smile on its face".
Although she remained supportive in public, in private she made her displeasure with many of John Major's policies plain, and her views were conveyed to the press and widely reported. She was critical of the rise in public spending under Major, tax increases and his more favourable attitude to European integration . After Tony Blair 's election as Labour Party leader in 1994, Thatcher gave an interview in May 1995 in which she praised Blair as "probably the most formidable Labour leader since Hugh Gaitskell . I see a lot of socialism behind their front bench, but not in Mr Blair. I think he genuinely has moved". [12]
In the Conservative leadership election in the aftermath of the Conservatives' landslide defeat at the hands of New Labour , Thatcher voiced her support for William Hague after Kenneth Clarke entered into an alliance with John Redwood . Thatcher reportedly then toured the tea room of the House of Commons, urging Conservative MPs to vote for Hague.
In 1998, Thatcher made a highly publicised visit to the former Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet , while he was under house arrest in Surrey, during which she expressed her support for and friendship with him (see [13] ). Pinochet had been a key ally in the Falklands War . Thatcher and Pinochet are both members of the Rotary International . During the same year, she made a £2,000,000 donation to Cambridge University for the endowment of a Margaret Thatcher Chair in Entrepreneurial Studies. She also donated the archive of her personal papers to Churchill College, Cambridge where the collection continues to be expanded.
Margaret Thatcher actively supported the Conservative general election campaign in 2001 . In the Conservative leadership election shortly after, Lady Thatcher came out in support of Iain Duncan Smith because she believed he would "make infinitely the better leader" than Kenneth Clarke due to Clarke's "old-fashioned views of the role of the state and his unbounded enthusiasm for European integration". [14]
In 2002, she published Statecraft: Strategies for a Changing World detailing her thoughts on international relations since her resignation in 1990. The chapters on the European Union were particularly controversial; she called for a fundamental renegotiation of Britain's membership to preserve the UK's sovereignty and, if that failed, for Britain to leave and join NAFTA . These chapters were serialised in The Times on Monday, 18 March and caused a political furore for the rest of the week until Friday, 22 March when it was announced she had been advised by her doctors to make no more public speeches on health grounds, having suffered several small strokes. [15]
She remains active in various groups, including the Conservative Way Forward group, the Bruges Group and the European Foundation . She was widowed on 26 June 2003 .
On June 11 , 2004 , Thatcher attended the funeral, and delivered a tribute via videotape to former United States President Ronald Reagan at his state funeral at the National Cathedral in Washington, D.C.
Thatcher attends the official Washington, D.C. memorial service marking the 5th anniversary of the 9/11 terror attacks, pictured with Vice President Dick Cheney and his wife Lynne Cheney .
In December 2004, it was reported that Thatcher had told a private meeting of Conservative MPs that she was against the British Government's plan to introduce identity cards . She is said to have remarked that ID cards were a "Germanic concept and completely alien to this country". [16]
On 13 October 2005 , Thatcher marked her 80th birthday with a party at the Mandarin Oriental Hotel in Hyde Park where the guests included Her Majesty the Queen and HRH The Duke of Edinburgh . There, Geoffrey Howe, now Lord Howe of Aberavon, commented on her political career: "Her real triumph was to have transformed not just one party but two, so that when Labour did eventually return, the great bulk of Thatcherism was accepted as irreversible."
In September, 2006, Thatcher attended the official Washington, D.C. memorial service marking the 5th anniversary of the 9/11 terror attacks. She attended as a guest of the U.S. Vice President, Dick Cheney , and met with U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice during her visit. It marked her first visit to the United States since the funeral for former U.S. Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger in April 2006. [17]
On 12 November 2006 , she appeared at the Remembrance Day parade at the Cenotaph in London, leaning heavily on the arm of former Prime Minister, John Major . One week later, she released a an effusive statement of condolence on the death of her friend and economic mentor, Milton Friedman , the man often described as the inspiration behind Thatcherism .
[ edit ] Legacy
Many British citizens remember where they were and what they were doing when they heard that Margaret Thatcher had resigned and what their reaction was. Due to the ideological political climate of the time, Margaret Thatcher brought out both positive and negative reactions from different sides of the political spectrum.
She has been credited for her macroeconomic reforms with rescuing the British economy from the stagnation of the 1970s and admired for her committed radicalism on economic issues. The left wing accuse her of dismantling the Welfare State and of destroying much of the UK's manufacturing base, consigning many manufacturing to long-term unemployment. However, supporters of privatisation and of the free market cite the recovery of the economy during the mid-1980s and the present day success of the British economy, with its relatively low unemployment.
The UK was seen by some as the " sick man of Europe " in the 1970s. However, the UK emerged as one of the most successful economies in modern Europe. While the unemployment rate did eventually come down, it came after initial job losses and radical labour market reforms. These included laws that weakened trade unions and the deregulation of financial markets, which certainly played a part in returning London to a leadership position as a European financial centre, and her push for increased competition in telecommunications and other public utilities.
Perceptions of Margaret Thatcher are mixed in the view of the British public. A clear illustration of the divisions of opinion over Thatcher's leadership can be found in recent television polls: Thatcher appears at number 16 in the 2002 List of " 100 Greatest Britons ", which was the highest placing for a living person. She also appears at number 3 in the 2003 List of " 100 Worst Britons ", which was confined to those living, narrowly missing out on the top spot, which went to Labour Prime Minister Tony Blair . In the end, however, few could argue that there was any woman who played a more important role on the world stage in the 20th century. In perhaps the sincerest form of flattery, Labour Prime Minister, Tony Blair, himself a thrice-elected Prime Minister, has implicitly and explicitly acknowledged her importance by continuing many of her economic policies. Thatcher herself indirectly acknowledged Blair during a Conservative leadership contest when she said "[The Conservative Party]...don't need someone that can beat Mr. Blair, they need someone LIKE Mr. Blair".
In much of Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and the urban and former mining areas of northern England, she is still reviled. Many people remember the hardships of the miners' strike, which destroyed many mining communities, and the decline of traditional heavy industry, despite the subsequent boom in service industries.
Negative opinions of Thatcher in the mining and industrial communities were reflected in the 1987 election, which she won by a landslide through winning large numbers of seats in southern England and the rural farming areas of northern England while winning few seats in the remaining areas of the country. Through the Common Agricultural Policy , British agriculture was (and remains) heavily subsidised while other failing parts of the economy did not receive similar tax revenue support. This geographical imbalance in Thatcher's support led to wide-spread feelings of alienation in Scotland, Wales and the English regions, and contributed directly to the growth of devolution movements in those areas.
Perceptions abroad broadly follow the same political divisions. On the left, Margaret Thatcher is generally regarded as somebody who used force to quash social movements, who imposed social reforms that disregarded the interests of the working class and instead favoured the wealthier elements of the middle class and business. Satirists have often caricatured her. For instance, French singer Renaud wrote a song, Miss Maggie, which lauded women as refraining from many of the silly behaviours of males – and every time making an exception for "Mrs Thatcher". She may be remembered most of all for her remark "There is no such thing as society" [18] to the reporter Douglas Keay, for 'Womans Own' magazine, 23 September 1987 . This remark has frequently been quoted out of its full context and the surrounding remarks were as follows:
"I think we've been through a period where too many people have been given to understand that if they have a problem, it's the government's job to cope with it. 'I have a problem, I'll get a grant.' 'I'm homeless, the government must house me.' They're casting their problem on society. And, you know, there is no such thing as society. There are individual men and women, and there are families. And no government can do anything except through people, and people must look to themselves first." [19]
On the economic and political right and centre right , Thatcher is often remembered with some fondness as one who dared to confront powerful unions and removed harmful constraints on the economy. On the left she is still reviled as the politician who cut funding of the public services to support the rich.
In 1996, the Scott Inquiry into the Arms-to-Iraq affair investigated the Thatcher government's record in dealing with Saddam Hussein. It revealed how £1bn of Whitehall money was used in soft loan guarantees for British exporters to Iraq. The judge found that during Baghdad's protracted invasion of Iran in the 1980s , officials destroyed documents relating to the export of Chieftain tank parts to Jordan which ended up in Iraq. Ministers clandestinely relaxed official guidelines to help private companies sell machine tools which were used in munitions factories. The British company Racal exported sophisticated Jaguar V radios to the former Iraqi dictator's army on credit. Members of the Conservative cabinet refused to stop lending guaranteed funds to Saddam even after he executed a British journalist, Farzad Bazoft , Thatcher’s cabinet minuting that they did not want to damage British industry.
Many on both the right and left agree that Thatcher had a transformative effect on the British political spectrum and that her tenure had the effect of moving the major political parties rightward. Will Hutton, author of the bestselling "The State We're In", argues that the change to conservatism could have been achieved with more consensus and less hardship by a leader less enamaoured of US hegemonic power.
New Labour and Blairism have incorporated much of the economic, social and political tenets of "Thatcherism" in the same manner as, in a previous era, the Conservative Party from the 1950s until the days of Edward Heath accepted many of the basic assumptions of the welfare state instituted by Labour governments. The curtailing and large scale dismantling of elements of the welfare state under Thatcher have largely remained. As well, Thatcher's programme of privatising state-owned enterprises has not been reversed. Indeed, successive Tory and Labour governments have further curtailed the involvement of the state in the economy and have further dismantled public ownership.
For good or ill, Thatcher's impact on the trade union movement in Britain has been lasting with the breaking of the miners' strike of 1984-1985 seen as a watershed moment, or even a breaking point, for a union movement which has been unable to regain the degree of power it exercised up to the 1970s. Unionisation rates in Britain declined under Thatcher and have not recovered, and the legislative instruments introduced to curtail the impact of strikes have not been reversed. Instead, the Labour Party has worked to loosen its ties to the trade union movement. While industrial action does still occur, there is no longer the kind of mass economic disruption seen in the 1970s, and the closed shop remains illegal.
Thatcher's legacy has continued strongly to influence the Conservative Party itself. Successive leaders, starting with John Major , and continuing in opposition with William Hague , Iain Duncan Smith and Michael Howard , have struggled with real or perceived factions in the Parliamentary and national party to determine what parts of her heritage should be retained or jettisoned. One cannot yet determine what the role of Thatcherism will be under the leadership of David Cameron .
In a list compiled by the centre-left publication New Statesman in 2006, she was voted fifth in the list of "Heroes of our time". [11] She was also named a Hero of Freedom by the Libertarian magazine Reason. [12]
[ edit ] Titles and honours
The arms of Margaret Thatcher. The admiral represents the Falklands War , the image of Sir Isaac Newton her background as a chemist and her birth town Grantham .
[ edit ] Titles from birth
| Bobby Sands |
Which town in Suffolk is the most easterly point in England ? | Margaret_Thatcher
Margaret_Thatcher
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
In office
4 May 1979 – 28 November 1990
Monarch
Secretary of State for Education and Science
In office
20 June 1970 – 4 March 1974
Prime Minister
8 October 1959 – 9 April 1992
Preceded by
13 October 1925 (1925-10-13) (age 87)
Grantham, Lincolnshire, England
Sir Denis Thatcher, Bt (1915-2003)
Children
Methodist
Signature
Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, LG, OM, PC, FRS (née Roberts; born 13 October 1925) is a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 until 1990. She is the first and only woman to hold either post. [1]
Born in Grantham in Lincolnshire, England, Margaret Hilda Roberts attended Somerville College of the University of Oxford. She was selected as Conservative candidate for Finchley in 1958 and took her seat in the House of Commons the following year. Upon the election of Edward Heath in 1970, Thatcher was appointed Secretary of State for Education and Science. In 1974, she backed Sir Keith Joseph for the Conservative party leader, but after falling short he dropped out of the race. Thatcher entered herself and became leader of the Conservative party in 1975. Among other things, she defiantly opposed the Soviet Union, and her tough-talking rhetoric gained her the nickname the "Iron Lady". [1] As the Conservative party maintained leads in most polls, Thatcher went on to become Britain's Prime Minister in the 1979 General Election.
Thatcher's tenure as Prime Minister was the longest since that of Lord Salisbury and was the longest continuous period in office since the tenure of Lord Liverpool who was Prime Minister in the early 19th century. [1] She was the first woman to lead a major political party in the UK, and the first of only three women to have held any of the four great offices of state. She currently has a life peerage as Baroness Thatcher, of Kesteven in the County of Lincolnshire, which entitles her to sit in the House of Lords.
Contents
10.3 Ministerial autobiographies
Early life and education
Margaret Hilda Roberts was born on the 13th October 1925 [2] to Alfred Roberts, originally from Northamptonshire, and Beatrice Stephenson Roberts from Lincolnshire. Thatcher spent her childhood in the town of Grantham in Lincolnshire, [3] where her father owned two grocery shops. She and her older sister Muriel (1921–2004) were raised in the flat above the larger of the two located near the railway line. [4] Her father was active in local politics and religion, serving as an Alderman and Methodist lay preacher. He came from a Liberal family but stood—as was then customary in local government—as an Independent. He lost his post as Alderman in 1952 after the Labour Party won its first majority on Grantham Council in 1950. [5]
Margaret was brought up a devout Methodist and has remained a Christian throughout her life. [6] After attending Huntingtower Road Primary School, she received a scholarship and attended Kesteven and Grantham Girls' School. [7] Her school reports show hard work and commitment, but not brilliance. Outside the classroom she played hockey and also enjoyed swimming and walking. [8] Finishing school during the Second World War, she subsequently applied for a scholarship to attend Somerville College of the University of Oxford and was only successful when the winning candidate dropped out. [9] She went to Oxford in 1944 and studied Chemistry , specifically crystallography . [3] She became President of the Oxford University Conservative Association in 1946, the third woman to hold the post, and graduated from Oxford in 1947. [3]
Following graduation, Margaret moved to Colchester and worked as a research chemist for BX Plastics. [10] During this time she joined the local Conservative Association and attended the party conference at Llandudno in 1948, as a representative of the University Graduate Conservative Association. [11] She was also a member of the Association of Scientific Workers. In January 1949 a friend from Oxford, who was working for the Dartford Conservative Association told her that they were looking for candidates. [12] After a brief period she was selected as the Conservative candidate and she subsequently moved to Dartford to stand for election as a Member of Parliament. To support herself during this period she went to work for J. Lyons and Co., where she helped develop methods for preserving ice cream and was paid £500 per year. [13]
Political career between 1950 and 1970
At the 1950 and 1951 elections, she fought the safe Labour seat of Dartford. Although she was unsuccessful in winning the seat she did reduce the labour majority in the constituency by 6,000. [14] She was at the time the youngest ever female Conservative candidate and her campaign attracted a higher than normal amount media attention for a first time candidate. [15] [3] While active in the Conservative Party in Kent, she met Denis Thatcher, whom she married in 1951. [16] Denis was a wealthy divorced businessman (whose first wife coincidentally had also been named Margaret) [16] and he funded his wife's studies for the Bar. [17] She qualified as a barrister in 1953 specialising in tax law. In the same year her twin children Carol and Mark were born. [18]
Thatcher then began to look for a safe Conservative seat and was narrowly rejected as candidate for Orpington in 1954. She was subsequently not a candidate in the 1955 election and spent her time practising law. [19] She had several other rejections before being selected for Finchley in April 1958. She won the seat after hard campaigning, in the 1959 election and was elected as a a member of Parliament. [20] Her maiden speech was in support of her Private Member's Bill (Public Bodies (Admission to Meetings) Act 1960) to force local councils to hold meetings in public, which was successful. In 1961 she went against the Conservative Party's official position by voting for the restoration of birching.
She was given early promotion to the front bench as Parliamentary Secretary at the Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance in September 1961, retaining the post until the Conservatives lost power in the 1964 election. When Sir Alec Douglas-Home stepped down, Thatcher voted for Edward Heath in the leadership election over Reginald Maudling, and was rewarded with the job of Conservative spokesman on Housing and Land. In this role she adopted the policy of allowing tenants to buy their council houses, an idea first developed by her colleague James Allason. The policy would prove popular. [21] She moved to the Shadow Treasury team after 1966.
Thatcher was one of few Conservative MPs to support Leo Abse's Bill to decriminalise male homosexuality, and she voted in favour of David Steel's Bill to legalise abortion. She supported the retention of capital punishment and voted against the relaxation of divorce laws. Thatcher made her mark as a conference speaker in 1966 with a strong attack on the high-tax policies of the Labour Government as being steps "not only towards Socialism, but towards Communism". She won promotion to the Shadow Cabinet as Shadow Fuel spokesman in 1967, and was then promoted to shadow Transport and, finally, Education before the 1970 election.
In Heath's Cabinet
When the Conservative party under Edward Heath won the 1970 general election, Thatcher became Secretary of State for Education and Science. In her first months in office, forced to administer a cut in the Education budget, she was responsible for the abolition of universal free milk for school-children aged seven to eleven (Labour had already abolished it for secondary schools). This provoked a storm of public protest, and led to one of the more unflattering names for her: "Thatcher Thatcher, Milk Snatcher". However, she also successfully resisted the introduction of library book charges.
Her term was marked by support for several proposals for more local education authorities to close grammar schools and adopt comprehensive secondary education; support for this change in education policy was not restricted to the left. Thatcher also saved the Open University from being abolished. The Chancellor Anthony Barber wanted to abolish it as a budget-cutting measure, as he viewed it as a gimmick by Harold Wilson. Thatcher believed it was a relatively inexpensive way of extending higher education and insisted that the University should experiment with admitting school-leavers as well as adults. In her memoirs, Thatcher wrote that she was not part of Heath's inner circle, and had little or no influence on the key government decisions outside her department.
After the Conservative defeat in February 1974, Heath appointed her Shadow Environment Secretary. In this position she promised to abolish the rating system that paid for local government services, which proved a popular policy within the Conservative Party.
As Leader of the Opposition
Thatcher agreed with Sir Keith Joseph and the Centre for Policy Studies that the Heath Government had lost control of monetary policy—and had lost direction—following its 1972 U-turn. After her party lost the second election of 1974, Joseph decided to challenge Heath's leadership but later withdrew after an unwise speech seen as supporting eugenics. Thatcher then decided that she would enter the race on behalf of the Josephite/CPS faction. Unexpectedly she out-polled Heath on the first ballot, forcing him to resign the leadership. On the second ballot, she defeated Heath's preferred successor William Whitelaw, by 146 votes to 79, and became Conservative Party leader on 11 February 1975. [22] She appointed Whitelaw as her deputy. Heath remained disenchanted with Thatcher to the end of his life for what he (and many of his supporters) perceived as her disloyalty in standing against him.
On 19 January 1976, she made a speech in Kensington Town Hall in which she made a scathing attack on the Soviet Union. The most famous part of her speech ran:
“
The Russians are bent on world dominance, and they are rapidly acquiring the means to become the most powerful imperial nation the world has seen. The men in the Soviet Politburo do not have to worry about the ebb and flow of public opinion. They put guns before butter, while we put just about everything before guns.
”
In response, the Soviet Defence Ministry newspaper Krasnaya Zvezda (Red Star) gave her the nickname "Iron Lady", which was soon publicised by Radio Moscow. She took delight in the name and it soon became associated with her image as having an unwavering and steadfast character. Her reaction to her other chief nickname, "Attila the Hen" (thought to have been coined by Tory grandee Sir Ian Gilmour) is unrecorded.
Thatcher appointed many of Heath's supporters to the Shadow Cabinet, for she had won the leadership as an outsider and had little power base of her own within the party. One, James Prior got the important brief of shadow Employment Secretary. Thatcher had to act cautiously to convert the Conservative Party to her monetarist beliefs. She reversed Heath's support for devolved government for Scotland. In an interview for Granada Television's World in Action programme in January 1978, she said "people are really rather afraid that this country might be rather swamped by people with a different culture", arousing particular controversy at the time. [23] Critics regarded the comment as a veiled reference to people of colour—and thus pandering to xenophobia and reactionary sentiment. She received 10,000 letters thanking her for raising the subject and the Conservatives gained a lead against Labour in the opinion polls, from both parties at 43% before the speech to 48% for Conservative and 39% for Labour immediately after. [24]
The Labour Government ran into difficulties with the industrial disputes, strikes, increasing unemployment, and collapsing public services during the winter of 1978–79, dubbed the "Winter of Discontent". The Conservatives used campaign posters with slogans such as "Labour Isn't Working" [25] to attack the government's record over unemployment and its over-regulation of the labour market. James Callaghan's Labour government fell after a successful Motion of No Confidence in spring 1979.
In the run up to the 1979 General Election, most opinion polls showed that voters preferred James Callaghan as Prime Minister even as the Conservative Party maintained a lead in the polls. The Conservatives would go on to win a 44-seat majority in the House of Commons and Margaret Thatcher became the United Kingdom's first female Prime Minister. Arriving at 10 Downing Street, she said, in a paraphrase of St. Francis of Assisi:
“
Where there is discord, may we bring harmony. Where there is error, may we bring truth. Where there is doubt, may we bring faith. And where there is despair, may we bring hope.
”
Prime Minister (1979–1990)
Main article: Premiership of Margaret Thatcher
Thatcher became Prime Minister on 4 May, 1979, with a mandate to reverse the UK's economic decline and to reduce the role of the state in the economy. Thatcher was incensed by one contemporary view within the Civil Service, that its job was to manage the UK's decline from the days of Empire, and she wanted the country to assert a higher level of influence and leadership in international affairs. She became a very close ally, philosophically and politically, with President Ronald Reagan, elected in 1980 in the United States.
Domestic reforms
Irish hunger strike
Main article: 1981 Irish hunger strike
In 1981, a number of Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) and Irish National Liberation Army prisoners in Northern Ireland's Maze Prison (known by republicans as 'Long Kesh', due to its previous official name) went on hunger strike to regain the status of political prisoners, which had been revoked five years earlier under the preceding Labour government. Bobby Sands, the first of the strikers, was elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for the constituency of Fermanagh and South Tyrone a few weeks before he died. Thatcher refused at first to countenance a return to political status for republican prisoners, famously declaring "Crime is crime is crime; it is not political." [26] Nevertheless, after nine more men had starved themselves to death and the strike had ended, some rights relating to political status were restored to paramilitary prisoners. Thatcher's public hard line on the treatment of paramilitaries was reinforced during the 1980 Iranian Embassy Siege where for the first time in 70 years British armed forces were authorised to use lethal force in Great Britain.
On 15 November 1985, Thatcher signed the Hillsborough Anglo-Irish Agreement with Irish Taoiseach Garret FitzGerald, the first time a British government gave the Republic of Ireland a say (albeit advisory) in the governance of Northern Ireland. The agreement was greeted with fury by Northern Irish unionists.
Economy
As a monetarist, Thatcher began her economic reforms by increasing interest rates to slow the growth of the money supply and thus lower inflation. She had a preference for indirect taxation over taxes on income, and value added tax (VAT) was raised sharply to 15%, with a resultant actual short-term rise in inflation. [27] These moves hit businesses – especially the manufacturing sector – and unemployment quickly passed two million, doubling the one million unemployed under the previous Labour government.
Thatcher's political and economic philosophy emphasised reduced state intervention, free markets, and entrepreneurialism. After the 1983 election, the Government sold off most of the large utilities, starting with British Telecom, which had been in public ownership since the late 1940s. Many people took advantage of share offers, although many sold their shares immediately for a quick profit and therefore the proportion of shares held by individuals rather than institutions did not increase. The policy of privatisation, while anathema to many on the Left, has become synonymous with Thatcherism. Wider share-ownership and council house sales became known as "popular capitalism" to its supporters (a term coined by John Redwood). In 1985, as a deliberate snub, the University of Oxford voted to refuse her an honorary degree in protest against her cuts in funding for higher education. [28] This award had always previously been given to all Prime Ministers who had been educated at Oxford.
Political commentators harked back to the Heath Government's "U-turn" and speculated that Thatcher would follow suit, but she repudiated this approach at the 1980 Conservative Party conference, telling the party: "To those waiting with bated breath for that favourite media catch-phrase—the U-turn—I have only one thing to say: you turn if you want to; the Lady's not for turning." [29] That she meant what she said was confirmed in the 1981 budget, when, despite concerns expressed in an open letter from 364 leading economists, [30] taxes were increased in the middle of a recession. In January 1982, the inflation rate had dropped back to 8.6% from earlier highs of 18%, and interest rates were then allowed to fall. Unemployment continued to rise, reaching an official figure of 3.6 million. By 1983, manufacturing output had dropped 30% from 1978, while overall economic growth was stronger, and inflation and mortgage rates were at their lowest levels since 1970.[1][2]
At the Dublin European Council in November 1979, Thatcher argued that the United Kingdom paid far more to the European Economic Community than it received in spending. She declared at the summit: "We are not asking the Community or anyone else for money. We are simply asking to have our own money back". Her arguments were successful and at the June 1984 Fontainebleau Summit, the EEC agreed on an annual rebate for the United Kingdom, amounting to 66% of the difference between Britain's EU contributions and receipts. This still remains in effect, although Tony Blair later agreed to significantly reduce the size of the rebate. It periodically causes political controversy among the members of the European Union.[citation needed]
Thatcher's new system to replace local government taxes, outlined in the Conservative manifesto for the 1987 election, was introduced in Scotland in 1989 and in England and Wales in 1990. The rates were replaced by the Community Charge or 'Poll Tax', which applied the same amount to every individual resident, with discounts for low earners. This was to be the most universally unpopular policy of her premiership. Individuals seeking to avoid paying their share of the costs of local government effectively disenfranchised themselves by removing themselves from the electoral register.
Thatcher's popularity declined in 1989, as the economy suffered from high interest rates. She blamed her Chancellor, Nigel Lawson, who had been following an economic policy which was a preparation for monetary union; in an interview for the Financial Times, in November 1987, Thatcher claimed not to have been told of this and did not approve. [31]
At a meeting before the Madrid European Community summit in June 1989, Lawson and Foreign Secretary Geoffrey Howe persuaded Thatcher to agree to the circumstances under which she would join the Exchange Rate Mechanism, a preparation for monetary union and the abolition of the Pound Sterling. At the meeting, they both said they would resign if their demands were not met. [32] Thatcher responded by demoting Howe and by listening more to her adviser Sir Alan Walters on economic matters. Lawson resigned that October, feeling that Thatcher had undermined him.
Additional problems emerged when many of the tax rates set by local councils proved to be much higher than predicted. Opponents of the Community Charge banded together to resist bailiffs and disrupt court hearings of Community Charge debtors. The Labour MP, Terry Fields, was jailed for 60 days for refusing on principle to pay his Community Charge. As the Prime Minister continued to refuse to compromise on the tax and as many as one in five people had still not paid, unrest mounted and culminated in a number of riots. The most serious of these happened in London on 31 March 1990, during a protest at Trafalgar Square, London, which more than 100,000 protesters attended. The huge unpopularity of the tax was seen as a major factor in Thatcher's downfall. [33]
On the Friday before the Conservative Party conference in October 1990, Thatcher ordered her new Chancellor of the Exchequer John Major to reduce interest rates by 1%. Major persuaded her that the only way to maintain monetary stability was to join the Exchange Rate Mechanism at the same time, despite not meeting the "Madrid conditions". The Conservative Party conference that year saw a large degree of unity.
Trade unions
Thatcher was committed to reducing the power of the trades unions. Several unions launched strikes in response to legislation introduced to curb their power, but these actions eventually collapsed, and gradually Thatcher's reforms reduced the power and influence of the unions.
The confrontation over strikes, ordered illegally without a national ballot in 1984–85 by the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) in opposition to proposals to close a large number of mines, proved decisive. Police tactics during the strikes came under criticism from civil libertarians,[citation needed] but the images of crowds of militant miners attempting to prevent other miners from working proved a shock even to some supporters of the strikes[citation needed]. Two miners, Dean Hancock and Russell Shankland, were convicted of the murder of David Wilkie, a taxi driver, whom they killed by throwing a 46 lb (21 kg) slab of concrete through the windscreen of his car from a bridge as he drove beneath it. He was driving a colleague of theirs, David Williams, to work. Both were sentenced to life imprisonment. [34] A group of workers, resigned to the impending failure of the actions, worn down by months of protests, and angry at the NUM's failure to hold a national strike ballot, began to defy the Union's rulings, starting splinter groups and advising workers that returning to work was the only viable option. The Miners' Strike lasted a full year before the NUM leadership conceded without a deal. The Conservative government proceeded to close all but 15 of the country's pits, with the remaining 15 being sold off and privatised in 1994. The defeat of the miners' strike led to a long period of demoralization in the whole of the trade union movement.[citation needed]
South African controversy
At the end of March 1984, four South Africans were arrested in Coventry, remanded in custody, and charged with contravening the UN arms embargo, which prohibited exports to apartheid South Africa of military equipment. Thatcher took a personal interest in the Coventry Four, and 10 Downing Street requested daily summaries of the case from the prosecuting authority, HM Customs and Excise. [35] Within a month, the Coventry Four had been freed from jail and allowed to travel to South Africa—on condition that they returned to England for their trial later that year. In April 1984, Thatcher sent senior British diplomat, Sir John Leahy, to negotiate the release of 16 Britons who had been taken hostage by the Angolan rebel leader, Jonas Savimbi. At the time, Savimbi's UNITA guerrilla movement was financed and supported militarily by the apartheid regime of South Africa. On 26 April 1984, Leahy succeeded in securing the release of the British hostages at the UNITA base in Jamba, Angola. [36] In June 1984 Thatcher invited apartheid South Africa's president, P. W. Botha, and foreign minister, Pik Botha, to Chequers in an effort to stave off growing international pressure for the imposition of economic sanctions against South Africa, where Britain had invested heavily. She reportedly urged President Botha to end apartheid; to release Nelson Mandela; to halt the harassment of black dissidents; to stop the bombing of African National Congress (ANC) bases in front-line states; and to comply with UN Security Council resolutions and withdraw from Namibia. [37] However Botha ignored these demands. In an interview with Hugo Young for The Guardian in July 1986, Thatcher expressed her belief that economic sanctions against South Africa would be immoral because they would make thousands of black workers unemployed. [38] In August 1984, foreign minister, Pik Botha, decided not to allow the Coventry Four to return to stand trial, thereby forfeiting £200,000 bail money put up by the South African embassy in London. The Coventry Four affair, and Thatcher's alleged involvement in it, would hit the headlines four years later when British diplomat, Patrick Haseldine, wrote a letter to the Guardian newspaper on 7 December 1988. [39]
Brighton bombing
On the early morning of 12 October 1984, the day before her 59th birthday, Thatcher escaped injury in the Brighton hotel bombing during the Conservative Party Conference when her hotel room was bombed by the Provisional Irish Republican Army; five people died in the attack. A prominent member of the Cabinet, Norman Tebbit, was injured, and his wife Margaret was left paralysed. Thatcher herself would have been injured if not for the fact that she was delayed from using the bathroom (which suffered more damage than the room she was in at the time the bomb detonated). Thatcher insisted that the conference open on time the next day and made her speech as planned in defiance of the bombers, a gesture which won widespread approval across the political spectrum. [40]
Relationship with Labour party
In 1986, her government controversially abolished the Greater London Council, then led by the strongly left-wing Ken Livingstone, and six Metropolitan County Councils. The government claimed this was an efficiency measure. However, Thatcher's opponents held that the move was politically motivated, as all of the abolished councils were controlled by Labour, had become powerful centres of opposition to her government, and were in favour of higher local government taxes and public spending. Several of them had however rendered themselves politically vulnerable by committing scarce public funds to causes widely seen as political and even extreme.[specify][citation needed]
Elections
1983
The "Falklands Factor", along with an economic recovery in early 1983, bolstered the government's popularity. The Labour party at this time had split, and there was a new challenge in the SDP-Liberal Alliance, formed by an electoral pact between the Social Democratic Party and the Liberal Party. However, this grouping failed to make its intended breakthrough, despite briefly holding an opinion poll lead.[citation needed] In the June 1983 general election, the Conservatives won 42.4% of the vote, the Labour party 27.6% and the Alliance 25.4% of the vote. Although the Conservatives' share of the vote had fallen slightly (1.5%) since 1979, Labour's vote had fallen by far more (9.3%) and in Britain's first past the post system, the Conservatives won a landslide victory even though it had the support of less than 43% of the electorate. This resulted in the Conservative Party having an overall majority of 144 MPs.
1987
By leading her party to victory in the 1987 general election with a 101 seat majority, riding an economic boom against a weak Labour opposition advocating unilateral nuclear disarmament, Margaret Thatcher became the longest continuously serving Prime Minister of the United Kingdom since Lord Liverpool (1812 to 1827). Most United Kingdom newspapers supported her—with the exception of The Daily Mirror, The Guardian, The Observer and The Independent—and were rewarded with regular press briefings by her press secretary, Bernard Ingham.
1989
Thatcher was challenged for the leadership of the Conservative Party by Sir Anthony Meyer. As Meyer was a virtually unknown backbench MP, he was viewed as a "stalking horse" candidate for more prominent members of the party. Thatcher easily defeated Meyer's challenge, but there were sixty ballot papers either cast for Meyer or abstaining, a surprisingly large number for a sitting Prime Minister. Her supporters in the Party, however, viewed the results as a success, claiming that after ten years as Prime Minister and with approximately 370 Conservative MPs voting, the opposition was surprisingly small. [41]
Homosexuality
Though an early backer of decriminalization of male homosexuality, Thatcher, at the 1987 Conservative party conference, issued the statement that "Children who need to be taught to respect traditional moral values are being taught that they have an inalienable right to be gay". Backbench Conservative MPs and Peers had already begun a backlash against the 'promotion' of homosexuality and, in December 1987, the controversial 'Section 28' was added as an amendment to what became the Local Government Act 1988. This legislation was subsequently abolished by Tony Blair's Labour administration.
Foreign policy
The Falklands
Main article: Falklands War
On 2 April, 1982, a ruling military junta in Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, a British overseas territory that Argentina had claimed since an 1830s dispute on the British settlement. Within days Thatcher sent a naval task force to recapture the islands. Despite the huge logistical difficulties the operation was a success, resulting in a wave of patriotic enthusiasm and support for her government, with Newsweek declaring "The Empire Strikes Back". There were also several controversies that arose as a result of the Falklands War and Thatcher's handling of the conflict.
Cold War
In the Cold War, Mrs Thatcher supported United States President Ronald Reagan's policies of deterrence against the Soviets. This contrasted with the policy of détente which the West had pursued during the 1970s, and caused friction with allies who still adhered to the idea of détente. US forces were permitted by Mrs. Thatcher to station nuclear cruise missiles at British bases, arousing mass protests by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. However, she later was the first Western leader to respond warmly to the rise of the future reformist Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, declaring that she liked him, and told Ronald Reagan, describing him as "a man we can do business with" after a meeting in 1984, three months before he came to power. This was a start of a move by the West back to a new détente with the USSR under Gorbachev's leadership, which coincided with the final erosion of Soviet power prior to its eventual collapse in 1991. Thatcher outlasted the Cold War, which ended in 1989, and those who share her views on it credit her with a part in the West's victory, by both the deterrence and détente postures.
Her liking for defence ties with the United States was demonstrated in the Westland affair when she acted with colleagues to allow the helicopter manufacturer Westland, a vital defence contractor, to refuse to link with the Italian firm Agusta in order for it to link with the management's preferred option, Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation of the United States. Defence Secretary Michael Heseltine, who had pushed the Agusta deal, resigned in protest after this, and remained an influential critic and potential leadership challenger. He would eventually prove instrumental in Thatcher's fall in 1990.
According to Helmut Kohl, West Germany's ex-Chancellor, Margaret Thatcher was also a strong opponent of the German reunification that was developing at unexpected speed in 1989. However she failed to halt it. [42]
Hong Kong
In 1984, she visited China and signed the Sino-British Joint Declaration with Deng Xiaoping on 19 December, which committed the People's Republic of China to award Hong Kong the status of a "Special Administrative Region". Under the terms of the One Country, Two Systems agreement, which Deng himself proposed, China agreed to leave Hong Kong's economic status unchanged after the handover on 1 July 1997 for a period of fifty years—until 2047. Britain agreed to leave, unconditionally, in 1997.
European Union
At Bruges, Belgium, in 1988, Thatcher made a speech in which she outlined her opposition to proposals from the European Community for a federal structure and increasing centralisation of decision-making. Although she had supported British membership, Thatcher believed that the role of the EC should be limited to ensuring free trade and effective competition, and feared that new EC regulations would reverse the changes she was making in the UK: "We have not successfully rolled back the frontiers of the state in Britain, only to see them re-imposed at a European level, with a European super-state exercising a new dominance from Brussels". The speech caused an outcry from other European leaders, and exposed for the first time the deep split that was emerging over European policy inside her Conservative Party.
Thatcher, the former chemist, became publicly concerned with environmental issues in the late 1980s. In 1988, she made a major speech [43] communicating the problems of global warming, ozone depletion and acid rain . Referring to her important role in the struggle against ozone depletion, Carl Sagan claimed that she demonstrated the importance in the modern world of leaders having an understanding of science.
Gulf War
One of Thatcher's acts in her last half year in office was to put pressure on US President George H. W. Bush to deploy troops to the Middle East to drive Saddam Hussein's (Iraqi) army out of Kuwait. Bush was somewhat apprehensive about the plan, but Thatcher's memoirs summarise her advice to him during a telephone conversation with the words, "this was no time to go wobbly!" [44] Thatcher's government provided military forces to the international coalition in the Gulf War to pursue the ouster of Iraq from Kuwait. [45]
Fall from power
See also: Conservative Party (UK) leadership election, 1990
Thatcher's political downfall was, according to witnesses such as Alan Clark, one of the most dramatic episodes in British political history. By 1990, opposition to Thatcher's policies on local government taxation (the community charge, or poll tax), [46] and the divisions opening in the Conservative Party over European integration made her seem increasingly politically vulnerable and her party increasingly divided. Her distaste for consensus politics and willingness to override colleagues' opinions, including that of Cabinet, emboldened the backlash against her when it did occur. [47] The dislike for Thatcher that had previously come primarily from her political opponents was now being expressed by some members of her own party.
On 1 November 1990, Sir Geoffrey Howe, one of Thatcher's oldest and staunchest supporters, resigned from his position as Deputy Prime Minister in protest at Thatcher's European policy. In his resignation speech in the House of Commons two weeks later, he suggested that the time had come for "others to consider their own response to the tragic conflict of loyalties" with which he stated that he had wrestled for perhaps too long. Her former cabinet colleague Michael Heseltine subsequently challenged her for the leadership of the party, and attracted sufficient support in the first round of voting to prolong the contest to a second ballot. Though she initially stated that she intended to contest the second ballot, Thatcher decided, after consulting with her Cabinet colleagues, to withdraw from the contest. On 22 November, at just after 9.30 a.m., she announced to the Cabinet that she would not be a candidate in the second ballot. Shortly afterwards, her staff made public what was, in effect, her resignation statement:
“
Having consulted widely among my colleagues, I have concluded that the unity of the Party and the prospects of victory in a General Election would be better served if I stood down to enable Cabinet colleagues to enter the ballot for the leadership. I should like to thank all those in Cabinet and outside who have given me such dedicated support.
”
Neil Kinnock, Leader of the Opposition, proposed a motion of no confidence in the government, and Margaret Thatcher seized the opportunity this presented on the day of her resignation to deliver one of her most memorable performances:
“
...a single currency is about the politics of Europe, it is about a federal Europe by the back door. So I shall consider the proposal of the Honourable Member for Bolsover (Mr. Skinner). Now where were we? I am enjoying this.
”
She supported John Major as her successor and he duly won the leadership contest, although in the years to come her approval of Major would fall away. After her resignation a MORI poll found that 52% agreed with the proposition that "On balance she had been good for the country", while 48% disagreed thinking she had not. [48] In 1991, she was given a long and unprecedented standing ovation at the party's annual conference, although she politely rejected calls from delegates for her to make a speech. She did, however, occasionally speak in the House of Commons after she was Prime Minister. She retired from the House at the 1992 election, at the age of 66 years. Her continued presence in the House of Commons after the resignation was thought to be a destabilising influence on the Conservative government.
Post-political career
Orders and honours
Since her resignation, Thatcher has remained active in the politics of the United Kingdom, as well as the world. She was raised to the House of Lords by the conferment of a life peerage as Baroness Thatcher, of Kesteven in the County of Lincolnshire in 1992; she did not take a hereditary title[citation needed]. By virtue of the life barony, she entered the House of Lords. Thatcher had already been honoured by the Queen in 1990, shortly after her resignation as Prime Minister, when awarded the Order of Merit, one of the UK's highest distinctions. In addition, her husband, Denis Thatcher, had been given a baronetcy in 1991 (ensuring that their son Mark would inherit a title). This was the first creation of a baronetcy since 1965. In 1995, Thatcher was raised to the Order of the Garter, the United Kingdom's highest order of Chivalry.
Post-Prime Ministerial influence
Thatcher authored her memoirs in two volumes, The Path to Power and The Downing Street Years. In 1993 The Downing Street Years were turned into a documentary series by the BBC, in which she described the Cabinet rebellion that brought about her resignation as "treachery with a smile on its face".
Thatcher made a series of speeches in the Lords criticizing the Maastricht Treaty, describing it as "a treaty too far" and stated "I could never have signed this treaty". [49] She cited A. V. Dicey, to the effect that, since all three main parties were in favour of revisiting the treaty, the people should have their say. [50]
On 6 August 1992 she called for NATO to stop the Serbian assault on Gorazde and Sarajevo in order to end ethnic cleansing and to preserve the Bosnian state. She claimed what was happening in Bosnia was "reminiscent of the worst excesses of the Nazis," [51] [52] warning that there could be a "holocaust" in Bosnia and described the conflict as a "killing field the like of which I thought we would never see in Europe again."
From 1993 to 2000, she served as Chancellor of the College of William and Mary in Virginia, which, established by Royal Charter in 1693, is the sole royal foundation in the contiguous United States. She was also Chancellor of the University of Buckingham, the UK's only private university and retired from in 1998.
Although she remained supportive in public, in private she made her displeasure with many of John Major's policies plain, and her views were conveyed to the press and widely reported. She was critical of the rise in public spending under Major, his tax increases, and his support of the European Union. After Tony Blair's election as Labour Party leader in 1994, Thatcher gave an interview in May 1995 in which she praised Blair as "probably the most formidable Labour leader since Hugh Gaitskell. I see a lot of socialism behind their front bench, but not in Mr Blair. I think he genuinely has moved."[3]
In 1998, Thatcher made an unofficial visit to the former Chilean president Augusto Pinochet, while he was under house arrest in Surrey. Pinochet was fighting extradition for human rights abuses committed during his tenure. Thatcher expressed her support and friendship for Pinochet. [53] Pinochet had been a key ally of Britain during the Falklands War. Also in 1998, she made a £2,000,000 donation to Cambridge University for the endowment of a Margaret Thatcher Chair in Entrepreneurial Studies. She also donated the archive of her personal papers to Churchill College, Cambridge where the collection continues to be expanded.
At Thatcher's first speech to a Conservative Party conference in nine years in 1999, she not only defended Pinochet's actions as Chilean president, but made some controversial remarks on a continental Europe. [54] Her comments aroused some criticism from Malcolm Rifkind, a former Foreign Secretary under John Major, who claimed that Lady Thatcher was giving "the impression that Britain and British opinion is somehow prejudiced and anti-European". [55]
Margaret Thatcher actively supported the Conservative general election campaign in 2001. In the Conservative leadership election shortly after, Lady Thatcher came out in support of Iain Duncan Smith because she believed he would "make infinitely the better leader" than Kenneth Clarke due to Clarke's "old-fashioned views of the role of the state and his unbounded enthusiasm for European integration". [56]
In 2002, she published Statecraft: Strategies for a Changing World detailing her thoughts on international relations since her resignation in 1990. The chapters on the European Union were particularly controversial; she called for a fundamental renegotiation of Britain's membership to preserve the UK's sovereignty and, if that failed, for Britain to leave and join NAFTA. These chapters were serialised in The Times on Monday, 18 March and caused a political furore.
In December 2004, it was reported that Thatcher had told a private meeting of Conservative MPs that she was against the British Government's plan to introduce identity cards. She is said to have remarked that ID cards were a "Germanic concept and completely alien to this country". [57]
Health concerns
It was announced in 2002 that Thatcher had been advised by her doctors to make no more public speeches on health grounds, having suffered several small strokes. [58] According to her former press spokesman Bernard Ingham, Thatcher has no short-term memory as a result of the strokes. [59]
Recent activities
Lady Thatcher was widowed upon the death of Sir Denis Thatcher on 26 June 2003. A funeral service was held honouring him at the Royal Hospital in Chelsea on 3 July with Lady Thatcher present, as well as her children Mark and Carol. [60] Thatcher paid tribute to him by saying, "Being Prime Minister is a lonely job. In a sense, it ought to be—you cannot lead from a crowd. But with Denis there I was never alone. What a man. What a husband. What a friend". [61]
On 11 June 2004, Thatcher attended the funeral of, and delivered a tribute via videotape to, former United States President Ronald Reagan at his state funeral at the National Cathedral in Washington, D.C. In view of her failing mental faculties following several small strokes, the message had been pre-recorded several months earlier. Thatcher then flew to California with the Reagan entourage, and attended the memorial service and interment ceremony for President Reagan at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library.
Thatcher marked her 80th birthday with a party at the Mandarin Oriental Hotel in Hyde Park on 13 October 2005, where the guests included Queen Elizabeth II, The Duke of Edinburgh, and Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy. There, Geoffrey Howe, now Lord Howe of Aberavon, commented on her political career: "Her real triumph was to have transformed not just one party but two, so that when Labour did eventually return, the great bulk of Thatcherism was accepted as irreversible."
To commemorate the September 11th terror attacks on the United States, Thatcher attended the official Washington, D.C. memorial service marking the 5th anniversary. She attended as a guest of the US Vice President, Dick Cheney, and met with US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice during her visit. Thatcher was last in the United States for the funeral of former US Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger in April 2006.[4]
On 12 November 2006, she appeared at the Remembrance Day parade at the Cenotaph in London, leaning heavily on the arm of former Prime Minister, John Major. One week later, she released an effusive statement of condolence on the death of her friend and economic mentor, Milton Friedman, the man often described as the inspiration behind Thatcherism. On 10 December she announced she was "deeply saddened" by the death of the former Chilean dictator General Pinochet. [62]
A statue of Lady Thatcher was unveiled in the British Houses of Parliament on 21 February 2007. Thatcher made a rare and brief speech in the members' lobby of the House of Commons. She gibed, "I might have preferred iron—but bronze will do... It won't rust. And, this time I hope, the head will stay on" (a previous statue in stone had been attacked and decapitated while on public exhibition). [63]
On 13 September 2007, Lady Thatcher was invited to 10 Downing Street to have tea with Prime Minister Gordon Brown and his wife, Sarah. Gordon Brown referred to Lady Thatcher as a "conviction politician." and said of himself, "I'm a conviction politician just like her." [64] However William Hague attacked this decision, saying to Gordon Brown:
“
You may fawn now at the feet of our greatest prime minister – but you are no Margaret Thatcher. Margaret Thatcher would never have devastated the pension funds of this nation, nor kicked its small businesses in the teeth. We, Gordon, backed her when she rescued our country in the face of every denunciation and insult from the likes of you. [65]
”
Brown's spokesman, however, denied these claims and insisted that the meeting was "not unusual", it was customary for Prime Ministers to invite their precedents to tea and that Mr Brown would be "happy" to meet any former Prime Minister. [66]
Legacy
Thatcher is well remembered for her famed remark "There is no such thing as society" [67] to the reporter Douglas Keay, for Woman's Own magazine, 23 September 1987. This remark has frequently been quoted out of its full context and the surrounding remarks were as follows:
I think we've been through a period where too many people have been given to understand that if they have a problem, it's the government's job to cope with it. 'I have a problem, I'll get a grant.' 'I'm homeless, the government must house me.' They're casting their problem on society. And, you know, there is no such thing as society. There are individual men and women, and there are families. And no government can do anything except through people, and people must look to themselves first. [68]
In 1996, the Scott Inquiry into the Arms-to-Iraq affair investigated the Thatcher government's record in dealing with Saddam Hussein. It revealed how £1bn of Whitehall money was used in soft loan guarantees for British exporters to Iraq. The judge found that during Baghdad's protracted invasion of Iran in the 1980s, officials destroyed documents relating to the export of Chieftain tank parts to Jordan which ended up in Iraq. Ministers clandestinely relaxed official guidelines to help private companies sell machine tools which were used in munitions factories. The British company Racal exported sophisticated Jaguar V radios to the former Iraqi dictator's army on credit. Members of the Conservative cabinet refused to stop lending guaranteed funds to Saddam even after he executed a British journalist, Farzad Bazoft, Thatcher’s cabinet minuting that they did not want to damage British industry.
New Labour and Blairism have incorporated much of the economic, social and political tenets of "Thatcherism" in the same manner as, in a previous era, the Conservative Party from the 1950s until the days of Edward Heath accepted many of the basic assumptions of the welfare state instituted by Labour governments. The curtailing and large-scale dismantling of elements of the welfare state under Thatcher have largely remained. Among others, Thatcher's program of privatising state-owned enterprises has not been reversed. Indeed, successive Tory and Labour governments have further curtailed the involvement of the state in the economy and have further dismantled public ownership.
Thatcher's impact on the trade union movement in Britain has been lasting, with the breaking of the miners' strike of 1984-1985 seen as a watershed moment, or even a breaking point, for a union movement which has been unable to regain the degree of political power it exercised up through the 1970s. Unionisation rates in Britain have permanently declined since the 1980s, and the legislative instruments introduced to curtail the impact of strikes have not been reversed. The Labour Party has worked to loosen its ties to the trade union movement[citation needed]. Although the power of trade unions is still significantly lower than it was before Thatcher came to power, the Employment Relations Act 2004 was introduced under the Blair government to make statutory recognition of trade unions accessible and to further protect workers taking industrial action.
Thatcher's legacy has continued to strongly influence the Conservative Party itself. Successive leaders, starting with John Major, and continuing in opposition with William Hague, Iain Duncan Smith and Michael Howard, have struggled with real or perceived factions in the Parliamentary and national party to determine what parts of her heritage should be retained or jettisoned. One cannot yet determine what the role of Thatcherism will be under the leadership of David Cameron.
Thatcher is credited by Ronald Reagan with persuading him that Mikhail Gorbachev was sincere in his desire to reform and liberalize the Soviet Union. The resulting thaw in East-West relations helped to end the Cold War. In recognition of this, Lady Thatcher was awarded the 1998 Ronald Reagan Freedom Award by Mrs. Nancy Reagan. The award is only given to those who "have made monumental and lasting contributions to the cause of freedom worldwide," and "embody President Reagan's life long belief that one man or woman can truly make a difference." President Ronald Reagan, who was not able to attend the ceremony, was a longtime friend of Lady Thatcher. [69]
In a list compiled by New Statesman in 2006, she was voted fifth in the list of "Heroes of our time". [70] She was also named a "Hero of Freedom" by the libertarian magazine Reason. [71]
In February 2007, she became the first Prime Minister of the United Kingdom to be honoured with a statue in the House of Commons while still alive. The statue is made of bronze and stands opposite her political hero and predecessor, Winston Churchill. [72] The statue, by sculptor Antony Dufort, shows her as if she were addressing the House of Commons, with her right arm outstretched. [73] Thatcher said she was thrilled with it. [74]
In March, 2007, Variety reported that the makers of the Oscar-winning drama The Queen were planning a film on Thatcher's days leading up to the Falklands War. As of late summer 2007, no stars have been attached to the project, which is still in planning stages.[5]
Titles and honours
Titles Baroness Thatcher has held from birth, in chronological order:
Miss Margaret Roberts (13 October 1925 – 13 December 1951)
Mrs Denis Thatcher (13 December 1951 – 8 October 1959)
Mrs Denis Thatcher, MP (8 October 1959 – 22 June 1970)
The Rt Hon. Margaret Thatcher, MP (22 June 1970 – 7 December 1990)
The Rt Hon. Margaret Thatcher, OM, MP (7 December 1990 – 4 February 1991)
The Rt Hon. Lady Thatcher, OM, MP (4 February 1991 – 16 March 1992)
The Rt Hon. Lady Thatcher, OM (16 March 1992 – 26 June 1992)
The Rt Hon. The Baroness Thatcher, OM, PC (26 June 1992 – 22 April 1995)
The Rt Hon. The Baroness Thatcher, LG, OM, PC (since 22 April 1995)
Honours
Lady of the Most Noble Order of the Garter (LG)
Member of the Order of Merit (OM)
Member of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council (PC)
Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS)
Honorary member of the gentlemen's club the Carlton Club, and the only woman entitled to full membership rights.
Foreign honours
Republican Senatorial Medal of Freedom
Patron of the Heritage Foundation
Ronald Reagan Freedom Award
In December 1999 Thatcher was among 18 included in Gallup's List of Widely Admired People of the 20th Century, from a poll conducted of the American people.
Chancellorships
College of William & Mary, Virginia, USA (1993–2000)
Commemorations
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1941: Japanese planes bomb Pearl Harbor
Japan has launched a surprise attack on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii and has declared war on Britain and the United States.
The US president, Franklin D Roosevelt, has mobilised all his forces and is poised to declare war on Japan.
Details of the attack in Hawaii are scarce but initial reports say Japanese bombers and torpedo-carrying planes targeted warships, aircraft and military installations in Pearl Harbor, on Oahu, the third largest and chief island of Hawaii.
News of the daring raid has shocked members of Congress at a time when Japanese officials in Washington were still negotiating with US Secretary of State Cordell Hull on lifting US sanctions imposed after continuing Japanese aggression against China.
He remembered that moment [Pearl Harbor] in later years as the end of one existence and the beginning of another
At 0755 local time the first wave of between 50 and 150 planes struck the naval base for 35 minutes causing several fires and "untold damage" to the Pacific Fleet.
The Japanese squadrons dropped high-explosive and incendiary bombs.
A second strike followed at about 0900 when a force of at least 100 planes pounded the base for an hour.
At least two Japanese airplanes have been shot down but it is reported that at least 350 men were killed by one single bomb at the Hickam Army Air Field, an Air Corps post on Oahu.
Officials announced a further 104 Army personnel were killed and 300 were wounded in the raid.
It is believed the attack was launched from two aircraft carriers.
One radio report says US forces downed six Japanese planes and sunk four submarines.
There are reports the Hawaiian capital Honolulu was also bombed as well as the Pacific island of Guam and the capital of the Philippines, Manila.
A British gunboat, the Peterel, has also been sunk at Shanghai in China.
Reports from Singapore suggest a build-up of Japanese warships in the South China Sea and seem to be headed for the Gulf of Siam, towards Bangkok.
President Roosevelt is working on a message to Congress tomorrow in which he is expected to ask for a declaration of war with Japan.
The Times newspaper's Washington correspondent says the US Government expects Germany and Italy to declare war on the US within hours.
Although the attack has shocked the American people there is little doubt that it had been brewing for some years.
Relations with the United States have deteriorated since 1931 when Japan occupied Manchuria in northern China. Over the last decade conflict has intensified into a full-scale war between Japan and China.
Last year, the US imposed trade sanctions on Japan.
Then in September 1940 Japan signed a Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy. It became a formal member of the Axis alliance fighting the European war but continued to negotiate with America for trade concessions until today.
Japan's fury over the embargoes and allied support for China prompted a declaration of war.
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In which month of 1945 did the USA drop the atom bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki ? | BBC - History - World Wars: Pearl Harbor: A Rude Awakening
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Introduction
It all happened so quickly. At 7.55am on Sunday 7 December 1941, the first of two waves of Japanese aircraft began their deadly attack on the US Pacific Fleet, moored at Pearl Harbor on the Pacific island of Oahu. Within two hours, five battleships had been sunk, another 16 damaged, and 188 aircraft destroyed. Only chance saved three US aircraft carriers, usually stationed at Pearl Harbor but assigned elsewhere on the day. The attacks killed under 100 Japanese but over 2,400 Americans, with another 1,178 injured.
... the attacks had been slowly brewing for years.
Although swift in execution, the attacks had been slowly brewing for years. The US had once looked upon Japanese ambitions with a level of sympathy, even indulgence. Hit hard by the Great Depression of the early 1930s, however, Japanese disillusion with party government grew and moderates gave way to militants. In 1931 Japan occupied Manchuria in northern China. Over the decade conflict intensified and in July 1937 war was declared. As Japanese aggression increased, its relations with the US deteriorated.
Occupied Manchuria was rapidly exploited with the establishment of heavy and light industries. This was a practical necessity for Japan. Lacking in natural resources itself, the search for alternative supplies underpinned foreign and military policy throughout the decade and led to the attack on Pearl Harbor and the Pacific War.
On top of practical economic considerations, early military success and an inherent sense of racial superiority led Japan to believe that it deserved to dominate Asian politics. As with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, this combination bred an aggressive and neo-colonial foreign policy, the 'Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere'. Higher birth-rates and economic considerations required more land; the gene-pool justified it.
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Relations with the US
A briefing of Japanese pilots before the attack © The policy increased in urgency as relations with the US sank further. Historically, Japan had relied on America to supply many natural and industrial resources. Increasingly alarmed by Japanese aggression, however, America allowed a commercial treaty dating from 1911 to lapse in January 1940. In July it followed up by embargoing scrap iron and aviation fuel. Things got worse in September when Japan signed the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy. It was now a formal member of the Axis alliance fighting the European War.
... Japan knew that a full-scale invasion of South-east Asia would prompt war with America.
This posed real problems. Although officially neutral, there was no doubt where American sympathies lay. President Franklin D. Roosevelt had already strained the sinews of neutrality by supplying Britain with money and arms under the 'lend-lease' agreement. The Tripartite Pact meant that supplies to Japan would indirectly be helping Italy and Germany; further embargoes followed.
For Japan, embroiled in a long war with China, these were disastrous. Considering its very survival under threat, Japan intensified the search for a permanent alternative. The most obvious target was South-east Asia, rich in minerals and oil. German success in Europe in 1940 had orphaned French and Dutch colonies in the region and they became the focus of Japanese attention.
While occupying French Indochina in July 1941, Japan knew that a full-scale invasion of South-east Asia would prompt war with America. It needed a mechanism to buy itself sufficient time and space to conquer successfully crucial targets like the Philippines, Burma and Malaya. The attack on Pearl Harbor was that mechanism; merely a means to an end. By destroying its Pacific Fleet, Japan expected to remove America from the Pacific equation for long enough to allow it to secure the resources it needed so desperately and hoped to crush American morale sufficiently to prompt Roosevelt to sue for peace.
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An ill-prepared America
President Roosevelt declares war on Japan following the attack at Pearl Harbor. © With war so widely expected, why was America so woefully ill-prepared? Rumours that began in the war are still hanging around, well past their sell-by date, fuelled only by revisionist historians and conspiracy cranks. They claim Roosevelt was itching for war with Japan but was constrained by US neutrality, so needed a solid reason to fight. Hence they accuse him of suppressing prior knowledge of the attack, or of provoking it to enable America to enter the war by the back door. Some even say that the attack on Pearl Harbor was deliberately engineered by a crypto-communist president guilty of high treason.
In 1941 America was not ready for war.
It doesn't add up. In 1941 America was not ready for war. With US forces queuing for arms alongside Britain and Russia, Roosevelt knew he needed more time to build America's military capacity. If war was to come, he wanted Japan to be seen to be the aggressor, but Roosevelt was in no hurry.
Furthermore, he saw Germany as America's main enemy. This 'Europe first' strategy was affirmed with Churchill at the Arcadia conference in late December 1941. Roosevelt had already pushed neutrality to the limit and had assigned warships to accompany convoys in the Atlantic. War with Germany was only a matter of time: why choose to fight another with Japan? Even when European conflict came, it did so only on Hitler's invitation after he gratuitously declared war.
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American myopia
However hard you look, there is little evidence of anything more than blushing cover-ups of previous blunders. The real crime was one of incompetence on a huge scale. After all, the US had broken Japan's diplomatic codes and could sometimes decode messages faster than the Japanese themselves. The problem was not raw data, but its interpretation, evaluation and communication: it had to be used properly. This did not happen.
The real crime was one of incompetence on a huge scale.
The administration and military were both guilty of a staggering lack of co-ordination between Washington and Oahu, and between different services. Japanese messages were decoded by the army and navy on alternate days and all too often one service failed to properly communicate their new intelligence to the other. And it wasn't just codes: on the day of the attack, Japanese aircraft were spotted by American radar. No action was taken: they were assumed to be a flight of B-17 bombers due in from the mainland.
It's not as if America wasn't warned. In January 1941 Ambassador Grew in Tokyo passed on intelligence that stated that Japan was planning the attack. It was disregarded. Warnings from military personnel in February and July were overlooked, largely because they recommended massive transfers of aircraft to Oahu, aircraft that America simply did not have. War warnings from Washington to Hawaii ten days before the attack were virtually ignored. Team USA was proving pretty dysfunctional.
This American myopia stemmed from complacent disbelief that Japan would mount such an attack, especially before declaring war. Yet any study of Japanese history demonstrated that pre-emptive attacks such as this were almost standard operating procedure. Instead of concentrating on what Japan could do, the US tried to guess what it would do. It guessed wrong.
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The aftermath
Although Pearl Harbor started the Pacific War, a war that Japan would lose badly, the attack itself was no failure. The Japanese wanted to cripple the Pacific Fleet and give them the space to invade South-east Asia. They did: Japan won every major battle until Midway in June 1942. By that time it occupied territory from Manchuria to the East Indies, and from India's borders to deep into the Pacific. The attack on Pearl Harbor bought Japan the space and time it needed.
Although only chance saved the American aircraft carriers, their survival was a major blow. However, the primary problem with the attack was the planning. Had Japan focused beyond the fleet and targeted the crucial shore facilities and oil reserves, it could have inflicted far greater and more lasting damage. As it was, of the ships damaged or sunk on December 7th 1941, only three - the Arizona, Oklahoma and Utah - were damaged beyond repair, and Utah was already obsolete. Japan gave America the chance to rebuild its fleet and re-enter the fight with brand new kit.
Operationally brilliant, the attack was nonetheless strategically disastrous.
Even worse, rather than crushing American morale as planned, the attack united the country behind Roosevelt and behind war. Americans were incensed by Japan's failure to declare war until later that day: the sneak attack fuelled American determination to fight on, even in the face of the setbacks of early 1942.
Pearl Harbor and the invasion of South-east Asia showcased Japan at its best - capable of massive daring and painstaking preparation. Operationally brilliant, the attack was nonetheless strategically disastrous. Never again would Japan have the opportunity to act with such forethought and planning. It got itself the short term breathing space it wanted, but also a war against both Britain and America. To invite such confrontation was the result of courage, optimism and (possibly) madness on a massive scale. Japan lost. Faced with American military and economic might, it could never really win. So why all the conspiracy theories? Maybe because some just cannot accept that on the day, in round one, their boys were beaten by the better team.
Books
Scapegoats by Edward L Beach (1995). A revisionist account.
The Way It Was: Pearl Harbor, the Original Photographs by Donald M Goldstein et al (2001). Personal accounts and photographs of the attack.
Day of Infamy by Walter Lord (1957, 2001). The first classic account of the attack
At Dawn We Slept: The Untold Story of Pearl Harbor by Gordon W Prange (1991). The definitive history of Pearl Harbor
Day of Deceit: the truth about FDR and Pearl Harbor Another revisionist account by Robert B Stinnett (2001)
Infamy: Pearl Harbor and its aftermath by John Toland (2001). Pins the blame on Washington.
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About the author
Bruce Robinson is a professional journalist who graduated with a first class degree in History from Cambridge University, specialising in English Social, Political and Economic History from 1300 to 1600.
| i don't know |
Which British Prime Minister, who was born in Portsmouth in March 1912, died on March 26th 2005 aged 92 ? | James Callaghan - Biography - IMDb
James Callaghan
Jump to: Overview (5) | Mini Bio (1) | Spouse (1) | Trivia (14) | Personal Quotes (9)
Overview (5)
26 March 2005 , Ringmer, East Sussex, England, UK (lobar pneumonia, cardiac failure, and kidney failure)
Birth Name
6' 1" (1.86 m)
Mini Bio (1)
Jim Callaghan was born on 27th March 1912 in Portsmouth, Hampshire, to a Catholic father and Baptist mother. He was the only son and younger of 2 children. His father was a Royal Navy Chief Petty Officer of Irish ancestry, who died when Callaghan was aged 9. His father died when he was 9, plunging the family into poverty. They received no pension until Labour came into office in 1931 and paid the Callaghans a weekly pension of 10 shillings (then worth about $2).
He had an unspectacular education at Portsmouth Northern Secondary School, and left at 16 to work as a clerk for the Inland Revenue and became involved with the union (Staff Federation). He later met Harold Laski, the Chair of the Labour Party's National Executive Committee. Laski encouraged him to stand for Parliament. Callaghan served in the Royal Navy Patrol Service in World War II from 1943, but while on leave he was able to get selected as a Parliamentary candidate for Cardiff South, later Cardiff South East. He won the seat in the 1945 UK general election. He rose steadily through the party in Opposition, and stood for the leadership after Gaitskell's death in 1963.
In 1964 as Chancellor of the Exchequer, he decided not to devalue the pound, which proved to be a disastrous decision. He was forced to do so three years later and felt obliged to resign as Chancellor and became Home Secretary, where he was able to partially restore his reputation. During this time there was worsening violence in Northern Ireland and in 1969 he sent troops to the province, initially to protect the Catholic minority.
In Opposition Callaghan became Shadow Foreign Secretary, and in government after 1974 it was his job to renegotiate the terms of Britains EC membership. When Harold Wilson resigned unexpectedly, Callaghan was not the favourite to win the leadership, being the oldest candidate at 64. However, he was the least divisive candidate, and won the vote.
He was Prime Minister from 1976 to 1979. As a PM he presided over a sterling crisis, which led to negotiations with the IMF for a rescue package. However, problems became more difficult when Labour lost its overall small majority in 1977, following a succession of by-election defeats. They became dependent on the support of the Liberals to survive. However, Callaghan persevered in office even when this pact broke down.
During the 'Winter of Discontent' in 1978, industrial action over pay policy severely damaged the governments authority. Following a loss of a confidence motion on 28 March 1979 by just one vote, Callaghan was obliged to hold a general election, which was won by Margaret Thatcher 's Conservative Party. He resigned as leader of the Labour party in September 1980, shortly after the 1980 party conference.
In 1983, he became Father of the House as the longest continuously serving member of the Commons and one of only two survivors of the 1945 general election. The other one was Michael Foot , who, however, had been out of the House from 1955 to 1960. Callaghan remained an MP until the 1987 general election when he retired after forty-two years as a member of the Commons. The same year, he was elevated to the House of Lords as Baron Callaghan of Cardiff.
In 1988 his wife Audrey spotted a letter to a newspaper which pointed out that the copyright of Peter Pan was about to expire. Callaghan moved an amendment to the Copyright Bill then under consideration in the Lords to extend it permanently, and this was accepted by the government. (Royalties from Peter Pan go to the Great Ormond Street Children's Hospital)
He was married for 67 years to Audrey Elizabeth Moulton. They had a son and two daughters. Margaret, born in 1940, became Baroness Jay of Paddington and was Leader of the House of Lords from 1998 to 2001. Julia was born in 1943 and Michael in 1946.
He died at his farm in Ringmer, East Sussex on 26 March 2005 on the eve of his 93rd birthday and just 11 days after the death of his wife Audrey.
- IMDb Mini Biography By: Aernout Fetter ([email protected])
Spouse (1)
( 28 July 1938 - 15 March 2005) (her death) (3 children)
Trivia (14)
On February 14th, 2005, he became the oldest living British Prime Minister at 92 years, 10 months and 18 days old.
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (April 1976 - May 1979).
He was created a Knight of the Garter by HM Queen Elizabeth II in 1979 and subsequently a life peer as the Baron Callaghan of Cardiff upon leaving the House of Commons in 1987.
He is the only man to have held the highest four positions in the British government: Chancellor of the Exchequer (1964-1967), Home Secretary (1967-1970), Foreign Secretary (1974-1976) and Prime Minister (1976-1979).
Resigned as leader of the Labour Party in 1980, the year after his general election defeat by Conservative Margaret Thatcher .
He and Audrey are survived by their three children, 10 grandchildren and six great grandchildren.
It is in large part due to his wife Audrey that he remained in politics after the devaluation of sterling on 18 November 1967, when he was chancellor of the exchequer. Were it not for her advice in the course of their long private discussions late into that night, he would have resigned from the government and might never have succeeded Harold Wilson as prime minister in 1976.
His eldest daughter Margaret Jay - now Baroness Jay of Paddington - was formerly Lord Privy Seal, Leader of the House of Lords and Minister for Women. Previously, she was Minister of State at the Department of Health.
His wife, Audrey, latterly Lady Callaghan of Cardiff, was Chairman of the Great Ormond Street Hospital from 1969 to 1982. It was she who prompted Jim to amend the Copyright bill and make the Hospital's copyright of "Peter Pan" permanent.
He and his wife were married for 67 years. His wife Audrey passed away on 15 March aged 91, so he was only a widower for 11 days.
He was the tallest Prime Minister of the United Kingdom at nearly 6'1".
He died on the sixtieth anniversary of the death of David Lloyd George , one of his predecessors as British Prime Minister.
Ex-father-in-law of Peter Jay .
On 3 Apr 2016, BBC Parliament channel broadcast Callaghan Night to commemorate 40 years since he became Labour leader.
Personal Quotes (9)
| James Callaghan |
In which famous tale of 1697 does an animal help a miller's son achieve his fortune as the Marquis of Carabas ? | James Callaghan : definition of James Callaghan and synonyms of James Callaghan (English)
World War II
Leonard James Callaghan, Baron Callaghan of Cardiff, KG , PC (27 March 1912 – 26 March 2005), was a British Labour politician who was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1976 to 1979 and Leader of the Labour Party from 1976 to 1980. Commonly known as Jim Callaghan (and nicknamed "Sunny Jim", "Gentleman Jim", "Lucky Jim" or "Big Jim"), Callaghan is the only person to have served in all four of the Great Offices of State : Prime Minister, Chancellor of the Exchequer , Home Secretary and Foreign Secretary .
Callaghan was Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1964 to 1967 during a turbulent period in the British economy in which he had to wrestle with a balance of payments deficit and speculative attacks on the pound sterling . In November 1967, the Government was forced to devalue the pound sterling despite having already denied this would be done, both publicly and to the House of Commons . Callaghan offered to resign, but was persuaded to swap his ministerial post with Roy Jenkins , becoming Home Secretary from 1967 to 1970. In that capacity, Callaghan took the decision to use the Army to support the police in Northern Ireland , after a request from the Northern Ireland Government.
The Labour Party lost the General Election in 1970 , but Callaghan returned to office as Foreign Secretary in March 1974, taking responsibility for renegotiating the terms of Britain's membership of the European Economic Community (EEC or "Common Market"), and supporting a "Yes" vote in the 1975 referendum for the UK to remain in the EEC . When Harold Wilson resigned in 1976, Callaghan was elected the new Labour leader.
Labour had already lost its majority in the House of Commons when he became Prime Minister and lost further seats at by-elections and through defections, forcing Callaghan to deal with minor parties such as the Liberal Party especially in the Lib-Lab pact from 1977 to 1978, the Ulster Unionists , Scottish National Party and even Independents. Industrial disputes and widespread strikes in the " Winter of Discontent " of 1978–79, made Callaghan's government unpopular and the defeat of the referendum on devolution for Scotland led to the passage of a motion of no confidence on 28 March 1979 . This was followed by a defeat by Margaret Thatcher 's Conservative Party in the ensuing general election .
Contents
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1912 to 1944: early life and career
James Callaghan was born at 38 Funtington Road, Copnor, Portsmouth , England on 27 March 1912. He was named after his father, also James Callaghan (1887–1921), who was of Irish descent and was a Royal Navy Chief Petty Officer . [2] His mother was Charlotte Callaghan née Cundy (1879–1961). He had an older sister, Dorothy Gertrude Callaghan (born 1904). He attended Portsmouth Northern Secondary School (now Mayfield School ). He gained the Senior Oxford Certificate in 1929, but could not afford entrance to university and instead sat the civil service Entrance Exam.
At the age of 17, Callaghan left to work as a clerk for the Inland Revenue . While working as a tax inspector, Callaghan was instrumental in establishing the Association of Officers of Taxes as a trade union for those in his profession and became a member of its national executive. While at the Inland Revenue offices in Kent, in 1931, he joined the Maidstone branch of the Labour Party. In 1934, he was transferred to Inland Revenue offices in London. Following a merger of unions in 1936, Callaghan was appointed a full-time union official and to the post of Assistant Secretary of the Inland Revenue Staff Federation and resigned from his Civil Service duties.
His union position at the Inland Revenue Federation brought Callaghan into contact with Harold Laski , the Chairman of the Labour Party's National Executive Committee and an academic at the London School of Economics . Laski encouraged him to stand for Parliament, although later on, he requested Callaghan several times to study and lecture at the LSE. Callaghan joined the Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve as an Ordinary Seaman in World War II from 1942 where he served in the East Indies Fleet and was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant in April 1944. [3] While training for his promotion, his medical examination revealed that he was suffering from tuberculosis and was admitted to the Royal Naval Hospital Haslar in Gosport near Portsmouth . After he recovered, he was discharged and assigned to duties with the Admiralty in Whitehall . He was assigned to the Japanese section and wrote a service manual for the Royal Navy The Enemy Japan.
Whilst on leave, Callaghan was selected as a Parliamentary candidate for Cardiff South . He narrowly won the local party ballot with twelve votes against the next highest candidate George Thomas with eleven. He was encouraged to put his name forward for the Cardiff South seat by his friend Dai Kneath, a member of the IRSF National executive from Swansea , who was in turn an associate and friend of the local Labour Party secretary Bill Headon. [4] During 1945 he was assigned to the Indian Fleet and served on HMS Queen Elizabeth in the Indian Ocean. After VE Day , along with other prospective candidates he returned to the United Kingdom to stand in the general election.
1945 to 1976: parliament and cabinet
Labour won a landslide victory on 26 July 1945 bringing Clement Attlee to power. Callaghan won his Cardiff South seat in the 1945 UK general election (and would hold a Cardiff-area seat continuously until 1987). He defeated the sitting Conservative incumbent candidate, Sir Arthur Evans , by 17,489 votes to 11,545. He campaigned on such issues as the rapid demobilisation of the armed forces and for a new housing construction programme. [5] At the time of his election, his son Michael was born.
Callaghan was soon appointed Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Transport in 1947 where, advised by the young chief constable of Hertfordshire Sir Arthur Young , his term saw important improvements in road safety, notably the introduction of zebra crossings , and an extension in the use of cat's eyes . He moved to be Parliamentary and Financial Secretary to the Admiralty from 1950 where he was a delegate to the Council of Europe and resisted plans for a European army.
Callaghan was popular with Labour MPs and was elected to the Shadow Cabinet every year while the Labour Party was in opposition from 1951 to 1964. He was Parliamentary Adviser to the Police Federation from 1955 to 1960 when he negotiated an increase in police pay with the then General Secretary Arthur Charles Evans . He ran for the Deputy Leadership of the party in 1960 as an opponent of unilateral nuclear disarmament, and despite the other candidate of the Labour right ( George Brown ) agreeing with him on this policy, he forced Brown to a second vote. In November 1961, Callaghan became shadow chancellor. When Hugh Gaitskell died in January 1963, Callaghan ran to succeed him but came third and the leadership contest was won by Harold Wilson. However, he did gain the support of right-wingers, such as Denis Healey and Anthony Crosland , who wanted to prevent Wilson from being elected leader but who also didn't trust George Brown.
Chancellor of the Exchequer
In October 1964, Conservative Prime Minister Sir Alec Douglas-Home (who had only been in power for 12 months since the resignation of Harold Macmillan ) called a general election . It was a tough election, but Labour won a narrow majority, gaining 56 seats (a total of 317 to the Conservatives 309). The new Labour government under Harold Wilson immediately faced economic problems and Wilson acted within his first hours to appoint Callaghan as Chancellor of the Exchequer . The new government had to cope with a balance of payments deficit and speculative attacks on Sterling. It was the policy of the whole government, and one in which Callaghan concurred, that devaluation should be avoided for as long as possible and he managed to arrange loans from other central banks and some tax rises in order to stabilise the economy. Callaghan's time as chancellor was to be during a time of crisis; with high inflation, high unemployment and an unstable economy with a deficit in the budget, a deficit in the balance of import and exports and most importantly conflict over the value of the pound.
On 11 November, Callaghan gave his first budget and announced increases in income tax, petrol tax and the introduction of a new capital gains tax , actions which most economists deemed necessary to take the heat out of the balance and sterling deficit, though international bankers disagreed. [6]
On 23 November, it was decided to increase the bank rate from 2% to 7% which generated a large amount of criticism. Handling the crisis was made more difficult by the attitude of Lord Cromer , the Governor of the Bank of England , who argued against the fiscal policies of the new Labour government. When Callaghan and Wilson threatened to call a new general election, the governor soon raised a £3 billion loan to stabilise the reserves and the deficit. [7] His second budget came on 6 April 1965, in which he announced efforts to deflate the economy and reduce home import demand by £250 million. Shortly afterwards, the bank rate was reduced from 7% down to 6%. For a brief time, the economy and British financial market stabilised, allowing in June for Callaghan to visit the United States and to discuss the state of the British economy with President Lyndon Baines Johnson and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
In July, the pound came under extreme pressure and Callaghan was forced to create harsh temporary measures to demonstrate control of the economy. These include suspending all current government building projects and postponing new pension plans. The alternative was to allow the pound to float or to devalue it. Callaghan and Wilson however were again adamant that a devaluation of the pound would create new social and economic problems and continued to take a firm stance against it. [8] The government continued to struggle both with the economy and with the slender majority which, by 1966, had been reduced to one. On 28 February, Harold Wilson formally announced an election for the 31 March 1966. On 1 March, Callaghan gave a 'little budget' to the Commons and announced the historic decision that the UK would adopt decimal currency . It was actually not until 1971, under a Conservative government, that the United Kingdom moved from the system of pounds, shillings and pence to a decimal system of 100 pence to the pound. He also announced a short-term mortgage scheme which allowed low-wage earners to maintain mortgage schemes in the face of economic difficulties. Soon afterwards, Labour won 363 seats compared to 252 seats against the Conservatives, giving the Labour government a large majority of 97.
Callaghan introduced his next Budget on 4 May. He had informed the house that he would bring a full Budget to the House when he made his 'little budget' speech prior to the election. The main point of his budget was the introduction of a Selective Employment Tax, penalising the service industry and favouring the manufacturing industry. [9] [10] Twelve days after the budget, the National Union of Seamen called a national strike and the problems facing Sterling were multiplied. [11] Additional strikes caused the balance of payments deficit to increase and the 3.3 billion loan was now due. Unemployment was also rising; it had been just over 300,000 when Labour came to power, but two years later it was climbed to more than 500,000.
On 14 July, the bank rate was increased again to seven percent. On 20 July, Callaghan announced an emergency ten-point programme with a six-month freeze on wage and salary increases. By 1967, the economy had begun to stabilise once again and the bank rate was reduced to 6% in March and 5.5% in May.
It was under these conditions that Callaghan beat Michael Foot in a vote to become Treasurer of the Labour Party .
The economy was soon in turmoil again, with the Middle East crisis between Egypt and Israel raising oil prices. Furthermore, the economy was hit in mid-September when a national dock strike lasted for eight weeks. A run on Sterling began with the six-day war and with the closure of the Suez Canal and with the dock strike, the balance of payments deficit grew to a critical level. A Common Market report suggested that the pound could not be sustained as a reserve currency and it was suggested again that the pound should be devalued. Wilson and Callaghan refused a contingency fund offered from the IMF because of several conditions attached. On Wednesday 15 November, the historic decision was taken to commit the government to a 14.3% devaluation. The situation was a great political controversy at the time. As Denis Healey in his autobiography, notes:
“
Nowadays exchange rates can swing to and fro continually by amount greater than that, without attracting much attention outside the City columns of the newspapers. It may be difficult to understand how great a political humiliation this devaluation appeared at the time – above all to Wilson and his Chancellor, Jim Callaghan, who felt he must resign over it. Callaghan's personal distress was increased by a careless answer he gave to a backbencher's question two days before the formal devaluation. This cost Britain several hundred million pounds." [12]
”
Before the devaluation, Jim Callaghan had announced publicly to the Press and the House of Commons that he would not devalue, something he later said was necessary to maintain confidence in the pound and avoid creating jitters in the financial markets. Callaghan immediately offered his resignation as Chancellor and increasing political opposition forced Wilson to accept it. Wilson then moved Roy Jenkins , the Home Secretary, to the Chancellor of the Exchequer and Callaghan became the new Home Secretary on 30 November 1967.
Home Secretary
Callaghan's tenure as Home Secretary was marked by the emerging conflict in Northern Ireland and it was as Home Secretary that he took the decision to deploy British Army troops in the province after a request from the Ulster Unionist Government of Northern Ireland.
Callaghan was also responsible for the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1968 ; a controversial piece of legislation prompted by Conservative assertions that an influx of Kenyan Asians would soon inundate the country. It passed through the Commons in a week and placed entry controls on holders of British passports who had "no substantial connection" with Britain by setting up a new system. In his memoirs Time and Chance, Callaghan wrote that introducing the Commonwealth Immigrants Bill had been an unwelcome task but that he did not regret it. He claimed the Asians had "discovered a loophole" and he told a BBC interviewer: "Public opinion in this country was extremely agitated, and the consideration that was in my mind was how we could preserve a proper sense of order in this country and, at the same time, do justice to these people – I had to balance both considerations". An opponent of the Act, Conservative MP Ian Gilmour , asserted that it was "brought in to keep the blacks out. If it had been the case that it was 5,000 white settlers who were coming in, the newspapers and politicians, Callaghan included, who were making all the fuss would have been quite pleased".
Also significant was the passing of the Race Relations Act in the same year, making it illegal to refuse employment, housing or education on the basis of ethnic background. The Act extended the powers of the Race Relations Board at the time, to deal with complaints of discrimination and unfair attitudes. It also set up a new supervisory body, the Community Relations Commission, to promote "harmonious community relations". [13] Presenting the Bill to Parliament, the Home Secretary, Jim Callaghan, said, "The House has rarely faced an issue of greater social significance for our country and our children."
In 1969, Callaghan, a strong supporter of the Labour/Trade Union link, led the successful opposition in a divided cabinet to Barbara Castle 's White Paper " In Place of Strife " which sought to modify Trade Union law. Amongst its numerous proposals were plans to force unions to call a ballot before a strike was held and the establishment of an Industrial Board to enforce settlements in industrial disputes. Ironically, if the proposals had become law, many of the activities of the trades unions during the Winter of Discontent a decade later would have been illegal.
After Wilson's unexpected defeat by Edward Heath in the 1970 General Election , Callaghan declined to challenge him for the leadership despite Wilson's vulnerability. This did much to rehabilitate him in Wilson's eyes. He was in charge of drawing up a new policy statement in 1972 which contained the idea of the Social Contract between the government and trade unions. He also did much to ensure that Labour opposed the Heath government's bid to enter the Common Market —forcing Wilson's hand by making his personal opposition clear without consulting the Party Leader.
Foreign Secretary
When Wilson won the next general election and returned as Prime Minister in March 1974, he appointed Callaghan as Foreign Secretary which gave him responsibility for renegotiating the terms of the United Kingdom's membership of the Common Market. When the talks concluded, Callaghan led the Cabinet in declaring the new terms acceptable and he supported a 'Yes' vote in the 1975 referendum .
Election as Leader of the Labour Party
Barely two years after beginning his second spell as prime minister, Wilson announced his surprise resignation on 16 March 1976, and unofficially endorsed Callaghan as his successor. Callaghan was the favourite to win the leadership, although he was the oldest candidate; he was also the most experienced and least divisive. Popularity with all parts of the Labour movement saw him through the ballot of Labour MPs to win the leadership vote. On 5 April 1976, at the age of 64 years and 9 days, Callaghan became Prime Minister – the oldest person to become Prime Minister at time of appointment since Winston Churchill .
Prime Minister
Callaghan was the only Prime Minister to have held all three leading Cabinet positions – Chancellor of the Exchequer, Home Secretary and Foreign Secretary – prior to becoming Prime Minister.
James Callaghan arriving at the White House in 1977 with US President Jimmy Carter , at right.
During his first year in office, Callaghan started what has since become known as 'The Great Debate', when he spoke at Ruskin College , Oxford about the 'legitimate concerns' of a public about education as it took place in the nation's maintained schools . This discussion led to greater involvement of the government, through its ministries, in the curriculum and administration of state education, leading to the eventual introduction of the National Curriculum some ten years later. [14]
James Callaghan at the 1978 TUC sings "Waiting at the Church" to convey that there would be no General Election that year. On television, however, he had a different message: that, if he called the election, the Conservatives would not be prepared.
Callaghan's time as Prime Minister was dominated by the troubles in running a Government with a minority in the House of Commons : he was forced to make deals with minor parties in order to survive – including the Lib-Lab pact , and he had been forced to accept referendums on devolution in Scotland and Wales (the former went in favour but did not reach the required majority, and the latter went heavily against). He also became prime minister at a time when Britain was suffering from double-digit inflation and rising unemployment. He responded to the economic crises by adopting deflationary policies in order to reduce inflation, and cutting public expenditure – a precursor to the monetarist economic policies that the next government, a Conservative one led by Margaret Thatcher , would pursue in order to ease the crises. [15]
Callaghan and his ministers did, however, introduce a number of reforms during their time in office. The Rent (Agricultural) Act of November 1976 provided security of tenure for agricultural workers in tied accommodation, while the Bail Act introduced that same year reformed bail conditions with courts having to explain refusal of bail. The Police Act of August 1976 set up a Police Complaints Board “to formalise the procedure for dealing with public complaints.” The Education Act of November 1976 limited the taking up of independent and direct-grant school places and required all local authorities who had failed to do so “to submit proposals for comprehensive schools,” while the Housing (Homeless Persons) Act of 1977 extended local authority responsibility “to provide accommodation for homeless people in their area,” [16] and instituted the right of homeless families to a permanent local authority tenancy. [17]
Despite these difficulties, over the summer of 1978 (shortly after the end of the Lib-Lab pact ) [18] most opinion polls showed Labour ahead, and the expectation grew that Callaghan would call an autumn election that would have given him a second term in office until autumn 1983.
Famously, he strung along the opposition and was expected to make his declaration of election in a broadcast on 7 September 1978. [19] His decision to put off the election, at the time, seen by many as a sign of his domination of the political scene and he ridiculed his opponents by singing old-time music hall star Vesta Victoria 's song " Waiting at the Church " at that month's Trades Union Congress meeting: now seen as one of the greatest moments of hubris in modern British politics, but celebrated at the time. Callaghan intended to convey the message that he had not promised an election, but most observers misread his message as an assertion that he would call an election, and the Conservatives would not be ready for it.
"Winter of Discontent"
Main article: Winter of Discontent
Callaghan's method of dealing with the long-term economic difficulties involved pay restraint which had been operating for four years with reasonable success. He gambled that a fifth year would further improve the economy and allow him to be re-elected in 1979, and so attempted to hold pay rises to 5% or less. The trade unions rejected continued pay restraint and in a succession of strikes over the winter of 1978–79 (known as the Winter of Discontent ) secured higher pay. The industrial unrest made his government extremely unpopular, and Callaghan's response to one interview question only made it worse. Returning to the United Kingdom from an economic summit held in Guadeloupe in early 1979, Callaghan was asked, "What is your general approach, in view of the mounting chaos in the country at the moment?" Callaghan replied, "Well, that's a judgement that you are making. I promise you that if you look at it from outside, and perhaps you're taking rather a parochial view at the moment, I don't think that other people in the world would share the view that there is mounting chaos." This reply was reported in The Sun under the headline "Crisis? What Crisis?". Callaghan also later admitted in regard to the Winter of Discontent that he had "let the country down". [20]
The Winter of Discontent saw Labour's performance in the opinion polls slump dramatically. They had topped most of the pre-winter opinion polls by several points, but in February 1979 at least one opinion poll was showing the Tories 20 points ahead of Labour and it appeared certain that Labour would lose the forthcoming election. [21]
In the build up to the election, the Daily Mirror and The Guardian supported Labour, while The Sun, the Daily Mail , the Daily Express , and The Daily Telegraph supported the Conservatives. [22]
On 28 March 1979, the House of Commons passed a Motion of No Confidence by one vote , 311–310, which forced Callaghan to call a general election that was held on 3 May. [23] The Conservatives under Margaret Thatcher ran a campaign on the slogan "Labour isn't working" and won the election.
Callaghan's failure to call an election during 1978 was widely seen as a political miscalculation; after losing power in the election, Labour would spend the next 18 years in opposition. [24]
Resignation, backbenches and retirement
left to right: Helmut Schmidt , Jimmy Carter , Valéry Giscard d'Estaing , James Callaghan.
Callaghan resigned as leader of the Labour Party on 15 October 1980, shortly after the 1980 party conference had voted for a new system of election by electoral college involving the individual members and trade unions. His resignation ensured that his successor would be elected by MPs only. In the second round of a campaign that laid bare the deep internal divisions of the Parliamentary Labour Party, Michael Foot narrowly beat Denis Healey to succeed Callaghan as leader.
In 1982, along with his friend Gerald Ford , he co-founded the annual AEI World Forum .
In 1983, he attacked Labour's plans to reduce defence, [25] [26] and the same year became Father of the House as the longest continuously serving member of the Commons. He was by this time one of only three survivors of the 1945 general election, but the only one with continuous service. Michael Foot and Ian Mikardo also remained of the 1945 intake, but Michael Foot had been out of the House from 1955 to 1960 and Mikardo from 1959 to 1964.
In 1987, he was made a Knight of the Garter and stood down at the 1987 general election after 42 years as a member of the Commons. Shortly afterwards, he was elevated to the House of Lords as Baron Callaghan of Cardiff, of the City of Cardiff in the Royal County of South Glamorganshire . In 1987, his autobiography, Time and Chance, was published. He also served as a non-executive director of the Bank of Wales .
In 1988, Callaghan's wife Audrey , a former chairman (1969–1982) of Great Ormond Street Hospital , spotted a letter to a newspaper which pointed out that the copyright of Peter Pan , which had been assigned by J. M. Barrie to the hospital, was about to expire. Callaghan moved an amendment to the Copyright Bill then under consideration in the Lords to extend the term under which the hospital could continue to collect royalties, despite the lapse of copyright, and this was accepted by the government.
In July 1996, he was awarded an honorary degree from the Open University as Doctor of the University.[ citation needed ]
In October 1999, Callaghan told The Oldie Magazine that he would not be surprised to be considered as Britain's worst prime minister in 200 years. He also admitted in this interview that he "must carry the can" for the Winter of Discontent. [27]
Personal life
Callaghan's interests included rugby , tennis and agriculture. He married Audrey Elizabeth Moulton , whom he had met when they both worked as Sunday School teachers at the local Baptist church, [28] in July 1938 and had three children – one son and two daughters. Lady Callaghan died on 15 March 2005. Although there is much doubt about how much belief Callaghan retained into adult life, the Baptist nonconformist ethic was a profound influence throughout all of his public and private life. In the mid-1980s Callaghan told an interviewer that he was an atheist .
Callaghan died on 26 March 2005, 11 days after his wife's death and one day before his 93rd birthday, of lobar pneumonia , cardiac failure and kidney failure. He died as the longest-lived British former prime minister, having beaten Harold MacMillan's record 39 days earlier.
One of his final public appearances came on 29 April 2002, when at the age of 90 he sat alongside the then prime minister Tony Blair and the three other surviving former prime ministers at the time at Buckingham Palace for a dinner which formed part of the Queen's Golden Jubilee celebrations, alongside his daughter Margaret, Baroness Jay of Paddington , who had served as head of the House of Lords from 1998 to 2001. [29]
Callaghan was cremated and his ashes were scattered in a flower bed next to the Peter Pan statue at London's Great Ormond Street Hospital .
In popular culture
The song "Time for Truth" from The Jam 's debut album, In the City , a scathing critique of the state of the British nation, directly addresses Callaghan: "I think it's time for truth, and the truth is you lost, Uncle Jimmy."
Titles from birth to death
James Callaghan, Esq (27 March 1912–1943)
Lieutenant James Callaghan, RNVR (1943 – 26 July 1945)
Lieutenant James Callaghan, MP (26 July 1945 – 21 October 1964)
Lieutenant The Right Honourable James Callaghan, MP (21 October 1964 – ?)
The Right Honourable James Callaghan, MP (? – 23 April 1987)
The Right Honourable Sir James Callaghan, KG, MP (23 April 1987 – 11 June 1987)
The Right Honourable Sir James Callaghan, KG (11 June 1987 – 5 November 1987)
The Right Honourable The Lord Callaghan of Cardiff, KG, PC (5 November 1987 – 26 March 2005)
Arms
Callaghan Ministry
Notes
^ "One of the more enduring marks on British life left by the atheist, Prime Minister Callaghan, was to remove exclusive responsibility for the appointment of bishops from his own office and share it largely with a commission of churchmen. Since 1976, the Prime Minister has been limited to choosing one from two nominees of the commission or, in exceptional cases, sending the list back for the commission to produce a new one."
Hugo Young, 'A relic of history best left undisturbed', The Guardian (London), 27 March 1990.
^ Page 1, Callaghan: British Prime-Ministers of the 20th century, Harry Conroy , Haus Publishing 2006
^ Chesshyre, Hubert (1996), The Friends of St. George's & Descendants of the Knights of the Garter Annual Review 1995/96, VII, p. 288
References
Callaghan, James. Time and Chance. Collins, 1987.
Callaghan, James. Challenges and Opportunities for British Foreign Policy. Fabian Society, 1975.
Biographies:
Conroy, Harry. James Callaghan. Haus, 2006.
Derbyshire, Dennis. Politics in Britain: From Callaghan to Thatcher (Political Spotlights). Chambers, 1990.
Donoughue, Bernard. Prime Minister: Conduct of Policy Under Harold Wilson and James Callaghan, 1974–79. Jonathan Cape, 1987.
Donoughue, Bernard. The Heat of the Kitchen. Politico's Publishing, 2003.
Healey, Denis. The Time of My Life. Michael Joseph, 1989.
Jefferys, Kevin (ed). Leading Labour. I. B. Tauris, 1999.
Morgan, Kenneth O. Callaghan: A Life. Oxford University Press, 1997.
Rosen, Greg. Dictionary of Labour Biography. Politico's Publishing, 2001.
Rosen, Greg. Old Labour to New. Politico's Publishing, 2005.
External links
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Which popular card game takes its name from the Spanish for 'Basket' ? | Card Games | Britannica.com
Card Games
game played for pleasure or gambling (or both) with one or more decks of playing cards.
Displaying Featured Card Games Articles
Pokémon
20th- and 21st-century Japanese fantasy-based cartoon creatures that spawned a video- and card-game franchise. In the Pokémon —or “Pocket Monsters”—video-game series, players were able to explore the game’s fictional world by looking for wild Pokémon creatures to capture and tame. As Pokémon trainers, they readied the small monsters to compete in battle...
blackjack
gambling card game popular in casinos throughout the world. Its origin is disputed, but it is certainly related to several French and Italian gambling games. In Britain since World War I, the informal game has been called pontoon. Players hope to get a total card value of 21 or to come closer to it, without going over, than the dealer, against whom...
tarot
any of a set of cards used in tarot games and in fortune-telling. Tarot decks were invented in Italy in the 1430s by adding to the existing four-suited pack a fifth suit of 21 specially illustrated cards called trionfi (“triumphs”) and an odd card called il matto (“the fool”). (The fool is not the origin of the modern joker, which was invented in the...
euchre
card game popular in the United States, Canada, New Zealand, and Great Britain, especially in Cornwall and the West Country of England. It derives from a 19th-century Alsatian game called juckerspiel from the fact that its two top trumps are Jucker, meaning “ jack.” This word may also have influenced the choice of the term joker for the extra card...
solitaire
family of card games played by one person. Solitaire was originally called (in various spellings) either patience, as it still is in England, Poland, and Germany, or cabale, as it still is in Scandinavian countries. The terms patience and solitaire have been applied to indicate any one-player card-related activity, including building card houses, flipping...
cribbage
card game in which the object is to form counting combinations that traditionally are scored by moving pegs on a special cribbage board. The appeal of the game, usually played by two but with a popular variant played by four or occasionally by three, is evident from two facts: few changes have been made in the original rules, and it remains one of...
hanafuda
(Japanese: “flower cards”), deck of 48 cards divided into 12 suits of four cards. Each suit is named for a month of the year and pictures a flower identified with that month. The cards are tiny, only 2 1 8 by 1 1 4 inches (5.4 by 3.2 cm), but about three times thicker than Western cards. Hanafuda evolved after the Portuguese took Western cards to Japan...
whist
trick-taking card game developed in England. The English national card game has passed through many phases of development, being first recorded as trump (1529), then ruff, ruff and honours, whisk and swabbers, whisk, and finally whist in the 18th century. In the 19th century whist became the premier intellectual card game of the Western world, but...
piquet
card game, known since the 15th century in France. For centuries piquet has been regarded as one of the greatest two-player card games. In 1534 François Rabelais listed it as a favorite pastime of his fictional hero Gargantua, and in 1892 the delegates to a card congress in Vienna voted it the most “classic” of all card games. Perhaps because it was...
Yu-Gi-Oh!
Japanese manga (comic book) of the late 20th and early 21st centuries that features an ordinary high-school student, Yugi Mutou (Yugi Moto), who assumes mystical powers when playing a mysterious card game. When blond, spiky-haired Yugi, a weak and unassuming teenager, solves the mysterious Millennium Puzzle, he is granted special powers that are activated...
poker
card game played in various forms throughout the world. Its popularity is greatest in North America, where it originated. It is played in private homes, in poker clubs, in casinos, and over the Internet. Poker has been called the national card game of the United States, and its play and jargon permeate American culture. Although countless variants...
triumph
16th-century card game ancestral to whist. In triomphe, the French variety known to English contemporaries as French ruff, each player received five cards, a trump was turned, and the aim was to win three or more tricks. From this derived écarté and five-card loo. In the English game (referred to by William Shakespeare in Antony and Cleopatra), each...
card game
game played for pleasure or gambling (or both) with one or more decks of playing cards. Games using playing cards exploit the fact that cards are individually identifiable from one side only, so that each player knows only the cards he holds and not those held by anyone else. For this reason card games are often characterized as games of chance or...
spades
trick-taking card game of the whist family that became very popular in the United States in the 1990s, though reportedly some 40 years old by that time. It is played by four players in bridge-style partnerships, each being dealt 13 cards one at a time from a standard 52-card deck. Spades are always the trump suit. Each team contracts to win an agreed...
rummy
any of a family of card games whose many variants make it one of the best-known and most widely played card games. Rummy games are based on a simple mechanism and a simple object of play. The mechanism is to draw cards from a stockpile and discard unwanted cards from the hand to a wastepile, from which cards can also be subsequently drawn, and the...
hearts
card game in which players aim to avoid taking tricks that contain hearts. Hearts first appeared in the United States about 1880, although it derives from the much older European game of reverse. In the late 20th century a version of hearts was included with every personal computer running the Windows operating system. This version of hearts became...
canasta
card game of the rummy family, developed in Buenos Aires, Arg., and Montevideo, Uruguay, in the 1940s and popular in the United States and Great Britain from the 1950s on. The name canasta, from the Spanish word for “basket,” probably derives from the tray placed in the centre of the table to hold undealt cards and discards. Variations include samba...
pinochle
American card game typically played by three players acting alone (cutthroat) or four players in two partnerships. The game derives from a German variety of bezique called binokel (French binocle). All these names mean “eyeglasses” (literally “two-eyes”) and refer to the scoring combination of queen of spades and jack of diamonds, allegedly because...
five hundred
card game for two to six players, devised in 1904 by the United States Playing Card Company. Though later eclipsed by bridge, it still has a substantial American following and has also become the national card game of Australia and New Zealand. Five hundred was devised as a deliberate cross between euchre, with its distinctive “bowers,” and bridge,...
old maid
simple card game popular with young children. It takes its name from a 19th-century specially illustrated deck of cards showing colourful characters in matching pairs, plus a single old maid card. In Germany the equivalent game is called schwarzer Peter (“black Peter”) and in France vieux garçon (“old boy”). Two or more can play with a standard 52-card...
crazy eights
popular children’s card game. The basic idea is to be the first to play all one’s cards to a communal discard pile. This game has a huge number of variations and many alternative names. At its simplest, two players each receive seven cards from a standard 52-card deck—or five cards from a double deck of 104 cards if there are more than two players....
faro
one of the oldest gambling games played with cards, supposedly named from the picture of a pharaoh on certain French playing cards. A favourite of highborn gamblers throughout Europe well into the 19th century, faro was the game at which the young Count Rostov, in Leo Tolstoy ’s War and Peace, lost a fortune. Faro was introduced to the United States...
skat
card game for three players, but usually four participate, with each player sitting out a turn as dealer. It is Germany’s national card game. It originated in Altenburg, near Leipzig, about 1817 and is played wherever Germans have settled; the International Skat Players Association (ISPA) has affiliates in more than a dozen countries. North American...
president
card game of Chinese origin that suddenly appeared in the Western world during the 1980s. President is just one of many different names for the game, most of them vulgar and some scatological, and the game itself is played in many different forms with varying rules. Common to all, besides the basic object and method of play, is the distinctive feature...
belote
trick-and-meld card game derived from klaberjass about 1920 and now the most popular card game in France. The original game was for two players, and there are versions for three players, but the most popular form now is the four-player partnership game, also known as belote coinchée or just coinche, that developed in the latter half of the 20th century....
baccarat
casino card game resembling, but simpler than, blackjack. In basic baccarat the house is the bank. In the related game chemin de fer, or chemmy, the bank passes from player to player. In punto banco it appears to pass from player to player but is actually held by the house. Casino play involves three or six 52-card decks shuffled together and dealt...
casino
card game for two to four players, best played with two. A 52-card deck is used. When two play, the dealer deals two cards facedown to the opponent, two cards faceup to the table, and two more facedown to himself and then repeats the process so that all have four cards. No further cards are dealt to the table. The aim is to capture cards from the table,...
bezique
trick-and-meld card game related to pinochle, both of which derive from the 19th-century French game of binocle, itself a development of the card game sixty-six. Bezique is now mostly played by two players using a 64-card deck consisting of two standard 52-card decks in which the 2s through 6s have been removed; the cards rank in descending order A,...
Fan-Tan
card game that may be played by any number of players up to eight. The full pack of 52 cards is dealt out, one card at a time. Thus, some hands may contain one more card than others. All players ante to a pool; in some games, those players who are dealt fewer cards than others are required to ante an extra counter. Only one card is played at a turn....
Edmond Hoyle
English writer, perhaps the first technical writer on card games. His writings on the laws of whist gave rise to the common phrase “according to Hoyle,” signifying full compliance with universally accepted rules and customs. Hoyle’s life before 1741 is unknown, although he is said to have been called to the bar. For the use of the pupils to whom he...
| Canasta |
Now called the Willis Tower and standing 442 m in height, what was this building's previous name ? It was opened in 1973 and stands in the city of Chicago. | samba | card game | Britannica.com
card game
See Article History
Samba, card game , variant of canasta , in which three 52-card decks plus 6 jokers are used. Unlike canasta, in which only cards of the same rank may be melded (grouped face up on the playing surface and scored), samba also allows sequences of three or more cards in the same suit to be melded. A seven-card sequence, or samba, ranks as a canasta (for the purpose of going out) and scores a bonus of 1,500 points. No meld may contain more than two wild cards, and no wild card may be melded with a sequence. In each turn a player draws two cards from the stock (unless he takes the discard pile) and discards only one card. The top discard may never be taken without a natural matching pair. Game is 10,000, and the initial meld requirement for a side with 7,000 or more is 150.
Learn More in these related articles:
card game
game played for pleasure or gambling (or both) with one or more decks of playing cards. Games using playing cards exploit the fact that cards are individually identifiable from one side only, so that each player knows only the cards he holds and not those held by anyone else.
canasta
card game of the rummy family, developed in Buenos Aires, Arg., and Montevideo, Uruguay, in the 1940s and popular in the United States and Great Britain from the 1950s on. The name canasta, from the Spanish word for “basket,” probably derives from the tray placed in the centre of the...
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Date Published: February 03, 2009
URL: https://www.britannica.com/topic/samba-card-game
Access Date: January 03, 2017
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Appointed in April 2012, what is the name of the current manager of Barcelona Football Club ? | Coaches - FC Barcelona
FC BARCELONA
Luis Enrique Martínez (2014-)
Born in Gijón on May 8, 1970, Luis Enrique arrived at the Club as coach in May 2014 after leaving Celta Vigo to take up the post that had been left vacant by the departure of 'Tata' Martino. Lucho won the treble in his very first season in the job
Gerardo 'Tata' Martino (2013-14)
Gerardo 'Tata' Martino took control of the first team at FC Barcelona during preseason in 2013/14 as result of the unexpected departure of Tito Vilanova who was unable to combine his duties as coach with the medical treatment he was undergoing at the time
Josep Guardiola (2008 - 2012)
Josep Guardiola was born in Santpedor, Catalonia on 18 January, 1971. After a successful spell at the Club as a player and as coach of Barça B, Guardiola won 14 of a possible 19 trophies in four seasons in charge of the first team
Frank Rijkaard (2003-2008)
Franklin Edmundo Rijkaard, born on 30 September 1962 in Amsterdam (Holland), became FC Barcelona manager in the summer of 2003 to replace Radomir Antic. In his five seasons at the club, Rijkaard won two league titles and a Champions League, the second in the Club's history
Radomir Antic (2003)
Radomir Antic was born in Zitiste (Serbia) on 22 November 1948. He joined FC Barcelona in January 2003 to take over from Louis van Gaal. In his short stay in charge, he managed to guide the team to UEFA Cup qualification by finishing sixth in the league
Carles Rexach (1988, 1991, 1996 & 2001-02)
'The Boy from Pedralbes' hung up his boots in 1979, but immediately returned to the world of football, taking charge of the Barça U19 team in the youth football set up. Rexach was first team coach at four different points in the Club's history
Louis van Gaal (1997-00 / 2002-03)
Louis van Gaal was born on 8 August 1951 in Amsterdam (Holland), very close to the old De Meer stadium, the team where he would learn his apprenticeship in football. Van Gaal managed the team for 201 games during his two periods at the Club
Bobby Robson (1996-97)
This English gentleman, born in Sacriston in the north east of England (18 February 1933-31 July 2009) came to Barcelona with the difficult task of substituting Johan Cruyff. He won the Copa del Rey and the European Cup Winners' Cup in his only season as coach
Johan Cruyff (1988-96)
After having appeared for the club as a player, “El Flaco (The Skinny One)” returned to FC Barcelona for the 1988-89 season, this time to take up his new role as coach of the first team. Under the Dutchman, the 'Dream Team' was born and the Club claimed their first European Cup
Luis Aragonés (1987-88)
This globetrotter of Spanish football, better known as “el Sabio de Hortaleza” (the wise man from Hortaleza) coached different teams all over the country. At Barça he had Charly Rexach as his assistant. He died of leukemia on 1 February 2014
Terry Venables (1984-87)
Terry Venables came to Barça with the difficult task of replacing César Menotti, a manager who, despite not winning any important trophies with the team, had created an attractive and colourful style of football. Venables claimed the league title in his first season in the job
César Luis Menotti (1983-84)
The arrival of César Luis Menotti (Rosario, Argentina, 5 November 1938) supposed a shake up of the first team squad who had shown signs of their quality but had not made the most of it under previous coach, the German Udo Lattek. Under Menotti Barça won the Copa del Rey and the League Cup
Udo Lattek (1981-83)
Udo Lattek (16 January 1935-31 January 2015) arrived at the Club with exceptional credentials after successes with Bayern Munich and Borussia Mönchengladbach. With the German as coach Barça won the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1982, beating Standard Liége 2-1 in the final
Joaquim Rifé (1979-1980)
On 18 April 1979 Barça were knocked out of the Copa del Rey by Valencia. The defeat was a cause for great concern at the Club and the Board decided to act, bringing in the duo of Rifé-Torres to replace coach Lucien Müller. Under Rifé, Barça claimed their first ever European title
Lucien Müller (1978-79)
After an important period as a player at the Club, Müller (Bischwiller, France, 3 September 1934) left at the age of 33, but was to return to Barça eleven years later. The Frenchman lasted less than a season and was replaced by Rifé
Roque Olsen (1965-67)
Olsen was a Real Madrid player, but he was forced to hang up his boots early due to a serious knee injury. As a coach he had character and a temper, which was not always appreciated by his players. He coached right up until his death in 1992
Vicenç Sasot (1964-65)
After a good start under Sasot, Barça were then knocked out of the Fairs Cup by Stasbourg in a tie that was decided by the toss of a coin. That was the beginning of the end for the coach who left the Club the following season
César Rodríguez (1963-65)
He had success as Zaragoza coach, reaching the final of the Copa del Rey against Barça. With the blaugranes he did not enjoy the success he had at other clubs and at the end of a year and a half spell, he presented his resignation
Josep Gonzalvo (1963)
He arrived as coach to replace his good friend Ladislao Kubala. It was the second half of the season in 1962/63. The team was going through a difficult time and despite winning the cup, Gonzalo left the Club at the end of the campaign
Ladislao Kubala (1962-63 & 1980)
As a player, he became one of the legends in the history of FC Barcelona. However, he was not as fortunate in his career as a coach and his stay with Barça was considerably shorter. He had two spells as coach, the second lasting just five months
Enric Rabassa (1960)
Enric Rabassa was Helenio Herrera's assistant when the latter was sacked at the end of the 1959/60 season. He was in charge when Barça claimed the Fairs Cup in 1960, winning 4-1 against Birmingham thanks to goals from Czibor (2), Eulogio Martínez and Coll
Helenio Herrera (1958-60, 1980 & 1980-81)
‘El Mago’ (‘The Magician’) as he was known, left an indelible mark at Barça. He was a pioneer in psychological preparation and in using a sweeper in defence. His finest hour came when he was in charge of Italian club Internazionale
Domènec Balmanya (1956-58)
Once his career as a coach was over, he began as a coach after earning his national certificate in 1950. He won the Cup in his first season in charge of Barça and the first Fairs Cup in the Club’s history the following year
Sandro Puppo (1954-55)
Barça thought he would be the ideal replacement for Daucik. Before coming to Barcelona he had managed the Turkish national side, which had dispensed with Spain in the World Cup in Switzerland. At Barça luck was not on his side and he ended his only season trophyless
Enrique Fernández (1947-50)
Enrique Fernández returned to the Club for the 47-48 season after a serious knee injury ended his career as a player. He won the league in his first two seasons in charge at the Club and also claimed the first Latin Cup for Barça
Josep Samitier (1944-47)
Josep Samitier's contribution to Barça was not limited to his outstanding contribution as a player. In 1944, he started an important period as coach of the Club. With Samitier as coach the Club lifted the league title for the first time since 1929
Joan Josep Nogués (1942-44)
Joan Josep Nogués was still a player, albeit coming towards the end of his career, when he was asked to take over as coach. As coach he had success in winning the cup and misfortune as the team became embroiled in a relegation play off
| Tito Vilanova |
Which British Prime Minister, born in Chelsea in February 1894, died on December 29th 1986 aged 92 ? | Coaches - FC Barcelona
FC BARCELONA
Luis Enrique Martínez (2014-)
Born in Gijón on May 8, 1970, Luis Enrique arrived at the Club as coach in May 2014 after leaving Celta Vigo to take up the post that had been left vacant by the departure of 'Tata' Martino. Lucho won the treble in his very first season in the job
Gerardo 'Tata' Martino (2013-14)
Gerardo 'Tata' Martino took control of the first team at FC Barcelona during preseason in 2013/14 as result of the unexpected departure of Tito Vilanova who was unable to combine his duties as coach with the medical treatment he was undergoing at the time
Josep Guardiola (2008 - 2012)
Josep Guardiola was born in Santpedor, Catalonia on 18 January, 1971. After a successful spell at the Club as a player and as coach of Barça B, Guardiola won 14 of a possible 19 trophies in four seasons in charge of the first team
Frank Rijkaard (2003-2008)
Franklin Edmundo Rijkaard, born on 30 September 1962 in Amsterdam (Holland), became FC Barcelona manager in the summer of 2003 to replace Radomir Antic. In his five seasons at the club, Rijkaard won two league titles and a Champions League, the second in the Club's history
Radomir Antic (2003)
Radomir Antic was born in Zitiste (Serbia) on 22 November 1948. He joined FC Barcelona in January 2003 to take over from Louis van Gaal. In his short stay in charge, he managed to guide the team to UEFA Cup qualification by finishing sixth in the league
Carles Rexach (1988, 1991, 1996 & 2001-02)
'The Boy from Pedralbes' hung up his boots in 1979, but immediately returned to the world of football, taking charge of the Barça U19 team in the youth football set up. Rexach was first team coach at four different points in the Club's history
Louis van Gaal (1997-00 / 2002-03)
Louis van Gaal was born on 8 August 1951 in Amsterdam (Holland), very close to the old De Meer stadium, the team where he would learn his apprenticeship in football. Van Gaal managed the team for 201 games during his two periods at the Club
Bobby Robson (1996-97)
This English gentleman, born in Sacriston in the north east of England (18 February 1933-31 July 2009) came to Barcelona with the difficult task of substituting Johan Cruyff. He won the Copa del Rey and the European Cup Winners' Cup in his only season as coach
Johan Cruyff (1988-96)
After having appeared for the club as a player, “El Flaco (The Skinny One)” returned to FC Barcelona for the 1988-89 season, this time to take up his new role as coach of the first team. Under the Dutchman, the 'Dream Team' was born and the Club claimed their first European Cup
Luis Aragonés (1987-88)
This globetrotter of Spanish football, better known as “el Sabio de Hortaleza” (the wise man from Hortaleza) coached different teams all over the country. At Barça he had Charly Rexach as his assistant. He died of leukemia on 1 February 2014
Terry Venables (1984-87)
Terry Venables came to Barça with the difficult task of replacing César Menotti, a manager who, despite not winning any important trophies with the team, had created an attractive and colourful style of football. Venables claimed the league title in his first season in the job
César Luis Menotti (1983-84)
The arrival of César Luis Menotti (Rosario, Argentina, 5 November 1938) supposed a shake up of the first team squad who had shown signs of their quality but had not made the most of it under previous coach, the German Udo Lattek. Under Menotti Barça won the Copa del Rey and the League Cup
Udo Lattek (1981-83)
Udo Lattek (16 January 1935-31 January 2015) arrived at the Club with exceptional credentials after successes with Bayern Munich and Borussia Mönchengladbach. With the German as coach Barça won the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1982, beating Standard Liége 2-1 in the final
Joaquim Rifé (1979-1980)
On 18 April 1979 Barça were knocked out of the Copa del Rey by Valencia. The defeat was a cause for great concern at the Club and the Board decided to act, bringing in the duo of Rifé-Torres to replace coach Lucien Müller. Under Rifé, Barça claimed their first ever European title
Lucien Müller (1978-79)
After an important period as a player at the Club, Müller (Bischwiller, France, 3 September 1934) left at the age of 33, but was to return to Barça eleven years later. The Frenchman lasted less than a season and was replaced by Rifé
Roque Olsen (1965-67)
Olsen was a Real Madrid player, but he was forced to hang up his boots early due to a serious knee injury. As a coach he had character and a temper, which was not always appreciated by his players. He coached right up until his death in 1992
Vicenç Sasot (1964-65)
After a good start under Sasot, Barça were then knocked out of the Fairs Cup by Stasbourg in a tie that was decided by the toss of a coin. That was the beginning of the end for the coach who left the Club the following season
César Rodríguez (1963-65)
He had success as Zaragoza coach, reaching the final of the Copa del Rey against Barça. With the blaugranes he did not enjoy the success he had at other clubs and at the end of a year and a half spell, he presented his resignation
Josep Gonzalvo (1963)
He arrived as coach to replace his good friend Ladislao Kubala. It was the second half of the season in 1962/63. The team was going through a difficult time and despite winning the cup, Gonzalo left the Club at the end of the campaign
Ladislao Kubala (1962-63 & 1980)
As a player, he became one of the legends in the history of FC Barcelona. However, he was not as fortunate in his career as a coach and his stay with Barça was considerably shorter. He had two spells as coach, the second lasting just five months
Enric Rabassa (1960)
Enric Rabassa was Helenio Herrera's assistant when the latter was sacked at the end of the 1959/60 season. He was in charge when Barça claimed the Fairs Cup in 1960, winning 4-1 against Birmingham thanks to goals from Czibor (2), Eulogio Martínez and Coll
Helenio Herrera (1958-60, 1980 & 1980-81)
‘El Mago’ (‘The Magician’) as he was known, left an indelible mark at Barça. He was a pioneer in psychological preparation and in using a sweeper in defence. His finest hour came when he was in charge of Italian club Internazionale
Domènec Balmanya (1956-58)
Once his career as a coach was over, he began as a coach after earning his national certificate in 1950. He won the Cup in his first season in charge of Barça and the first Fairs Cup in the Club’s history the following year
Sandro Puppo (1954-55)
Barça thought he would be the ideal replacement for Daucik. Before coming to Barcelona he had managed the Turkish national side, which had dispensed with Spain in the World Cup in Switzerland. At Barça luck was not on his side and he ended his only season trophyless
Enrique Fernández (1947-50)
Enrique Fernández returned to the Club for the 47-48 season after a serious knee injury ended his career as a player. He won the league in his first two seasons in charge at the Club and also claimed the first Latin Cup for Barça
Josep Samitier (1944-47)
Josep Samitier's contribution to Barça was not limited to his outstanding contribution as a player. In 1944, he started an important period as coach of the Club. With Samitier as coach the Club lifted the league title for the first time since 1929
Joan Josep Nogués (1942-44)
Joan Josep Nogués was still a player, albeit coming towards the end of his career, when he was asked to take over as coach. As coach he had success in winning the cup and misfortune as the team became embroiled in a relegation play off
| i don't know |
What was the name of the husband and manager of TV star Cilla Black who died in 1999, ending over 30 years of marriage ? | BBC News | UK | Cilla's husband dies
Saturday, October 23, 1999 Published at 18:48 GMT 19:48 UK
UK
Cilla's husband dies
Bobby with Cilla when she received her OBE in 1997
Bobby Willis, husband of television star Cilla Black, has died after a long battle with liver and lung cancer.
The Blind Date presenter's husband of 30 years, who was diagnosed with the disease in July, died at The Royal Free Hospital in London at 1300BST on Saturday.
Cilla and their sons Robert 28, Ben, 24, and Jack, 17, were at his bedside.
Bobby, 57, had been admitted to the hospital suffering from a chest infection which escalated into pneumonia, said a spokeswoman for LWT.
Wedding: Cilla and Bobby's big day in 1969
She continued: "Our thoughts and sympathy are with Cilla and her family at this traumatic time.
"Two Blind Date shows planned for Monday and Tuesday have been cancelled because of the bereavement.
"Cilla and her family have asked for privacy at this difficult time."
The couple, who lived in Denham in Buckinghamshire, were said to have had one of the strongest relationships in showbusiness. Before Bobby's illness they were said to have spent only three nights apart since their marriage.
When her husband was diagnosed with cancer, Cilla said: "If it was me, I would have fallen to pieces and given up. But not Bobby.
"He refuses to be negative and has kept his marvellous sense of humour.
"He is an incredible man."
In the past Cilla has said of her husband, who was also her manager: "I'd be totally lost without him. I wouldn't have lasted five minutes without him."
Talk show host Michael Parkinson said: "Bobby was very engaging, very funny and a nice man. The two were inseparable. It's going to be awful for Cilla to cope with but she's got a very strong family."
He added: "It can be a strain on a relationship having a husband as a manager but it worked perfectly with them. I can't imagine anybody having a better relationship.
"They were two sides of the same coin. They made all decisions together. Bobby was Cilla's husband, manager, boyfriend and confidant."
Driving force
Bobby met his wife in a Liverpool club when she was a 15-year-old typist and he was a 17-year-old baker.
He is said to have shelved his own plans for stardom as a singer to concentrate on her career, driving her transformation from a 1960s singing star into Britain's most successful female entertainer.
In 1963, the couple moved from Liverpool to London, where Cilla met George Martin, the Beatles' producer.
"I think that is when work and our relationship became one," Bobby once said. "We made a bond that's lasted all through our life."
Their early years together were reported to have been turbulent, with friends saying there were furious rows in the days when she topped the bill at the London Palladium.
Bobby said he often used to start driving back to Liverpool after an argument, but would always turn round again.
Eventually he steered Cilla to a �12m fortune - she was recently listed as the UK's 27th richest woman.
| Bobby Willis |
Standing at 1,792 feet in height and opened in 2013, the building known as One World Trade Centre is commonly known by what other name ? | Pop, Merseybeat, Soul, Adult Contemporary
About
Official facebook page for British singer & TV icon Cilla Black OBE. For more information visit: http://www.cillablack.com.
Biography
Born Priscilla Maria Veronica White on the 27th May 1943, Cilla Black grew up in a musically oriented household in one of the toughest parts of Liverpool. Livin...g with her parents and three brothers, she was often encouraged to practise her innate singing talent by performing to her family.
“It’s no wonder that I knew I wanted to be a professional singer from a very early age, because I was surrounded by music in our house. My father played the mouth organ, my mother and aunts used to sing, and it wasn’t unusual for families to get together and make their own music in the fifties.” - Cilla
During her late teens, the sheer drive Cilla had to become famous made her adamant that she would never be labelled as just another girl “suitable for office work” as an early school report had suggested. Understandably, she wanted more from life and could regularly be found escaping to the trendy clubs of the day like The Iron Door and The Cavern, the latter of which was where she worked as a coat-check girl. She also served coffee at The Zodiac, another clubbers’ haven, where, incidentally, she met her husband-to-be, Bobby Willis. Perfectly placed amongst the up-and-coming stars of the day, she wowed them with her singing and confidently convinced the powers that be to let her share the spotlight on stage.
Thanks to a lot of support from her friends, she quickly became a mini-celebrity in her neighbourhood, performing alongside so many legendary acts that were fundamental in establishing the "Mersey Sound", such as The Beatles, Gerry and the Pacemakers, The Fourmost and Rory Storm and the Hurricanes.
Due to a twist of fate, Priscilla White (known around the Liverpool music scene as "Swinging Cilla") almost overnight received a new stage name, when the music paper the 'Mersey Beat’ misprinted her surname as Cilla Black, a name that she favoured and happily kept.
It wasn’t long before Cilla came to the attention of Brian Epstein, a local talent scout and manager of The Beatles. Epstein was introduced to her by none other than John Lennon, who persuaded him to arrange an audition at The Majestic Ballroom in Birkenhead. Unfortunately, the audition was unsuccessful due to a combination of nerves and singing to The Beatles’ accompaniment, who played in their own key. All was not lost as, to her surprise, she was later spotted by Epstein while singing "Bye, Bye Blackbird" in the jazzy surroundings of the Blue Angel club. This performance finally convinced him to sign her, so on the 6th September 1963, she became his only female vocalist!
There was an immediate bond between Cilla and Epstein. From the moment he met his starlet, he wanted to nurture the 'Judy Garland' qualities he believed she possessed, having high aspirations of creating a British icon who, in his prophetic words, would become “...one of the biggest stars in this country for thirty or forty years”. His faith, combined with Cilla's talent, effortlessly convinced George Martin, the renowned producer of Matt Monro, Shirley Bassey and The Beatles, that she was worthy of signing to Parlophone Records (a subsidiary label of the EMI Group).
Shortly afterwards, Cilla Black made her debut on the British singles charts with one of the first of many songs given to her by John Lennon and Paul McCartney. "Love of the Loved", a song Cilla had often heard The Beatles perform at The Cavern. The recording made a modest impression on the British charts when it was released on the 27th September 1963.
This was soon to be overshadowed by her next release, which Brian Epstein discovered on a trip to the USA. "Anyone Who Had A Heart", a song by Hal David and Burt Bacharach, had already proved to be a massive hit for Dionne Warwick which Cilla, then a keen follower of the US Top 100, had already admired prior to it being suggested by Epstein. Her knockout rendition, recorded in January 1964, went on to become not only her first #1 but is still, to this day, the biggest selling single of all time by a British female recording artist.
George Martin acquired the perfect follow-up, an Italian ballad, "Il Mio Mondo", with an English lyric, became "You’re My World". This epic "torch" song went on to become Cilla's second #1, paving the way for an influx of other Italian songs such as Dusty Springfield’s "You Don't Have To Say You Love Me". Furthermore, it broke Cilla into the tough US market as well as gaining her massive support across Europe and Australasia, culminating in hundreds of sell-out concert dates throughout her time at EMI (1963-1978).
“When I reached #1 in the charts with "You’re My World", it made me the second British girl to ever have two successive #1 hits. I heard the good news just days before my 21st birthday. Two #1 hits in a row!” - Cilla
During the sixties, Cilla sustained her place at the forefront of the Brit-Pop music scene, with one of the most impressive starts for a British female recording artist, including 17 consecutive Top 40 triumphs on the singles charts. To put this unprecedented success into perspective, it happened during a decade when achieving a Top 20 single meant that you had to sell in excess of 100,000 copies a day in the UK alone!
In August 1967, only days before his premature death, Brian Epstein had engineered Cilla’s switch to television with her own eponymous variety show for BBC TV. The immediate success of the 'Cilla' series marked the beginning of a new phase of Cilla's professional life as she was now one of Britain's top rated television entertainers. Her show regularly commanded staggering audience figures of between 18 and 22 million until it ended in 1976. Apart from providing Cilla with the opportunity to perform her music, it also showcased her infectious personality, her ability to host a live show, the ease with which she performed with guest stars, acted in comedy sketches and her forte - her interaction with the general public.
Cilla's immense popularity continued throughout the seventies into subsequent decades through an array of successful concert tours, situation comedy series, pantomime performances, summer season shows, West End productions and prime-time entertainment shows - ‘Surprise!, Surprise!’ (1983-1997; 14 Series/137 shows) and ‘Blind Date’ (1985-2003; 18 Series/380 shows). The latter show earned Cilla an award from the British Academy of Film and Television Arts.
In 1997, Cilla was honoured with an OBE (Order of the British Empire) by Queen Elizabeth II for her achievements in the entertainment industry.
In 1999, after 30 years of marriage, Cilla’s beloved husband and manager Bobby Willis sadly passed away at the age of 57. Bobby was not only acknowledged and respected for his skilful management of Cilla's career, he was a songwriter, executive TV producer and executive producer of many stage productions.
In May 2010, new research published by BBC Radio 2 revealed that Cilla's version of "Anyone Who Had a Heart" was the UK's biggest selling single by a female artist in the 1960s.
In September 2013, Cilla Black OBE celebrated her 50th year in the entertainment business. The milestone anniversary was marked by a TV special 'The One and Only Cilla Black' as well as the release of ‘Back to Black' (Photo Memoir) and a new greatest hits album 'The Very Best Of Cilla Black' which notably contained a bonus DVD of Cilla's previously unreleased 1960s TV special 'Cilla at the Savoy'.
In spring 2014, ITV filmed a new television series about the early career of Cilla Black which was written by Jeff Pope. It was broadcast in three parts and began on 15 September 2014 starring Sheridan Smith who played the starring role. The series received critical and commercial success (each episode was watched by over 8 million viewers).
On 1 August 2015, Cilla died at her holiday home near Estepona, Spain aged 72. Paul McCartney, Ringo Starr, Paul O’Grady, Bruce Forsyth and Prime Minister David Cameron were among friends, colleagues in the entertainment industry and politicians who expressed their sorrow at Cilla’s death.
“Cilla Black was a huge talent who made a significant contribution to public life in Britain…” – Prime Minister David Cameron
The funeral of popular recording artiste and TV star Cilla Black O.B.E was on Thursday, 20th August 2015 at St Mary’s Church, Woolton in Cilla’s home city of Liverpool. Cilla’s body was then laid to rest, at a private ceremony, in Allerton Cemetery alongside her parents. Her beloved husband, Bobby Willis, was cremated in 1999 and his remains were scattered at her various homes here in the UK and abroad.
UPDATED 1 SEPTEMBER 2015.
For more information on Cilla Black's life and career refer to her Top 5 best-selling autobiography 'What's It All About?'. See More
Gender
| i don't know |
Whcih trick-taking card game originating in France, shares its name with a famous military leader and emperor who was born in 1769, even though the game is usually referred to by a much shortened name ? | Now I Know [Archive] - CM 01/02 Website
Now I Know - Turning off Niagara Falls
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Niagara Falls is a set of three waterfalls on the United States/Canada border. Collectively, they have the highest flow rate of any waterfall in the world, with over 2,400 cubic meters (or about 600,000 gallons) of water going over the edge every second. Horseshoe Falls, pictured right in the above photograph, is the largest of the three, while American Falls and the relatively small Bridal Veils Falls are the ones on the left. (Bridal Falls is the smaller, somewhat isolated waterfall to the right of the larger American Falls.) In the late 1960s, American Falls was exhibiting some rock building at its base, caused by decades if not centuries or millennia of rockslides. Officials were concerned that a rock buildup could cause American Falls to turn into rapids, as the upper shelf's floor tumbled below. But surveying the erosion was impossible given the massive amount of water flowing over the edge every second. So the U.S. Army Corp of Engineers needed a work-around.
Their solution? Shut off American Falls.
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American Falls doesn't have an "off" switch, of course, so the task force did the next best thing, and built a dam upstream of the falls, diverting the water toward Canada and ultimately to Horseshoe Falls. As pictured above (via this io9.com article), American Falls was bone dry. In was so dry, in fact, that the engineering team needed to pipe water back into the falls -- albeit only a little bit -- in order to keep the river bed irrigated and moist. And it also made for a neat, once-in-a-lifetime tourist opportunity, as for a short period during cleanup, visitors were allowed to walk onto part of the temporarily dry river bed. (At the top, of course.)
The Army Corps of Engineers finished the cleanup work by November and, to get the water flowing and falling again, simply (okay, not so simply) blew up the temporary dam. A few months later, the authorities who ordered the survey of the dry waterbed opted against restructuring the rock bed. Instead, they decided to let nature take its course -- in this case, both literally and figuratively.
Bonus fact:
Earlier this year, aerialist Nik Wallenda crossed Niagara Falls on a high wire suspended nearly 200 feet (60 meters) above the water's surface. The walk took about 25 minutes and covered a distance of 1,800 feet (about half a kilometer). And while Wallenda's distance was the longest traversed by a Niagara-bound tightrope walker, his feat was not the first. In 1859, Charles Blondin successfully made a 1,100 foot walk across a wire suspended about 160 feet above the water. And he'd return to do it again, a few times. As Blondin's Wikipedia entry notes - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Blondin, he did so "with different theatrical variations: blindfolded, in a sack, trundling a wheelbarrow, on stilts, carrying a man (his manager, Harry Colcord) on his back, sitting down midway while he cooked and ate an omelet and standing on a chair with only one chair leg on the rope."
wato20
Now I Know - Fordlandia
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Before World War II, most automobile tires were made from natural rubber -- latex collected from rubber trees. But by 1942, the United States found itself in a bind. Japan had taken control of Asia, which happened to be where the most abundant amount of readily-available rubber trees were. And the war effort required rubber. To counter this, the U.S. took a multi-pronged approach. First, it ramped up research into synthetic rubber (which not only proved ultimately successful, but has become the main source for rubber in tires). Second, the government pushed citizens to donate used tires in hopes of recycling them -- a failed idea as recycling rubber is something we still can't do. And finally, the government instituted gasoline rations and pushed pro-carpooling propaganda, as seen above, all in an effort to reduce driving and, therefore, rubber use. Reducing gasoline use was not nearly as important -- in fact, synthetic rubber is made from petroleum.
But all of this may have been averted -- or at least limited -- had Henry Ford been able to better execute on an idea: a town in Brazil focused on cultivating rubber trees.
While most rubber tree plantations are now in South and Southeast Asia -- as they were in World War II -- the rubber tree is actually indigenous to the Amazon rainforest and specifically, Brazil. Nevertheless, by 1928, commercial cultivation of rubber had already moved to Malaysia, and the Ford Motor Company was dependant on rubber from there (then a British colony), and Mr. Ford saw this reliance as a threat to his company. To counteract this, he set up a prefabricated industrialized town called Fordlandia, located in the middle of the rainforest.
Map Here: - https://maps.google.com/maps?q=-3.831389,-55.4975&ll=-11.005904,-55.019531&spn=48.814393,71.015625&t=m&z=4
The premise was simple -- grow rubber trees where they were supposed to be grown -- but the execution doomed the project. The trees were planted closely together much like they were in Malay plantations, but this alignment proved disastrous in the rainforest ecosystem, as natural predators feasted on the trees. The terrain -- hilly and rocky -- wasn't conducive to planting the trees in the first place. Even human resources issues were mismanaged, as employees from local villages were expected to Americanize. Instead, at one point in 1930, they revolted, and management literally fled into the jungles. (The Brazilian Army ended up being called in to quell the rebellion.)
The promise of rubber trees unfulfilled, Fordlandia managed to putter along for another decade and a half -- failing to live up to its promise the whole time. With synthetic rubber well established by 1945, Ford sold Fordlandia at a $20 million loss, according to mental_floss. Today, the town is abandoned and left in ruins.
Bonus fact:
Fordlandia was a failure, but the Dearborn Inn was a success. The inn ( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dearborn_Inn ) was also the brainchild of Henry Ford. Mr. Ford realized that when visitors came to the Detroit area via Ford Airport in Dearborn, Michigan, they did so without a place to stay -- so Mr. Ford had the inn constructed to fix that. The Dearborn Inn is considered to be the world's first airport hotel.
Jesus
This is a fantastic idea Wato, love the first two articles already.
wato20
Now I Know - The WOW Plague
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When we think of pandemics, we think of the Black Death, yellow fever, typhoid, or, in more recent times, the flu. Each one of these shares a few common traits. They start off from a single source and then spread from person to person. The contagion spreads rapidly until most areas around the world are affected.
Just ask anyone who played World of Warcraft in the Autumn of 2005.
With millions of players around the world -- the real world, that is -- World of Warcraft is easily one of the biggest successes in computer gaming history. Players control avatars in the fictional world of Azeroth, fighting off monsters while improving these characters at the same time. Players also receive quests, typically from in-game guides ("non-player characters," for those familiar with the lingo), and completing a quest typically yields their characters a reward -- and often involves defeating an enemy with a special, sometimes unique trait.
On September 13, 2005, Blizzard -- the makers of World of Warcraft -- released an update to the game.
The update contained a new dungeon and with it, a new quest, which culminated in an assault on a boss named Hakkar. When characters attacked Hakkar, he cast a spell on them called "Corrupted Blood" which slowly drained the life of anyone so inflicted.
Corrupted Blood was designed to be contagious -- anyone coming into contact with anyone infected with it would, in turn, also become infected. However, it was designed to only last a few minutes and, importantly, only have an effect within the dungeon containing Hakkar.
Before encountering Hakkar, players did not know exactly how the Corrupted Blood spell worked -- intended or otherwise. Those who suddenly found their character's health falling did what anyone would do: they ran away.
Some even teleported out of the dungeon, expecting to find safety in town. And if Corrupted Blood had worked as it was designed, these characters would have been magically cured upon their successful exit from the dungeon.
Unfortunately, the spell did not work as designed. The characters remained infected and, even worse, began to spread the disease to unsuspecting characters near them. Corrupted Blood began to spread throughout the area.
Even though a character's death in World of Warcraft is not permanent, players still reacted as if it were a big deal. Many fled cities, realizing that the high population density was a death sentence. Others helped direct the uninfected to safe areas. And many of those with high level healing powers tried (in vain) to stave off the spread of the disease. (And of course, virtual versions of Typhoid Marys helped spread the curse -- intentionally.)
In fact, real-life health officials have studied the Corrupted Blood plague as a model for pandemic reactions by actual, flesh-and-blood people.
As for the virtual plague? At first, Blizzard tried to fight it in the same manner that their real world counterparts would have, issuing quarantine orders -- while hoping to correct the programming bug at the same time. But when this failed, Blizzard pulled out an option not available to those of us outside of Azeroth.
They reset the servers and restarted with a new, fixed version.
Bonus fact:
Google uses search volume to help fight the flu. The company has put together a flu-tracking map, available here - http://www.google.org/flutrends/ , which hopes to catch an increase in flu outbreaks before they become epidemics.
nirvana
That's class! I can only imagine the wide spread terror the geeky tits felt. :lol:
swedishcmgod
I dont get this :S
Lo.Fi
30-06-12, 12:26 AM
Wato you should guest on QI with material like this. Very curious things indeed! I'm definitely using these articles at the dinner table in future. Thanks! :tup:
merkezekrem
Now I Know - Born on the 2nd July... Or August...
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"In Congress, July 4, 1776," begins the Declaration of Independence, pictured above, "a declaration by the representatives of the United States of America, in general congress assesembled." From this document began the United States, and from that line comes Independence Day, celebrated annually in the U.S. on the fourth of July.
But some believe that July 4, 1776, is not truly America's indepedence day. That honor should fall to either July 2, 1776, or August 2, 1776.
On June 11, 1776, the Continental Congress created a sub-committee of five delegates -- Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger R. Livingston, and Roger Sherman -- empowered to write a first draft of a declaration of independence. Jefferson took the lead and the quintet delivered their draft on June 28th. After a few days of debates and revisions, the Congress voted to declare independence -- on July 2nd, not July 4th.
The next day -- July 3rd -- Adams wrote a letter to his wife, Abigail, discussing the Declaration and its significance. In part, Adams wrote:
The Second Day of July 1776, will be the most memorable Epocha, in the History of America. I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated, by succeeding Generations, as the great anniversary Festival. It ought to be commemorated, as the Day of Deliverance by solemn Acts of Devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with Pomp and Parade, with Shews, Games, Sports, Guns, Bells, Bonfires and Illuminations from one End of this Continent to the other from this Time forward forever more.
While Adams appropriately described the revelry, he whiffed on the date. Instead, Americans celebrate independence on the 4th, the day the Continental Congress ratified the text of the document.
Ratified -- but not signed. According to National Geographic, many of those who signed the famous piece of parchment simply were not present on the 4th of July and the document was not signed until August 2nd. This belief is buttressed by the journals of the Continental Congress itself; as stated by the National Archives, "on August 2, the journal of the Continental Congress records that 'The declaration of independence being engrossed and compared at the table was signed.' One of the most widely held misconceptions about the Declaration is that it was signed on July 4, 1776, by all the delegates in attendance."
While the July 4th date is, probably, the least relevant of the three, it does lend itself to a fantastic coincidence. Of the five drafters of the Declaration, Adams and Jefferson would go on to become President of the United States. And both Adams and Jefferson share something else in common: both died on July 4, 1826 -- fifty years to the day the Declaration was ratified.
Bonus fact:
July 2nd is a special day for another reason. In non-leap years, it is the midpoint of the year -- there are 182 days before it and 182 days after it.
wato20
Now I Know - Seeing Eye Mini-Horse
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Guide dogs -- sometimes referred to as seeing eye dogs -- have been assisting disabled people for at least 100 years, with references to them dating back perhaps centuries. The first U.S. school for guide dog training, named The Seeing Eye, opened its doors in 1929 and has been in business since. (The colloquial use of the term "seeing eye dogs" is actually a reference to the school's trademark and brand.) But not all people like dogs, and this includes some of the visually impaired and those with other disabilities which call for a service animal. So what other options are out there?
Meet the guide mini-horse.
Pictured above, the guide mini-horse acts much like its sibling service animal the guide dog. Much like the guide dogs, guide mini-horses act as trusted aides for those in need, helping them navigate through the world. And both take about a year to 18 months to train. But there are some major differences. The Guide Horse Foundation ( http://www.guidehorse.com ) in North Carolina notes that guide horses are useful for about thirty years compared to around a dozen for dogs, making them arguably more cost effective over their useful lifespan. But there are downsides. The miniature horses need to live outside and require a lot more space than a guide dog, which can live in a small apartment without much difficulty. They also have the need to relieve themselves more often than dogs, making themselves much more cumbersome. And while they can be incredibly cute, this has its downside, as a guide animal isn't supposed to be petted by others while on duty.
For some, however, a guide dog simply isn't an option. The most likely scenario is due to an allergy to dog dander, but there are other reasons. Take, for example, the case of Mona Ramouni, a young Muslim woman in Michigan. Born blind, she was an excellent candidate for a guide dog -- except that she came from a devout Muslim family. Dogs are considered unclean under Muslim law, and cannot be kept as pets -- but horses can. Ms. Ramouni received Cali the mini-horse, and has since been able to navigate the world without help from friends and family -- unless one counts Cali as a friend.
While guide horses may be a second choice after dogs, the demand for them has been, per the Guide Horse Foundation, "overwhelming." The foundation has stopped taking random applications for horses.
Bonus fact:
On September 11, 2001, two guide dogs were in the World Trade Center with their owners when the buildings were attacked. The two dogs, named Salty and Roselle, successfully navigated an escape route for their owners. Both were given a Dickin Medal, given by the United Kingdom for "gallantry or devotion to duty while serving," for their heroic acts.
See the Interesting Wiki page for that story....
http://www.champman0102.co.uk/showthread.php?1379-Interesting-Wikipedia-articles-for-killing-time-and-expanding-your-mind!!
Now I Know - E.T ? No Going Home
http://imgs.xkcd.com/comics/exoplanets.png
The Solar System is, in the greater scheme of things, really, really tiny. You may not be able to see it from the image above, but just above the block of text, a bit to the left, is a small shaded area. (Here is a really large version of it - http://xkcd.com/1071/large ).
The circles within that box represent our Solar System. The Earth is just a pale blue dot. And as we humans explore the galaxy, there's a chance that we could come into some sort of alien... well, something. Maybe it's an intelligent life form, maybe it's some sort of compound which is a toxin to humans, maybe it's something in between.
In any event, introducing the interstellar equivalent of kudzu ( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kudzu_in_the_United_States ) is probably a bad idea.
So in 1969, NASA did just that. In anticipation of the Apollo 11 mission aiming to land the first humans on the moon, NASA promulgated the Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law (14 CFR Part 1211, for those interested).
Any astronaut who was on a mission in which something came in contact with any other "celestial body" was, under the E.T. Exposure Law, required to be quarantined upon his or her return to Earth.
For Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, and Michael Collins, their return to Earth from their successful moon landing qualified -- the moon, after all, is a foreign celestial body.
As TIME magazine reported in mid-July of 1969, the three astronauts were "treated -- literally -- as if they had the plague."
The stated purpose: "to guard against the remote possiblity that they are harboring unknown lunar organisms which might endager life on Earth," per TIME.
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/600px_Apollo_11_crew_in_quarantine.jpg
Even though the astronauts splashed down into the Pacific Ocean on July 24th, they were not released from quarantine until August 10th. For part of the time, they were confined to a trailer which is now on display at the Smithsonian. But as seen above, even that did not prevent them from meeting President Nixon. Nixon visited the trio just a few days after splashdown, and, more formally, hosted them at a state dinner in Los Angeles three days -- and three parades -- after their release from quarantine.
NASA stopped quarantining astronauts in 1977, and the Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law was removed from the books in 1991.
Bonus fact:
Are there lunar organisms on the moon? Not exactly -- but there are human ashes. An American geologist named Eugene Shoemaker (who, among other things, discovered a comet which ended up colliding with Jupiter) helped train Apollo mission astronauts for their moon walks. After Shoemaker died in a car accident in 1997, NASA honored him by taking some of his ashes, putting them in a space probe which was designed to map the moon's surface and look for potential polar ice deposits.
The space probe was intentionally crashed into a crater near the south pole of the moon, making Shoemaker, in some sense, the first (and to date, only) man buried on the moon.
wato20
Now I Know - D-Day's Doomed Dry Run
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http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/613px_Plaque_commemorating_those_killed_in_Operati on_Tiger_crop.jpg
On June 6, 1944 -- D-Day -- the fate of World War II hung in the balance as Allied forces attempted to liberate Nazi-occupied France. Over 150,000 troops crossed the English Channel that day, aboard nearly 7,000 ships supported by 12,000 planes, landing on a series of beaches in Normandy, France.
By the end of August, there were more than three million Allied troops in France. D-Day and the larger Battle of Normandy was a decisive victory for the Allies and on August 25, 1944, the Germans surrendered control of Paris back to the French.
But D-Day almost never happened.
American General Dwight D. Eisenhower was the commander of the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force, and led the US and UK troops in northwest Europe. In this role, he assumed command of the planned D-Day invasion. And he wanted to do everything possible to make sure it would work. So he ordered a practice called Exercise Tiger. A beach in the south of Great Britain, then called Slapton was to be the staging ground for a faux invasion, with the assault coming from across Lyme Bay directly to Slapton's east. The roughly 3,000 people living in the area were evacuated and on the evening of April 26, 1944, Allied troops began their "assault" on the beach. It did not go so well.
The plan was to make the dry run "invasion" as realistic as possible, so gunships were to shell the test beach starting at 6:30 a.m. on the 27th for thirty minutes. At 7:30 a.m., landing ships would drop off the soldiers and tanks. At that point, the artillery would fire live ammunition well over the heads of the troops landing, much like they would be during an actual invasion. However, some of the landing ships were delayed, which in turn delayed the artillery fire. The battle cruiser received the orders to wait until 7:30, but some of the landing parties were not similarly instructed to wait until 8:30 to disembark. Some Marines lost their lives as they raided the beach at 7:30, just as the cruiser opened fire.
And then it got worse. The next day, nine German E-boats happened upon Lyme Bay. British sentries detected these enemy fast assault ships but opted to let them through rather than give away the location and size of Allied fortifications in the area. Instead, the British commanders radioed ahead to the HMS Azalea, a warship escorting a convoy of nine American LSTs (landing ships carrying tanks) through the bay. But the American and British forces were using different radio frequencies. The HMS Azalea believed that the LSTs knew about the E-boats, but they didn't. The LSTs' lone escort was insufficient to repel the attack and the LSTs were, colloquially, sitting ducks. Two of the nine LSTs were sunk and another two were damaged before the other LSTs could effectively return fire and force the E-boats to retreat. Many soldiers jumped into the water but put on their life jackets incorrectly, which as a result worked more like anchors than floatation devices. All told, nearly 1,000 men were killed. Decades later, Steve Sadlon, a radio operator from the first LST attacked, described the carnage to MSNBC. He jumped off his ship, aflame, into the English Channel. He spent four hours in the cold water until he was rescued, unconscious from hypothermia. His memories of the day are harrowing:
It was an inferno. The fire was circling the ship. It was terrible. Guys were burning to death and screaming. Even to this day I remember it. Every time I go to bed, it pops into my head. I can't forget it. Guys were grabbing hold of us and we had to fight them off. Guys were screaming, 'Help, help, help' and then you wouldn't hear their voices anymore.
From a macro perspective, the E-boat attack caused a massive strategic problem. The actual D-Day invasion was supposed to be a surprise. Now, the military had to figure out how to keep the deaths of nearly 1,000 soldiers under wraps. This was done via threat of court martial. Subordinate soldiers were informed that families were being told that the dead were simply missing in action, and any discussion of the tragic two days prior were patently disallowed. But even this was not enough. Ten of the men who went missing due to the E-boat attacks knew details of the D-Day invasion plans. Initially, Eisenhower and the rest of Allied leadership decided to delay the actual invasion, fearing that if any of those ten men were captured by the Germans, the enemy could have therefore obtained intel about the otherwise secret plan. Not until their bodies were discovered did the D-Day plan go back into action -- with improved life jacket training and a singular radio frequency for both American and British forces.
For decades after Exercise Tiger, the story went mostly untold. Before D-Day it was a secret; after D-Day it was old news. But in 1984, a resident of the Slapton Beach area managed to raise a sunken tank from Lyme Bay and turn it into a war memorial, pictured above with the plaque describing the tragedy.
Bonus fact:
The only general to land at Normandy, by sea, with the first wave of troops was Theodore Roosevelt, Jr., the son of former president Teddy Roosevelt. He was also the only American to fight at Normandy alongside his son -- Theodore Jr. was 56, and his fourth child, Quentin Roosevelt II (named after his late uncle), was a 24 year-old captain at the invasion.
swedishcmgod
Now I Know - The Tales of the Prairie Dog
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Constantine Slobodchikoff was born in China to Russian immigrants, and his family moved to San Francisco while he was still quite young. Given his likely exposure to three different languages using three different alphabets, it is no wonder that he took a liking to how we communicate verbally. Now a researcher at Northern Arizona University, Slobodchikoff has spent decades trying to better understand a language few people can comprehend.
Slobodchikoff tries to figure out what prairie dogs are saying to each other.
Prairie dogs are squirrel-like rodents native to North America and are particularly common prowling grassland areas in the United States west of the Mississippi River. They are social animals which build burrows clustered together in communities, typically comprising of their extended families. Prairie dogs are even known to make oral contact with family members -- kiss, as it were -- as seen here - http://factandaphoto.com/post/26459948160/prairie-dogs-sometimes-kiss-as-seen-above-they .
And, surmises Slobodchikoff, they talk to each other -- and in great detail.
Prairie dogs have keen vision which allows them to detect a would-be predator a long distance away. And when one does, it alerts the others in the area with an alarm call, a series of loud "chee" sounds made by contorting its body as seen above. To the untrained ear, these noises seem similar if not identical to each other. To Slobodochikoff and his team, they are anything but.
Slobodochikoff and his team hid among prairie dog habitats and recorded alarm calls, all while keeping a journal about the perceived threat to the rodent sounding the alarm. And what they discovered was that the prairie dogs did not have one singular alarm sound. The calls varied in frequency, tone, and modulation, with different patterns signifying different threats.
In a 2002 paper Slobodochikoff asserts that the variations in the noises told other prairie dogs about the size of the predator and how quickly it was approaching the community.
And then, the research team pushed the envelope further. As Slobodochikoff explained to NPR's Radiolab, he had his team don different shirts and pass through a prairie dog enclave. They tracked the different alarms based on the gender, build, and shirt color of the human intruder.
He found, to his delight, that the calls broke down into groups based on the color of the volunteer's shirt. "I was astounded," says Slobodchikoff. But what astounded him even more, was that further analysis revealed that the calls also clustered based on other characteristics, like the height of the human. "Essentially they were saying, 'Here comes the tall human in the blue,' versus, 'Here comes the short human in the yellow,' " says Slobodchikoff.
The one thing the prairie dogs could not determine? They did not differentiate between people based on gender.
Bonus fact:
While rodents, such as prairie dogs, are generally small, there are a few which grow to the size of small people. The largest rodent (excluding extinct species) is the capybara, vaguely resembling a hairy hippopotamus, as seen here - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Capibara_1.jpg . They are indigenous to Brazil, and can reach lengths of nearly four and a half feet (134 cm) and weigh as much as 150 pounds (66 kg).
wato20
Now I Know - The Yellow Fleet
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The Suez Canal, situated in Egypt, connects the Mediterranean and Red Seas, thereby providing a naval passageway between Europe and Asia without the need to circumnavigate Africa or risk icy conditions by passing through the Arctic Circle. It opened in late 1869 and has been in continuous use ever since, minus a few hiccups along the way. One of those hiccups inconvenienced the world for eight years, as the canal was closed to naval traffic entirely from 1967 to 1975.
Oh, and fifteen ships were trapped in the canal during that period, too.
In June of 1967, war broke out in the Middle East, with Israel at odds with Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. The war was short-lived -- the Israelis won a decisive victory within a week. (The war is now known as the "Six Day War.") Following the war, Israel took control of the Sinai Peninsula, the section of Egypt east of the Suez which connects Africa to Asia. Soon after, the Egyptians blockaded the Suez, as the waterway was set to become a main theater for Egyptian-Israeli fighting over the course of the next decade. Most naval traffic was already avoiding the area due to the political uncertainties caused by the Six Day War, but fifteen ships were already making their way through the canal when war broke out. And all fifteen were unable to leave the canal afterward.
The ships dropped anchor in Great Bitter Lake, a saltwater lake roughly 100 square miles (250 square kilometers) in surface area, which divides the north part of the Suez from the south. And there, they sat, until the Egyptians ended the blockade on June 5, 1975. In the interim, the ships -- four flying under the flag of the UK; two each from West Germany, the US, Sweden, and Poland; and one each from France, Bulgaria, and Czechoslovakia -- formed their own little community of pseudo-castaways called the "Great Bitter Lake Association" replete with unofficial postal service among them. Their crews gathered aboard one of the British ships to play soccer matches, screened movies on a Bulgarian one, set up church services on a West German one, and availed themselves of the pool on the Swedish ships. To coincide with the 1968 Summer Olympics, the stranded sailors had their own Bitter Lake Olympic Games, replete with life boat regatta races.
When the blockade finally came to a close, the ships were free to leave. But for these vessels now collectively known as the "Yellow Fleet" due to the amount of desert sand blown upon them during their near-decade of isolation, leaving was not so simple. Of the ships, only the two German ones were able leave the canal on their own power.
Bonus fact:
Since 2008, ship traffic through the Suez Canal has fallen off by 20% -- but only half of that is due to an overall drop off of sea traffic due to unfavorable global economic conditions. The other half is due to Somali pirates for whom the Red Sea is fertile waters for hijacking ships and their cargoes.
wato20
Now I Know - Meal Ticket
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It's hard to find an urban area which does not have a significant homeless population. Be it New York, San Francisco, Tokyo, or Madrid, one is likely to encounter someone for whom life has dealt a bad hand. Some homeless have taken creative measures to adapt, finding ways to persevere in the concrete and asphalt wilderness around them. And in one city, this will to survive is not solely in the domain of the human homeless.
Meet the homeless, subway-riding dogs of Moscow.
There are about 35,000 homeless dogs in Russia's capital, some pictured above. Most of them are feral and eschew contact with people. But about 500 or so have done what many homeless people have done, and become semi-permanent denizens of the subways -- in this case, the Moscow Metro. The advantages are more than just a roof and associated shelter from the weather. The dogs can cozy up to riders in hopes of getting food tossed their way, or, if opportunity knocks, scare an unsuspecting train-goer into dropping his or her snack. Either way, this newfound meal is critical to the hungry subway-living dog.
For about two dozen or so dogs, though, the bark-and-eat gambit is merely a start. These advanced dogs have taken the subway game to the next level: they have become commuters. Areas with office buildings are crowded during the day but sparsely populated during the mornings and evenings; meanwhile, the opposite pattern is seen in residential neighborhoods. And therefore, it behooves a panhandler, canine and human alike, to be near the offices at lunch time and near people's homes at night. So, some Metro pups do exactly that -- as reported by both ABC News and the Sun - http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/news/article2372125.ece , the dogs have figured out how to navigate the train network in hopes of optimizing their locations throughout the day.
And they do so in style. The dogs have figured out which trains offer more room, so they can curl up on a bench for an in-transit snooze.
Bonus fact:
Another thing oddly related to the subway? In New York, at least, the price of a slice of pizza fits the bill. In 1980, the New York Times reported that the typical price of a single slice of pizza matched, "with uncanny precision," the price of a single ride on New York's subway system since the 1960s. The Times revisited the strange correlation in 2002 and determined that it was still true.
Jesus
This thread really is brilliant. Where are you getting these stories from Wato?
ozRooster
They are good little reads, keep them coming fella :ok:.
Coys
Shame i'm too lazy to read some of them :lol:
ebfatz
10-07-12, 02:57 PM
I read about the Moscow Dogs recently.
Did you not post something about the 9/11 dogs recently and I linked it from there?
Or was I just on a VERY random internet tangent that day!
EDIT: It was Derm in the Wiki thread.
wato20
Now I Know - Invisible Mothers
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What you see above is a baby, calm, sitting in a chair. What you don't see above is how that was possible.
The photo above was most likely taken in the 19th century, in the early days of portrait photography. (For reference's sake, the first U.S. president to sit for a photograph while in office was William Henry Harrison in 1841.) It was a long and painstaking process, as the subject had to hold still for the exposure period, which, on the short end of things, could be a few minutes long. Babies aren't exactly known for their patience, so getting them to hold mostly still was, to say the least, tricky.
The solution: a creative frame and mat strategy combined with the one person most likely to keep the baby quiet -- the child's mother. While it appears, above, that the baby is lying on a floral print backdrop, that's only partially the case. The backdrop is not just some cushion -- it is actually his or her mom, sitting in a chair and hiding behind a blanket.
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/Picture_12.png
The photograph as taken would not be put on display without an appropriate frame and border, so to the untrained (or the polite) guest, the mother's presence would not be noticed. Many of the original tintypes survived the ruse, though, leading to a borderline absurd result where the outline of the mother is clear once outside the frame. A collection of more such photographs can be found here.
http://ridiculouslyinteresting.wordpress.com/2012/07/05/more-hidden-mothers-in-victorian-photography-post-mortem-photographs-or-not/
Bonus fact:
The first U.S. Presidential inauguration to be photographed was Abraham Lincoln's second, in 1865, and seen here.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Abraham_Lincoln_giving_his_second_Inaugural_Addres s_%284_March_1865%29.jpg/760px-Abraham_Lincoln_giving_his_second_Inaugural_Addres s_%284_March_1865%29.jpg
Weeks later, Lincoln would be assassinated by John Wilkes Booth. Booth was also at Lincoln's inauguration, and is present in the afore-linked photograph. (Here is a version with the two men highlighted.) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LincolnJohn.jpg
wato20
Now I Know - Bridge Over Former Water
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Zrenjanin, Serbia, is the sixth largest city in the country and home to 75,000 people and about a dozen bridges -- it is called the "City of Bridges" by some. One of those bridges, though, is patently unnecessary. You can walk over it -- it's a bridge, after all -- but you can also walk around it and under it as well. It's perfectly useless and has been for decades. And it probably is going to remain so for years to come.
Meet the aptly named Dry Bridge.
The Bega River runs for about 150 miles (250 km) from Romania into Serbia. For years, one of its small, meandering secondary bends split the city of Zrenjanin into two parts -- it formed a shallow, moat-like ring around the "Mala Amerika" ("Little America") neighborhood. But in 1962, the town built the foot bridge pictured above. It served its purpose, connecting pedestrians with the otherwise-isolated section of town. But in 1985, the city administrators had a better idea. They filled in some sections of the loop, allowing for natural-feeling footpaths to take shape, as seen on this aerial map. (The "A" marker shows the location of the bridge.) - https://maps.google.com/maps?q=45.381667,20.383611&ll=45.379342,20.385733&spn=0.017574,0.035191&t=h&z=15
Since 1985, the river bend comes up near the bridge but does not quite pass under it.
(The effect is obvious in this photograph. http://www.trekearth.com/gallery/Europe/Serbia/North/Vojvodina/Zrenjanin/photo557193.htm )
In rendering it obsolete, many town officials wanted to also tear it down, instead replacing it with a sports complex. But area residents objected. Dry Bridge is the only bridge in the world which does not bypass a physical obstacle making it a bona fide tourist attraction.
(other than the incredibly small Trinity Bridge in Crowland, Linconshire, England,
seen here - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Trinity_Bridge_%28Crowland%29.JPG )
As of 2008, the bridge is still intact -- albeit not very much in use.
Bonus fact:
Bridge, the card game, has nothing to do with the over-river passageways. Its rules come from another trick-taking card game called "biritch," believed to be Russian in origin. When English speakers pronounced "biritch," listeners heard it as "bridge" instead, and the more Anglo-sounding moniker stuck.
wato20
Now I Know - Mice Cold Soda
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Seemingly frivolous litigation is a tongue-in-cheek hallmark of the American legal system. About two decades ago, a then-79 year old grandmother brought a suit against McDonalds when she burned her legs after spilling coffee on them, ushering in a chorus of critics of the legal system (even if, as explained in the bonus fact, the complaint wasn't so far off base). And of course, crazy lawsuits aren't only American. For example, in 2004, a driver in Spain struck and killed a 17 year old boy on a bicycle and then sued the boy's parents for the damage done by the bike to his car.
http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/europe/01/30/spain.luxury.car/
But sometimes, the complaint levied isn't so strange -- rather, the defense is.
In Autumn of 2009, an Illinois man named Ronald Ball claimed that he opened a can of Mountain Dew, took a gulp, and found a surprise inside -- a dead mouse. While disgusting, such an incident is not unheard of.
There have been allegations of a chicken head included in a box of wings at McDonalds, - http://abcnews.go.com/US/story?id=94840&page=1
an animal toe discovered in pre-packaged hummus, - http://gothamist.com/2012/03/01/animal_toe_found_in_artichoke_dip_f.php
a human finger in a roast beef sandwich at Arby's, - http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/05/17/finger-arbys-sandwich_n_1524129.html
a dog tooth in a New York Chinese restaurant, http://newyork.grubstreet.com/2010/07/lawsuit_woman_found_dog_tooth.html
and certainly dozens of others.
Some are real, some are hoaxes, and determining which is which may prove to be a fool's errand. In Ball's case, he swore it was true, and filed suit seeking in excess of $300,000.
But Pepsi was determined to prove Ball's claim to be one of the hoaxes. As recounted by the Madison County Record, which covers the legal system of Madison, Illinois. http://www.madisonrecord.com/news/218815-swig-of-mountain-dew-included-dead-mouse-suit-claims
Ball claims that he took a sip of his allegedly tainted Mountain Dew, drank a bit, and immediately got sick. He then poured the remaining product into a Styrofoam cup and out came the soda and the dead mouse noted above. He called the toll-free phone number on the side of the can to levy his complaint, and an investigator got back to him, requesting that Ball send the soda and the mouse to the company so they could investigate. He obliged.
Pepsi came to court with pretty sound -- and rather vile -- evidence: the science behind what would happen if a mouse was sealed inside a can of Mountain Dew for days if not weeks at a time. Ball, by his own admission, claimed that he sent a nearly-full mouse to Pepsi -- which, of course, is why he was so disturbed. Pepsi claimed that the can was bottled a few months before Ball opened it, which neither side seemed to dispute. For the coup de grace, Pepsi then argued that had a mouse somehow gotten into a can of Mountain Dew in August, it would not have been much of a mouse in November. Pepsi's expert, a veterinarian, asserted that the acid in the soda would have melted away any recognizable features of the mouse: "after 30 days in the fluid, the mouse [would] have been transformed into a 'jelly-like' substance.'" - http://www.thesmokinggun.com/file/mountain-dew-mouse?page=1
As of this writing, the case is still pending.
Bonus fact:
The McDonalds' coffee lawsuit? It wasn't so frivolous after all. As mental_floss explained, at the time, Mackey D's served coffee "at temperatures ranging from 180 to 190 degrees Fahrenheit" while at-home coffee only reaches temperatures of about 140 degrees by comparison. The full mental_floss article goes into great detail, but the major takeaway is that "skin can burn quickly when contacted by liquids" at temperatures in the 180+ degree range -- which is probably why McDonalds received a few dozen burn complaints every year prior to the lawsuit.
http://www.mentalfloss.com/blogs/archives/79371
Craig Forrest
16-07-12, 08:44 PM
There's a Canadian movie from the 80's (called Strange Brew) which basically starts with 2 brothers placing a live mouse in a beer bottle so they can blackmail the local brewery into giving them free beer... and they end up getting jobs in the factory and hilarity ensues..... :D
wato20
Now I Know - Gorilla Goggles
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Bokito, pictured above, is a gorilla at the Diergaarde Blijdorp zoo in the Netherlands. In 2004, he escaped from his habitat in the zoo (a feat whcih is not unique)
and was returned without any further problems. The same, unfortunately, could not be said in 2007, when he attacked a zoo visitor. Bokito's Wikipedia entry sums it up: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bokito_%28gorilla%29
On May 18, 2007, Bokito jumped over the ditch that separated his Rotterdam enclosure from the public and violently attacked a woman, dragging her around for tens of metres and inflicting bone fractures as well as more than a hundred bite wounds. He subsequently entered the nearby restaurant, causing panic among the visitors. During this encounter, three more people were injured as a result of the panic. Bokito was eventually sedated with the help of a tranquilizer gun and placed back in his cage.
But the main victim here was no random zoo visitor. She had been visiting the zoo as often as four times a week, specifically to visit Bokito. And she'd look at him and smile and laugh. And that -- that is where she went wrong.
Zoo staff advised that she (and others) not make direct eye contact with Bokito while smiling at him, as apes often misinterpret that friendliness as aggression. The victim nevertheless continued, believing that Bokito was laughing back at her and that the two shared some special bond. She was, of course, wrong, and Bokito viciously attacked her. Bokito's strength became so well known in the Netherlands that the term "Bokitoproof," meaning "durable enough to resist the action of an enraged gorilla" became commonplace in Dutch usage.
And of course, the zoo needed to make their facilities Bokitoproof, too. Given the ape's 2004 escape -- which involved scaling a three meter high wall -- that was easier said that done. But a week later, the zoo came up with a simple, elegant, and somewhat creepy solution called BokitoKijkers, Dutch for "Bokito Viewers," as seen below. And on an Episode of QI......
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http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/Picture_19.png
These "viewers" are paper visors with false eyes, looking off to the upper-left. There are pin holes in the viewers allowing the wearer to look straight ahead while avoiding eye contact with Bokito. Attack-defraying paper, of a story.
While it's hard to say whether the BokitoKijkers have been effective, to date, Bokito has not attacked anyone else.
Bonus fact:
On April 23, 2005, one of YouTube's cofounders uploaded the website's first video ever. It is titled "Me at the zoo" (San Diego, not Diergaarde Biljdorp), and can be seen here.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jNQXAC9IVRw&feature=plcp&context=C34faa3eUDOEgsToPDskLECbQK_FVmq6ZJD7JBc0pd
It is 19 seconds long and there are elephants in the background -- no gorillas or funny glasses, sorry.
wato20
Now I Know - Alone in the Ocean
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/Humpback_underwater.jpeg
Whales -- particularly humpback whales like the one pictured above -- speak. Their language is not an articulate mix of sounds like we humans make, but some, such as the aforementioned humpbacks, have taken to making sounds akin to singing. It is widely believed by the relevant scientific communities that these sounds are how members of these species communicate with one another.
Which is why a whale dubbed the 52 Hertz whale is, forever, alone.
Most whale sounds occur in the 15 to 25 Hertz frequency range; you can listen to a humpback whale's call here.
http://dlewis.us1.list-manage1.com/track/click?u=2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46&id=b207ab0b9c&e=69710f7eba
But the 52 Hertz whale, uniquely (as far as we know) creates a sound at a much higher frequency, as heard here.
http://dlewis.us1.list-manage1.com/track/click?u=2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46&id=f743bf6fd1&e=69710f7eba
And unfortunately for the 52 Hertz whale, this massive difference in frequency means that it cannot communicate with the other whales in the ocean.
Scientists at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (WHOI) have been tracking the whale since detecting its strange noise in 1992 using hydrophones, a series of underwater listening devices originally used to track submarine movements. The team was suprised, to say the least. As reported by the New York Times, "its sonic signature is clearly that of a whale, but nothing like the normal voice of the giant blue or the next biggest species, the fin, or any other whale for that matter".
Further, the WHOI team believes that the whale is in otherwise good health, noting that it would be extremely unlikely that a creature with compromised health could live in solitude for over a dozen years -- as the 52 Hertz whale has.
Its life of solitude is exhibited also by its odd migratory pattern. The 52 Hertz whale typically travels up and down the Pacific coast of Mexico, the United States and Canada, venturing into the Gulf of Alaska but not venturing further north. (Here's a map - http://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/viewImage.do?id=10079&aid=4721 )
According to the Alaska Dispatch, the gray whale migrates in a similar path, but ventures much further north to feed; the 52 Hertz whale never reaches that feeding ground and is therefore not likely part of that pack. As of January 2012, it was last detected south of Alaska, alone, as usual.
In fact, we don't know what species of whale the 52 Hertz is. While some believe it is a species in and of itself -- perhaps the last whale of its kind -- WHOI believes that is not the case. Rather, WHOI believes that it is simply a strange, unique member of something otherwise well known.
Bonus fact:
The blue whale is the world's largest animal. It is so large that its tongue alone weights about 3 tons (or about 2,700 kilograms). For comparison's sake, the largest land animal, the African bush elephant -- the whole thing, not just the tongue -- weighs about six tons.
http://www.filippidis.org/index/amazing/blue-whale-ship.jpg
Now I Know - Unlawful Knowledge
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/319px_Cela.jpeg
Imagine the following: a man is charged with the brutal rape of an elderly woman. After rounds of interrogation, he finally cracks and confesses. During his trial, that confession is retold to the jury, and it is riddled with facts that only the attacker could have known: how he entered the home, where he struck his victim, etc. The jury, of course, convicts the accused.
In the matter of Eddie Lowery, something akin to the above happened. He was accused of -- and confessed to -- the rape of a 75 year old woman, recounting his bad acts in great detail. Lowery served a decade in prison for his crime. Or, rather, Lowery served a decade in prison for the crime of some other man. Because, despite what he somehow knew, Eddie Lowery was innocent.
As reported by the New York Times, (http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/14/us/14confess.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all) Lowery was exonerated when DNA evidence demonstrated that someone else was the rapist, not Lowery. But that came well after his parole, ten years after his conviction. And it came after the trial, the confession, and, importantly, a seven hour interrogation by police. University of Virginia law professor Brandon L. Garrett -- who studied the stories of roughly 40 such innocents who confessed -- offered a likely theory to the Times centering upon these lengthy interrogations. The stress leaves the accused in poor mental shape, looking for any way to end the badgering by police. So they confess, perhaps in hopes that their weak grasp of salient facts will later demonstrate the confession to be an empty one.
But something else occurs during that interrogation, argue Garrett and others. The police, most likely unintentionally, make mention of these facts here and there, and the accused may remember them and, subconsciously, reintroduce them into their confessions. (Or, perhaps, the police "correct" the accused along the way.) So instead of being able to point to clear and convincing evidence that your "confession" was anything but, the accused unintentionally demonstrate their guilt -- falsely.
Lowery would find himself back in the legal system after this imbroglio -- he brought an action against the district which wrongly convicted him, and received a $7.5 million settlement.
Bonus fact:
The University of Michigan and Northwestern University, together, maintain a database of people who were convicted of felonies but later exonerated. As of this writing, their National Registry of the Exonerated lists over 900 people, seen here: (http://www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/Pages/browse.aspx)
(Eddie Lowery's entry can be read there.)
wato20
Now I Know - Exit Sandman
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/640px_Joss_Bay_2C_Broadstairs_2C_England___Aug_200 8.jpeg
Thievery feels like part of the human condition: if someone owns something, chances are there is someone else out there who is willing to steal it. Almost every single one of us knows somebody who has had something stolen from them, be it a car, television, or sand.
Yes, sand. Or, more correctly, a beach.
In the spring of 2008, developers in Coral Springs, Jamaica were building a resort. Like any other Caribbean getaway, a focal point of the destination was its beach. But one day, its owners woke up to find it missing. Overnight, the beach -- an estimated 400 meters' worth, enough to fill roughly 500 truckloads -- was gone. Stolen. The theft effectively halted the further development of the $100 million (U.S.) resort, as the attraction's main feature was no longer.
Given the value of the sand, Jamaican officials investigated the theft intensely -- according to the BBC (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/7678379.stm), Jamaica's Prime Minister at the time, Bruce Golding, insisted upon it. But unlike most large, expensive things stolen, finding a beach proved difficult if not impossible. After all, all one needs to do is have a predetermined smaller beach to dump it onto, and no one would be the wiser. The investigation continued for months, with police going so far as to take sand samples from other beaches to do a forensic analysis. But they came up empty.
It sounds like a perfect crime, but some believe that there's a more insidious explanation. The logistics of such a heist are extraordinary. Where does one get dozens if not hundreds of trucks, without anyone noticing? And no one noticed a caravan of sand-hauling trucks driving around? Even if that went unnoticed, how do you find enough laborers to load and unload the sand without one of them telling someone else? All these questions, left unanswered, indicated to some that there could be police officers involved in the theft and a subsequent cover-up.
But in any event, no charges were ever brought.
Bonus fact:
Ever wonder what sand looks like under a microscope? It's different depending on where it comes from (which is probably why the Jamaican police, above, were able to attempt some sort of forensic analysis), due to human elements, microscope creatures, and the surrounding environment. Via Discover Magazine, here (http://discovermagazine.com/photos/01-each-grain-of-sand-a-tiny-work-of-art/) is a slideshow of sand from around the world, magnified dozens of times.
Coys
Sounds a bit fishy to me
:lol:
Fods
20-07-12, 02:13 PM
Zoom into that pic with www.zoomtits.com and choose the 3rd from right blue wind breaker u can see 3 pairs of tits :woot: :D
wato20
Now I Know - Juiced
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/product_Tropicana_Pure_Premium_Orange_Juice_No_Pul p_1300664183.jpeg
Tropicana Pure Premium Orange Juice has one ingredient listed on its label: "100% Pure Natural Oranges." While that's accurate, it may also be misleading. Why? Because while the ingredients imply that oranges are cut, put into a juicer, and the resulting juice is then packaged, that's not quite right. The process is much more complicated -- and, seemingly, much less pure.
According to a 2003 report from the United States Department of Agriculture (pdf here (http://usda01.library.cornell.edu/usda/ers/FTS//2000s/2003/FTS-08-01-2003_Special_Report.pdf)), orange juice was the most popular juice in the United States, and easily so -- it was 2.5 times more popular than the number two on the list, apple juice. Per that report, in order to provide the demanded orange juice to American consumers, one would need about 70 pounds of oranges, per American, year year. And in order to provide that huge amount of orange juice to consumers, companies such as Tropicana go through a long process, one much more involved than simply squeezing a dozen or so oranges and sealing the juice into a box.
In 1963, the U.S. government added an optional but, from a brand quality perspective, hardly avoidable step -- pasteurization, which in part involves heating the juice to temperatures higher than one would typically want their juice served at. That year, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) began to requires that unpasteurized juice be labeled as such, replete with a warning that it may contain some pathogens which would have otherwise been removed in the heating process. So most of the orange juice made for sale in the U.S. has, in fact, been pasteurized, as the warnings would scare off most consumers otherwise.
But the pasteurization process removes more than just pathogens. It also reduces the flavor and aroma from the juice. This problem is exacerbated by how commercial juice companies store the juice -- something called aseptic processing (described here (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aseptic_processing)),
which removes the oxygen from the product in order to keep it sterile for a long period of time. After the OJ has undergone all this, it does not taste or smell like the product you are used to drinking at breakfast.
To fix this, large orange juice manufacturers use something called "flavor packs" -- additives which are derived from oranges, and specifically from the orange oil excreted from inside the rind. These flavor packs are added to the juice toward the end of the process, and can even be customized to some degree in order to provide consistency between cartons (and perhaps some sort of taste- or smell-driven brand recognition). Food policy scholar Alissa Hamilton, who authored a book about the orange juice production process, told ABC News (http://abcnews.go.com/Health/orange-juice-moms-secret-ingredient-worries/story?id=15154617&page=2#.UAdjuStYtyc) that these flavor packs, that, while made from oranges (and only oranges), the companies "break [the oranges] down into individual chemicals." She further told the New Yorker (http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/books/2009/05/ask-an-academic-orange-juice.html) that the companies "then reassemble the individual chemicals in configurations that resemble nothing found in nature."
The FDA states that flavor packs are regarded as safe, and when ABC News asked Hamilton if she believed the flavor packs were dangerous, she replied with "I don't know." (That said, Hamilton does not drink pre-packaged orange juice any more.) But that was not enough for some. Earlier this year, a California consumer by the name of Angelena Lewis (no relation) sued Tropicana (news report here (http://abcnews.go.com/Health/california-woman-sues-pepsicos-tropicana-alleging-deceptive-advertising/story?id=15394357#.UAdcOCtYtyd), legal filing here (http://www.scribd.com/doc/79722132/Complaint-Angelena-Lewis-v-Tropicana)), arguing that the undisclosed use of flavor packs ran afoul of California's false advertising laws.
Bonus fact:
Brush your teeth and then go drink some OJ, and you're in for a rude surprise -- the juice tastes downright awful. What causes that? Most toothpastes contain a compound called sodium laureth sulfate, which causes the foaming action when you brush. But it also blocks your tongue from being able to detect sweetness. So when you drink the juice, you're unable to taste the sweet aspects; instead, you only sense the bitter/sour parts.
http://www.frigginrandom.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/brush-teeth-hot-01.jpg
Once watched on TV a giant ship sucking sand from deep water to make beach somewhere.
wato20
25-07-12, 12:11 PM
Now I Know - Pulling for Gold
On July 27, 2012, the Games of the XXX Olympiad -- the 2012 London Summer Olympics -- will officially begin. An estimated 10,000 athletes from over 200 countries will compete for gold, silver, and bronze in 26 sports. The diversity of the events is impressive: syncronized swimming, archery, slalom canoeing, beach volleyball, table tennis, and BMX bicycle racing all make this Games' list. Some critics may object, claiming that these are odd choices given the limited number of events (baseball and softball were both dropped for 2012 and golf, while suggested as a replacement, did not make the cut). But the truth is that the Olympics has a long history of including competitions which many would find curious.
You know, like tug of war.
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/1912_summer_olympics_tug_of_war.jpeg
Tug of war may, in present day, may be a game common mostly to younger kids, but for a long time, it was pretty serious business. It dates back to ancient China where hundreds of competitors would line up on either side of the rope and represent either the sun or the moon in a struggle for dominance over Earth. In more recent times, of course, the game has been relegated to summer camps, corporate team building exercises, and a comedic punchline in Revenge of the Nerds. But from 1900 until 1920, it was an Olympic sport.
Over the course of those five Olympiads (the 1916 Games were cancelled due to World War I), a total of 128 pullers from 10 different nations competed in tug of war. And it was, throughout, a comedy of errors:
# - In 1900, a team made up of three Danes and three Swedes triumphed over a French squad in the lone match of the Olympiad -- the only other team to sign up, an American one, did not compete because three of its pullers were in the hammer toss on the same day.
# - Four years later, in St. Louis, a quartet of American teams made their way into the semi-finals, and a team from Milwaukee beat one from New York in the gold medal match. But the New York team, for reasons unknown, did not show up for a silver or bronze medal match (both against teams from the host city of St. Louis).
# - In the 1908 London games, seven teams signed up but two -- from Greece and Germany -- did not show up. The Liverpool Police team faced off against an American team in the lone best two out of three preliminary match, with the winner advancing to the quarterfinals. The Liverpool team won the first pull but the Americans protested, arguing that the Liverpool team's choice of footwear -- service boots -- gave them an unfair advantage. When the Americans' grievance was denied, they forfeited.
# - Five teams signed up for the 1912 Games -- England (the London Police), Sweden (Stockholm Police), Austria, Bohemia, and Luxembourg -- and organizers had designed a ten match round-robin contest between them, with teams facing off against each other exactly once. The matches were supposed to take place from June 7 to June 12, but Bohemia and Austria did not show up for their first day of matches. England and Sweden were present on June 8th (as pictured above), and Sweden won the first pull. On the second, the London team sat down after a long struggle and was disqualified. When Luxembourg also failed to show up, organizers declared Sweden the winner and England the silver medalist -- after only one match.
The 1920 event went off smoothly, with eight pullers from five nations competing and with no disqualifications, as the London Police recaptured gold. Three members of the team -- Fredrick Humphreys, Edwin Mills, and John James Shepherd -- ended up with three medals (two gold, one silver) during tug of war's short run as an Olympic sport.
Bonus fact:
Tug of war has an international governing body called the "Tug of War International Federation," or "TWIF." The 2012 Tug of War World Championships will be held in Switzerland in early September. More information, including the official rules of the game and the anti-doping (!) regulations can be found here (http://www.tugofwar-twif.org/?p=rules&id=14&nav=1).
http://static.desktopnexus.com/thumbnails/965490-bigthumbnail.jpg
Now I Know - Accidentally Awesome
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/601px_6cookies.jpg
Chocolate chip cookies are beloved. Reports vary as to how popular they are, but it is safe so say that billions of these concoctions are consumed each year. A basic recipe appears on every package of Nestle's Toll House chocolate chips, and it is incredibly simple -- get the listed ingredients together, mix, dole out by the tablespoon, and bake for about 10 minutes at 375 degrees Fahrenheit.
But while seemingly straightforward, the recipe turns out to be anything but -- historically speaking, that is. After all, why would someone ever think to put chunks of semi-sweet chocolate into cookie dough? In retrospect, it makes sense -- delicious sense -- but who knew? As it turns out, before 1930, no one. The creation of these gooey masterpieces was an accident -- the true story of which is still in debate.
Ruth Graves Wakefield was the owner of the Toll House Inn, then a well-known restaurant in Massachusetts. One day that year, she was making chocolate cookies, using a recipe which called for what we now know as chocolate chip cookies but with baking chocolate instead of chocolate chips. Unfortunately (or, perhaps, fortunately for us), Wakefield was all out of baking chocolate. So, according to Nestle (who ended up buying her recipe (http://allrecipes.com/recipe/original-nestle-toll-house-chocolate-chip-cookies/)) she came up with an interesting idea: use chocolate chips instead. But, as luck would have it, the chips retained their shape, and the rest is history.
Maybe.
George Boucher, a chef who once worked at the restaurant, claimed that Wakefield was too talented and too knowledgeable a chef herself to make what Boucher postured as a novice mistake. He offered an alternative theory (which, conveniently, gives him a center role). In his version of the story, Wakefield was making regular sugar cookies -- no chocolate involved, chips or otherwise -- but left the electric mixer uncapped. The vibrating mixer shook the cabinet above, causing a few bars of chocolate to fall in. Before Wakefield could stop, the mixer broke the bars into chips, which, in Wakefield's eyes (per Boucher) ruined the batter. Boucher claims that he convinced Wakefield to cook the dough anyway, and the pair created the tasty treats we now eat billions of each year.
In any event, two things are not in dispute: one, that Wakefield had a hand in the cookies' creation, and two, that she sold the recipe to Nestle -- in exchange for a lifetime supply of chocolate chips.
Bonus fact:
Oreos aren't chocolate chip cookies, but they are popular in their own right. Like anything else popular, there are plenty of Oreo copycats out there. Many may recall what is commonly believed to be one of them, a creme-filled chocolate sandwich cookie called Hydrox. But that belief is misplaced. Oreos debuted in 1912. Hydrox? 1908.
http://t2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRTrsfY7Y41CXUbEXc17h2yhcszD5rsF GApUnxP0vu_bDvb4deSfQ http://d29s07588lfq8p.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/hydrox-cookie.jpg
And a sexy woman with Oreo's...
http://www.hellaphone.com/walls/e2/e2vfacg.jpg
I think that is the best thing you have ever posted :D
wato20
30-07-12, 11:21 AM
Now I Know - Slinky Magic
Take a Slinky or a generic version thereof -- the bigger, the better. Find a balcony or window a few stories above ground, making sure that outside, there aren't any passersby coming. Dangle the Slinky out the window until it is mostly still. You'll want the other end of the Slinky to be about half way to the ground -- if it isn't, go up another few stories. If you have the required distance, count to five and let the Slinky go.
The top will fall. The bottom will wait until the top gets there.
Don't have a Slinky handy? Or can't get to a third story window? Watch the video below (or check out this animated gif (http://www.gifbin.com/985815)):
Falling slinky released from top, slow motion:
http://youtu.be/iSHJKvZBJvk
See? The top falls. The bottom waits.
What's going on here? The Slinky comes with a small, barely visible jet pack which allows-- no, wait. It's just physics, even if counterintuitively so.
Let's start with gravity. Drop something -- a ball, your mobile phone (which certainly happens all too often), a Slinky, or anything, and gravity will start to pull it down. That's pretty straightforward. It's why the top of the Slinky immediately falls once released, and it's why we expect the rest of the Slinky to fall as well. But that's not the only force acting on the Slinky. There's also the tension in the spring.
From the perspective of the Slinky's bottom, the tension is an upward force. Literally, the tension is pulling the bottom of the Slinky back up toward the top. When you are holding the top end of the Slinky, tension is what keeps it from unraveling entirely and falling to the ground as it stretches and dangles. When you drop it, the spring's tension doesn't just disappear, It's still there and, in this case, pulling up at the same rate that gravity is pulling it downward. So the bottom stays in place as the Slinky compresses.
But in the end, gravity wins. When the top and bottom meet, the tension goes to zero, and the bottom of the Slinky joins the top in its descent back to the ground.
Bonus fact:
The Slinky was created by accident. A naval engineer named Richard James was working with springs, hoping to find a way to counter the rough seas ships often encountered, which in turn caused their instruments to bounce around. A spring fell off a shelf and started tumbling around, "walking" from place to place, until it recoiled and came to rest. James tinkered with the tension until he created one which could walk down stairs.
http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcR_9fNqWASW86FxS8-44fS6AWBIA8mAQBK1LNWR4CB-1Clwor9i
Now I Know - Targeting Crime
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/Target_Logo.jpeg
If there's a Target near your town, and you need something, chances are they have it. Clothes, for sure. Diapers or toddler stuff? Toward the back, down the right side. Groceries? All the way left. Movies and video games? There's a whole section for that. Want a snack? That's in the front, past the registers.
Finding murderers? Yeah, Target does that too.
The first Target store opened in the U.S. in 1962. Today, there are over 1,700 locations throughout the United States and soon, the company will make its foray into Canada. Target typifies the discount retailer experience: a huge assortment of goods made available at lower than typical retail prices. Along the way, they had problems that many retailers -- especially retailers with their scale -- are certain to encounter: injuries and crimes. Specifically, Target found itself having to investigate things like slip-and-falls, shoplifting, theft by employees, and the like. To do so, they created a centralized investigation unit in their Minneapolis, Minnesota headquarters. And over time, this unit became more and more advanced. Today, it and a sibling outfit in Las Vegas are, combined, one of the more sophisticated crime labs out there, as described by Forbes (http://www.forbes.com/forbes/2008/0421/102.html).
And even that may be an understatement. In 2006, an FBI agent familiar with the labs told the Washington Post that "one of the nation's top forensics labs is located at Target's headquarters building in downtown Minneapolis. They have abilities and technology that far surpasses many law enforcement agencies in the country."
Thankfully, Target shares their facilities and abilities. About 70% of the labs' work is for Target. The other 30% of its time is donated by the corporation to law enforcement under the moniker "Target Forensic Services." Its speciality is in closed-circuit and surveillance video -- they have the technology to enhance it (although not to the absurd levels in many crime and sci-fi TV shows) and the people who work there have the experience to know what to look for and where. For example, a few years ago, a CNN correspondent (http://edition.cnn.com/CNN/Programs/anderson.cooper.360/blog/2006/02/target-sets-sights-on-hard-to-crack.html) visited the Minneapolis crime lab as they were assisting the local police in investigating a murder. The police provided a tape from a local convenience store, and from that, was able to identify the murderer's vehicle and developed a decent image of his face. Law enforcement was able to build off of that to identify the man and later get a conviction.
While Target does not advertise the availability of Target Forensic Services, it has become well enough known that demand well outstrips its ability to provide pro bono services. Per Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Target_Corporation#Target_Forensic_Services), Target now only offers its use to solve violent felonies.
Bonus fact:
Target tracks everything customers do and records these activities into a database -- so, if you're a Target customer, chances are you have a Target Guest ID number in their computer systems. Andrew Pole, a statistician for the company, explained the expansiveness of the program to the New York Times: "If you use a credit card or a coupon, or fill out a survey, or mail in a refund, or call the customer help line, or open an e-mail we’ve sent you or visit our Web site, we’ll record it and link it to your Guest ID. We want to know everything we can." They use that data, in part, to customize coupons which are mailed out to would-be shoppers. But sometimes that backfires. As Forbes noted, the company's algorithm once determined that a high schooler was a mother-to-be, and, dutifully, sent her a coupons for baby clothes -- which her father opened. A few days after receiving an irate phone call from the young woman's father, a customer service representative called back to apologize again, but the father ended up the one saying sorry: it turns out the algorithm was right. His daughter was pregnant but had not yet told him.
http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-nxXPiRtZ1GA/Tbm_kwS2oWI/AAAAAAAAAAg/piDKQZcHWHo/s1600/teenage-pregnancy-10.jpg
Now I Know - Blame Cuba
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/354px_NorthwoodsMemorandum.jpeg
In April of 1961, roughly 1,500 American-trained Cuban exiles invaded their homeland in an attempt to overthrow Fidel Castro's government. That assault, now referred to as the Bay of Pigs Invasion, ended up in failure, as the Cuban militia proved too powerful, capturing 80% of the invaders while killing most of the other 20%. The political fallout in the United States was massive, and the desire of the typical American to further engage Cuba in battle was understandably low. Further, other nations questioned America's desire to attack a neighboring sovereign, especially one who had shown little in the way of aggression to the U.S. and was already the subject of American economic sanctions.
But the Cold War was in full force. The U.S. saw Cuba as subordinate to the Soviet Union and having a Soviet stronghold just 250 miles off Florida troubled the leadership of the American military. The Department of Defense (DoD) and the military's Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) felt the need to revive civilian interest in overthrowing Castro and liberating Cuba. Absent a Cuban strike on Americans, though, this seemed unlikely. And no such Cuban strike was likely imminent.
So the DoD and JCS proposed to create such an attack themselves. A fake one, aimed at turning public opinion against Castro and in favor of continued military action against Cuba.
The plan, devised in 1962 and code named Operation Northwoods, had a simple yet striking goal: "to place the United States in the apparent position of suffering defensible grievances from a rash and irresponsible government of Cuba and to develop an international image of a Cuban threat to peace in the Western Hemisphere." The details, outlined in an appendix to an originally classified document titled "Pretexts to Justify U.S. Military Intervention in Cuba" (available starting here (http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/coldwar/documents/episode-10/02-03.htm)), included:
* Using friendly Cubans, pretending to be enemy fighters, to stage a fake (as in, there'd be no actual firearms discharge) attack on the U.S. base in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, replete with mock funerals after. This item may have included blowing up grounded planes and/or igniting ammunition stores on base to suggest sabotage -- and of course, the fake saboteurs would be "captured."
* Blowing up a U.S. ship (again, unoccupied) somewhere near or within Cuban waters, blaming the assault on Cuba's air force or naval batteries.
* Creating a group of fake Cuban terrorist cells, targeting Cuban refugees in the United States. The plan allowed for some bodily harm to come to the targets "to the extent of wounding" and also called for "sinking a boatload of Cubans en route to Florida (real or simulated)."
* Painting U.S. fighter jets to look like Soviet MIGs and then harassing civilian flights with these planes -- potentially looping in the commercial pilots to help convince passengers of the ruse.
* Potentially shooting down an aircraft traveling from the U.S. to Central America, purportedly transporting college students (but actually empty), as it passed over Cuban air space.
In almost all cases, the plan was designed to avoid killing American civilians, although the same could not be said for "boatload[s] of Cubans" destined for Miami. Regardless, the total death toll from Operations Northwoods was zero. Then-President John F. Kennedy rejected the idea and removed its lead proponent, General Lyman Lemnitzer, from his position as the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
Bonus fact:
The U.S. embargo of Cuba dates back to 1958 and its reach has been adjusted a few times since. (In general, the restrictions have been tightened, but on July 16, 2012, a U.S-sanctioned ship carrying humanitarian goods from Cubans in Miami to their families sailed into Havana (http://www.aljazeera.com/news/americas/2012/07/20127147196482238.html).)
The ban on importing Cuban cigars was not among the original restrictions -- that was added in an executive order signed by President Kennedy in 1962. But JFK was, apparently, fond of the cigars. According to Pierre Salinger, then the President's press secretary, one evening that year, JFK asked him to pick up about 1,000 of them by "tomorrow morning." Salinger over-delivered, obtaining 1,200, and presented them to the President the next morning. As Salinger recounts: "Kennedy smiled, and opened up his desk. He took out a long paper which he immediately signed. It was the decree banning all Cuban products from the United States. Cuban cigars were now illegal in the USA."
http://www.healthylivingnyc.com/includes/resize_article_photo.php?articleid=205
Now I Know - A Ghostly Murder
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/ZonaHeasterShue.jpeg
Zona Shue, pictured above, was found dead in her home on January 23, 1897 in Greenbrier County, West Virginia, by an errand boy. By the time Dr. George Knapp, Mrs. Shue's physician-turned-coroner, arrived about an hour later, Shue's husband, Edward Shue, was already by her bedside. He was distraught and somewhat erratic, as one would expect from a man who came home to such a scene, and angered when Dr. Knapp tried to examine the corpse. Nevertheless, Dr. Knapp was able to pronounced Zora dead, with "childbirth" as the official cause of death. But to Zora's mother, Mary Jane Heaster, the doctor's pronouncement was just plain wrong. Mrs. Heaster was convinced that Edward murdered her daughter.
Mrs. Heaster was correct. Four weeks after Zora's funeral and burial, Mrs. Heaster received a message detailing how Edward snapped her daughter's neck, ending her life in her mid-20s. That messenger? Zora's ghost.
Even leading up to the funeral, there was plenty of reason to believe that not everything was as it seemed. Before Dr. Knapp arrived on the night of Zora's death, Edward dressed her corpse (which typically happened after pronouncement), placing her in a stiff collar and a veil. During the wake, he didn't allow people to come close to the body, and had placed her head between a pillow and a rolled-up sheet, ostensibly to keep her comfortable in the afterlife. Mrs. Heaster managed to grab the sheet before Zona was buried, and when she washed it, it turned the water red. But Zona's burial went forward without an autopsy.
About a month later, over the course of a few evenings, Zora's ghost appeared to Mrs. Heaster, according to the grieving mother herself. The ghost, she claimed, told her what had happened: Edward was an abusive husband who, having come home to find dinner not to his liking, snapped Zora's neck in a fit of rage, killing her. This explained his odd behavior and the sheet, but with the self-alleged victim now six feet under, there was little other evidence out there. So Mrs. Heaster told the district attorney about her supernatural visitor in hopes of having Zona's body exhumed and a proper autopsy performed. After other townspeople joined Mrs. Heaster's cause, the DA agreed. And the autopsy revealed that Zona's death was caused by a broken neck.
At trial, the prosecution called Mrs. Heaster as a witness -- to testify about the facts, not her ghost-sighting. She stuck to that, but on cross-examination, the defense asked her about her encounter with her dead daughter, asserting it was a dream. Mrs. Heaster, according to the West Virginia Division of Culture and History (http://www.wvculture.org/HiStory/notewv/ghost1.html), was unwavering; she "firmly insisted it was no dream and that she was as awake when her daughter appeared as she was then in the courtroom." The jury believed her. Edward was convicted of the murder and sentenced to life in prison.
Bonus fact:
The University of Virginia School of Medicine is one state over from where Zora Shue's ghost allegedly appeared, but perhaps the school would find her story interesting anyway. Why? Because it is home to a group of researchers -- the Division of Perceptual Studies (http://www.medicine.virginia.edu/clinical/departments/psychiatry/sections/cspp/dops/we_are-page) -- whose "researchers are dedicated to the use of scientific methodology in their investigation of a wide range of paranormal phenomena." In short, the division studies potential ghost sightings and other paranormal activity.
http://1.media.collegehumor.cvcdn.com/36/58/collegehumor.4052a456147b1038bedfda352fe8c293.jpg
02-08-12, 12:00 PM
Now I Know - Operation Migration
The whooping crane is an endangered bird native to North America. Before Europeans settled in the New World, there were an estimated 10,000 of them. By the late 1800s, that number fell to about 1,500. In 1941, there were twenty-three -- two in captivity and just under two dozen in the wild.
Joe Duff wanted to fix that. To do so, he and his colleagues decided to dress up kind of like the whooping cranes they wanted to save.
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/027.jpeg
Duff is the co-founder and CEO of a not-for-profit organization called Operation Migration (http://www.operationmigration.org/). The whooping crane population is at risk mostly due to habitat loss -- the areas they have been migrating to and from, for generations, have slowly been eroded away as people have moved in. Each subsequent generation of cranes learns the migratory path by following their parents, and unfortunately, the parents were going into a long-destroyed habitat, and many did not survive the season. Without parents to guide them, the younger cranes were lost, and they, too, perished.
To combat this, Operation Migration uses a development from the 1980s and 1990s. A Canadian ultralight aircraft enthusiast named Bill Lishman -- who would later become Duff's co-founder -- theorized that certain waterfowl could be trained to follow such a plane to a different migratory destination. In 1993, Lishman successfully lead a group sixteen of Canadian geese from Ontario to Virginia. Thirteen of the sixteen returned to Ontario the next year -- without needing a human guide.
Lishman's innovation centered on the fact that waterfowl, soon after their birth, imprint upon the first creature they see. Typically, this is their birth mother, but in a controlled environment, it could be basically any animal -- including a person, if conditions are right. Duff, in an interview with NPR's Talk of the Nation, explained: "Whooping cranes are hatched in the nest, in a marsh on the ground, basically, and they leave the nest almost immediately and follow their parents out to forage for food. And if they don't follow their parents, they're lost. So that natural instinct to imprint is there, and we just substitute parent for pilot and make sure they imprint on us." The pilots wear the above-seen costumes so that the whooping cranes, when reintroduced to the wild, are not familiar with humans. Duff does not want them to learn that other people they come across are going to coddle and care for them because, simply, they won't.
Once the cranes are able -- assuming they've learned to follow the pilot -- Operation Migration continues their conditioning, training them to follow the ultralight aircraft, as seen below.
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/596px_09_01_17_WhoopingCranes.jpeg
According to an interview Duff did with VetStreet.com (http://www.vetstreet.com/our-pet-experts/operation-migration-saves-endangered-whooping-cranes-by-teaching-them-to-fly), there are now roughly 500 whooping cranes in the wild -- a roughly twenty-fold increase in just a few generations, although there is a long way to go. And there are unexpected problems along the way. As reported by the Sierra Club (http://sierraclub.typepad.com/explore/2012/01/whooping-crane-migration-gets-the-faa-ok.html), toward the end of 2011 and into 2012, the Federal Aviation Administration temporarily grounded Operation Migration's aircraft due to an unclear rule requiring the organization to obtain a special waiver before they took flight again. They are working with the FAA on a permanent solution to allow the flights to go off without further problems.
Bonus fact:
For researchers and similar types, dressing up like the animals you are studying is not all that rare. In China, researchers transporting pandas into a wildlife reserve often don panda suits, as seen here (http://photos.mercurynews.com/2012/05/04/researchers-dressed-in-panda-costumes-transfer-giant-panda-to-a-new-living-environment-in-china/#name%20here).
And here is a sexy Panda
http://www.getiton-fancydress.co.uk/images/M2256.jpg
03-08-12, 11:54 AM
Now I Know - Fourteen Feet Deep
Puget Sound, the Strait of Georgia, and the Strait of Juan de Fuca make up part of the Pacific coasts of the American state of Washington and the Canadian province of British Columbia. Collectively, they make up the Salish Sea. Their beaches are like most other ones, with one disturbing feature:
For some reason, disembodied feet keep washing up on shore.
In August of 2007, a 12 year-old Washington girl was visiting British Columbia's Jedediah Island. As reported by CBC News (http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/story/2007/08/31/bc-feet.html), she found a black and white Adidas sneaker with a sock and foot still inside -- with no other body parts to be found. Later that month, a couple found a Reebok sneaker on nearby Gabriola Island -- again, with human remains somewhat preserved inside the shoe. Both shoes were size 12, men's, and right feet. Two different people meeting very similar fates.
And the feet just kept on coming. A third foot (http://www.canada.com/theprovince/news/story.html?id=d85218b4-8a98-4d16-ad7c-02daecd983d9) was found in February of 2008, again a male right foot. A fourth foot (http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/story/2008/05/22/bc-severed-foot-richmond.html) was discovered in May -- the first one of a woman -- and a fifth one (http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/story/2008/06/16/bc-fifth-foot-found.html) in June. The fifth foot, uniquely to this point, was a left foot, and DNA tests confirmed that it belonged to the same person as the first foot found. The locations of where the first six feet were found are flagged on the map below. Over the next four years, another eight feet would wash up on the shores of the Salish Sea. Fourteen total feet belonging to a dozen people.
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/Picture_32.2.png
No one is sure why the feet are washing up while the rest of the bodies never emerge. The most likely theory is that when submerged bodies decompose, the hands, feet, and head detach, as they are the parts most loosely connected to the rest of the body. In most cases, these detached parts would sink soon after, but in the case of the fourteen Salish Sea feet, the foot/sneaker combination has enough buoyancy to keep it afloat.
As for the identities of the people who once walked using the discovered feet? Investigators have used DNA tests of the human tissue and forensic analysis of the shoes to come up with answers. Unfortunately, that is easier said than done. The currents in the area draw from across the Pacific and the body fat in the feet forms a soap-like substance which interferes with scientific testing. With one exception, there are more questions than answers. In November of 2011, the Canadian Press reported (http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2011/10/19/bc-feet-mystery-coroner_n_1020772.html) that two of the feet belonged to a woman who committed suicide by jumping off a bridge in New Westminster, British Columbia, seven years earlier. To date, the owners of the other dozen feet are unidentified.
Bonus fact:
According to a 1994 study (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8050406) of just under 1,200 men, the average adult male foot measures 26.3 centimeters -- or about 10.3 inches -- with a standard deviation of 1.2 centimeters (just under half an inch). In other words, the vast majority of human feet are not quite a foot long.
http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRIm5fEnE6dDs8x5xFiyBTAXcdg-lvNKUrX_bkoUQsWsNvxP-k1
06-08-12, 12:52 PM
Now I Know - Boared
There are four million of them roaming around the United States as we speak. Collectively, according to the New York Times (http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/21/sports/othersports/21hogs.html?_r=2&hp), they cause roughly $800 million in property damage annually. But these animals are no ordinary pests -- they're not rats or termites or other such creatures which normally spring to mind as destructive nuisances.
They're pigs -- feral pigs. And they are, literally, out of control.
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/640px_Wild_Pig_KSC02pd0873.jpeg
Feral pigs may look rather harmless -- like furry cousins of the incredible, friendly pig from Charlotte's Web. But that could not be further from the truth. Their voracious appetites combined with their willingness to eat almost anything mean that wherever they are, anything edible is certain to be consumed. They destroy the habitats of other wildlife, eating food other animals rely on. They ravage crops and shred other plants. According to the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (http://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/70843.html), they even "consume the nests and eggs of ground nesting birds and reptiles." They know no boundaries, appear to have no fear, and reproduce rapidly. As the Times summarized, feral pigs are "capable of breaking through fences. They run pickup trucks off the road. They prey on young livestock and woodland creatures. They carry disease. They gestate in four months and deliver litters of a half dozen." The New York State DEC echoes that last sentence, noting that "A feral swine population can triple in one year."
They're a menace.
Hunting them is no easy feat, either. They have very sharp tusks and can be deceptively quick, especially when injured, cornered, or otherwise threatened. In July of 2011, for example, a Texas man tried to trap five of the pigs in a pen on his ranch, but one of the pigs speared him in the calf (http://www.khou.com/news/Texas-man-attacked-by-feral-pig-125490018.html). The rancher required more than 100 stitches. Another Texan, a hog hunter, told Environmental Graffiti (http://www.environmentalgraffiti.com/ecology/us-pig-population-an-ecological-disaster/538) that feral pigs are "the poor man's grizzly . If you shoot at a hog, you'd better shoot straight, because if you don't kill it, he might try and kill you."
Given the feral pigs' proclivity and the economic harm they cause, some jurisdictions take a no-holds-barred approach to their eradication. Missouri, for example, goes to the extreme: "Hunters afield for other game are encouraged to shoot feral hogs on sight when they are encountered. In Missouri, feral hogs may be killed in any number throughout the year. During most of the year no permit is required and any method is allowed."
[B]
Bonus fact:
A typical feral pig weighs 100 to 200 pounds (50 to 90 kg) and, excluding its tail, can reach lengths of about six and a half feet (or about 200 cm). But in 2004, a feral pig was killed on a farm in Georgia which was about seven to eight feet long and weighed an estimated 800 pounds. That creature -- a hybrid of a wild boar and a domesticated pig, seen below -- earned the nickname Hogzilla. It was so large that news of its discovery and death was, originally, widely believed to be a hoax (http://www.sfgate.com/news/article/DNA-tests-to-reveal-if-possible-record-size-boar-2691605.php).
Hogzilla
07-08-12, 12:23 PM
Now I Know - The Musical Savant
Derek Paravicini was born on July 26, 1979. He is autistic and, due to oxygen therapy received at birth -- which was required as he was born at only 25 weeks -- is blind and suffers from a variety of learning disabilities. He can, however, hear, which is incredibly important. Why?
Because Paravicini is a musical genius. He can play a piece of music on the piano after hearing it just once.
At only five years old, he started taking piano lessons at the Linden Lodge School for the Blind in London. By nine, he had his first public concert. And it wasn't just some recital by a grammar school kid. As seen in the video below, Paravicini is an incredibly gifted pianist -- the video, a promo of a segment from 60 Minutes, opens with him at the piano. But watch for even half a minute and you'll see that Paravicini's awe-inspiring piano playing abilities do not extend beyond that point. When host Leslie Stahl asks him to hold up three fingers, he can't.
http://youtu.be/oHJg3OxMQus
Paravicini's piano abilities are not based on rote memorization alone. Rather, he has a highly adaptable understanding of music generally (most likely -- how he thinks is a mystery), and is able to combine elements from the vast library of music stored in his head. For example, in the same 60 Minutes segment, Stahl asks him to play the song YMCA by the Village People. He does, dutifully, and then Stahl changes the rules, asking him to transform the song into a "Russian dance." The result: as seen at the 1:17 mark here (http://www.metacafe.com/watch/4303465/derek_paravicini_on_60_minutes_autistic_savant/), exactly what Stahl asked for. Further, he is able to synthesize the musical output of entire ensembles and translate it into a playable (by him, at least) piano concerto.
Unfortunately, this gift is not enough to make Paravicini an independent, otherwise-functional adult. While he is capable of drawing an audience -- paying customers, at that -- he's unable to handle his own financial affairs, even now at age 33. His now-divorced parents still care for him in that regard.
Bonus fact:
One song Paravicini almost certainly cannot play? Circus Gallop, a song composed in the early 1990s to test electronic musical instrument software, requires 21 notes to be played simultaneously, and Paravicini simply does not have enough fingers to perform it. (Watch and hear it in action, on a player piano, here. (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BdUy70dh8LY&t=0m8s))
http://escoben.files.wordpress.com/2009/05/loora_hot_girl_piano.jpg
08-08-12, 11:58 AM
Now I Know - One's Trash, Another's Treasure
There's an old saying, "one man's trash is another man's treasure," the etymology of which has been lost to time. The meaning is not literal but, typically, a commentary on how there is no judging for taste -- what one person may think is worthless may be cherished by another. But in the case of one particular type of refuse, the literal meaning of the phrase rings true -- to the point of fueling organized crime in parts of the United States.
That product? Old cardboard boxes. While some people are trying to throw them out, others are stealing them before the waste haulers come by.
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/re2sm.jpeg
Cardboard boxes are recyclable. And as recyclables go, they make for some of the best garbage out there. They are easy to transport because they can be baled up, as seen above, and throw in the back of a truck, allowing tons of cardboard to carted for miles without much labor or fuel costs. The recycling process itself is centered around something called a hydropulper, which is basically a moving bath of warm water which mixes the bales until the cardboard turns into an oatmeal-like consistency of paper pulp. That pulp can be turned back into boxes or other products made of corrugated fiberboard.
Because cardboard boxes have a second life, they have value even after they are emptied of their contents and sent off with waste hauler. While municipalities and companies alike will pay such service providers to take their garbage and recyclables away, the haulers also make money by selling the bales of cardboard to recyclers. But others are aware of the cardboard's value -- approximately $100 a ton -- and grab it before the haulers can. Because the waste management companies have contractually agreed to take the trash (at a price lower than they would if the recyclable cardboard were not present), doing so is often considered theft.
One notable such crime spree involved three New Jersey men who, over the course of about four months, made off with over 900 tons of cardboard, as reported by Metro Philadephia. (http://www.metro.us/philadelphia/local/article/1148438--n-j-men-allegedly-stole-100k-worth-of-cardboard-through-large-scale-recycling-theft-ring)
While most illegal cardboard runners simply steal the boxes laying idle off the side of the road (which is typical in larger cities) or from behind large stores like Wal-Mart or Target, the New Jersey trio were more creative. They created a sham corporation called "Metro Paper, Inc." and rented trucks. Then, they monitored the pickup schedules at large stores which went through a high amount of boxes. Once they had the schedule down, they made sure they arrived before the legitimate haulers, picking up the boxes and moving on to their next target.
Seems like a waste of time -- or, a crime not worth the risk? According to Waste Recycling News (http://www.wasterecyclingnews.com/article/20120725/NEWS02/120729954/new-york-city-cardboard-recycling-theft-ring-broken-up-three-arrested), the group sold their treasure trove of used cardboard boxes for just north of $100,000.
Bonus fact:
What does society do with all those recycled boxes? In general, they're turned into more boxes, as noted above. But Israeli inventor Izhar Gafni, a bicycling enthusiast, decided to take his hobby and turn it into a challenge. As reported by Fast Company (http://www.usatoday.com/news/offbeat/2005-11-12-cardboard-box_x.htm), Gafni built a fully functional bike out of recycled cardboard boxes. The water-resistant bicycles use only $9 in materials.
http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTY48Bq5PhunalCJtZvpyq9KGvWk0atX bMviE5xh7nHr6Yc2djOKA
Now I Know - Three of a Kind
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/1_2_3.jpeg
In 2005, Debbie and Kent Beasley of California had triplets -- kind of. All three children were conceived in 1992 and the older two children were born then, but the third one required thirteen more years -- the result of an ever-advancing world of science with an unintentional intentional assist from a crooked doctor. Meet Laina Beasley, the baby born from an embryo frozen for over a decade before her birth.
In the early 1990s, Laina's parents were hoping to start a family but had trouble getting pregnant. Like many have in recent decades, they turned toward in vitro fertilization, or IVF, a lengthy, potentially painful, and often expensive process where the mother's egg is fertilized by father's sperm outside the body and is then implanted into the woman's womb. Because of the costs and because the implantation does not always work, it is common for the doctors to extract many eggs at once -- a dozen or more, perhaps -- even though only four or so are implanted at a time. (UK law, for example, only allows two or three eggs to be implanted at a time, depending on the age of the would-be mother.)
In the case of the Beasleys, in 1992, Debbie had 12 eggs extracted and fertilized but only three implanted, two of which she was able to carry to term. The other nine sat in storage with her fertility doctor, Ricardo Asch, without an explained future use (if any) for them. Or so the Beasleys thought.
In 1995, Dr. Asch and others were accused of taking their patients' embryos -- including the Beasleys' -- and providing them to other women and to research institutions, without their patients' knowledge or consent. (These types of donations are not uncommon, but doing so without permission is as shocking as it sounds.) The clinic was shuttered and the Beasleys' embryos ended up across the country, at a university (unnamed) where they were to be used for medical research. Most likely, they would have been destroyed in the interim years, but due to Dr. Asch's apparently immoral act, eight of the nine remaining embryos were saved.
According to the BBC (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/4655035.stm), in 2001, the Beasleys decided to try get pregnant again, using the remaining embryos. Of the now six remaining -- two were lost in an attempt gone bad in 1996, which almost cost Debbie her life -- four thawed properly and were viable. All four were implanted into Mrs. Beasley and one ended up making it through 35 weeks of the 40 week typical gestation period. In June of 2002, Laina Beasley was born, joining her brother and sister, thirteen years later.
Bonus fact:
Triplets occur naturally in about 1 in 7,900 pregnancies, and in almost all of those cases, at least one of the triplets is genetically different than the others. Identical triplets do occur, often caused when a fertilized egg splits and then one of the resulting two eggs splits again (or when both split but only three of the resulting four survive). The odds of a pregnancy resulting in identical triplets? According to MSNBC, they may be as rare as one in 200 million.
http://neo362000.homestead.com/files/Dahm_Triplets.jpg
Now I Know - Les Horribles Cernettes
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/15968853firstphoto_finished_full_640x509.jpeg
The image above is, from left to right, Angela Higney, Michele de Gennaro, Colette Marx-Neilsen, Lynn Veronneau, from 1992. Individually, they were administrative assistants and/or spouses of researchers at CERN, the European Organization for Nuclear Research (which is now home to the Higgs boson (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higgs_boson)-researching Large Hadron Collider (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider)).
Collectively, they're part of a musical group of sorts called Los Horribles Cernettes (http://musiclub.web.cern.ch/MusiClub/bands/cernettes/), a joke band from CERN, with "hits" such as "My Sweetheart is a Nobel Prize" and "Daddy's Lab." The image is a photoshopped version of this photograph (http://www.viceland.com/viceblog/17500290firstphoto_original_smaller.jpg) and was originally intended to become a CD cover for the Cernettes' 1992 album. And if that is all that happened, the image would be not worth mentioning.
But as it turns out, that photoshopped picture of a half-joke musical act is special. About twenty years ago, it became the first photograph ever used on the World Wide Web.
When we think about the multimedia experience that the web is now today, we lose sight of its more humble beginnings. Originally conceived by British computer scientist and CERN research Tim Berners-Lee in 1989, the web made its debut on December 25, 1990. But that rudimentary system consisted of (and was defined as) a web browser, a single web server, and a few web pages -- and, more importantly, they were not publicly accessible. It would not be unveiled to the public until August of the following year when Berners-Lee and his student, Robert Cailliau, announced their "World Wide Web" project on an online newsgroup. And even then, the existing web pages were text documents (or more accurately, hypertext documents) which users could navigate through via links. There were no images.
That changed on July 18, 1992 or thereabouts. According to Silvano de Gennaro (http://musiclub.web.cern.ch/MusiClub/bands/cernettes/firstband.html), the photographer of the picture above (and later, the husband of one of the Cernettes), Berners-Lee asked him "for a few scanned photos of 'the CERN girls' to publish on some sort of information system he had just invented, called the 'World Wide Web.'" Not knowing the future levity of this "World Wide Web" thing, he happily obliged, scanning the photos in and sending them to Berners-Lee's machine. (And via FTP at that -- email attachments were only a few months old then.) Berners-Lee put the photograph on a web server and the rest is history.
The photograph is probably not the first picture uploaded to the web, as Berners-Lee was almost certainly testing before making this request of de Gennaro, but as de Gennaro originally noted (http://web.archive.org/web/20021011042441/http://musiclub.web.cern.ch/musiclub/bands/cernettes/firstband.html), it was a "historical milestone" -- "the first picture ever to be clicked on in a web browser." (De Genarro updated his page on the topic after a blog asserted (http://motherboard.vice.com/2012/7/10/crossdressing-compression-and-a-collider-the-first-photo-on-the-web) that Berners-Lee was a cross-dresser and wanted the photo in question because it somehow served that purpose; De Genarro also addressed that issue in this forcefully worded disclaimer. (http://musiclub.web.cern.ch/MusiClub/bands/cernettes/disclaimer.html)) Most if not all of the test images were vector graphics (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_graphics), not photographs, so the above-displayed photoshopped picture is the web's first photograph.
Today, the Cernettes are still performing -- and, of course, using the web to do what most artists are doing: selling their music online (http://www.cdbaby.com/cd/leshorriblescernettes).
Bonus fact:
The first web server, seen here (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:First_Web_Server.jpg), was a NeXT Computer which cost $6,500,in the late 1980s, or about $12,000 in today's dollars. Because turning it off would, in effect, turn off the entire web, Berners-Lee adorned with with a sticker which read "This machine is a server. DO NOT POWER IT DOWN!!"
http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcR5RoSUM1JynES_Qy_zkl1v-mv4ivfhd28zrsIdwm92gxil3FuR
Now I Know - Faster Than a Speeding Bullet
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/opgm_37117_mid.jpeg
American swimmer Michael Phelps has 22 Olympic medals to his name -- 18 gold, two silver, and two bronze. In the 2008 Beijing Olympics alone, he set a record by winning eight gold medals, including the gold in the men's 100 meter butterfly over Milorad Cavic of Serbia, as seen above -- kind of. Phelps, on the left, touched the wall 0.01 seconds before Cavic, and to the naked eye, discerning that fact is impossible.
Even a frame-by-frame (http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/multimedia/photo_gallery/0808/oly.phelps.sequence/content.1.html) look into the finish yields little in the way of certainty. And these slight margins are not limited to swimming. For example, in the 2004 Athens Olympics, the top four finishers in the men's 100 meters (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athletics_at_the_2004_Summer_Olympics_-_Men%27s_100_metres#Final) finished a total of 0.04 seconds apart, with times of 9.85, 9.86, 9.87, and 9.89 seconds, respectively.
With margins this thin, every factor may have an outcome on an Olympic race. Including the speed of sound.
At sea level, the speed of sound (at sea level) is about 340 meters per second. The men's 100 meters is an 8-man race, with each competitor in a roughly 1.22 meter wide lane. The runner in Lane 1 is, approximately, eight and half meters from the runner in Lane 8. If the starting pistol is fired next to Lane 1, the runner in that lane will hear it about 0.025 seconds before the runner in Lane 8. The same goes for swimming, and even more so. An Olympic pool is ten lanes long, with each lane spanning 2.5 meters. Assuming each swimmer is roughly in the middle of his or her lane, the swimmer in the first lane is about 22.5 meters away from the swimmer in the final lane. The time it takes for the sound to travel from Lane 1 to Lane 10? Six hundredths of a second. And when the gap between gold and silver (or bronze and not medaling) is less than that, there's a problem.
To solve for this, the Olympics (and other race organizers) have, for decades, wired the pistol to a microphone and relayed the sound to speakers situated behind each of those racing. The noise is relayed electronically and therefore moves much faster than the speed of sound, which should mitigate if not eliminate the problem. But going into the 2012 London Olympics, the organizers saw fit to improve upon the problem anyway. Why? In part, because some competitors were (perhaps subconsciously, to avoid false starts) unwilling to trust the electronically piped-in noise behind them and instead were "waiting" for the true sound to reach them.
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The 2012 London Olympics fixed the problem. As reported by The Atlantic (http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/12/07/the-speed-of-sound-is-too-slow-for-olympic-athletes/260413/), the London Olympic Games Organizing Committee decided to use the starter originally tested in the 2010 Vancouver (Winter) Games -- an all-electronic "gun" by Omega, seen above. Gear Patrol explains how it works (http://gearpatrol.com/2012/07/24/timekeeping-omega-olympics/): "When the starter’s finger pulls the trigger, the classic “bang” is played through speakers behind each runner’s starting block [and only there], a visual flash is emitted and a pulse is sent electronically to the timing system. No smoke and the only drama is at the finish line."
And as an added bonus, you don't need a permit to carry it around.
Bonus fact:
Superman -- the comic book hero, not Michael Phelps -- is said to be "faster than a speeding bullet." How fast is that? Starting pistols typically fire blanks or caps, so there's no speeding bullet for Superman to outrace. For other handguns, it varies based on the gun as well as the bullet, but in general is in the range of 390 meters per second to about 460 m/s. In any case, they go -- and therefore, Superman can go -- faster than the speed of sound. So if Superman ever yells "watch out!," he's doing the person in danger a disservice, the sonic boom notwithstanding. He can get to the person faster than his voice can, assuming the sound of his voice isn't also super.
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Now I Know - The Bat Bomb
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During the final days of World War II, the United States, apparently believing that Japan was unlikely to surrender otherwise, dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The death toll from these two bombs numbered as high as 250,000 when one factors in those who died up to four months later due to things like burns and radiation sickness. Research into the creation of an atomic bomb began in 1939 and the Manhattan Project, which developed the science behind the weapons in earnest, began in June of 1942. But in March of 1943, the United States was developing another weapon which would have potentially spared many thousands of lives.
Unless, that is, you count the lives of the millions or so bats which would have died in the process.
In the mid-1940s, many Japanese buildings were still constructed out of wood and paper, which, of course, were flammable. If the U.S. could figure out a way to start fires in a large number of buildings spread out over a wide area, the Japanese infrastructure and economy would suffer but the direct loss of life would be relatively smaller. But that seemed impossible. Napalm strikes could start fires everywhere in its path, but that wouldn't spread. And carpet bombing with many small warheads would increase the area of the strike, but most likely wouldn't cause many fires. And of course, the death toll from either of those routes could still be rather large.
But a few months before the Manhattan Project got underway, a dental surgeon named Lytle Adams came up with the idea to use bats -- the nocturnal flying mammals -- as part of the strategy. As he would later tell Air Force Magazine (http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/1990/October%201990/1090bats.aspx), after seeing millions of bats flying around caves in Carlsbad Canyon, New Mexico, he immediately thought that they could be used as a way to spread firebombs throughout Japan. He collected a few of them himself, did a little research, and found that even tiny bats weighing well under a pound could carry three times their weight in explosives. He pitched his plan to the military (which apparently was not uncommon at the time) and the military agreed that there was something more to look into.
Adams' theory was straightforward. Collect a million of bats and strap timed incendiary devices to their backs while they hibernated. Stick a thousand of them each into a thousand bombs designed to open at high altitudes. Fly over Japan at night, drop the bombs, and then let the bats fly around. When daybreak comes, the theory went, the bats will hide in dark places -- and given where they are, the most common hiding place will be attics. The timer ticks down shortly after and, without obvious explanations, hundreds of thousands of Japanese buildings start to burn to the ground.
The idea was not just a theory, either. By March of 1943, the U.S. military had identified a suitable population of bats, having located a series of caves in Texas which was the home to millions of the flying critters. For the next year or so, at the expense of $2 million ($25 million in today's dollars), they tested Adams' theory. Except for one major problem -- at one point, some bats got loose resulting in a major fire at the base, as seen above -- the military believed that the bat bombs could actually work.
One report placed their effectiveness at ten to thirty times more effective (measured by the number of fires which would have started) than conventional incendiary devices.
But the final report on the bat bombs issues in mid-1944, while positive, noted that they would not be ready for combat for another year. Due to the slow time table, the military canceled the project before it could be fully developed.
Bonus fact:
Bats eat insects (among other things), including malaria-carrying mosquitoes. In the 1920s, a researcher named Charles Campbell proposed building "bat towers" which would provide a roost for bats during the day so they could feast on the mosquitoes at night. There's an active one at the University of Florida, as seen here (http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/bats/), but the most famous one is probably the Sugarloaf Key Bat Tower in the Florida Keys. The Sugarloaf tower was built in 1928 by a fish lodge owner named Richard Perky with much fanfare -- and with one big problem. According to Atlas Obscura (http://atlasobscura.com/place/sugarloaf-key-bat-tower), when Perky put the bats into the tower, they flew off to find some bugs to eat -- and never came back.
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Now I Know - The Sound of Silence
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Sometimes, one just needs a bit of peace and quiet. Not for serenity (well, that too), but for scientific research. If you want to measure how loud a consumer product is -- say, that of a cell phone's ring or the hum of a dishwasher -- you are better off doing so in an environment with little to no ambient noise. So many organizations -- Apple, Microsoft, and the U.S. military to name a few -- have built special rooms (http://www.fastcompany.com/1671022/chambers-super-silence-whats-inside-apples-100-million-iphone-radio-test-facility), called anechoic (read as "an-echoic," as in "echo free") chambers, to create such conditions.
Minneapolis, Minnesota-based Orfield Laboratories has one, too. And they rent it out so that others can test their products, much like Apple and others do in their own chambers. But Orfield does something additional: they let visitors sit in the room, alone and in the dark, to see how long they can last without going mad.
According to Minnesota Public Radio (http://minnesota.publicradio.org/display/web/2012/04/03/daily-circuit-quiet-room/), the typical quiet room -- such as your bedroom late at night -- has an ambient noise level of about 30 decibels, caused by the rustling of sheets, the hum of the air conditioner, and similar sources of white noise. Orfield's anechoic chamber has a noise level of -9 decibels -- yes, negative nine. According to Guinness World Records, it is the world's quietest room. The silence-producing design, according to the Deccan Chronicle (http://www.deccanchronicle.com/channels/sci-tech/others/worlds-quietest-room-absorbs-all-sound-601) and seen above, features a "trampoline"-like mesh floor, which prevents sounds from reflecting off of it; and walls with one meter-long pieces of soundproofing protruding outward, which absorb sound.
A trip inside may seem like a get-away from the tribulations of the rest of the world, but as Orfield Laboratories President Steve Orfield notes, anything could be further from the truth. He explained why to Minnesota Public Radio: "When you sit in any rooms a person normally sits in, you hear the sound and all its reflections. When you go into an anechoic chamber, there are zero reflections. So if you listen to me talk and hear my voice, you're hearing my voice exactly. And if I turn around and talk, the only thing you'll hear is the sound bending around my head." The body adapts to the massive sensory deprivation by finding whatever it can latch onto -- even its own noises. Quite literally, the mind starts focusing on the sounds of one's own heart beating and lungs expanding. It is enough to drive almost all people to hallucinate.
Orfield himself can only last about 30 minutes in the room before listening to his body parts (including, and especially, an artificial heart valve) is more than he can handle. But perhaps the word "only" there is improperly used. As reported by the Daily Mail (http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2124581/The-worlds-quietest-place-chamber-Orfield-Laboratories.html), the longest anyone has lasted is 45 minutes.
Bonus fact:
Finding pure testing environments isn't unique to sound -- it also can be a problem for taste-testers such as John Harrison, who has the envious job of being the official taste-tester for Edy's ice cream. As Indianapolis Monthly reported (http://www.indianapolismonthly.com/dish/blogentry.aspx?BlogEntryID=10386980), Harrison uses a special utensil that, in his experience, does not leave an aftertaste. That utensil? A gold-plated spoon, as seen here. (http://www.flickr.com/photos/26820013@N03/2621175023/)
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16-08-12, 11:52 AM
Now I Know - Monkey Island
Cayo Santiago is a small island about half a mile off the southeast coast of Puerto Rico. Shaped like an upside down L, the island is only about 140 square meters in area and has a population of zero.
Unless you count the 900 or so monkeys living there, that is. (And apparently, they bite.)
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In 1938, a team of researchers relocated 409 Rhesus monkeys from India, hoping to build a wilderness preserve for them so that Western scientists could study the monkeys in something akin to their natural habitat. Nearly seventy-five years later, the experiment continues, successfully. Accounts vary, but there are currently between 850 and 950 monkeys, all descended from those imported in 1938, living in the wild on Cayo Santiago -- now, colloquially, also referred to as "Monkey Island."
Roughly a dozen researchers from mainland Puerto Rico visit the island daily, observing and interacting with the army of primates in hopes of gathering data and gleaning insight into their society. Some researchers -- ethologists -- observe the monkeys, staying out of sight if possible. But others look to interact with Cayo Santiago's residents. One of these researchers, Laurie Santos, is an evolutionary psychologist from Yale University. Her studies focus on the something called "theory of mind" -- how humans can infer what others are thinking based on their behavior, even if the people (or animals) being observed are not speaking. For example, our body language and facial expressions send signals which most other people can rely upon to figure out, with typically solid accuracy, what is going on in our brains. That skill, Santos believes, developed somewhere along the way, and the Cayo Santiago monkeys may have unique value. As she told Smithsonian magazine (http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/monkey-200801.html?c=y&story=fullstory), "if you see something in a primate, you can use it as a window into the evolutionary past of human beings." Being able to interact with a large number of monkeys has led Santos to conclude that "the gap between human and animal cognition, even a chimpanzee, is greater than the gap between a chimp and a beetle."
That cognitive gap probably explains why Monkey Island is closed to tourists. The monkeys can be vicious, lacking even the most basic regard for human visitors. Even the researchers need to take caution while visiting, eating their lunches in a chain-link fence-enclosed area to prevent the animals from stealing a snack. And as the sign above suggests, the primates are not ones to give much thought as to what they stick their teeth into.
Bonus fact:
Also from the Smithsonian article (http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/monkey-200801.html?c=y&story=fullstory), Santos shares another story. She has 11 capuchin monkeys in her lab back at Yale, and she gives them tokens they can use like money, exchanging them for food. The monkeys have figured out what humans value, and act accordingly in order to earn these tokens. But sometimes, things don't go quite right. As Smithsonian explains: "At times they would offer their feces in exchange for a token, behavior that baffled the researchers until a student pointed out that every morning someone comes into the cage and scoops out the droppings—which may have given them the idea that people value them."
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Now I Know - Life in the Fast Lane
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Speeding may earn you a ticket. And in most cases, it will cost you maybe $150 or 100 Euros. For many people, that could be the difference between making this months rent and being in arrears. For others, it's barely noticeable -- the equivalent of an unnoticed rounding error in their paycheck.
So Finland tried to fix it. Which is why, in 2001, Finland fined Anssi Vanjoki, a high-paid Nokia executive, over $100,000 -- for driving 75 kilometers per hour (47 miles per hour) in a 50 kph (31 mph) zone.
In 1921, Finland adopted a "day-fine" law which aimed to apply the equiminical effect of incarceration to petty violations such as littering, breaches of the peace, and of course, minor traffic violations like speeding. Finland noted that jail time hit the rich and poor roughly equally; for each day in prison, the convict lost a day of freedom, whether rich or poor. Fines, their leadership concluded, should follow a similar framework. Since that year, those infractions can cost a violator a whole day's pay -- be it fifty Euros or 50,000 Euros. And unlike other countries with day-fine laws on the books, Finland's has no maximum.
As reported by the BBC (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1759791.stm), for Vanjoki, this meant a bill of 116,000 Euros (at the time, about $103,000). In October of 2001, he was riding his Harley Davidson motorcycle 25 kilometers per hour over the speed limit and, when caught, was given a fine equal to 14 days of his annual income, which in most cases is exactly how the day-fine system should work. But Vanjoki's case had an odd wrinkle -- it was based on his income for the 1999 filing year, which, he claimed, was much higher than typical. Vanjoki appealed the fine, arguing that in 1999, he sold a number of stock options, boosting his income tremendously and, by 2001, he was making significantly less money because his equity stake in Nokia was worth much less (and he hadn't sold any more options). The courts ended up agreeing with him, cutting his fine by 95%. (http://www.mtv3.fi/uutiset/kotimaa.shtml/2002/02/102535/nokian-vanjoen-sakot-putosivat-murto-osaan)
And while the day-fine system seems more fair than the typical flat fine system most of the world uses, it has found its critics. England and Wales tested the waters with one in the early 1990s, but it was generally disliked -- as the BBC stated (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4173913.stm), it "was criticized for giving paltry fines to the poor and disproportionately large fines to the moderately wealthy." (The BBC noted one example of two men ticketed for fighting each other; the richer of the two was fined ten times that of the poorer.) And in 2002, American economist Steven Landsburgh took to the Wall Street Journal (http://online.wsj.com/article/0,,SB1013382956766135720,00.html) to assail the scheme by pointing out an absurd result: "If Mr. Vanjoki speeds while his chauffeur rides in the passenger seat, the price is $100,000. If they switch seats, the price drops to $50."
Bonus fact:
Another Finnish innovation? Meet the dish draining closet, seen here. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Astiankuivauskaappi-20060227.jpg)
The cupboards, situated above the kitchen sink, are designed to allow people to place recently washed dishes right back into the cabinet without drying them first -- the dish water drips down, slowly, into the sink below. Invented in the mid-1940s, the dish draining closet was named "one of the most important Finnish innovations of the millenium" per Wikipedia. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dish_draining_closet)
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20-08-12, 12:16 PM
Now I Know - Kaninhoppning
There are many strange competitions in this world. There's extreme ironing (http://factandaphoto.com/post/21029864541/extreme-ironing-pictured-above-is-an-extreme), toe wrestling (http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/toe-much-to-handle-the-world-toewrestling-championship-takes-place-in-derby-on-saturday-lizo-mzimba-watched-the-competitors-final-nailtrimming-1419897.html), and the world beard and moustache championships (http://www.worldbeardchampionships.com/), for example. All strange, all very much real.
But none are as cute as the Swedish competition known as Kaninhoppning -- or, in English, rabbit show jumping.
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Yes, that's a rabbit. And yes, he or she is jumping over a miniature version of a fence similar to one found in an equestrian competition.
Rabbit show jumping dates back to the late 1970s or early 1980s, and mimics equestrian in many ways -- not just by borrowing its fence design. The rabbits' owners guide them through an obstacle course (not on their back, of course, but rather by command or by leash -- you can see a blue one in the picture above) and the winning rabbit and owner is the one which completes the course with the least number of errors and, secondarily, in the shortest amount of time. The owners are allowed to redirect their rabbits a predetermined number of times (typically three) without incurring a penalty -- after all, it can be pretty hard to steer a rabbit.
But before you mock Kaninhoppning too much, rest assured that these rabbits really can jump. According to Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabbit_show_jumping), there are official records for the longest and highest rabbit jumps in the competitions. Those records -- 3,000 mm long (about 9.8 feet) and 995 mm high (about 3.25 feet) -- are both owned by owners (and rabbits) from Denmark.
That makes sense: Kaninhoppning is most popular in Scandinavian nations and its international federation (http://www.skhrf.com/) is based in Sweden. But according to the Wall Street Journal (http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970204652904577196912649404638.html), it has caught on in the United Kingdom as well. And that's only the beginning. According to the Daily Mail (in an article which has lots of pictures of rabbits jumping over stuff) (http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1381464/Bunny-rabbits-compete-jumping-course-Dressage-set-world-storm.html), rabbit show jumping competitions can be found throughout Europe, in the U.S. and Canada, and even in Japan. (The website for the U.S. federation is, unfortunately, no longer operational.)
Want to see it in action for yourself? This overproduced video (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MuMDCexPYWM&feature=related) features about two dozen rabbits from the Canadian Rabbit Hopping Club as they leap over fences and through hoops, climb ramps, teeter on see-saws, and do other rabbity things on their quest for eternal glory.
Bonus fact:
What does sculpting a moose and the flag of Norway into your facial hair earn you? A world championship beard, as seen below, from 2011. (The 2012 championships will be held in Las Vegas in November.)
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Now I Know - Winning Receipts
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Government-run lotteries are not uncommon. Pass over a buck or two and you get a ticket, which, if you're extraordinarily lucky, may be worth thousands if not millions of dollars. The odds are against you, of course, but that's the point: the lotteries are there to help supplement taxes. After prize payouts, the lottery-licensing government comes away with a pretty penny -- according to the North American Association of State and Provincial Lotteries (http://www.naspl.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=content&menuid=17&pageid=1025), U.S. and Canadian governments earned over $20 billion in 2010 alone.
But Taiwan has a different lottery, called the Uniform Invoice lottery. It, too, aims to increase the amount of money getting into government coffers. But unlike the traditional lottery, entries into this Taiwanese are free -- with the purchase of virtually anything.
Leading up to the 1950s, Taiwan had a tax problem. Sales tax was a large driver of government revenue but retailers could easily avoid it by simply underreporting their income. Consumers did not care -- whether the retailer paid the sales tax was immaterial to them. A cash economy further exacerbated the problem, as there was no record created of these grey market sales. After all, when was the last time you insisted on a receipt?
To combat this, Taiwan adopted the Uniform Invoice lottery on January 1, 1951. The rules were simple. Retailers had to give customers receipts (invoices), seen above. Each invoice, by law, included a government-provided lottery number. (The one in the picture above is 76757920.) Consumers were encouraged to ask for and keep these receipts via a special lottery. Every two months, on national television, there'd be a lottery drawing, with the grand prize winner holding the receipt with the lottery numbers which matched the ones drawn. The grand prize, by early 2012, was worth NT$10 million (about $340,000 US) with many smaller prizes also available. (And yes, foreigners can win, too (http://www.chinapost.com.tw/taiwan/arts-&-leisure/2011/06/14/306111/Foreigners-can.htm).) For Taiwan, that is a huge amount of money -- one person who came one digit away in February mused that (http://taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2012/02/03/2003524579) he may have been able to retire early had his luck been slightly different.
But the real winner is the Taiwan government. According to Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Invoice_lottery#cite_ref-hwai_0-0), in 1950, the year before the lottery, Taiwan collected NT$29 million in sales tax. In 1951? NT$51 million.
Bonus fact:
In Michigan and Nebraska, there is a lottery which you play by not paying -- for anything. The lottery, called Save to Win, aims to encourage savings. For every $25 a person deposits per month (up to $250) into a special Save to Win account with a participating credit union, that person receives a certificate which acts like a lottery ticket. There are monthly drawings for various small cash prizes, but at the end of the year, there's a grand prize -- a single $25,000 in Nebraska and one of ten $10,000 prizes in Michigan.
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Now I Know - South Korea's Reverse Gold Rush
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In 1997, many countries in Asia's Pacific Rim suffered from a massive financial crisis which threatened to spread across the world. Foreign debt to GDP ratios exceeded 180% at the peak of the crisis.Six different nations felt the economic struggles as capital fled their countries, and the International Monetary Fund provided $40 billion (U.S.) to help keep South Korea, Thailand, and Indonesia afloat. As economies got more and more troubled, governments tried more and more ideas.
South Korea's idea? Recall gold.
In January of 1998, South Korea began a campaign called "Collect Gold for the Love of Korea." At the time, South Koreans, collectively, owned a total of 2,000 tons of gold then worth about $20 billion. That would have gone a long way to lessen the debt burden the country was suffering from. But gold, being hard to track and therefore hard to confiscate, could not simply be collected by edict and threat of force. (And even if it could, it was unlikely that the public would go for it.) So South Korea took another approach. The government simply asked its citizens to turn in their gold voluntarily.
On January 5, 1988, the program launched with the support of three major corporations (Samsung, Daewoo, and Hyundai) collecting and donating gold, thereby showing that this was not just the government getting involved. The BBC (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/analysis/47496.stm), as the program was in full swing, noted that "housewives gave up their wedding rings; athletes donated medals and trophies; many gave away gold 'luck' keys, a traditional present on the opening of a new business or a 60th birthday." Within the first two days of the program, per the AP (http://www.mndaily.com/1998/01/07/south-koreas-gold-collection-campaign-draws-public-support), over 100,000 South Koreans donated north of 20 tons of gold worth over $100 million. The response was so great that officials stopped announcing the results of the gold collection. Due to the amount of gold newly on the market, they feared too that the donations would soften international gold prices.
It is likely that, in total, roughly $150 to $200 million in gold was collected -- a small and probably meaningless dent in the country's debt, given that the country received a bailout in excess of $50 billion. But the symbolic aspect resonated, as Korean citizens realized the gravity of the crisis and rallied, showing a willingness to accept other efforts to help. By the end of 1999, South Korea believed the economic slowdown over.
Bonus fact:
American actor Laurence Tureaud, better known as Mr. T, has two parts to his trademark look -- one, his distinctive beard and haircut; and two, his gold chains. Or, more correctly, he had two parts to his trademark look. After Hurricane Katrina hit the Gulf of Mexico, causing massive destruction particularly in the New Orleans region, Mr. T no longer wore his estimated $300,000 worth in gold. He told Sky News (http://news.sky.com/story/671658/mr-t-gives-up-his-gold-for-katrina-victims): "As a Christian, when I saw other people lose their lives and their land and property... I felt that it would be a sin before God for me to continue wearing my gold. I felt it would be unnecessary and disrespectful to the people who lost everything, so I stopped wearing my gold." (He kept his calling-card hair styling.)
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Now I Know - Down the Rabbit Hole
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The British colonization of Australia began in 1788 with the founding of New South Wales. In 1850, the population of Australians of European descent was at 400,000. By 1859, it had more than doubled, breaking the one million barrier. One of those people was a man named Thomas Austin, a 44 year old who had come over with his family in 1831. Austin and his wife, Elizabeth Phillips Harding, did their part to help the population expansion, having 11 children -- and causing the birth of about ten billion rabbits.
Yes, ten billion rabbits.
Rabbits are native to Spain, Portugal, Morocco, and Algeria, but by the time Europeans settled Australia, rabbits had also been introduced to the British Isles and through much of Western and Northern Europe. And around the time Europeans were colonizing Australia, efforts to introduce different animals to places around the world were kicking up steam through something called acclimatisation societies. The first such group was founded in Paris in 1854, but they quickly found activists among colonists in the Americas, Southeast Asia, and Australia. Thomas Austin was one such activist, importing partridges, blackbirds, and other animals into the Australian ecosystem.
In October of 1859, he added two dozen rabbits to that list. He wanted them for hunting purposes; when he lived in England as a teen, he had spent weekends rabbit hunting, but was unable to do so in Australia because there were no rabbits to hunt. So he did what any acclimatisation fan would do, and asked his nephew to send him some. According to a report (http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/43156/20040709-0000/agspsrv34.agric.wa.gov.au/programs/app/barrier/history.htm) by the Western Australia Department of Agricutlure and Food, Austin did not believe there would be any repercussions from this. He was quoted as saying "The introduction of a few rabbits could do little harm and might provide a touch of home, in addition to a spot of hunting."
He was, to say the least, wrong. Very, very wrong.
The rabbits did what rabbits do, and within a decade there were millions roaming throughout the area. The rabbits were bad for the local ecology -- an invasive species eating all sorts of native plant life, potentially destroying many species of flora before they were discovered and identified by researchers. Before the century was out, area governments were offering rewards to anyone who could come up with a way to eradicate the rabbit population, and in 1901, the crown created a royal commission to investigate options. In 1907, they built a rabbit-proof fence which stretched from the north to the south, separating the western part of the country from the rest, in hopes of keeping the rabbits from spreading eastward. The fence was a failure, as rabbits were able to both jump over it or burrow under it. As the Victoria Department of Primary Industries (http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/agriculture/pests-diseases-and-weeds/pest-animals/lc0298-rabbits-and-their-impact) notes, by 1926, the rabbit population of Australia hit 10 billion of the critters.
In the 1950s, Australia turned to germ warfare. They tested and ultimately released the myxoma virus among the rabbit population, a virus which causes myxomatosis among the animals. (The virus has little to no effect on people.) Myxomatosis causes listlessness, loss of appetite, fever, and potentially blindness in rabbits and often leads to pneumonia as well. An infected rabbit typically dies within two weeks of exposure to the virus. By 1954, per the link above, 99.8% of the Australian rabbit population was eradicated.
The .2% which survived were naturally resistant to the virus and, of course, they continued to breed afterward. As of 1990, the rabbit population has rebounded to about 600 million.
Bonus fact:
As one would imagine, it is illegal to keep rabbits as housepets in most of Australia. The government of Queensland bars their ownership with a maximum penalty of $30,000, but does allow some exceptions. According to this government fact sheet (pdf) (http://www.daff.qld.gov.au/documents/Biosecurity_EnvironmentalPests/IPA-Keeping-Rabbits-As-Pets-PA15.pdf), permits are given to circus performers and magicians.
http://t2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQut58ttEaGHodNwFAh6PjoiKJ9pKmTq lL560Fi05Hki0LZVuiFyA
Now I Know - Civil War
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On November 17, 1810 Sweden declared war on the United Kingdom. The two sides were at odds for more than a year and a half, only finally reaching a peace accord in July of 1812, as formalized in the Treaty of Orebro. The Anglo-Swedish War, as it would later be known, had the lowest death toll in history: Zero.
How? Because the two sides never actually did any fighting.
Wars break out for all sorts of reasons -- invasions, assassinations, immigration policy, or various and sundry odd reasons (e.g. a hungry pig, almost (http://nowiknow.com/the-pig-war/)) which even in retrospect defy explanation. In the case of the Anglo-Swedish War, the cause was France. In 1803, Britian declared war on France, hoping to overthrow Napoleon Bonaparte from power. Napoleon, of course, was trying to create an imperial France overtaking much of Europe -- at its peak, almost all of Western and Northern Europe were under his Continental System (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_System) designed to harm Britian through a massive trade embargo. Over the course of the next dozen years, many European nation-states would join the UK in its struggle against Napoleon in a series of wars collectively called the Napoleonic Wars. In 1805, a coalition of Russia, the UK, the Holy Roman Empire, and others were in the throes of war.
At the time Sweden's involvement was minor. They controlled a small area of land then known as Swedish Pomerania, now on the Baltic coasts of Poland and Germany, and they leased the area to Great Britian, such that the UK could use the area as a military base against France. But, fearing French reprisals, Sweden did little else to help efforts to contain Napoleon's charges. That changed in August of 1805, as Russia promised that, if France invaded Sweden, the tzar would provide as many as 40,000 troops to its new Swedish ally. On October 31, 1805, Sweden declared war on France, starting what would later be known as the Pomeranian War. But France ended up defeating Russia, causing it to switch sides. Then, the Russians turned on Sweden. On January 6, 1801, the Swedes surrendered to France as the two sides signed the Treaty of Paris.
The Treaty required that Sweden join the Continetnal System and, therefore, no longer trade with Great Britian. For Sweden, that was untenable, causing significant economic harm, so trade occured through back channels for months. France would have none of it, and issued an ultimatum, requiring Sweden to seize all British products within their borders, take possession of all British ships within their waters, and declare war against Britian. If not, France would declare war on Sweden and, one assumes, invade. Sweden acceded to the French demands.
But "hey, you two, fight!" doesn't typically amount to much when the two people can just sit there and agree to be at war without throwing any punches. That is, not much changed. The British still used at least one Swedish port and neither side actually fought each other. Neither side lost a single soldier.
Unfortunately, there were some indirect deaths. Given the fickle political alliances and allegiances which marked the era, Sweden decided to conscript men into military service, in case Britian took the declaration of war seriously and decided to actually invade. In June of 1811, a group of farmers rioted in protest of the policy, and 140 soldiers were dispatched to quell the uprising. Thirty of the farmers were killed in the process.
Bonus fact:
The House of Bonaparte has continued to keep track of Napoleon's bloodline -- something which, compared to other imperial dynasties, is not all that strange (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_current_pretenders). (The person who would be the claimant of a throne if that family were still in power is called a "pretender" -- a term which is not a prejorative, as explained on its Wikipedia entry (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pretender).) But there is one oddity: there's a dispute over who is the rightful heir apparent. In 1997, Louis, Prince Napoleon, died, leaving his oldest son Charles as the would-be claimant of the throne. But in his will, Louis specified that his grandson (Charles' son) Jean-Christophe Napoleon, become the dynastic heir. According to the Independent (http://www.independent.co.uk/news/battle-rages-for-the-napoleonic-succession-1286493.html), Louis was upset because Charles "had divorced and re-married without his permission" and because Charles held political views (which were "republican and democratic" and not imperial) which his father held repugnant.
http://dallaspenn.com/pics/albums/album01/sexy_french_flag.sized.jpg
Now I Know - Knuckle Head
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If you crack your knuckles, you'll develop arthritis -- or so the old wives' tale goes. But is it true? That is not the easiest thing to figure out. Asking arthritis sufferers if they were compulsive knuckle crackers may help, but it has its flaws. Correlation may hint at a causal connection, but there are plenty of other factors which could explain the data. Coming up with a clean test case is difficult because you would need to isolate a large amount of other factors and, because arthritis develops over a long period of time, do so over many years. Decades, really.
So Dr. Donald L. Unger of California, pictured above, did just that.
Unger, at a young age, was warned not to crack his knuckles, lest he harm himself in the future. Almost all of that advice was coming from laypeople, and the medical community did not yet have a grasp on whether it was true. So Unger tackled the problem himself.
For fifty years, Unger cracked the knuckles on his left hand "at least twice a day," as reported by Scientific American. But he did not, intentionally, do the same with his right hand. Over the course of those five decades, Unger estimates that he cracked the knuckles on his left hand over 36,000 more times than those on his right. He then wrote up his results. In 1998, it was published in a medical journal, Arthritis & Rheumatism, in an article titled "Does knuckle cracking lead to arthritis of the fingers?," which is available here. (http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/1529-0131%28199805%2941:5%3C949::AID-ART36%3E3.0.CO;2-3/abstract) The short answer to his rhetorical question? No. "There were no arthritis in either hand, and no apparent difference between the two hands," he wrote in his paper.
For his trouble, Unger received an honor from the Annals of Improbable Research, a scientific humor magazine. The organization gives out ten "Ig Nobel Prizes" each year meant to highlight "research that makes people laugh, then think," per its official website (http://www.improbable.com/ig/). And, more importantly, his findings are probably correct. Over the course of his fifty years of investigation, others came up with more traditional tests -- drawing the same conclusion.
Bonus fact:
What causes the popping sound from a cracked knuckle or joint? We don't know. The most likely explanation is something called cavitation, which occurs when small bubbles form within liquids (in this case, synovial fluid) and for some reason, collapse rapidly. In this case, the theory goes, when you flex your fingers or other body parts, you create enough pressure to cause the bubble to collapse, leading to a snapping sound.
(I'd snap this)
Now I Know - Titanic's Star Wars
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In 1997, Titanic made its box office debut -- and set a then-record lifetime gross domestic take of over $650 million per Box Office Mojo (http://boxofficemojo.com/alltime/domestic.htm).So it made sense, kind of, to re-release it fifteen years later, of course in 3-D. (Kind of, because the re-released movie only opened at number three in the box office, a minor embarrassment.) By and large, the movie was left unchanged, other than the 3-D enhancements.
The only thing redone? The sky.
Director James Cameron was, first and foremost, an explorer/adventurer. He would later admit (as noted briefly in this TED talk (http://www.ted.com/talks/james_cameron_before_avatar_a_curious_boy.html)) that his primary goal in making the movie was to get Hollywood to pay for him to visit the Titanic wreckage, under the guise of research: he wanted to make the movie as accurate as possible. And in the end, that attention to detail became a motivator of its own. Cameron told Eye for Film (http://www.eyeforfilm.co.uk/feature/2009-12-17-james-cameron-talks-about-avatar-aliens-and-his-titanic-career-feature-story-by-maria-realf) that his efforts to make the movie as close to real as possible consumed him: "I read everything I could. I created an extremely detailed timeline of the ship’s few days and a very detailed timeline of the last night of its life. And I worked within that to write the script, and I got some historical experts to analyse what I’d written and comment on it, and I adjusted it." Some early reviews of the films lauded Cameron's attention to detail.
But Cameron got one detail wrong. Astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson, the director of the Hayden Planetarium at the American Museum of Natural History in New York, noticed that in the scene when the ship sank, the night sky showed a star pattern much different than what was really there on that night. And, as he recounted in this video (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8B6jSfRuptY), it rubbed him the wrong way. If diving to the bottom of the ocean was Cameron's all-consuming goal, getting Cameron to acknowledge this error became Tyson's. He wrote Cameron a letter which went unanswered, met him at an event to no avail, and pestered him a third time at a dinner both were invited to.
And somewhere along the way, Cameron decided to do something about it. Accounts vary, though. Tyson, in the video, states that someone who works in post-production at Cameron's studio called him up to tell him about an anniversary re-release and that "he [Cameron] tells me you have a sky he can use" (and then, in the video, Tyson does a happy dance). Cameron, for his part, claims (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/9179446/Wrong-stars-force-Titanic-3D-scene-to-be-reshot.html)that he himself said "all right, send me the right stars for that exact time and I'll put it in the movie."
Either way, the sky in the newer version of Titanic is, now, accurate.
Bonus fact:
Before Titanic hit the silver screen, the top grossing film (again, domestic receipts) was Star Wars, which came out twenty years earlier. To mark the feat, Star Wars' director George Lucas took out a full page ad in Variety, seen above (larger version here (http://i.imgur.com/dqLfi.jpg)), congratulating Cameron on the achievement.
http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSli_GUHaXHA_RQx9abOPHCw-yWdJN2fNaNxs6n3HbGjNa_6uoZ&t=1
Now I Know - What's Your Beef?
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Pictured above is a cut of Kobe beef, which if you're a food aficionado at all (or, simply cognizant of that world), you have certainly heard of. Some of you may have gone out to dinner and even ordered it, paying a premium for this high-quality Japanese delicacy and entree du jour.
But, unless you ordered it in Japan, chances are you haven't eaten it.
There are black cattle in Japan called Wagyu, whose meat is known for its exceptional taste. The meat has a larger than typical percentage of unsaturated fat, as evidenced by the marbling seen above, as well as containing more omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. Altogether, Wagyu meat is considered more tender and flavorful than most meat, which in turn allows its cultivators to demand higher prices.
Kobe beef comes from a breed of Wagyu cattle called Tajima, which are found only in Hyogo Prefecture (the red region on this map (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_Japan_with_highlight_on_28_Hyogo_prefe cture.svg)) in Japan. Tajima cattle have been in that area for centuries, perhaps dating back to the second century when they were brought into the region to help in the rice fields. Because of the mountainous terrain in the area, the cattle inbred, keeping the gene pool non-diverse and hyper-localized. And if beef is not from Tajima cattle, it's not, officially, Kobe beef. In fact, even that is not enough. To be branded Kobe beef in Japan, there are several conditions that must be fulfilled, as mandated by the Kobe Beef Marketing and Distribution Promotion Association, as seen here (http://www.kobe-niku.jp/english/contents/pu/pu_b.html). According to Forbes (http://www.forbes.com/sites/larryolmsted/2012/04/12/foods-biggest-scam-the-great-kobe-beef-lie/), the Association has certified only three thousand cattle as eligible to become Kobe beef.
And the official Kobe beef is almost never exported from Japan. The Association also mandates where the beef can be sent, and before 2012, it was not exported at all -- and even now, it is only to Macau and Hong Kong. (To give an idea of how recently this change occurred, Hong Kong received its first shipment of Kobe beef in July (http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/business/2012-07/18/c_131723802.htm).) Other areas have never received a shipment of true Kobe beef. In the case of the U.S., that's partially due to the American government, which banned beef from Japan back in 2010 (http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-05-20/u-s-bans-japanese-beef-imports-after-foot-and-mouth-outbreak-in-miyazaki.html) after a foot-and-mouth outbreak there.
So, again, unless your Kobe steak was eaten in Japan, it wasn't an official Kobe steak. Instead, you're eating a "Kobe-style" steak, one which (in the U.S., at least) is typically from a non-Tajima Wagyu cattle cross-bred with an Angus. But many of the cattle-raising techniques are kept the same. For example, the cattle's diet is mostly grass, and, in the U.S. and U.K., the cattle are often fed beer (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/cornwall/6345289.stm), much like the ones in Japan often are.
Whether the "official" aspects matter is up for debate, of course, so far as taste is concerned. But in some jurisdictions, there's no debate when it comes to labeling. In Florida, for example, the Department of Business and Professional Regulation has stated that using the term "Kobe beef," without further clarifying the cattle's lineage, is "misrepresentation."
Bonus fact:
Kobe beef isn't the only food whose origin matters. Champagne also makes the list. In order for something to be properly called champagne, its grapes must be exclusively from the Champagne region in France. (Some jurisdictions allow for the term to be used to describe sparkling wine generally, but that is only true in a minority of places.)
(my bird drinking Champagne...)
Now I Know - Unmixed
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On the fourth of July, 2010, a man named Kent Smith was on a cruise in the Gulf of Alaska. He started watching the water, as many cruise-goers are bound to do, and, in his words (http://www.flickr.com/photos/kentsmith9/4955772693/), noticed something strange: "I had been on the deck for quite some time when I noticed what appeared to be a shadow cast by clouds over the ocean about 5 miles in front of the ship. As we approached the shadow I realized it was something different." That something different turned into the picture seen above (larger version here). (http://www.flickr.com/photos/kentsmith9/4955772693/sizes/o/in/photostream/)
In the middle of the gulf, there were two bodies of ocean water, unmixed.
What's going on there? The lighter water (left) are coastal waters while the darker waters are much typically further out in the gulf. They're kept mostly separate due to the formation of large eddies -- swirling water caused by currents collide into each other. The lighter water is made up of glacial runoff which is carried by the Alaska Stream. The Alaska Stream runs, roughly, from Kodiak Island down the Alaskan Peninsula (from A to B on this map (https://maps.google.com/maps?saddr=Kodiak+Island,+AK&daddr=Surveyor+Bay,+Aleutians+West,+AK&hl=en&sll=53.395613,-167.772217&sspn=0.4774,1.123352&geocode=Fe1uaQMdvlXQ9im9vNv1WAvrVjHKhbdFIPZ8rA%3B&oq=Surveyor+Bay&mra=ls&t=m&z=6)). The darker water comes up to the gulf via the Alaska Current, which starts in the Pacific and then turns up the coast of British Columbia and into the gulf. The Alaska Current causes water in the Gulf of Alaska to run counter-clockwise, but when it hits the Alaska Stream, clockwise flowing eddies form. Ken Bruland, a researcher at the University of California at Santa Cruz, created an image of sea surface chlorophyll in the region, below (originally from here (http://es.ucsc.edu/~kbruland/Research/GulfAlaska/kwbResProjGulfAk2.html)), which helps map out the eddies. (The light green region is where the eddies are.)
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/kwbResProjGulfAk_clip_image002.jpeg
But eddies, while not terribly common, also are not so obvious to the naked eye. For that, Bruland and researchers associated with the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) have an easy answer (http://soundwaves.usgs.gov/2008/03/): iron. The coastal waters have a high amount of iron in it while the darker water has very little. The iron encourages plankton growth, which is most likely why there is a clear, visible difference between the two sides.
Bonus fact:
What happens when two rivers come together? They mix -- but not right away. In 2006, astronauts above the International Space Station took this photograph of the Ohio River (right, and brown) merging into the Mississippi at Cairo, Illinois. Per NASA (http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/view.php?id=75245), the photo shows an area about three to four miles downstream after the rivers converge, and as you can see, they are not yet mixed.
http://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/imagerecords/75000/75245/ISS012-E-15035_lrg.jpg
Now I Know - Greetings
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Craig Shergold was a typical nine year-old living in the UK when, in 1988, he started complaining of ear aches. But his ear problems were not the typical ones suffered by young children. Shergold's were caused by brain tumors believed to be terminal at the time -- he was expected to live only a few months. In 1989, Shergold's friends and relatives, looking to accomplish the amazing during his short time left on Earth, decided that he should break a world record. They wanted Shergold to receive the most greeting cards -- ever.
A few decades later, Shergold is still alive, having undergone a successful experimental operation in the U.S. in 1991. And he has that world record, too. He has received an estimated 350 million greeting cards in the last twenty-plus years.
The people closest to Shergold started a chain letter, asking the recipients to send Craig a greeting card, explicitly to get his name into the Guinness Book of World Records. The efforts picked up steam quickly, with the Children's Wish Foundation International, an organization which aims to fulfill the wishes of terminally ill children, helping solicit greeting cards (http://web.archive.org/web/20100529224617/http://www.childrenswish.org/PressRelease-craigshergold.php). (Children's Wish claims to have done so not via chain letter, but by other, less controversial means.) Whether Children's Wish's efforts or the chain letter's were the driving force behind this early success is unknown. But by May of 1990, Shergold's supporters had met their goal. Shergold has received over 16 million greeting cards, an accomplishment noted by Guinness. And a year later, Guinness updated the record, as Shergold, still alive, hit 33 million.
The attention never stopped. The chain letters, which began as paper-and-ink messages requiring a stamp, merged quickly into email, where it spread even faster. By 1998 -- seven years after Shergold's tumors were surgically removed -- he had received over 250 million cards, and the postal service gave his childhood home its own postal code in order to handle the volume of mail. And as About.com notes, Shergold's efforts have now flipped. Instead of asking for more greeting cards, he has asked that people stop -- but to no avail.
Since then, Shergold's family has moved out of the home to which the greeting cards are still being sent. Where do all the cards end up? According to the Make a Wish Foundation (http://www.wish.org/about/fraud_alerts) (which was not involved in Shergold's campaigns), they go right to a nearby recycling center, most likely unopened.
Bonus fact:
Both the Care Bears (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Care_Bears) and Strawberry Shortcake (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strawberry_Shortcake) were originally greeting card art.
http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSVmx598k4SAl30-B6v-yINkV_DRM0vZtQbpJ8he5AnswEQQEZvRw
These are really really good to read and sell in drinking tables. Thank you man :ok:
wato20
Now I Know - Invisible Ink
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The pens read "SKILCRAFT-U.S. GOVERNMENT." And if you have worked for an American government institution, you know that they are everywhere. At roughly 50 cents each (http://www.ontimesupplies.com/nsn9357135-7520009357135-us-government-ballpoint-retractable-pen-black-ink-fine-dozen.html) (if you qualify for government pricing), the pens are the only ones you will see, officially speaking, at most government institutions.
Which makes you different than the people manufacturing the pens themselves. Skilcraft pens are manufactured by blind workers.
In 1938, the United States was still in the midst of the Great Depression. Given that the economy was still incredibly soft, and that blind workers were already at a competitive disadvantage, the government stepped in. Franklin Delano Roosevelt signed into law the Wagner-O'Day Act, which aimed at providing upward economic mobility for the blind by requiring that when the federal government purchased specific goods, those goods were manufactured by blind Americans. The law, codified at 41 U.S.C. 46, soon included pens.
The Skilcraft brand came to be a decade or so later, in 1952. Today, the company employs over 5,000 blind workers in 44 states, producing a full arsenal of office supplies, janitorial equipment, etc., with the pens being produced in factories in Wisconsin or North Carolina. As reported by the Washington Post (http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/04/17/AR2010041701297.html?hpid=topnews), the pens must be made to the specifications outlined by a sixteen page document which was first promulgated over fifty years ago. Among the requirements? The pens "must be able to write continuously for a mile and in temperatures up to 160 degrees and down to 40 degrees below zero."
In all, the U.S. government orders $5 million worth of these pens a year (with 60% going to the military) -- a small part of the spending under the Wagner-O'Day (now Javitz-Wagner-O'Day) Act. The Act, which was revised in 1971 to include people with "significant disabilities" as eligible for the program, is administered through an organization called AbilityOne (http://www.abilityone.org/), and helps to employ over 40,000 such people. In total, the government spends over $650 million (as recently as 2009) annually on AbilityOne goods and services.
Bonus fact:
The U.S. space program does not use Skilcraft pens. They use a special pen, one which can write at any angle -- important in the vacuum of space, and where there is no gravity. The pen, called the Fisher Space Pen after Paul C. Fisher, whose company created it, will work even in extreme temperatures. And unlike pencils (or even most pens), they are designed to be incredibly durable, as to avoid a breakage which could result in floating shrapnel. Rumors that the Soviets used pencils while the Americans invested millions to create this pen are untrue (http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=fact-or-fiction-nasa-spen), both for that reason, and because the Fisher Space Pen was developed using private funding, and only recouped its investment when NASA and other nations' space programs -- including the Soviets -- began purchasing them.
http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-GopE7KQGKYk/Trf3jkWu_1I/AAAAAAAAAKY/GqoMx154p2Y/s1600/Carmen_Electra%25252C_NASA_Astronaut.jpg
Now I Know - Bacteriotherapy
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When a person is taking antibiotics, many of the helpful bacteria in that person's stomach get temporarily wiped out. Other bacteria may remain, however. One of those, clostridium difficile, can live outside the body for a long time, and therefore can spread pretty easily in hospitals. It can cause something called clostridium difficile infection, or CDI, which in turn causes diarrhea and colitis, at times leading to death (http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/story/2011/07/24/tor-c-difficile-death-stcatharines623.html). That's the bad news. The good news? It's treatable, perhaps with as high as a 90% success rate, with something called bacteriotherapy.
What's bacteriotherapy? A feces transplant.
Really.
In 2010, the New York Times interviewed a physician, Dr. Alexander Khoruts, who had treated a CDI patient by employing bacteriotherapy. Dr. Khoruts' patient had lost sixty pounds over eight months due to the infection, and antibiotics were unable to rid his patient of it. So he took another approach. Instead of trying to wipe out the clostridium difficile, he instead decided to introduce some of the good bacteria (like the bit seen above, magnified 10,000 times) back into his patient's gut. Doing so, he hoped, would restore the balance in her digestive system, and end her seemingly chronic diarrhea. The Times described the process:
Dr. Khoruts decided his patient needed a transplant. But he didn’t give her a piece of someone else’s intestines, or a stomach, or any other organ. Instead, he gave her some of her husband’s bacteria. [He] mixed a small sample of her husband’s stool with saline solution and delivered it into her colon.
The transplant was a success -- the patient's diarrhea cleared up within a day and did not return. But more importantly -- from the perspective of everyone other than the patient, that is -- Dr. Khortus and his team were able to map the genetic makeup of the transferred bacteria and then, later on, was able to determine that the new, good bacteria in his patient's gut was entirely made up of the types from the patient's husband. Khortus was able to demonstrate that we can move colonies of microorganisms from one person to another.
With an estimated 10,000 different species (http://www.npr.org/blogs/health/2012/06/13/154913334/finally-a-map-of-all-the-microbes-on-your-body) of bacteria living in our bodies, and with bacteria outnumbering cells (http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/06/080603085914.htm) ten to one, this discovery may have implications for health care more generally. And if the fecal transplant treatment is any indicator, it could lead to fewer doctors' visits, too. Why is that? Because as this scientific study notes (http://www.cghjournal.org/article/S1542-3565%2810%2900069-8/abstract), bacteriotherapy for CDI can be done at home.
Bonus fact:
Cows' digestive systems produce methane. When cows get rid of the methane, they are emitting a greenhouse gas (http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/blame-bovine-belching-changing-cows-diet-could-cut-emissions-a-493611.html). Kangaroos have a diet similar to cows but their stomachs do not produce methane. Researchers believe that there is a type of bacteria found in kangaroos' guts which is not present in cows', and are exploring ways of introducing (http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/discoblog/2007/12/19/kangaroo-ifying-cows-to-fight-global-warming/) these bacteria into cows in hopes of obtaining the same effect.
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Now I Know - Unreal Money
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Brazilian currency is called the real, which is the Portuguese word for the homographic English word "real." Brazilian reals have been in circulation since July 1, 1994. But they were also in use from March 1994 until then -- kind of. For those three months, the real was anything but real. It was, rather, pretend -- entirely non-existant. The hope was that by creating a monetary system which did not have any currency representing it, they could save the Brazilian economy.
And by most measures, it worked.
Inflation was running rampant in Brazil in the early 1980s, climbing with no end in sight throgh the beginning of the decade, as seen by the first graph below. And then, things went from horrible to unimaginable -- it spiked to over 6,000% (annualized) in January of 1990, as seen in the second graph, dwarfing the problems of the decade prior. The rate of increase slowed down soon after but was still very high, until July of 1994, when it spiked again. But after that spike, it quickly leveled off, and within a year, inflation was down to rates one would see in a typical, generally economically healthy country.
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The rampant inflation, in part, was caused by an economic term of art called "inflationary expectations." NPR's Planet Money explains (http://www.npr.org/blogs/money/2010/10/04/130329523/how-fake-money-saved-brazil) how quickly things were going downhill, and why:
[In 1992], Brazil's inflation rate hit 80 percent per month. At that rate, if eggs cost $1 one day, they'll cost $2 a month later. If it keeps up for a year, they'll cost $1,000.
In practice, this meant stores had to change their prices every day. The guy in the grocery store would walk the aisles putting new price stickers on the food. Shoppers would run ahead of him, so they could buy their food at the previous day’s price.
In March of 1994, Brazil's inflation rate was nearly 45% a month. With consumers now expecting prices to increase on a day-to-day basis, inflation became a beast onto itself. To stop this, the government decided to try and reprogram consumers' brains into thinking that prices were, somehow, stable. The currency of the time, called the cruzeiro real, was rapidly losing value, so they introduced a new one called the unidade real de valor, or URV, which translated to "real value unit." Wages and taxes were stated in terms of URV. As the Los Angeles Times reported (http://articles.latimes.com/1994-03-30/business/fi-40121_1_finance-minister), wholesalers and retailers were advised to display each product's price in URV. They were further asked to keep products' URV price relatively constant. What changed, instead, was the amount of cruzeiro real each URV was worth. All transactions, from buying milk to paying one's taxes, were conducted using cruzeiro real, not URV.
Why? Because the URV never existed, at least not in currency form. Edmar Bacha, an economist who helped come up with the URV concept, told NPR that the URV was "virtual -- it didn't exist in fact." No bills, no coins, nothing. URV was a non-currency reference point aimed at demonstrating some sort of price stability to a population which no longer believed such things were possible.
About three months after the URV system was implemtened, it and the cruzeiro real were replaced. On July 1, 1994, Brazil announced a new currency -- the real now used by Brazil, with the real's value pegged to one URV. As seen by second graph above, the rapid rise in inflation abated soon after, and Brazil's economy recovered.
Bonus fact:
In 2006, Gregor Smith, a professor of Economics at Queens University in Ontario, Canada, published a working paper plotting Japan's employment rate (negative) on the X-axis and its inflation rate on the Y-axis. His findings? The graph looks like Japan.
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Now I Know - Saved by the Wind
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Here's a crass joke: A man is at a dinner party in a 40th floor apartment. He announces to the rest, "You know, the wind out there is so strong, that if you jump out the window, it will blow you all around the building and right back in!" The other guests laughs at the absurdity of such an assertion, but the man persists: "I'll prove it!" He jumps out the window and, sure enough, he ends up floating around the building and re-entering, safely, in the window he defenestrated himself out of just moments earlier. Another guest, wanting the thrill of a lifetime, quickly jumped out the window before anyone else could stop him -- and plummeted to his death.
The bartender then pointed at the first guest: "You can be a real jerk when you're drunk, Superman."
Again, that's a joke. But on December 2, 1979, Elvita Adams showed that sometimes, even normal, everyday people can be a little bit super.
That evening, Adams, then age 29 and living in the Bronx, decided to take her own life. The reasons are unclear, but most likely, Adams was suffering from severe depression and in a fight with her landlord and about to be evicted. She went to the Empire State Building in midtown Manhattan to the observatory on the 86th floor. She scaled a seven foot fence (replete with steel spikes) and jumped.
That, in and of itself, is nothing terribly peculiar. A few dozen people have jumped to their deaths off the Empire State Building, the first occurring before the building was even completed when a laid-off worker took his own life that way. In 1947, a 23 year-old jumped, leaving a crossed-out suicide note about how an unnamed man would be "much better off without [her]" and that she would not have made a very good wife. Her body was found on a limousine at the building's base, and LIFE magazine ran a picture of her body, so situated, as seen here (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA43&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false). And just a few years ago, a 54 year-old Manhattan woman took her life in similar fashion (http://www.nypost.com/p/news/regional/manhattan/item_C6YcfnSza3ezY1OVwFCvKK;jsessionid=D827325CEAE D24883635BB29592C4D6D).
But Adams, pictured above, did something none of the others can claim to have done. She survived. A wind gust -- a very strong one, certainly -- caught hold of her and blew her back toward the building, albeit one floor down. She landed on a ledge on the 85th floor very much alive, where a security guard found her before she could make another attempt. The only damage to her body? A fractured hip.
Adams was taken to a mental institution to recuperate, both mentally and physically. Her current whereabouts are not publicly known.
Bonus fact:
If Adams is Superwoman, Jeb Corliss is her not-so-super alter-ego. On April 27, 2006, Corliss -- who, at the time, hosted the Discovery Channel's Stunt Junkies -- tried to parachute off the side of the Empire State Building from the 86th floor observatory. He was unsuccessful. While he was able to get to the observatory deck (he wore a fat suit to obscure the parachute), when he began to climb the fence, security guards took note and went after him. Corliss scaled the fence successfully but before he could jump, the security guards grabbed him and held on until others could reel him in. (Here's a video showing most of that (http://www.break.com/usercontent/2008/1/Man-Tries-To-Jump-Off-Empire-State-Building-434794) -- it cuts off before he's brought back in.) Corliss was arrested and charged with reckless endangerment (http://articles.nydailynews.com/2008-03-04/local/29430370_1_appeals-judges-appeals-court-indictment) and fired from his Stunt Junkies gig, but Corliss shot back with a lawsuit of his own, suing the city, demanding that it issue permits for such jumps (http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/empire-state-building-jump-nut-chutes-city-permit-article-1.295705). He lost. And then he lost again: Corliss was later sued by the building for $12 million (http://articles.nydailynews.com/2011-05-31/local/29624020_1_parachute-jump-observation-deck-empire-state-building); the two sides settled. And finally, he lost a third time. In 2012, he jumped out of an airplane in a flying squirrel suit in southern Africa, but crashed into a mountain and broke both his legs. (http://articles.nydailynews.com/2012-02-23/news/31093114_1_phony-fu-manchu-mustache-daredevil-jeb-corliss-86th-floor)
http://www.fancydresspartycostumes.co.uk/images/lc8080.jpg
didnt wana look, but found myself deep
ebfatz
Couldn't get away with printing a pic like that these days.
wato20
07-09-12, 11:57 AM
Now I Know - Lakefront Property
Lake Titicaca, located in the Andes between Peru and Bolivia, is South America's largest freshwater lake and a punchline for English-speaking grammar school students around the world. At an elevation of about 3,800 feet, it is considered by many to be the world's highest navigable lake, although some smaller lakes are navigable by small commercial ships.
It is also home to roughly four dozen floating, inhabited islands made of nothing more than reeds, as seen below.
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The islands are the creation of a group of people known as the Uros, whose history dates back to pre-Incan times. They live primarily on the Peruvian coast of the lake and on the islands they have created. The island (and their huts and boats) are made up of totora reeds, a tall, thick, grass-like plant which grows in the marshland there. When dried, totora reeds can be weaved together to create a rope-like material which holds up well when placed in water -- and can act as a base for an island, the structure of a boat, or even the walls of home. An island of totora reeds can lasts twenty to thirty years. As the totora's strength wanes, the Uru simply add more to the island's floor.
The reason for the floating islands has been lost to antiquity, but the most common belief is that they are defensive structures intended to protect the Uru from invading Incans. The Incans would enslave any Uru they captured, so the Uru may have built the islands either as lookout stations (there is a watchtower on one of the larger islands) or perhaps as a place to make a safe retreat. Today, there is no such need -- the area is part of Peru's Titicaca National Reserve, and the Uros' homes and culture are protected under that umbrella. (Their language and many of their traditions have been lost for centuries, due to intermarriage with another group in the area called the Aymara.)
Today, about ten Uru families live on each island. The unique character and composition of the islands has allowed for close living even when families quarrel. There's an easy solution. As the Financial Times notes (http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/196de0ee-06f7-11e1-90de-00144feabdc0.html#axzz1dD5bzYTK), "should there be disputes between families living on the same island it is easy to cut a single home off and float it to another island."
More photos of the Uru and their islands can be found here (http://behm.lu/blog/en/news/ruta-panamericana-news/the-uru-and-their-floating-islands/). (Mental)
Bonus fact:
Totora grows in two places. It is native to Peru but also is found at Easter Island, 2,600 miles away. Easter Island, home of the well-known rock sculptures known as moai (these (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Moai_Rano_raraku.jpg)), is one of the most remote inhabited islands in the world. Early researchers believed that the presence of totora explained how people got there; as the thesis went, early South Americans made boats of dried totora reeds and set into the Pacific, landing on the island and then cultivating more totora there. But that thesis is almost certainly untrue. According to Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_Island#Ecology), a pollen analysis of the island shows that the totora has been on the island for 30,000 years, and was most likely brought there by migrating birds.
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Now I Know - Feeling Buzzed
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You're sitting at your desk, standing in the kitchen, watching TV, etc. All of a sudden, your cell phone vibrates, informing you that you have a new text message, phone call, or email. You reach into your pocket and check, only to find no such message -- and, perhaps, that your phone is not even in your pocket in the first place. The vibration felt real, but maybe it wasn't. Regardless, it was not caused by your cell phone.
If this has happened to you, rest assured you are not alone.
In 2010, a team of researchers from Baystate Medical Center in Springfield, Massachusetts asked 232 of their colleagues to answer a questionnaire about phantom vibrations from their cell phone (or, more correctly, from the area where their cell phones usually are). Of the 176 who responded, 115 -- 69% -- stated that yes, they experienced the disconcerting fake alerts like the type described above. The researcher's plain-as-day conclusion (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21159761): "Phantom vibration syndrome is common among those who use electronic devices."
What causes it? There are a lot of theories. Discovery News (http://news.discovery.com/tech/phantom-vibration-syndrome-120710.html) suggested that "[i]t could be because cell phones produce electrical signals that transmit the feeling of vibration directly to a person's nerves or simply because of the mental anticipation of alerts." Mental Floss explains (http://www.mentalfloss.com/blogs/archives/130633) how the first of the two theories would work, likening it to "a physical stimulation similar to what happens when your phone is near a speaker and you hear that weird buzzing sound as it does a 'hand shake' with a cell tower and gives off some electromagnetic interference." And the anticipation aspect is not dissimilar from any other sort of psychological conditioning -- we are so used to our phones vibrating that our brains make it feel like it is happening when we "want," not when it actually does.
There's some newer evidence suggesting that it's all in our heads. In July of 2012, researchers published a study (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563212000799) on the phantom vibration phenomenon after speaking with undergraduate students about the fake shakes. The vast majority experienced the vibrations, but, as Slate (http://www.slate.com/blogs/future_tense/2012/07/11/phantom_cellphone_vibrations_you_re_not_the_only_o ne_who_feels_them.html) explains, the study found that extroverts and neurotics had it happen more often than the others:
Extroverts, the theory goes, check their phones a lot because keeping in touch with friends is a big part of their lives. Neurotics, meanwhile, worry a lot about the status of their relationships—so while they may not get as many text messages, they care a lot about what they say.
In any event, most researchers think that the fake vibrations are harmless (albeit annoying) -- although there has been very little research into that, too.
Bonus fact:
The 1969 Apollo 11 moon landing is a favorite of conspiracy theorists who assert that the landing was faked, and rather filmed on a sound stage. In September 2002, one such conspiracy theorist physically accosted the second man on the moon, Buzz Aldrin (whose mother's maiden name was Moon!), demanding he swear upon a Bible (that the conspiracy theorist brought with him) that the landing was faked. Instead, Aldrin punched the guy. (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/2272321.stm) Authorities declined to press charges against Aldrin.
http://www.volvoblog.us/wp-content/upload/buzz-aldrin-on-the-moon.jpg
a few times to me..
thought it was always my phone playing up.
All in my head..
(See what i did there)
wato20
Now I Know - Dennis the Coincidence
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Dennis the Menace, pictured above, is a comic strip which was first published in the United States on March 12, 1951. It features the protagonist, Dennis Mitchell, and his penchant for causing trouble in ways both hilarious and disconcerting -- and often with his dog, Ruff. Dennis the Menace has been in production for the half-century since its debut, and the franchise has expanded well outside of just paper-and-ink comics. There was a live action television series and three different animated ones; a few Dennis the Menace movies; a video game; and even a playground/park (http://www.yelp.com/biz/dennis-the-menace-park-monterey-2). To those of us in the United States, the blond kid with the red overalls covering a striped shirt is a cultural icon.
And to those in the UK, he's an accidental imposter.
Dennis the Menace, pictured below, is a comic strip which was first published in the United Kingdom on March 17, 1951, five days after the U.S. version, in the Beano, a children's comic book. The British Dennis is very similar to his American pseudo-cousin. He has a similar itch for mischief (although with somewhat of a malevolent bent) and, of course, the sidekick dog -- in his case, it's Gnasher, not Ruff. This Dennis has also made its way into television, movies, and (as a character) in a video game -- and appeared as a regular character at a theme park (http://i.imgur.com/Y3hdb.jpg). (Close enough.) In the UK, he, too, is a cultural icon. But the other similarities end at the striped shirt -- the UK Dennis doesn't wear overalls and has black hair.
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So who copied whom? Most likely, neither Dennis is inspired by the other -- it's simply an odd coincidence.
The U.S. Dennis was created by cartoonist Hank Ketcham. Ketcham used his own family as inspiration for the strip -- his real-life son's name was Dennis and the fictional Dennis Mitchell's parents were Henry and Alice. Hank's real first name was Henry and Alice was his first wife and mother of the real Dennis. (Alice died in 1959 due to a drug overdose.) According to the New York Times (http://www.nytimes.com/2001/06/02/arts/hank-ketcham-father-of-dennis-the-menace-dies-at-81.html) in Ketcham's obituary:
Mr. Ketcham was pursuing a career as a freelance cartoonist in October 1950, when his first wife, the former Alice Mahar, burst into his studio to complain that their 4-year-old, Dennis, who was supposed to be napping, had instead wrecked his bedroom. ''Your son is a menace,'' she shouted.
The UK Dennis, on the other hand, has a less personal history -- he is the byproduct of a doodle by the then-publisher of the Beano, Ian Chisholm, during a discussion with the strip's eventual artist, David Law. However, there is one major salient fact which demonstrates that the British Menace is not a copy of the American one. While it appeared in the issue of the Beano dated March 17th, the publication went to press at least ten days before that date, meaning that the UK comic was drawn and published without any way of knowing about the American comic.
While this coincidence is almost certainly innocent, it has led to some problems. In 1993, the U.S. franchise came out with a movie, titled "Dennis the Menace" in most of the English-speaking world, but, because of intellectual property questions (as well as confusion generally), the title was shorted to merely "Dennis" in the UK.
And currently, the British Dennis the Menace strip goes instead by the title Dennis and Gnasher, a title originally adopted for non-UK publications as to avoid confusion with the American comic. But the protagonist, is still known as Dennis the Menace.
Bonus fact:
The U.S. Dennis is a blond, not a blonde. Per Merriam-Webster (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/blond), "Blond" refers to the color, generally, but it is also used to refer to a man with hair of that color. When referring to a woman with blond hair, it is acceptable -- albeit sometimes regarded as sexist, per Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blonde#cite_ref-AHBEU_4-0) -- to use "blonde," with an "e" at the end.
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Now I Know - Naked at Harvard and Yale
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The following people are -- or, perhaps more correctly, were -- members of an elite and unique club: President George H.W. Bush, Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton, journalists Bob Woodward and Diane Sawyer, actress Meryl Streep, and television executive Brandon Tartikoff. Yes, each was (or is) a titan in his or her field. And each one is probably a household name, or close to it. But they have one other thing in common.
Most likely, each of the above once posed nude.
Starting in the 1940s, a group of upper-echelon colleges and universities in the northeast United States ran a program originally aimed to study the human posture. These schools -- Harvard, Mount Holyoke, Princeton, Radcliffe (before it became part of Harvard), Smith, Swarthmore, Vassar, Wellesley, and Yale -- were all members of the Ivy League or the Seven Sisters, each a group of well-regarded institutions of higher learning. A researcher named William H. Sheldon convinced these schools to compel incoming freshman into posing nude for his photographer, under the pretense of studying things like scoliosis and rickets. But in reality, Sheldon was studying something else, a theory he called "constitutional psychology," or the correlation between a person's body shape and their intelligence.
Body types, Sheldon believe, could show more than just a person's physical traits. He developed three categories of body types, which he coined "somatotypes," each of which he believed had different, distinct psychological traits including differences in intelligence. While the basis for this theory was not entirely ahistoric -- philosophers dating back to ancient Greece (notably Plato) had noted a fundamental difference in body types -- the association with intelligence was more junk than science; as the New York Times noted (http://www.nytimes.com/1995/01/21/us/nude-photos-are-sealed-at-smithsonian.html), "his work has long been dismissed by most scientists as quackery." Another New York Times (http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/12/02/last-nude-column-for-now-at-least/) writer noted that there was a racial bias built into Sheldon's work, as Sheldon believed that "Negro and Hispanic brains stop developing early."
Most of the colleges destroyed most of the photos soon after the study ended. Unfortunately, many of the photos survived into the 1990s, when the Times story hit. The photos had made their way to the Smithsonian which, in response to the Times article, sealed the archive from public viewing (http://www.nytimes.com/1995/01/21/us/nude-photos-are-sealed-at-smithsonian.html) (but made it available to researchers). A week or so later, the Smithsonian shredded photos from Yale students, (http://www.nytimes.com/1995/01/29/us/nude-photos-of-yale-graduates-are-shredded.html) on request from that university, and noted that it would do the same for other schools which so requested. To date, it is unclear if any of them have done so.
Bonus fact:
In 1968, Paramount Pictures released an adaptation of Romeo and Juliet starring Leonard Whiting as Romeo and Olivia Hussey as Juliet. Hussey, then age 15, appeared nude in the film; she was the only actor or actress to do so. Because of the nude scene, children under the age of 18 were not allowed to attend the premiere of the movie in London. According to her IMDb biography, (http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0001377/bio)this ban included Hussey, who would have only been exposed to her own image.
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Now I Know - The Agony of the Feet
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Flip-flops are popular summertime footwear with an onomatopoeic name derived from the sound they make when one walks wearing them. And beyond that sound, there is not a lot to them. Each pair is nothing more than a two pieces of shoe soles held in place on the appropriate foot by a typically y-shaped strap anchored between the first and second toe. Their simplicity is, probably, their greatest appeal.
And also the reason why the cause tens of millions of dollars in injuries each year -- in the UK alone.
In 2010, the UK's Daily Mail reported (http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2008-06-01-flip-flops-study_N.htm) that England's National Health Service (NHS) attributed roughly 200,000 doctors and emergency room visits to injuries "caused by wearing [flip-flops]." The total cost of those visits? 40 million pounds, or about $63.5 million. While that number includes all sorts of injuries not directly related to foot care, it speaks volumes to the size of the potential ills caused by the shoes.
In 2008, a doctoral student in biomechanics at Auburn University conducted a study (http://education.auburn.edu/news/2008/june/flipflop.html) using 39 college-age men and women. The participants in the study were asked to walk across a board -- twice -- which measured vertical force while a camera monitored their foot and leg movements. One of the two treks was made using flip-flops; the other was while wearing "traditional athletic shoes." As reported by USA Today (http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2008-06-01-flip-flops-study_N.htm), the study found that "[w]hen participants [in the study] wore flip-flops, they took shorter strides and their heels hit the ground with less vertical force than when they wore their sneakers." This change in the wearer's gait can lead to foot and lower leg pain. Further, the study found that while wearing the flip-flops, participants "did not bring their toes up as much" as they typically would, perhaps because the toes were busy gripping the flip-flops. A review of the same study by CNN noted that (http://edition.cnn.com/2010/HEALTH/08/06/health.concern.flip.flops/index.html) this "seemed to result in problems from the foot up into the hips." Flip-flop use has been linked to sprained ankles, pronation (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronation#Pronation_of_the_foot) and misalignment of the foot and legs, flat feet, tendonitis, blisters, and more.
And those in the know practice what they preach. The executive director of the U.S.-based Institute for Preventative Foot Health (http://www.ipfh.org/), Bob Thompson, told CNN (in a separate story two years later) that flip-flops are so bad for your feet that he does not own a single pair. (http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/18/health/flip-flops-hurting-feet/index.html)
Bonus fact:
Flip-flops have a history dating back to ancient Egypt, but the ones commonly worn in the U.S. and Europe are probably originally from Japan. Per Wikipedia: "The modern flip-flop descends from the Japanese zōri, which became popular after World War II when soldiers returning to the United States brought them back." Zori were often considered formalwear for Japanese women of the time.
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Now I Know - Embargo Elixir
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Fanta, the fruity flavored soda, is sold in more than fifty countries. There are nearly 100 different flavors available, ranging from Lychee (http://i.imgur.com/RJgEB.png) (in Cambodia and formerly in Thailand) and Lactic White Grape (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Taiwanfantawhitegrape.jpg) (Taiwan) to Watermelon Splash (http://i.imgur.com/9GDAt.jpg) (parts unknown) and something called Shokata (http://i.imgur.com/2axAr.jpg) (Maldives). Its original flavor, created in 1940, was orange and for years, was only available in Europe. But it has taken the world by storm since.
And it probably would not have happened but for a Nazi embargo.
Coca-Cola, which now owns Fanta, had a large bottling and distribution business in Germany in the 1930s. But it was soon at risk. Few tactics were ruled out as Europe entered into war in the late 1930s, and economic restrictions were certainly among those used. Germany disallowed the importation of goods from Western Europe, and the Coca-Cola plants were unable to import the ingredients used to make the world-famous cola. So Max Keith, a German-born executive in charge of Coke's German footprint, made due with what was available. Pickings were slim. According to Snopes (http://www.snopes.com/cokelore/fanta.asp), Keith took whatever he could get -- apple fibers left over from cider making; whey, a cheese byproduct; beet sugar (as cane sugar was highly rationed); and certainly a litany of other things which us Westerners would be horrified to know our grandparents probably imbibed. (According to Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanta#History), Keith later called the ingredients the "leftovers of the leftovers.")
Despite the rank poor ingredients, the drink was, somehow, popular. Some suggest that the fact that Fanta was sweet was enough, as bakers and housewives used it as a sugar substitute due to the above-mentioned rations. Others simply believed the beverage tasted good -- a fruity and bubbly escape from a world at war. In any event, the soft drink -- and therefore, Coca-Cola's German infrastructure -- survived the war.
And the world has a hundred or so fruity flavors to thank for it.
Bonus fact:
Joseph Aloisius Ratzinger was born in Germany in 1927 and turned 13 years old in 1940 -- and, therefore, came of age in the early days of Fanta. Now known better as Pope Benedict XVI, Ratzinger's love of the orange soda perseveres. In 2008, the Daily Mail reported (http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/uk-world-news/pope-is-secret-fanta-fan-967929) that the Pope drinks four cans of Fanta a day.
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Now I Know - Tastes Great, Can't Buy It
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Ask a community of beer aficionados which beer is the best, and chances are they're not going to shoot back with Pabst Blue Ribbon or Milwaukee's Best. Ask BeerAdvocate.com and you'll get a top two of Pliny the Younger, a Russian brew, or Westvleteren 12. Go to RateBeer.com (http://www.ratebeer.com/RateBeerBest/bestbeers_012012.asp) and you'll see a similar name in that top spot, as Westvleteren 12 makes a repeat appearance. (Pliny the Younger comes it at #7.) Both rating sites give Westvleteran a 100 (http://beeradvocate.com/beer/profile/313/1545), their highest possible scores.
But buying a bottle of Westvleteren 12? That's a bit tricky.
The Belgian municipality of Vleteren is in the northwestern part of the country, closer to both the North Sea and the French border than it is from Brussels. (Here's a map. (https://maps.google.com/maps?q=50.933333,2.733333&hl=en&ll=50.930738,2.735596&spn=2.018394,4.42749&sll=50.909961,2.664185&sspn=2.019295,4.42749&t=m&z=8)) Roughly 3,500 Belgians live in the area, about two dozen of whom are Trappists, an order of monks, who live at St. Sixtus' Abbey. Ten of these monks, with the help of three secular employees, make Westvleteren 12 (the yellow-capped bottle pictured above) and two other types of beer. But buying Westveletern 12 is hard because the monks produce so little of it. The monks brew beer for only about 10 weeks a year, eschewing any desire to increase production. And they produce only 125,000 gallons (475,000 liters) of beer per year across all three beer types. That results in about 15,000 to 25,000 cases of Westvleteren 12.
The brewery, which has been around in some capacity since 1838 (but was upgraded two decades ago), was originally established to fund the construction and completion of the abbey itself. According to the Independent (http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/monks-who-make-worlds-best-beer-pray-for-quiet-life-502172.html), the monks started brewing beer because "the workers who built the monastery were entitled to two glasses of beer a day," and crafting it themselves seemed like a good way to pay the bills. Today, the brewery is the main source of revenue for the Trappist monks at St. Sixtus'. But, given the limited production of the beer, the brewery is obviously not a traditional business. This is by design. As the Father Abbot stated when the new brewery opened in 1992 (as recapped on the Abbey's website (http://www.sintsixtus.be/eng/brouwen.htm)):
"This must be strange for business people and difficult to understand that we do not exploit our commercial assets as much as we can. We are no brewers. We are monks. We brew beer to be able to afford being monks."
The monks sell 24 bottle cases of the beer for about $35, or $1.50 a bottle. The low price point combined with the scarcity drives the first-come, first-served demand to a fever pitch. Customers can find out when the beer goes on sale by calling a hotline colloquially referred to as the "beer phone," but, as USA Today (http://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/food/2005-10-03-beer-usat_x.htm) reports, the lines get crazy, and quickly:
On the first day the beer goes on sale, cars start lining up at the abbey at 5:15 a.m., says Brother Joris. The gates open at 10 a.m., and buyers are limited to two cases per car. "Not to be resold" is stamped on the receipts, but customers regularly disregard the monks' wish, and the coveted beer is exported, unlabeled and without permission, to America and elsewhere.
And reselling is a very profitable endeavor. The beer can easily fetch prices north of $15 per bottle, ten times what the monks themselves sell it at. The monks have tried to limit resellers -- per the Wall Street Journal (http://online.wsj.com/article/SB119628388037006909.html), often it takes nothing more than an email asking resellers to cease doing so -- but there are always some out there unwilling to cooperate. One site, BelgianBeer.com, currently resells the bottles at $40 a pop (http://shop.belgianshop.com/acatalog/Trappist_beers.html#aBB22003), for example.
Better than waiting in line, at least.
Bonus fact:
A fraternity is not a monastery. That may seem obvious, but it was the topic of a recent case in Illinois. A Chicago homeowner wanted to rent his house to the Loyola University chapter of the Sigma Chi fraternity, but area zoning laws disallowed such a rental. There was an exception available, however, for monasteries, convents, and the like. The homeowner brought an action against the city claiming that the fraternity members took an oath -- "in the Service of God and Man" -- and were, therefore, a religious group analogous to monks in a monastery. The court (decision here, pdf (http://www.courthousenews.com/2012/09/14/fraternity.pdf), via Volokh Conspiracy (http://www.volokh.com/2012/09/16/a-fraternity-is-not-a-monastery/)) disagreed.
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Now I Know - The Last Straw
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The rule of thumb, in the United States at least, is that one does not wear white after Labor Day. That tradition dates back to the 1800s but, as mental_floss (http://www.mentalfloss.com/blogs/archives/140464)explains, the origins of it are definitively known. But it is not the only odd fashion tradition in the United States. In the early 1900s, wearing another piece of clothing verboten after the close of summer: straw hats.
And in one case, this informal ban led, dramatically, to violence.
In the mid-1800s, a portion of lower Manhattan then known as the Five Points became a breeding ground for organized crime and slums. The working-class gangs -- portrayed in fiction in the movie Gangs of New York -- operated outside and often above the law, and would later become the breeding grounds for famous Prohibition-era crime bosses such as Al Capone in their early days as gangsters. And some of their criminal activity was just plain weird -- idle maliciousness more than anything else. The best example of this may be the Straw Hat Riots of 1922.
For years, the fashion culture dictated that men wear hats. But not all hats were acceptable at all times. After September 15th, straw hats were simply not to be worn. Why is anyone's guess, and why that date in particular doubly so. Regardless, the date permeated the culture, creeping forward from what appears to be an original "last day" of September 1st. As noted by Put This On (http://putthison.com/post/31464781718/on-this-day-in-history-this-saturday-september), many newspapers printed warnings about the informal deadline. For example, on September 14, 1912, the Lawrence (Kansas) Daily Journal-World (http://www2.ljworld.com/news/2012/sep/14/100-years-ago-reminder-fashion-conscious-men-no-st/)warned men that "the man who ventures out on the streets after tonight with a straw hat on is in danger of being hauled before the bar of judgment and made to explain his conduct." It is not likely that many (if any) men actually were imprisoned for wearing straw hats toward the end of September, but some certainly took the restrictions seriously.
On September 13, 1922, some gang members from the Five Points area decided to get a head start on the straw hat ban. They went to a local factory, took the straw hats from workers there, and smashed them. Then they took aim at dock workers on the East River (separating Manhattan from Brooklyn), but unlike the factory workers, the dock workers fought back. The ensuing riot was so bad that traffic over the Manhattan Bridge came to a halt until police arrived. As the New York Times reported (http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=F30C13F73B5D1A7A93C6A81782D85F468285F9) the next day, hat-smashers were threatened with arrest:
The inalienable right of a man to wear a straw hat in a snowstorm, if he so desires, is to be upheld in this city by both police and the Magistrates, and a warning was sent to all straw hat smashers last night that jail terms on assault charges awaited them if they started any such carnival today [September 14th].
They continued nonetheless. Armed with sticks, often adorned with nails, the rioters -- perhaps numbering as many as 1,000, per an Associated Press repor (http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OaoxAAAAIBAJ&sjid=bNwFAAAAIBAJ&pg=5556,1489569&dq=straw-hat+riot&hl=en)t -- mashed more and more hats, well outpacing any police intervention. (It is likely that the first police on the scene were off-duty officers who were, at first, victims -- men who had their straw hats destroyed by rioters.) It took police until the 15th to quell the riots.
Straw hat riots would return in subsequent Septembers for a few years, even claiming the life of a straw hat-clad man who tried to defend his hat for some reason. Over time, the social requirement that men don hats relaxed, and the smashing habit went away, too.
Bonus fact:
Straw hats may not be the only headgear out there which causes pandemonium. In 1797, an English haberdasher by the name of John Hetherington took to wearing an early version of the top hat -- with ridiculous results. According to Hetherington's Wikipedia entry (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hetherington), citing Hatters Gazette, the silk band on the hat was "calculated to frighten timid people" and resulted in exactly that ill: "several women fainted at the unusual sight, while children screamed, dogs yelped and a younger son of Cordwainer Thomas was thrown down by the crowd which collected and had his right arm broke." For his "crime," Hetherington was charged with breach of the peace and inciting a riot, and released on a bond of 500 pounds.
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Now I Know - Swing and a Miss
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When World War II came to America, baseball was one of the early victims. Many Major League players were in their early 20s and, therefore, subject to the draft. Ted Williams, for example, missed three seasons -- 1943 to 1945 -- due to military service. Then commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis wrote to President Franklin Delano Roosevelt to ask if the league should suspend operations altogether; FDR wrote a famous letter (here) (http://www.baseball-almanac.com/prz_lfr2.shtml)giving the league the "green light" to continue playing. But with rosters tight, baseball had to find other avenues to stay in the public eye. In 1944, the Cincinnati Reds brought a 15 year old kid (http://www.baseball-reference.com/players/n/nuxhajo01.shtml) in to pitch (who, in the Reds' defense, would later have a lengthy career). And most notably, the owner of the Cubs, Philip K. Wrigley (of chewing gum fame) started the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League in 1943.
While many know about the AAGPBL due to the 1992 movie A League of Their Own, few realize that women played professional, minor league baseball until 1931. That year, a young woman named Jackie Mitchell ended women's hopes of breaking into the big leagues. How?
By striking out Babe Ruth. And, for good measure, she struck out Lou Gehrig too.
Ruth and Gehrig (pictured center and right, respectively, above) are widely regarded as two of the best batters in baseball history. Baseball Reference (http://www.baseball-reference.com/friv/ratings.cgi#ratings) rates Ruth as the top batter of all time and places Gehrig number 11, and a casual poll of baseball fans would certainly yield similar results. In 1931, Ruth, then 36 years old and on the downside of his career, led the league in home runs with 46 -- but it was a tie. The other guy to also hit 46 homers was Gehrig, a 28 year old first baseman, and Ruth's teammate on the New York Yankees.
In 1931, Jackie Mitchell (pictured left, above) was a 17 year old pitcher for the Chattanooga Lookouts, an AA team (the second best level of minor league teams) comprised almost entirely of men -- Mitchell was an exception. On April 2nd of that year, the Lookouts played the Yankees in a pre-season exhibition. The Yankees got out to a great start, getting a double and a single from the first two batters, respectively. With Ruth coming up to the plate, the Lookouts manager made a quick call to the bullpen, bringing in Mitchell.
Mitchell was no stranger to pitching. Growing up, her next door neighbor was a man named Dazzy Vance, a future Hall of Fame pitcher in his own right. Vance taught Mitchell how to pitch and, despite her physical disadvantages against much larger and more experienced male ballplayers, Mitchell was able to hold her own. She struck out Ruth on four pitches -- a ball, two swinging strikes, and then a called third strike -- and then followed up by getting three swinging strikes against Gehrig. This was a rare feat for an All-Star caliber Major League pitcher to pull off, and Mitchell was a high school aged girl. (Nevertheless, the Yankees won, 14-4.)
While modern commissioners would probably note such an occurrence with wide-eyed optimism for an egalitarian future, then-commissioner Landis did the exact opposite. As noted by mental_floss (via CNN) (http://edition.cnn.com/2009/LIVING/worklife/05/27/mf.women.who.beat.guys/index.html), "Landis was sufficiently threatened by the tiny female dynamo that he had her contract voided, stating that baseball was 'too strenuous' for women." And that was a harbinger of things to come. In June of 1952, MLB officially barred its teams (and their minor league affiliates) from signing women to contracts, a ban which lasted until 1992, when the White Sox drafted a pitcher named Carey Schueler -- the daughter of the team's general manager.
To date, no women have played in the Major Leagues.
Bonus fact:
While women baseball players have not made their way to the Major League field, they've bested their male counterparts at the box office. According to Box Office Mojo (http://boxofficemojo.com/genres/chart/?id=baseball.htm), A League of Their Own is the top grossing baseball movie ever, with a total domestic take of over $107 million. The movie easily outpaces the second-highest grossing baseball movie, Moneyball, which has earned just over $75 million to date to go with its six Academy Award nominations.
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Now I Know - M�nchausen by Internet
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On August 10, 2000, the New York Times ran an article (here (http://www.nytimes.com/library/tech/00/08/circuits/articles/10dorm.html)) looking into a new item that college kids were bringing to campus with them -- computers. Computers, the Times noted, were fast becoming the most important item on a would-be freshman's checklist -- the machines were replacing stereos (this was the before iPods and smart phones), answering machines, and to some degree, even televisions. As part of the article, the Times interviewed, by phone, a high school senior named Kaycee Swenson, who was active on an early social network (under the name Kaycee Nicole, with Nicole being her middle name) called CollegeClub.com:
Kaycee Swenson, a high school senior in Wichita, Kan., who took several courses at her local college last year, said she talked to people online every day, most of whom were not at her campus. But she said she also hung out with friends in the physical world, listening to music and playing basketball. "You have to balance it," she said.
Kaycee was an easy choice for the Times to include in its profile -- she was ahead of the curve, living an active life online. Beyond her activity on CollegeClub.com, Kaycee was an early blogger. At around the same time the Times article hit, she told an online friend, Randall van der Woning, that she was a leukemia survivor. Soon after, the cancer came back, and van der Woning, even further ahead of the curve, set her up with a blog (lost to time) so she could document her battle with leukemia.
For months, Kaycee -- with the help of her mother Debbie -- told her story via a series of typically daily blog posts. Over the course of about two years, she amassed "millions" of visitors to her site, per the Guardian (http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2001/may/28/internetnews.mondaymediasection). She received untold numbers of get well cards from well-wishers, and spent time talking to online friends over the phone (including talking to van der Woning a number of times). But on May 15, 2001, Kaycee's battle with leukemia officially ended. That day, Debbie Swenson, in tears, called van der Woning to tell him that her daughter had died, unexpectedly from a ruptured aneurysm, the day before. Kaycee Nicole, as she was known online, would not make it to college after all.
But, as it turns out, she wouldn't have anyway. Because Kaycee Nicole never had cancer. Or even a computer. Kaycee Nicole never existed -- she was a figment of her mother's imagination, carried out online.
A few days after Kaycee's final blog post hit the Web, the skepticism followed, as odd inconsistencies came to light. Followers of Kaycee's plight, many using the community weblog MetaFilter, wanted to send condolence cards, flowers, etc., to her family, but Debbie informed them that there was no valid address to send stuff to. This was particularly strange because Kaycee was able to receive (and in fact, responded to) mail sent to her before her death. The MetaFilter community started piecing together more details in a discussion thread (http://www.metafilter.com/7819/Is-it-possible-that-Kaycee-did-not-exist#84429) and other online communities and publications joined in. Some protested, most notably van der Woning, who emphatically asked the community to stop (http://www.metafilter.com/7819/Is-it-possible-that-Kaycee-did-not-exist#84451) and assured the community Kaycee was real. But momentum had taken over.
Collectively, they noted that Debbie told the world that Kaycee was cremated and her memorial service came and went, both within just two or three days after her apparent death. While many had spoken to Kaycee over the phone, no one could find one of her followers who had ever met her in person. And the above-quoted Times article provided another clue -- her last name. Except for that article, Kaycee was only known by her online moniker of Kaycee Nicole, never "Kaycee Swenson."
Emboldened, the Kaycee Nicole skeptics worked together in hopes of finding something definitive. They succeeded. A now-defunct FAQ (archived here (http://web.archive.org/web/20010629212706/http://rootnode.org/article.php?sid=26)) of the Kaycee Nicole hoax summed up the critical piece of evidence:
[A] live chat room for discussing developments was set up. Work was very collaborative and productive in this environment. Additional Kaycee web pages were found. These pages had more photos. One of these photos clearly showed the school mascot and that Kaycee was #10 on the basketball team. By putting together the mascot in the photo with the city the Swensons were originally from, the school where the photos originated was tracked down. A women's basketball roster for the school in 1999 listed #10 as Julie . Someone immediately typed the full name into google, and the first link returned was quite eerie. It was Julie's player profile from the college she attends. And clear as day was a picture of "Kaycee Nicole" staring back from the screen.
Soon after, Debbie Swenson came clean. On May 19th, she called van der Woning and admitted that the entire story was a lie. Kaycee had been created years earlier by her daughter, and when Debbie found out, instead of shutting down the fake child's account, she adopted it as her own. Massive outrage ensued and van der Woning, who was perhaps the greatest victim of the duping, deleted Kaycee's blog. The FBI briefly investigated (http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/2001-05-31-internet-hoax-fbi.htm) the matter, but concluded that "it would hard to prove that a crime had occurred."
In the end, Debbie Swenson explained that she crafted Kaycee out of three people she had met, each of whom died from cancer. But she never explained why she created this fake daughter many others grew to care for.
Bonus fact:
The history of the Internet is filled with hoaxes, but the so-called "Microsoft Hoax" is widely regarded to be the first highly successful one. In 1994, a fake Associated Press story travelled through the tubes, asserting that Microsoft (which was a few years from being on the wrong end of anti-trust litigation (http://seattletimes.com/html/microsoftpri0/2015034153_timeline_microsofts_antitrust_history.h tml)) was acquiring a controlling stake in the Catholic Church. The article, available here, (http://www.museumofhoaxes.com/msft.html) argued that the combined "company" would be able to "make religion easier and more fun for a broader range of people," according to a faux quote from Bill Gates. Due to calls from confused consumers, Microsoft issued a formal statement denying the merger on December 16, 1994.
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http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1584016/
Young filmmakers document their colleague's budding online friendship with a young woman and her family which leads to an unexpected series of discoveries.
wato20
Now I Know - Leopards and Tigers and Corbetts
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In the late 1800s, a Bengal tiger known as the Champawat Tiger was terrorizing Nepal. While tigers, typically, do not attack people unprovoked, the Champawat Tiger was the grand exception to this rule of thumb. Before the century was out, this particular tiger would kill at least 200 people. The Nepalese army drove it out of the country and into what is present-day India, where it continued on its rampage, killing at least another 200. Together, the Champawat Tiger was responsible for 430 known deaths.
In the end, the Champawat Tiger met its match -- a man named Jim Corbett, pictured above, standing over the aforementioned tiger. Corbett was not simply lucky, though. Corbett was a specialist -- the guy you called when you needed to kill a man-eating tiger or leopard.
The Nepal/India region of the late-1800s/early-1900s was fertile ground for man-eating cats. The Champawat Tiger was the most successful in that regard -- her 430 kills is regarded as a record. But she was not alone. Take, for example, the Leopard of Panar. After feasting for years on the corpses of people struck by various epidemics, the Panar Leopard found its food supply wane as those epidemics passed. So it began to hunt -- for people. It is credited with killing roughly 400 people in the early 20th century in Northern India. Similarly, the Rudraprayag Leopard menaced a roughly 25 mile (40 km) path between the Indian villages of Kedarnath and Badrinath, each a home to holy shrines to Hindus. And similarly, he is believed to have developed the taste for human flesh due to the prevalance of corpses in and around his habitat.
Like the Champawat Tiger, these two leopards met their fate at the hands of Corbett. Add a couple dozen other man-eaters to his count, and Corbett is credited with eliminating 33 tigers and leopards who, combined, killed over 1,200 people over the course of 30 or so years.
Corbett's methods were robust, a biproduct of his unique mix of skills. He was familiar with navigating the jungles of India and Nepal from a young age, being born and coming of age in the region. He had decades of experience hunting tigers -- he worked with an illegal poacher as a teen. And he was a marksman to boot. As Damn Interesting describes (http://www.damninteresting.com/a-large-hearted-gentleman/), these skills, combined, allowed him to succeed where all others failed:
After months of stalking, Corbett marked one of the leopard’s favorite trails, set a goat as bait, and climbed into a mango tree. There Corbett spent ten nights, with only the anxious murmurs of the landscape hinting at the leopard’s proximity. Just before midnight on the eleventh evening, he heard the distinct clamor of the goat’s bell, and snapped on his weak flashlight. The beam caught a flash of pale fur, and a single shot rang out from the mango tree. The leopard disappeared into the gloom. Five hours later, when the clouds broke, Corbett left the safety of his tree to investigate. There in the silver light of the moon, he found the man-eating Rudraprayag Leopard dead.
Corbett believed that the tigers and leopards only attacked people as a last resort. The animals he killed all had one thing in common -- they were significantly injured, and likely unable hunt their typical prey. The Champawat Tiger, for example, had two broken canine teeth. The Rudraprayag Leopard exhibited similar problems, as old age and gum disease had robbed it of a few teeth as well. Another tiger, known as the Chowgarh Tigress, had many undissolved porcupine quills in her leg, causing muscle and bone decay. In each case, these felines had to go after easier targets -- and people, without any natural defense from tigers, were as good of a target as any.
To his credit, Corbett acted on this belief in later years. He devoted the end of his life to documenting the lives of the animals he previously hunted -- the non-man-eating ones, at least -- via photography, and helped establish a nature preserve in the region. He passed away in 1955 and, two years later, the nature preserve whose creation he spearheaded was renamed after him.
Bonus fact:
According to the World Wildlife Fund (http://worldwildlife.org/species/tiger), there are only about 3,200 tigers in the wild today, worldwide. As noted by National Geographic (http://newswatch.nationalgeographic.com/2010/10/21/americas_5000_backyard_tigers/), as recently as 2005, there may be as many as 5,000 tigers living in captivity in the U.S., and most are kept as pets -- "by private individuals, not zoos." Note that in many cases, private ownership of tigers is not illegal. More than half of the U.S states -- 31 of them (http://www.bornfreeusa.org/b4a2_exotic_animals_summary.php) -- allow private citizens to keep wild animals as pets (and only 15 of those require that the tiger owner obtain license to do so).
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| Napoleon |
Which English author wrote many books in his writing career including The Ministry of Fear in 1943, The Third Man in 1949 and The Honorary Consul in 1973 ? | Now I Know [Archive] - CM 01/02 Website
Now I Know - Turning off Niagara Falls
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Niagara Falls is a set of three waterfalls on the United States/Canada border. Collectively, they have the highest flow rate of any waterfall in the world, with over 2,400 cubic meters (or about 600,000 gallons) of water going over the edge every second. Horseshoe Falls, pictured right in the above photograph, is the largest of the three, while American Falls and the relatively small Bridal Veils Falls are the ones on the left. (Bridal Falls is the smaller, somewhat isolated waterfall to the right of the larger American Falls.) In the late 1960s, American Falls was exhibiting some rock building at its base, caused by decades if not centuries or millennia of rockslides. Officials were concerned that a rock buildup could cause American Falls to turn into rapids, as the upper shelf's floor tumbled below. But surveying the erosion was impossible given the massive amount of water flowing over the edge every second. So the U.S. Army Corp of Engineers needed a work-around.
Their solution? Shut off American Falls.
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American Falls doesn't have an "off" switch, of course, so the task force did the next best thing, and built a dam upstream of the falls, diverting the water toward Canada and ultimately to Horseshoe Falls. As pictured above (via this io9.com article), American Falls was bone dry. In was so dry, in fact, that the engineering team needed to pipe water back into the falls -- albeit only a little bit -- in order to keep the river bed irrigated and moist. And it also made for a neat, once-in-a-lifetime tourist opportunity, as for a short period during cleanup, visitors were allowed to walk onto part of the temporarily dry river bed. (At the top, of course.)
The Army Corps of Engineers finished the cleanup work by November and, to get the water flowing and falling again, simply (okay, not so simply) blew up the temporary dam. A few months later, the authorities who ordered the survey of the dry waterbed opted against restructuring the rock bed. Instead, they decided to let nature take its course -- in this case, both literally and figuratively.
Bonus fact:
Earlier this year, aerialist Nik Wallenda crossed Niagara Falls on a high wire suspended nearly 200 feet (60 meters) above the water's surface. The walk took about 25 minutes and covered a distance of 1,800 feet (about half a kilometer). And while Wallenda's distance was the longest traversed by a Niagara-bound tightrope walker, his feat was not the first. In 1859, Charles Blondin successfully made a 1,100 foot walk across a wire suspended about 160 feet above the water. And he'd return to do it again, a few times. As Blondin's Wikipedia entry notes - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Blondin, he did so "with different theatrical variations: blindfolded, in a sack, trundling a wheelbarrow, on stilts, carrying a man (his manager, Harry Colcord) on his back, sitting down midway while he cooked and ate an omelet and standing on a chair with only one chair leg on the rope."
wato20
Now I Know - Fordlandia
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Before World War II, most automobile tires were made from natural rubber -- latex collected from rubber trees. But by 1942, the United States found itself in a bind. Japan had taken control of Asia, which happened to be where the most abundant amount of readily-available rubber trees were. And the war effort required rubber. To counter this, the U.S. took a multi-pronged approach. First, it ramped up research into synthetic rubber (which not only proved ultimately successful, but has become the main source for rubber in tires). Second, the government pushed citizens to donate used tires in hopes of recycling them -- a failed idea as recycling rubber is something we still can't do. And finally, the government instituted gasoline rations and pushed pro-carpooling propaganda, as seen above, all in an effort to reduce driving and, therefore, rubber use. Reducing gasoline use was not nearly as important -- in fact, synthetic rubber is made from petroleum.
But all of this may have been averted -- or at least limited -- had Henry Ford been able to better execute on an idea: a town in Brazil focused on cultivating rubber trees.
While most rubber tree plantations are now in South and Southeast Asia -- as they were in World War II -- the rubber tree is actually indigenous to the Amazon rainforest and specifically, Brazil. Nevertheless, by 1928, commercial cultivation of rubber had already moved to Malaysia, and the Ford Motor Company was dependant on rubber from there (then a British colony), and Mr. Ford saw this reliance as a threat to his company. To counteract this, he set up a prefabricated industrialized town called Fordlandia, located in the middle of the rainforest.
Map Here: - https://maps.google.com/maps?q=-3.831389,-55.4975&ll=-11.005904,-55.019531&spn=48.814393,71.015625&t=m&z=4
The premise was simple -- grow rubber trees where they were supposed to be grown -- but the execution doomed the project. The trees were planted closely together much like they were in Malay plantations, but this alignment proved disastrous in the rainforest ecosystem, as natural predators feasted on the trees. The terrain -- hilly and rocky -- wasn't conducive to planting the trees in the first place. Even human resources issues were mismanaged, as employees from local villages were expected to Americanize. Instead, at one point in 1930, they revolted, and management literally fled into the jungles. (The Brazilian Army ended up being called in to quell the rebellion.)
The promise of rubber trees unfulfilled, Fordlandia managed to putter along for another decade and a half -- failing to live up to its promise the whole time. With synthetic rubber well established by 1945, Ford sold Fordlandia at a $20 million loss, according to mental_floss. Today, the town is abandoned and left in ruins.
Bonus fact:
Fordlandia was a failure, but the Dearborn Inn was a success. The inn ( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dearborn_Inn ) was also the brainchild of Henry Ford. Mr. Ford realized that when visitors came to the Detroit area via Ford Airport in Dearborn, Michigan, they did so without a place to stay -- so Mr. Ford had the inn constructed to fix that. The Dearborn Inn is considered to be the world's first airport hotel.
Jesus
This is a fantastic idea Wato, love the first two articles already.
wato20
Now I Know - The WOW Plague
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/WoW_Corrupted_Blood_Plague.jpeg
When we think of pandemics, we think of the Black Death, yellow fever, typhoid, or, in more recent times, the flu. Each one of these shares a few common traits. They start off from a single source and then spread from person to person. The contagion spreads rapidly until most areas around the world are affected.
Just ask anyone who played World of Warcraft in the Autumn of 2005.
With millions of players around the world -- the real world, that is -- World of Warcraft is easily one of the biggest successes in computer gaming history. Players control avatars in the fictional world of Azeroth, fighting off monsters while improving these characters at the same time. Players also receive quests, typically from in-game guides ("non-player characters," for those familiar with the lingo), and completing a quest typically yields their characters a reward -- and often involves defeating an enemy with a special, sometimes unique trait.
On September 13, 2005, Blizzard -- the makers of World of Warcraft -- released an update to the game.
The update contained a new dungeon and with it, a new quest, which culminated in an assault on a boss named Hakkar. When characters attacked Hakkar, he cast a spell on them called "Corrupted Blood" which slowly drained the life of anyone so inflicted.
Corrupted Blood was designed to be contagious -- anyone coming into contact with anyone infected with it would, in turn, also become infected. However, it was designed to only last a few minutes and, importantly, only have an effect within the dungeon containing Hakkar.
Before encountering Hakkar, players did not know exactly how the Corrupted Blood spell worked -- intended or otherwise. Those who suddenly found their character's health falling did what anyone would do: they ran away.
Some even teleported out of the dungeon, expecting to find safety in town. And if Corrupted Blood had worked as it was designed, these characters would have been magically cured upon their successful exit from the dungeon.
Unfortunately, the spell did not work as designed. The characters remained infected and, even worse, began to spread the disease to unsuspecting characters near them. Corrupted Blood began to spread throughout the area.
Even though a character's death in World of Warcraft is not permanent, players still reacted as if it were a big deal. Many fled cities, realizing that the high population density was a death sentence. Others helped direct the uninfected to safe areas. And many of those with high level healing powers tried (in vain) to stave off the spread of the disease. (And of course, virtual versions of Typhoid Marys helped spread the curse -- intentionally.)
In fact, real-life health officials have studied the Corrupted Blood plague as a model for pandemic reactions by actual, flesh-and-blood people.
As for the virtual plague? At first, Blizzard tried to fight it in the same manner that their real world counterparts would have, issuing quarantine orders -- while hoping to correct the programming bug at the same time. But when this failed, Blizzard pulled out an option not available to those of us outside of Azeroth.
They reset the servers and restarted with a new, fixed version.
Bonus fact:
Google uses search volume to help fight the flu. The company has put together a flu-tracking map, available here - http://www.google.org/flutrends/ , which hopes to catch an increase in flu outbreaks before they become epidemics.
nirvana
That's class! I can only imagine the wide spread terror the geeky tits felt. :lol:
swedishcmgod
I dont get this :S
Lo.Fi
30-06-12, 12:26 AM
Wato you should guest on QI with material like this. Very curious things indeed! I'm definitely using these articles at the dinner table in future. Thanks! :tup:
merkezekrem
Now I Know - Born on the 2nd July... Or August...
http://i.imgur.com/Cf2GT.jpg
"In Congress, July 4, 1776," begins the Declaration of Independence, pictured above, "a declaration by the representatives of the United States of America, in general congress assesembled." From this document began the United States, and from that line comes Independence Day, celebrated annually in the U.S. on the fourth of July.
But some believe that July 4, 1776, is not truly America's indepedence day. That honor should fall to either July 2, 1776, or August 2, 1776.
On June 11, 1776, the Continental Congress created a sub-committee of five delegates -- Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger R. Livingston, and Roger Sherman -- empowered to write a first draft of a declaration of independence. Jefferson took the lead and the quintet delivered their draft on June 28th. After a few days of debates and revisions, the Congress voted to declare independence -- on July 2nd, not July 4th.
The next day -- July 3rd -- Adams wrote a letter to his wife, Abigail, discussing the Declaration and its significance. In part, Adams wrote:
The Second Day of July 1776, will be the most memorable Epocha, in the History of America. I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated, by succeeding Generations, as the great anniversary Festival. It ought to be commemorated, as the Day of Deliverance by solemn Acts of Devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with Pomp and Parade, with Shews, Games, Sports, Guns, Bells, Bonfires and Illuminations from one End of this Continent to the other from this Time forward forever more.
While Adams appropriately described the revelry, he whiffed on the date. Instead, Americans celebrate independence on the 4th, the day the Continental Congress ratified the text of the document.
Ratified -- but not signed. According to National Geographic, many of those who signed the famous piece of parchment simply were not present on the 4th of July and the document was not signed until August 2nd. This belief is buttressed by the journals of the Continental Congress itself; as stated by the National Archives, "on August 2, the journal of the Continental Congress records that 'The declaration of independence being engrossed and compared at the table was signed.' One of the most widely held misconceptions about the Declaration is that it was signed on July 4, 1776, by all the delegates in attendance."
While the July 4th date is, probably, the least relevant of the three, it does lend itself to a fantastic coincidence. Of the five drafters of the Declaration, Adams and Jefferson would go on to become President of the United States. And both Adams and Jefferson share something else in common: both died on July 4, 1826 -- fifty years to the day the Declaration was ratified.
Bonus fact:
July 2nd is a special day for another reason. In non-leap years, it is the midpoint of the year -- there are 182 days before it and 182 days after it.
wato20
Now I Know - Seeing Eye Mini-Horse
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/Guide_horse.jpeg
Guide dogs -- sometimes referred to as seeing eye dogs -- have been assisting disabled people for at least 100 years, with references to them dating back perhaps centuries. The first U.S. school for guide dog training, named The Seeing Eye, opened its doors in 1929 and has been in business since. (The colloquial use of the term "seeing eye dogs" is actually a reference to the school's trademark and brand.) But not all people like dogs, and this includes some of the visually impaired and those with other disabilities which call for a service animal. So what other options are out there?
Meet the guide mini-horse.
Pictured above, the guide mini-horse acts much like its sibling service animal the guide dog. Much like the guide dogs, guide mini-horses act as trusted aides for those in need, helping them navigate through the world. And both take about a year to 18 months to train. But there are some major differences. The Guide Horse Foundation ( http://www.guidehorse.com ) in North Carolina notes that guide horses are useful for about thirty years compared to around a dozen for dogs, making them arguably more cost effective over their useful lifespan. But there are downsides. The miniature horses need to live outside and require a lot more space than a guide dog, which can live in a small apartment without much difficulty. They also have the need to relieve themselves more often than dogs, making themselves much more cumbersome. And while they can be incredibly cute, this has its downside, as a guide animal isn't supposed to be petted by others while on duty.
For some, however, a guide dog simply isn't an option. The most likely scenario is due to an allergy to dog dander, but there are other reasons. Take, for example, the case of Mona Ramouni, a young Muslim woman in Michigan. Born blind, she was an excellent candidate for a guide dog -- except that she came from a devout Muslim family. Dogs are considered unclean under Muslim law, and cannot be kept as pets -- but horses can. Ms. Ramouni received Cali the mini-horse, and has since been able to navigate the world without help from friends and family -- unless one counts Cali as a friend.
While guide horses may be a second choice after dogs, the demand for them has been, per the Guide Horse Foundation, "overwhelming." The foundation has stopped taking random applications for horses.
Bonus fact:
On September 11, 2001, two guide dogs were in the World Trade Center with their owners when the buildings were attacked. The two dogs, named Salty and Roselle, successfully navigated an escape route for their owners. Both were given a Dickin Medal, given by the United Kingdom for "gallantry or devotion to duty while serving," for their heroic acts.
See the Interesting Wiki page for that story....
http://www.champman0102.co.uk/showthread.php?1379-Interesting-Wikipedia-articles-for-killing-time-and-expanding-your-mind!!
Now I Know - E.T ? No Going Home
http://imgs.xkcd.com/comics/exoplanets.png
The Solar System is, in the greater scheme of things, really, really tiny. You may not be able to see it from the image above, but just above the block of text, a bit to the left, is a small shaded area. (Here is a really large version of it - http://xkcd.com/1071/large ).
The circles within that box represent our Solar System. The Earth is just a pale blue dot. And as we humans explore the galaxy, there's a chance that we could come into some sort of alien... well, something. Maybe it's an intelligent life form, maybe it's some sort of compound which is a toxin to humans, maybe it's something in between.
In any event, introducing the interstellar equivalent of kudzu ( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kudzu_in_the_United_States ) is probably a bad idea.
So in 1969, NASA did just that. In anticipation of the Apollo 11 mission aiming to land the first humans on the moon, NASA promulgated the Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law (14 CFR Part 1211, for those interested).
Any astronaut who was on a mission in which something came in contact with any other "celestial body" was, under the E.T. Exposure Law, required to be quarantined upon his or her return to Earth.
For Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, and Michael Collins, their return to Earth from their successful moon landing qualified -- the moon, after all, is a foreign celestial body.
As TIME magazine reported in mid-July of 1969, the three astronauts were "treated -- literally -- as if they had the plague."
The stated purpose: "to guard against the remote possiblity that they are harboring unknown lunar organisms which might endager life on Earth," per TIME.
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/600px_Apollo_11_crew_in_quarantine.jpg
Even though the astronauts splashed down into the Pacific Ocean on July 24th, they were not released from quarantine until August 10th. For part of the time, they were confined to a trailer which is now on display at the Smithsonian. But as seen above, even that did not prevent them from meeting President Nixon. Nixon visited the trio just a few days after splashdown, and, more formally, hosted them at a state dinner in Los Angeles three days -- and three parades -- after their release from quarantine.
NASA stopped quarantining astronauts in 1977, and the Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law was removed from the books in 1991.
Bonus fact:
Are there lunar organisms on the moon? Not exactly -- but there are human ashes. An American geologist named Eugene Shoemaker (who, among other things, discovered a comet which ended up colliding with Jupiter) helped train Apollo mission astronauts for their moon walks. After Shoemaker died in a car accident in 1997, NASA honored him by taking some of his ashes, putting them in a space probe which was designed to map the moon's surface and look for potential polar ice deposits.
The space probe was intentionally crashed into a crater near the south pole of the moon, making Shoemaker, in some sense, the first (and to date, only) man buried on the moon.
wato20
Now I Know - D-Day's Doomed Dry Run
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/640px_Sherman_tank_at_memorial_for_those_killed_in _Operation_Tiger.jpg
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/613px_Plaque_commemorating_those_killed_in_Operati on_Tiger_crop.jpg
On June 6, 1944 -- D-Day -- the fate of World War II hung in the balance as Allied forces attempted to liberate Nazi-occupied France. Over 150,000 troops crossed the English Channel that day, aboard nearly 7,000 ships supported by 12,000 planes, landing on a series of beaches in Normandy, France.
By the end of August, there were more than three million Allied troops in France. D-Day and the larger Battle of Normandy was a decisive victory for the Allies and on August 25, 1944, the Germans surrendered control of Paris back to the French.
But D-Day almost never happened.
American General Dwight D. Eisenhower was the commander of the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force, and led the US and UK troops in northwest Europe. In this role, he assumed command of the planned D-Day invasion. And he wanted to do everything possible to make sure it would work. So he ordered a practice called Exercise Tiger. A beach in the south of Great Britain, then called Slapton was to be the staging ground for a faux invasion, with the assault coming from across Lyme Bay directly to Slapton's east. The roughly 3,000 people living in the area were evacuated and on the evening of April 26, 1944, Allied troops began their "assault" on the beach. It did not go so well.
The plan was to make the dry run "invasion" as realistic as possible, so gunships were to shell the test beach starting at 6:30 a.m. on the 27th for thirty minutes. At 7:30 a.m., landing ships would drop off the soldiers and tanks. At that point, the artillery would fire live ammunition well over the heads of the troops landing, much like they would be during an actual invasion. However, some of the landing ships were delayed, which in turn delayed the artillery fire. The battle cruiser received the orders to wait until 7:30, but some of the landing parties were not similarly instructed to wait until 8:30 to disembark. Some Marines lost their lives as they raided the beach at 7:30, just as the cruiser opened fire.
And then it got worse. The next day, nine German E-boats happened upon Lyme Bay. British sentries detected these enemy fast assault ships but opted to let them through rather than give away the location and size of Allied fortifications in the area. Instead, the British commanders radioed ahead to the HMS Azalea, a warship escorting a convoy of nine American LSTs (landing ships carrying tanks) through the bay. But the American and British forces were using different radio frequencies. The HMS Azalea believed that the LSTs knew about the E-boats, but they didn't. The LSTs' lone escort was insufficient to repel the attack and the LSTs were, colloquially, sitting ducks. Two of the nine LSTs were sunk and another two were damaged before the other LSTs could effectively return fire and force the E-boats to retreat. Many soldiers jumped into the water but put on their life jackets incorrectly, which as a result worked more like anchors than floatation devices. All told, nearly 1,000 men were killed. Decades later, Steve Sadlon, a radio operator from the first LST attacked, described the carnage to MSNBC. He jumped off his ship, aflame, into the English Channel. He spent four hours in the cold water until he was rescued, unconscious from hypothermia. His memories of the day are harrowing:
It was an inferno. The fire was circling the ship. It was terrible. Guys were burning to death and screaming. Even to this day I remember it. Every time I go to bed, it pops into my head. I can't forget it. Guys were grabbing hold of us and we had to fight them off. Guys were screaming, 'Help, help, help' and then you wouldn't hear their voices anymore.
From a macro perspective, the E-boat attack caused a massive strategic problem. The actual D-Day invasion was supposed to be a surprise. Now, the military had to figure out how to keep the deaths of nearly 1,000 soldiers under wraps. This was done via threat of court martial. Subordinate soldiers were informed that families were being told that the dead were simply missing in action, and any discussion of the tragic two days prior were patently disallowed. But even this was not enough. Ten of the men who went missing due to the E-boat attacks knew details of the D-Day invasion plans. Initially, Eisenhower and the rest of Allied leadership decided to delay the actual invasion, fearing that if any of those ten men were captured by the Germans, the enemy could have therefore obtained intel about the otherwise secret plan. Not until their bodies were discovered did the D-Day plan go back into action -- with improved life jacket training and a singular radio frequency for both American and British forces.
For decades after Exercise Tiger, the story went mostly untold. Before D-Day it was a secret; after D-Day it was old news. But in 1984, a resident of the Slapton Beach area managed to raise a sunken tank from Lyme Bay and turn it into a war memorial, pictured above with the plaque describing the tragedy.
Bonus fact:
The only general to land at Normandy, by sea, with the first wave of troops was Theodore Roosevelt, Jr., the son of former president Teddy Roosevelt. He was also the only American to fight at Normandy alongside his son -- Theodore Jr. was 56, and his fourth child, Quentin Roosevelt II (named after his late uncle), was a 24 year-old captain at the invasion.
swedishcmgod
Now I Know - The Tales of the Prairie Dog
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Constantine Slobodchikoff was born in China to Russian immigrants, and his family moved to San Francisco while he was still quite young. Given his likely exposure to three different languages using three different alphabets, it is no wonder that he took a liking to how we communicate verbally. Now a researcher at Northern Arizona University, Slobodchikoff has spent decades trying to better understand a language few people can comprehend.
Slobodchikoff tries to figure out what prairie dogs are saying to each other.
Prairie dogs are squirrel-like rodents native to North America and are particularly common prowling grassland areas in the United States west of the Mississippi River. They are social animals which build burrows clustered together in communities, typically comprising of their extended families. Prairie dogs are even known to make oral contact with family members -- kiss, as it were -- as seen here - http://factandaphoto.com/post/26459948160/prairie-dogs-sometimes-kiss-as-seen-above-they .
And, surmises Slobodchikoff, they talk to each other -- and in great detail.
Prairie dogs have keen vision which allows them to detect a would-be predator a long distance away. And when one does, it alerts the others in the area with an alarm call, a series of loud "chee" sounds made by contorting its body as seen above. To the untrained ear, these noises seem similar if not identical to each other. To Slobodochikoff and his team, they are anything but.
Slobodochikoff and his team hid among prairie dog habitats and recorded alarm calls, all while keeping a journal about the perceived threat to the rodent sounding the alarm. And what they discovered was that the prairie dogs did not have one singular alarm sound. The calls varied in frequency, tone, and modulation, with different patterns signifying different threats.
In a 2002 paper Slobodochikoff asserts that the variations in the noises told other prairie dogs about the size of the predator and how quickly it was approaching the community.
And then, the research team pushed the envelope further. As Slobodochikoff explained to NPR's Radiolab, he had his team don different shirts and pass through a prairie dog enclave. They tracked the different alarms based on the gender, build, and shirt color of the human intruder.
He found, to his delight, that the calls broke down into groups based on the color of the volunteer's shirt. "I was astounded," says Slobodchikoff. But what astounded him even more, was that further analysis revealed that the calls also clustered based on other characteristics, like the height of the human. "Essentially they were saying, 'Here comes the tall human in the blue,' versus, 'Here comes the short human in the yellow,' " says Slobodchikoff.
The one thing the prairie dogs could not determine? They did not differentiate between people based on gender.
Bonus fact:
While rodents, such as prairie dogs, are generally small, there are a few which grow to the size of small people. The largest rodent (excluding extinct species) is the capybara, vaguely resembling a hairy hippopotamus, as seen here - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Capibara_1.jpg . They are indigenous to Brazil, and can reach lengths of nearly four and a half feet (134 cm) and weigh as much as 150 pounds (66 kg).
wato20
Now I Know - The Yellow Fleet
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/suez_canal_map.jpeg
The Suez Canal, situated in Egypt, connects the Mediterranean and Red Seas, thereby providing a naval passageway between Europe and Asia without the need to circumnavigate Africa or risk icy conditions by passing through the Arctic Circle. It opened in late 1869 and has been in continuous use ever since, minus a few hiccups along the way. One of those hiccups inconvenienced the world for eight years, as the canal was closed to naval traffic entirely from 1967 to 1975.
Oh, and fifteen ships were trapped in the canal during that period, too.
In June of 1967, war broke out in the Middle East, with Israel at odds with Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. The war was short-lived -- the Israelis won a decisive victory within a week. (The war is now known as the "Six Day War.") Following the war, Israel took control of the Sinai Peninsula, the section of Egypt east of the Suez which connects Africa to Asia. Soon after, the Egyptians blockaded the Suez, as the waterway was set to become a main theater for Egyptian-Israeli fighting over the course of the next decade. Most naval traffic was already avoiding the area due to the political uncertainties caused by the Six Day War, but fifteen ships were already making their way through the canal when war broke out. And all fifteen were unable to leave the canal afterward.
The ships dropped anchor in Great Bitter Lake, a saltwater lake roughly 100 square miles (250 square kilometers) in surface area, which divides the north part of the Suez from the south. And there, they sat, until the Egyptians ended the blockade on June 5, 1975. In the interim, the ships -- four flying under the flag of the UK; two each from West Germany, the US, Sweden, and Poland; and one each from France, Bulgaria, and Czechoslovakia -- formed their own little community of pseudo-castaways called the "Great Bitter Lake Association" replete with unofficial postal service among them. Their crews gathered aboard one of the British ships to play soccer matches, screened movies on a Bulgarian one, set up church services on a West German one, and availed themselves of the pool on the Swedish ships. To coincide with the 1968 Summer Olympics, the stranded sailors had their own Bitter Lake Olympic Games, replete with life boat regatta races.
When the blockade finally came to a close, the ships were free to leave. But for these vessels now collectively known as the "Yellow Fleet" due to the amount of desert sand blown upon them during their near-decade of isolation, leaving was not so simple. Of the ships, only the two German ones were able leave the canal on their own power.
Bonus fact:
Since 2008, ship traffic through the Suez Canal has fallen off by 20% -- but only half of that is due to an overall drop off of sea traffic due to unfavorable global economic conditions. The other half is due to Somali pirates for whom the Red Sea is fertile waters for hijacking ships and their cargoes.
wato20
Now I Know - Meal Ticket
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/Stray_dogs_pups.jpeg
It's hard to find an urban area which does not have a significant homeless population. Be it New York, San Francisco, Tokyo, or Madrid, one is likely to encounter someone for whom life has dealt a bad hand. Some homeless have taken creative measures to adapt, finding ways to persevere in the concrete and asphalt wilderness around them. And in one city, this will to survive is not solely in the domain of the human homeless.
Meet the homeless, subway-riding dogs of Moscow.
There are about 35,000 homeless dogs in Russia's capital, some pictured above. Most of them are feral and eschew contact with people. But about 500 or so have done what many homeless people have done, and become semi-permanent denizens of the subways -- in this case, the Moscow Metro. The advantages are more than just a roof and associated shelter from the weather. The dogs can cozy up to riders in hopes of getting food tossed their way, or, if opportunity knocks, scare an unsuspecting train-goer into dropping his or her snack. Either way, this newfound meal is critical to the hungry subway-living dog.
For about two dozen or so dogs, though, the bark-and-eat gambit is merely a start. These advanced dogs have taken the subway game to the next level: they have become commuters. Areas with office buildings are crowded during the day but sparsely populated during the mornings and evenings; meanwhile, the opposite pattern is seen in residential neighborhoods. And therefore, it behooves a panhandler, canine and human alike, to be near the offices at lunch time and near people's homes at night. So, some Metro pups do exactly that -- as reported by both ABC News and the Sun - http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/news/article2372125.ece , the dogs have figured out how to navigate the train network in hopes of optimizing their locations throughout the day.
And they do so in style. The dogs have figured out which trains offer more room, so they can curl up on a bench for an in-transit snooze.
Bonus fact:
Another thing oddly related to the subway? In New York, at least, the price of a slice of pizza fits the bill. In 1980, the New York Times reported that the typical price of a single slice of pizza matched, "with uncanny precision," the price of a single ride on New York's subway system since the 1960s. The Times revisited the strange correlation in 2002 and determined that it was still true.
Jesus
This thread really is brilliant. Where are you getting these stories from Wato?
ozRooster
They are good little reads, keep them coming fella :ok:.
Coys
Shame i'm too lazy to read some of them :lol:
ebfatz
10-07-12, 02:57 PM
I read about the Moscow Dogs recently.
Did you not post something about the 9/11 dogs recently and I linked it from there?
Or was I just on a VERY random internet tangent that day!
EDIT: It was Derm in the Wiki thread.
wato20
Now I Know - Invisible Mothers
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/Picture_11.png
What you see above is a baby, calm, sitting in a chair. What you don't see above is how that was possible.
The photo above was most likely taken in the 19th century, in the early days of portrait photography. (For reference's sake, the first U.S. president to sit for a photograph while in office was William Henry Harrison in 1841.) It was a long and painstaking process, as the subject had to hold still for the exposure period, which, on the short end of things, could be a few minutes long. Babies aren't exactly known for their patience, so getting them to hold mostly still was, to say the least, tricky.
The solution: a creative frame and mat strategy combined with the one person most likely to keep the baby quiet -- the child's mother. While it appears, above, that the baby is lying on a floral print backdrop, that's only partially the case. The backdrop is not just some cushion -- it is actually his or her mom, sitting in a chair and hiding behind a blanket.
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/Picture_12.png
The photograph as taken would not be put on display without an appropriate frame and border, so to the untrained (or the polite) guest, the mother's presence would not be noticed. Many of the original tintypes survived the ruse, though, leading to a borderline absurd result where the outline of the mother is clear once outside the frame. A collection of more such photographs can be found here.
http://ridiculouslyinteresting.wordpress.com/2012/07/05/more-hidden-mothers-in-victorian-photography-post-mortem-photographs-or-not/
Bonus fact:
The first U.S. Presidential inauguration to be photographed was Abraham Lincoln's second, in 1865, and seen here.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Abraham_Lincoln_giving_his_second_Inaugural_Addres s_%284_March_1865%29.jpg/760px-Abraham_Lincoln_giving_his_second_Inaugural_Addres s_%284_March_1865%29.jpg
Weeks later, Lincoln would be assassinated by John Wilkes Booth. Booth was also at Lincoln's inauguration, and is present in the afore-linked photograph. (Here is a version with the two men highlighted.) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LincolnJohn.jpg
wato20
Now I Know - Bridge Over Former Water
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Zrenjanin, Serbia, is the sixth largest city in the country and home to 75,000 people and about a dozen bridges -- it is called the "City of Bridges" by some. One of those bridges, though, is patently unnecessary. You can walk over it -- it's a bridge, after all -- but you can also walk around it and under it as well. It's perfectly useless and has been for decades. And it probably is going to remain so for years to come.
Meet the aptly named Dry Bridge.
The Bega River runs for about 150 miles (250 km) from Romania into Serbia. For years, one of its small, meandering secondary bends split the city of Zrenjanin into two parts -- it formed a shallow, moat-like ring around the "Mala Amerika" ("Little America") neighborhood. But in 1962, the town built the foot bridge pictured above. It served its purpose, connecting pedestrians with the otherwise-isolated section of town. But in 1985, the city administrators had a better idea. They filled in some sections of the loop, allowing for natural-feeling footpaths to take shape, as seen on this aerial map. (The "A" marker shows the location of the bridge.) - https://maps.google.com/maps?q=45.381667,20.383611&ll=45.379342,20.385733&spn=0.017574,0.035191&t=h&z=15
Since 1985, the river bend comes up near the bridge but does not quite pass under it.
(The effect is obvious in this photograph. http://www.trekearth.com/gallery/Europe/Serbia/North/Vojvodina/Zrenjanin/photo557193.htm )
In rendering it obsolete, many town officials wanted to also tear it down, instead replacing it with a sports complex. But area residents objected. Dry Bridge is the only bridge in the world which does not bypass a physical obstacle making it a bona fide tourist attraction.
(other than the incredibly small Trinity Bridge in Crowland, Linconshire, England,
seen here - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Trinity_Bridge_%28Crowland%29.JPG )
As of 2008, the bridge is still intact -- albeit not very much in use.
Bonus fact:
Bridge, the card game, has nothing to do with the over-river passageways. Its rules come from another trick-taking card game called "biritch," believed to be Russian in origin. When English speakers pronounced "biritch," listeners heard it as "bridge" instead, and the more Anglo-sounding moniker stuck.
wato20
Now I Know - Mice Cold Soda
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Seemingly frivolous litigation is a tongue-in-cheek hallmark of the American legal system. About two decades ago, a then-79 year old grandmother brought a suit against McDonalds when she burned her legs after spilling coffee on them, ushering in a chorus of critics of the legal system (even if, as explained in the bonus fact, the complaint wasn't so far off base). And of course, crazy lawsuits aren't only American. For example, in 2004, a driver in Spain struck and killed a 17 year old boy on a bicycle and then sued the boy's parents for the damage done by the bike to his car.
http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/europe/01/30/spain.luxury.car/
But sometimes, the complaint levied isn't so strange -- rather, the defense is.
In Autumn of 2009, an Illinois man named Ronald Ball claimed that he opened a can of Mountain Dew, took a gulp, and found a surprise inside -- a dead mouse. While disgusting, such an incident is not unheard of.
There have been allegations of a chicken head included in a box of wings at McDonalds, - http://abcnews.go.com/US/story?id=94840&page=1
an animal toe discovered in pre-packaged hummus, - http://gothamist.com/2012/03/01/animal_toe_found_in_artichoke_dip_f.php
a human finger in a roast beef sandwich at Arby's, - http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/05/17/finger-arbys-sandwich_n_1524129.html
a dog tooth in a New York Chinese restaurant, http://newyork.grubstreet.com/2010/07/lawsuit_woman_found_dog_tooth.html
and certainly dozens of others.
Some are real, some are hoaxes, and determining which is which may prove to be a fool's errand. In Ball's case, he swore it was true, and filed suit seeking in excess of $300,000.
But Pepsi was determined to prove Ball's claim to be one of the hoaxes. As recounted by the Madison County Record, which covers the legal system of Madison, Illinois. http://www.madisonrecord.com/news/218815-swig-of-mountain-dew-included-dead-mouse-suit-claims
Ball claims that he took a sip of his allegedly tainted Mountain Dew, drank a bit, and immediately got sick. He then poured the remaining product into a Styrofoam cup and out came the soda and the dead mouse noted above. He called the toll-free phone number on the side of the can to levy his complaint, and an investigator got back to him, requesting that Ball send the soda and the mouse to the company so they could investigate. He obliged.
Pepsi came to court with pretty sound -- and rather vile -- evidence: the science behind what would happen if a mouse was sealed inside a can of Mountain Dew for days if not weeks at a time. Ball, by his own admission, claimed that he sent a nearly-full mouse to Pepsi -- which, of course, is why he was so disturbed. Pepsi claimed that the can was bottled a few months before Ball opened it, which neither side seemed to dispute. For the coup de grace, Pepsi then argued that had a mouse somehow gotten into a can of Mountain Dew in August, it would not have been much of a mouse in November. Pepsi's expert, a veterinarian, asserted that the acid in the soda would have melted away any recognizable features of the mouse: "after 30 days in the fluid, the mouse [would] have been transformed into a 'jelly-like' substance.'" - http://www.thesmokinggun.com/file/mountain-dew-mouse?page=1
As of this writing, the case is still pending.
Bonus fact:
The McDonalds' coffee lawsuit? It wasn't so frivolous after all. As mental_floss explained, at the time, Mackey D's served coffee "at temperatures ranging from 180 to 190 degrees Fahrenheit" while at-home coffee only reaches temperatures of about 140 degrees by comparison. The full mental_floss article goes into great detail, but the major takeaway is that "skin can burn quickly when contacted by liquids" at temperatures in the 180+ degree range -- which is probably why McDonalds received a few dozen burn complaints every year prior to the lawsuit.
http://www.mentalfloss.com/blogs/archives/79371
Craig Forrest
16-07-12, 08:44 PM
There's a Canadian movie from the 80's (called Strange Brew) which basically starts with 2 brothers placing a live mouse in a beer bottle so they can blackmail the local brewery into giving them free beer... and they end up getting jobs in the factory and hilarity ensues..... :D
wato20
Now I Know - Gorilla Goggles
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Bokito, pictured above, is a gorilla at the Diergaarde Blijdorp zoo in the Netherlands. In 2004, he escaped from his habitat in the zoo (a feat whcih is not unique)
and was returned without any further problems. The same, unfortunately, could not be said in 2007, when he attacked a zoo visitor. Bokito's Wikipedia entry sums it up: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bokito_%28gorilla%29
On May 18, 2007, Bokito jumped over the ditch that separated his Rotterdam enclosure from the public and violently attacked a woman, dragging her around for tens of metres and inflicting bone fractures as well as more than a hundred bite wounds. He subsequently entered the nearby restaurant, causing panic among the visitors. During this encounter, three more people were injured as a result of the panic. Bokito was eventually sedated with the help of a tranquilizer gun and placed back in his cage.
But the main victim here was no random zoo visitor. She had been visiting the zoo as often as four times a week, specifically to visit Bokito. And she'd look at him and smile and laugh. And that -- that is where she went wrong.
Zoo staff advised that she (and others) not make direct eye contact with Bokito while smiling at him, as apes often misinterpret that friendliness as aggression. The victim nevertheless continued, believing that Bokito was laughing back at her and that the two shared some special bond. She was, of course, wrong, and Bokito viciously attacked her. Bokito's strength became so well known in the Netherlands that the term "Bokitoproof," meaning "durable enough to resist the action of an enraged gorilla" became commonplace in Dutch usage.
And of course, the zoo needed to make their facilities Bokitoproof, too. Given the ape's 2004 escape -- which involved scaling a three meter high wall -- that was easier said that done. But a week later, the zoo came up with a simple, elegant, and somewhat creepy solution called BokitoKijkers, Dutch for "Bokito Viewers," as seen below. And on an Episode of QI......
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/Picture_20.png
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/Picture_19.png
These "viewers" are paper visors with false eyes, looking off to the upper-left. There are pin holes in the viewers allowing the wearer to look straight ahead while avoiding eye contact with Bokito. Attack-defraying paper, of a story.
While it's hard to say whether the BokitoKijkers have been effective, to date, Bokito has not attacked anyone else.
Bonus fact:
On April 23, 2005, one of YouTube's cofounders uploaded the website's first video ever. It is titled "Me at the zoo" (San Diego, not Diergaarde Biljdorp), and can be seen here.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jNQXAC9IVRw&feature=plcp&context=C34faa3eUDOEgsToPDskLECbQK_FVmq6ZJD7JBc0pd
It is 19 seconds long and there are elephants in the background -- no gorillas or funny glasses, sorry.
wato20
Now I Know - Alone in the Ocean
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Whales -- particularly humpback whales like the one pictured above -- speak. Their language is not an articulate mix of sounds like we humans make, but some, such as the aforementioned humpbacks, have taken to making sounds akin to singing. It is widely believed by the relevant scientific communities that these sounds are how members of these species communicate with one another.
Which is why a whale dubbed the 52 Hertz whale is, forever, alone.
Most whale sounds occur in the 15 to 25 Hertz frequency range; you can listen to a humpback whale's call here.
http://dlewis.us1.list-manage1.com/track/click?u=2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46&id=b207ab0b9c&e=69710f7eba
But the 52 Hertz whale, uniquely (as far as we know) creates a sound at a much higher frequency, as heard here.
http://dlewis.us1.list-manage1.com/track/click?u=2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46&id=f743bf6fd1&e=69710f7eba
And unfortunately for the 52 Hertz whale, this massive difference in frequency means that it cannot communicate with the other whales in the ocean.
Scientists at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (WHOI) have been tracking the whale since detecting its strange noise in 1992 using hydrophones, a series of underwater listening devices originally used to track submarine movements. The team was suprised, to say the least. As reported by the New York Times, "its sonic signature is clearly that of a whale, but nothing like the normal voice of the giant blue or the next biggest species, the fin, or any other whale for that matter".
Further, the WHOI team believes that the whale is in otherwise good health, noting that it would be extremely unlikely that a creature with compromised health could live in solitude for over a dozen years -- as the 52 Hertz whale has.
Its life of solitude is exhibited also by its odd migratory pattern. The 52 Hertz whale typically travels up and down the Pacific coast of Mexico, the United States and Canada, venturing into the Gulf of Alaska but not venturing further north. (Here's a map - http://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/viewImage.do?id=10079&aid=4721 )
According to the Alaska Dispatch, the gray whale migrates in a similar path, but ventures much further north to feed; the 52 Hertz whale never reaches that feeding ground and is therefore not likely part of that pack. As of January 2012, it was last detected south of Alaska, alone, as usual.
In fact, we don't know what species of whale the 52 Hertz is. While some believe it is a species in and of itself -- perhaps the last whale of its kind -- WHOI believes that is not the case. Rather, WHOI believes that it is simply a strange, unique member of something otherwise well known.
Bonus fact:
The blue whale is the world's largest animal. It is so large that its tongue alone weights about 3 tons (or about 2,700 kilograms). For comparison's sake, the largest land animal, the African bush elephant -- the whole thing, not just the tongue -- weighs about six tons.
http://www.filippidis.org/index/amazing/blue-whale-ship.jpg
Now I Know - Unlawful Knowledge
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Imagine the following: a man is charged with the brutal rape of an elderly woman. After rounds of interrogation, he finally cracks and confesses. During his trial, that confession is retold to the jury, and it is riddled with facts that only the attacker could have known: how he entered the home, where he struck his victim, etc. The jury, of course, convicts the accused.
In the matter of Eddie Lowery, something akin to the above happened. He was accused of -- and confessed to -- the rape of a 75 year old woman, recounting his bad acts in great detail. Lowery served a decade in prison for his crime. Or, rather, Lowery served a decade in prison for the crime of some other man. Because, despite what he somehow knew, Eddie Lowery was innocent.
As reported by the New York Times, (http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/14/us/14confess.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all) Lowery was exonerated when DNA evidence demonstrated that someone else was the rapist, not Lowery. But that came well after his parole, ten years after his conviction. And it came after the trial, the confession, and, importantly, a seven hour interrogation by police. University of Virginia law professor Brandon L. Garrett -- who studied the stories of roughly 40 such innocents who confessed -- offered a likely theory to the Times centering upon these lengthy interrogations. The stress leaves the accused in poor mental shape, looking for any way to end the badgering by police. So they confess, perhaps in hopes that their weak grasp of salient facts will later demonstrate the confession to be an empty one.
But something else occurs during that interrogation, argue Garrett and others. The police, most likely unintentionally, make mention of these facts here and there, and the accused may remember them and, subconsciously, reintroduce them into their confessions. (Or, perhaps, the police "correct" the accused along the way.) So instead of being able to point to clear and convincing evidence that your "confession" was anything but, the accused unintentionally demonstrate their guilt -- falsely.
Lowery would find himself back in the legal system after this imbroglio -- he brought an action against the district which wrongly convicted him, and received a $7.5 million settlement.
Bonus fact:
The University of Michigan and Northwestern University, together, maintain a database of people who were convicted of felonies but later exonerated. As of this writing, their National Registry of the Exonerated lists over 900 people, seen here: (http://www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/Pages/browse.aspx)
(Eddie Lowery's entry can be read there.)
wato20
Now I Know - Exit Sandman
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Thievery feels like part of the human condition: if someone owns something, chances are there is someone else out there who is willing to steal it. Almost every single one of us knows somebody who has had something stolen from them, be it a car, television, or sand.
Yes, sand. Or, more correctly, a beach.
In the spring of 2008, developers in Coral Springs, Jamaica were building a resort. Like any other Caribbean getaway, a focal point of the destination was its beach. But one day, its owners woke up to find it missing. Overnight, the beach -- an estimated 400 meters' worth, enough to fill roughly 500 truckloads -- was gone. Stolen. The theft effectively halted the further development of the $100 million (U.S.) resort, as the attraction's main feature was no longer.
Given the value of the sand, Jamaican officials investigated the theft intensely -- according to the BBC (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/7678379.stm), Jamaica's Prime Minister at the time, Bruce Golding, insisted upon it. But unlike most large, expensive things stolen, finding a beach proved difficult if not impossible. After all, all one needs to do is have a predetermined smaller beach to dump it onto, and no one would be the wiser. The investigation continued for months, with police going so far as to take sand samples from other beaches to do a forensic analysis. But they came up empty.
It sounds like a perfect crime, but some believe that there's a more insidious explanation. The logistics of such a heist are extraordinary. Where does one get dozens if not hundreds of trucks, without anyone noticing? And no one noticed a caravan of sand-hauling trucks driving around? Even if that went unnoticed, how do you find enough laborers to load and unload the sand without one of them telling someone else? All these questions, left unanswered, indicated to some that there could be police officers involved in the theft and a subsequent cover-up.
But in any event, no charges were ever brought.
Bonus fact:
Ever wonder what sand looks like under a microscope? It's different depending on where it comes from (which is probably why the Jamaican police, above, were able to attempt some sort of forensic analysis), due to human elements, microscope creatures, and the surrounding environment. Via Discover Magazine, here (http://discovermagazine.com/photos/01-each-grain-of-sand-a-tiny-work-of-art/) is a slideshow of sand from around the world, magnified dozens of times.
Coys
Sounds a bit fishy to me
:lol:
Fods
20-07-12, 02:13 PM
Zoom into that pic with www.zoomtits.com and choose the 3rd from right blue wind breaker u can see 3 pairs of tits :woot: :D
wato20
Now I Know - Juiced
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Tropicana Pure Premium Orange Juice has one ingredient listed on its label: "100% Pure Natural Oranges." While that's accurate, it may also be misleading. Why? Because while the ingredients imply that oranges are cut, put into a juicer, and the resulting juice is then packaged, that's not quite right. The process is much more complicated -- and, seemingly, much less pure.
According to a 2003 report from the United States Department of Agriculture (pdf here (http://usda01.library.cornell.edu/usda/ers/FTS//2000s/2003/FTS-08-01-2003_Special_Report.pdf)), orange juice was the most popular juice in the United States, and easily so -- it was 2.5 times more popular than the number two on the list, apple juice. Per that report, in order to provide the demanded orange juice to American consumers, one would need about 70 pounds of oranges, per American, year year. And in order to provide that huge amount of orange juice to consumers, companies such as Tropicana go through a long process, one much more involved than simply squeezing a dozen or so oranges and sealing the juice into a box.
In 1963, the U.S. government added an optional but, from a brand quality perspective, hardly avoidable step -- pasteurization, which in part involves heating the juice to temperatures higher than one would typically want their juice served at. That year, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) began to requires that unpasteurized juice be labeled as such, replete with a warning that it may contain some pathogens which would have otherwise been removed in the heating process. So most of the orange juice made for sale in the U.S. has, in fact, been pasteurized, as the warnings would scare off most consumers otherwise.
But the pasteurization process removes more than just pathogens. It also reduces the flavor and aroma from the juice. This problem is exacerbated by how commercial juice companies store the juice -- something called aseptic processing (described here (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aseptic_processing)),
which removes the oxygen from the product in order to keep it sterile for a long period of time. After the OJ has undergone all this, it does not taste or smell like the product you are used to drinking at breakfast.
To fix this, large orange juice manufacturers use something called "flavor packs" -- additives which are derived from oranges, and specifically from the orange oil excreted from inside the rind. These flavor packs are added to the juice toward the end of the process, and can even be customized to some degree in order to provide consistency between cartons (and perhaps some sort of taste- or smell-driven brand recognition). Food policy scholar Alissa Hamilton, who authored a book about the orange juice production process, told ABC News (http://abcnews.go.com/Health/orange-juice-moms-secret-ingredient-worries/story?id=15154617&page=2#.UAdjuStYtyc) that these flavor packs, that, while made from oranges (and only oranges), the companies "break [the oranges] down into individual chemicals." She further told the New Yorker (http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/books/2009/05/ask-an-academic-orange-juice.html) that the companies "then reassemble the individual chemicals in configurations that resemble nothing found in nature."
The FDA states that flavor packs are regarded as safe, and when ABC News asked Hamilton if she believed the flavor packs were dangerous, she replied with "I don't know." (That said, Hamilton does not drink pre-packaged orange juice any more.) But that was not enough for some. Earlier this year, a California consumer by the name of Angelena Lewis (no relation) sued Tropicana (news report here (http://abcnews.go.com/Health/california-woman-sues-pepsicos-tropicana-alleging-deceptive-advertising/story?id=15394357#.UAdcOCtYtyd), legal filing here (http://www.scribd.com/doc/79722132/Complaint-Angelena-Lewis-v-Tropicana)), arguing that the undisclosed use of flavor packs ran afoul of California's false advertising laws.
Bonus fact:
Brush your teeth and then go drink some OJ, and you're in for a rude surprise -- the juice tastes downright awful. What causes that? Most toothpastes contain a compound called sodium laureth sulfate, which causes the foaming action when you brush. But it also blocks your tongue from being able to detect sweetness. So when you drink the juice, you're unable to taste the sweet aspects; instead, you only sense the bitter/sour parts.
http://www.frigginrandom.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/brush-teeth-hot-01.jpg
Once watched on TV a giant ship sucking sand from deep water to make beach somewhere.
wato20
25-07-12, 12:11 PM
Now I Know - Pulling for Gold
On July 27, 2012, the Games of the XXX Olympiad -- the 2012 London Summer Olympics -- will officially begin. An estimated 10,000 athletes from over 200 countries will compete for gold, silver, and bronze in 26 sports. The diversity of the events is impressive: syncronized swimming, archery, slalom canoeing, beach volleyball, table tennis, and BMX bicycle racing all make this Games' list. Some critics may object, claiming that these are odd choices given the limited number of events (baseball and softball were both dropped for 2012 and golf, while suggested as a replacement, did not make the cut). But the truth is that the Olympics has a long history of including competitions which many would find curious.
You know, like tug of war.
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/1912_summer_olympics_tug_of_war.jpeg
Tug of war may, in present day, may be a game common mostly to younger kids, but for a long time, it was pretty serious business. It dates back to ancient China where hundreds of competitors would line up on either side of the rope and represent either the sun or the moon in a struggle for dominance over Earth. In more recent times, of course, the game has been relegated to summer camps, corporate team building exercises, and a comedic punchline in Revenge of the Nerds. But from 1900 until 1920, it was an Olympic sport.
Over the course of those five Olympiads (the 1916 Games were cancelled due to World War I), a total of 128 pullers from 10 different nations competed in tug of war. And it was, throughout, a comedy of errors:
# - In 1900, a team made up of three Danes and three Swedes triumphed over a French squad in the lone match of the Olympiad -- the only other team to sign up, an American one, did not compete because three of its pullers were in the hammer toss on the same day.
# - Four years later, in St. Louis, a quartet of American teams made their way into the semi-finals, and a team from Milwaukee beat one from New York in the gold medal match. But the New York team, for reasons unknown, did not show up for a silver or bronze medal match (both against teams from the host city of St. Louis).
# - In the 1908 London games, seven teams signed up but two -- from Greece and Germany -- did not show up. The Liverpool Police team faced off against an American team in the lone best two out of three preliminary match, with the winner advancing to the quarterfinals. The Liverpool team won the first pull but the Americans protested, arguing that the Liverpool team's choice of footwear -- service boots -- gave them an unfair advantage. When the Americans' grievance was denied, they forfeited.
# - Five teams signed up for the 1912 Games -- England (the London Police), Sweden (Stockholm Police), Austria, Bohemia, and Luxembourg -- and organizers had designed a ten match round-robin contest between them, with teams facing off against each other exactly once. The matches were supposed to take place from June 7 to June 12, but Bohemia and Austria did not show up for their first day of matches. England and Sweden were present on June 8th (as pictured above), and Sweden won the first pull. On the second, the London team sat down after a long struggle and was disqualified. When Luxembourg also failed to show up, organizers declared Sweden the winner and England the silver medalist -- after only one match.
The 1920 event went off smoothly, with eight pullers from five nations competing and with no disqualifications, as the London Police recaptured gold. Three members of the team -- Fredrick Humphreys, Edwin Mills, and John James Shepherd -- ended up with three medals (two gold, one silver) during tug of war's short run as an Olympic sport.
Bonus fact:
Tug of war has an international governing body called the "Tug of War International Federation," or "TWIF." The 2012 Tug of War World Championships will be held in Switzerland in early September. More information, including the official rules of the game and the anti-doping (!) regulations can be found here (http://www.tugofwar-twif.org/?p=rules&id=14&nav=1).
http://static.desktopnexus.com/thumbnails/965490-bigthumbnail.jpg
Now I Know - Accidentally Awesome
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Chocolate chip cookies are beloved. Reports vary as to how popular they are, but it is safe so say that billions of these concoctions are consumed each year. A basic recipe appears on every package of Nestle's Toll House chocolate chips, and it is incredibly simple -- get the listed ingredients together, mix, dole out by the tablespoon, and bake for about 10 minutes at 375 degrees Fahrenheit.
But while seemingly straightforward, the recipe turns out to be anything but -- historically speaking, that is. After all, why would someone ever think to put chunks of semi-sweet chocolate into cookie dough? In retrospect, it makes sense -- delicious sense -- but who knew? As it turns out, before 1930, no one. The creation of these gooey masterpieces was an accident -- the true story of which is still in debate.
Ruth Graves Wakefield was the owner of the Toll House Inn, then a well-known restaurant in Massachusetts. One day that year, she was making chocolate cookies, using a recipe which called for what we now know as chocolate chip cookies but with baking chocolate instead of chocolate chips. Unfortunately (or, perhaps, fortunately for us), Wakefield was all out of baking chocolate. So, according to Nestle (who ended up buying her recipe (http://allrecipes.com/recipe/original-nestle-toll-house-chocolate-chip-cookies/)) she came up with an interesting idea: use chocolate chips instead. But, as luck would have it, the chips retained their shape, and the rest is history.
Maybe.
George Boucher, a chef who once worked at the restaurant, claimed that Wakefield was too talented and too knowledgeable a chef herself to make what Boucher postured as a novice mistake. He offered an alternative theory (which, conveniently, gives him a center role). In his version of the story, Wakefield was making regular sugar cookies -- no chocolate involved, chips or otherwise -- but left the electric mixer uncapped. The vibrating mixer shook the cabinet above, causing a few bars of chocolate to fall in. Before Wakefield could stop, the mixer broke the bars into chips, which, in Wakefield's eyes (per Boucher) ruined the batter. Boucher claims that he convinced Wakefield to cook the dough anyway, and the pair created the tasty treats we now eat billions of each year.
In any event, two things are not in dispute: one, that Wakefield had a hand in the cookies' creation, and two, that she sold the recipe to Nestle -- in exchange for a lifetime supply of chocolate chips.
Bonus fact:
Oreos aren't chocolate chip cookies, but they are popular in their own right. Like anything else popular, there are plenty of Oreo copycats out there. Many may recall what is commonly believed to be one of them, a creme-filled chocolate sandwich cookie called Hydrox. But that belief is misplaced. Oreos debuted in 1912. Hydrox? 1908.
http://t2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRTrsfY7Y41CXUbEXc17h2yhcszD5rsF GApUnxP0vu_bDvb4deSfQ http://d29s07588lfq8p.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/hydrox-cookie.jpg
And a sexy woman with Oreo's...
http://www.hellaphone.com/walls/e2/e2vfacg.jpg
I think that is the best thing you have ever posted :D
wato20
30-07-12, 11:21 AM
Now I Know - Slinky Magic
Take a Slinky or a generic version thereof -- the bigger, the better. Find a balcony or window a few stories above ground, making sure that outside, there aren't any passersby coming. Dangle the Slinky out the window until it is mostly still. You'll want the other end of the Slinky to be about half way to the ground -- if it isn't, go up another few stories. If you have the required distance, count to five and let the Slinky go.
The top will fall. The bottom will wait until the top gets there.
Don't have a Slinky handy? Or can't get to a third story window? Watch the video below (or check out this animated gif (http://www.gifbin.com/985815)):
Falling slinky released from top, slow motion:
http://youtu.be/iSHJKvZBJvk
See? The top falls. The bottom waits.
What's going on here? The Slinky comes with a small, barely visible jet pack which allows-- no, wait. It's just physics, even if counterintuitively so.
Let's start with gravity. Drop something -- a ball, your mobile phone (which certainly happens all too often), a Slinky, or anything, and gravity will start to pull it down. That's pretty straightforward. It's why the top of the Slinky immediately falls once released, and it's why we expect the rest of the Slinky to fall as well. But that's not the only force acting on the Slinky. There's also the tension in the spring.
From the perspective of the Slinky's bottom, the tension is an upward force. Literally, the tension is pulling the bottom of the Slinky back up toward the top. When you are holding the top end of the Slinky, tension is what keeps it from unraveling entirely and falling to the ground as it stretches and dangles. When you drop it, the spring's tension doesn't just disappear, It's still there and, in this case, pulling up at the same rate that gravity is pulling it downward. So the bottom stays in place as the Slinky compresses.
But in the end, gravity wins. When the top and bottom meet, the tension goes to zero, and the bottom of the Slinky joins the top in its descent back to the ground.
Bonus fact:
The Slinky was created by accident. A naval engineer named Richard James was working with springs, hoping to find a way to counter the rough seas ships often encountered, which in turn caused their instruments to bounce around. A spring fell off a shelf and started tumbling around, "walking" from place to place, until it recoiled and came to rest. James tinkered with the tension until he created one which could walk down stairs.
http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcR_9fNqWASW86FxS8-44fS6AWBIA8mAQBK1LNWR4CB-1Clwor9i
Now I Know - Targeting Crime
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/Target_Logo.jpeg
If there's a Target near your town, and you need something, chances are they have it. Clothes, for sure. Diapers or toddler stuff? Toward the back, down the right side. Groceries? All the way left. Movies and video games? There's a whole section for that. Want a snack? That's in the front, past the registers.
Finding murderers? Yeah, Target does that too.
The first Target store opened in the U.S. in 1962. Today, there are over 1,700 locations throughout the United States and soon, the company will make its foray into Canada. Target typifies the discount retailer experience: a huge assortment of goods made available at lower than typical retail prices. Along the way, they had problems that many retailers -- especially retailers with their scale -- are certain to encounter: injuries and crimes. Specifically, Target found itself having to investigate things like slip-and-falls, shoplifting, theft by employees, and the like. To do so, they created a centralized investigation unit in their Minneapolis, Minnesota headquarters. And over time, this unit became more and more advanced. Today, it and a sibling outfit in Las Vegas are, combined, one of the more sophisticated crime labs out there, as described by Forbes (http://www.forbes.com/forbes/2008/0421/102.html).
And even that may be an understatement. In 2006, an FBI agent familiar with the labs told the Washington Post that "one of the nation's top forensics labs is located at Target's headquarters building in downtown Minneapolis. They have abilities and technology that far surpasses many law enforcement agencies in the country."
Thankfully, Target shares their facilities and abilities. About 70% of the labs' work is for Target. The other 30% of its time is donated by the corporation to law enforcement under the moniker "Target Forensic Services." Its speciality is in closed-circuit and surveillance video -- they have the technology to enhance it (although not to the absurd levels in many crime and sci-fi TV shows) and the people who work there have the experience to know what to look for and where. For example, a few years ago, a CNN correspondent (http://edition.cnn.com/CNN/Programs/anderson.cooper.360/blog/2006/02/target-sets-sights-on-hard-to-crack.html) visited the Minneapolis crime lab as they were assisting the local police in investigating a murder. The police provided a tape from a local convenience store, and from that, was able to identify the murderer's vehicle and developed a decent image of his face. Law enforcement was able to build off of that to identify the man and later get a conviction.
While Target does not advertise the availability of Target Forensic Services, it has become well enough known that demand well outstrips its ability to provide pro bono services. Per Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Target_Corporation#Target_Forensic_Services), Target now only offers its use to solve violent felonies.
Bonus fact:
Target tracks everything customers do and records these activities into a database -- so, if you're a Target customer, chances are you have a Target Guest ID number in their computer systems. Andrew Pole, a statistician for the company, explained the expansiveness of the program to the New York Times: "If you use a credit card or a coupon, or fill out a survey, or mail in a refund, or call the customer help line, or open an e-mail we’ve sent you or visit our Web site, we’ll record it and link it to your Guest ID. We want to know everything we can." They use that data, in part, to customize coupons which are mailed out to would-be shoppers. But sometimes that backfires. As Forbes noted, the company's algorithm once determined that a high schooler was a mother-to-be, and, dutifully, sent her a coupons for baby clothes -- which her father opened. A few days after receiving an irate phone call from the young woman's father, a customer service representative called back to apologize again, but the father ended up the one saying sorry: it turns out the algorithm was right. His daughter was pregnant but had not yet told him.
http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-nxXPiRtZ1GA/Tbm_kwS2oWI/AAAAAAAAAAg/piDKQZcHWHo/s1600/teenage-pregnancy-10.jpg
Now I Know - Blame Cuba
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/354px_NorthwoodsMemorandum.jpeg
In April of 1961, roughly 1,500 American-trained Cuban exiles invaded their homeland in an attempt to overthrow Fidel Castro's government. That assault, now referred to as the Bay of Pigs Invasion, ended up in failure, as the Cuban militia proved too powerful, capturing 80% of the invaders while killing most of the other 20%. The political fallout in the United States was massive, and the desire of the typical American to further engage Cuba in battle was understandably low. Further, other nations questioned America's desire to attack a neighboring sovereign, especially one who had shown little in the way of aggression to the U.S. and was already the subject of American economic sanctions.
But the Cold War was in full force. The U.S. saw Cuba as subordinate to the Soviet Union and having a Soviet stronghold just 250 miles off Florida troubled the leadership of the American military. The Department of Defense (DoD) and the military's Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) felt the need to revive civilian interest in overthrowing Castro and liberating Cuba. Absent a Cuban strike on Americans, though, this seemed unlikely. And no such Cuban strike was likely imminent.
So the DoD and JCS proposed to create such an attack themselves. A fake one, aimed at turning public opinion against Castro and in favor of continued military action against Cuba.
The plan, devised in 1962 and code named Operation Northwoods, had a simple yet striking goal: "to place the United States in the apparent position of suffering defensible grievances from a rash and irresponsible government of Cuba and to develop an international image of a Cuban threat to peace in the Western Hemisphere." The details, outlined in an appendix to an originally classified document titled "Pretexts to Justify U.S. Military Intervention in Cuba" (available starting here (http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/coldwar/documents/episode-10/02-03.htm)), included:
* Using friendly Cubans, pretending to be enemy fighters, to stage a fake (as in, there'd be no actual firearms discharge) attack on the U.S. base in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, replete with mock funerals after. This item may have included blowing up grounded planes and/or igniting ammunition stores on base to suggest sabotage -- and of course, the fake saboteurs would be "captured."
* Blowing up a U.S. ship (again, unoccupied) somewhere near or within Cuban waters, blaming the assault on Cuba's air force or naval batteries.
* Creating a group of fake Cuban terrorist cells, targeting Cuban refugees in the United States. The plan allowed for some bodily harm to come to the targets "to the extent of wounding" and also called for "sinking a boatload of Cubans en route to Florida (real or simulated)."
* Painting U.S. fighter jets to look like Soviet MIGs and then harassing civilian flights with these planes -- potentially looping in the commercial pilots to help convince passengers of the ruse.
* Potentially shooting down an aircraft traveling from the U.S. to Central America, purportedly transporting college students (but actually empty), as it passed over Cuban air space.
In almost all cases, the plan was designed to avoid killing American civilians, although the same could not be said for "boatload[s] of Cubans" destined for Miami. Regardless, the total death toll from Operations Northwoods was zero. Then-President John F. Kennedy rejected the idea and removed its lead proponent, General Lyman Lemnitzer, from his position as the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
Bonus fact:
The U.S. embargo of Cuba dates back to 1958 and its reach has been adjusted a few times since. (In general, the restrictions have been tightened, but on July 16, 2012, a U.S-sanctioned ship carrying humanitarian goods from Cubans in Miami to their families sailed into Havana (http://www.aljazeera.com/news/americas/2012/07/20127147196482238.html).)
The ban on importing Cuban cigars was not among the original restrictions -- that was added in an executive order signed by President Kennedy in 1962. But JFK was, apparently, fond of the cigars. According to Pierre Salinger, then the President's press secretary, one evening that year, JFK asked him to pick up about 1,000 of them by "tomorrow morning." Salinger over-delivered, obtaining 1,200, and presented them to the President the next morning. As Salinger recounts: "Kennedy smiled, and opened up his desk. He took out a long paper which he immediately signed. It was the decree banning all Cuban products from the United States. Cuban cigars were now illegal in the USA."
http://www.healthylivingnyc.com/includes/resize_article_photo.php?articleid=205
Now I Know - A Ghostly Murder
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/ZonaHeasterShue.jpeg
Zona Shue, pictured above, was found dead in her home on January 23, 1897 in Greenbrier County, West Virginia, by an errand boy. By the time Dr. George Knapp, Mrs. Shue's physician-turned-coroner, arrived about an hour later, Shue's husband, Edward Shue, was already by her bedside. He was distraught and somewhat erratic, as one would expect from a man who came home to such a scene, and angered when Dr. Knapp tried to examine the corpse. Nevertheless, Dr. Knapp was able to pronounced Zora dead, with "childbirth" as the official cause of death. But to Zora's mother, Mary Jane Heaster, the doctor's pronouncement was just plain wrong. Mrs. Heaster was convinced that Edward murdered her daughter.
Mrs. Heaster was correct. Four weeks after Zora's funeral and burial, Mrs. Heaster received a message detailing how Edward snapped her daughter's neck, ending her life in her mid-20s. That messenger? Zora's ghost.
Even leading up to the funeral, there was plenty of reason to believe that not everything was as it seemed. Before Dr. Knapp arrived on the night of Zora's death, Edward dressed her corpse (which typically happened after pronouncement), placing her in a stiff collar and a veil. During the wake, he didn't allow people to come close to the body, and had placed her head between a pillow and a rolled-up sheet, ostensibly to keep her comfortable in the afterlife. Mrs. Heaster managed to grab the sheet before Zona was buried, and when she washed it, it turned the water red. But Zona's burial went forward without an autopsy.
About a month later, over the course of a few evenings, Zora's ghost appeared to Mrs. Heaster, according to the grieving mother herself. The ghost, she claimed, told her what had happened: Edward was an abusive husband who, having come home to find dinner not to his liking, snapped Zora's neck in a fit of rage, killing her. This explained his odd behavior and the sheet, but with the self-alleged victim now six feet under, there was little other evidence out there. So Mrs. Heaster told the district attorney about her supernatural visitor in hopes of having Zona's body exhumed and a proper autopsy performed. After other townspeople joined Mrs. Heaster's cause, the DA agreed. And the autopsy revealed that Zona's death was caused by a broken neck.
At trial, the prosecution called Mrs. Heaster as a witness -- to testify about the facts, not her ghost-sighting. She stuck to that, but on cross-examination, the defense asked her about her encounter with her dead daughter, asserting it was a dream. Mrs. Heaster, according to the West Virginia Division of Culture and History (http://www.wvculture.org/HiStory/notewv/ghost1.html), was unwavering; she "firmly insisted it was no dream and that she was as awake when her daughter appeared as she was then in the courtroom." The jury believed her. Edward was convicted of the murder and sentenced to life in prison.
Bonus fact:
The University of Virginia School of Medicine is one state over from where Zora Shue's ghost allegedly appeared, but perhaps the school would find her story interesting anyway. Why? Because it is home to a group of researchers -- the Division of Perceptual Studies (http://www.medicine.virginia.edu/clinical/departments/psychiatry/sections/cspp/dops/we_are-page) -- whose "researchers are dedicated to the use of scientific methodology in their investigation of a wide range of paranormal phenomena." In short, the division studies potential ghost sightings and other paranormal activity.
http://1.media.collegehumor.cvcdn.com/36/58/collegehumor.4052a456147b1038bedfda352fe8c293.jpg
02-08-12, 12:00 PM
Now I Know - Operation Migration
The whooping crane is an endangered bird native to North America. Before Europeans settled in the New World, there were an estimated 10,000 of them. By the late 1800s, that number fell to about 1,500. In 1941, there were twenty-three -- two in captivity and just under two dozen in the wild.
Joe Duff wanted to fix that. To do so, he and his colleagues decided to dress up kind of like the whooping cranes they wanted to save.
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/027.jpeg
Duff is the co-founder and CEO of a not-for-profit organization called Operation Migration (http://www.operationmigration.org/). The whooping crane population is at risk mostly due to habitat loss -- the areas they have been migrating to and from, for generations, have slowly been eroded away as people have moved in. Each subsequent generation of cranes learns the migratory path by following their parents, and unfortunately, the parents were going into a long-destroyed habitat, and many did not survive the season. Without parents to guide them, the younger cranes were lost, and they, too, perished.
To combat this, Operation Migration uses a development from the 1980s and 1990s. A Canadian ultralight aircraft enthusiast named Bill Lishman -- who would later become Duff's co-founder -- theorized that certain waterfowl could be trained to follow such a plane to a different migratory destination. In 1993, Lishman successfully lead a group sixteen of Canadian geese from Ontario to Virginia. Thirteen of the sixteen returned to Ontario the next year -- without needing a human guide.
Lishman's innovation centered on the fact that waterfowl, soon after their birth, imprint upon the first creature they see. Typically, this is their birth mother, but in a controlled environment, it could be basically any animal -- including a person, if conditions are right. Duff, in an interview with NPR's Talk of the Nation, explained: "Whooping cranes are hatched in the nest, in a marsh on the ground, basically, and they leave the nest almost immediately and follow their parents out to forage for food. And if they don't follow their parents, they're lost. So that natural instinct to imprint is there, and we just substitute parent for pilot and make sure they imprint on us." The pilots wear the above-seen costumes so that the whooping cranes, when reintroduced to the wild, are not familiar with humans. Duff does not want them to learn that other people they come across are going to coddle and care for them because, simply, they won't.
Once the cranes are able -- assuming they've learned to follow the pilot -- Operation Migration continues their conditioning, training them to follow the ultralight aircraft, as seen below.
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/596px_09_01_17_WhoopingCranes.jpeg
According to an interview Duff did with VetStreet.com (http://www.vetstreet.com/our-pet-experts/operation-migration-saves-endangered-whooping-cranes-by-teaching-them-to-fly), there are now roughly 500 whooping cranes in the wild -- a roughly twenty-fold increase in just a few generations, although there is a long way to go. And there are unexpected problems along the way. As reported by the Sierra Club (http://sierraclub.typepad.com/explore/2012/01/whooping-crane-migration-gets-the-faa-ok.html), toward the end of 2011 and into 2012, the Federal Aviation Administration temporarily grounded Operation Migration's aircraft due to an unclear rule requiring the organization to obtain a special waiver before they took flight again. They are working with the FAA on a permanent solution to allow the flights to go off without further problems.
Bonus fact:
For researchers and similar types, dressing up like the animals you are studying is not all that rare. In China, researchers transporting pandas into a wildlife reserve often don panda suits, as seen here (http://photos.mercurynews.com/2012/05/04/researchers-dressed-in-panda-costumes-transfer-giant-panda-to-a-new-living-environment-in-china/#name%20here).
And here is a sexy Panda
http://www.getiton-fancydress.co.uk/images/M2256.jpg
03-08-12, 11:54 AM
Now I Know - Fourteen Feet Deep
Puget Sound, the Strait of Georgia, and the Strait of Juan de Fuca make up part of the Pacific coasts of the American state of Washington and the Canadian province of British Columbia. Collectively, they make up the Salish Sea. Their beaches are like most other ones, with one disturbing feature:
For some reason, disembodied feet keep washing up on shore.
In August of 2007, a 12 year-old Washington girl was visiting British Columbia's Jedediah Island. As reported by CBC News (http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/story/2007/08/31/bc-feet.html), she found a black and white Adidas sneaker with a sock and foot still inside -- with no other body parts to be found. Later that month, a couple found a Reebok sneaker on nearby Gabriola Island -- again, with human remains somewhat preserved inside the shoe. Both shoes were size 12, men's, and right feet. Two different people meeting very similar fates.
And the feet just kept on coming. A third foot (http://www.canada.com/theprovince/news/story.html?id=d85218b4-8a98-4d16-ad7c-02daecd983d9) was found in February of 2008, again a male right foot. A fourth foot (http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/story/2008/05/22/bc-severed-foot-richmond.html) was discovered in May -- the first one of a woman -- and a fifth one (http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/story/2008/06/16/bc-fifth-foot-found.html) in June. The fifth foot, uniquely to this point, was a left foot, and DNA tests confirmed that it belonged to the same person as the first foot found. The locations of where the first six feet were found are flagged on the map below. Over the next four years, another eight feet would wash up on the shores of the Salish Sea. Fourteen total feet belonging to a dozen people.
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/Picture_32.2.png
No one is sure why the feet are washing up while the rest of the bodies never emerge. The most likely theory is that when submerged bodies decompose, the hands, feet, and head detach, as they are the parts most loosely connected to the rest of the body. In most cases, these detached parts would sink soon after, but in the case of the fourteen Salish Sea feet, the foot/sneaker combination has enough buoyancy to keep it afloat.
As for the identities of the people who once walked using the discovered feet? Investigators have used DNA tests of the human tissue and forensic analysis of the shoes to come up with answers. Unfortunately, that is easier said than done. The currents in the area draw from across the Pacific and the body fat in the feet forms a soap-like substance which interferes with scientific testing. With one exception, there are more questions than answers. In November of 2011, the Canadian Press reported (http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2011/10/19/bc-feet-mystery-coroner_n_1020772.html) that two of the feet belonged to a woman who committed suicide by jumping off a bridge in New Westminster, British Columbia, seven years earlier. To date, the owners of the other dozen feet are unidentified.
Bonus fact:
According to a 1994 study (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8050406) of just under 1,200 men, the average adult male foot measures 26.3 centimeters -- or about 10.3 inches -- with a standard deviation of 1.2 centimeters (just under half an inch). In other words, the vast majority of human feet are not quite a foot long.
http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRIm5fEnE6dDs8x5xFiyBTAXcdg-lvNKUrX_bkoUQsWsNvxP-k1
06-08-12, 12:52 PM
Now I Know - Boared
There are four million of them roaming around the United States as we speak. Collectively, according to the New York Times (http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/21/sports/othersports/21hogs.html?_r=2&hp), they cause roughly $800 million in property damage annually. But these animals are no ordinary pests -- they're not rats or termites or other such creatures which normally spring to mind as destructive nuisances.
They're pigs -- feral pigs. And they are, literally, out of control.
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/640px_Wild_Pig_KSC02pd0873.jpeg
Feral pigs may look rather harmless -- like furry cousins of the incredible, friendly pig from Charlotte's Web. But that could not be further from the truth. Their voracious appetites combined with their willingness to eat almost anything mean that wherever they are, anything edible is certain to be consumed. They destroy the habitats of other wildlife, eating food other animals rely on. They ravage crops and shred other plants. According to the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (http://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/70843.html), they even "consume the nests and eggs of ground nesting birds and reptiles." They know no boundaries, appear to have no fear, and reproduce rapidly. As the Times summarized, feral pigs are "capable of breaking through fences. They run pickup trucks off the road. They prey on young livestock and woodland creatures. They carry disease. They gestate in four months and deliver litters of a half dozen." The New York State DEC echoes that last sentence, noting that "A feral swine population can triple in one year."
They're a menace.
Hunting them is no easy feat, either. They have very sharp tusks and can be deceptively quick, especially when injured, cornered, or otherwise threatened. In July of 2011, for example, a Texas man tried to trap five of the pigs in a pen on his ranch, but one of the pigs speared him in the calf (http://www.khou.com/news/Texas-man-attacked-by-feral-pig-125490018.html). The rancher required more than 100 stitches. Another Texan, a hog hunter, told Environmental Graffiti (http://www.environmentalgraffiti.com/ecology/us-pig-population-an-ecological-disaster/538) that feral pigs are "the poor man's grizzly . If you shoot at a hog, you'd better shoot straight, because if you don't kill it, he might try and kill you."
Given the feral pigs' proclivity and the economic harm they cause, some jurisdictions take a no-holds-barred approach to their eradication. Missouri, for example, goes to the extreme: "Hunters afield for other game are encouraged to shoot feral hogs on sight when they are encountered. In Missouri, feral hogs may be killed in any number throughout the year. During most of the year no permit is required and any method is allowed."
[B]
Bonus fact:
A typical feral pig weighs 100 to 200 pounds (50 to 90 kg) and, excluding its tail, can reach lengths of about six and a half feet (or about 200 cm). But in 2004, a feral pig was killed on a farm in Georgia which was about seven to eight feet long and weighed an estimated 800 pounds. That creature -- a hybrid of a wild boar and a domesticated pig, seen below -- earned the nickname Hogzilla. It was so large that news of its discovery and death was, originally, widely believed to be a hoax (http://www.sfgate.com/news/article/DNA-tests-to-reveal-if-possible-record-size-boar-2691605.php).
Hogzilla
07-08-12, 12:23 PM
Now I Know - The Musical Savant
Derek Paravicini was born on July 26, 1979. He is autistic and, due to oxygen therapy received at birth -- which was required as he was born at only 25 weeks -- is blind and suffers from a variety of learning disabilities. He can, however, hear, which is incredibly important. Why?
Because Paravicini is a musical genius. He can play a piece of music on the piano after hearing it just once.
At only five years old, he started taking piano lessons at the Linden Lodge School for the Blind in London. By nine, he had his first public concert. And it wasn't just some recital by a grammar school kid. As seen in the video below, Paravicini is an incredibly gifted pianist -- the video, a promo of a segment from 60 Minutes, opens with him at the piano. But watch for even half a minute and you'll see that Paravicini's awe-inspiring piano playing abilities do not extend beyond that point. When host Leslie Stahl asks him to hold up three fingers, he can't.
http://youtu.be/oHJg3OxMQus
Paravicini's piano abilities are not based on rote memorization alone. Rather, he has a highly adaptable understanding of music generally (most likely -- how he thinks is a mystery), and is able to combine elements from the vast library of music stored in his head. For example, in the same 60 Minutes segment, Stahl asks him to play the song YMCA by the Village People. He does, dutifully, and then Stahl changes the rules, asking him to transform the song into a "Russian dance." The result: as seen at the 1:17 mark here (http://www.metacafe.com/watch/4303465/derek_paravicini_on_60_minutes_autistic_savant/), exactly what Stahl asked for. Further, he is able to synthesize the musical output of entire ensembles and translate it into a playable (by him, at least) piano concerto.
Unfortunately, this gift is not enough to make Paravicini an independent, otherwise-functional adult. While he is capable of drawing an audience -- paying customers, at that -- he's unable to handle his own financial affairs, even now at age 33. His now-divorced parents still care for him in that regard.
Bonus fact:
One song Paravicini almost certainly cannot play? Circus Gallop, a song composed in the early 1990s to test electronic musical instrument software, requires 21 notes to be played simultaneously, and Paravicini simply does not have enough fingers to perform it. (Watch and hear it in action, on a player piano, here. (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BdUy70dh8LY&t=0m8s))
http://escoben.files.wordpress.com/2009/05/loora_hot_girl_piano.jpg
08-08-12, 11:58 AM
Now I Know - One's Trash, Another's Treasure
There's an old saying, "one man's trash is another man's treasure," the etymology of which has been lost to time. The meaning is not literal but, typically, a commentary on how there is no judging for taste -- what one person may think is worthless may be cherished by another. But in the case of one particular type of refuse, the literal meaning of the phrase rings true -- to the point of fueling organized crime in parts of the United States.
That product? Old cardboard boxes. While some people are trying to throw them out, others are stealing them before the waste haulers come by.
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/re2sm.jpeg
Cardboard boxes are recyclable. And as recyclables go, they make for some of the best garbage out there. They are easy to transport because they can be baled up, as seen above, and throw in the back of a truck, allowing tons of cardboard to carted for miles without much labor or fuel costs. The recycling process itself is centered around something called a hydropulper, which is basically a moving bath of warm water which mixes the bales until the cardboard turns into an oatmeal-like consistency of paper pulp. That pulp can be turned back into boxes or other products made of corrugated fiberboard.
Because cardboard boxes have a second life, they have value even after they are emptied of their contents and sent off with waste hauler. While municipalities and companies alike will pay such service providers to take their garbage and recyclables away, the haulers also make money by selling the bales of cardboard to recyclers. But others are aware of the cardboard's value -- approximately $100 a ton -- and grab it before the haulers can. Because the waste management companies have contractually agreed to take the trash (at a price lower than they would if the recyclable cardboard were not present), doing so is often considered theft.
One notable such crime spree involved three New Jersey men who, over the course of about four months, made off with over 900 tons of cardboard, as reported by Metro Philadephia. (http://www.metro.us/philadelphia/local/article/1148438--n-j-men-allegedly-stole-100k-worth-of-cardboard-through-large-scale-recycling-theft-ring)
While most illegal cardboard runners simply steal the boxes laying idle off the side of the road (which is typical in larger cities) or from behind large stores like Wal-Mart or Target, the New Jersey trio were more creative. They created a sham corporation called "Metro Paper, Inc." and rented trucks. Then, they monitored the pickup schedules at large stores which went through a high amount of boxes. Once they had the schedule down, they made sure they arrived before the legitimate haulers, picking up the boxes and moving on to their next target.
Seems like a waste of time -- or, a crime not worth the risk? According to Waste Recycling News (http://www.wasterecyclingnews.com/article/20120725/NEWS02/120729954/new-york-city-cardboard-recycling-theft-ring-broken-up-three-arrested), the group sold their treasure trove of used cardboard boxes for just north of $100,000.
Bonus fact:
What does society do with all those recycled boxes? In general, they're turned into more boxes, as noted above. But Israeli inventor Izhar Gafni, a bicycling enthusiast, decided to take his hobby and turn it into a challenge. As reported by Fast Company (http://www.usatoday.com/news/offbeat/2005-11-12-cardboard-box_x.htm), Gafni built a fully functional bike out of recycled cardboard boxes. The water-resistant bicycles use only $9 in materials.
http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTY48Bq5PhunalCJtZvpyq9KGvWk0atX bMviE5xh7nHr6Yc2djOKA
Now I Know - Three of a Kind
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In 2005, Debbie and Kent Beasley of California had triplets -- kind of. All three children were conceived in 1992 and the older two children were born then, but the third one required thirteen more years -- the result of an ever-advancing world of science with an unintentional intentional assist from a crooked doctor. Meet Laina Beasley, the baby born from an embryo frozen for over a decade before her birth.
In the early 1990s, Laina's parents were hoping to start a family but had trouble getting pregnant. Like many have in recent decades, they turned toward in vitro fertilization, or IVF, a lengthy, potentially painful, and often expensive process where the mother's egg is fertilized by father's sperm outside the body and is then implanted into the woman's womb. Because of the costs and because the implantation does not always work, it is common for the doctors to extract many eggs at once -- a dozen or more, perhaps -- even though only four or so are implanted at a time. (UK law, for example, only allows two or three eggs to be implanted at a time, depending on the age of the would-be mother.)
In the case of the Beasleys, in 1992, Debbie had 12 eggs extracted and fertilized but only three implanted, two of which she was able to carry to term. The other nine sat in storage with her fertility doctor, Ricardo Asch, without an explained future use (if any) for them. Or so the Beasleys thought.
In 1995, Dr. Asch and others were accused of taking their patients' embryos -- including the Beasleys' -- and providing them to other women and to research institutions, without their patients' knowledge or consent. (These types of donations are not uncommon, but doing so without permission is as shocking as it sounds.) The clinic was shuttered and the Beasleys' embryos ended up across the country, at a university (unnamed) where they were to be used for medical research. Most likely, they would have been destroyed in the interim years, but due to Dr. Asch's apparently immoral act, eight of the nine remaining embryos were saved.
According to the BBC (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/4655035.stm), in 2001, the Beasleys decided to try get pregnant again, using the remaining embryos. Of the now six remaining -- two were lost in an attempt gone bad in 1996, which almost cost Debbie her life -- four thawed properly and were viable. All four were implanted into Mrs. Beasley and one ended up making it through 35 weeks of the 40 week typical gestation period. In June of 2002, Laina Beasley was born, joining her brother and sister, thirteen years later.
Bonus fact:
Triplets occur naturally in about 1 in 7,900 pregnancies, and in almost all of those cases, at least one of the triplets is genetically different than the others. Identical triplets do occur, often caused when a fertilized egg splits and then one of the resulting two eggs splits again (or when both split but only three of the resulting four survive). The odds of a pregnancy resulting in identical triplets? According to MSNBC, they may be as rare as one in 200 million.
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Now I Know - Les Horribles Cernettes
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The image above is, from left to right, Angela Higney, Michele de Gennaro, Colette Marx-Neilsen, Lynn Veronneau, from 1992. Individually, they were administrative assistants and/or spouses of researchers at CERN, the European Organization for Nuclear Research (which is now home to the Higgs boson (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higgs_boson)-researching Large Hadron Collider (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider)).
Collectively, they're part of a musical group of sorts called Los Horribles Cernettes (http://musiclub.web.cern.ch/MusiClub/bands/cernettes/), a joke band from CERN, with "hits" such as "My Sweetheart is a Nobel Prize" and "Daddy's Lab." The image is a photoshopped version of this photograph (http://www.viceland.com/viceblog/17500290firstphoto_original_smaller.jpg) and was originally intended to become a CD cover for the Cernettes' 1992 album. And if that is all that happened, the image would be not worth mentioning.
But as it turns out, that photoshopped picture of a half-joke musical act is special. About twenty years ago, it became the first photograph ever used on the World Wide Web.
When we think about the multimedia experience that the web is now today, we lose sight of its more humble beginnings. Originally conceived by British computer scientist and CERN research Tim Berners-Lee in 1989, the web made its debut on December 25, 1990. But that rudimentary system consisted of (and was defined as) a web browser, a single web server, and a few web pages -- and, more importantly, they were not publicly accessible. It would not be unveiled to the public until August of the following year when Berners-Lee and his student, Robert Cailliau, announced their "World Wide Web" project on an online newsgroup. And even then, the existing web pages were text documents (or more accurately, hypertext documents) which users could navigate through via links. There were no images.
That changed on July 18, 1992 or thereabouts. According to Silvano de Gennaro (http://musiclub.web.cern.ch/MusiClub/bands/cernettes/firstband.html), the photographer of the picture above (and later, the husband of one of the Cernettes), Berners-Lee asked him "for a few scanned photos of 'the CERN girls' to publish on some sort of information system he had just invented, called the 'World Wide Web.'" Not knowing the future levity of this "World Wide Web" thing, he happily obliged, scanning the photos in and sending them to Berners-Lee's machine. (And via FTP at that -- email attachments were only a few months old then.) Berners-Lee put the photograph on a web server and the rest is history.
The photograph is probably not the first picture uploaded to the web, as Berners-Lee was almost certainly testing before making this request of de Gennaro, but as de Gennaro originally noted (http://web.archive.org/web/20021011042441/http://musiclub.web.cern.ch/musiclub/bands/cernettes/firstband.html), it was a "historical milestone" -- "the first picture ever to be clicked on in a web browser." (De Genarro updated his page on the topic after a blog asserted (http://motherboard.vice.com/2012/7/10/crossdressing-compression-and-a-collider-the-first-photo-on-the-web) that Berners-Lee was a cross-dresser and wanted the photo in question because it somehow served that purpose; De Genarro also addressed that issue in this forcefully worded disclaimer. (http://musiclub.web.cern.ch/MusiClub/bands/cernettes/disclaimer.html)) Most if not all of the test images were vector graphics (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_graphics), not photographs, so the above-displayed photoshopped picture is the web's first photograph.
Today, the Cernettes are still performing -- and, of course, using the web to do what most artists are doing: selling their music online (http://www.cdbaby.com/cd/leshorriblescernettes).
Bonus fact:
The first web server, seen here (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:First_Web_Server.jpg), was a NeXT Computer which cost $6,500,in the late 1980s, or about $12,000 in today's dollars. Because turning it off would, in effect, turn off the entire web, Berners-Lee adorned with with a sticker which read "This machine is a server. DO NOT POWER IT DOWN!!"
http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcR5RoSUM1JynES_Qy_zkl1v-mv4ivfhd28zrsIdwm92gxil3FuR
Now I Know - Faster Than a Speeding Bullet
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American swimmer Michael Phelps has 22 Olympic medals to his name -- 18 gold, two silver, and two bronze. In the 2008 Beijing Olympics alone, he set a record by winning eight gold medals, including the gold in the men's 100 meter butterfly over Milorad Cavic of Serbia, as seen above -- kind of. Phelps, on the left, touched the wall 0.01 seconds before Cavic, and to the naked eye, discerning that fact is impossible.
Even a frame-by-frame (http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/multimedia/photo_gallery/0808/oly.phelps.sequence/content.1.html) look into the finish yields little in the way of certainty. And these slight margins are not limited to swimming. For example, in the 2004 Athens Olympics, the top four finishers in the men's 100 meters (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athletics_at_the_2004_Summer_Olympics_-_Men%27s_100_metres#Final) finished a total of 0.04 seconds apart, with times of 9.85, 9.86, 9.87, and 9.89 seconds, respectively.
With margins this thin, every factor may have an outcome on an Olympic race. Including the speed of sound.
At sea level, the speed of sound (at sea level) is about 340 meters per second. The men's 100 meters is an 8-man race, with each competitor in a roughly 1.22 meter wide lane. The runner in Lane 1 is, approximately, eight and half meters from the runner in Lane 8. If the starting pistol is fired next to Lane 1, the runner in that lane will hear it about 0.025 seconds before the runner in Lane 8. The same goes for swimming, and even more so. An Olympic pool is ten lanes long, with each lane spanning 2.5 meters. Assuming each swimmer is roughly in the middle of his or her lane, the swimmer in the first lane is about 22.5 meters away from the swimmer in the final lane. The time it takes for the sound to travel from Lane 1 to Lane 10? Six hundredths of a second. And when the gap between gold and silver (or bronze and not medaling) is less than that, there's a problem.
To solve for this, the Olympics (and other race organizers) have, for decades, wired the pistol to a microphone and relayed the sound to speakers situated behind each of those racing. The noise is relayed electronically and therefore moves much faster than the speed of sound, which should mitigate if not eliminate the problem. But going into the 2012 London Olympics, the organizers saw fit to improve upon the problem anyway. Why? In part, because some competitors were (perhaps subconsciously, to avoid false starts) unwilling to trust the electronically piped-in noise behind them and instead were "waiting" for the true sound to reach them.
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The 2012 London Olympics fixed the problem. As reported by The Atlantic (http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/12/07/the-speed-of-sound-is-too-slow-for-olympic-athletes/260413/), the London Olympic Games Organizing Committee decided to use the starter originally tested in the 2010 Vancouver (Winter) Games -- an all-electronic "gun" by Omega, seen above. Gear Patrol explains how it works (http://gearpatrol.com/2012/07/24/timekeeping-omega-olympics/): "When the starter’s finger pulls the trigger, the classic “bang” is played through speakers behind each runner’s starting block [and only there], a visual flash is emitted and a pulse is sent electronically to the timing system. No smoke and the only drama is at the finish line."
And as an added bonus, you don't need a permit to carry it around.
Bonus fact:
Superman -- the comic book hero, not Michael Phelps -- is said to be "faster than a speeding bullet." How fast is that? Starting pistols typically fire blanks or caps, so there's no speeding bullet for Superman to outrace. For other handguns, it varies based on the gun as well as the bullet, but in general is in the range of 390 meters per second to about 460 m/s. In any case, they go -- and therefore, Superman can go -- faster than the speed of sound. So if Superman ever yells "watch out!," he's doing the person in danger a disservice, the sonic boom notwithstanding. He can get to the person faster than his voice can, assuming the sound of his voice isn't also super.
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Now I Know - The Bat Bomb
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During the final days of World War II, the United States, apparently believing that Japan was unlikely to surrender otherwise, dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The death toll from these two bombs numbered as high as 250,000 when one factors in those who died up to four months later due to things like burns and radiation sickness. Research into the creation of an atomic bomb began in 1939 and the Manhattan Project, which developed the science behind the weapons in earnest, began in June of 1942. But in March of 1943, the United States was developing another weapon which would have potentially spared many thousands of lives.
Unless, that is, you count the lives of the millions or so bats which would have died in the process.
In the mid-1940s, many Japanese buildings were still constructed out of wood and paper, which, of course, were flammable. If the U.S. could figure out a way to start fires in a large number of buildings spread out over a wide area, the Japanese infrastructure and economy would suffer but the direct loss of life would be relatively smaller. But that seemed impossible. Napalm strikes could start fires everywhere in its path, but that wouldn't spread. And carpet bombing with many small warheads would increase the area of the strike, but most likely wouldn't cause many fires. And of course, the death toll from either of those routes could still be rather large.
But a few months before the Manhattan Project got underway, a dental surgeon named Lytle Adams came up with the idea to use bats -- the nocturnal flying mammals -- as part of the strategy. As he would later tell Air Force Magazine (http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/1990/October%201990/1090bats.aspx), after seeing millions of bats flying around caves in Carlsbad Canyon, New Mexico, he immediately thought that they could be used as a way to spread firebombs throughout Japan. He collected a few of them himself, did a little research, and found that even tiny bats weighing well under a pound could carry three times their weight in explosives. He pitched his plan to the military (which apparently was not uncommon at the time) and the military agreed that there was something more to look into.
Adams' theory was straightforward. Collect a million of bats and strap timed incendiary devices to their backs while they hibernated. Stick a thousand of them each into a thousand bombs designed to open at high altitudes. Fly over Japan at night, drop the bombs, and then let the bats fly around. When daybreak comes, the theory went, the bats will hide in dark places -- and given where they are, the most common hiding place will be attics. The timer ticks down shortly after and, without obvious explanations, hundreds of thousands of Japanese buildings start to burn to the ground.
The idea was not just a theory, either. By March of 1943, the U.S. military had identified a suitable population of bats, having located a series of caves in Texas which was the home to millions of the flying critters. For the next year or so, at the expense of $2 million ($25 million in today's dollars), they tested Adams' theory. Except for one major problem -- at one point, some bats got loose resulting in a major fire at the base, as seen above -- the military believed that the bat bombs could actually work.
One report placed their effectiveness at ten to thirty times more effective (measured by the number of fires which would have started) than conventional incendiary devices.
But the final report on the bat bombs issues in mid-1944, while positive, noted that they would not be ready for combat for another year. Due to the slow time table, the military canceled the project before it could be fully developed.
Bonus fact:
Bats eat insects (among other things), including malaria-carrying mosquitoes. In the 1920s, a researcher named Charles Campbell proposed building "bat towers" which would provide a roost for bats during the day so they could feast on the mosquitoes at night. There's an active one at the University of Florida, as seen here (http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/bats/), but the most famous one is probably the Sugarloaf Key Bat Tower in the Florida Keys. The Sugarloaf tower was built in 1928 by a fish lodge owner named Richard Perky with much fanfare -- and with one big problem. According to Atlas Obscura (http://atlasobscura.com/place/sugarloaf-key-bat-tower), when Perky put the bats into the tower, they flew off to find some bugs to eat -- and never came back.
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Now I Know - The Sound of Silence
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Sometimes, one just needs a bit of peace and quiet. Not for serenity (well, that too), but for scientific research. If you want to measure how loud a consumer product is -- say, that of a cell phone's ring or the hum of a dishwasher -- you are better off doing so in an environment with little to no ambient noise. So many organizations -- Apple, Microsoft, and the U.S. military to name a few -- have built special rooms (http://www.fastcompany.com/1671022/chambers-super-silence-whats-inside-apples-100-million-iphone-radio-test-facility), called anechoic (read as "an-echoic," as in "echo free") chambers, to create such conditions.
Minneapolis, Minnesota-based Orfield Laboratories has one, too. And they rent it out so that others can test their products, much like Apple and others do in their own chambers. But Orfield does something additional: they let visitors sit in the room, alone and in the dark, to see how long they can last without going mad.
According to Minnesota Public Radio (http://minnesota.publicradio.org/display/web/2012/04/03/daily-circuit-quiet-room/), the typical quiet room -- such as your bedroom late at night -- has an ambient noise level of about 30 decibels, caused by the rustling of sheets, the hum of the air conditioner, and similar sources of white noise. Orfield's anechoic chamber has a noise level of -9 decibels -- yes, negative nine. According to Guinness World Records, it is the world's quietest room. The silence-producing design, according to the Deccan Chronicle (http://www.deccanchronicle.com/channels/sci-tech/others/worlds-quietest-room-absorbs-all-sound-601) and seen above, features a "trampoline"-like mesh floor, which prevents sounds from reflecting off of it; and walls with one meter-long pieces of soundproofing protruding outward, which absorb sound.
A trip inside may seem like a get-away from the tribulations of the rest of the world, but as Orfield Laboratories President Steve Orfield notes, anything could be further from the truth. He explained why to Minnesota Public Radio: "When you sit in any rooms a person normally sits in, you hear the sound and all its reflections. When you go into an anechoic chamber, there are zero reflections. So if you listen to me talk and hear my voice, you're hearing my voice exactly. And if I turn around and talk, the only thing you'll hear is the sound bending around my head." The body adapts to the massive sensory deprivation by finding whatever it can latch onto -- even its own noises. Quite literally, the mind starts focusing on the sounds of one's own heart beating and lungs expanding. It is enough to drive almost all people to hallucinate.
Orfield himself can only last about 30 minutes in the room before listening to his body parts (including, and especially, an artificial heart valve) is more than he can handle. But perhaps the word "only" there is improperly used. As reported by the Daily Mail (http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2124581/The-worlds-quietest-place-chamber-Orfield-Laboratories.html), the longest anyone has lasted is 45 minutes.
Bonus fact:
Finding pure testing environments isn't unique to sound -- it also can be a problem for taste-testers such as John Harrison, who has the envious job of being the official taste-tester for Edy's ice cream. As Indianapolis Monthly reported (http://www.indianapolismonthly.com/dish/blogentry.aspx?BlogEntryID=10386980), Harrison uses a special utensil that, in his experience, does not leave an aftertaste. That utensil? A gold-plated spoon, as seen here. (http://www.flickr.com/photos/26820013@N03/2621175023/)
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16-08-12, 11:52 AM
Now I Know - Monkey Island
Cayo Santiago is a small island about half a mile off the southeast coast of Puerto Rico. Shaped like an upside down L, the island is only about 140 square meters in area and has a population of zero.
Unless you count the 900 or so monkeys living there, that is. (And apparently, they bite.)
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In 1938, a team of researchers relocated 409 Rhesus monkeys from India, hoping to build a wilderness preserve for them so that Western scientists could study the monkeys in something akin to their natural habitat. Nearly seventy-five years later, the experiment continues, successfully. Accounts vary, but there are currently between 850 and 950 monkeys, all descended from those imported in 1938, living in the wild on Cayo Santiago -- now, colloquially, also referred to as "Monkey Island."
Roughly a dozen researchers from mainland Puerto Rico visit the island daily, observing and interacting with the army of primates in hopes of gathering data and gleaning insight into their society. Some researchers -- ethologists -- observe the monkeys, staying out of sight if possible. But others look to interact with Cayo Santiago's residents. One of these researchers, Laurie Santos, is an evolutionary psychologist from Yale University. Her studies focus on the something called "theory of mind" -- how humans can infer what others are thinking based on their behavior, even if the people (or animals) being observed are not speaking. For example, our body language and facial expressions send signals which most other people can rely upon to figure out, with typically solid accuracy, what is going on in our brains. That skill, Santos believes, developed somewhere along the way, and the Cayo Santiago monkeys may have unique value. As she told Smithsonian magazine (http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/monkey-200801.html?c=y&story=fullstory), "if you see something in a primate, you can use it as a window into the evolutionary past of human beings." Being able to interact with a large number of monkeys has led Santos to conclude that "the gap between human and animal cognition, even a chimpanzee, is greater than the gap between a chimp and a beetle."
That cognitive gap probably explains why Monkey Island is closed to tourists. The monkeys can be vicious, lacking even the most basic regard for human visitors. Even the researchers need to take caution while visiting, eating their lunches in a chain-link fence-enclosed area to prevent the animals from stealing a snack. And as the sign above suggests, the primates are not ones to give much thought as to what they stick their teeth into.
Bonus fact:
Also from the Smithsonian article (http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/monkey-200801.html?c=y&story=fullstory), Santos shares another story. She has 11 capuchin monkeys in her lab back at Yale, and she gives them tokens they can use like money, exchanging them for food. The monkeys have figured out what humans value, and act accordingly in order to earn these tokens. But sometimes, things don't go quite right. As Smithsonian explains: "At times they would offer their feces in exchange for a token, behavior that baffled the researchers until a student pointed out that every morning someone comes into the cage and scoops out the droppings—which may have given them the idea that people value them."
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Now I Know - Life in the Fast Lane
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Speeding may earn you a ticket. And in most cases, it will cost you maybe $150 or 100 Euros. For many people, that could be the difference between making this months rent and being in arrears. For others, it's barely noticeable -- the equivalent of an unnoticed rounding error in their paycheck.
So Finland tried to fix it. Which is why, in 2001, Finland fined Anssi Vanjoki, a high-paid Nokia executive, over $100,000 -- for driving 75 kilometers per hour (47 miles per hour) in a 50 kph (31 mph) zone.
In 1921, Finland adopted a "day-fine" law which aimed to apply the equiminical effect of incarceration to petty violations such as littering, breaches of the peace, and of course, minor traffic violations like speeding. Finland noted that jail time hit the rich and poor roughly equally; for each day in prison, the convict lost a day of freedom, whether rich or poor. Fines, their leadership concluded, should follow a similar framework. Since that year, those infractions can cost a violator a whole day's pay -- be it fifty Euros or 50,000 Euros. And unlike other countries with day-fine laws on the books, Finland's has no maximum.
As reported by the BBC (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1759791.stm), for Vanjoki, this meant a bill of 116,000 Euros (at the time, about $103,000). In October of 2001, he was riding his Harley Davidson motorcycle 25 kilometers per hour over the speed limit and, when caught, was given a fine equal to 14 days of his annual income, which in most cases is exactly how the day-fine system should work. But Vanjoki's case had an odd wrinkle -- it was based on his income for the 1999 filing year, which, he claimed, was much higher than typical. Vanjoki appealed the fine, arguing that in 1999, he sold a number of stock options, boosting his income tremendously and, by 2001, he was making significantly less money because his equity stake in Nokia was worth much less (and he hadn't sold any more options). The courts ended up agreeing with him, cutting his fine by 95%. (http://www.mtv3.fi/uutiset/kotimaa.shtml/2002/02/102535/nokian-vanjoen-sakot-putosivat-murto-osaan)
And while the day-fine system seems more fair than the typical flat fine system most of the world uses, it has found its critics. England and Wales tested the waters with one in the early 1990s, but it was generally disliked -- as the BBC stated (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4173913.stm), it "was criticized for giving paltry fines to the poor and disproportionately large fines to the moderately wealthy." (The BBC noted one example of two men ticketed for fighting each other; the richer of the two was fined ten times that of the poorer.) And in 2002, American economist Steven Landsburgh took to the Wall Street Journal (http://online.wsj.com/article/0,,SB1013382956766135720,00.html) to assail the scheme by pointing out an absurd result: "If Mr. Vanjoki speeds while his chauffeur rides in the passenger seat, the price is $100,000. If they switch seats, the price drops to $50."
Bonus fact:
Another Finnish innovation? Meet the dish draining closet, seen here. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Astiankuivauskaappi-20060227.jpg)
The cupboards, situated above the kitchen sink, are designed to allow people to place recently washed dishes right back into the cabinet without drying them first -- the dish water drips down, slowly, into the sink below. Invented in the mid-1940s, the dish draining closet was named "one of the most important Finnish innovations of the millenium" per Wikipedia. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dish_draining_closet)
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20-08-12, 12:16 PM
Now I Know - Kaninhoppning
There are many strange competitions in this world. There's extreme ironing (http://factandaphoto.com/post/21029864541/extreme-ironing-pictured-above-is-an-extreme), toe wrestling (http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/toe-much-to-handle-the-world-toewrestling-championship-takes-place-in-derby-on-saturday-lizo-mzimba-watched-the-competitors-final-nailtrimming-1419897.html), and the world beard and moustache championships (http://www.worldbeardchampionships.com/), for example. All strange, all very much real.
But none are as cute as the Swedish competition known as Kaninhoppning -- or, in English, rabbit show jumping.
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Yes, that's a rabbit. And yes, he or she is jumping over a miniature version of a fence similar to one found in an equestrian competition.
Rabbit show jumping dates back to the late 1970s or early 1980s, and mimics equestrian in many ways -- not just by borrowing its fence design. The rabbits' owners guide them through an obstacle course (not on their back, of course, but rather by command or by leash -- you can see a blue one in the picture above) and the winning rabbit and owner is the one which completes the course with the least number of errors and, secondarily, in the shortest amount of time. The owners are allowed to redirect their rabbits a predetermined number of times (typically three) without incurring a penalty -- after all, it can be pretty hard to steer a rabbit.
But before you mock Kaninhoppning too much, rest assured that these rabbits really can jump. According to Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabbit_show_jumping), there are official records for the longest and highest rabbit jumps in the competitions. Those records -- 3,000 mm long (about 9.8 feet) and 995 mm high (about 3.25 feet) -- are both owned by owners (and rabbits) from Denmark.
That makes sense: Kaninhoppning is most popular in Scandinavian nations and its international federation (http://www.skhrf.com/) is based in Sweden. But according to the Wall Street Journal (http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970204652904577196912649404638.html), it has caught on in the United Kingdom as well. And that's only the beginning. According to the Daily Mail (in an article which has lots of pictures of rabbits jumping over stuff) (http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1381464/Bunny-rabbits-compete-jumping-course-Dressage-set-world-storm.html), rabbit show jumping competitions can be found throughout Europe, in the U.S. and Canada, and even in Japan. (The website for the U.S. federation is, unfortunately, no longer operational.)
Want to see it in action for yourself? This overproduced video (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MuMDCexPYWM&feature=related) features about two dozen rabbits from the Canadian Rabbit Hopping Club as they leap over fences and through hoops, climb ramps, teeter on see-saws, and do other rabbity things on their quest for eternal glory.
Bonus fact:
What does sculpting a moose and the flag of Norway into your facial hair earn you? A world championship beard, as seen below, from 2011. (The 2012 championships will be held in Las Vegas in November.)
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Now I Know - Winning Receipts
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Government-run lotteries are not uncommon. Pass over a buck or two and you get a ticket, which, if you're extraordinarily lucky, may be worth thousands if not millions of dollars. The odds are against you, of course, but that's the point: the lotteries are there to help supplement taxes. After prize payouts, the lottery-licensing government comes away with a pretty penny -- according to the North American Association of State and Provincial Lotteries (http://www.naspl.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=content&menuid=17&pageid=1025), U.S. and Canadian governments earned over $20 billion in 2010 alone.
But Taiwan has a different lottery, called the Uniform Invoice lottery. It, too, aims to increase the amount of money getting into government coffers. But unlike the traditional lottery, entries into this Taiwanese are free -- with the purchase of virtually anything.
Leading up to the 1950s, Taiwan had a tax problem. Sales tax was a large driver of government revenue but retailers could easily avoid it by simply underreporting their income. Consumers did not care -- whether the retailer paid the sales tax was immaterial to them. A cash economy further exacerbated the problem, as there was no record created of these grey market sales. After all, when was the last time you insisted on a receipt?
To combat this, Taiwan adopted the Uniform Invoice lottery on January 1, 1951. The rules were simple. Retailers had to give customers receipts (invoices), seen above. Each invoice, by law, included a government-provided lottery number. (The one in the picture above is 76757920.) Consumers were encouraged to ask for and keep these receipts via a special lottery. Every two months, on national television, there'd be a lottery drawing, with the grand prize winner holding the receipt with the lottery numbers which matched the ones drawn. The grand prize, by early 2012, was worth NT$10 million (about $340,000 US) with many smaller prizes also available. (And yes, foreigners can win, too (http://www.chinapost.com.tw/taiwan/arts-&-leisure/2011/06/14/306111/Foreigners-can.htm).) For Taiwan, that is a huge amount of money -- one person who came one digit away in February mused that (http://taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2012/02/03/2003524579) he may have been able to retire early had his luck been slightly different.
But the real winner is the Taiwan government. According to Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Invoice_lottery#cite_ref-hwai_0-0), in 1950, the year before the lottery, Taiwan collected NT$29 million in sales tax. In 1951? NT$51 million.
Bonus fact:
In Michigan and Nebraska, there is a lottery which you play by not paying -- for anything. The lottery, called Save to Win, aims to encourage savings. For every $25 a person deposits per month (up to $250) into a special Save to Win account with a participating credit union, that person receives a certificate which acts like a lottery ticket. There are monthly drawings for various small cash prizes, but at the end of the year, there's a grand prize -- a single $25,000 in Nebraska and one of ten $10,000 prizes in Michigan.
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Now I Know - South Korea's Reverse Gold Rush
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In 1997, many countries in Asia's Pacific Rim suffered from a massive financial crisis which threatened to spread across the world. Foreign debt to GDP ratios exceeded 180% at the peak of the crisis.Six different nations felt the economic struggles as capital fled their countries, and the International Monetary Fund provided $40 billion (U.S.) to help keep South Korea, Thailand, and Indonesia afloat. As economies got more and more troubled, governments tried more and more ideas.
South Korea's idea? Recall gold.
In January of 1998, South Korea began a campaign called "Collect Gold for the Love of Korea." At the time, South Koreans, collectively, owned a total of 2,000 tons of gold then worth about $20 billion. That would have gone a long way to lessen the debt burden the country was suffering from. But gold, being hard to track and therefore hard to confiscate, could not simply be collected by edict and threat of force. (And even if it could, it was unlikely that the public would go for it.) So South Korea took another approach. The government simply asked its citizens to turn in their gold voluntarily.
On January 5, 1988, the program launched with the support of three major corporations (Samsung, Daewoo, and Hyundai) collecting and donating gold, thereby showing that this was not just the government getting involved. The BBC (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/analysis/47496.stm), as the program was in full swing, noted that "housewives gave up their wedding rings; athletes donated medals and trophies; many gave away gold 'luck' keys, a traditional present on the opening of a new business or a 60th birthday." Within the first two days of the program, per the AP (http://www.mndaily.com/1998/01/07/south-koreas-gold-collection-campaign-draws-public-support), over 100,000 South Koreans donated north of 20 tons of gold worth over $100 million. The response was so great that officials stopped announcing the results of the gold collection. Due to the amount of gold newly on the market, they feared too that the donations would soften international gold prices.
It is likely that, in total, roughly $150 to $200 million in gold was collected -- a small and probably meaningless dent in the country's debt, given that the country received a bailout in excess of $50 billion. But the symbolic aspect resonated, as Korean citizens realized the gravity of the crisis and rallied, showing a willingness to accept other efforts to help. By the end of 1999, South Korea believed the economic slowdown over.
Bonus fact:
American actor Laurence Tureaud, better known as Mr. T, has two parts to his trademark look -- one, his distinctive beard and haircut; and two, his gold chains. Or, more correctly, he had two parts to his trademark look. After Hurricane Katrina hit the Gulf of Mexico, causing massive destruction particularly in the New Orleans region, Mr. T no longer wore his estimated $300,000 worth in gold. He told Sky News (http://news.sky.com/story/671658/mr-t-gives-up-his-gold-for-katrina-victims): "As a Christian, when I saw other people lose their lives and their land and property... I felt that it would be a sin before God for me to continue wearing my gold. I felt it would be unnecessary and disrespectful to the people who lost everything, so I stopped wearing my gold." (He kept his calling-card hair styling.)
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Now I Know - Down the Rabbit Hole
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The British colonization of Australia began in 1788 with the founding of New South Wales. In 1850, the population of Australians of European descent was at 400,000. By 1859, it had more than doubled, breaking the one million barrier. One of those people was a man named Thomas Austin, a 44 year old who had come over with his family in 1831. Austin and his wife, Elizabeth Phillips Harding, did their part to help the population expansion, having 11 children -- and causing the birth of about ten billion rabbits.
Yes, ten billion rabbits.
Rabbits are native to Spain, Portugal, Morocco, and Algeria, but by the time Europeans settled Australia, rabbits had also been introduced to the British Isles and through much of Western and Northern Europe. And around the time Europeans were colonizing Australia, efforts to introduce different animals to places around the world were kicking up steam through something called acclimatisation societies. The first such group was founded in Paris in 1854, but they quickly found activists among colonists in the Americas, Southeast Asia, and Australia. Thomas Austin was one such activist, importing partridges, blackbirds, and other animals into the Australian ecosystem.
In October of 1859, he added two dozen rabbits to that list. He wanted them for hunting purposes; when he lived in England as a teen, he had spent weekends rabbit hunting, but was unable to do so in Australia because there were no rabbits to hunt. So he did what any acclimatisation fan would do, and asked his nephew to send him some. According to a report (http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/43156/20040709-0000/agspsrv34.agric.wa.gov.au/programs/app/barrier/history.htm) by the Western Australia Department of Agricutlure and Food, Austin did not believe there would be any repercussions from this. He was quoted as saying "The introduction of a few rabbits could do little harm and might provide a touch of home, in addition to a spot of hunting."
He was, to say the least, wrong. Very, very wrong.
The rabbits did what rabbits do, and within a decade there were millions roaming throughout the area. The rabbits were bad for the local ecology -- an invasive species eating all sorts of native plant life, potentially destroying many species of flora before they were discovered and identified by researchers. Before the century was out, area governments were offering rewards to anyone who could come up with a way to eradicate the rabbit population, and in 1901, the crown created a royal commission to investigate options. In 1907, they built a rabbit-proof fence which stretched from the north to the south, separating the western part of the country from the rest, in hopes of keeping the rabbits from spreading eastward. The fence was a failure, as rabbits were able to both jump over it or burrow under it. As the Victoria Department of Primary Industries (http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/agriculture/pests-diseases-and-weeds/pest-animals/lc0298-rabbits-and-their-impact) notes, by 1926, the rabbit population of Australia hit 10 billion of the critters.
In the 1950s, Australia turned to germ warfare. They tested and ultimately released the myxoma virus among the rabbit population, a virus which causes myxomatosis among the animals. (The virus has little to no effect on people.) Myxomatosis causes listlessness, loss of appetite, fever, and potentially blindness in rabbits and often leads to pneumonia as well. An infected rabbit typically dies within two weeks of exposure to the virus. By 1954, per the link above, 99.8% of the Australian rabbit population was eradicated.
The .2% which survived were naturally resistant to the virus and, of course, they continued to breed afterward. As of 1990, the rabbit population has rebounded to about 600 million.
Bonus fact:
As one would imagine, it is illegal to keep rabbits as housepets in most of Australia. The government of Queensland bars their ownership with a maximum penalty of $30,000, but does allow some exceptions. According to this government fact sheet (pdf) (http://www.daff.qld.gov.au/documents/Biosecurity_EnvironmentalPests/IPA-Keeping-Rabbits-As-Pets-PA15.pdf), permits are given to circus performers and magicians.
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Now I Know - Civil War
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On November 17, 1810 Sweden declared war on the United Kingdom. The two sides were at odds for more than a year and a half, only finally reaching a peace accord in July of 1812, as formalized in the Treaty of Orebro. The Anglo-Swedish War, as it would later be known, had the lowest death toll in history: Zero.
How? Because the two sides never actually did any fighting.
Wars break out for all sorts of reasons -- invasions, assassinations, immigration policy, or various and sundry odd reasons (e.g. a hungry pig, almost (http://nowiknow.com/the-pig-war/)) which even in retrospect defy explanation. In the case of the Anglo-Swedish War, the cause was France. In 1803, Britian declared war on France, hoping to overthrow Napoleon Bonaparte from power. Napoleon, of course, was trying to create an imperial France overtaking much of Europe -- at its peak, almost all of Western and Northern Europe were under his Continental System (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_System) designed to harm Britian through a massive trade embargo. Over the course of the next dozen years, many European nation-states would join the UK in its struggle against Napoleon in a series of wars collectively called the Napoleonic Wars. In 1805, a coalition of Russia, the UK, the Holy Roman Empire, and others were in the throes of war.
At the time Sweden's involvement was minor. They controlled a small area of land then known as Swedish Pomerania, now on the Baltic coasts of Poland and Germany, and they leased the area to Great Britian, such that the UK could use the area as a military base against France. But, fearing French reprisals, Sweden did little else to help efforts to contain Napoleon's charges. That changed in August of 1805, as Russia promised that, if France invaded Sweden, the tzar would provide as many as 40,000 troops to its new Swedish ally. On October 31, 1805, Sweden declared war on France, starting what would later be known as the Pomeranian War. But France ended up defeating Russia, causing it to switch sides. Then, the Russians turned on Sweden. On January 6, 1801, the Swedes surrendered to France as the two sides signed the Treaty of Paris.
The Treaty required that Sweden join the Continetnal System and, therefore, no longer trade with Great Britian. For Sweden, that was untenable, causing significant economic harm, so trade occured through back channels for months. France would have none of it, and issued an ultimatum, requiring Sweden to seize all British products within their borders, take possession of all British ships within their waters, and declare war against Britian. If not, France would declare war on Sweden and, one assumes, invade. Sweden acceded to the French demands.
But "hey, you two, fight!" doesn't typically amount to much when the two people can just sit there and agree to be at war without throwing any punches. That is, not much changed. The British still used at least one Swedish port and neither side actually fought each other. Neither side lost a single soldier.
Unfortunately, there were some indirect deaths. Given the fickle political alliances and allegiances which marked the era, Sweden decided to conscript men into military service, in case Britian took the declaration of war seriously and decided to actually invade. In June of 1811, a group of farmers rioted in protest of the policy, and 140 soldiers were dispatched to quell the uprising. Thirty of the farmers were killed in the process.
Bonus fact:
The House of Bonaparte has continued to keep track of Napoleon's bloodline -- something which, compared to other imperial dynasties, is not all that strange (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_current_pretenders). (The person who would be the claimant of a throne if that family were still in power is called a "pretender" -- a term which is not a prejorative, as explained on its Wikipedia entry (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pretender).) But there is one oddity: there's a dispute over who is the rightful heir apparent. In 1997, Louis, Prince Napoleon, died, leaving his oldest son Charles as the would-be claimant of the throne. But in his will, Louis specified that his grandson (Charles' son) Jean-Christophe Napoleon, become the dynastic heir. According to the Independent (http://www.independent.co.uk/news/battle-rages-for-the-napoleonic-succession-1286493.html), Louis was upset because Charles "had divorced and re-married without his permission" and because Charles held political views (which were "republican and democratic" and not imperial) which his father held repugnant.
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Now I Know - Knuckle Head
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If you crack your knuckles, you'll develop arthritis -- or so the old wives' tale goes. But is it true? That is not the easiest thing to figure out. Asking arthritis sufferers if they were compulsive knuckle crackers may help, but it has its flaws. Correlation may hint at a causal connection, but there are plenty of other factors which could explain the data. Coming up with a clean test case is difficult because you would need to isolate a large amount of other factors and, because arthritis develops over a long period of time, do so over many years. Decades, really.
So Dr. Donald L. Unger of California, pictured above, did just that.
Unger, at a young age, was warned not to crack his knuckles, lest he harm himself in the future. Almost all of that advice was coming from laypeople, and the medical community did not yet have a grasp on whether it was true. So Unger tackled the problem himself.
For fifty years, Unger cracked the knuckles on his left hand "at least twice a day," as reported by Scientific American. But he did not, intentionally, do the same with his right hand. Over the course of those five decades, Unger estimates that he cracked the knuckles on his left hand over 36,000 more times than those on his right. He then wrote up his results. In 1998, it was published in a medical journal, Arthritis & Rheumatism, in an article titled "Does knuckle cracking lead to arthritis of the fingers?," which is available here. (http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/1529-0131%28199805%2941:5%3C949::AID-ART36%3E3.0.CO;2-3/abstract) The short answer to his rhetorical question? No. "There were no arthritis in either hand, and no apparent difference between the two hands," he wrote in his paper.
For his trouble, Unger received an honor from the Annals of Improbable Research, a scientific humor magazine. The organization gives out ten "Ig Nobel Prizes" each year meant to highlight "research that makes people laugh, then think," per its official website (http://www.improbable.com/ig/). And, more importantly, his findings are probably correct. Over the course of his fifty years of investigation, others came up with more traditional tests -- drawing the same conclusion.
Bonus fact:
What causes the popping sound from a cracked knuckle or joint? We don't know. The most likely explanation is something called cavitation, which occurs when small bubbles form within liquids (in this case, synovial fluid) and for some reason, collapse rapidly. In this case, the theory goes, when you flex your fingers or other body parts, you create enough pressure to cause the bubble to collapse, leading to a snapping sound.
(I'd snap this)
Now I Know - Titanic's Star Wars
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In 1997, Titanic made its box office debut -- and set a then-record lifetime gross domestic take of over $650 million per Box Office Mojo (http://boxofficemojo.com/alltime/domestic.htm).So it made sense, kind of, to re-release it fifteen years later, of course in 3-D. (Kind of, because the re-released movie only opened at number three in the box office, a minor embarrassment.) By and large, the movie was left unchanged, other than the 3-D enhancements.
The only thing redone? The sky.
Director James Cameron was, first and foremost, an explorer/adventurer. He would later admit (as noted briefly in this TED talk (http://www.ted.com/talks/james_cameron_before_avatar_a_curious_boy.html)) that his primary goal in making the movie was to get Hollywood to pay for him to visit the Titanic wreckage, under the guise of research: he wanted to make the movie as accurate as possible. And in the end, that attention to detail became a motivator of its own. Cameron told Eye for Film (http://www.eyeforfilm.co.uk/feature/2009-12-17-james-cameron-talks-about-avatar-aliens-and-his-titanic-career-feature-story-by-maria-realf) that his efforts to make the movie as close to real as possible consumed him: "I read everything I could. I created an extremely detailed timeline of the ship’s few days and a very detailed timeline of the last night of its life. And I worked within that to write the script, and I got some historical experts to analyse what I’d written and comment on it, and I adjusted it." Some early reviews of the films lauded Cameron's attention to detail.
But Cameron got one detail wrong. Astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson, the director of the Hayden Planetarium at the American Museum of Natural History in New York, noticed that in the scene when the ship sank, the night sky showed a star pattern much different than what was really there on that night. And, as he recounted in this video (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8B6jSfRuptY), it rubbed him the wrong way. If diving to the bottom of the ocean was Cameron's all-consuming goal, getting Cameron to acknowledge this error became Tyson's. He wrote Cameron a letter which went unanswered, met him at an event to no avail, and pestered him a third time at a dinner both were invited to.
And somewhere along the way, Cameron decided to do something about it. Accounts vary, though. Tyson, in the video, states that someone who works in post-production at Cameron's studio called him up to tell him about an anniversary re-release and that "he [Cameron] tells me you have a sky he can use" (and then, in the video, Tyson does a happy dance). Cameron, for his part, claims (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/9179446/Wrong-stars-force-Titanic-3D-scene-to-be-reshot.html)that he himself said "all right, send me the right stars for that exact time and I'll put it in the movie."
Either way, the sky in the newer version of Titanic is, now, accurate.
Bonus fact:
Before Titanic hit the silver screen, the top grossing film (again, domestic receipts) was Star Wars, which came out twenty years earlier. To mark the feat, Star Wars' director George Lucas took out a full page ad in Variety, seen above (larger version here (http://i.imgur.com/dqLfi.jpg)), congratulating Cameron on the achievement.
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Now I Know - What's Your Beef?
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Pictured above is a cut of Kobe beef, which if you're a food aficionado at all (or, simply cognizant of that world), you have certainly heard of. Some of you may have gone out to dinner and even ordered it, paying a premium for this high-quality Japanese delicacy and entree du jour.
But, unless you ordered it in Japan, chances are you haven't eaten it.
There are black cattle in Japan called Wagyu, whose meat is known for its exceptional taste. The meat has a larger than typical percentage of unsaturated fat, as evidenced by the marbling seen above, as well as containing more omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. Altogether, Wagyu meat is considered more tender and flavorful than most meat, which in turn allows its cultivators to demand higher prices.
Kobe beef comes from a breed of Wagyu cattle called Tajima, which are found only in Hyogo Prefecture (the red region on this map (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_Japan_with_highlight_on_28_Hyogo_prefe cture.svg)) in Japan. Tajima cattle have been in that area for centuries, perhaps dating back to the second century when they were brought into the region to help in the rice fields. Because of the mountainous terrain in the area, the cattle inbred, keeping the gene pool non-diverse and hyper-localized. And if beef is not from Tajima cattle, it's not, officially, Kobe beef. In fact, even that is not enough. To be branded Kobe beef in Japan, there are several conditions that must be fulfilled, as mandated by the Kobe Beef Marketing and Distribution Promotion Association, as seen here (http://www.kobe-niku.jp/english/contents/pu/pu_b.html). According to Forbes (http://www.forbes.com/sites/larryolmsted/2012/04/12/foods-biggest-scam-the-great-kobe-beef-lie/), the Association has certified only three thousand cattle as eligible to become Kobe beef.
And the official Kobe beef is almost never exported from Japan. The Association also mandates where the beef can be sent, and before 2012, it was not exported at all -- and even now, it is only to Macau and Hong Kong. (To give an idea of how recently this change occurred, Hong Kong received its first shipment of Kobe beef in July (http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/business/2012-07/18/c_131723802.htm).) Other areas have never received a shipment of true Kobe beef. In the case of the U.S., that's partially due to the American government, which banned beef from Japan back in 2010 (http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-05-20/u-s-bans-japanese-beef-imports-after-foot-and-mouth-outbreak-in-miyazaki.html) after a foot-and-mouth outbreak there.
So, again, unless your Kobe steak was eaten in Japan, it wasn't an official Kobe steak. Instead, you're eating a "Kobe-style" steak, one which (in the U.S., at least) is typically from a non-Tajima Wagyu cattle cross-bred with an Angus. But many of the cattle-raising techniques are kept the same. For example, the cattle's diet is mostly grass, and, in the U.S. and U.K., the cattle are often fed beer (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/cornwall/6345289.stm), much like the ones in Japan often are.
Whether the "official" aspects matter is up for debate, of course, so far as taste is concerned. But in some jurisdictions, there's no debate when it comes to labeling. In Florida, for example, the Department of Business and Professional Regulation has stated that using the term "Kobe beef," without further clarifying the cattle's lineage, is "misrepresentation."
Bonus fact:
Kobe beef isn't the only food whose origin matters. Champagne also makes the list. In order for something to be properly called champagne, its grapes must be exclusively from the Champagne region in France. (Some jurisdictions allow for the term to be used to describe sparkling wine generally, but that is only true in a minority of places.)
(my bird drinking Champagne...)
Now I Know - Unmixed
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On the fourth of July, 2010, a man named Kent Smith was on a cruise in the Gulf of Alaska. He started watching the water, as many cruise-goers are bound to do, and, in his words (http://www.flickr.com/photos/kentsmith9/4955772693/), noticed something strange: "I had been on the deck for quite some time when I noticed what appeared to be a shadow cast by clouds over the ocean about 5 miles in front of the ship. As we approached the shadow I realized it was something different." That something different turned into the picture seen above (larger version here). (http://www.flickr.com/photos/kentsmith9/4955772693/sizes/o/in/photostream/)
In the middle of the gulf, there were two bodies of ocean water, unmixed.
What's going on there? The lighter water (left) are coastal waters while the darker waters are much typically further out in the gulf. They're kept mostly separate due to the formation of large eddies -- swirling water caused by currents collide into each other. The lighter water is made up of glacial runoff which is carried by the Alaska Stream. The Alaska Stream runs, roughly, from Kodiak Island down the Alaskan Peninsula (from A to B on this map (https://maps.google.com/maps?saddr=Kodiak+Island,+AK&daddr=Surveyor+Bay,+Aleutians+West,+AK&hl=en&sll=53.395613,-167.772217&sspn=0.4774,1.123352&geocode=Fe1uaQMdvlXQ9im9vNv1WAvrVjHKhbdFIPZ8rA%3B&oq=Surveyor+Bay&mra=ls&t=m&z=6)). The darker water comes up to the gulf via the Alaska Current, which starts in the Pacific and then turns up the coast of British Columbia and into the gulf. The Alaska Current causes water in the Gulf of Alaska to run counter-clockwise, but when it hits the Alaska Stream, clockwise flowing eddies form. Ken Bruland, a researcher at the University of California at Santa Cruz, created an image of sea surface chlorophyll in the region, below (originally from here (http://es.ucsc.edu/~kbruland/Research/GulfAlaska/kwbResProjGulfAk2.html)), which helps map out the eddies. (The light green region is where the eddies are.)
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But eddies, while not terribly common, also are not so obvious to the naked eye. For that, Bruland and researchers associated with the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) have an easy answer (http://soundwaves.usgs.gov/2008/03/): iron. The coastal waters have a high amount of iron in it while the darker water has very little. The iron encourages plankton growth, which is most likely why there is a clear, visible difference between the two sides.
Bonus fact:
What happens when two rivers come together? They mix -- but not right away. In 2006, astronauts above the International Space Station took this photograph of the Ohio River (right, and brown) merging into the Mississippi at Cairo, Illinois. Per NASA (http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/view.php?id=75245), the photo shows an area about three to four miles downstream after the rivers converge, and as you can see, they are not yet mixed.
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Now I Know - Greetings
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Craig Shergold was a typical nine year-old living in the UK when, in 1988, he started complaining of ear aches. But his ear problems were not the typical ones suffered by young children. Shergold's were caused by brain tumors believed to be terminal at the time -- he was expected to live only a few months. In 1989, Shergold's friends and relatives, looking to accomplish the amazing during his short time left on Earth, decided that he should break a world record. They wanted Shergold to receive the most greeting cards -- ever.
A few decades later, Shergold is still alive, having undergone a successful experimental operation in the U.S. in 1991. And he has that world record, too. He has received an estimated 350 million greeting cards in the last twenty-plus years.
The people closest to Shergold started a chain letter, asking the recipients to send Craig a greeting card, explicitly to get his name into the Guinness Book of World Records. The efforts picked up steam quickly, with the Children's Wish Foundation International, an organization which aims to fulfill the wishes of terminally ill children, helping solicit greeting cards (http://web.archive.org/web/20100529224617/http://www.childrenswish.org/PressRelease-craigshergold.php). (Children's Wish claims to have done so not via chain letter, but by other, less controversial means.) Whether Children's Wish's efforts or the chain letter's were the driving force behind this early success is unknown. But by May of 1990, Shergold's supporters had met their goal. Shergold has received over 16 million greeting cards, an accomplishment noted by Guinness. And a year later, Guinness updated the record, as Shergold, still alive, hit 33 million.
The attention never stopped. The chain letters, which began as paper-and-ink messages requiring a stamp, merged quickly into email, where it spread even faster. By 1998 -- seven years after Shergold's tumors were surgically removed -- he had received over 250 million cards, and the postal service gave his childhood home its own postal code in order to handle the volume of mail. And as About.com notes, Shergold's efforts have now flipped. Instead of asking for more greeting cards, he has asked that people stop -- but to no avail.
Since then, Shergold's family has moved out of the home to which the greeting cards are still being sent. Where do all the cards end up? According to the Make a Wish Foundation (http://www.wish.org/about/fraud_alerts) (which was not involved in Shergold's campaigns), they go right to a nearby recycling center, most likely unopened.
Bonus fact:
Both the Care Bears (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Care_Bears) and Strawberry Shortcake (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strawberry_Shortcake) were originally greeting card art.
http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSVmx598k4SAl30-B6v-yINkV_DRM0vZtQbpJ8he5AnswEQQEZvRw
These are really really good to read and sell in drinking tables. Thank you man :ok:
wato20
Now I Know - Invisible Ink
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The pens read "SKILCRAFT-U.S. GOVERNMENT." And if you have worked for an American government institution, you know that they are everywhere. At roughly 50 cents each (http://www.ontimesupplies.com/nsn9357135-7520009357135-us-government-ballpoint-retractable-pen-black-ink-fine-dozen.html) (if you qualify for government pricing), the pens are the only ones you will see, officially speaking, at most government institutions.
Which makes you different than the people manufacturing the pens themselves. Skilcraft pens are manufactured by blind workers.
In 1938, the United States was still in the midst of the Great Depression. Given that the economy was still incredibly soft, and that blind workers were already at a competitive disadvantage, the government stepped in. Franklin Delano Roosevelt signed into law the Wagner-O'Day Act, which aimed at providing upward economic mobility for the blind by requiring that when the federal government purchased specific goods, those goods were manufactured by blind Americans. The law, codified at 41 U.S.C. 46, soon included pens.
The Skilcraft brand came to be a decade or so later, in 1952. Today, the company employs over 5,000 blind workers in 44 states, producing a full arsenal of office supplies, janitorial equipment, etc., with the pens being produced in factories in Wisconsin or North Carolina. As reported by the Washington Post (http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/04/17/AR2010041701297.html?hpid=topnews), the pens must be made to the specifications outlined by a sixteen page document which was first promulgated over fifty years ago. Among the requirements? The pens "must be able to write continuously for a mile and in temperatures up to 160 degrees and down to 40 degrees below zero."
In all, the U.S. government orders $5 million worth of these pens a year (with 60% going to the military) -- a small part of the spending under the Wagner-O'Day (now Javitz-Wagner-O'Day) Act. The Act, which was revised in 1971 to include people with "significant disabilities" as eligible for the program, is administered through an organization called AbilityOne (http://www.abilityone.org/), and helps to employ over 40,000 such people. In total, the government spends over $650 million (as recently as 2009) annually on AbilityOne goods and services.
Bonus fact:
The U.S. space program does not use Skilcraft pens. They use a special pen, one which can write at any angle -- important in the vacuum of space, and where there is no gravity. The pen, called the Fisher Space Pen after Paul C. Fisher, whose company created it, will work even in extreme temperatures. And unlike pencils (or even most pens), they are designed to be incredibly durable, as to avoid a breakage which could result in floating shrapnel. Rumors that the Soviets used pencils while the Americans invested millions to create this pen are untrue (http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=fact-or-fiction-nasa-spen), both for that reason, and because the Fisher Space Pen was developed using private funding, and only recouped its investment when NASA and other nations' space programs -- including the Soviets -- began purchasing them.
http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-GopE7KQGKYk/Trf3jkWu_1I/AAAAAAAAAKY/GqoMx154p2Y/s1600/Carmen_Electra%25252C_NASA_Astronaut.jpg
Now I Know - Bacteriotherapy
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When a person is taking antibiotics, many of the helpful bacteria in that person's stomach get temporarily wiped out. Other bacteria may remain, however. One of those, clostridium difficile, can live outside the body for a long time, and therefore can spread pretty easily in hospitals. It can cause something called clostridium difficile infection, or CDI, which in turn causes diarrhea and colitis, at times leading to death (http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/story/2011/07/24/tor-c-difficile-death-stcatharines623.html). That's the bad news. The good news? It's treatable, perhaps with as high as a 90% success rate, with something called bacteriotherapy.
What's bacteriotherapy? A feces transplant.
Really.
In 2010, the New York Times interviewed a physician, Dr. Alexander Khoruts, who had treated a CDI patient by employing bacteriotherapy. Dr. Khoruts' patient had lost sixty pounds over eight months due to the infection, and antibiotics were unable to rid his patient of it. So he took another approach. Instead of trying to wipe out the clostridium difficile, he instead decided to introduce some of the good bacteria (like the bit seen above, magnified 10,000 times) back into his patient's gut. Doing so, he hoped, would restore the balance in her digestive system, and end her seemingly chronic diarrhea. The Times described the process:
Dr. Khoruts decided his patient needed a transplant. But he didn’t give her a piece of someone else’s intestines, or a stomach, or any other organ. Instead, he gave her some of her husband’s bacteria. [He] mixed a small sample of her husband’s stool with saline solution and delivered it into her colon.
The transplant was a success -- the patient's diarrhea cleared up within a day and did not return. But more importantly -- from the perspective of everyone other than the patient, that is -- Dr. Khortus and his team were able to map the genetic makeup of the transferred bacteria and then, later on, was able to determine that the new, good bacteria in his patient's gut was entirely made up of the types from the patient's husband. Khortus was able to demonstrate that we can move colonies of microorganisms from one person to another.
With an estimated 10,000 different species (http://www.npr.org/blogs/health/2012/06/13/154913334/finally-a-map-of-all-the-microbes-on-your-body) of bacteria living in our bodies, and with bacteria outnumbering cells (http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/06/080603085914.htm) ten to one, this discovery may have implications for health care more generally. And if the fecal transplant treatment is any indicator, it could lead to fewer doctors' visits, too. Why is that? Because as this scientific study notes (http://www.cghjournal.org/article/S1542-3565%2810%2900069-8/abstract), bacteriotherapy for CDI can be done at home.
Bonus fact:
Cows' digestive systems produce methane. When cows get rid of the methane, they are emitting a greenhouse gas (http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/blame-bovine-belching-changing-cows-diet-could-cut-emissions-a-493611.html). Kangaroos have a diet similar to cows but their stomachs do not produce methane. Researchers believe that there is a type of bacteria found in kangaroos' guts which is not present in cows', and are exploring ways of introducing (http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/discoblog/2007/12/19/kangaroo-ifying-cows-to-fight-global-warming/) these bacteria into cows in hopes of obtaining the same effect.
http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRUNBwQwIj-Eo3sqrqD5zxJu7F7-23sSFwWPRPL570NkalgnXNn
Now I Know - Unreal Money
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Brazilian currency is called the real, which is the Portuguese word for the homographic English word "real." Brazilian reals have been in circulation since July 1, 1994. But they were also in use from March 1994 until then -- kind of. For those three months, the real was anything but real. It was, rather, pretend -- entirely non-existant. The hope was that by creating a monetary system which did not have any currency representing it, they could save the Brazilian economy.
And by most measures, it worked.
Inflation was running rampant in Brazil in the early 1980s, climbing with no end in sight throgh the beginning of the decade, as seen by the first graph below. And then, things went from horrible to unimaginable -- it spiked to over 6,000% (annualized) in January of 1990, as seen in the second graph, dwarfing the problems of the decade prior. The rate of increase slowed down soon after but was still very high, until July of 1994, when it spiked again. But after that spike, it quickly leveled off, and within a year, inflation was down to rates one would see in a typical, generally economically healthy country.
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The rampant inflation, in part, was caused by an economic term of art called "inflationary expectations." NPR's Planet Money explains (http://www.npr.org/blogs/money/2010/10/04/130329523/how-fake-money-saved-brazil) how quickly things were going downhill, and why:
[In 1992], Brazil's inflation rate hit 80 percent per month. At that rate, if eggs cost $1 one day, they'll cost $2 a month later. If it keeps up for a year, they'll cost $1,000.
In practice, this meant stores had to change their prices every day. The guy in the grocery store would walk the aisles putting new price stickers on the food. Shoppers would run ahead of him, so they could buy their food at the previous day’s price.
In March of 1994, Brazil's inflation rate was nearly 45% a month. With consumers now expecting prices to increase on a day-to-day basis, inflation became a beast onto itself. To stop this, the government decided to try and reprogram consumers' brains into thinking that prices were, somehow, stable. The currency of the time, called the cruzeiro real, was rapidly losing value, so they introduced a new one called the unidade real de valor, or URV, which translated to "real value unit." Wages and taxes were stated in terms of URV. As the Los Angeles Times reported (http://articles.latimes.com/1994-03-30/business/fi-40121_1_finance-minister), wholesalers and retailers were advised to display each product's price in URV. They were further asked to keep products' URV price relatively constant. What changed, instead, was the amount of cruzeiro real each URV was worth. All transactions, from buying milk to paying one's taxes, were conducted using cruzeiro real, not URV.
Why? Because the URV never existed, at least not in currency form. Edmar Bacha, an economist who helped come up with the URV concept, told NPR that the URV was "virtual -- it didn't exist in fact." No bills, no coins, nothing. URV was a non-currency reference point aimed at demonstrating some sort of price stability to a population which no longer believed such things were possible.
About three months after the URV system was implemtened, it and the cruzeiro real were replaced. On July 1, 1994, Brazil announced a new currency -- the real now used by Brazil, with the real's value pegged to one URV. As seen by second graph above, the rapid rise in inflation abated soon after, and Brazil's economy recovered.
Bonus fact:
In 2006, Gregor Smith, a professor of Economics at Queens University in Ontario, Canada, published a working paper plotting Japan's employment rate (negative) on the X-axis and its inflation rate on the Y-axis. His findings? The graph looks like Japan.
http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_Id1tByiOSo8/Ryq8TXcgZBI/AAAAAAAABvA/Dp1VyqMHkLI/s1600/jpcurve.png
Now I Know - Saved by the Wind
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Here's a crass joke: A man is at a dinner party in a 40th floor apartment. He announces to the rest, "You know, the wind out there is so strong, that if you jump out the window, it will blow you all around the building and right back in!" The other guests laughs at the absurdity of such an assertion, but the man persists: "I'll prove it!" He jumps out the window and, sure enough, he ends up floating around the building and re-entering, safely, in the window he defenestrated himself out of just moments earlier. Another guest, wanting the thrill of a lifetime, quickly jumped out the window before anyone else could stop him -- and plummeted to his death.
The bartender then pointed at the first guest: "You can be a real jerk when you're drunk, Superman."
Again, that's a joke. But on December 2, 1979, Elvita Adams showed that sometimes, even normal, everyday people can be a little bit super.
That evening, Adams, then age 29 and living in the Bronx, decided to take her own life. The reasons are unclear, but most likely, Adams was suffering from severe depression and in a fight with her landlord and about to be evicted. She went to the Empire State Building in midtown Manhattan to the observatory on the 86th floor. She scaled a seven foot fence (replete with steel spikes) and jumped.
That, in and of itself, is nothing terribly peculiar. A few dozen people have jumped to their deaths off the Empire State Building, the first occurring before the building was even completed when a laid-off worker took his own life that way. In 1947, a 23 year-old jumped, leaving a crossed-out suicide note about how an unnamed man would be "much better off without [her]" and that she would not have made a very good wife. Her body was found on a limousine at the building's base, and LIFE magazine ran a picture of her body, so situated, as seen here (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA43&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false). And just a few years ago, a 54 year-old Manhattan woman took her life in similar fashion (http://www.nypost.com/p/news/regional/manhattan/item_C6YcfnSza3ezY1OVwFCvKK;jsessionid=D827325CEAE D24883635BB29592C4D6D).
But Adams, pictured above, did something none of the others can claim to have done. She survived. A wind gust -- a very strong one, certainly -- caught hold of her and blew her back toward the building, albeit one floor down. She landed on a ledge on the 85th floor very much alive, where a security guard found her before she could make another attempt. The only damage to her body? A fractured hip.
Adams was taken to a mental institution to recuperate, both mentally and physically. Her current whereabouts are not publicly known.
Bonus fact:
If Adams is Superwoman, Jeb Corliss is her not-so-super alter-ego. On April 27, 2006, Corliss -- who, at the time, hosted the Discovery Channel's Stunt Junkies -- tried to parachute off the side of the Empire State Building from the 86th floor observatory. He was unsuccessful. While he was able to get to the observatory deck (he wore a fat suit to obscure the parachute), when he began to climb the fence, security guards took note and went after him. Corliss scaled the fence successfully but before he could jump, the security guards grabbed him and held on until others could reel him in. (Here's a video showing most of that (http://www.break.com/usercontent/2008/1/Man-Tries-To-Jump-Off-Empire-State-Building-434794) -- it cuts off before he's brought back in.) Corliss was arrested and charged with reckless endangerment (http://articles.nydailynews.com/2008-03-04/local/29430370_1_appeals-judges-appeals-court-indictment) and fired from his Stunt Junkies gig, but Corliss shot back with a lawsuit of his own, suing the city, demanding that it issue permits for such jumps (http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/empire-state-building-jump-nut-chutes-city-permit-article-1.295705). He lost. And then he lost again: Corliss was later sued by the building for $12 million (http://articles.nydailynews.com/2011-05-31/local/29624020_1_parachute-jump-observation-deck-empire-state-building); the two sides settled. And finally, he lost a third time. In 2012, he jumped out of an airplane in a flying squirrel suit in southern Africa, but crashed into a mountain and broke both his legs. (http://articles.nydailynews.com/2012-02-23/news/31093114_1_phony-fu-manchu-mustache-daredevil-jeb-corliss-86th-floor)
http://www.fancydresspartycostumes.co.uk/images/lc8080.jpg
didnt wana look, but found myself deep
ebfatz
Couldn't get away with printing a pic like that these days.
wato20
07-09-12, 11:57 AM
Now I Know - Lakefront Property
Lake Titicaca, located in the Andes between Peru and Bolivia, is South America's largest freshwater lake and a punchline for English-speaking grammar school students around the world. At an elevation of about 3,800 feet, it is considered by many to be the world's highest navigable lake, although some smaller lakes are navigable by small commercial ships.
It is also home to roughly four dozen floating, inhabited islands made of nothing more than reeds, as seen below.
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/640px_Uros3.jpeg
The islands are the creation of a group of people known as the Uros, whose history dates back to pre-Incan times. They live primarily on the Peruvian coast of the lake and on the islands they have created. The island (and their huts and boats) are made up of totora reeds, a tall, thick, grass-like plant which grows in the marshland there. When dried, totora reeds can be weaved together to create a rope-like material which holds up well when placed in water -- and can act as a base for an island, the structure of a boat, or even the walls of home. An island of totora reeds can lasts twenty to thirty years. As the totora's strength wanes, the Uru simply add more to the island's floor.
The reason for the floating islands has been lost to antiquity, but the most common belief is that they are defensive structures intended to protect the Uru from invading Incans. The Incans would enslave any Uru they captured, so the Uru may have built the islands either as lookout stations (there is a watchtower on one of the larger islands) or perhaps as a place to make a safe retreat. Today, there is no such need -- the area is part of Peru's Titicaca National Reserve, and the Uros' homes and culture are protected under that umbrella. (Their language and many of their traditions have been lost for centuries, due to intermarriage with another group in the area called the Aymara.)
Today, about ten Uru families live on each island. The unique character and composition of the islands has allowed for close living even when families quarrel. There's an easy solution. As the Financial Times notes (http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/196de0ee-06f7-11e1-90de-00144feabdc0.html#axzz1dD5bzYTK), "should there be disputes between families living on the same island it is easy to cut a single home off and float it to another island."
More photos of the Uru and their islands can be found here (http://behm.lu/blog/en/news/ruta-panamericana-news/the-uru-and-their-floating-islands/). (Mental)
Bonus fact:
Totora grows in two places. It is native to Peru but also is found at Easter Island, 2,600 miles away. Easter Island, home of the well-known rock sculptures known as moai (these (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Moai_Rano_raraku.jpg)), is one of the most remote inhabited islands in the world. Early researchers believed that the presence of totora explained how people got there; as the thesis went, early South Americans made boats of dried totora reeds and set into the Pacific, landing on the island and then cultivating more totora there. But that thesis is almost certainly untrue. According to Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_Island#Ecology), a pollen analysis of the island shows that the totora has been on the island for 30,000 years, and was most likely brought there by migrating birds.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Pano_Anakena_beach.jpg/1200px-Pano_Anakena_beach.jpg
Now I Know - Feeling Buzzed
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You're sitting at your desk, standing in the kitchen, watching TV, etc. All of a sudden, your cell phone vibrates, informing you that you have a new text message, phone call, or email. You reach into your pocket and check, only to find no such message -- and, perhaps, that your phone is not even in your pocket in the first place. The vibration felt real, but maybe it wasn't. Regardless, it was not caused by your cell phone.
If this has happened to you, rest assured you are not alone.
In 2010, a team of researchers from Baystate Medical Center in Springfield, Massachusetts asked 232 of their colleagues to answer a questionnaire about phantom vibrations from their cell phone (or, more correctly, from the area where their cell phones usually are). Of the 176 who responded, 115 -- 69% -- stated that yes, they experienced the disconcerting fake alerts like the type described above. The researcher's plain-as-day conclusion (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21159761): "Phantom vibration syndrome is common among those who use electronic devices."
What causes it? There are a lot of theories. Discovery News (http://news.discovery.com/tech/phantom-vibration-syndrome-120710.html) suggested that "[i]t could be because cell phones produce electrical signals that transmit the feeling of vibration directly to a person's nerves or simply because of the mental anticipation of alerts." Mental Floss explains (http://www.mentalfloss.com/blogs/archives/130633) how the first of the two theories would work, likening it to "a physical stimulation similar to what happens when your phone is near a speaker and you hear that weird buzzing sound as it does a 'hand shake' with a cell tower and gives off some electromagnetic interference." And the anticipation aspect is not dissimilar from any other sort of psychological conditioning -- we are so used to our phones vibrating that our brains make it feel like it is happening when we "want," not when it actually does.
There's some newer evidence suggesting that it's all in our heads. In July of 2012, researchers published a study (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563212000799) on the phantom vibration phenomenon after speaking with undergraduate students about the fake shakes. The vast majority experienced the vibrations, but, as Slate (http://www.slate.com/blogs/future_tense/2012/07/11/phantom_cellphone_vibrations_you_re_not_the_only_o ne_who_feels_them.html) explains, the study found that extroverts and neurotics had it happen more often than the others:
Extroverts, the theory goes, check their phones a lot because keeping in touch with friends is a big part of their lives. Neurotics, meanwhile, worry a lot about the status of their relationships—so while they may not get as many text messages, they care a lot about what they say.
In any event, most researchers think that the fake vibrations are harmless (albeit annoying) -- although there has been very little research into that, too.
Bonus fact:
The 1969 Apollo 11 moon landing is a favorite of conspiracy theorists who assert that the landing was faked, and rather filmed on a sound stage. In September 2002, one such conspiracy theorist physically accosted the second man on the moon, Buzz Aldrin (whose mother's maiden name was Moon!), demanding he swear upon a Bible (that the conspiracy theorist brought with him) that the landing was faked. Instead, Aldrin punched the guy. (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/2272321.stm) Authorities declined to press charges against Aldrin.
http://www.volvoblog.us/wp-content/upload/buzz-aldrin-on-the-moon.jpg
a few times to me..
thought it was always my phone playing up.
All in my head..
(See what i did there)
wato20
Now I Know - Dennis the Coincidence
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Dennis the Menace, pictured above, is a comic strip which was first published in the United States on March 12, 1951. It features the protagonist, Dennis Mitchell, and his penchant for causing trouble in ways both hilarious and disconcerting -- and often with his dog, Ruff. Dennis the Menace has been in production for the half-century since its debut, and the franchise has expanded well outside of just paper-and-ink comics. There was a live action television series and three different animated ones; a few Dennis the Menace movies; a video game; and even a playground/park (http://www.yelp.com/biz/dennis-the-menace-park-monterey-2). To those of us in the United States, the blond kid with the red overalls covering a striped shirt is a cultural icon.
And to those in the UK, he's an accidental imposter.
Dennis the Menace, pictured below, is a comic strip which was first published in the United Kingdom on March 17, 1951, five days after the U.S. version, in the Beano, a children's comic book. The British Dennis is very similar to his American pseudo-cousin. He has a similar itch for mischief (although with somewhat of a malevolent bent) and, of course, the sidekick dog -- in his case, it's Gnasher, not Ruff. This Dennis has also made its way into television, movies, and (as a character) in a video game -- and appeared as a regular character at a theme park (http://i.imgur.com/Y3hdb.jpg). (Close enough.) In the UK, he, too, is a cultural icon. But the other similarities end at the striped shirt -- the UK Dennis doesn't wear overalls and has black hair.
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/2889002ad89d45ca21f50ba46/images/DennisUK.jpeg
So who copied whom? Most likely, neither Dennis is inspired by the other -- it's simply an odd coincidence.
The U.S. Dennis was created by cartoonist Hank Ketcham. Ketcham used his own family as inspiration for the strip -- his real-life son's name was Dennis and the fictional Dennis Mitchell's parents were Henry and Alice. Hank's real first name was Henry and Alice was his first wife and mother of the real Dennis. (Alice died in 1959 due to a drug overdose.) According to the New York Times (http://www.nytimes.com/2001/06/02/arts/hank-ketcham-father-of-dennis-the-menace-dies-at-81.html) in Ketcham's obituary:
Mr. Ketcham was pursuing a career as a freelance cartoonist in October 1950, when his first wife, the former Alice Mahar, burst into his studio to complain that their 4-year-old, Dennis, who was supposed to be napping, had instead wrecked his bedroom. ''Your son is a menace,'' she shouted.
The UK Dennis, on the other hand, has a less personal history -- he is the byproduct of a doodle by the then-publisher of the Beano, Ian Chisholm, during a discussion with the strip's eventual artist, David Law. However, there is one major salient fact which demonstrates that the British Menace is not a copy of the American one. While it appeared in the issue of the Beano dated March 17th, the publication went to press at least ten days before that date, meaning that the UK comic was drawn and published without any way of knowing about the American comic.
While this coincidence is almost certainly innocent, it has led to some problems. In 1993, the U.S. franchise came out with a movie, titled "Dennis the Menace" in most of the English-speaking world, but, because of intellectual property questions (as well as confusion generally), the title was shorted to merely "Dennis" in the UK.
And currently, the British Dennis the Menace strip goes instead by the title Dennis and Gnasher, a title originally adopted for non-UK publications as to avoid confusion with the American comic. But the protagonist, is still known as Dennis the Menace.
Bonus fact:
The U.S. Dennis is a blond, not a blonde. Per Merriam-Webster (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/blond), "Blond" refers to the color, generally, but it is also used to refer to a man with hair of that color. When referring to a woman with blond hair, it is acceptable -- albeit sometimes regarded as sexist, per Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blonde#cite_ref-AHBEU_4-0) -- to use "blonde," with an "e" at the end.
http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTP-aGjszmj3TIs4Kt2GAui1ZkDs7aMsfcDQwfF6E-ESZlOnkfL
Now I Know - Naked at Harvard and Yale
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The following people are -- or, perhaps more correctly, were -- members of an elite and unique club: President George H.W. Bush, Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton, journalists Bob Woodward and Diane Sawyer, actress Meryl Streep, and television executive Brandon Tartikoff. Yes, each was (or is) a titan in his or her field. And each one is probably a household name, or close to it. But they have one other thing in common.
Most likely, each of the above once posed nude.
Starting in the 1940s, a group of upper-echelon colleges and universities in the northeast United States ran a program originally aimed to study the human posture. These schools -- Harvard, Mount Holyoke, Princeton, Radcliffe (before it became part of Harvard), Smith, Swarthmore, Vassar, Wellesley, and Yale -- were all members of the Ivy League or the Seven Sisters, each a group of well-regarded institutions of higher learning. A researcher named William H. Sheldon convinced these schools to compel incoming freshman into posing nude for his photographer, under the pretense of studying things like scoliosis and rickets. But in reality, Sheldon was studying something else, a theory he called "constitutional psychology," or the correlation between a person's body shape and their intelligence.
Body types, Sheldon believe, could show more than just a person's physical traits. He developed three categories of body types, which he coined "somatotypes," each of which he believed had different, distinct psychological traits including differences in intelligence. While the basis for this theory was not entirely ahistoric -- philosophers dating back to ancient Greece (notably Plato) had noted a fundamental difference in body types -- the association with intelligence was more junk than science; as the New York Times noted (http://www.nytimes.com/1995/01/21/us/nude-photos-are-sealed-at-smithsonian.html), "his work has long been dismissed by most scientists as quackery." Another New York Times (http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/12/02/last-nude-column-for-now-at-least/) writer noted that there was a racial bias built into Sheldon's work, as Sheldon believed that "Negro and Hispanic brains stop developing early."
Most of the colleges destroyed most of the photos soon after the study ended. Unfortunately, many of the photos survived into the 1990s, when the Times story hit. The photos had made their way to the Smithsonian which, in response to the Times article, sealed the archive from public viewing (http://www.nytimes.com/1995/01/21/us/nude-photos-are-sealed-at-smithsonian.html) (but made it available to researchers). A week or so later, the Smithsonian shredded photos from Yale students, (http://www.nytimes.com/1995/01/29/us/nude-photos-of-yale-graduates-are-shredded.html) on request from that university, and noted that it would do the same for other schools which so requested. To date, it is unclear if any of them have done so.
Bonus fact:
In 1968, Paramount Pictures released an adaptation of Romeo and Juliet starring Leonard Whiting as Romeo and Olivia Hussey as Juliet. Hussey, then age 15, appeared nude in the film; she was the only actor or actress to do so. Because of the nude scene, children under the age of 18 were not allowed to attend the premiere of the movie in London. According to her IMDb biography, (http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0001377/bio)this ban included Hussey, who would have only been exposed to her own image.
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Now I Know - The Agony of the Feet
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Flip-flops are popular summertime footwear with an onomatopoeic name derived from the sound they make when one walks wearing them. And beyond that sound, there is not a lot to them. Each pair is nothing more than a two pieces of shoe soles held in place on the appropriate foot by a typically y-shaped strap anchored between the first and second toe. Their simplicity is, probably, their greatest appeal.
And also the reason why the cause tens of millions of dollars in injuries each year -- in the UK alone.
In 2010, the UK's Daily Mail reported (http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2008-06-01-flip-flops-study_N.htm) that England's National Health Service (NHS) attributed roughly 200,000 doctors and emergency room visits to injuries "caused by wearing [flip-flops]." The total cost of those visits? 40 million pounds, or about $63.5 million. While that number includes all sorts of injuries not directly related to foot care, it speaks volumes to the size of the potential ills caused by the shoes.
In 2008, a doctoral student in biomechanics at Auburn University conducted a study (http://education.auburn.edu/news/2008/june/flipflop.html) using 39 college-age men and women. The participants in the study were asked to walk across a board -- twice -- which measured vertical force while a camera monitored their foot and leg movements. One of the two treks was made using flip-flops; the other was while wearing "traditional athletic shoes." As reported by USA Today (http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2008-06-01-flip-flops-study_N.htm), the study found that "[w]hen participants [in the study] wore flip-flops, they took shorter strides and their heels hit the ground with less vertical force than when they wore their sneakers." This change in the wearer's gait can lead to foot and lower leg pain. Further, the study found that while wearing the flip-flops, participants "did not bring their toes up as much" as they typically would, perhaps because the toes were busy gripping the flip-flops. A review of the same study by CNN noted that (http://edition.cnn.com/2010/HEALTH/08/06/health.concern.flip.flops/index.html) this "seemed to result in problems from the foot up into the hips." Flip-flop use has been linked to sprained ankles, pronation (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronation#Pronation_of_the_foot) and misalignment of the foot and legs, flat feet, tendonitis, blisters, and more.
And those in the know practice what they preach. The executive director of the U.S.-based Institute for Preventative Foot Health (http://www.ipfh.org/), Bob Thompson, told CNN (in a separate story two years later) that flip-flops are so bad for your feet that he does not own a single pair. (http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/18/health/flip-flops-hurting-feet/index.html)
Bonus fact:
Flip-flops have a history dating back to ancient Egypt, but the ones commonly worn in the U.S. and Europe are probably originally from Japan. Per Wikipedia: "The modern flip-flop descends from the Japanese zōri, which became popular after World War II when soldiers returning to the United States brought them back." Zori were often considered formalwear for Japanese women of the time.
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Now I Know - Embargo Elixir
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Fanta, the fruity flavored soda, is sold in more than fifty countries. There are nearly 100 different flavors available, ranging from Lychee (http://i.imgur.com/RJgEB.png) (in Cambodia and formerly in Thailand) and Lactic White Grape (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Taiwanfantawhitegrape.jpg) (Taiwan) to Watermelon Splash (http://i.imgur.com/9GDAt.jpg) (parts unknown) and something called Shokata (http://i.imgur.com/2axAr.jpg) (Maldives). Its original flavor, created in 1940, was orange and for years, was only available in Europe. But it has taken the world by storm since.
And it probably would not have happened but for a Nazi embargo.
Coca-Cola, which now owns Fanta, had a large bottling and distribution business in Germany in the 1930s. But it was soon at risk. Few tactics were ruled out as Europe entered into war in the late 1930s, and economic restrictions were certainly among those used. Germany disallowed the importation of goods from Western Europe, and the Coca-Cola plants were unable to import the ingredients used to make the world-famous cola. So Max Keith, a German-born executive in charge of Coke's German footprint, made due with what was available. Pickings were slim. According to Snopes (http://www.snopes.com/cokelore/fanta.asp), Keith took whatever he could get -- apple fibers left over from cider making; whey, a cheese byproduct; beet sugar (as cane sugar was highly rationed); and certainly a litany of other things which us Westerners would be horrified to know our grandparents probably imbibed. (According to Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanta#History), Keith later called the ingredients the "leftovers of the leftovers.")
Despite the rank poor ingredients, the drink was, somehow, popular. Some suggest that the fact that Fanta was sweet was enough, as bakers and housewives used it as a sugar substitute due to the above-mentioned rations. Others simply believed the beverage tasted good -- a fruity and bubbly escape from a world at war. In any event, the soft drink -- and therefore, Coca-Cola's German infrastructure -- survived the war.
And the world has a hundred or so fruity flavors to thank for it.
Bonus fact:
Joseph Aloisius Ratzinger was born in Germany in 1927 and turned 13 years old in 1940 -- and, therefore, came of age in the early days of Fanta. Now known better as Pope Benedict XVI, Ratzinger's love of the orange soda perseveres. In 2008, the Daily Mail reported (http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/uk-world-news/pope-is-secret-fanta-fan-967929) that the Pope drinks four cans of Fanta a day.
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Now I Know - Tastes Great, Can't Buy It
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Ask a community of beer aficionados which beer is the best, and chances are they're not going to shoot back with Pabst Blue Ribbon or Milwaukee's Best. Ask BeerAdvocate.com and you'll get a top two of Pliny the Younger, a Russian brew, or Westvleteren 12. Go to RateBeer.com (http://www.ratebeer.com/RateBeerBest/bestbeers_012012.asp) and you'll see a similar name in that top spot, as Westvleteren 12 makes a repeat appearance. (Pliny the Younger comes it at #7.) Both rating sites give Westvleteran a 100 (http://beeradvocate.com/beer/profile/313/1545), their highest possible scores.
But buying a bottle of Westvleteren 12? That's a bit tricky.
The Belgian municipality of Vleteren is in the northwestern part of the country, closer to both the North Sea and the French border than it is from Brussels. (Here's a map. (https://maps.google.com/maps?q=50.933333,2.733333&hl=en&ll=50.930738,2.735596&spn=2.018394,4.42749&sll=50.909961,2.664185&sspn=2.019295,4.42749&t=m&z=8)) Roughly 3,500 Belgians live in the area, about two dozen of whom are Trappists, an order of monks, who live at St. Sixtus' Abbey. Ten of these monks, with the help of three secular employees, make Westvleteren 12 (the yellow-capped bottle pictured above) and two other types of beer. But buying Westveletern 12 is hard because the monks produce so little of it. The monks brew beer for only about 10 weeks a year, eschewing any desire to increase production. And they produce only 125,000 gallons (475,000 liters) of beer per year across all three beer types. That results in about 15,000 to 25,000 cases of Westvleteren 12.
The brewery, which has been around in some capacity since 1838 (but was upgraded two decades ago), was originally established to fund the construction and completion of the abbey itself. According to the Independent (http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/monks-who-make-worlds-best-beer-pray-for-quiet-life-502172.html), the monks started brewing beer because "the workers who built the monastery were entitled to two glasses of beer a day," and crafting it themselves seemed like a good way to pay the bills. Today, the brewery is the main source of revenue for the Trappist monks at St. Sixtus'. But, given the limited production of the beer, the brewery is obviously not a traditional business. This is by design. As the Father Abbot stated when the new brewery opened in 1992 (as recapped on the Abbey's website (http://www.sintsixtus.be/eng/brouwen.htm)):
"This must be strange for business people and difficult to understand that we do not exploit our commercial assets as much as we can. We are no brewers. We are monks. We brew beer to be able to afford being monks."
The monks sell 24 bottle cases of the beer for about $35, or $1.50 a bottle. The low price point combined with the scarcity drives the first-come, first-served demand to a fever pitch. Customers can find out when the beer goes on sale by calling a hotline colloquially referred to as the "beer phone," but, as USA Today (http://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/food/2005-10-03-beer-usat_x.htm) reports, the lines get crazy, and quickly:
On the first day the beer goes on sale, cars start lining up at the abbey at 5:15 a.m., says Brother Joris. The gates open at 10 a.m., and buyers are limited to two cases per car. "Not to be resold" is stamped on the receipts, but customers regularly disregard the monks' wish, and the coveted beer is exported, unlabeled and without permission, to America and elsewhere.
And reselling is a very profitable endeavor. The beer can easily fetch prices north of $15 per bottle, ten times what the monks themselves sell it at. The monks have tried to limit resellers -- per the Wall Street Journal (http://online.wsj.com/article/SB119628388037006909.html), often it takes nothing more than an email asking resellers to cease doing so -- but there are always some out there unwilling to cooperate. One site, BelgianBeer.com, currently resells the bottles at $40 a pop (http://shop.belgianshop.com/acatalog/Trappist_beers.html#aBB22003), for example.
Better than waiting in line, at least.
Bonus fact:
A fraternity is not a monastery. That may seem obvious, but it was the topic of a recent case in Illinois. A Chicago homeowner wanted to rent his house to the Loyola University chapter of the Sigma Chi fraternity, but area zoning laws disallowed such a rental. There was an exception available, however, for monasteries, convents, and the like. The homeowner brought an action against the city claiming that the fraternity members took an oath -- "in the Service of God and Man" -- and were, therefore, a religious group analogous to monks in a monastery. The court (decision here, pdf (http://www.courthousenews.com/2012/09/14/fraternity.pdf), via Volokh Conspiracy (http://www.volokh.com/2012/09/16/a-fraternity-is-not-a-monastery/)) disagreed.
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Now I Know - The Last Straw
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The rule of thumb, in the United States at least, is that one does not wear white after Labor Day. That tradition dates back to the 1800s but, as mental_floss (http://www.mentalfloss.com/blogs/archives/140464)explains, the origins of it are definitively known. But it is not the only odd fashion tradition in the United States. In the early 1900s, wearing another piece of clothing verboten after the close of summer: straw hats.
And in one case, this informal ban led, dramatically, to violence.
In the mid-1800s, a portion of lower Manhattan then known as the Five Points became a breeding ground for organized crime and slums. The working-class gangs -- portrayed in fiction in the movie Gangs of New York -- operated outside and often above the law, and would later become the breeding grounds for famous Prohibition-era crime bosses such as Al Capone in their early days as gangsters. And some of their criminal activity was just plain weird -- idle maliciousness more than anything else. The best example of this may be the Straw Hat Riots of 1922.
For years, the fashion culture dictated that men wear hats. But not all hats were acceptable at all times. After September 15th, straw hats were simply not to be worn. Why is anyone's guess, and why that date in particular doubly so. Regardless, the date permeated the culture, creeping forward from what appears to be an original "last day" of September 1st. As noted by Put This On (http://putthison.com/post/31464781718/on-this-day-in-history-this-saturday-september), many newspapers printed warnings about the informal deadline. For example, on September 14, 1912, the Lawrence (Kansas) Daily Journal-World (http://www2.ljworld.com/news/2012/sep/14/100-years-ago-reminder-fashion-conscious-men-no-st/)warned men that "the man who ventures out on the streets after tonight with a straw hat on is in danger of being hauled before the bar of judgment and made to explain his conduct." It is not likely that many (if any) men actually were imprisoned for wearing straw hats toward the end of September, but some certainly took the restrictions seriously.
On September 13, 1922, some gang members from the Five Points area decided to get a head start on the straw hat ban. They went to a local factory, took the straw hats from workers there, and smashed them. Then they took aim at dock workers on the East River (separating Manhattan from Brooklyn), but unlike the factory workers, the dock workers fought back. The ensuing riot was so bad that traffic over the Manhattan Bridge came to a halt until police arrived. As the New York Times reported (http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=F30C13F73B5D1A7A93C6A81782D85F468285F9) the next day, hat-smashers were threatened with arrest:
The inalienable right of a man to wear a straw hat in a snowstorm, if he so desires, is to be upheld in this city by both police and the Magistrates, and a warning was sent to all straw hat smashers last night that jail terms on assault charges awaited them if they started any such carnival today [September 14th].
They continued nonetheless. Armed with sticks, often adorned with nails, the rioters -- perhaps numbering as many as 1,000, per an Associated Press repor (http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OaoxAAAAIBAJ&sjid=bNwFAAAAIBAJ&pg=5556,1489569&dq=straw-hat+riot&hl=en)t -- mashed more and more hats, well outpacing any police intervention. (It is likely that the first police on the scene were off-duty officers who were, at first, victims -- men who had their straw hats destroyed by rioters.) It took police until the 15th to quell the riots.
Straw hat riots would return in subsequent Septembers for a few years, even claiming the life of a straw hat-clad man who tried to defend his hat for some reason. Over time, the social requirement that men don hats relaxed, and the smashing habit went away, too.
Bonus fact:
Straw hats may not be the only headgear out there which causes pandemonium. In 1797, an English haberdasher by the name of John Hetherington took to wearing an early version of the top hat -- with ridiculous results. According to Hetherington's Wikipedia entry (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hetherington), citing Hatters Gazette, the silk band on the hat was "calculated to frighten timid people" and resulted in exactly that ill: "several women fainted at the unusual sight, while children screamed, dogs yelped and a younger son of Cordwainer Thomas was thrown down by the crowd which collected and had his right arm broke." For his "crime," Hetherington was charged with breach of the peace and inciting a riot, and released on a bond of 500 pounds.
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Now I Know - Swing and a Miss
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When World War II came to America, baseball was one of the early victims. Many Major League players were in their early 20s and, therefore, subject to the draft. Ted Williams, for example, missed three seasons -- 1943 to 1945 -- due to military service. Then commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis wrote to President Franklin Delano Roosevelt to ask if the league should suspend operations altogether; FDR wrote a famous letter (here) (http://www.baseball-almanac.com/prz_lfr2.shtml)giving the league the "green light" to continue playing. But with rosters tight, baseball had to find other avenues to stay in the public eye. In 1944, the Cincinnati Reds brought a 15 year old kid (http://www.baseball-reference.com/players/n/nuxhajo01.shtml) in to pitch (who, in the Reds' defense, would later have a lengthy career). And most notably, the owner of the Cubs, Philip K. Wrigley (of chewing gum fame) started the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League in 1943.
While many know about the AAGPBL due to the 1992 movie A League of Their Own, few realize that women played professional, minor league baseball until 1931. That year, a young woman named Jackie Mitchell ended women's hopes of breaking into the big leagues. How?
By striking out Babe Ruth. And, for good measure, she struck out Lou Gehrig too.
Ruth and Gehrig (pictured center and right, respectively, above) are widely regarded as two of the best batters in baseball history. Baseball Reference (http://www.baseball-reference.com/friv/ratings.cgi#ratings) rates Ruth as the top batter of all time and places Gehrig number 11, and a casual poll of baseball fans would certainly yield similar results. In 1931, Ruth, then 36 years old and on the downside of his career, led the league in home runs with 46 -- but it was a tie. The other guy to also hit 46 homers was Gehrig, a 28 year old first baseman, and Ruth's teammate on the New York Yankees.
In 1931, Jackie Mitchell (pictured left, above) was a 17 year old pitcher for the Chattanooga Lookouts, an AA team (the second best level of minor league teams) comprised almost entirely of men -- Mitchell was an exception. On April 2nd of that year, the Lookouts played the Yankees in a pre-season exhibition. The Yankees got out to a great start, getting a double and a single from the first two batters, respectively. With Ruth coming up to the plate, the Lookouts manager made a quick call to the bullpen, bringing in Mitchell.
Mitchell was no stranger to pitching. Growing up, her next door neighbor was a man named Dazzy Vance, a future Hall of Fame pitcher in his own right. Vance taught Mitchell how to pitch and, despite her physical disadvantages against much larger and more experienced male ballplayers, Mitchell was able to hold her own. She struck out Ruth on four pitches -- a ball, two swinging strikes, and then a called third strike -- and then followed up by getting three swinging strikes against Gehrig. This was a rare feat for an All-Star caliber Major League pitcher to pull off, and Mitchell was a high school aged girl. (Nevertheless, the Yankees won, 14-4.)
While modern commissioners would probably note such an occurrence with wide-eyed optimism for an egalitarian future, then-commissioner Landis did the exact opposite. As noted by mental_floss (via CNN) (http://edition.cnn.com/2009/LIVING/worklife/05/27/mf.women.who.beat.guys/index.html), "Landis was sufficiently threatened by the tiny female dynamo that he had her contract voided, stating that baseball was 'too strenuous' for women." And that was a harbinger of things to come. In June of 1952, MLB officially barred its teams (and their minor league affiliates) from signing women to contracts, a ban which lasted until 1992, when the White Sox drafted a pitcher named Carey Schueler -- the daughter of the team's general manager.
To date, no women have played in the Major Leagues.
Bonus fact:
While women baseball players have not made their way to the Major League field, they've bested their male counterparts at the box office. According to Box Office Mojo (http://boxofficemojo.com/genres/chart/?id=baseball.htm), A League of Their Own is the top grossing baseball movie ever, with a total domestic take of over $107 million. The movie easily outpaces the second-highest grossing baseball movie, Moneyball, which has earned just over $75 million to date to go with its six Academy Award nominations.
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Now I Know - M�nchausen by Internet
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On August 10, 2000, the New York Times ran an article (here (http://www.nytimes.com/library/tech/00/08/circuits/articles/10dorm.html)) looking into a new item that college kids were bringing to campus with them -- computers. Computers, the Times noted, were fast becoming the most important item on a would-be freshman's checklist -- the machines were replacing stereos (this was the before iPods and smart phones), answering machines, and to some degree, even televisions. As part of the article, the Times interviewed, by phone, a high school senior named Kaycee Swenson, who was active on an early social network (under the name Kaycee Nicole, with Nicole being her middle name) called CollegeClub.com:
Kaycee Swenson, a high school senior in Wichita, Kan., who took several courses at her local college last year, said she talked to people online every day, most of whom were not at her campus. But she said she also hung out with friends in the physical world, listening to music and playing basketball. "You have to balance it," she said.
Kaycee was an easy choice for the Times to include in its profile -- she was ahead of the curve, living an active life online. Beyond her activity on CollegeClub.com, Kaycee was an early blogger. At around the same time the Times article hit, she told an online friend, Randall van der Woning, that she was a leukemia survivor. Soon after, the cancer came back, and van der Woning, even further ahead of the curve, set her up with a blog (lost to time) so she could document her battle with leukemia.
For months, Kaycee -- with the help of her mother Debbie -- told her story via a series of typically daily blog posts. Over the course of about two years, she amassed "millions" of visitors to her site, per the Guardian (http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2001/may/28/internetnews.mondaymediasection). She received untold numbers of get well cards from well-wishers, and spent time talking to online friends over the phone (including talking to van der Woning a number of times). But on May 15, 2001, Kaycee's battle with leukemia officially ended. That day, Debbie Swenson, in tears, called van der Woning to tell him that her daughter had died, unexpectedly from a ruptured aneurysm, the day before. Kaycee Nicole, as she was known online, would not make it to college after all.
But, as it turns out, she wouldn't have anyway. Because Kaycee Nicole never had cancer. Or even a computer. Kaycee Nicole never existed -- she was a figment of her mother's imagination, carried out online.
A few days after Kaycee's final blog post hit the Web, the skepticism followed, as odd inconsistencies came to light. Followers of Kaycee's plight, many using the community weblog MetaFilter, wanted to send condolence cards, flowers, etc., to her family, but Debbie informed them that there was no valid address to send stuff to. This was particularly strange because Kaycee was able to receive (and in fact, responded to) mail sent to her before her death. The MetaFilter community started piecing together more details in a discussion thread (http://www.metafilter.com/7819/Is-it-possible-that-Kaycee-did-not-exist#84429) and other online communities and publications joined in. Some protested, most notably van der Woning, who emphatically asked the community to stop (http://www.metafilter.com/7819/Is-it-possible-that-Kaycee-did-not-exist#84451) and assured the community Kaycee was real. But momentum had taken over.
Collectively, they noted that Debbie told the world that Kaycee was cremated and her memorial service came and went, both within just two or three days after her apparent death. While many had spoken to Kaycee over the phone, no one could find one of her followers who had ever met her in person. And the above-quoted Times article provided another clue -- her last name. Except for that article, Kaycee was only known by her online moniker of Kaycee Nicole, never "Kaycee Swenson."
Emboldened, the Kaycee Nicole skeptics worked together in hopes of finding something definitive. They succeeded. A now-defunct FAQ (archived here (http://web.archive.org/web/20010629212706/http://rootnode.org/article.php?sid=26)) of the Kaycee Nicole hoax summed up the critical piece of evidence:
[A] live chat room for discussing developments was set up. Work was very collaborative and productive in this environment. Additional Kaycee web pages were found. These pages had more photos. One of these photos clearly showed the school mascot and that Kaycee was #10 on the basketball team. By putting together the mascot in the photo with the city the Swensons were originally from, the school where the photos originated was tracked down. A women's basketball roster for the school in 1999 listed #10 as Julie . Someone immediately typed the full name into google, and the first link returned was quite eerie. It was Julie's player profile from the college she attends. And clear as day was a picture of "Kaycee Nicole" staring back from the screen.
Soon after, Debbie Swenson came clean. On May 19th, she called van der Woning and admitted that the entire story was a lie. Kaycee had been created years earlier by her daughter, and when Debbie found out, instead of shutting down the fake child's account, she adopted it as her own. Massive outrage ensued and van der Woning, who was perhaps the greatest victim of the duping, deleted Kaycee's blog. The FBI briefly investigated (http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/2001-05-31-internet-hoax-fbi.htm) the matter, but concluded that "it would hard to prove that a crime had occurred."
In the end, Debbie Swenson explained that she crafted Kaycee out of three people she had met, each of whom died from cancer. But she never explained why she created this fake daughter many others grew to care for.
Bonus fact:
The history of the Internet is filled with hoaxes, but the so-called "Microsoft Hoax" is widely regarded to be the first highly successful one. In 1994, a fake Associated Press story travelled through the tubes, asserting that Microsoft (which was a few years from being on the wrong end of anti-trust litigation (http://seattletimes.com/html/microsoftpri0/2015034153_timeline_microsofts_antitrust_history.h tml)) was acquiring a controlling stake in the Catholic Church. The article, available here, (http://www.museumofhoaxes.com/msft.html) argued that the combined "company" would be able to "make religion easier and more fun for a broader range of people," according to a faux quote from Bill Gates. Due to calls from confused consumers, Microsoft issued a formal statement denying the merger on December 16, 1994.
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http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1584016/
Young filmmakers document their colleague's budding online friendship with a young woman and her family which leads to an unexpected series of discoveries.
wato20
Now I Know - Leopards and Tigers and Corbetts
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In the late 1800s, a Bengal tiger known as the Champawat Tiger was terrorizing Nepal. While tigers, typically, do not attack people unprovoked, the Champawat Tiger was the grand exception to this rule of thumb. Before the century was out, this particular tiger would kill at least 200 people. The Nepalese army drove it out of the country and into what is present-day India, where it continued on its rampage, killing at least another 200. Together, the Champawat Tiger was responsible for 430 known deaths.
In the end, the Champawat Tiger met its match -- a man named Jim Corbett, pictured above, standing over the aforementioned tiger. Corbett was not simply lucky, though. Corbett was a specialist -- the guy you called when you needed to kill a man-eating tiger or leopard.
The Nepal/India region of the late-1800s/early-1900s was fertile ground for man-eating cats. The Champawat Tiger was the most successful in that regard -- her 430 kills is regarded as a record. But she was not alone. Take, for example, the Leopard of Panar. After feasting for years on the corpses of people struck by various epidemics, the Panar Leopard found its food supply wane as those epidemics passed. So it began to hunt -- for people. It is credited with killing roughly 400 people in the early 20th century in Northern India. Similarly, the Rudraprayag Leopard menaced a roughly 25 mile (40 km) path between the Indian villages of Kedarnath and Badrinath, each a home to holy shrines to Hindus. And similarly, he is believed to have developed the taste for human flesh due to the prevalance of corpses in and around his habitat.
Like the Champawat Tiger, these two leopards met their fate at the hands of Corbett. Add a couple dozen other man-eaters to his count, and Corbett is credited with eliminating 33 tigers and leopards who, combined, killed over 1,200 people over the course of 30 or so years.
Corbett's methods were robust, a biproduct of his unique mix of skills. He was familiar with navigating the jungles of India and Nepal from a young age, being born and coming of age in the region. He had decades of experience hunting tigers -- he worked with an illegal poacher as a teen. And he was a marksman to boot. As Damn Interesting describes (http://www.damninteresting.com/a-large-hearted-gentleman/), these skills, combined, allowed him to succeed where all others failed:
After months of stalking, Corbett marked one of the leopard’s favorite trails, set a goat as bait, and climbed into a mango tree. There Corbett spent ten nights, with only the anxious murmurs of the landscape hinting at the leopard’s proximity. Just before midnight on the eleventh evening, he heard the distinct clamor of the goat’s bell, and snapped on his weak flashlight. The beam caught a flash of pale fur, and a single shot rang out from the mango tree. The leopard disappeared into the gloom. Five hours later, when the clouds broke, Corbett left the safety of his tree to investigate. There in the silver light of the moon, he found the man-eating Rudraprayag Leopard dead.
Corbett believed that the tigers and leopards only attacked people as a last resort. The animals he killed all had one thing in common -- they were significantly injured, and likely unable hunt their typical prey. The Champawat Tiger, for example, had two broken canine teeth. The Rudraprayag Leopard exhibited similar problems, as old age and gum disease had robbed it of a few teeth as well. Another tiger, known as the Chowgarh Tigress, had many undissolved porcupine quills in her leg, causing muscle and bone decay. In each case, these felines had to go after easier targets -- and people, without any natural defense from tigers, were as good of a target as any.
To his credit, Corbett acted on this belief in later years. He devoted the end of his life to documenting the lives of the animals he previously hunted -- the non-man-eating ones, at least -- via photography, and helped establish a nature preserve in the region. He passed away in 1955 and, two years later, the nature preserve whose creation he spearheaded was renamed after him.
Bonus fact:
According to the World Wildlife Fund (http://worldwildlife.org/species/tiger), there are only about 3,200 tigers in the wild today, worldwide. As noted by National Geographic (http://newswatch.nationalgeographic.com/2010/10/21/americas_5000_backyard_tigers/), as recently as 2005, there may be as many as 5,000 tigers living in captivity in the U.S., and most are kept as pets -- "by private individuals, not zoos." Note that in many cases, private ownership of tigers is not illegal. More than half of the U.S states -- 31 of them (http://www.bornfreeusa.org/b4a2_exotic_animals_summary.php) -- allow private citizens to keep wild animals as pets (and only 15 of those require that the tiger owner obtain license to do so).
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| i don't know |
Which American author wrote many books in his writing career including The Dream Merchants in 1949, A Stone For Danny Fisher in 1952 and The Carperbaggers in 1961 ? | Dr.S.K.Paul's Tutorials: HAROLD ROBBINS THE BEST-SELLER
Monday, 22 March 2010
HAROLD ROBBINS THE BEST-SELLER
Francis Kane (Harold Robbins), writer: born New York 21 May 1916; married Muriel Ling (died 1937), Lillian Machnivitz (marriage dissolved), Grace Palermo (two daughters; marriage dissolved), Jann Stapp; died Palm Springs 14 October 1997.
Greed for sex, money and power brought worldwide success and many millions of pounds to Harold Robbins. The greed was that of the larger-than-life characters in his 23 massive bestsellers, novels that created a "bedroom and boardroom" genre of popular fiction since developed by the likes of Judith Krantz, Jackie Collins, Danielle Steele and, on television, by the makers of Dallas, Dynasty and all their clones.
Robbins was indisputedly the most popular writer in the world, and his books - not one of which has ever been out of print - are said to have sold, in 42 countries, three-quarters of a billion copies. His most popular, The Carpetbaggers (1961), has sold 30 million copies, making it, apparently, the fourth most read book in history.
Robbins's life was almost as extraordinary as his success. When the millions started to roll in, he began to live the gaudy life of the rich, raunchy characters in his novels, perhaps recognising, as an astute and entertaining self-publicist, that this would help shift more books.
He lived a celebrity life of conspicuous consumption: a fleet of high- class cars in which several Rolls Royces were little more than runarounds; villas in the South of France, Acapulco and Beverley Hills; cruises around the Mediterranean on his 85ft yacht with guest lists that at various times included Hollywood film stars, globetrotting European jet- setters, Middle Eastern millionaires and high class hookers. He loudly proclaimed that he had researched first-hand all the vices he described in his novels; and that he would one day be recognised as the best writer in the world.
The arc of his success also read like something from his novels. He was born Francis Kane in 1916, in Hell's Kitchen, New York. A foundling (like his fellow best-seller James Michener) he was brought up first in a Roman Catholic orphanage then in a succession of foster homes. He took the name Rubins from one foster family and changed it to Robbins when he began writing.
After dropping out of High School he worked during the Depression as a bookie's runner, errand boy and a clerk in a grocery store. In the grocery store he saw a way to make money from speculating on crop futures. He borrowed $800, put his plan into operation and was a millionaire within a year. He was 20.
In 1939, on the eve of the Second World War, however, he lost the lot when he speculated that sugar would shortly become scarce and bought four shiploads at $4.85 per 100 pounds just before the government fixed the price of sugar at $4.65.
Bankrupt, he went to work in 1940 as a clerk at the New York warehouse of Universal Pictures. Sharp with figures, by 1942 he had become executive director of budget and planning and he remained an executive with the film company until 1957.
He began writing in 1946, to win a bet after scorning the quality of the stories the studio was buying. His first two novels, Never Love A Stranger (1948) and The Dream Merchants (1949) were immediate successes and he even got critical praise (a rare commodity where a Harold Robbins novel was concerned) for his third, A Stone For Danny Fisher (1952), a coming of age novel set on New York's East Side.
Later all three novels became films - Danny Fisher was transplanted to New Orleans as Kid Creole, a vehicle for Elvis Presley whilst Never Love A Stranger provided an early role for Steve McQueen.
Other novels followed in the Fifties - "picaresque novels about doomed people", he called them - but it was with the 1961 publication of The Carpetbaggers (with a central character based on Howard Hughes) that Robbins's career really took off. The 16 novels which followed over the next 37 years (including The Adventurers, 1966; The Betsy, 1971; The Stallion, 1996 and Tycoon, 1997) were snapped up by readers and film companies alike. Virtually all his novels have been filmed for either the big screen or as television mini-series.
In them he often used real life figures like Hughes, Aristotle Onassis, Marilyn Monroe and Lana Turner as templates for his central characters. "All my characters are real," he said once. "They are written as fiction to protect the guilty." Readers loved the intricate plots, fast narrative, and what seemed like Robbins's insider view of Hollywood, industry bigwigs and the super-sexed super-rich.
Robbins loved the life of the playboy, albeit one who produced a big book every couple of years. He did this by working 12 to 16 hour days, never rewriting nor working out his plots in advance. As he got wealthier, in addition to his glamorous lifestyle and outrageous parties, he got serious about art (he bought Chagalls amd Legers, Picasso sketched him), fine food and gambling.
His extravagant lifestyle came to an end in 1985 following a stroke and then a fall in which he fractured both hips. Confined to a wheelchair he remained in his palazzo in Palm Springs for the rest of his life. He underwent a series of operations to repair his damaged bones, including one in which he suffered painful nerve damage. An attempt to implant an electric painkiller in his stomach failed and thereafter he took over- the-counter painkillers every day to alleviate the constant pain.
He continued to type his books two fingered but now could only manage three or four hours a day. The wild spending, the divorces (he admitted to three wives but it seems there were three other brief, unpublicised marriages, two possibly to the same woman) and the medical bills put a big dent in his bank balance. The houses, the cars and the yacht went.
His marriage to his second (or fifth, depending on who is counting) wife, Grace Palermo, ended in divorce after 28 years in 1992. A week later, on Valentine's Day, he married his assistant, Jann Stapp, vowing it would be his last marriage.
He was writing almost to the end and had just completed another novel, Wishing Well. Of his writing he never had any doubts: "I'm the best around - no one can compare with what I've done. I'm the world's best writer in basic English. Everybody understands what I write - except maybe the critics."Harold Robbins, the self-proclaimed "best novelist alive," was born to parents of suspected Jewish origin on May 21, 1916, in the Hell's Kitchen neighborhood of New York City. His parents deposited the illegitimate infant on the steps of a Roman Catholic orphanage where he was given the name Francis Kane. Francis Kane, who later became the main character of his first bestseller, spent time in various foster homes and was adopted at age ten by the last of his foster parents. His father was a Jewish pharmacist in Manhattan pharmacist. Upon adoption he took the name Harold Rubin, but later he changed it legally to Harold Robbins when his writing career began in the 1940's (Daily Telegraph 31). From 1927 to 1931, his jobs included grocery clerk, cook, cashier, errand boy for prostitutes and a Jamaican drug dealer, and bookies' runner. He claimed to have delivered cocaine to Cole Porter. At age fifteen, Harry Rubin lied about his age and joined the navy but was thrown out when his age was discovered. Robbins spent four years at George Washington High School - his only formal education. At nineteen, he dropped out of high school and borrowed eight hundred dollars. With this money he made a million dollars in sugar crop futures. Due to over-speculation however, he lost all of this money by the age of twenty and took a clerk job with Universal Pictures. While working at Universal Pictures he bet another executive one hundred dollars that he could write a better novel than the one that the studio had just purchased. In 1948, the result of this bet - Never Love A Stranger - was published and became an instant bestseller (Gale 4). Robbins once boasted that in his lifetime he had experienced all of the vices that he depicted in his works (Year in Review 1). When his writing career took off, he adopted a purely hedonistic Hollywood existence. He vacationed in the French Riviera, "took all kinds of drugs," and married very frequently (one source says six times and another states that even his friend/publicist Dick Delson could not exact the number of marriages). Robbins acknowledged only three of the marriages: Lillian Machnivitz in 1937, Grace Palermo in 1964 with whom he had two daughters Caryn and Adreana, and Jann Stapp in 1992 (The Guardian 20). In 1982, Robbins suffered a stroke that left him with a slight case of aphasia and resulted in a partial loss of word usage and comprehension. He continued to write until his death citing the following reason, "I have to keep writing, I haven't any money" (The Detroit Times 1). Due to excessive spending during his glory days and his expensive divorce from Grace, Robbins was indeed forced to continue writing with the help of Jann until his death. The king of the "sex and scandal airport novel" died on October 14, 1997, of respiratory heart failure in Palm Springs Desert Hospital. During his career, Robbins penned over twenty novels, and sold more than 750 million books worldwide. In fact, none of his books sold less than 600,000 copies (Gale 10). At the time of his death, despite an earlier claim that he would "[leave] no unfinished manuscripts…live till I'm 200 years old, and …write all the stories that are in me," he left two works in progress - a novel and an autobiography.
To quote the New English Library publicity blurb in "The Bookseller", "Harold Robbins has done it again with his novel "Memories of Another Day". A reviewer in "The Booklist" suggests that Robbins's success hinges on the fact that he has "invented his own genre of good bad novels." True to form, "Memories of Another Day" in November 1979 was his most recent novel to combine "the corrupting influence of power, money, and sex." As the 16th novel of 25, "Memories of Another Day" debuted in the book world "at a point in his career, when his writing had achieved an almost artless quality." This is indeed the quality that panders to the same mass audience's penchant for Harold Robbins's novels ("The Booklist" 542). An article in Harper's Magazine sub-titled "The rewards of vulgarity," searches to find just what exactly it is that makes Robbins's novels worthy of being purchased by more than 25,000 people a day and being translated into such languages as Urdu and Bengalese. Simon and Schuster estimates that "Memories of Another Day" would be the novel of the year and author Gene Lyons deigned to admit that the book-buyers would be in agreement. However, Lyons contends that the average literary guru would say that Robbins's work "places him beneath consideration, regardless of how many less obviously commercial authors" may have been supported indirectly with the funds accrued by his books (Lyons 82). Lyons points to the typical Robbins formula to explain his success. The sex and violence of Robbins's novels appear no more graphically or copiously than in those of his contemporaries like Norman Mailer and John Updike, but Robbins attracts readers with his usage of the hackneyed theme - the American Dream. In stark contrast, his more intellectual contemporaries focus on suburban disillusionment with the American Dream. Lyons describes Robbins as "the laureate of postindustrial capitalism...Robbins is the Horatio Alger of the book-buying world who do not embrace the notion that honesty and hard work bring rewards." Lyons concludes that Robbins's typical protagonist has a past that somewhat resembles his own: a bastard child or a child born to negligent parents who claws his way to the top of an "indifferent world" (Lyons 84). A New York Times Review by Martin Levin broaches the same subject of the Lyons review. "You're not going to learn much about the American Labor Movement from 'Memories of Another Day,'" says Levin. The story's protagonist, Big Dan Huggins, like an earlier character from a Robbins novel is "' a young man who came into the world with clenched fists and a hungry heart.'" Robbins enthusiasts want "upward mobility tinged with sentimentality and violence." Little has changed between Robbins first protagonist in 1949 and Big Dan Huggins thirty years later, Levin questions why it would when Robbins enjoys the kickbacks from two hundred million readers daily (Levin 14). Maude McDaniel of the Washington Post points out that "Memories of Another Day" represents a change of pace in Robbins's writing style. Though "Memories" contains the same "coitus virtually uninterruptus against interchangeable backgrounds," there is less dialogue, more narrative, and the sex scenes are less steamy. Some of the actual facts of the labor movement get more attention than sex scenes which McDaniel notes as a positive change. As a female reviewer, McDaniel is struck by the notion that "Memories" seems to be a very male book with characters that have been plucked directly from a "male fantasy." The men are "powerful, good-hearted; the women, adoring, lusty, insatiable, and all sex objects." McDaniel returns to a recurring theme among Robbins's critics in her conclusion. "Robbins's style is plane geometric, all surface with little depth...the pleasure is in the arrival, not the journey...this can be a relief...but the overall effect is curiously flat (McDaniel 14)." Jim Moore in the Los Angeles Times takes a more informal approach to critiquing Robbins's work by writing a letter to the author with disclaimer title ringing of flippancy "Dear Harold, you probably don't care, but..." Moore feels that the book lacks energy and the two stories told in sections creates a disjointed effect, as if the book were written separately and glued together. His "basic objection" is tiredness. Robbins's male characters are flat; his female characters Moore felt he had already met before. Moore likes the "strong, plain dialogue," but finds some of the colloquial West Virginia expressions like "mebbe" to be overdone. Moore admits that Robbins's publishers reminded him of the fact that Robbins recently sold 200 million copies and therefore, Robbins probably would not be heeding Moore's advice. In that case, "I wrote these words for the record...unfortunately I think that you wrote ["Memories"] for the same reason (Moore 6)."
Subsequent Reception:
I did not find any subsequent review because as mentioned above, "Memories of Another Day" was Harold Robbins's 16th novel out of 25. Reactions to his next novel "Goodbye, Janette" replaced the reviews to "Memories of Another Day."
| Harold Robbins |
The 2003 film remake 'Willard' starring Crispin Glover, tells the story of a young man who has a strange control over which type of creatures ? | TRM – TVRadioMovies.com – Page 15
Pete Sieler Comment
TV Radio and Movies, then and now…
Sixty years ago – Campaigning in Texas – General Dwight D. Eisenhower (62) receives happy birthday wishes from across the state making whistle stops.
In Northern California, General Eisenhower pledges an end to the Korean War, dedicating himself to “finding and intelligent and honorable way” to end it.
In reference to the Presidential elections next month between Adlai Stevenson and General Eisenhower – Winston Churchill proclaims that “Whichever wins, the United States will not abandon the mission of leading the free nations in resistance to Communist aggression.” “There is a general feeling in the world that on the whole, the danger of world war has receded.”
General Eisenhower releases his finances over the past 10 years, showing a total income of $888,303.99. $633,000 of the amount was for all rights to his book “Crusade In Europe.”
In Wigan, England – a TV magnifier laid on a cushion near a kitchen window, sets the couch on fire. Fireman doused the flames quickly. Magnifiers are used to enlarge TV screens for easier viewing.
Married: Beatrice Aleman, only daughter of Mexico’s President Miguel Aleman, to Carlos Giron Peitier 28, Mexico City Attorney in Mexico City.
Married revealed: Marshall Tito, 60, Premier of Yugoslavia and Jovanka Busisavljevic, 28, former partisan fighter, now a major in the Yugoslavia Army. He for the third time, she for the first in Belgrade.
Died: Joseph Hudson Short, Jr., President Truman’s press secretary, of heart attack at his home in Alexandra, Virginia. Short began his newspapering in Jackson, Missippissi News for almost two decades and worked for the Associated Press and the Baltimore Sun, in 1950 he succeeded Press Secretary Charles G. Ross, who had died of a heart attack at his desk in the White House.
Next Wednesday begins the official overseas Christmas mailing season and the Post Office recommends you mail early for the boys in Korea. If you’re mailing to armed forces in Korea, Japan, and other Pacific Islands – get your packages out by November 1.
At Sears for your home – Asbestos Siding – $10.88 per 100 sq ft. “Wavy edge asbestos siding, beautifully wood grained to resemble colonial wood siding. Practically indestructible! Never needs painting. Fireproof, waterproof, rot proof, termite proof.
At the mart
– Ivory soap – 4 bars – .23 … Starch – 1qt – .19 … Pot Roast – .53lb … Campbell’s Beans – with tomato sauce and pork – one pound can – .13
Actor Dale Robertson and wife Jacqueline separate. They were married May of last year and have a daughter, Rochelle – born in July.
CBS television will use a computer for the first time to forecast election results in November. The network will team with Remington Rand, the manufacturer of the UNIVAC, to tabulate the outcome of elections based on incoming returns.
Remington Rand says the machine isn’t “psychic” but that comparisons are possible at speeds beyond human capability.
Walt Disney says he will expand his “True-Life” adventure series to include shorts on people in other nations and how they live. His first installment will be “ “The Alaskan Eskimo .”
MGM says the romance between Lana Turner and Fernando Lamas has fizzled. Both are divorced from previous spouses.
Passing – Frank Gerber (79) – founder of Gerber baby foods.
The New York Yankees beat the Brooklyn Dodgers to take the World Series in game 7. It’s the sixth time the Dodgers have entered the series, only to lose it. Brooklyn second baseman Jackie Robinson, summed it up” “They didn’t miss Joe DiMaggio. It was that Mantle, that Mickey Mantle killed us. If it hadn’t been for him, I think this would have been a very different series.”
The New York Yankees sign manager Casey Stengel to a two-year $200 thousand contract. Asked about retirement as the World Series celebrations began – “Retire, hell. I’ve got the greatest bunch of guys in the game around me and I think that we’ve got a chance to win again.”
Leo Durocher who manages the Giants says he picked the Dodgers to win and that the way to get rid of Yankee wins is to get rid of Stengel. “So they lost Joe DiMaggio this year and what happens, this Mickey Mantle, and the kid’s sensational. They lose Jerry Coleman and Stengel pulls Billy Martin out of the hat” … “What’s the answer? Stengel is the answer. You can replace DiMag and Coleman, but you can’t replace Casey, get him to retire and you’ll beat the Yankees.”
Some TV premieres this week – “Leave It To Lester” – Eddie Albert (CBS), “The Red Buttons Show (CBS),” “I Married Joan” starring Joan Davis (NBC) and “Balance Your Budget” w/ Bert Parks (CBS).
The Red Button Show from 1952
“The Today Show” features the first live broadcast from the new General Assembly building at the United Nations. Three cameras will be employed to
show the spanking-new interior
Pop music this week in 1952 – “ I Went To Your Wedding ” – Patti Page, “Jambalaya” – Jo Stafford, “I Should Care” – Ralph Flanagan, “Meet Mister Callaghan” – Les Paul, “Trying” – The Hilltoppers, “Indian Love Call” – Slim Whitman, “You Belong To Me’ – Patti Page, “High Noon” – Tex Ritter (main theme song from the hit movie starring Gary Cooper and Grace Kelly).
At the movies –
Robert Taylor, Elizabeth Taylor, Joan Fontaine, and George Sanders.
Monkey Business
Cary Grant, Ginger Rogers, and Marilyn Monroe.
Caribbean
John Payne and Arlene Dahl
Sudden Fear!
Joan Crawford and Jack Palance
Because You’re Mine
Mario Lanza and Doretta Morrow
The Quiet Man
John Wayne, Maureen O’Hara, and Barry Fitzgerald
Assignment Paris
Dana Andrews
Fifty five years ago – The White House brands as “completely untrue and completely vulgar” a charge by Arkansas Gov. Faubus that U.S. soldiers have followed girl students into their dressing rooms at Little Rock Central High School.
The Soviet Union announces it has tested a new type H-bomb. This comes in the midst of Sputnik jubilation.
Syria accuses Turkey of “unjustified provocative actions,” including violations of Syrian air space, massing troops on the border, kidnapping of Syrian citizens, and firing on border residents.
A State Department spokesperson says the department wouldn’t be surprised if Russia launched another Sputnik “at any time.”
Nations of the Western European Union, a branch of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, denounce the United States for letting Russia get ahead in military science.
Experts at the Naval Research Laboratory believe Sputnik could stay in space for as long as a year. “Reports that the rocket shell is disintegrating seem highly unlikely at this time,” said a spokesperson.
Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip arrive in Ottawa. It’s her first visit to North America as a monarch.
Communist East Germany seals off its people from the outside world while it pushes through a blitz currency change over that cost the West millions. Communist police and officials immediately began herding sleepy-eyed citizens to emergency conversion centers in banks, schools, factories and restaurants to get the new bills at the exchange rate of one for one.
Radio signals from the Russian earth satellite (Sputnik) are being heard again after being silenced for six hours.
President Eisenhower declares that the first U.S. satellite, a small 4-inch “test vehicle” planned to scout space for the fully instrumented 20-inch sphere, will be sent up this December.
Soviet Communist Party Chief Khrushchev accuses the U.S. of inciting Turkey to start a war by attacking Syria and challenges the U.S. Senate to investigate his charges.
Born: To Donald O’Conner, 32, cinema song-and-dance man (Call Me Madam) and sometime TV starlet Gloria Nobel O’Connor, 24, a daughter – their first child (his second) in Santa Monica, California. Name: Alicia. Weight 7lbs 10 oz.
Married: Lilli Palmer, 43, German born actress of stage (Bell, Book and Candle) and screen (Body and Soul, Notorious Gentlemen), and Carlos Thompson, 34, Argentine-bred cinemactor (“Fame and the Flesh”); she for the second time (her first Actor Rex Harrison), he for the first, in Kusnacht, Switzerland.
Died: Soemu Toyoda, – 72, fat, chauvinistic wartime Japanese admiral, chief of Naval General Staff when Japanese surrendered, one timed (1943) commandant of Japan’s Yokosuka naval base – of a heart attack in Tokyo.
Died: Bertha Krupp von Bohlen undHalback, 71, – granddaughter of Munitions King Alfred (“Alfred the Great”) Krupp, and herself fourth-generation ruler of the Kupp empire, mother of the current (since 1943) Steel Kingpin Alfred Krupp, who gave her name to the famed Big Bertha, the 42-centimeter mortar that smashed World War I forts and cleared the way for the German advance into Belgium and France – of a heart ailment in Essen Germany.
Sports – The Dodgers approve a Los Angeles deal to move out of Brooklyn.
Entertainment news – Marries – Marlon Brando and Ann Kashfi.
Television news – “The Honeymooners,” the Jackie Gleason filmed
Series, is getting top ratings in reruns over WRCA-TV New York and WRCV in Philadelphia.
“Zorro” starring Guy Williams debuts this week (see ad).
Wednesday night television –
CBS – Douglas Edwards with the news, I Love Lucy (reruns), The Big Record, The Millionaire, I’ve Got A Secret,
NBC – Huntley-Brinkley news, Wagon Train, Father Knows Best, This Is your Life, Code Three, Tonight-Jack Paar
ABC – Disneyland, Navy Log, Ozzie and Harriet, Walter Winchell File, Boxing
ABC-TV’s “American Bandstand” beat the competition in September, according to Trendex. “Bandstand” chalked up a 35.6 share – 62% higher than CBS and 35% higher than NBC.
Saturday Night
Music news – Tom Edwards of WERE Cleveland is making his long-time successful slide show promotion available to other record-hop jocks across the country. Edwards who projects 35mm color slide transparencies of record artists on a screen at his hops – accompanying the photos with a narration about the record stars on display – offers DJ’s their choice of slide-photos of 306 different record artists from Perry Como to Liberace at 65 cents per slide. So far, Larry Kane of KNUZ, Houston and Lour Barile, WBIX Utica are the only other two deejays currently conducting the Edwards slide shows.
Top rhythm and blues –
Gene Kelly, Mitzi Gaynor, and Kay Kendall
Walt Disney’s Perri
Deadlier Than the Male
Sports – President Walter O’Malley of the Los Angeles Dodgers pledges the resources of his vast baseball empire to provide his newly adopted city with the best team and biggest attendance figures in the National League.
Medical – One person out of every five in France has the flu and 100,000 new cases of Asian flu have been reported to last 24 hours.
Technology – Hawaii and the mainland are linked for the first time by a telephone cable. The $37 million submarine cable, laid last summer, runs from Point Arena, north of San Francisco, to Hanauma Bay near Honolulu, sometimes at a depth of three and one-half miles.
More Television News – Pinky Lee says he was severing contractual connections with NBC and the Saturday morning “Gumby Show” on November 16 because the networks are no longer interested in children’s programs. He said that he will concentrate on nightclub and auditorium bookings. Lee went on the Gumby Show June 9 after a year’s absence from television. He use to do two shows on NBC – one a daily show and a weekend show. The daily show ended in May 1956.
Here is what one theatre owner has to say about a movie he recently played at his theatre. “Johnny Tremain” from BuenaVista (Walt Disney Productions), starring Hal Stalmaser, Luana Patten, and Jeff York. Average business. Not up to Disney standards. Adults didn’t like it, teenagers tolerated it and the kids gobbled it up. Worth playing. Play Sunday, Monday and Tuesday. Weather was warm – Jim Fraser, Auditorium Theatre, Red Wing, Minnesota Population 10,645
Fifty years ago – Near Athens, Mrs. Jacqueline Kennedy has tea and sandwiches with King Paul and Queen Fredericka of Greece at their mountain top summer palace at Tatoi, 20 miles north of Athens. Other guests were her sister, Princess Lee Radziwill and her brother-in-law, Prince Stanislaus Radziwill.
First Lady Jackie cruises on Aristotle Onassis’ yacht Christina. Her trip with Onassis and 10 other guests began with a farewell dinner party before the vessel sailed from Athens – on its way to Istanbul. She is expected to keep in touch with her husband, President Kennedy, in Washington by special communications while aboard. There is a little scare, as the yacht is overdue – due to bad weather.
Frank Sinatra, in a surprise announcement, says he will surrender his Nevada gambling interests rather than engage in a legal wrangle to retain them.
A shaven-headed Buddhist monk burns himself to death in view of hundreds of stunned spectators in Saigon, opening up new tensions in the city.
President Kennedy approves the sale of some $250 million worth of surplus wheat and other grains to the Soviet Union and to its Eastern European satellites. He told a press conference that the sale through commercial channels would be a special transaction that “does not represent a new Soviet-American trade policy.”
The House bans U.S. cooperation with Russia in a joint manned mission to the moon.
President Kennedy and Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei A. Gromyko meet at the White House for a “useful” talk. Said Gromyko after the session – “Both sides expressed willingness to broaden the field of questions on which understanding is possible. Both sides expressed willingness and readiness to work in this direction.”
A behind-the-scenes hassle stopped JFK from naming a successor to World Bank president Eugene Black this past week, as had been planned. The difficulty is that Black (who will retire at the end of this year) is insisting that Treasurey Secretary Douglas Dillon or someone of comparable rank be nominated. The President wants to range farther afield in selecting candidates for the job.
Relations between Souvanna Phouma, neutralist head of the new Government in Vientiane, Lao’s and his Red Allies, are losing their rosy hue. Reason: only 83 of the Army’s 11,000 North Vietnamese Communists “advisors” have checked out of the country. Furthermore, neither the Prince nor any of his cabinet has been allowed to set foot in the Red-held Laotian territory.
“Dragon Lady” Mme Ngo Dinh Nhu , controversial sister-in-law of the president of South Vietnam, denies that Buddhists were being mistreated in her country, calling Buddhist demonstrators “hooligans” dressed in monk’s garb. She was interviewed in Paris on the “Issues and Answers” program. She accused American correspondents in South Vietnam of making false reports on conditions there because “they just dislike the Vietnamese government” and they want to topple it. She then flew to New York to begin a U.S. tour. She appeared at the Waldorf-Astoria, where she opened an appeal for understanding between South Vietnam and America.
Prime Minister Harold Macmillan (69) of Britain discloses that he will resign soon, after seven years in office. The prime minister just underwent a successful operation to remove his prostate gland. It is expected that he’ll leave as soon as he is well.
General Charles de Gaulle of France asks to meet with President Kennedy next February. France and the U.S. are said to be in a “widening split” with the refusal of France to abandon its drive for nuclear power and de Gaulle’s growing ambitions for leadership of an “independent” Europe.
Prime Minister Fidel Castro says Cuba’s death toll is more than 1,000 after the wake of Hurricane Flora, making it the most deadly storm in the tropical Atlantic.
President Kennedy and 100 Italian-Americans celebrate Columbus Day with an informal ceremony in the White House rose garden. “The first voyages are the hard ones and they require the perseverance and character,” said the President. “And I think that is a good lesson for all of us today as we attempt new things. The first voyages, as all of us know, are the most difficult, whether it is going into space, going to the bottom of the ocean, building a better country here, building a more prosperous country.”
In Berlin, Soviet forces move armored vehicles and guns into position on the autobahn from West Germany to West Berlin, blocking a U.S. Army convoy
detained in East Germany. The Soviet guards demanded the Americans leave their vehicles and submit to a count. Army officers rejected the demand as unwarranted under existing Western Allied rights of access to West Berlin on the ground that fewer than 75 men were involved.
Canada’s new austerity program is bound to hurt some U.S. manufacturers – but just how badly is still uncertain. According to one private estimate, the new tariffs may lop as much as $500 million off U.S. exports to Canada this year, previously expected to total $3.7 billon. A list of 700 to 800 items appears to have been carefully compiled to include item for which there are Canadian substitutes. But the great bulk of raw materials and components which Canada gets largely from the U.S. alone have either been excluded or place in the lowest tax bracket. In any case, the U.S. has hedged against serious damage – the right under the General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade to invoke retaliatory tariffs.
First Lady Jackie sips the traditional camel’s milk of welcome in Morocco as a guest of King Hassan II.
Medical news – Another Liver Transplant – Surgeons from Colorado University and the Denver Veterans Administration transplant the liver of a man into a 29-year-old woman – the fifth such operation. No liver transplant done anywhere so far has been successful. The record life span of liver transplant patient is 22 days.
Officials at Cape Canaveral said that the chief significance of Commander Watler Schirra’s space flight was in showing the importance of the human pilot in space missions. It was disclosed that the Ford Foundation had voted a substantial expansion of its program to give financial aid to the arts in the United States.
House and Senate conferees agreed on a foreign-aid appropriation of $3.9 billion – $826 million less than the President had requested.
The French national assembly overthrew the government of Premier George Pompidou by voting to pass a motion of censure, the assembly’s action indicated its disapproval of President de Gaulle’s plan to have the French people vote for popular election of the president.
Congress completed action on a bill to increase postal rates and raise the salaries of government employees.
Troops of at least four nations were reported to be maneuvering on or near the Saudi Arabian peninsula in efforts to influence the civil war between royalist and republican forces in Yeman.
Sports – The New York Yankees suffer their worst defeat ever, losing the World Series. The Yanks dropped four games in a row to the Los Angeles Dodgers. Sandy Koufax won two of the games for the Dodgers.
More Sports – announcer Mel Allen – the voice of the New York Yankees loses his voice in the ninth inning of the World Series. Vin Scully, the voice of the Dodgers, who shared national television duties for the series, said Allen “just lost his voice and we figured he’d better rest his throat for perhaps an inning.”
#2 Texas shocks #1 Oklahoma in their annual meeting in Dallas scored 28-7. The Longhorns build up a 21-0 lead before the Sooners finally scored.
Playing in Las Vegas –
Les Poupees De Paris – Hacienda
Harry Belafonte – Riviera
Bob Newhart and Sergio Franchi – Sahara
Alan King and Bobby Rydell – Sands
Lido de Paris – Stardust
Flower Drum Song – Thunderbird
Folies Bergere – Tropicana
Fast-selling book – “The Feminine Mystique” claims that women are enslaved in their own homes, torn by frustration and unable to pursue full lives. The book lists all the woes of our time – neurosis, mental breakdown, divorce, adultery, homosexuality, juvenile delinquency, and muscular flabbiness in children. This is so, according to author Betty Friedan, because American women have declined to grow up, have refused to seek their own identity, and have failed to pursue a career outside the house.
Passing – Claire Niesen (40), who starred in radio’s “Mary Noble, Backstage Wife.” Her only work outside of radio was in Broadway plays. She never appeared in movies or on television.
Passing – France’ s Edith Piaf (47) – “The Little Sparrow.”
Greenwich Village happenings – Dakota Staton, Mongo Santamaria, and Brock Peters at the Village Gate.
Music – Hysteria – Britain’s hottest pop group – The Beatles appear at the London Palladium in a bill that included Brook Benton. The show is broadcast on ATV to some 15 million viewers. Next morning – the British press use the word “Beatlemania,” for the first time, to describe the mass hysteria the group caused to its fans.
Hollywood news – Jill St. John (23) has been married and divorced twice. She says her last marriage, to Woolworth heir Lance Reventlow, had many ups along with its downs. “Oh but it was fun – the yachts and the horses and the cars and the closets full of clothes and Hawaii, Paris, London and Tahiti.” She has her powder blue Mercedes-Benz 300SL up for sale. “Yes, it was a wedding present. But that’s not why I’m getting rid of it. It’s three years old. I want a new one. I’ve ordered a black Ferrari. Why black? I’m getting older now. I feel I should be more sedate.”
Eugene Weingand asks to have his name changed legally to Peter Lorre. Weingand claims he looks so much like the actor that friends call him
Peter Lorre. He even told the judge he would spell his last name “Lorie” rather than Lorre. The real Peter Lorre took the stand and said he thought the sound-alike name might be confusing and would not help his career. The judge ruled “no.”
Marry – Actress Connie Stevens (24) to actor James Stacey (24).
Television news – Don’t miss the CBS special this week – “Elizabeth Taylor In London.“ In her first appearance on television, the noted actress brings to the screen a fascinating mosaic of the people and places that make her native city unique among the capitals of the world. In color and black and white.
Allen Funt’s “Candid Camera” recently filmed former President Harry S. Truman as he took his customary 30-minute morning walk at 120 steps a minute. The purpose of this segment, which was shot while Truman was visiting New York, was to capture the reactions of people who recognized the former President and their exchange of greetings with him.
The Obratsov Russian Puppet Theater, now appearing on Broadway, will perform on the “Ed Sullivan Show” after it completes its stage run on November 23. Founded by Sergei Obratsov, the show was brought over here from Moscow by Sol Hurok. The troupe is appearing here under the State Department’s Cultural Exchange Program.
Speaking of Ed Sullivan – his production company is shooting a half-hour pilot for his star mouse Topo Gigio . The mouse will be supported by several actors. Their portrayals will include the character George Biggie, a comedian who does an act with the mouse, the manager of the act. and his girlfriend.
“My Favorite Martian’s” – Ray Walston is glad his Martian character looks like the next-door neighbor, and not some monster depicted in Science Fiction movies. “When it came time to discuss my make-up, no one had any ideas, they just said ‘be you.’ But I felt there were some areas to be explored. I thought about our astronauts and decided that, to me, John Glenn typified what a space man might look like, so, in many ways, I’ve patterned the role after him, even to blonding my hair.”
Wednesday night television –
CBS – CBS News with Walter Cronkite, Chronicle, Glynis, Beverly Hillbillies, Dick Van Dyke, Danny Kaye Show
NBC – Huntley-Brinkley Report, The Virginian, Espionage, Eleventh Hour
ABC – Ron Cochran with the news, Ozzie and Harriet, Patty Duke Show, Price is Right, Ben Casey, Channing.
On the charts-
Margaret Rutherford, Robert Morley, and Flora Robson
Wives and Lovers
Janet Leigh and Van Johnson
How The West Was Won
Rampage
Robert Mitchum, Elsa Martinelli, and Jack Hawkins
This week at the Hollywood Bowl – Sammy Davis Jr., Dave Brubeck Quartet, and special guest star, Barbra Streisand.
Forty five years ago – President Johnson orders an end to discrimination against woman in any federal government job or jobs awarded to contractors by the government. The order will permit woman to take discrimination or sexual harassment complaints to the Civil Service Commission, the Labor department, or other agencies which rely on outside contracts.
The Democrats chose Chicago for their 1968 presidential nominating convention and set Aug 26 as opening date of the convention at which President Johnson is expected to be renominated
In Vietnam news – 58 GI’s are killed in a battle northwest of Saigon. Although the U.S. forces were outnumbered during this attack, they managed to kill 103 reds.
Five volunteer fireman die in Cliffside Park, NJ while fighting a fire at an bowling alley. While trying to get a hose in a side entrance, the roof and walls collapsed – trapping all five.
British astronomers say that the Soviet Union’s Venus 4 space probe is successful. “The Russians will now know for the first time what the surface is really like.” The scientists say it is “simply amazing,” that there are signals coming from the surface of the planet, which by American accounts, should have a surface temperature of 800 degrees.
A majority of Republican leaders participating in an Associated Press poll favor Richard M. Nixon for the presidential nomination in 1968, but the name
as the “strongest ticket” an abomination of Govs. Nelson A. Rockefeller of New York and Ronald Reagan of California.
Kenneth Burgess, executive director of the Pan American Coffee Bureau, says “A great many Americans get lousy coffee and many under 25, have never tasted good coffee.” “The reason Americans don’t get good coffee is that coffeemakers incapable of brewing a good cup of coffee are used in at least 70% of the homes. I refer to automatic percolators. When we do surveys, the young people say coffee tastes bitter. Properly brewed coffee is not bitter. You’re just taking too much out of ground coffee if the brew is bitter. Bitter coffee is like burned piecrust; it has had too much heat.”
Music news – Singer Petula Clark was asked recently to wear “way-out” clothes on a TV show. “I refused. I am not a teen-ager. To look like one, or to try, would be false.”
More music – Rumors are abound that “The Mamas and Papas” may breakup. Mama Cass shed some speculation in London, where the group is performing this week. “…We certainly shall not appear together again in Europe. It is quite possible we shall go our own ways completely and never sing again as a group anywhere, although we have a tentative thought at present of doing another album together in about six months.”
Rolling Stone – the nation’s first rock publication, publishes its first edition. It is modeled after successful regional papers such as Crawdaddy on the East coast. In it, you’ll find articles and advertisements aimed at the rock and roll crowd.
New at the mart for ladies – “Tried & True” – the first “Soft Color” for hair. New! Just Shampoo it in. New! From Max Factor.
Now at bookstores – “Babyhip” by Patricia Welles. “Babyhip is now. She wears costumes instead of clothes and marches to the soul sounds of a vary far-out drummer. Her parents call her difficult, defiant. She calls herself a boss chic – completely open to life. Watch Babyhip cut loose from her parents’ Detroit pad .. shutting out the square world with a pair of broken shades … becoming for a while, part of the Harvard scene. And every step of the way, she’s outrageously funny, appealingly off-beat, defiant.”
Also at bookstores – “Berry’s World” – by cartoonist Jim Berry. “Berry’s wit, his insight, his take-you-by-surprise captions delight even those who have borne the brunt of his humor.” Now the best of Berry’s World has been collected in an oversize book that delivers both stinging social and political comment, and a feat of good-natured, wry laughter on every page.”
Sports – Also at bookstores – “Hockey is My Game” by Bobby Hull. “Chicago’s Golden jet gives detailed instruction on skating, puck handling, playing offense and defense, scoring goals, practice and training, and how to watch the game, in a highly entertaining book based on his own personal experiences. Hocky is My Game reveals secrets of the sport that only a thoughtful expert would know.” The Los Angeles Kings debut this week in a game against the Philadelphia Flyers. Charles Finley, owner of the Kansas City Athletics, says he wants to move the team to Oakland and hopes other league owners will approve.
Gil Hodges signs a three-year deal to manage the New York Mets at $60 thousand per year.
Wilt Chamberlain signs a record $250 thousand contract with the Philadelphia 76ers of the NBA. It’s believed to be the highest salary paid to an athlete in any league.
The St. Louis Cardinals take the World Series in game 7 against the Boston Red Sox at Fenway Park. Pitcher Bob Gibson got the win with a 7 -2 defeat. Lou Brock stole three bases for a total of seven in the series, breaking a record.
Hip Reading – “Evergreen” magazine … In the current issue – Do hippies have a more swinging sex life than squares? What does a hippie mean when she talks about love? And sex? What is sex like when you’re high on LSD? What’s all this talk about her new pan-sexuality? Just how communal is her sex? What happens to her kids if the family goes out the window? Is acid turning out a new mutant generation? What would happen if all American turned on? Also featured in the current issue – The underground play that’s been blowing the minds of San Francisco audiences and is now opening in New York – Michael McClure’s The Beard – “a milestone in the history of heterosexual art.”
Off-Broadway – “Hair” – “an American tribal love-rock musical.” October 17 through December 10. Tickets for all performances – $2.50 – at the New York Shakespeare Festival Public Theater – 425 Lafayette Street… Produced by Joseph Papp. Book and lyrics by Gerome Ragni and James Rado. Music by Galt MacDermot. Directed by Gerald Freedman. Choreography by Anna Sokolow. With – Jonelle Allan, Ed Crowley, Walker Daniels, Steve Dean, Sally Eaton, Marijane Maricle, Jill O’Hara, Shelley Plimpton, Gerome Ragni, and Arnold Wilkerson. ( This is the beginning of something very big).
Greenwich Village happenings – Otis Redding & Carla Thomas – Oct 20 & 21 (One of Redding’s last concerts) … E. S. P. with Dr. Richard Ireland at the Bitter End… Gary Burton quartet at the Village Vanguard … Eric Anderson with Larry Hankin & The Chrysallas at the Cafe Au Go Go.
Best-selling Paperback books –
Valley of The Dolls – Jacqueline Susann (3 woman in show biz and how they grew).
The Adventurers – Harold Robbins
Up The Down Staircase – Bel Kaufman
Giles Goat-Boy – John Barth
The Source – James Michener (Sweeping panorama of Israeli history down the Centuries.)
Games People Play – Eric Berne (What we do to one another and why).
Ecstasy and Me – Hedy Lamarr (an autobiography).
The Boston Strangler – Gerold Frank
The Passover Plot – Hugh J. Schonfield
On Aggression – Konrad Lorenz
TV Mail –
“Could you please tell me if the last episode of The Fugitive will be shown on the daytime rerun series?” … “ABC says that the final episode will be shown again in the daytime sometime in the Winter of 1971.”
“Please settle an argument between my mother and a friend of hers. The friend says Rose Marie wears false teeth, my mother says no. Who’s right?” … “Only her dentist knows.”
“Do animals of a TV show really get killed whey they are ‘shot’? On the Sept 16 episode of Maya, a tiger was killed by Maya, the elephant. Was the tiger killed in real life?”… “Animals aren’t killed during the making of television shows or movies. Representatives of anti-cruelty groups are on the sets during filming to prevent any maltreatment of animals. In the Maya episode you watched, a stuffed tiger was used.”
Television news – Everybody knows Mayberry – but it actually occupies a part of the back lot at Desilu studios in Culver City, Calif. It’s actually part of what personnel call “Forty Acres” – a jumble of sets – a Mexican village, a portion of a bombed-out European city, a western street and half-a-dozen blocks of homes and shops that viewers now know as Mayberry. Says Andy Griffith – “Funny thing about the Mayberry we know at Forty Acres – is that even though all the buildings are false fronts, when you’re working there, you get the feeling of being in a small town. You forget that on the other side of the fence is one of the biggest cities in the world.”
Star Trek is going into its second season – an incredible feat since sci-fi shows rarely make it through a first season (discounting Twilight Zone which was essentially supernatural). Of course, Lost In Space is in its third year. Star William Shatner feels the series appeals to a widely varied audience. It contains action-adventure, with lots of fights and villains, so the kids like it. On another level, “we deal with a philosophical concept – that what’s alien isn’t necessarily evil – so we reach their parents. Many or our episodes deal with scientific concepts, so our program entertains the technicians and space scientists.”
Shatner says because of Spock and the outer space theme – even the hippies think they’re psychedelic. Leonard Nimoy agrees with the show’s wide appeal. As an actor, Nimoy finds it a notch above TV in general. His character is not a re- vamp of any other character – he’s not a sheriff, or a deputy or a lawyer – or the guy next door. He’s not even human.
CBS has been giving a big promotion push to its new daytime soap opera – “Love Is A Many-Splendored Thing.” The soap will deal partly in interracial
relationships – unheard of in daytime soaps.
Tuesday night on CBS – “Barry Goldwater’s Arizona” – “The 1964 G.O.P
presidential candidate is an eloquent guide as CBS News Correspondent Harry Reasoner joins him for a highly non- political film essay on a beautiful state and one well-known American’s love affair with it.”
Gadabout Gaddis – the Flying Fisherman, is one of the most popular sportsman on TV. His half-hour series of fishing trips is seen on stations coast to coast – usually on weekends. Gaddis, who is 71 says – “I don’t try anything fancy, just talk the way any fisherman would. Maybe you’ve noticed I show the small fish I catch too, and times when I get snagged in the brush. You can’t kid a fisherman and he gets a kick out of seeing it happen to somebody else.” Gaddis use to sell fishing gear for the Shakespeare Co. and appeared in casting exhibitions at sportsmen’s shows around the country.
Television station KHFI-TV (Channel 42) in Austin, TX says it will become a full- time NBC affiliate – the first full-time NBC affiliate in Austin. What makes this news is that, since television came to that city, (President) Lyndon Johnson’s TV station (KTBC – a CBS affiliate) also had the pick of the best programs from NBC
ABC Vice President Leonard Goldberg tells stations that producer Quinn Martin has signed a five-year pact with the network to produce new shows. Martin produces “The Invaders” and “The FBI.” He just ended “The Fugitive” after a four year run on the network.
Friday Night Television –
CBS – CBS Evening News With Walter Cronkite, The Wild Wild West, Gomer Pyle, CBS Friday Night Movie
NBC – Huntley-Brinkley Report, Tarzan, Star Trek, Accidental Family, Bell Telephone Hour
ABC – Peter Jennings With The News, Who’s Afraid of Mother Goose?, Hondo,
At the movies at your local theatre –
Reflections In A Golden Eye
Elizabeth Taylor, Marlon Brando, Brian Keith, and Julie Harris
Our Mother’s House
James Coburn, Carroll O’Connor, Margaret Blye, Claude Akins, Timothy Carey, and Joan Blondell
Point Blank
Lee Marvin and Angie Dickinson
Far From The Maddening Crowd
Julie Christie, Terence Stamp, and Alan Bates
The Taming of the Shrew
Elizabeth Taylor, Richard Burton, Cyril Cusack, Michael Hordern, Alfred Lynch, Alan Webb, Victor Pinetti, Michael York, and Natasha Pyne.
Rough Night In Jericho
George Peppard, Dean Martin, and Jean Simmons
It Comes Up Murder
Rex Harrison, Susan Hayward, and Cliff Robertson
Now!
Recently introduced TNT drama Major Crimes, which at just under 7-million viewers is the most-watched new series of the year to-date on cable, has been renewed for a second season. TNT has ordered 15 new episodes of The Closer spin-off for 2013. Major Crimes, which concludes its inaugural season in mid-October, gives TNT a 3 for 3 record in new drama series pick-ups this year, joining already renewed Dallas and Perception. The first season finale of Major Crimes is slated for mid-October.
ION Television is getting in the ring, so to speak, with WWE Main Event, a weekly showcase featuring the WWE superstars of Monday Night Raw and Friday Night SmackDown, including John Cena, WWE Champion CM Punk, World Heavyweight Champion Sheamus, Alberto Del Rio, The Miz and Alicia Fox. It debuted this past Wednesday, October 3 at 8 p.m. ET.
This week’s birthdays include: Diane Cilento, actress and star on several 20th Century Fox Pictures including “Agony and Ecstasy” and “Wicker Man” (October 5, age 79), Peter Brown, actor and star of the tv series “Lawman,” and “Laredo” (also October 5, age 77), Jeff Conway, actor and star of the TV series “Taxi” (also October 5, would have been age 62), Janet Gaynor, actress, (October 6, would have been 106), Robert Mitchum, actor and starred in the ABC mini-series “Winds of War” (also October 6, would have been 95), Helen Hayes (October 10, would have been 112), Jerome Robbins (October 11, would have been 95), and Luciano Pavarotti (October 12, would have been age 77)
If you have any questions or comments regarding “TV Talk,” you can reach Pete Sieler at [email protected] . or by telephone number 843-678-7497. Comments and suggestions greatly appreciated.
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Pete Sieler Comment
TV Radio and Movies, then and now…
Sixty years ago – U.S. experts worked on a new program to ease what a U.S. commission called signs of a depression in Western Europe. Their probable formula: more U.S. markets for foreign goods. Civilians in Britain, France, Germany, Scandinavia, Switzerland, Belgium, Holland, and Luxemburg are buying less, the U.N. Commission found. This had led to actual cuts in civilian production in the first part of this year. Defense production has not picked up this slump. Meanwhile, Britain and France are fighting inflation in good prices.
U.S. diplomats fretted over dictatorships in Latin-America. Causes for concern: 1) Bolivia’s decision to nationalize its tin industry, vest control in an Argentine-held corporation; 2) Chile’s election of General Carlos Ibanez, a friend of Argentine President Juan Peron, as president; 3) rioting in Columbia, where mobs supporting the Conservative government wrecked two liberal newspapers, forced Leaders of the Liberal Party to flee for their lives.
Hopes heightened for a settlement of the long Franco-German dispute over the Saar’s. The solution – urged by France, not yet vetoed by German Chancellor Adenauer – calls for turning the Saar into what the NY Times called “a kind of European District of Columbia,” to be the seat of European political union. The Saar, 738 square miles in area, has been self-governing since World War II, It is a highly industrialized valley, with rich coal and iron ore mines and substantial steel capacity. Its population is German by custom and language. Economically, it is tied to France. Prior to World War II, the Saar was part of Germany. The West Germans want it back. France, still fearing a rebirth of German militarism and fretful at future German competition in industry, objects to letting it to German again. As part of its pressure on France for a chance in Saar control, Germany points to Red Charges that France is blocking a decision by Saarlanders themselves over which country they want to join. The French reply is that Germany is not a self-sufficient country and as yet has no basic way to defend the Saar against Red Attacks. No basic German objection has been made to “Europeanization” of the Saar- committing its industrial output to the strength of Western Europe. But the Germans want this done the way the Ruhr was handled. There, industrial production was committed to Western Europe through the Schuman Plan, but the territory was left to Germany. Whether the new French proposal – for maintaining the Saar as a seat of international government – will win German approval is unknown. German decision here is tied up with German decision on joining the European Defense Community and other alliances between Germany and the west.
French delegates to the World Congress against Alcoholism urged a three-point plan: plow up the vineyards, chop down the orchards, and break up home stills. (France has one bar for every 68 people).
Taft meets Ike and pledges him all-out support. Ike has made great progress. After two weeks of hard campaigning, he’s landed Taft’s vote, now all he needs is 25,999,999 more.
Texas Democratic leaders endorse Eisenhower. They figure Ike really doesn’t qualify as a Republican – he hasn’t lost an election yet.
President Truman says he expects to live to be 100. Harry’s well-fitted to live on borrowed time – he sure had a lot of borrowing experiences.
Cicero, Illinois town councilmen pondered a referendum on changing its name. Reason: Thirty years ago, Cicero was headquarters of the Capone gang. Present residents says “outsiders” consider them “a bunch of hoods.” Argued Town Attorney Nicholas Berkos: “A Kid from Cicero can’t get into a college fraternity because the town’s ancient shame.:
The premiere of the first Cinerama film, This is Cinerama, at the Broadway Theater on September 30, 1952, marked a turning point in film history. The three-projector process developed by Fred Waller spelled the end of the old Academy aperture format that had dominated filmmaking from its very inception, and was the first effective response by Hollywood to the threat posed by TV. Widescreen experiments date back to the silent era, most famously in Abel Gance’s Napoléon (1927), and the early sound era (e.g., Raoul Walsh’s The Big Trail [1930]), but Cinerama was the first to prove itself at the box office. (The one exception was Magnascope, which Paramount first used in films like Old Ironsides [1926] and Wings [1927], in which big action sequences were shown on a bigger screen.)
“This is Cinerama” was a 1952 full-length film designed to introduce the then-new widescreen process Cinerama, which broadened the aspect ratio so the viewer’s peripheral vision is involved. The movie premiered on the 30th. The film included scenes of a roller coast from Rockway’s Playland, then moves to a scene of the temple dance from “Aida,” views of Niagara Falls, a Viennese Choir, scenes of the canals in Venice, a military tatted in Edinburgh, a bullfight, more from “Aida,” a sound demonstration in stereo, scenes from the amusement park at Cypress Gardens in Florida with a water skiing sequence, and the playing of “America the Beautiful” as scenes from the nose of a low flying B-25. The producers of the film was Lowell Thomas, Merian C. Cooper, and Robert L. Bendrick. One of the financial backers of the film was Michael Todd, who later went on to develop Todd-AO and made “Around the World in 80 Days.” In many theatres, the film ran for over a year, and in some places close to a year and half.
Drive In theatres are becoming the rage in the Carolina’s. The Allendale Drive-In, Allendale, SC, 300 cars owned by R.D White, Jr., “The Star”, Bishop, South Carolina, 200 cars owned by Dan Davis and opened on September 11. Palmetto in Florence, South Carolina, 300 cars, owned by Sam Neil and opened on September 18 and an unnamed 300 car drive-in in Kingstree, SC. Owned by E. M. Gibbons and scheduled to open later this month. Frank Strange of Charlotte Theatre supply had a list of new drive-ins, which his firm equipped with Ballantyne and other equipment. They included the Cotton Boll, in Dunn, North Carolina with 250 cars owned by Bill and Margaret Smith of Benson, North Carolina, a 200 car drive in at Andrews, South Carolina, owned by R. H. Gibson and S.W. Ackerman, The Flamingo” in Laurinburg, North Carolina opened recently by Meiselman Theatres.
Fifty five years ago – President Eisenhower says Federal troops will stay in Little Rock, but the governor wants none if it.
President Eisenhower stands his ground in the school integration showdown as Gov. Orval Faubus stands on his. In Little Rock, Faubus said the next move in the great racial crisis is up to Washington. Said the governor, “I’ve given until it hurts… all that double talk in Washington means is this – they want me to take troops and put bayonets in the backs of students in my State and bludgeon and bayonet my people.I never felt the necessity for this action.”
Little Rock – Federalized National Guardsmen break up a throng of 75 white students who walked out of integrated Central High School. The demonstrators had hoped to pull out with them, most of the school’s 2000 white students in a protest against Negroes in their classrooms. Ringleaders admit though, it was a flop.
Bulletin – Russia announces it has the world’s first artificial moon launched. The craft is streaking around the planet at 560 miles out in space. A multiple-stage rocket launched the satellite. The craft is described as 23 inches in diameter and weighing 184 pounds. In another bulletin, the Soviet Tass agency said theRussian moon “is now revolving around the earth at the rate of one circuit every hour and 35 minutes.” Later, the little sphere is dubbed “ Sputnik.”
The White House insists that the Soviet’s launching of an artificial moon was no surprise to the U.S. government. President Eisenhower, golfing at Gettysburg, had no immediate comment. U.S. scientists hailed the dramatic launching of the first artificial satellite by Soviet Russia as a historic event but the emphasized that the U.S. project Vanguard will go ahead at top speed. Russia’s earth satellite speeds round the globe while professional and amateur eavesdroppers listened to the radio signals it was sending. Scientists, not able to de-code the signal, believe it’s sending back information about the temperature in the upper atmosphere. Race to the moon – A top scientist warns the Russians are driving toward manned flight to the moon and the planets and “we had better be there when they arrive. The issue is supremacy.” He said the Russians have a tremendous head start and the truly impressive fact is that they launched their first artificial moon their first try. “They made it look easy.”
A cross is burned in front of the executive mansion of Maryland Gov. Theodore McKeldin. The 3×2 ft cross was attached to an iron fence outside the mansion flanked with signs. One said – “Save Our Southern Way of Life!”
Teen Talk – Ozzie Nelson of TV’s “Ozzie and Harriet” advises that going steady is a form of social insurance. But he also believes it’s a mater of semantics; that adults seem to believe it means more than their teens do. What going-steady means to teens says Ozzie – it’s what the crowd does – and social insurance for a Saturday night movie.
Sports – The Yankees beat the Milwaukee Braves in the World Series opener 3-1. Whitey Ford managed to hold the Braves to 5 hits.
Friday night television –
CBS – Douglas Edwards with the News, Leave It to Beaver, Trackdown, Zane Grey Theatre, Mr. Adams and Eve, Schlitz Playhouse, The Lineup, Person to Person
NBC – Huntley-Brinkley news, Saber of London, Court of Last Resort, Life of Riley, M Squad, The Thin Man, Boxing, Jack Paar
ABC – Rin Tin Tin, Adventures of Jim Bowie, Parlor Playhouse, Passport to Danger, Date with the Angels, Playhouse Rin Tin Tin – Rinty and Rusty try to rescue an army deserter from himself. Jim Bowie – Jim finds a Quaker family who refuse to sell their lead mine because they fear lead will be turned into bullets. Stars Scott Forbes.
Vastly increased demands for rights to Orange Bowl football game have CBS-TV scrimmaging in another direction in trying to set its line-up for next New Year’s Day. Orange Bowl’s asking price is reported to be at least twice last year’s estimated $100,000, so CBS-TV, while going on with negotiations for continuing that series is also dickering for Cotton Bowl, where demands are much more modest. NBC-TV, which carried Rose Bowl and Cotton Bowl last January, is set for Rose and Sugar Bowl this year. ABC-TV had Sugar Bowl last time but now, along with CBS-TV, is interested in Cotton.
In a surprise turnabout, National Telefilm Associates, New York, late last Friday announce purchase of WAAT-AM-FM and WATV (TV) network for approximately 3.5 million, although on Wednesday, NTA reported breakdown in negotiations. Less then two months ago, NTA bought KMGM-TV, Minneapolis for $650,000. Through under same ownership, WAAT-FM-AM is licensed to Bremer Broadcasting Co., and WATV (TV) to Atlantic Television. Irving R. Rosebaus and family hold principal stock. Call letters will be changed to WNTA-AM-FM-TV. Sales is subject to FCC approval.
Here is what one theatre owner has to say about a film, he played at his theatre,
“Bernardine”, 20th Century Fox Pictures and starring Pat Boone, Terry Moore, Janet Gaynor. Just like “Love Me Tender.” By the time 20thCentury-Fox Pictures let me play it, everybody had already seen it. It did all right, but for picture like this, you expect more. I can’t say anything bad about it. It was okay and Pat Boone did a good job. Played Tuesday and Wednesday. Weather was fair and cool – Victor R. Weber, Center Theatre, Kensett, Arkansas.
At the movies –
June Allyson and David Niven
Sins of Casanova
Gabriele Ferzetti and Corinne Calvet
An Alligator Named Daisy
Donald Sinden and Diana Dors
Deadlier Than The Male
Jean Gabin and Daniele Delorme
Band of Angels
Clark Gable, Yvonne DeCarlo, and Sidney Poitier
The Joker Is Wild
Frank Sinatra, Mitzi Gaynor, and Jeanne Crain
Man on Fire
Bing Crosby
Fifty years ago – Ready troops clamp tight control in Oxford, Mississippi after the enrollment of Negro James Meredith. 11,000 troops see Meredith safely through his second day of classes, but many students were absent.
In California – Gov. Edmund Brown and Richard M. Nixon – the two contenders for California’s next governor, clash “violently” in a televised joint conference that almost turned into a debate.
Mercury Astronaut Walter Schirra orbits the earth six times in his Sigma 7 spacecraft, topping a flawless space performance with a precise parachute landing “on the dime” in the Pacific within 5 miles of the carrier USS Kearsarge. President Kennedy phoned his personal congratulations, telling him the country was “delighted with your trip.”
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A newly cleaned boiler overheats and explodes into a Manhattan telephone-building cafeteria – killing 21 and injuring at least 100. The steam boiler had been placed back into service less than an hour earlier. Authorities say the boiler blew because it was superheated due to the failure of automatic devices which regulate the high and low water level. The boiler room supervisor left the basement 10 minutes earlier to cash a check. He was not required to be in attendance at the boilers.
Big shakeup in France – The National Assembly overthrows the government of Premier Georges on a censure motion against President de Gaulle’s plan to alter the presidential electoral system. The vote came after 12 hours of debate over de Gaulle’s proposal to hold a referendum later this month on changing the constitution to have future presidents elected by popular vote. De Gaulle had addressed the nation over radio and television several hours before. He threatened to resign if the people did not support him in the referendum. The Assembly vote means Pompidou must resign – giving the 5th Republic a real cabinet crisis. De Gaulle can either nominate another premier or dissolve the Assembly and order new general elections.
The United States accuses Russia of forcibly detaining and “roughing up” U.S. Assistant naval attaché Raymond Smith in Moscow, before ordering him out of the country this week on a charge of espionage. The U.S. rejects the Soviet allegations.
President Charles de Gaulle of France dissolves the National Assembly and asks Premier Pompidou to remain until election of a new assembly – November 11 at the earliest.
East German police shoot down a West Berlin tunnel digger and prevent a British officer and two ambulances from giving him medical aid on the east side of the wall. Hours later, it is not known whether the man is dead or alive.
President Kennedy returns to the White House after a wearying weekend of campaigning from Kentucky to Minnesota – the first of 5 such sorties before November elections.
In Los Angeles – shaken Cassius Clay shows up to train for his October 23 bout against Archie Moore. He was shaken because the car in which he was riding just missed a truck and trailer, which switched lanes to avoid hitting another car on the freeway. “Man, we missed death by less than an inch,” said Clay.
Best selling books –
Seven Days In May – K. Fletcher
A Shade of Difference – Allan Drury
Act of Anger – Bart Spicer
The Agony & The Ecstasy – Irving Stone
The Thin Red Line – James Jones
Magnificent Destiny – Paul I. Wellman
The Rothschilds – Frederic Morton
Final Verdict – Adela Rogers St. John
Sex and the Single Girl – Helen Gurley Brown
Will Rogers – Donald Day
Who’s In Charge Here! – Gerald Gardner
Travels With Charley – John Steinbeck
More Lives Than One – Joseph Wood Krutch
Sports – The San Francisco Giants score 4 runs in the 9th to defeat the Dodgers 6-4 in Los Angeles, taking the National League playoff lead 2 games to 1.
Ford Motor Company unveils its new experimental sports car – the Mustang. It’s a revolutionary two-seater that is the first to be built by a major American manufacturer to fit into the European sports car class. There are no present plans for production of the car. The Mustang is powered by a V-4 engine developed by Ford of Germany. Ford says it has a top speed of 117mph and a potential of 35mpg on the highway. (Interesting because the Mustang
which debuted in 1964 was totally different.)
Hollywood news – Comedian Lenny Bruce and Robert Coogan, brother of actor Jackie Coogan, are arrested at Coogan’s hobby shop for possessing narcotics.
Bruce was later freed after posting $2,600 in bail.
Television news – Richard M. Nixon guests on “Meet The Press” this week. Contender Gov. Edmund Brown of California will guest next week.
Merv Griffin gets his first show with “The Merv Griffin Show” – debuting this week NBC daytime.
KMEX-TV (channel 34) makes its debut in Los Angeles. The station is Spanish language and is the only UHF station operating in L.A. Personalities in the inaugural broadcast included actress Rita Moreno, Mayor Sam Yorty, California Gov. Brown and Richard M. Nixon. Viewers were also treated to President Kennedy’s state visit to Mexico earlier this year.
Trouble on “What’s My Line?” – a man jumps on stage into camera view during Sunday’s telecast and remarks to a nationwide audience “I’m your
second mystery guest.” The man was on camera for only a few seconds and was quickly ushered off stage.
Top TV shows according to Nielsen:
Lucille Ball – 34.8
Special – General Foods Opening Night – 28.1
Hazel – 26.2
Dr. Kildaire – 25.7
Tuesday Night Television –
CBS News with Walter Cronkite, Marshal Dillon, Lloyd Bridges Show (Adam Shepherd imagines himself as a wealthy tourist in Hong Kong who discovers that black marketers are victimizing starving villagers. Lloyd Bridges stars as Adam Shepherd) , Red Skelton Show, Jack Benny Show (Phil Silvers joins Jack for a half-hour of madness), Garry Moore Show (Guests – Barbara McNair, Bob Newhart, and Dennis Weaver).
NBC – Huntley-Brinkley Report, Laramie, Empire (Redigo becomes dissatisfied with his job as foreman on the Garret ranch and quits to strike out on his own. Stars Richard Egan, Terry Moore, Anne Seymour, and Ryan O’Neal, also broadcast in color), Dick Powell Show, Chet Huntley Reports, The Tonight Show (Johnny Carson bows as host. Skitch Henderson leads the orchestra)
ABC – Combat! (Debut) Saunders is not satisfied with the replacements sent for his casualty-depleted squad. Stars Vic Morrow and Rick Jason), Hawaiian Eye(A Stradivarius violin ties thieves to a hit-and- run death. Stars Troy Donahue, Robert Conrad, Connie Stevens, and Poncie Ponce), The Untouchables
Thursday Night Television –
CBS – CBS Evening News with Walter Cronkite, Mister Ed (Mr. Ed uses Wilbur’s name when he phones a complaint to a Newspaper), Perry Mason (“The Case of the Capricious Corpse.” Perry defends a woman accused of murdering her brother-in-law), The Nurses, Alfred Hitchcock
NBC – Huntley-Brinkley, Wine Country, Dr. Kildaire (A medical student panics after Dr. Kildaire calls on his services), Hazel, Andy Williams (With the New Christy Minstrels (with Randy Sparks), Paul Lynde and Rita Moreno)
ABC – Ron Cochran with the News, Ozzie and Harriet, Donna Reed (Mary brings a classmate home from college), Leave it to Beaver (Beaver makes a foolish bet), My Three Sons (The Douglas’ could lose Tramp after he bites a boy. Alfred Hitchcock – A blackmailer threatens to reveal the names of an adopted daughter’s true parents unless he gets his money), The Law and Mr. Jones, Alcoa Theater
CBS-TV’s policy of putting on color only if and when the advertisers want – and pay for it – appears firm. Two filmed specials will be colorcast in a least four markets (each served by CBS-owned station) in the fall. What dictates their okay; They are advertiser “packages,” not network produced, and advertisers has ordered them in color on those four stations, with the possibility more will be added (network produced shows will not be colorcast at this time). Advertisers and shows are Chemstrand Co. and Ford (Tour Monaco with Princess Grace) on February 17, 8-9pm, and General Foods Corporation (The Road to Button Bay) on September 24 9-10pm.
On the charts-
RAMBLIN’ ROSE – Nat King Cole
MONSTER MASH – Bobby (Boris) Pickett & Crypt- Kickers
GREEN ONIONS – Booker T. & MG’s
PATCHES – Dickey Lee
LET’S DANCE – Chris Montez
DO YOU LOVE ME – Contours
I REMEMBER YOU – Fank Ifield
VENUS IN BLUE JEANS – Jimmy Clanton
SHEILA – Tommy Roe
LIE TO ME – Brook Benton
IF I HAD A HAMMER (The Hammer Song) – Peter, Paul & Mary
TEEN AGE IDOL – Rick Nelson
YOU BEAT ME TO THE PUNCH – Mary Wells
YOU BELONG TO ME – Duprees
WHAT KIND OF LOVE IS THIS – Joey Dee & Starlighters
At the movies at your local neighborhood movie theatre –
Gigot
Jackie Gleason and Katherine Kath
A Kind of Living
Alan Bates and June Ritchie
That Touch of Mink
Cary Grant and Doris Day
The Pigeon That Took Rome
Charlton Heston and Elsa Martinelli
A Taste of Honey
Michael Callan, Cliff Robertson, James MacArthur, Nick Adams, and Suzy Parker
A Raisin In The Sun
Sidney Poitier, Claudia McNeil, and Ruby Dee
Long Day’s Journey into N night
Katharine Hepburn, Ralph Richardson, Jason Roberts Jr., and Dean Stockwell
Barabbas
Anthony Quinn, Sylvan Magana and Arthur Kennedy
The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm, in Cinerama and distributed by MGM.
The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner
Michael Redgrave, Tom Courtenay and Avis Bondage
The Proud and Profane
William Holden and Deborah Kerr
The Cabinet of Cagliari
Glints Johns, Dan O’Herlihy, Dick Davalos, Lawrence Dobkin, Constance Ford, and J. Pat O’Malley
The Miracle Worker
Anne Bancroft, Patty Duke , and Victor Jory
I Like Money
Peter Sellers
Here is what one theatre owner has to say about a movie he recently played at his theatre. “The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance” from Paramount Pictures and starring John Wayne, James Stewart, and Vera Miles. Thanks for Paramount for one of the few westerns available. Perhaps not as good a picture as some, but this was my biggest grosser to date. This is what my people (I think all small town people) want: westerns action – not this “adults only” stuff. This is good family entertainment. Played Thursday and Friday. Weather was good. Bill Curran, Ramona Theatre, Kremmling, Colorado. Population 900.
Forty five years ago – Vietnam news – American firepower is credited with winning the siege of Con Thien and other Marine outposts overlooking Red infiltration routes just below the demilitarized zone.
In a Gallup poll, Robert F. Kennedy tops the list of Democratic Presidential
candidates.
Hubert Humphrey – 6%
Robert McNamara – 5%
Negro State Rep. Carl B. Stokes defeats Mayor Ralph Locher for the Democratic nomination of mayor in Cleveland, Ohio.
If the Presidential election were held this week, says a Gallup Poll, the ticket of Nelson Rockefeller and Ronald Reagan would be preferred over Lyndon
Johnson – Hubert Humphrey – 55% to 41%. Nelson Rockefeller says he won’t be running for President.
Sports – O.J. Simpson and his wife Marguerite have a pet bird – Harvey the parakeet at their USC campus apartment. Says O.J. – “Only reason we have Harvey is to keep Marguerite Company when I’m on the road.” For the past three years – Simpson has had his eyes on the pros. Marguerite says that the husband she knew in high school was a “terrible” person. O.J. agrees: “I didn’t have any goal. I goofed off a lot. It wasn’t my home situation even though my parents were separated – we still did things as a family. But I was sort of aimless.”
The Boston Red Sox – 100-1 underdogs in the spring – win the American League pennant and will face the National League champion St. Louis Cardinals in the World Series.
Beatles news – Ringo Starr will take time off from the Beatles to play a Mexican gardener in the film version of the controversial book “Candy.” Ringo will costar with Marlon Brando and Richard Burton. Producers say the female lead hasn’t been cast, although more 500 have auditioned. She must look 17, but she must be able to handle that trio – and that kind of girl is hard to find.
General Motors names a St. Louis man as its first Negro dealer. Albert W. Johnson (46) will open his dealership in Chicago.
Music news – Passing – Woody Guthrie – noted folksinger – 55. His passing marks the end of a 15 yearlong struggle against the ravages of Huntington’s chorea, a hereditary muscle disease from which his mother had died. Some of his well-known songs (he wrote hundreds) are “This Land Is Your Land,” “Tom Joad,” “Pretty Boy Floyd,” and “So Long It’s Been Good to Know You.” His influence on the development of folk music and folk artists was profound.
More music news – The Cream, from England, appears at the Café Au Go Go in Greenwich Village. The trio consists of Eric Clapton, Ginger Baker, and Jack Bruce. During at least one appearance, Baker performed a stunning drum solo for nearly half-an-hour. One reviewer writes that bassist “Jack Bruce has an important place to fill in the small combo and does the job to its proper end. While many electric bassists are satisfied with a simple one-two boom-boom, Bruce supports the often frantic pace of The Cream with runs unusually fast for the cumbersome instrument, which in his case are called for.” Also, “Guitarist Eric Clapton avoids the unwarranted tendency of many contemporary electric guitarists to use the lightning-fast string picking licks as an impressive medium unto itself. His pace, when called for, is quick but more importantly, it’s spaced out to make musical and listening sense.”
Hollywood news – Olivia de Haviland prepares to participate in Ceremonies in Atlanta marking the sixth re-release of “Gone With The Wind.” It’ll make its debut in the giant screen 70mm process with stereophonic sound at Atlanta’s Lowe’s Grand Theater, scene of the film’s world premiere on Dec. 15, 1939. Miss de Havilland is the one survivor of the four principal stars. Other members of the cast on hand for the festivities include Evelyn Keyes, Victor Jory, and Ann Rutherford.
Passing – Pinto Colvig – voice of the Disney cartoon character “Goofy.” He was 75.
Dr. Milko Skofic says in a magazine interview that he hopes to get a divorce from Italian actress Gina Lollobrigida. Both are separated after 17 years of marriage.
Television news –
In its fourth season – The Man From UNCLE finds Solo and Illya operating out of UNCLE headquarters in New York and branch offices in Portugal, the Caribbean, South America, Mexico, and the Persian Gulf. The series has reverted to the original format: plenty of action, strong emphasis on technical tricks, and sex. Will it make it to the end of the season?
So does Sally Field really fly in her new series “The Flying Nun?” “I really fly, but they don’t want me to talk about how it is done.” Screen Gems says it wants to keep it a mystery. It does involve a mechanical mechanism, but photographers are barred from the set whenever the device is being used.
Monday Night Television –
CBS – CBS Evening News with Walter Cronkite, Gunsmoke, Lucy Show, Andy Griffith, Family Affair (Uncle Bill consults a child psychologist when Jody announces he has an invisible bear named Arthur and uses his imaginary playmate as an excuse to misbehave), Carol Burnett
NBC – Huntley-Brinkley, The Monkees, Man From UNCLE (“The Prince of Darkness Affair.” Sol and Illya must snatch a new mass-death weapon from enemy hands. Guest stars – Carol Lynley, Bradford Dillman, Lola Albright, and John Dehner), Danny Thomas Hour, I Spy
ABC – Peter Jennings with the News, Cowboy in Africa (A pretty amateur photographer causes a stampede in which a mother elephant is separated from her baby and Jim Sinclari and John Henry try to control the enraged animal before she reaches the ranches. Chuck Connors, Tom Nadini, Ronald Howard, and Gerald Edwards star. Lynda Day guest stars), Rat Patrol (After a futile attempt to destroy an impregnable fort, the Rats steal a tank and try to join a convoy entering the fort. Stars Christopher George, Gary Raymond, Hans Gudegast, Lawrence Casey, and Justin Tarr), Felony Squad ( Bradford Dillman guests as the mastermind behind the theft of a valuable experience drug), Peyton Place (Adrienne has nervous regrets about trying to separate Betty and Steven. Betty confronts Steven. Rita finds Eddie working at a tavern), The Big Valley (A wealthy and unscrupulous man has his henchmen dynamite Jarod’s office when he fears he will be prosecuted for blowing up a dam. In the explosion, Jarrod is blinded. Stars Barbara Stanwyck, Richard Long, Peter Breck, Lee Majors, Linda Evans, and Lloyd Bochner)
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ABC-TV’s “Joey Bishop Show” has added 10 more stations to its line-up, to bring to 144 the number of stations carrying the show live or on a delayed basis. The new stations include: WJBF in Augusta and WRBL-TV, Columbus, both Georgia, and KSHO-TV in Las Vegas.
At the movies at your local neighborhood theatre –
The Tiger & The Pussycat
Ann-Margret, Vittorio Gassman, and Eleanor Parker
It Comes Up Murder
Rex Harrison, Susan Hayward, Cliff Robertson, Capucine, Edie Adams, and Maggie Smith
To Sir with Love
Audrey Hepburn and Albert Finney
You Only Live Twice
Sean Connery as James Bond
Blow-Up
Vanessa Redgrave, David Hemmings and Sarah Miles
The Long Duel
Yul Brynner, Trevor Howard, Harry Andrews, Andrew Keir, Charlotte Rampling, and Virginia North
Here is what one theatre owner has to say about a movie he recently played at his theatre. “Heroes of Telemark” (Columbia Pictures) starring Kirk Douglas, Richard Harris, and Ulla Jacobson. Beautiful scenery in Norway. A good story with lots of action. We did okay but the crowds could have been better if the picture had been given more publicity. Played Sunday, Monday, and Tuesday. The Weather was good. Russell and Evelyn Burgess, Valley Drive-In Theatre, Velva, North Dakota. Population 1, 200.
Now!
NETWORK NEWS
This summer, Fox has seemed more like the Gordon Ramsey Network. And Fox has no problem with that. The chef’s three series, Hell’s Kitchen, MasterChef and Hotel Hell, have all been in the top ten for the summer in A18-49 and Fox has won some Mondays and many Tuesdays in the demo because of those shows. All three will be back next year…..Fox has announced that the series finale of Fringe will air on Friday, February 1, 2013. The last season begins on September 28.
CBS has announced that it will simulcast all of its NFL games this season in Spanish–over the SAP audio channel. Armando Quintero and Benny Ricardo will be the lead announce team, and will call the Super Bowl. Alfredo Bejar, Nelson Fernandez, and Halim Zadat will also call some games….. NBC has disclosed that Jay Leno’s salary was cut in half last month when it was reported he had taken a paycheck haircut. Twenty staffers were also let go. The net says the changes were to bring the costs back to before the show was moved to primetime. At the same time as Leno’s salary was being slashed, he signed on for two more years as host of The Tonight Show……NBC Sports Group president Mark Lazerus told the Bloomberg Sports Business Summit last week that because of strong ratings for the Summer Olympics, NBC Universal was able to break even with the games. Before the games began, the company was predicting a $200 million loss……Even without the participation of General Motors, the 2013 Super Bowl on CBS is already 90% sold out at an average price of $3.8 million per 30-second ad, according to USA Today. “We have a handful of units left,” John Bogusz, executive vice president of sports sales at CBS, told the paper. “We’re pacing well ahead of last time we had the game.” CBS last had the game in 2010 and it was 80% sold out at this point in the season…….NBC was the top network for coverage of the last day of the Democratic National Convention on Thursday with a 5.1/8 in HHs and a 2.5/7 in A18-49 from 10-11PM. Both of those numbers were better than ABC and CBS combined. In fact, CNN (5.56 million) was second and MSNBC (4.56 million) third in total viewers in the 10PM hour after NBC (8.93 million). ABC had 4 million, CBS 3.29 million and Fox News Channel, which had been first during the Republican Convention, was last with 2.91 million. …..Perhaps because of the convention coverage, or going up against The Big Bang Theory, or maybe because it was on a day it does not usually air, America’s Got Talent drew its lowest ever A18-49 rating on Thursday for a new show. At 8PM, it earned a 1.8/6 in the demo.
The American audience is obviously ready for some football. Sunday night’s NFL contest between Peyton Manning’s Denver Broncos and the Pittsburgh Steelers earned the best overnight rating–18.0/29 in metered markets–for a regular season game in 14 years. In Nielsen’s fast national ratings, the game drew a 9.8/25 in A18-49, despite being up against the overrun of the late Fox game for at least part of its telecast. That overrun drew a 7.5/22 in the demo.
In the midst of the new syndicated daytime talk show premieres was the relocation of veteran ABC serialized drama General Hospital to 2 p.m. ET on Monday. Based on the 56-metered (overnight) markets, General Hospital is averaging a 2.3 rating/8 share in households this week (through Wednesday). And that, comparably, is up by 15 percent from the lead-in average (2.0/ 6) and 10 percent from One Life to Live in September 2011 (2.1/ 7). Results among key women 25-54 (1.8/11) have increased by a hefty 80 percent from the lead-in (1.0/ 7) and 20 percent from One Life to Live in September 2011. The prognosis: So far so very good for General Hospital
Showtime has renewed Emmy nominated comedy “Episodes” for a third season, with nine new episodes for 2013. “Episodes” features former Friends (and Joey) star Matt LeBlanc as a fictionalized version of himself. It is created and executive produced by David Crane (Friends) and Jeffrey Klarik (Mad About You), and also executive produced by Jimmy Mulville through his Hat Trick production company
This week’s birthdays include: Diane Cilento, actress and star on several 20th Century Fox Pictures including “Agony and Ecstasy” and “Wicker Man” (October 6, age 79), Peter Brown, actor and star of the tv series “Lawman,” and “Laredo” (also October 6, age 77), Jeff Conway, actor and star of the TV series “Taxi” (also October 6, would have been age 62), Janet Gaynor, Actress, (October 6, would have been 107), and Robert Mitchum, actor and starred in the ABC mini-series “Winds of War” (also October 6, would have been 95).
If you have any questions or comments regarding “TV Talk,” you can reach Pete Sieler at [email protected] .
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TV Radio and Movies, then and now…
Sixty years ago – Florence Chadwick establishes world history after she swims the Catalina Channel in the record- breaking time of 13 hours, 47 minutes – the first woman to have crossed both the English and Catalina Channels.
In a Gallup Poll – Eisenhower is ahead 51%-42%. Gen. Eisenhower says he wants more information before deciding whether to try to find a replacement for the Vice-Presidential nominee on the Republican campaign ticket. Eisenhower is not entirely convinced there was nothing improper in Nixon’s allowing 76 Southern California admirers to kick in $18,235 toward asserted official expenses during his first 18 months in the upper chamber of Congress. Sen. Richard Nixon bares the entire personal financial history of his political career over national radio and television. His sincerity loosened a rising flood of telegrams (see below). Many say his baring of personal finances was unprecedented in political history and he spared himself nothing. He did reveal his $18,000+ expense fund was morally wrong. (Pop history calls this the famed “Checkers” speech after Nixon describes a gift of a dog.) After the broadcast, telegrams pour into Washington in response to Mr. Nixon’s TV-radio appeal that people help the Republican National Committee decide whether to keep him as the GOP Vice-Presidential candidate. Many used the telephone. Declaring his colleague has been “completely vindicated,” Gen. Eisenhower tells a crowd that he will go forward with Richard Nixon. In St. Louis – Gen. Eisenhower pledged he would use the FBI and other investigating agencies to root crooks and traitors out of government as a first order of business in a republican administration.
President Truman and Senator Taft prepare to hit the campaign trail for Gov. Stevenson and Gen. Eisenhower. Taft’s pledge to stump for Ike after they agreed on domestic issues – strengthened GOP claims of party unity. Stevenson, however, continued to decry a “two-headed elephant division” of the GOP foreign policy. The decision to bring in Truman and Taft actively into the campaign was made at the highest level in both parties. Stevenson’s advisors wanted Truman – who will tour 24 states in 15 days to re-enact his 1948 campaign appeals to farmers, labor, housewives and minorities. Taft’s assignment was to bring “old guard” Republican precinct workers out in force of Eisenhower in the interior states. Taft has promised to “call names” – which Ike refused to do so. Truman, also, is a name-caller.
In the face of stout Russian protests, 190 ships of the North Atlantic Treaty countries went into their first war games in the North Sea. Russia called the maneuvers an “Aggressive act,” blasted Sweden for staging its own war games – independently – at the same time. These NATO maneuvers involved 85,000 men and some of the biggest warships afloat. The Russians claim the maneuvers – “Operation Mainbrace” are designed to plan future Western attacks in the Baltic Sea. Mainbrace’s importance lies in what it can tell European defense planners for the future. NATO ministers will meet in December and set plans for air, ground and sea defense as far ahead as 1955. Success of the sea maneuvers will help determine how much ground and air strength will be needed.
The socialist Reich Party, wellspring of his Nazi teachings since World War II in Germany, was disbanded. West German officials said the decision came after a split within the neo-Nazi ranks on whether to accept financial aid from Soviet sources.
Ceylon defied Western bans on trade with Red China, offered to trade China its 113,500-ton rubber production for rice. Ceylon said American offers of 40,000 tons of rice were insufficient to meet food requirements of the population.
Israel accepted a German offer to pay $821 million for Nazi persecution of Jews. Germany will deliver $714 million in goods to Israel over 12 years; will pay $107 million to Jewish organizations elsewhere. (Nazis killed 6 million Jews in Hitler’s time.)
Speculation that a hydrogen bomb was ready for testl came with announcement that new atomic weapon tests were planned for fall in Eniwetok, Marshall Islands. The tests will be secret – with no foreign observers. (International News Service said Government experts don’t believe H-Bombs can be stockpiled, ever it developed, because the key chemical element decomposes too rapidly.)
On vacation at Lake Tobyhanna, Pa. with his parents, Leonard Nowicki, 18, went out fishing when his lime caught on a heavy underwater object. He tugged it toward him, found the body of his mother; she had apparently drowned while walking along the lake front.
The Communist Daily Worker appealed to its readers to sell more subscriptions because circulation has fallen to 10,000 (against a peak of 34,000 in 1931 and 20,000 in 1950) – threatening its very existence.
With car output biggest in 15 months due to more metals, Detroit, unemployment-ridden six months ago, now faces a labor shortage. Office jobs for women went begging.
Four million businesses are now operating in the U.S. – highest number in history.
President Truman was presented with a lifetime pass to the National Symphony in Washington, D.C. because he is “the most musical President in history,” Cracked Truman, “You are going to lose money, I’ll live to be a hundred.”
Denmark’s musical King Frederick permitted records to be made of him conducting the Danish State Orchestra in the overture to Wagner’s “Meistersinger” and Frederick’s Kuhlaus “Overture to Elverjoh.” The recordings will be released here during the Danish Orchestra’s U.S. Tour.
Fifty five years ago -President Eisenhower signs a history-making proclamation clearing the way for possible use of Federal troops to quash any further school integration violence at Little Rock, Ark … Later on, he orders U.S. troops into the area to prevent mob rule “under the leadership of demagogue extremists opposed to school integration.” The Army flies 1000 battle-ready troops into Little Rock and prepares to activate all Arkansas’ National Guard to enforce Federal school integration following orders from the President. Paratroopers with lowered bayonets take nine Negro students into Central High School in Little Rock and then stand guard over their classrooms. One man was bayoneted and a second was clubbed with a rifle butt in a show of force.
James R. Hoffa – vice-president of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters is indicted on five counts of perjury by a Federal rackets grand jury. The indictment charged Hoffa, a candidate for the presidency of the Teamsters to succeed Dave Beck, lied to the grand jury during its probe into alleged wire tapping of Teamsters Union headquarters in Detroit.
Queen Elizabeth II gave her royal approval for a British movie company to make “From Cradle to Crown,” a 70 minute biographical film to be released during the coronation celebrations.
Ziv TV programs believes it has scored an all time high in renewal orders for its syndicated “Highway Patrol” series starring Broderick Crawford. Officials on Thursday announced 97% of the sponsors who used the show last year have renewed for another season. Now in third year, “Highway Patrol” is signed for 211 markets. Among major renewals, P. Ballantine and Sons added Baltimore and Charleston, South Carolina to bring its total to 25 cities. Other major renewals included Kroger Grocery Company for 13 markets and Lion Oil Company for nine southern markets.
Piedmont Electronics and Fixture Corporation, losing applicant for Channel 9 in Charlotte, North Carolina last week, asked the U.S. Court of Appeals in Washington to set aside the FCC’s grant of that Channel to WSOC Charlotte. The appellant, which was favored in the August 1955 decision, listed 17 different grounds on which it alleges the Commission erred in December 13, 1956 grant to WSOC. A Piedmont petition for rehearing was denied August 2 by the FCC. A third applicant for the channel was Carolina TV Corporation. WSOC-TV went on the air last April and is affiliated with ABC and NBC.
A reporter who met the boat train to Paris spotted Estes Kefauver, on his way to Switzerland, traveling with Perle Mesta, who was returning to her job as U.S. Minister to Luxenbourg. Had they talked politics? “Oh, No,” said Madame Minister, “Iam in the State Department. We don’t talk politics.”
Bestsellers –
By Love Possessed – James Gould Cozzens
On The Beach – Nevil Shute
The World of Suzie Wong – Richard Mason
The Pink Hotel – Dorothy Erskine, Patrick Dennis
Below the Salt – Thomas B. Costain
The Hidden Persuaders – Vance Packard
Baruch – My Own Story – Bernard S. Baruch
Stay Alive All Your Life – Norman Vincent Peale
The New Class – Milovan Djilas
The Day Christ Died – Jim Bishop
Rascals in Paradise – James Michener and A. Grove Day
In Sports – Goodbye Giants, goodbye New York – leave after 74 years, The New York Giants play their last game at the Polo Grounds and in New York. Thousands hit the field and chased the team to the clubhouse. They also carried-away anything in site. Within a half-hour after their 9-1 loss to Pittsburgh, fans had ripped up the regular and warm-up home plates, the wooden base beneath the main plate, the pitcher’s rubber, two of the bases and the foam rubber sheathing protecting outfielders who crashed into the center field fences. The Giants now head to their new home turf – San Francisco.
What about the Brooklyn Dodgers? … Reports as of this week say that pressure on owner Walter O’Malley to keep the Dodgers in Brooklyn is being applied from all sides in New York. National League club owners meet in New York next Monday before the World Series, and unless O’Malley and Los Angeles officials close the Dodger deal by midnight Sunday, he will have to ask the league for an extension of time to continue negotiations. The National League granted O’Malley and New York Giants owner Horace Stoneham permission to move to California at a meeting May 27. The Giants have the green light to move, but as of this week, not the Dodgers. Los Angeles seems to by dilly-dallying. O’Malley wants to buy a 300-acre tract in Chevez-Ravine, not far from downtown Los Angeles to build a new stadium. Also, there seems to be some issues with the Pacific League. Los Angles Mayor Poulson announced this week that the Brooklyn Dodgers are coming to Los Angeles, that he had been personally assured that 10 members of the City Council will vote favorably on a proposed ordinance and contract which would bring the Dodgers to Los Angeles when the legislation comes up for final consideration next Monday… stay tuned!
The World Series – Casey Stengel says Whitey Ford will pitch the first game as the Yankees go up against the Milwaukee Braves. Warren Spahn will be pitching for the Braves; both pitchers are southpaws.
In a 15-round decision at Yankee Stadium, Carmen Basillio defeats Sugar Ray Robinson and becomes the world’s middleweight champion.
Campbell’s brings you three new soups! Turkey Noodle Soup … Minestrone Soup … Chicken Vegetable Soup.
What! Can anything be better than Tide? Yes! New Tide with Reserve Cleaning Power. Extra cleaning power … does a better job on everything you wash .. on all kinds of suds. Now more than ever – the cleanest clean possible is Tide-Clean.
A London newspaper reports that an Italian film producer hopes to persuade Ava Gardner to appear nude in a film on the life of the Spanish painter Goya. A famous Goya shows the Duchess of Alba lying nude on a couch. The paper said “other producers who know Ava better reckon the producer will find it easier to make the moon jump over the cow.” But, the paper added – “She is fed up with years of lingerie poses and cheesecake.”
Shooting a movie in Utah, film stars Alan Ladd and Olivia de Havilland suffer minor burns when a gust of wind blew flames at them during a barn-burning scene. The actors were behind controlled gas fires in the barn scene when a gust of wind swept the flames at them, dropping embers among the group.
Friday nights on NBC – “The Thin Man” starring Peter Lawford and Phyllis Kirk. Brought to you by Colgate-Palmolive.
Don’t miss this on NBC, a special “Look Here” program on Friday. Reporter-Commentator Martin Agronsky interviews Cuba’s President Fulgencio Batista at the Presidential Palace live; that is, if the political situation suffers no changes in the meantime. It will be the first over-the-waves live TV transmission and Batista’s first appearance on American television in recent years.
Marilyn Monroe may be one of the stars in three, one act plays by Tennessee Williams set for “Du Pont Show of the Month” next spring. NBC hopes to put its “Small World” on in January. There’s no time this fall.
Late news from ABC’s planning boards: “Lady Luck,” the on-again off –again daytime audience participation show starring Keefre Brasselle, will make its debut this coming week (September 30). And a new film show “Bowling Stars” will make it’s debut tomorrow (September 22) at 8:30 E.T.
Dinah Shore’s head writer, Robert Welles, has resigned. Says Wells, “I can’t possibility turn out 26 top shows. That’s like working in a factory.” Last year’s quota: nine.
After Frank Capra’s “Cosmic Rays” show on October 25, NBC will present it’s “Unchained Goddess,” a scientific explanation of the weather on February 12 and repeats during the season of “Our Mr. Sun” and “Hemo the Magnificent.” All specials were sponsored by AT&T and production was done at Warner Bros. Studio’s.
Thursday Night Television –
CBS – Sergeant Preston of the Yukon , Harbourmaster, Climax! (presents “Along came a Spider” – drama about a mentally ill boy. Ruth Hussey, Don Dubbins, Leif Ericson and Natalie Trunday), Playhouse 90 (Topaze” – Ernie Kovacs, Sheree North, Carol Reiner, Richard Haydn)
NBC – Tic Tac Dough, You Bet Your Life with Groucho Marx, Dragnet, The People’s Choice, Tennessee Ernie Ford (Jane Wyman guests), Rosemary Clooney Show (Tennessee Ernie Ford guests (In Color), Jane Wyman
ABC – Circus Boy, Theatre Time, O.S.S., Frankie Laine Show, Damon Runyon Theater
Pop music this week in 1957 –
TAMMY – Debbie Reynolds
WAKE UP LITTLE SUSIE – The Everly Brothers
CHANCES ARE – Johnny Mathis
THAT’LL BE THE DAY – The Crickets
HAPPY, HAPPY BIRTHDAY BABY – The Tune Weavers
FASCINATION – Jane Morgan and the Troubadors
LOTTA LOVIN’ – Gene Vincent & His Blue Caps
DIANA – Paul Anka
IN THE MIDDLE OF AN ISLAND – Tony Bennett
BYE BYE LOVE – The Everly Brothers
MELODIE D’AMOUR (Melody Of Love) – The Ames Brothers
KEEP A KNOCKIN’ – Little Richard
STAR DUST – Billy Ward & His Dominoes
LASTING LOVE – Sal Mineo
At the movies at your local neighborhood theatre –
The Joker Is Wild
Frank Sinatra, Mitzi Gaynor, Jeanne Crain, and Eddie Albert
Mr. Rock and Roll
Alan Freed with Frankie Lymon & The Teenagers, Chuck Berry, La Vern Baker, Brook Benton, Clyde McPhatter, Little Richard, Ferlin Husky, The Moonglows, Rocky Graziano, Teddy Radazzo, and Lionel Hampton
Jeanne Eagles
Kim Novak and Jeff Chandler
The Story Of Esther Costello
Joan Crawford, Rossano Brazzi, Lee Patterson, Ron Randell, and Heather Sears.
Forty Guns
Barbara Stanwyck, Barry Sullivan, Dean Jagger, John Ericson, and Gene Barry
The Brothers Rico
Richard Conte, Dianne Foster, and Kathryn Grant
Pickup Alley (World-Wide Dope Traffic Exposed!)
Victor Mature, Anita Ekberg, and Trevor Howard
Jet Pilot
John Wayne and Janet Leigh
Dragoon Wells Massacre
Barry Sullivan, Dennis O’Keefe, and Mona Freeman
Around The World in 80 days
David Niven, Shirley MacLaine, and Peter Lorre
The Silken Affair
Jeff Chandler, Jack Palance, and Rita Gam
The Quiet Man
John Wayne, Maureen O’Hara, and Barry Fitzgerald
Forbidden Interlude
June Allyson, Rossano Brazzi, Marianne Cook, and Francoise Rosay
The Frogmen
Richard Widmark and Dana Andrews
The Gladiators
Victor Mature and Susan Hayward
Land Of the Pharaohs
Jack Hawkins, Joan Collins, and Dewey Martin
Mickey Spillane’s My Gun Is Quick
Robert Bray as Mike Hammer
Stowaway Girl
Trevor Howard, Pedro Armendariz, Elsa Martinelli (She was only
17 … She paid the price for her passage, but not to that whole crew!).
Fifty years ago – In ceremonies at the Lincoln Memorial marking the centennial of the proclamation – President Kennedy calls on the nation to move further in the coming days and months toward the goal of individual freedom set on a century ago when Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation. “There is no more impressive chapter in our history than the one in which our Negro fellow citizens sought better education for themselves and their children, built better schools and better housing, carved out their own economic opportunity, enlarged their press, fostered their arts and clarified and strengthened their purpose as a people.” Under threat of contempt of court charges, the Mississippi State College board agrees to enroll Negro James H. Meredith. He would be the first Negro admitted as a student in its 114-year history… But later, Gov. Ross Barnett physically blocks the registration of Meredith at the University – in defiance of federal power. He is ordered by the 5th Circuit Court of Appeals to show cause why he should not be held in contempt.
Cuba and the Soviet Union sign an Atlantic-Caribbean fishing pact calling for construction of a large dock and freezing facilities inside Havana Bay.
Congress officially approves a joint resolution endorsing whatever means are needed to prevent Fidel Castro’s (Communist) doctrine from being exported to other Latin nations.
Waging its biggest fight against the federal government since the Civil War – Mississippi bars Negro James H. Meredith from the University of Mississippi for the third time. Atty. Gen. Robert F. Kennedy described the situation as serious and says the government will do “whatever is necessary” to enforce court orders in the Meredith case.
A U.S. airliner, carrying 76 persons crashed landed at sea, 500 miles west of Ireland, after three of its engines failed.
Panama’s finance minister proposed a conference of Central American and Caribbean nations to establish a united front against Communism in Cuba.
A federal court rules that Gov. Ross Barnett of Mississippi is guilty of contempt – setting the stage for his arrest… President Kennedy places the Mississippi National Guard under federal control to provide whatever enforcement measures are necessary to carry out desegregation at the University of Mississippi. Students go on a bloody riot and battle U.S. marshals at the University of Mississippi. So far – 2 are dead. This happened after Negro James Meredith was secretly brought to the school by U.S. Marshals for registration. Rep Jack Brooks (D-Tex) – says his House investigating subcommittee has located a number of former airline stewardesses and flight attendants who admit they were permitted to take over the controls of airliners in flight. He adds that passengers were aboard the airliners at the time of the alleged incidents. The subcommittee is conducting an inquiry into alleged Violations of flight safety regulations aboard commercial aircraft.
Cuba and the Soviet Union sign an Atlantic-Caribbean fishing pact calling for the construction of large dock and freezing facilities inside Havana Bay. A communiqué said between 115 and 150 medium trawlers will be able to operate out of the station when it is completed.
Nine American-built ships loaned to Russia during WWII are among a series of ships carrying supplies to Castro’s Red stronghold from Russia. The ships still belong to the U.S. and are still retained by Russia, despite persistent demands for their return.
Two men who helped develop the Telstar communications satellite are named “Aerospace Men of the Year” at the same ceremony. Given the association’s top award are Dr. John Pierce and Alton Dickinson of Bell Labs. Bob Hope was the master of ceremonies.
A 4,500-foot bamboo fence built by North Vietnamese Communists to keep refugees from escaping south is blown down by a storm. The fence was called the bamboo version of the Berlin Wall and ran between two guard posts on the north bank of the Ben Hai River. The river is the demarcation line between North and South Vietnam.
A missing $14,000 Renoir painting is returned to its owner by a man who found it covered with grime on a London street and nearly threw it into a fire. The painting was lost last week when it fell out of the trunk of a car. It had been run-over by automobiles but only suffered slight damage in three places and one scratch. Bus driver Martin Quinland, who said he never heard of Renoir, found it and turned it over to police.
A Los Angeles attorney is fined $105 for spanking a schoolteacher he planned to marry. Earl McQuaide said he took the advice of a psychologist’s article, “Be a Cave Man,” which says that women want to be controlled by their husbands. Along with the article is a cartoon depicting a man dragging a woman by the hair, McQuaide told the jury.
The first completed structure of the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts, New York City’s first new orchestral concert hall in 71 years, opens. Attending the gala – President Kennedy and First Lady Jackie . The celebrity-only audience paid as much as $250 a seat in the new cultural center, which cost $15.4 million. The building is part of a huge, five- component complex being built at a cost of $142 million.
In a recent poll – some of the things readers like about Jackie Kennedy: attractive, pretty, good-looking, good personality, good mother, good mixer, poise. Some of the things readers like least about her: hair-do, her taste in clothes, her voice, spends too much money, wastes money.
With little money and only a 7th grade education, migrant worker Cesar Chavez starts something called National Farm Workers Association (NFWA) in Delano, California. Hopefully, he can get organized. Farmworkers are some of the least-paid labor in the country and usually live and work under substandard conditions.
In Chicago, Charles (Sonny) Liston beats Floyd Patterson in one of the shortest championship bouts ever – 2 minutes and 6 seconds in a k.o. .. . The New York Yankees clinch their 27th American League pennant, winning 8-3 over the Washington Senators. Mickey Mantle had a perfect night with four singles and a walk. Whitey Ford pitched 12 hits and struck out six for his 17th win of the year.
The #1 Children’s book – “Green Eggs And Ham” by Dr Seuss… Also available at bookstores – Betty Crocker’s new revised “Good And Easy Cook Book” – $1.99
New at the mart – Sara Lee pineapple cream cheese cake – ready to serve! At the mart – Bayer Aspirin – bottle of 100 – .59… Hershey’s Chocolate Dainties – (2) 6oz pkgs – 25…Roasting Chickens – .49lb… Chuck Steaks – .48lb
Dig the new Corvette Sting Ray, “as dramatic to drive as it is to admire, the new Corvette Sting Ray is available in a coupe or a convertible. Both models have independent rear-suspension, retractable headlights and more excitement per mile than any car ever built. You may have to wait a bit to get one, but it’s worth it!”
Soupy Sales says – “A pie in the face is worth two in the hand.”
The FCC on Friday, (September 14) dismissed application of Consolidated Enterprises, Inc for three major-market UHF stations, at the request of the company. Commission also announced filing of second application for channel 7, El Centro, California by KXO-TV, Inc. (KXO El Centro). Tele-Broadcasters of California (H. Scott Kilgore, President) previously filed for same channel. Marco Hanan is president – 58% owner of KXO.
CBS News is about to announce a new Sunday TV News program , “Washington Report”12:30-1pm with David Schoenbrun, chief Washington correspondent as anchorman and editor and Bob Allison, Washington as news director and executive producer. Paul Niven, who “Washington Conversation” was in time slot, will do five minutes of spot news. Rest of the time will be leveled exclusively to news from Nation’s capitol. Bureau’s nine correspondents and Washington officials not normally see in national news will appear. Program is to be live with news film.
Five off-network television series are being released for syndication by Four Star Distribution, the new wholly owned subsidiary of Four Star Television, Hollywood. Four star is making available for sale, 35 hours from “Target, The Corruptors:” 67 half hours and 30 hours from “The Detectives;” 145 half-hours from “Zane Grey Theatre;” 45 half-hours from “The Law and Mr. Jones;” and 38 hours from “Stagecoach West.” Four star has other series it has not as yet released for syndication. Among these are “June Allyson Show,” “Peter Loves Mary,” “Tom Ewell Show,” “The Westerners,” and “The Plainsman.”
After viewing the first five segments of “The Virginian,” NBC-TV ordered the new series extended indefinitely beyond the 13 weeks specified in the original contract, according to Revue Studios, producer. The series features 90 minute color programs with continuing characters and weekly guest stars. The program begin airing this week and will be shown on a weekly basis on Wednesday evening.
Purex Corporation and NBC-TV have set “The World of Maurice Chevalier” as the third one hour Purex special for the 1962-63 season. New and old film of the French entertainer is now being prepared by NBC special project producer Gene Jones for a January 24, 1963 airdate.
Warner Bros. is preparing a new one-hour TV series, “Ready for the People” based on the book “Tiger in the Night.” Sy Salkowitz will write the TV adaptation; Jules Schermer will be supervising producer and Anthony Spinner producer of the new series.
RKO General, Inc announced last week it has signed an agreement with Columbia Pictures for showing of various new Columbia feature films over the company’s subscription pay TV operation, WHCT (TV) Hartford. RKO is carrying films on subscription tv which are called “first subsequent run” (immediately after the first theatreical showing). RKO also offers features released earlier. Included in the arrangement are “Notorious Landlady,” with Kim Novak and Jack Lemmon; “The Interns” starring Michael Callan and Nick Adams; “The Three Stooges” in Orbit,” with the three stooges and Carol Christenson, and “Sail a Crooked Ship” with Robert Wagner and Dolores Hart. An RKO General spokesman said last week more than 700 customers subscribe to pay TV in Hartford as compared to 300 on June 29, when WHCT went on the air.
Another update on the MGM purchase of land for a possible new studio. Southern California may built its first major film studio in 35 years, if MGM decides to develop a 1,849 acre tract of land in the Conejo Valley, Ventura County, California, that it purchased last week. The film studio purchased the land from the Janss Corporation in exchange for 162,000 shares of its studio stock worth at the current market price of $8,750,000. MGM has plans for transferring all its filmmaking operations from Culver City where it has been based for 43 years and building a $32 million studio complex on some 800 acres of the acquired land. Preliminary studies for the proposed studio includes projections for a multi-story administration center, theatre, film laboratory, 14 sound stages, a network of streets along which town and city sets will be constructed, and 100,000 square feet of parking space. Studies also are in progress on how to use the 187 acre Culver City lot for purposes other than motion picture and TV film making. Indications are that no final decision on the move will be made for at least another two months.
Best-selling books –
Magnificent Destiny – Paul L. Wellman
Ship of Fools – Katherine Anne Porter
Dearly Beloved – Anne Morrow Lindbergh
The Thin Red Line – James Jones
Uhuru – Robert Ruark
The Thin Red Line – James Jones
My Life In Court – Louis Nizer
What Are You Doing After The Orgy – Jim & Hennie Backus
JFK Coloring Book
Golf Is A Four-Letter Word – Richard Armour
Who’s In Charge Here? – Gerald Gardner
Travels With Charlie – John Steinbeck
In-Laws & Out-Laws – Northcote C. Parkinson
Sex & The Single Girl – Helen Gurley Brown
Playing in Las Vegas at the big hotels
McGuire Sisters – Desert Inn
Brenda Lee/ Dick Shawn – Flamingo
Harry Belafonte – Riviera
Flower Drum Song – Thunderbird
Folies Bergere – Tropicana
Divorce – Judy Garland files for a divorce from her third husband, Sid Luft. They’ve been married for 10 years.
Sports – Nice Stat – Shortstop Maury Willis of the Los Angeles Dodgers, winds up the year with a record 104 stolen bases, the most of any player since 1900.
Music news – Cliff Richard – pop music sensation in England is scheduled to arrive in the U.S. next week for a promotion campaign on the Paramount movie “Wonderful to Be Young” and the Dot record album of the same name. Richard is set for a six-week tour of major cities to visit deejays and make personal appearances where the movie is playing.
Hollywood news – Dies – Skippy (34) the chimpanzee pal of Johnny Weissmuller in the Tarzan pictures. Skippy will be sent to a taxidermist to be preserved in one of the exhibits at the Los Angeles County Museum.
Sophia Loren signs for $1 million for her role as Lucilla in “Fall of the Roman Empire.” The film will be produced by Samuel Bronston, who recently filmed “55 Days at Peking.”
Television – Did you know that Joseph Connelly and Bob Mosher, producers of “Leave It To Beaver,” used to be advertising men on Madison Avenue? Connelly has a new series – “Going My Way” – based on the successful movie pastor and curate played by Barry Fitzgerald and Bing Crosby. The TV version stars Gene Kelly and Leo G. Carroll. Look for it Wednesday evenings on ABC-TV beginning this week.
NBC says that virtually all of its prime-time programming will be broadcast in color next week for “Color Week.” In addition to its regular color shows, the network will also offer color versions for the week of the following shows – It’s a Man’s World, Saints and Sinners, The Wide Country, Dr. Kildare, International Showtime, and Sam Benedict.
The American Research Bureau says that less than 2% of the homes with televisions now have color TV sets. The number of color sets doubled last year and may double again this year. Currently, NBC is out front with 68% of its prime time programming in color. ABC is beginning to add color programs in prime time with the Flintstones, The Jetsons, and its Sunday Night Movie.
CBS News With Walter Cronkite, Campaign ’62, Dobie Gillis, The Beverly Hillbillies (Debut – The Beverly Hillbillies – About a family of proud hillbillies who strike it rich and exchange their one-room mountain cabin for a mansion in Beverly Hills. In the first episode, Jed Clampett strikes oil in the front yard of his Ozark property and the family gets ready to leave for Beverly Hills. Stars Buddy Epsen, Irene Ryan, Donna Douglas, Max Baer, and Bea Benaderet.) , Dick Van Dyke, Circle Theater
NBC – Huntley-Brinkley, The Virginian, Mystery Theater, Play Your Hunch, The State House
ABC – Ron Cochran with the News, Wagon Train (After being held captive by Indians for 10 years, a woman is freed.) , Top Cat, Hawaiian, Naked City Campaign ’62 – Covers latest campaign developments.
Sunday Night Television –
CBS – Ted Mack’s Original Amateur Hour, College Bowl, 20th Century,
Password, Lassie, Dennis the Menace, Ed Sullivan (With Eddie Fisher, Jack Carter, Al Hirt, Mickey Mantle, Whitey Ford, Joya Sherrill, and Bill Dana), The Real McCoys (new network and time. Beauteous West Virginia farm girl joins the McCoy family as a housekeeper and immediately sets out for widower Luke. Tina Louise guests. Stars Walter Brennan, Dick Crenna and Tony Martinez.) , GE True, Candid Camera, What’s My Line?
NBC – The Bullwinkle Show, Meet The Press, McKeever and the Colonel ( Col. Blackwell courts disaster when he assigns Cadet McKeever to care for the pet mule of Gen. Halloran. Stars Allyn Joslyn, Scott Lane, Jackie Coogan, and Elizabeth Fraser), Ensign O’Toole, Walt Disney’s Wonderful World of Color (First of a two-part story about two American students unwillingly becoming embroiled in an international art theft. In Part 1, the boy buys his girl a painting and discovers he is being pursued. Stars Tommy Kirk, Annette Funicello, Ivan Desny.), Car 54, Where Are You?, Bonanza, Show of the Week
ABC – Winston Churchill – The Valiant Years, Telepoll, The Jetsons (A Date with Jet Screamer” Voices are George O’Hanlon as George, Penny Singleton as Jane, Janet Waldo as Judy and Daws Butler as Elroy Jetson, being telecast in color) , Movie (“The Night Fighters” – 1960 movie starring Robert Mitchum, Dan O’Herlihy, Anne Heywood, and Cyril Cusack) and The Voice of Firestone
On the charts–
RAMBLIN’ ROSE – Nat King Cole
GREEN ONIONS – Booker T. & MG’s
SHEILA – Tommy Roe
YOU BELONG TO ME – Duprees
MONSTER MASH – Bobby (Boris) Pickett & Crypt-Kickers
Movies that are playing in your local home town –
Convicts 4
Ben Gazzara, Stuart Whitman, Rod Steiger, Vincent Price, and Ray Walston
Gigot
Jackie Gleason, Katherine Kath, Gabrielle Dorziat, and Franick Villard
Operation Snatch
Terry-Thomas, George Sanders, Lionel Jeffries, and Jackie Lane
That Touch Of Mink
Cary Grant and Doris Day
A Kind of Loving
Alan Bates and June Ritchie
Barabbas
Anthony Quinn, Silvana Mangano, Arthur Kennedy, Katy Jurado, and Jack Palance
The Mongols
Jack Palance, Anita Ekberg, and Steve Reeves
The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm
starring Karl Bohm, filmed in Cinerama and showing at select theatres on a reserved seat basis.
Les Girls
Gene Kelly, Mitzi Gaynor, Kay Kendall, and Taina Elg
Island in the Sun
James Mason, Joan Fontaine, Dorothy Dandridge, Joan Collins, and Michael Rennie
The Music Man
Robert Preston, Shirley Jones, Buddy Hackett, Hermione Gingold, and Paul Ford
Radio news – The CBS radio network releases a yearlong survey on the most popular radio features of the day. Note: these are not specific radio formats. Talk-Music (22%) – News, interviews, discussions, talks, sports, and also have a minimum-to-moderate interest in music, but do not tune in primarily for music. News only listeners – listen to newscasts. (12%) Classical/Semi-Classical Listeners, (16%) Popular Music – Frank Sinatra, Perry Como, Andy Williams, Steve and Eydie, etc. (40%) and Rock n Roll – (7%) The survey shows that rock n roll listeners have the lowest education and income levels of all listener groups.
More radio news – Gary Owens moves from KFWB to KMPC, Los Angeles. Look for Gary to do the same kind of show (he’s one of the funniest personalities around) – just different music. KFWB plays top-40. KMPC plays more adult pop like Andy Williams, Frank Sinatra etc.
Andre Previn will conduct 36 concerts this season all over the country. Leonard Bernstein shares a TV show with Previn later this TV season.
Forty Five years ago – President Johnson declares the bombing of North Vietnam will stop whenever it will lead to “productive discussion” and that up to now, North Vietnam has rejected all U.S. peace overtures. Administration sources say the President is making no new initiatives towards peace negotiations in Vietnam.
Sugar contaminated by the deadly insecticide parathon is pinpointed as the cause of the death last week of 17 Tijuana (Mexico) children. The sugar was stored next to the insecticide in a large government warehouse in Mexicali.
In a Gallup poll – New York State Senator Robert F. Kennedy takes a lead over Lyndon Johnson as a Democratic favorite – 39% to 37%.
The U.S. 5th Circuit Court of Appeals upholds a 30-year sentence and $30 thousand fine against Dr. Timothy Leary for importing marijuana. Leary, known as the high priest of LSD, was convicted in U.S. District Court in Houston of illegally importing about a half-ounce of marijuana from Mexico into the U.S. at Laredo, Texas. Leary said he used marijuana for “profound religious experience.”
Spotted – In Los Angeles, t he first issue of The Los Angeles Advocate , (which would become the Advocate -the first national gay and lesbian news magazine) is on the streets. You can get your copy for 25 cents. (In three years, its circulation would be up to 5,000.)
In sports – Alabama quarterback Kenny Stabler hits end Dennis Homan for three touchdown passes to lead the Crimson Tide to a 24-3 victory over Southern Mississippi. Stabler completed 19 of 26 pass attempts for 191 yards.
The Atlanta Braves fire manager Billy Hitchcock. In his only full season with the Braves, the team climbed as high as second place, right n the heels of the Cardinals before going into the tailspin that has left them in seventh place.
Green Bay Packer Coach Vince Lombardi insists that nothing is physically wrong with quarterback Bart Starr; despite nine interceptions he has thrown in two games. Starr only threw three interceptions all season last year. Said the coach: “No, he’s not hurt. All interceptions are not a quarterback’s fault.” “Batters go in a slump, pitchers go in a slump and kickers go in a slump. Starr’s in a little bit of a slump right now. We’ve got to wait until he comes out. No one is perfect in this world, including Barr Starr and Vince Lombardi.”
The Boston Red Sox’s become the American League champions. They’ll face the St. Louis Cardinals in the World Series.
Music news – A&M Records – headed by Jerry Moss and Herb Alpert has gone from nowhere to the fifth largest record label in 5 years. The company just moved into new digs on LaBrea Ave in Hollywood. The label flourished on the popularity of Herb’s Tijuana Brass, which really wasn’t an ensemble when it hit with “The Lonely Bull” in 1962. The follow- up record was something called “Marching Through Madrid” but it bombed. Then something else happened. An album entitled “South of the Border” was released and on it, a snappy number called “The Mexican Shuffle” could be heard. The song was used on the famous Clark’s Teaberry Gum commercials several years ago and since then, Tijuana Brass albums have sold in the millions. A & M now boasts other artists on its roster – Sergio Mendes and Brazil ‘66, The Baja Marimba Band, and The Sandpipers are the three biggest besides the brass. A & M also includes the Merry Go Round (best known for the single “Live”), Burt Bacharach, Claudine Longet, Jimmie Rodgers, Wes Montgomery, Herbie Mann, The Roger Nichols Trio, The Parade (known for the hit “Sunshine Girl,” and the Garden Club. Alpert employs three other producers to supervise other products on the label: “I’m aware of who is being recorded and what is being recorded. But I believe firmly in producer’s choice. I like my freedom when I record and I suspect they like it also. We are only concerned with the product. We have never been concerned about how much time it will take or how much it will cost.”
Television news – “Star Trek” gets a Russian added to the crew of the Enterprise – Gene Roddenberry, creator and producer of the series, learned that the Russian newspaper Pravda reviewed an episode that was seen by their critic in Germany. The critic reportedly was upset by the fact that the series depicts a space crew made up of people from any different nations and planets – except Russia. Said Roddenberry – “He wrote that since Russia was first into space, that country should at least be represented on the show… he’s dead right! … I was wrong to leave Russia out of that projection, so I decided to follow that writer’s advice and add a Russian to the crew of our spaceship.” Walter Koenig is added to the cast as Ens. Pavel Chekov.
Sally Field has a new series this season – “The Flying Nun.” Says Sally – “It’s not really a program about nuns, it’s about people, their hopes and their love of mankind. I really fly too, but they don’t want me to talk about how it is done, but it’s not a photographic trick. Sometimes I fly as high as 75 feet and I love it!”
Liggett and Myers Tobacco Company plans to extend advertising of its new L&M Golden 100 cigarettes into ten southeastern states this week to complete national distribution. Plans now call for heavy network and spot TV fall schedules on L&M regularly sponsored programs on ABC-TV: “Sunday Night Movies,” “The FBI,” “Felony Squad,” Wednesday Night Movies,” and “That Girl.”
3M Company out of St. Paul will sponsor ABC-TV’s 27th annual “Bing Crosby” national pro-amateur golf tournament (January 13 and 14, 1968) – marking its sixth year as sponsor of the tournament. 3M will also co-sponsor NBC-TV’s live coverage of the “Hawaiian Open” scheduled for November 4 and 5, 1967.
Raymond Burr returns this TV season in “Ironside.” After 9 years of Perry Mason, Burr wasn’t ready to return to series television. Perry Mason was canceled last year. “Actually, it was 100-1 that I’d do another series. I did Ironside as a two- hour movie for television, an idea that appealed to me. When it sold as a series, I still liked the concept of making a movie a week for TV.” “I like the expansiveness of the character. He’s toughest and most impatient with the people he likes best. He’s seen the seamy side of life and he’s honest. I’ve met 20,000 guys like him and he’s bits and pieces of all of them.”
“He’s Your Dog, Charlie Brown” is the title of the newest Peanut special set for CBS next season. Two of the earlier shows also will be repeated. Erthe, the 74 year old costumer and stage designer, whose career spans from the 1912 Ziegfeld Follies to a Maurice Chevalier spectacular for Expo 67, will design costumes for a ballet sequence of ABC’s “Silent Night” Christmas special.
Nielsen rankings
CBS Friday Night Movie – “The Great Escape” – part II
CBS Thursday Night Movie – “The Great Escape” – part 1
Bonanza
NBC Saturday Night Movie – “What a Way to Go”
Family Affair
NBC Tuesday Night Movie – “Fun in Acapulco”
The Andy Griffith Show
CBS – Daktari, Red Skelton Show, Good Morning World, CBS Reports
NBC – I Dream of Jeannie, Jerry Lewis Show, Movie
ABC – Garrison’s Gorillas, The Invaders, N.Y.P.D, Hollywood Palace
NET – NET Playhouse, NET Intertel, Experiment
Garrison’s Gorillas – The Gorillas are joined by a bank robber from Sing Sing on a mission to crack a Munich bank vault.
Ron Harper, Caesar Danova, Rudy Solari, Christopher Cary, Brendon Boone. Jack Klugman guest stars.
The Jerry Lewis Show – Al Hirt and Nanatte Fabray. Nanette joins Jerry in a skit about a lady police sergeant and her kleptomaniac husband.
The Invaders – The inhabitants of a small town become convinced of the alien’s existence when one of them burns on Main Street. Roy Thinnes stars. Guest stars – Ron Hayes, Nan Martin.
Good Morning World – Larry Clarke makes Sandy the beneficiary of his airline insurance and she thinks it means love unaware that he does the same for other girls. Joby Baker, Ronnie Schell, Billy De Wolf, and Julie Parrish star. Goldie Hawn plays Sandy.
CBS Reports – The Germans. Portrait of German society today, looking at the force of tradition in shaping its national life and politics. Hughs Rudd reports.
Late night talk –
The Tonight Show with Johnny Carson (NBC) – Don Adams, Sherry Jackson, Yogi Maharishi Mahesh
The Joey Bishop Show (ABC) – Gloria Swanson, Tony Martin, Louis Prima, Gia Malone, Sam Butera and the Witnesses
On the charts –
ODE TO BILLIE JOE – Bobbie Gentry
COME BACK WHEN YOU GROW UP – Bobby Vee & Strangers
APPLES, PEACHES, PUMPKIN PIE – Jay & Techniques
REFLECTIONS – Diana Ross & Supremes
YOU’RE MY EVERYTHING – Temptations
SAN FRANCISCAN NIGHTS – Eric Burdon & Animals
THERE IS A MOUNTAIN – Donovan
COLD SWEAT (pt. 1) – James Brown & Famous Flames
FUNKY BROADWAY – Wilson Pickett
WHAT NOW MY LOVE – Mitch Ryder
At the movies at your nieghborhood theatres –
Two For The Road
Audrey Hepburn, Albert Finney, Eleanor Bron, William Daniels, Claude Dauphin, and Nadia Gray
To Sir With Love
Sidney Poitier, Judy Geeson, Christian Roberts, Suzy Kendall, The Mindbenders, and Lulu.
Doctor Zhivago
Omar Shariff and Julie Christie
Matchless
Patrick O’Neal, Donald Pleasence, and Henry Silva
Beach Red
Cornel Wilde, Rip Torn, Burr DeBenning, and Patrick Wolf
Bonnie and Clyde
Warren Beatty, Faye Dunaway, Michael J. Pollard, Gene Hackman, and Estelle Parsons
Thoroughly Modern Millie
Julie Andrews, Mary Tyler Moore, Carol Channing, James Fox, John Gavin, and Beatrice Lillie
For Pete’s Sake!
Robert Sampson, Pippa Scott, Sam Groom, Al Freeman Jr. and John Milford
Walt Disney’s The Happiest Millionaire, Fred MacMurray, Greer Garson and Tommy Steel
Roadshow presentation from Walt Disney Studios
Banning
Robert Wagner, Anjanette Comer, Jill St. John, Guy Stockwell, James Farentino, and Sean Garrison
The War Wagon
John Wayne and Kirk Douglas
Now!
NBC has moved the premieres of “The New Normal” and “Go On” to next Monday, September 10 at 10 and 10:30PM, respectively, to take advantage of “The Voice” lead-in. Both shows will still air on Tuesday from 9-10PM but with their second episodes……On Sunday, September 19, “Survivor: Philippines” will debut on CBS with a 90-minute special, airing 8-9:30PM, followed by the 90-minute finale of “Big Brother,” 9:30-11PM….. For the first night of the 2012 Democratic National Convention, all of the broadcast networks were up from their delivery for the first night of the Republican National Convention the week before. But only NBC saw gains from its coverage of the 2008 DNC in Denver……Cee Lo Green, now a judge on NBC’s “The Voice,” is also developing a scripted comedy for the network based on his relationship with his ex-wife and children.
Fox has renewed Gordon Ramsey series “Hotel Hell” for a second season. Hotel Hell is the summer’s best new series among A18-49, A18-34, A25-54 and W18-49, W25-54 and all key male demos……NBC has found a home in Salt Lake City for its fall show “The New Normal.” The series will be carried by KUCW-TV, licensed to Ogden, the same station that carried “Saturday Night Live” and the quickly-canceled “The Playboy Club.” The new show will not be seen at its regular time, but at 10PM on Saturday……..Published reports say Randy Jackson will not be a judge on the new season of American Idol, but will act as mentor to the contestants…….Entertainment Weekly reports that Robin Williams is in negotiations to star in a new comedy from David. E. Kelley to air on CBS. The show is about a father/daughter team of ad execs. Williams’ last series, “Mork & Mindy,” ran between 1978 and 1982……..Because of the very real possibility that The Mentalist will be delayed in the coming season by a late NFL game that starts even later because of new rules, CBS is making full episodes of the show available the next day on CBS.com for the first time…….According to the LA Times, there is an outside chance that baseball could return to CBS for the first time in almost two decades as a result of the contract negotiations coming up soon. Turner Broadcasting (TBS) has contacted the network about teaming up on a bid for the rights to more of the post-season play. A more likely scenario, says the newspaper, is that Fox gains rights to more post-season games–at Turner’s expense–and uses some of those games as well as regular season contests–to build up its current extreme sports channel Fuel into a more broad-based network to compete with ESPN.
The 2011-2012 syndication year officially ended on Sunday, August 26–the first year in a very long time without “The Oprah Winfrey Show.” “Judge Judy” was the top show of the year with an average 7.0 HH rating. “Wheel of Fortune” was second (6.7), followed by newcomer “The Big Bang Theory” (6.6). “Dr. Phil” was the most popular talker, with a 2.9 average for the season. “Dr. Oz” followed with a 2.7 and third place “Live! with Kelly (and whoever)” averaged a 2.5. The best rookie talker, “Anderson,” was pretty far behind with a 1.3 average.
This week’s birthdays include: George Raft (September 27, would have been 117), Arnold Stang (September 28, age 87), Gene Autry “The Singing Cowboy” (September 30 would have been 105), and Angie Dickinson (also September 30 age 81).
If you have any questions or comments regarding “TV Talk,” you can reach Pete Sieler at [email protected] .
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TV Radio and Movies, then and now…
Sixty Years ago – Best political barometer in Paris is Foreign Minister Schuman’s Bald dome, Its turns deep pink, when things are bad, has a golden glow when all is well with government.
U.S. Ambassador to Prague, Ellis O. Briggs, due to be transferred to a new post.
Joel Grey, 19, rubber faced impersonator who recently made a big hit at NY’s Copa, goes before Hollywood cameras soon.
Norway’s King Haakon, who turned 80 on August 3, is delighted with a film of newsreel sequences showing his reign since 1905. He appears in the film 300 times.
The executive board of the United Steel workers voted to boost the salary of President Phillip Murray from $25,000 to $40,000 a year. If the salary Stabilization Board in Washington approved the 60% increase, Murray will stand number four in the labor’s list of big moneymen. The Top three: George Harrison of the Railway Clerks, $76,000 a year, John L. Lewis and James C. Petrillo, $50,000 each.
Up for re-election this fall, GOP Senator William Jenner of Indiana, an intense isolationist, can’t figure out how he can make common cause with Eisenhower.
Enemies of Jordan Legion Commander Glubb Pasha, say he has hidden the late King Abdullah’s will. They believe testament ordered union with Iraq as the only way for his country.
Any unity movies within the GOP won’t include Guy Gabrielson, ex-national Chairman. N.J.’s Governor Driscoll feels he was too partial toTaft in a supposedly impartial post.
C.B. DeMille asked why he makes so many Biblical films: “Why let 2,000 years of publicity go to waste? “
On one of the Brijoni Islands off the Dalmatian coast, a photographer snapped Yugoslavia’s Strong Man Marshall Tito enjoying a holiday, a good cigar, and one of his favorite playthings, a new three dimensional camera.
In Greenwich, England, Noel Coward was fined for driving his white Jaguar 40 miles per hour in a 30-mile zone. The star with his it’s unwitty line: “My speedometer wasn’t working.”
Near Rome, Orson Welles, who had just bought a new Lancia Aurelia for $4,629.00, had a rattling good shake-up, but no serious injury, when the car crashed into a tree after a blowout. Condition of the car: “completely ruined.”
Virginia Mayo is making her new movie without a girdle, according to film director Gordon Douglas. “A woman can drive a man just so mad if she’s wearing a lot of foundations.”
The movie of the week this week: as wise and witty a spoof as Hollywood has made, “Dreamboat” takes TV apart with a well-sharpened scalpel. Clifton Webb stars as the embattled Thornton Sayre, ex-silent screen lover turned English professor. What happens with TV revives his old films, with onetime siren Ginger Rogers providing running commentary, makes for one big boffola, from 20th Century Fox Pictures. The film also starred Jeffrey Hunter and Anne Francis.
Hollywood’s surprise box-office bonanza of this past summer was “King Kong,” that wonderfully preposterous movie that saved RKO from bankruptcy when it was fire released back 19 years ago. Now playing to sold out crowds in the midwest and due for showing all over the United States and Canada by this fall. Kong seems sure to gross another 2.5 million on its latest re-issues. Fay Wray, for ten years, a retired Bel-Air matron, screams and cowers as satisfying as ever in the hairy cluthes of the 50 feet prehistoric ape. And RKO pictures assure fans that the current revival is uncut, complete with the framed scene of Kong tearing off Fay’s clothes.
Now at bookstores – “I Go Pogo” by Walt Kelly. It’s the second “Pogo” book. The first sold over 200,000 copies. Are you a “Pogo” fan?
Hollywood news – Paul Raibourn, v/p of Paramount Pictures, said in spite of the “bludgeoning of economic change” the motion picture industry is “bloody but unbowed.” He said the last several years “what was supposed to be a coup de grace was administered by television.” In spite of this, theatre tickets are off about 20% from 1946 levels (the industry high year). Raibourn said it would be a while before any Hollywood movie came directly to television. “The present Hollywood ‘A’ picture costs from $1 million to $2 million and the most television can at the present time pay for such pictures would appear to be $20 thousand and $30 thousand, while the theatres in this country still appear to be able to contribute anywhere from $1 million to $10 million for its use.”
Marlon Brando returns to shooting “Julius Caesar” at Metro after a 2-day bout with the flu.
Mrs. Lydia Lamas is granted a divorce from Fernando Lamas, the Argentine singing movie star, whose name has been linked romantically with Lana Turner for nearly a year.
Eve Arden, who has completed 30 “Our Miss Brooks” TV shows, says she rather enjoys doing television. Eve’s been around films and radio. Her show is being shot but Desilu. The same production methods are being used, meaning three movie cameras set up the same as TV cameras, each shooting from a different angle. Eve uses a live audience and their reaction is recorded right on the sound track.
“I Love Lucy” returns to its second season this week. Critic Jack Gould of the New York Times says of the show’s success: “What distinguishes ‘I Love Lucy’ from the drab average of most situation comedy on TV is that it scrupulously obeys an elementary law of durable farce: its theme and setting are plausible and the audience easily can identify itself with them. The plot is set within the framework of a warm and recognizable premise, and its climactic absurdity seems all the funnier by contrast.” Mr. Gould continues by saying Desi Arnaz had improved remarkably as a performer since the debut of the program last year. “He’s much more at ease now and an engaging foil. Vivian Vance and Bill Frawley, who play Ethel and Fred Mertz, are fine in rounding out the main quartet of players.”
More “I Love Lucy” – Desi and Lucille plan to film as many episodes as is possible before she has her January baby. Her pregnancy is sure to be written into several episodes.
Tuesday night television –
CBS – Music Hall (hosted by Patti Page), Decoy, Crime Syndicated, Suspense, Danger
NBC – Dinah Shore, News, Texaco Star Theatre, Boss Lady, Circle Theatre, Original Amateur Hour
ABC – A Date with Judy
Texaco Star Theatre – Season premiere – Milton Berle welcomes Martha Raye, Dennis King
Jefferson Standard Broadcasting Company (WBT, WBTV (TV) Charlotte last Friday filed with the FCC for VHF Channel 8 in Florence, SC., Listing a proposed investment of $500,000. In announcing that the application has been filed with the FCC, Joseph M. Bryan Jefferson, president, said that Melvin H. Purvis had been retrained as managing director of the operation. Mr. Purvis is president and general manager of WOLS Radio in Florence, SC and a prominent attorney in that state. He is the former FBI agent who helped capture the notorious John Dillinger as well as chief counsel of the United States subcommittee on federal manpower policies. The Florence TV outlet would serve over 780,000 in North and South Carolina who now are receiving only fringe reception from distant stations, according to Mr. Bryan. He said he expects favorable action from the FCC within the next few months. Present plans outlined by Charles H. Crutchfield, executive vice president and general manager of Jefferson Standard (WBT) calls for basic network affiliation with CBS, although no coaxial cable TV facilities are now connected to Florence. NBC, ABC and DuMont programs also may be available. Mr. Crutchfield said network shows will be fed to the station via two separate microwave relay transmitters to be installed between WBTW’s main transmitter on Spencer Mt. and Florence. Other programming will comprise WBTW originated features as well as agricultural, religious, educational and entertainment programs “to further serve the best interests of the vast agriculture section within the station’s coverage area.” Overall Jefferson Standard hopes to serve 2,625,000 Carolinas through a combination of WBTV in Charlotte and the Florence outlet – an audience comparable to that of the Pittsburgh market area – Mr. Crutchfield said. Jefferson proposes to operate on VHF Channel 8 with ERP of 316 kw, plans call for a 750 feet tower to transmit a grade A signal for a radius of 58 miles from Florence. Envisioned is television service for Lumberton, NC and the South Carolina cities of Florence, Darlington, Hartsville, Marion, Camden, Dillon, Bennettsville, and Sumter.
Television, radio, and motion pictures rights to “Blonde” comic strip and movie series have been acquired for Slesinger Productions out of New York. The Company has already completed a pilot film for the new series, which will be presented by the Williams Morris Agency. Contract arrangements for packages will allow either East or West coast production, live or film. Series will star Hollywood Starlet Jeff Donnell in title role with John Harvey as “Dagwood,” and will be produced by Stephen Slesinger with Mare Daniels, former director of CBS-TV’s “I Love Lucy,” as director.
Second annual volume of “The Best Television Plays,” edited by William T. Kaufman of NBC-TV’s program department, will be published September 26 by Merlin Press. The book will also contain introductory remarks by well-known producers and directors as well as articles on behind-the-scenes activities by art directors, costume designers, and other specialists.
Dougfair Corporation, Culver City goes into production of 25 half-hours of TV films in “Terry and the Pirates” series, September 22 at RKO Pathe Studios. To be sponsored by Canada Dry Ginger Ale, Inc. The programs are being aired in 60 individual markets.
Kelvinator Dealers Association, Chicago, starts “Invitation Playhouse” on WGN-TV for 26 weeks from September 17. The quarter-hour films, produced by Rene Williams, Hollywood, and owned by Teevee Co., of that city and are distributed by Guild Films.
NBC-TV will present eight operas this coming season, broadcast monthly on Sunday from 3-4pm, starting October 19 with Benjamin Britten’s “Billy Budd,” which will be given its American premiere on the telecast. Samuel Chotzinoff, NBC general music director, will produce the opera series, which will be given in English.
Radio news – KPOL (1540) signs-on and is Los Angeles’ 25 th AM radio station. KPOL operates at 5,000 watts.
Playing at your local theatres
The Quiet Man
John Wayne, Maureen O’Hara, Barry Fitzgerald, and Ward Bond and directed by John Ford
Sudden Fear!
Gregory Peck, Susan Hayward, and Ava Gardner
Ivanhoe
Robert Taylor, Elizabeth Taylor, Joan Fontaine, and George Sanders
Monkey Business
Cary Grant, Ginger Rogers, Charles Coburn, and Marilyn Monroe
Don’t Bother To Knock
Marilyn Monroe and Richard Widmark
California Conquest
Cornel Wilde and Teresa Wright
High Noon
Gary Cooper and Grace Kelly
The Story of Will Rogers
Jane Wyman, Will Rogers Jr. and Eddie Cantor
Big Jim McLain
John Wayne, Nancy Olson, and James Arness
Fifty five years ago – Adenauer’s pro western Democrats roll up an impressive victory over the neutralist Socialists in West Germany’s parliamentary elections.
Telephone wake-up calls – Western Union says it wakes up nearly 160,000 people each morning – almost half are in New York!
President Eisenhower and Arkansas Gov. Orval Faubus agree that school integration, being the law of the land, must be carried out.
Secretary of State Dulles accuses the Soviet Union of risking war by threatening Turkey and building up Communist arms in Syria.
Defies rain – President Eisenhower manages a round of golf in Rhode Island at the Newport Country Club.
The newspaper Soviet Russia reports terrified residents of the Black Sea city of Tuapee fled the countryside in hysteria over a science fiction thriller about the end of the earth run serially in a newspaper.
Arkansas Gov. Faubus orders the National guard troops away from Central High School (Little Rock) a few hours after a Federal court ordered him to stop interfering with the school’s integration plan.
The Baltimore Sun reports that the first vaccine against a major common cold virus is successful. The vaccine, developed by Dr. Winston Price of Johns Hopkins University was successful in 400 persons inoculated.
Advertising – Slenderella – the weight reducing salon chain is sponsoring NBC- TV’s “Queen for A Day.” The company says it wants to advertise more on television.
Entertainment news – The London Evening Standard reports that frank Sinatra plans to marry Lauren Bacall, widow of Humphrey Bogart, “within six months.” (This would never happen).
Television news – The Albany New York area will become a VHF market as the FCC finalizes channel allotments. The area already has channel 6 and adds channel 13, and keeps channels 35 and 41UHF. The much disputed Vail Mills drop-in, Channel 10 is re-assigned and will go to the Hudson Valley Broadcasting Company, partly owned by Lowell Thomas. (This would later be re-named Capitol Cities).
WIIC (channel 11) Pittsburgh debuts! Finally, Pittsburgh gets a second VHF station.
Network TV has an all-time audience high according to Nielsen. The average evening network show is reaching 1.3 million more homes than last year.
Sunday night television –
CBS – Face the Nation, The Last Word, You Are There, Lassie, Bachelor Father, Ed Sullivan, GE Theater, Alfred Hitchcock Presents, $64,000 Challenge, What’s My Line?
NBC – Meet the Press, Sally, Steve Allen Show, Goodyear Theater, The Web
ABC – You Asked For It, Dangerous Assignment, Mike Wallace
Debut – Bachelor Father
Debut – Sally – About a department store salesgirl who becomes the traveling companion of a wealthy scatter-brained matron.
Ed Sullivan – The Andrews Sisters, Jill Corey, Joe E. Lewis, June Taylor Dancers
Steve Allen – Frankie Laine, Dorothy Collins, Audrey Meadows, Don Adams, Sugar Ray Robinson, Carmen Basillio
20th Century Fox is trying hard to excuse Tommy Sands from “The Singing Idol” filming long enough for him to appear on the first “Shower of Stars” on CBS-TV on October 31st. Fred Astaire makes his film bow on a “G.E. Theatre” episode titled “Imp On a Cobweb Leash.” New Guinea is the subject of a Lowell Thomas’s “High Adventure Program” on November 10.
Star Pat Conway of ABC’s “Tombstone Territory,” which starts October 16, is Francis X. Bushman’s grandson.
Ernie Kovacs will star as a school teacher who get involved in politics in “Topaze” on “Playhouse 90” on September 26.
Maureen O’Hara may emcee “The Weaker Sex,” a series on famous women which begins filming in Hollywood this week. Seventeen year old Nancy Sinatra will make her TV debut on her father’s ABC show on November 15. With her, will appear the other two members of her high-school trio.
Loretta Young will offer viewers a sequel to “The Pearl,” a story of which she played an oriental last year. Eva Wolas has resigned as producer of
“Jane Wyman Show,” film series after only six week on the job. She is the second producer to quit the show.
Tyrone Power finally has signed as host of the Standard Oil 75th Anniversary show. He’ll also participate in the entertainment, along with June Allyson, Jimmy Durante, Bert Lahr, Marge and Gower Champion, and many others.
“Club Oasis,” billed as a showcase for top-name night-club acts, goes Saturday’s on NBC-TV.
Classic Sci-Fi Films Now Coming To TV!
Music news – Recently, Alan Freed held a big industry bash at his home, Greycliffe at Stamford, CT. All kinds of record execs were there including Bob Thiele of Coral Records, Sam Clark of ABC-Paramount Records, Morris Levy and Joe Kolsky of Roulette Records, and Jerry Wexler, Herb Abramson and Ahmet Ertegun of Atlantic.
Labor Day concerts – Elvis Presley smashes all records in the Pacific Northwest, grossing a total of $147,000 for five performances in the area.
Alan Freed is taking his rock n’ roll show to England from October 14 to November 20. Besides WINS New York, Freed is also heard on Radio Luxembourg. With him on this tour (confirmed) – Little Richard, Teddy Randazzo, the Moonglows and Jo-Ann Campbell. Alan Freed’s “Mr. Rock and Roll” movie is previewed by the press. The show features Freed behind his WINS New York microphone from which point most of the action stems. Singer Teddy Randazzo is also seen acting in the movie, which features performances by a number of r&b acts including LaVerne Baker, Clyde McPhatter, Brook Benton, Little Richard, and Chuck Berry.
Radio news – Doug “Jocko” Henderson gets his own TV show. He’ll be seen over WATV (channel 13) beginning this week. The program will spotlight rock n’ roll records and guest stars. Jocko is heard locally over WOV radio (1280) as well as in Philadelphia at WDAS (1480).
Tom Edwards of WERE Cleveland (1300 on your dial) says the influence of Dick Clark’s new “American Bandstand” show is reflected at his record hops. The kids learned new steps only seen on that show!
Playing at your local theatres –
The Joker is Wild
Frank Sinatra, Kim Novak and Rita Hayworth
The Miller’s Beautiful Wife
Sophia Loren
Fred Astaire, Cyd Charisse, filmed in Color and CinemaScope and released by M-G-M
Beau James
Bob Hope and Vera Miles
Here is what one theatre owner has to say about a movie he recently played at his theatre, “That Certain Feeling” (Paramount) starring Bob Hope, Eva Marie Saint, and George Sanders. Another Hope job that failed here. Picture was good enough, but no draw of customers… Played Saturday, weather was okay, D. W. Trisko, Runge Theatre, Runge, Texas, Population 1,055.
Fifty Years ago – Congress gives President Kennedy a “blank check” to deal with the Soviet/Communist military build-up in Cuba – even the use of U.S. troops if necessary. Secretary of State Rusk said that the U.S would intercept any shipment of arms or troops from Cuba to any other Latin American country. Speaking as a “leader” in the Republican Party, Richard Nixon calls for President Kennedy to quarantine Castro’s Cuba and halt the flow of Soviet troops and arms to the island nation. Nixon conceded that there was a risk of war but that “the risks of inaction are far greater – we can’t wait for the dust to settle in Cuba.” At the United Nations – the U.S and Russia exchange bitter words over the Cuba issue – with the threat of war being brought up by Russia. President Kennedy says that the tide of Communism has been reversed in the 20 months he’s been in office. “Khrushchev was on the move in Berlin, Gizenga was on the move in the Caribbean and Communists were on the move in Laos and South Vietnam.” But, said the President – “this remains a dangerous world” and said the United States stands ready to meet aggression “in the Caribbean, in Berlin or anywhere else…”
Nine astronauts are chosen to join the nation’s space program for a shot at a moon landing in this decade. They are: civilian test pilot Neil Armstrong (32); Air Force Major Frank Borman (34); Navy Lt. Charles Conrad Jr. (32); Air Force Captain Thomas P. Stafford (32); Air Force Captain James A McDivitt (33); Civilian test pilot Elliot M. See Jr. (35); Navy Lt. Comdr. John W. Young (32); Air Force Captain Edward H. White (32); and Navy Lt. Comdr. James A. Lovell Jr. (34). NASA says all nine will be trained (only) for the moon shot – including Project Gemini and Project Apollo.
Mississippi State College agrees to enroll a Negro: James Meredith. He’ll be the first Negro student admitted in the college’s 114-year history.
Commander Jacques-Yves Cousteau of France says the experiment of two men living in an underwater house for a week has been successful. Cousteau, who organized the experiment, says that the two men who were living in the house are OK. The house was anchored in 35 feet of water off the Frioul Islands near Marseilles.
Leaders of the steelworkers’ union chided President Kelly for not acting forcefully enough to reduce unemployment and promote economic growth. President Kennedy accepted the resignation of William P. Daniel, the governor of Guam. Daniel had resigned in a move to spur legislation that would give the people of Guam the right to elect their own governor.
Edward M. Kennedy, brother of President John F. Kennedy, wins the Democratic nomination for the Senate seat in Massachusetts vacated by the President. He’ll be running against Republican candidate Henry Cabot Lodge.
Liza Mae Minnelli – daughter of Judy Garland – is stricken with gastroenteritis (her second time). She’ll be in the hospital for a day.
Elvis Presley appears at the Seattle Fair and this week he also signs a new deal with RCA records that will keep him on the label until 1970 at a cost to RCA of $3 million.
First Lady Jackie attends the opening of the New York Philharmonic Hall at Lincoln Center. It’s the first completed structure at the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts.
In sports – Charles (Sonny) Liston knocks out Floyd Patterson in the first round at Comiskey Park in Chicago. It took only 2 minutes and six seconds – one of the shortest heavyweight title fights in history.
Louis (Satchmo) Armstrong ends the Monterey Jazz festival with a religious sermon as part of Dave Brubeck’s “The Real Ambassadors.” The musical sermon dealt with jazz musicians as ambassadors of good will.
Harvard Professor Timothy Leary founds (IFIF) International Foundation for Internal Freedom to promote LSD research. He’ll also publish the Psychedelic Review: insights into his LSD experiments.
At the mart
Miss Clairol Hair Color Bath – “Does She … or Doesn’t She?”
Hey kids – get a giant size “Deputy Dawg” for just $3.00 and 3 Calo dog food labels. “Knock him over and he bounces back! No matter what you do with him, Deputy Dawg always bounces back! Durable, inflatable vinyl – stands 4 1/2 feet tall.”
Television news – Educational television finally comes to the #1 television market as non- commercial WNDT-TV (Channel 13) premieres in New York City. The inaugural broadcast featured Edward R. Murrow – Chief of the U.S Information Agency and Newton N. Minow – FCC chairman. A group representing educational television for the metropolitan area had been trying to buy a television station for several years in New York and finally began pursuing commercial station WNTA-TV in 1960. The sale was approved by the FCC last October and finalized on December 23. Although not a very successful station, WNTA-TV still fetched $6.25 million because of the scarcity of available TV channels in the New York Metropolitan area. There are no UHF stations operating in New York with the exception of experimental WUHF-TV (channel 31), therefore very few television receivers are equipped to receive UHF signals. Most television stores in the area don’t even sell UHF converters. Starting a non-commercial UHF station from scratch made no sense. It’s not known whether UHF will even work in an urban area like New York City (which is the reason for the WUHF tests by the FCC). Besides, non- commercial educational TV had been tried in Los Angeles in 1954 on UHF Channel 28 (KTHE-TV), but the station was soon off the air. On December 24, commercial WNTA was no more – leaving Channel 13 off the air until this week. The new Channel 13 will feature programs not seen on commercial TV. Unfortunately – WNDT is hit by an AFTRA strike and goes off the air until the strike can be settled. AFTRA says it supports educational TV, but that WNDT refuses to enter a contract “which would give protection in categories in our membership which have been traditionally represented by AFTRA.” The union says all Channel 13 performers – including its new line-up of teachers/professors/scholars etc. – as well as announcers, actors etc. – should be represented by the union. WNDT says it recognizes AFTRA’s jurisdiction, but it doesn’t want to include non-performers in negotiations. AFTRA says that professionals in the non-performing group (teachers, professors, etc.) are covered by collective-bargaining agreements with AFTRA when they appear on other stations. The union says it will negotiate a rate that is fair to the station and the performers.
Television news – ABC will debut its first color program when “The Jetsons” premieres this Sunday night at 7:30. Immediately following, “The Sunday Night Movie” will also be in color. ABC also includes three cartoon programs in its lineup in prime time beginning this week: “Bugs Bunny” on Tuesday nights; “The Flintstones” on Friday nights, and “Beany and Cecil” on Saturday nights.
Dodge Division of Chrysler Corporation is using a heavy eight week TV spot and participation campaign beginning September 17 to precede and follow up new-car introductions for Dart and Dodge lines. The campaign ties-in with other media. TV spot will run in 250 stations in 100 markets, plus participation on nine ABC-TV shows and exposure on Chrysler Network shows, “Empire” and “World Series.”
A full discussion of community antenna operations and their relationships to broadcasting will be the featured topic at the second annual Southeast Radio and TV Seminar, October 16. Panel members will be Kenneth A. Cox, FCC; Hollis Seavey, NAB; R. Russell Egan, Washington Attorney; Charles Batson, WIS-TV Columbia, South Carolina; Ben Williams, WTOC-TV, Savannaha Georgia; and Fred Weber, Friendly Group. Also invited to participate on the panel and not yet confirmed are Rep. Kenneth A. Roberts (D-Ala.), George C. Hatch, KUTV, Salt Lake City, Utah; Bill Groove, KFBC-TV, Cheyenne, Wyoming; Raymond E. Carow, WALB-TV, Albany, Georgia and vice President, television of Georgia Association of broadcasters will act as moderator.
From the FCC – granted renewal of licenses of stations KDIX-TV, Dickinson, North Dakota and KXGN-TV, Glendive, Montana. Each grant conditioned that transmitter type – acceptance does not extend to include transmission of color TV and color operation with this equipment would be in violation of FCC Rules. KXGN-TV had at that time a DuMont Transmitter.
CBS issues advertisers its first rate card (cost of advertising) for its color programs. The network says color programs will be more expensive than black & white programs.
Jack Paar returns to television. It has been six months since he quit “The Tonight Show.” Paar’s program on NBC is seen at 10pm on Friday.
September 1963 has been announced as the starting time for the international filming of “The Great Race,” which Blake Edwards will direct and Martin Jurow produce with the Mirisch Corporation around the world, utilizing the action talents of stars of many counties. The first top star to be signed for the multi-million “open” budget film are Jack Lemmon and Paul Newman. United Artists will release the feature in 1964 as a road show presentation.
Here is what one theatre owner has to say about a movie he recently played at his theatre, “Francis of Assisi” (20th Century Fox), starring Bradford Dillman, Stuart Whitman, and Delores Hart. A beautiful picture with color and scope. But where were the patrons? This one is especially suited for Catholic patrons, but not too many showed up. We enjoyed it and was proud to play it. Played Saturday and Sunday. Weather was cool – Harry Hawkinson, Orpheum Theatre, Marietta, Minnesota, Population 380.
“The Kingston Trio” breaks ground with a 90-minute pay-TV special. The videotaped program will be seen on WHCT, a TV outlet currently conducting a pay-TV test in 700 homes in Hartford. Air dates are September 11-13-15. Charge to viewers will be $1.50. The Trio’s personal manager, Frank Werber, frankly admits the pay-TV venture is “purely an experiment, though one with a great deal of potential. Pay-TV is an ideal medium in which to offer concert-type performances in a manner not likely to be seen in regular TV.” The tape, shot on location, was made during a recent Kingston Trio performance at the Painter’s Mill Music Fair in Owings Mills, Md. Werber says the sound on the tape is excellent, but it’s in mono, not stereo.
Art Linkletter hosts “The Tonight Show” this week.
Tuesday Night Television –
CBS – CBS Evening News With Walter Cronkite, Marshal Dillon, Lloyd Bridges Show (Adam Shephard imagines himself in the role of captured Mercenary revolutionist in Latin America. Guest cast – John Cassavetes, Mario Alcalde, Gary Walberg), Dobie Gillis, The Comedy Spot (An irresponsible, but lovable teenage girl has a penchant for trying to solve everyone’s problems. With Candy Moore, and Roberta Shore), Ichabod and Me (Bob becomes indignant when his son is cast in the role of Benedict Arnold in a school play. Stars Robert Sterling, George Chandler, Christine White), Variety Gardens
NBC – Huntley-Brinkley Report, Laramie, Alfred Hitchcock, Dick Powell Show, Hollywood: The Golden Years
ABC – Ron Cochran with the News, Bugs Bunny, Bachelor Father, The New Breed (Lt. Adams’ 12-year-old daughter is accused of possessing an objectionable book), Yours for a Song, Alcoa Premiere
Sunday Night Television –
CBS – Ted Mack, The 20 th Century, Password, Lassie, Dennis the Menace, Ed Sullivan (Rudy Vallee, Chita Rivera, Bill Dana, Peter Nero and Paul Anka), G.E. Theater (A father objects to his daughter’s getting married, because he feels she’s not up to it. Stars Groucho Marx, Brooky Hayward, Dennis Hopper. Ronald Reagan hosts), Who in the World (Behind-the-scenes stories of people who were front-page news a few days ago), Candid Camera (A knight in shining armor is completely ignored on a busy New York street) , What’s My Line?
NBC – Meet the Press, Anatomy of the House, Bullwinkle, Disney’s Wonderful World of Color(Disney shows how music has been composed for and incorporated into his motion pictures), Car 54, Where Are You, Bonanza, Dupont Show of the Week
ABC – Hong Kong, Movie, The Lawman (A man vows a 10-year vengeance against his brother. Stars John Russell, Peter Brown, and Peggy Castle. Guest cast – Kevin Hagen, Harry Carey Jr., and Ralph Moody)
Pop music this week in 1962 – “Green Onions” – Booker T & The MG’s, “Sherry” – The Four Seasons, “Lets Dance” – Chris Montez, “Monster Mash” – Bobby “Boris” Pickett & The Crypt– Kickers, “Ramblin’ Rose” – Nat King Cole, “A Wonderful Dream” – The Majors, “Surfin’ Safari” – The Beach Boys, “The Loco-Motion” – Little Eva, “You Beat Me To The Punch” – Mary Wells, “Beechwood 4-5789” – The Marvelettes, “Do You Love Me” – The Contours, “Twist And Shout” – The Isley Brothers, “Venus In Blue Jeans” – Jimmy Clanton, “Patches” – Dickey Lee, “Teen Age Idol” – Rick Nelson, “Devil Woman” – Marty Robbins, “Alley Cat” – Bent Fabric
Playing at the local movie theatres in your hometown –
The Interns
Michael Callan, Cliff Robertson, and James MacArthur.
Kid Galahad
Sidney Poitier, Bobby Darin, and Peter Falk
Two Weeks in Another Town
Kirk Douglas, Edward G. Robinson, and Cyd Charisse
Birdman of Alcatraz
Burt Lancaster and Karl Malden
Sayonara
Marlon Brando and Red Buttons
Hatari!
John Wayne and Red Buttons
The soundtrack album cover of Judy Garland’s “Gay Purr-ee” will be reproduced on 15 million Frisky Cat Food packages. Look for it soon.
Music – The Contours – Billy Gordon, Billy Hoggs, Joe Billingsea, Sylvester Potts, Hubert Johnson, and Huey Davis. The group auditioned for Berry Gordy Jr., but it didn’t look promising. A distant cousin of Hubert Johnson – Jackie Wilson – persuaded Berry Gordy Jr. to work with them. He did, and their second release – “Do You Love Me” – is moving up the charts.
Music – Dickey Lee (22) – From Memphis, Dickey Lee began playing guitar in high school. At 16, he formed a country trio that performed for high school and college dances. His quick rise to fame was almost a fluke. A college buddy hit upon the idea of arranging an audition with a songwriter friend, Jack Clement – as a gag. The song that Lee sung for Clement resulted in a long-distance phone call to Clement’s associate and well- known artist manager Bill Hall, who made a quick trip to Memphis to hear Lee. Hall liked what he heard and signed him to a management contract. “Patches” is moving up the charts.
Music – Carol King – Now 20, Carol has written over a dozen hit tunes including “Will You Still Love Me Tomorrow?,” “Take Good Care of My Baby,” and “The Loco-Motion.” She has been a musician and singer since she was 4 and, at 14, she formed her first vocal group called the Cosines. Her professional career started at 17 when she met Don Kirshner and Al Nevins, who, impressed with her songs, signed her to a personal writer contract. The same year, she married Gerry Goffin, who has been her collaborator on her biggest hits. They have two daughters – Louise, two and Sherry, five months.
Music – Booker T ( Booker T. Jones ) – He’s 17 years old. Booker began playing professionally at the age of 14. In high school, he concentrated on the study of music theory and harmony and was the director of the school band for four years. He organized a high school orchestra which played promo dates throughout the mid-South for three years. In 1962, he was named to the “Who’s-Who” list in high schools of America. He began his recording career in 1959 as a staff musician for the Stax label and recorded with such groups as the Mar-keys and the Triumphs. “Green Onions” is his first solo hit.
Radio news – Alan Freed, longtime New York personality jock on WINS, WABC, and recently with KDAY, joins WQAM (560) in Miami. He’ll be on the air six nights a week from 7 to 10pm, Saturday morning from 9 to noon and Sundays from 7pm to midnight… Wink Martindale, Dot Records recording artist, takes over the 6-9am spot on KFWB, Los Angeles. Martindale will remain with the label as an artist… .KWK in St. Louis drops rock music and goes easy listening. That leaves WIL and KXOK the top-40 holdouts… WCAU in Philadelphia is dropping music completely Oct 1 and will go news, information and features… In New York, Big Wilson jumps from WNEW to WNBC, where he’ll do mornings. In Los Angeles, listeners are treated to a radio spectacular – “The Magical World of Walt Disney” – on station KHJ. Written by staff DJ Perry Allen, the 3-hour special saluted Disney and his Hollywood studio and contained a cross-section of music taken from Disney albums and singles and covered Disney’s progress from vintage Mickey Mouse to the current Disney movie – “Summer Magic.” Voice man Paul Frees introduced some of the Disney characters and live guests, which included Walt Disney himself, Hayley Mills, Fred Mac Murray, and Burl Ives. TV Bandstand host Larry Kane, KTRK-TV Houston, Texas says he would like to set up a system whereby he and other TV jocks around the country can keep their audiences up on regional dance fads in other parts of the country. He says it would be easy, just run video tapes of kids in other cities performing their current dance crazes. Interested deejays should write him at KTRK-TV, Box 12, Houston Texas.
Forty Five Years ago – China seizes the 116-year-old British consulate in Shanghai and Britain plans a formal protest. It has been unmanned since Britain’s consul general, Peter Hewitt, was force to quit his post with his family in May after being mauled by Red guards and pasted with Glue. The Red Guards stormed and ransacked the consulate.
Auto news – Chevrolet shows its 1968 car line and discloses that it has eliminated most of its lower-priced compact models. In general, the Chevy models are longer, lower, and more powerful than the 1967’s. For example – the Corvair line is down to two models, from four.
Auto racing – Firestone says it has had it – and will no longer engage in bidding for top drivers and cars, in order to sport its name on racecars. The company was financially interested in 28 cars last year at the Indy 500 – 17 of which made the race. But the company says racing costs had increased 1,000% since 1958. Future investments will go into the designing, developing, manufacturing, and testing of racing tires which, the company says – “suddenly became secondary to the question of ‘How much will you pay to have your tires on my car. ” Firestone says it will honor its remaining contracts.
Hollywood news – Comedian Bill Cosby writes a terrific article this week about the image/lack of black actors/actresses in Hollywood. “It is the responsibility of TV and films to build a better image for the Negro. I see no reason why there can’t be Negro cowboys …” He announces that he is producing a film – his first, called Busman’s Holiday “in which I play the main character. The character happens to be black because I happen to be black, but that is as far as it goes. There will be no KKK, no bigots, no name-calling, no riots. The character will have black girlfriends as black men usually do. Tthe story will have a conflict because that is necessary to a good story, but the conflict will not pertain to the character’s color. His conflict will be with himself and with society, not as a Negro, but as a human being. I hope it will be the beginning of a new identity for the black people in this country.”
Television news – Recent street rioting between Hindus and Moslems in Srinagar, Kashmir, held up location shooting of MGM’s new series for NBC – Maya. Series star Jay North and other members of the cast and crew were confined to quarters until they could be moved safely to Bombay.
Record distributor sales for color TV set was reached the week of August 26 – September 1, when 157,737 units were sold, according to Electronics Industries Association. Previous high had been September 22-29, 1966 when 144,000 sets were sold. Sales have been on the upswing since year’s low of 39,000 set was hit on the week ended June 2.
One of the subjects to be examined next season on CBS-TV’s “The 21st Century” series is the prospect and consequence of a longer human life span. Another edition of the show will study the new science known as bionics – the study of living organism as models for man-made devices. ABC News plans a special for next season called “A Sense of Wonder” based on the book by Rachel Carson.
“The Days of Wine and Roses,” starring Jack Lemon and Lee Remick is one of the movies to be shown on CBS next season. Bill Cosby (“I Spy”) will sing on TV for the first time in his NBC special next sason. Brad Dillman, Beverly Garland, Walter Burke, and Jackie Googan will show up in an episode of “Wild Wild West” next season.
ABC Newsman Frank Reynolds will do a month-long stint of “Peter Jennings with the News,” while Jennings if off on a European vacation.
Sunday Night Television –
CBS – Lassie (Ranger Stuart assists fire experts in trying to recap a burning oil well when a charge of nitroglycerin explodes prematurely), Gentle Ben (Our bear star becomes jealous when the family he considers his own adopts a cub rescued from a poacher. Ronny Howard guest stars), Ed Sullivan, Smothers Brothers (George Burns and pop group Herman’s Hermits join Tom and Dick.) Mission: Impossible
NBC – Wild Kingdom, Walt Disney’s Wonderful World of Color (Lighthouse Keeper.” An old lighthouse keeper makes friends with the sea life surrounding his lonely island. Stars Clarence Hastings and Ingrid Niemela) , Bonanza, High Chaparral (Victoria tries to overcome John Cannon’s memories of his first wife and is offered two chances to leave the deteriorating marriage while Apaches lay siege to the ranch. Stars Leif Erickson, Cameron Mitchell, Linda Cristal, Mark Slade, and Henry Darrow)
ABC – Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea (The crew of the Seaview races to prevent the destruction of half of the Southern Hemisphere. Stars Richard Basehart, David Hedison, Bob Dowdell, Del Monroe, and Terry Becker. Guest star – Victor Jory) , The FBI, ABC Sunday Night Movie.
At the movies –
Simone Signoret, James Caan, Katharine Ross, and Don Stroud
The Tiger Makes Out
Eli Wallach and Anne Jackson
Point Blank
Lee Marvin, Angie Dickinson, Keenan Wynn, Carroll, O’Connor, Lloyd Bochner, and Michael Strong
The Bobo Peter Sellers, Britt Ekland and Rossano Brazzi
Rage
Glenn Ford, Stella Stevens, and David Reynoso
In The Heat of the Night
Sidney Poitier and Rod Steiger
Luv
Jack Lemmon, Peter Falk, and Elaine May
You Only Live Twice
Sean Connery as James Bond
Woman Times Seven
Shirley MacLaine, Alan Arkin, Rossano Brazzi, Michael Caine, Vittorio Gasman, Peter Sellers, Anita Ekberg, Elsa Martinelli, Robert Morley, Lex Barker, and Patrick Wymark
Tarzan and the Great River
Mike Henry and Jan Murray
Born Losers
Tom Laughlin, Elizabeth James, Jeremy Slate, Willliam Wellman Jr., and Jane Russell
The Love-Ins
Richard Todd, James MacArthur, Susan Oliver, and Joe Pyne
Eye of the Devil
Sharon Tate and David Hemmings
Elvis Presley tells Memphis police that Troy Ivy (38), a former yardman at Presley’s mansion, showed up at Graceland “drunk, belligerent, arrogant, cursing loudly and took a swing at me.” Presley said he flattened Ivy with one blow.
The Rolling Stones severe their connection with Andrew Oldham, the man who discovered them four years ago. The Stones say they will produce their own records. It is said that Oldham’s that due to his increasing involvement with the affair of his own flourishing company, Immediate Records, he was unable to devote as much time to studio sessions with the Stones. Perhaps though, there’s a reason for that – the Stones and Oldham were having spats about the musical direction of the group.
Atco releases the first single by The Cream, something called “Spoonful” – Part I and Part II.
Beatles update – The Beatles are embarking on another offbeat venture – an hour-long color television program intended for world-wide broadcast during the Christmas season. Titled “Magical Mystery Tour” – it’s the first all-Beatle television production and promises to be unconventional.
The Beatles have hired a bus and old-fashioned coach-and-four and will ramble through Southwest England, improvising as they go. This comes in the middle of a rise in teenage curiosity about an obscure Indian mystic named Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, who recently converted the Beatles to his semi-religious cult of “transcendental meditation.” The boys will be flying to India in October, to spend two months with the Maharishi at his Academy of Meditation in Shankaracharya, Kashmir. The Beatles will have completed the TV special – the first they have written, directed and produced themselves. The show will feature five new compositions, including the title song. Maharishi Mahesh Yogi is interviewed in Los Angeles and was asked how he got together with the Beatles: “The Beatles came backstage after one of my lectures and they said to me, ‘Even from an early age, we have been seeking a highly spiritual experience.
We tried drugs but that didn’t work. You have come to the right place’ I said.” The Maharish says he told the Beatles he had to leave by train for Wales so they decided to join him. “The word went around and on the train platform the whole press of the world was gathered. I hear from our London center that the phone never ceases to ring. They are such practical and intelligent young boys. It did not take more than two days for them to discover that transcendental meditation is the answer.” “’We’ll do anything you say,” they told me.”
Being seen in larger cities – “Don’t Look Back.” The film is comprised of Bob Dylan’s 1965 Britain tour taking in interviews, parties and backstage shots. Columbia records, which Dylan records for, is providing theaters with the artist’s albums for play in the lobby and outside.
More music news – The Mamas and Papas announce their retirement on the Ed Sullivan Show, but their records will keep coming.
Phil Ochs, A & M Recording artist, will be featured at Carnegie Hall on October 1.
Tickets are $2.50 to $4.50.
Passing – Martin Block (64), one of radio’s most famous DJ’s of the 30’s, 40’s and early 50’s. His fame came during more than two decades of his “Make Believe Ballroom” over WNEW in New York. He recently did air work for WOR radio on weekends.
Here is another comment from a theatre owner on a movie he recently played at this theatre, “Kaleidoscope” from Warner Bros. and starring Warren Beatty and Susannah York. Good show. Should be played a lot. Did not do much business here. Played Friday, Saturday and Sunday. Weather was fair and mild. Paul Thewlis, Tezewell Theatre, Washington, Illinois. Population 5,900.
Yet another possible consequence of the move of Jimmy Kimmel to 11:35PM–ABC News insiders are saying that the move spells the end of Nightline……Viewers have chosen the 13th contestant on Dancing with the Stars: All-Stars and it is Sabrina Bryan. The show premieres on September 24……..Eva Longoria and George Lopez have agreed to return as hosts of the NCLR Alma Awards, airing Friday, September 21, 8-9PM on NBC. Christina Aguilera will be receiving a special achievement award at the ceremony……Robin Roberts’ last day on Good Morning America before she begins her extended medical leave is this Friday……Actor/comedian Rob Riggle, who once was a correspondent on The Daily Show with Jon Stewart, is replacing Frank Caliendo on Fox NFL Sunday as the show’s “comedic prognosticator.”…..The CBS Fall Preview, a special introducing viewers to the new lineup, will air on Monday, September 10, 8:30-9PM. A “second-screen” experience for the new shows, Fall Preview Plus, featuring behind-the-scenes interviews, interactive polls and more will be available online and on mobile devices…..Bounce TV, the network devoted to African-Americans, has gotten three new affiliates–the sub channels on three Fox O&O MyNetworkTV stations in Phoenix, Minneapolis and Orlando. The addition of those markets puts the channel in 17 of the top 20 African-American markets, reaching 80% of Black households.
Actress/singer Kristin Chenoweth will be the first guest host on Anderson Live when it premieres on September 10. Goldie Hawn, Kelly Osbourne, Cyndi Lauper, Howie Mandel, Erin Andrews, D.L. Hughley and Kellie Pickler are also set to co-host during the first few weeks of the season….Right This Minute, the syndicated show produced by Cox, Raycom and Scripps, is expanding to seven new markets when it premieres its second season on September 10. Stations in Detroit, Denver, Indianapolis, San Diego, Tulsa, Bakersfield and Jackson, MS. have all come onboard for the new TV year.
Multi-platinum recording artist Trace Adkins and Emmy and Tony Award winner Kristin Chenoweth return as hosts of the third annual AMERICAN COUNTRY AWARDS, airing from Las Vegas this December on FOX. The awards show will take place at Mandalay Bay. Nominations to be announced soon.
“The ACAs honor the best and brightest of country music, from the hotshot breakthrough artists to the icons,” said Adkins. “I’m looking forward to cutting loose again with Kristin, who’s quite the firecracker comedienne, while we also take viewers through an evening of great music and awards.”
“I’m excited to return to the ACA stage with Trace and his big personality and even bigger boots,” said Chenoweth. “We had a blast last year and I plan to pull out all the stops to make sure everyone has a good time!”
The AMERICAN COUNTRY AWARDS is the only country music awards show that gives fans the opportunity to vote for their favorite artists not only in traditional categories but also in previously unrecognized areas of the business such as touring, encompassing the entire spectrum of country music and bestowing honors that no other awards show has.
The second annual AMERICAN COUNTRY AWARDS featured performances by Alabama, Eli Young Band, Toby Keith, Pistol Annies, Blake Shelton, The Band Perry, Thompson Square and Chris Young, as well as by co-hosts Adkins and Chenoweth. The special also featured appearances by Lauren Alaina, Kyle Busch, Rodney Carrington, Bill Engvall, Hunter Hayes, Miranda Lambert, Jamie Little, Love & Theft, Larry Mahan, Scotty McCreery, Brad Paisley, Jordin Sparks, The Big Show, Josh Turner, Storme Warren and the men of “Pawn Stars” (Corey Harrison, Richard Harrison, Rick Harrison and Austin Russell).
With his trademark baritone and wry sense of humor, Trace Adkins is one of country music’s most accomplished entertainers. With total sales surpassing 10 million albums, a long list of hit singles and platinum albums, he is also a television personality, actor and author. His hits include “Just Fishin’” “Every Light in the House,” “(This Ain’t) No Thinkin’ Thing,” “You’re Gonna Miss This,” “Honky Tonk Badonkadonk” and “All I Ask For Anymore.” A Grammy Award nominee and member of the Grand Ole Opry, Adkins is currently on the road with his Songs & Stories Tour in support of his tenth studio album, “Proud To Be Here.” He also is the host of the cable television series, “Great American Heroes.” This will be Adkins’ third time hosting the AMERICAN COUNTRY AWARDS.
Emmy and Tony Award winner Kristin Chenoweth is an accomplished singer and actress of stage, television and film. She recently completed a North American concert tour featuring music from her latest album, “Some Lessons Learned,” as well as an array of her most memorable songs and Broadway show tunes. She is known for her Tony Award-nominated turn as the original “Glinda,” the good witch, in Broadway’s “Wicked” and her show-stealing, Tony Award-winning performance in “You’re a Good Man, Charlie Brown.” She has received two Emmy Award nominations for her role as
“April Rhodes” on the hit series GLEE. She won an Emmy Award for her role as “Olive Snook” on “Pushing Daisies.” She also starred in “GCB” and will next be seen on “The Good Wife.”
AMERICAN COUNTRY AWARDS is executive-produced by Bob Bain (TEEN CHOICE 2012, “Kids’ Choice Awards”). Paul Flattery, Tisha Fein and Fletcher Foster serve as producers; and Greg Sills is supervising producer. Michael Dempsey will direct the special.
It had to happen. Howard Stern is in hot water with NBC execs–not for anything he did on America’s Got Talent, but because of an anti-Jay Leno tirade on his radio show. He called the late night host a “spineless maggot,” and afterward got “a threatening kind of comment from one of the executives.” But a network exec recently said the net “absolutely” wants Stern back for the next season. Another judge on AGT, Sharon Osbourne, is still angry with the network for cutting her son (she says) from Stars Earn Stripes. She recently compared the net to the Titanic……NBC is said to be negotiating with independent station KUCW-TV in Salt Lake City to take new series The New Normal after the NBC affil KSL-TV, decided not to clear the program.
FOX will provide live coverage of the Presidential Debates on Wednesday 10/3, Tuesday 10/16 and Monday 10/22 (if there is no NLCS Game #7 on 10/22). They will also provide live coverage of the Vice Presidential Debate on Thursday 10/11.
Saturday Night Live returns to NBC on September 15 for its 38th season. First up as host, Seth MacFarlane, creator of Family Guy and other animated series. Musical guest is Frank Ocean. Joseph Gordon-Levitt hosts on September 22; Mumford & Sons provides the music. Daniel Craig, the current James Bond, hosts on September 29, with musical guest Muse……ABC’s competition series Wipeout has been renewed for a sixth season. Jill Wagner will return to hosting along with John Henson and John Anderson of ESPN…… The cast of the upcoming cycle of The Amazing Race, revealed this week by CBS, includes a team of Chippendale dancers, a double-amputee snow-boarder, a former member of heavy metal band Megadeth and the Cooking Channel reality stars, The Fabulous Beekman Boys. The series premieres on Sunday, September 30, 8PM…..Deadline.com reports that ABC has picked up rights to Spike Lee’s documentary Bad 25, about Michael Jackson’s ground-breaking album, and has plans to air it during the Thanksgiving holiday.
Here’s another confirmation of the growing synergy between social media and TV. The annual report of the ConsumerLab, presented in the TV & Video Consumer Trend Report 2012, finds that 62% of people surveyed use social media weekly while they watch TV. That’s an increase of 18 percentage points in just one year.Women use social media while viewing TV more than men–66% vs. 58%. Twenty-five percent of those multitasking are using social media to comment on the shows they are watching. The others are “catching up on newsfeeds or engaging in other conversations,” reports MediaLifeMagazine.com.
The report also found that 67% of consumers have used smart phones, tablets or laptops to watch TV or view video.
Robin Roberts left Good Morning America on Thursday, one day earlier than expected, in order to visit her sick mother in flood-plagued Mississippi. The show is taking the opportunity to do some stunt casting while Roberts is away–Katie Couric, Barbara Walters, Kelly Ripa, the Modern Family cast, Chris Rock, Rob Lowe, Oprah Winfrey and “some surprise guests,” are all set to fill in for her while she is away on medical leave. GMA has beaten Today for the last two weeks in total viewers…..For the first two nights of the Republican Convention, Fox News Channel had the largest audience of any network on TV, broadcast or cable….Producer Nigel Lythgoe has agreed to stay at American Idol for at least another year.
This week’s birthdays include: Sophia Loren (September 20, age 78), Henry Gibson (September 21, would have been age 77), Erich Von Stroheim (September 23, would have been 137), John Ericson (September 23, age 86), Mickey Rooney (also September 23, age 92), Aldo Ray (September 26, would have been age 86) and Edmund Gwenn (September 26, would have been 137),
If you have any questions or comments regarding “TV Talk,” you can reach Pete Sieler at [email protected] .
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TV Radio and Movies, then and now…
Sixty years ago – Republicans claim that Sen. McCarthy’s thumping victory in the Wisconsin primary pulls the rug from under the Democrats on the issue of “McCarthyism.”
The controversial author of Communist-in-government charges was one of a group of Truman administration foes to rack up wins in eight State primaries.
In St. Paul, Gen Eisenhower winds-up the first phase of his Midwest whistle stop tour by accusing the Democratic administration of “frittering away” the peace gained on the battlefields.
J. Edgar Hoover , director of the FBI, says his files are bulging with reports of sabotage – mostly committed by people who don’t like their jobs or are just plain malicious. Hoover called for aid from the engineering profession in fighting saboteurs, saying engineers already have helped in making it more dangerous every year to be a criminal by designing new tools for crime detection.
Medical – Medical authorities in East London credit a new drug with bringing a phenomenal number of cures of leprosy (Hansen’s disease) in Transkie native territories. The drug is sulphotrone, one of the sulphone drugs, known in the United States as Diaminin.
Compromise is underway by NBC and RKO Radio Pictures to make the proposed TV version of “Life of Riley,” starring William Bendix, available for sponsorship. Series was to have been combination live and film because of Mr. Bendix’s motion picture commitments with RKO. Net has learned since that a clause in the studio contract prohibits the re-releasing of any TV film after one showing.
United Artists weekly syndicated TV film program “Sports Parade,” is now being seen in 35 television markets. Main sponsorship is by Bristol-Myers Co., (Vitalis) as well as local sponsors in three cities. In Pittsburgh, by Rolling Rock Beer, in Louisville by Oertel 92” beer, and in Seattle by Gaines Dog Food.
“Cowboy G-Men,” a new half-hour western series specially made for TV by Mutual TV Productions, 13 programs that are finished and ready to be shown.
Revue Productions out of North Hollywood has completed filming of “Gold Mountain Guns” starring Rod Cameron, for inclusion in “Gruen Guild Theatre,” a half-hour TV series. Phil Ford, under contract to Republic Pictures, secured studio permission to direct the video film. “Iron Woman,” starring Jorja Curtright, has been completed for “Chevron Theatre.”
Filmcraft Productions, Hollywood has completed a special motion picture of behind-the-scenes filming of NBC-TV’s “You Bet Your Life” for showing at the annual DeSoto-Plymouth dealers conventions to be held in major cities. Program star, Groucho Marx, is narrator.
Here is what one theatre owner has to say about a movie he recently played at his theatre, “Red Skies of Montana” starring Richard Widmark, Constance Smith, and Jeffrey Hunter. A very good picture with excellent color, but it lacked quite a bit of earning to make the film rental. Worth a date, and one your best time to play it.. They’ll like it if you can get them I, but a forest fire on a hot night won’t keep them very cool! Played Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday. Weather was fine, since it’s May. P.Musselman, Roach Theatre, Lincoln, Kansas, small town patronage.
Fifty Five years ago – This week – segregation and Syria are the hot stories…President Eisenhower bluntly warns the Soviet Union not to “push Syria into any acts of aggression against her neighbors.”
A Federal judge tightens the South’s racial battle lines with a sharp-tongued rejection of a plea to postpone integration at Little Rock Central high School, where armed troops have kept Negro students away for a week. U.S. Globemasters and Flying Boxcars begin an airlift of arms to Jordan to buttress the Arab kingdom against any threat from Syria’s leftist-commanded army.
Gov. Orval Faubus declares, “I sincerely hope no one gets shot” if federal authorities try to crash through the National Guard lines he set up at integration-torn Central High School. In Nashville – a dynamite blast rocks one of Nashville’s freshly desegregated grammar schools shortly after midnight. Fifteen Negroes were admitted to first grades at six Nashville schools this week, but only one of them was enrolled at the bombed school.
Back to Little Rock – U.S. District Judge Ronald Davis orders injunction proceedings against Gov. Faubus at the climax of a day which saw the first outburst of violence in the Arkansas integration process. Meanwhile – six Negroes were shoved down steps and across campus by 10 white pupils when they tried to enter a white high school in North Little Rock
President Eisenhower signs the civil rights bill against a background of actual or threatened violence over school integration in southern cities. The civil rights bill – first if its kind to be passed by Congress since Reconstruction days – is mainly designed to protect voting rights. But in some aspects, it deals with discrimination against Negroes and minority groups in general.
More Civil rights – White men on anti- integration patrol at a Birmingham high school maul a Negro minister when he attempted to enroll several Negro children. The Rev. F.L. Shuttlesworth suffered cuts and bruises but apparently no severe injuries when slugged by what his wife Ruby said were chains and brass knuckles.
In Sturgis, KY – 18 Negroes walk unmolested into Sturgis High as the second week of mixed classed began.
Armed National Guardsmen pull back from gates of the governor’s mansion long enough for Gov. Orval Faubus to be summoned to court in 10 days and answer charges he is obstructing racial integration.
Gov Faubus asks President Eisenhower for a personal meeting on the Little Rock integration dispute and the President agreed to see him later this week. Back to Nashville – U.S. Judge William Miller issues a strong-worded temporary court order forbidding interference with officials carrying out his orders to desegregate Nashville schools.
The United States calls Soviet Communists “confirmed reactionaries” and accuses Foreign Minster Gromyko of following “the old Molotov line” in his latest attack on American moves in the Syrian crisis. Soviet Premier Bulganin accuses Turkey of poising troops on Syria’s borders for what he calls an American-planned attack. Bulganin warned that military action there would lead to world conflict.
Cuba – Troops and police in tanks and armored cars seal off all entrances to the battle-scarred naval base city of Cienfuegos in south Central Cuba.
Sports – Nelson D. Rockefeller makes an offer to help build the Dodgers a new stadium in downtown Brooklyn. The move is taking many by surprise, but LA says it has not lost the fight to move the team there.
Music news – Two musicians who have been with Elvis Presley since he began his singing career four years ago quit in a pay dispute. Bill Black and Scotty Moore said Presley has been paying them $100 a week at home and $200 on the road plus $1000 Christmas bonus. They said they had to pay their own expenses on the road. “Elvis is the star and we know it,” said Moore. “I didn’t expect to get rich on this and I certainly don’t begrudge him any of his success. But I did expect to make a good living for my family.” (Black went to form the Bill Black combo and would have a number of hit records).
Television news –
CBS announces that the first of the five special Lucy-Desi shows will air Nov. 6. But says CBS – the first show will run an hour and 15 minutes. “I Love Lucy” will continue – albeit in reruns on a new night – Weds.
NBC-TV’s Nat King Cole show is made available for sponsorship in single cities. The first advertisers to buy were Rheingold beer in New York and Gallo wine in Los Angeles.
On the second night of Bartlesville Telemovies operation – it began, September 3 – subscribers called “Telemovies” phone number and asked what was schedule for that night. When informed program would be the same as opening night, he exclaimed, “Thank God, I can go back to watching TV.”
Additional film product reportedly is being readied for TV next fall. M-G-M-TV has preliminary plans to market its more than 1,000 shorts to stations. Included are cartoons, “Our Gang” comedies, featurettes, Pete Smith Novelties, documentaries, etc.
Singer Sewing Machine Co., out of New York, which had originally signed up for alternate sponsorship of NBC-TV’s “The Californians” (Tuesday 10-11pm), has extended contract and will sponsor the entire program every week.
Florida Citrus Commission has signed to co-sponsor CBS-TV’s “What’s My Line” (Sunday 10:30p-11p) for a ten week period beginning December 29. Signing fills one of the last gaps in Commission’s $4 million program for the 1957-58 citrus marketing season. Other CBS-TV shows previously signed are “Garry Moore Show,” Monday and Thursday 10-10:30am, Friday 10-11:30am, and “The Edge of Night,” Monday – Friday 4:30-5pm.
Firestone Products, division of Firestone Tire and Rubber, is the first sponsor signed for ABC-TV’s “Do You Trust Your Wife” (Monday thru Friday, 4:30-5pm). Firestone, for its Foamex Mattress and Foamex for Furniture, will sponsor the 4:30 to 4:45pm time period.
Here is what one theatre owner has to say about a movie he recently played at his theatre, “Hollywood or Bust” – Paramount Pictures, starring Dean Martin, Jerry Lewis and Anita Ekberg. Good enough comedy. Business was off. Played Sunday and Monday. Weather was wet. D.W. Trisko, Runge Theatre, Runge, Texas, Population 1,055.
Saturday night television –
CBS – The Buccaneers, Pendleton Roundup Rodeo, Gale Storm Show (Gale Storm and guest Pat Boone sing their top hits), Have Gun, Will Travel, Gunsmoke, Jimmy Dean Show
NBC – People Are Funny, Perry Como, Mystery Theatre with George Sanders, Dollar a Second, Encore Theatre, Your Hit Parade
ABC – Country America (Bob Wills and his Texas Playboys join regulars Debby Kay, Jerry Wallace, Lucille Star, and emcee Joe Allison), Lawrence Welk, Mike Wallace, Pendleton Roundup Rodeo with the Lone Ranger.
Fifty years ago – Red China says it shot down a Nationalist Chinese U-2 plane over East China – and charges that the flight by the American-made plane was part of a U.S. spy program directed from Japan. The Nationalists confirm that one of their U-2’s is missing. It’s the second U-2 incident in a week. Last Tuesday, the Soviet Union protested that an American-piloted U-2 violated Soviet air space over Sakhalin Island, north of Japan, for nine minutes. Later, Red China charged that U-2 flights over Communist countries were “clear new evidence” that President Kennedy was “actively preparing to launch a new war” in the Far East.
President Kennedy asks Congress for stand-by authority to summon 150,000 military reservists to active duty to meet Soviet challenges to the free world, particularly in Cuba and Berlin. Responding to the call-up request, the Soviet government tells the United States that an attack on Cuba could unleash a war. In a statement released by the Soviet news agency Tass – the Soviet government “declares that one cannot now attack Cuba and expect that the aggressor will be free from punishment for this attack. If such an attack is made, this will be the beginning of unleashing war. The Soviet government appeals to the government of the United States, urging it to display common sense not to lose self-control and soberly to assess what its actions might lead to if it unleashes war.” The statement by the Soviet government followed a claim by Premier Fidel Castro – during a speech in Havana – that the U.S. is preparing to attack Cuba.
Secretary of State Rusk places Soviet Premier Khrushchev on notice that the United States will not be intimidated by his threat of a nuclear war over Cuba. “We are a great country. We are not nervous or afraid. We’ll proceed as we find it necessary.” Rusk was responding to another Soviet Union statement, which promised again to defend Cuba with rockets, and warned the U.S. an armed attack on the Marxist outpost in the Caribbean would plunge the world into a nuclear war.
President Kennedy rules out an immediate American invasion of Cuba, but warns Fidel Castro that all his-Soviet-imported missiles and men will not save him if the United States is forced to intervene: “If the United States ever should find it necessary to take military action against communism in Cuba, all of Castro’s Communist-supplied weapons and technicians would not change the result or significantly extend the time required to achieve that result.” The President announced that the United States would step up its surveillance of Communist movements in the entire Caribbean area. President Kennedy also stressed that, as of this time, Cuba has received only defensive missiles from Russia, which “do not constitute a serious threat to any other part of this hemisphere.”
Visiting with a group of missile scientists in Houston, President Kennedy warns the nation that “we have a long way to go” before the United States catches up with the Russians in space. “I don’t think we can exaggerate the great advantage which the Soviet Union secured in the 50’s by their being first in space.” He then told the group “we started behind” and that “with your effort and commitment and the effort of all Americans and their commitment, we shall be first in space.”
Passing – Television and movie director Louis King (62). More active in television than in movies in recent years, he directed episodes of “Wild Bill Hickok,” “Zane Grey Theater,” and “Gunsmoke.” King was in an automobile accident last month and appeared to be recovering.
UHF Television update – The FCC withdraws its proposal to change television operations in eight cities to UHF-only markets. The cities are: Madison, Wis; Rockford, Ill; Hartford, Conn.; Erie, PA; Binghamton, NY; Champaign, Ill; Columbia, SC. and Montgomery, Ala. At least one VHF TV Channel (2-13) operates in each one of these markets. UHF Channels are 14-83.
American poet Robert Frost (87) visits Russia and is invited to meet Premier Khrushchev. Before the meeting, Frost attended a luncheon and before several hundred Muscovites, he recited one of his famous poems, “Mending Wall.” It is about a wall in his native New England, but many thought it was aimed at the wall in Berlin. “Something there is that doesn’t love a wall. Before I built a wall, I’d ask to know what I was walling in or walling out. And to whom I was likely to give offense.” He then told his audience, “I’ve had lots of adventures with that poem. People are frequently misunderstanding it or misinterpreting it. The secret of what it means, I keep.”
Katanga is quietly hitting back at the sanctions the U.N. has imposed on the breakaway Congo province. Thousands of tons of gasoline and food items from Rhodesias and South Africa earmarked for the U.N. headquarters in Elisabethville are being held at the Sakania border post by Katanga Railways. U.N. forces are dependent on those countries for supplies.
High Red sources in East Berlin say Algerian Communists boss Larbi Bouhali and a large group of his associates, now living behind the Iron Curtain, will return home soon. Their hope: A place in the Ben Bella government.
Joint Chiefs staff officers have been ordered to turn in detailed reports on all interviews – and even chance meetings – with newsmen. The command is part of the tightening up in leaks following an FBI investigation of a story about Soviet Missiles by New York Times military analyst Hanson Baldwin. In his article, Baldwin revealed that the Soviets now have second-generation missiles combat-ready in semi-hardened silos.
NATO intelligence rejects Soviet claims that they have a submarine missile comparable to the U.S. Polaris. The Reds do have a small liquid-fuel rocket for submarine launching, but they’re still a year or more away from anything like the solid fuel Polaris.
From East Berlin – An aide who accompanied Walter Ulbricht to Russia (and who has since returned) confides that the East German Red Boss is getting the cold shoulder treatment from Khrushchev. Though ordering Ulbricht to extend his visit, K has refused twelve requests to see him. One guess, K wants to show Ulbricht – and the East Germans – that only K, is indispensable.
A judge awards custody of Bette Lee Kovacs (15) and sister Kippie Raleigh to Edith (Edie) Adams Kovacs. Bette Kovacs, the first wife of the late comedian Ernie Kovacs, had been seeking custody of the two children.
Ladies – for the fall – Sweater dress with blazing stripes, styled in new links knit texture. Sizes 8-16 – $25.00 … How about this outfit – Blazer jacket ($18.00) and low waistline skirt ($12.00) in pine and redwood color. Include white Turtleneck Dacron/cotton blouse – $9.00.
At the drug store –
Vitalis with the greaseless grooming discovery V-7 – .79 …
Vaseline Hair Tonic – supplements natural scalp oils – check dry scalp and loose dandruff, 6oz size – .79 …
Typing Paper (8 1/2 x 11) – 300 sheets – .69 …
Ladies’ Head Scarf – All new fashion colors in gay prints or solids – .49 …
Gleem Tooth Paste – family size – 2 for $1.00.
In sports – Maury Wills of the Dodgers sets a National League record with 82 stolen bases this week.
Winning the US Open at Forrest Hills, Australian Rod Laver becomes the only player in the history of tennis to win The Grand Slam – four major “grand slam” titles in one year – the Australian Open, French Open, Wimbledon, and the US Open. He’s the first male since 1938 when American Don Budge accomplished the feat.
Lenny Bruce, shocking an Australian audience of around 300. appeared at the Aarons Hotel in Sydney where many women could be seen leaving the room. Bruce gave an unorthodox account of the Crucifixion, then focused on Jews, “niggers,” war heroes, and then told how he employed a prostitute to ‘frame’ a judge, giving the payees a minute inside story on the setup. After the performance, his contract was immediately canceled.
Greenwich Village happenings –
Tom Paxton , Len Chandler and John Winn at the Gaslight Café. Miriam Makeba, Inman & Ira, Mose Allison at the Village Gate Leon Bibb, Mike Settle and Karen James at the Bitter End
Music news – It seems the “Twist” is out and the “Bossa Nova” is in, that is, if you look at new record releases. Unlike the Twist, the Bossa Nova doesn’t have a dance to go with it; so far, there hasn’t been a hit record. Colpix Records is one of the first to get a tie-in with some sort of dance angle for the Bossa Nova beat. They have arranged with the Fred Astaire Dance Studios to introduce a Bossa Nova dance. All 105 Astaire studios across the country have been supplied with copies of Colpix’s “Bozza Nova New Beat” album to use in instructing their students. The studios have received step patterns of the Bossa Nova and will begin teaching the Brazilian dance.
Folk music – The Limeliters have a new album out on RCA Records – “Folk Matinee.”
Television news – Johnny Carson is getting set to become permanent host of “The Tonight Show” on October 1. The program has had rotating hosts since Jack Paar left earlier this year. Will Carson be featuring semi-regulars from Paar’s program like Zsa Zsa Gabor, Mickey Rooney and others? “I think it is better to have new people and a few new gimmicks. A judgment will be made on these later. These things have to be done carefully. I may have a priest on the show.” Some unkind remarks came Carson’s way when it was announced that his brother, Dick, would direct the show. Carson says his brother “is a fine director.”
Local Kid’s Television – Roy Rogers and Dale Evans guest on Gene London’s “Cartoon Corners” over WCAU-TV (Philadelphia).
First prime-time series aimed at teens and hip young adults – “It’s a Man’s World” – a comedy-drama set to debut on NBC-TV, September 17. It centers around 4 young men (actually, several are teen-agers) who live on a beat-up houseboat.
Peter Wallace, son of television commentator Mike Wallace’s son Peter (20), is found dead in southern Greece. Apparently, he slipped while on a hiking holiday and fell into a ravine.
After 14 years, Ed Sullivan gets a writer! Buddy Arnold is hired to provide material for name guests who are neither comedians or singers, nor possessing an act of their own. He also will assist in the preparation of sketches and production numbers.
Melvin Goode, veteran Pittsburgh Courier reporter, becomes the first Negro network correspondent – debuting this week when he joins the news staff on ABC.
Vick Chemical Co. has signed as a daily participating sponsors of the “Tennessee Ernie Ford Show” on ABC-TV, Monday thru Friday 11-11:30am beginning October 1, 1962
Zenith Radio Corporation and Firestone Tire and Rubber are advising their local dealers that the manufacturers will pick up half of the tab when the syndicated TV “Championship Bowling” is bought on local stations. Action of the two national advertisers was announced last week by Walter Schwimmer, producer and distributor of the series. This is the first time Zenith and Firestone has offer to co-sponsor spot buys on a specific series with their dealers in local area, according to Schwimmer.
Hartz Mountain Products (bird food and pet supplies) has renewed for the second year its TV campaign using United Artists Television syndicated programs. The company will continue using TV in the same 11 markets as last year to be used on these programs, “Tombstone Territory,” “Ripcord,” “Adventure of Scott Island,” and “Everglades.”
Fifteen additional sales have been made on six one-hour Warner Bros. TV series. KATU, Portland, Oregon has bought “Maverick,” “Sugarfoot,” and “Surfside Six”, while KPTV, (Portland, Oregon) has ordered “Bourbon Street Beat,” and WSPA-TV, Spartanburg, South Carolina has purchased “Surfside Six,” “The Roaring 20’s,” “Bronco,” “Sugarfoot,” and “Bourbon Street Beat.”
More than 60 TV stations have bought “The Mickey Mouse Club” now in syndication, Walt Disney Productions reported last week. The series began five months ago for the half-hour children’s program, the prospective audience is now almost as large as when the program was on network, the Disney group claims.
For the first time, “Miss Teenage America” pageant from Dallas will be telecast on a nationwide basis. The contest, telecast by local Dallas stations in the past, will be carried by CBS-TV this year. October 26 from 10:30pm-12midnight. The telecast will originate in Texas State Music Hall, Dallas and be sponsored by Corty and Colgate Palmolive.
Here is what one theatre owner has to say about a movie he recently played at his theatre, “Marines, Let’s Go!” from 20th Century Fox and starring Tom Tryon, David Hedison, and Linda Hutchins. Excellent family entertainment, beautiful color and CinemaScope, and a very good story, title song. Play it and you will enjoy it, as well as your patrons. Played Saturday and Sunday, Harry Hawkins, Orpheum Theatre, Marietta, Minnesota, Population 330.
This month – the new fall season debuts. Here is the entire network schedule for the ‘62-’63 television season:
Sunday Nights –
CBS – Password, Lassie, Dennis The Menace, The Ed Sullivan Show, Real McCoys, General Electric True, Candid Camera, What’s My Line?
NBC – McKeever and the Colonel, Ensign O’Toole, Walt Disney’s Wonderful World of Color, Car 54, Where Are You? Bonanza, Du Pont Show of the Week
ABC – Winston Churchill-The Valiant Years, Father Knows Best, The Jetsons, Sunday Night Movie, Voice of Firestone, Howard K. Smith
Monday Nights –
CBS – To Tell The Truth (with Bud Collyer), I’ve Got A Secret (with Garry Moore), The Lucy Show, The Danny Thomas Show, The Andy Griffith Show, The Loretta Young Show, Stump The Stars
NBC – It’s a Man’s World, Saints and Sinners, The Price Is Right, David Brinkley’s Journal, To Be Announced
ABC – The Cheyenne Show, The Rifleman, Stoney Burke, Ben Casey
Tuesday Nights –
CBS – Marshal Dillon, The Lloyd Bridges Show, The Red Skelton Show, Jack Benny, Garry Moore Show
NBC – Laramie, Empire, Dick Powell Show, Chet Huntley Reporting
ABC – Combat, Hawaiian Eye, The Untouchables, Close-Up
Wednesday Nights –
CBS – CBS Reports, Dobie Gillis, The Beverly Hillbillies, The Dick Van Dyke Show, Armstrong Circle Theater, U.S. Steel Hour
NBC – The Virginian, The Perry Como Show, Eleventh Hour
ABC – Wagon Train, Going My Way, Our Man Higgins, Naked City
Thursday Nights –
CBS – Mr. Ed, Perry Mason, The Nurses, Alfred Hitchcock Hour
NBC – Wide Country, Dr. Kildare, Hazel, The Andy Williams Show
ABC – Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet, The Donna Reed Show, Leave It To Beaver, My Three Sons, McHale’s Navy, Premiere
Friday Nights –
CBS – Rawhide, Route 66, Fair Exchange, Eyewitness
NBC – International Showtime, Sing Along with Mitch, Don’t Call Me Charlie, Jack Paar Show
ABC – The Gallant Men, The Flintstones, I’m Dickens, He’s Fenster, 77 Sunset Strip, Third Man
Saturday Nights –
CBS – Jackie Gleason’s American Scene Magazine, The Defenders, Have Gun Will Travel, Gunsmoke
NBC – Sam Benedict, New Joey Bishop Show, NBC Saturday Night At The Movies
ABC – Roy Rogers-Dale Evans, Mr. Smith Goes To Washington, Lawrence Welk Show, Fight Of The Week.
ABC begins transmitting some shows in color this season. For the record – ABC’s first-ever color show will be broadcast Friday, September 28 with an episode of “The Flintstones” – “Dino Goes Hollyrock.”
On the charts–
RAMBLIN’ ROSE – NAT “KING” COLE
SHERRY – THE 4 SEASONS
Jerry Lewis, David Wayne, Peter Lorre, and Phyllis Kirk
Hatari!
John Wayne and Elsa Martinelli
The Interns
Michael Callan, Cliff Robertson, James MacArthur, Nick Adams, Suzy Parker, Haya Harareet, Anne Helm, Stefanie Powers, Buddy Ebsen, and Telly Savalas
Sword of the Conqueror
Jack Palance, Eleonora Rossi Drago, Guy Madison, Carlo d’Angelo, and Ivan Palance
Adventures Of A Young Man
Richard Beymer and Paul Newman
Guns of Darkness
Leslie Caron and David Niven
The Music Man
Robert Preston, Shirley Jones, Buddy Hackett, and Paul Ford
A Taste Of Honey
Rita Tushingham and Murray Melvin
Forty Five Years ago – U.S. says it will build a barrier strip with barbed wire and electronics eyes and ears between North and South Vietnam to impede Communist infiltration, according to Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara. The pros and cons of proceeding with a costly fortified buffer strip below the DMZ have been debated for months.
The Detroit News urges in an editorial that Michigan Gov. George Romney abandoned his quest for the Republican Presidential nomination in favor of Gov. Nelson Rockefeller of New York. Said Romney – “Very amusing.”
At least 44,000 teachers stay away from classes in New York City after the United Federation of Teachers, AFL-CIO called a strike… Several days later, a State Supreme Court Judge, after failing as a peacemaker, orders an immediate end to the strike, but the union vowed to defy the order.
The United Auto Workers strike against Ford continues. 159,000 autoworkers walked off their jobs and the impact is beginning to trickle down. Suppliers have already started layoffs.
Former Governor George Wallace says how he would thwart urban violence: “Bam, shoot ‘em dead on the spot! Shoot to kill if anyone throws a rock at a policeman or throws a Molotov cocktail. Don’t shoot any children; just shoot that adult standing beside the kid that throws the rock. That may not prevent the burning and looting, but it sure will stop it after it starts.”
The Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) says the old Wabash Cannonball trains will run for another year. The line runs between St. Louis and Detroit and is owned by the Norfolk & Western Railway.
At Sears – back to school – Perma-Prest school dresses for girls – “She’ll be teacher’s pet, always so fresh ‘n neat in her PERMA-PREST dresses” – sizes 3- 6x – 2 for $8 … sizes 7-14 – 2 for $9.
At the mart – back to school – 3-Ring binder – .76 … Book Covers – 3 for $1.00 … Spiral Notebook – .66
Now Crest toothpaste comes in two great flavors – regular and New Mint Flavor. “Both have fluoride-the most effective cavity fighter ever put in toothpaste. In fact, of the five leading toothpastes, Crest is the only one with fluoride. So have regular checkups, watch treats and brush after eating with cavity-fighter, Crest. Regular or new mint flavor.”
In sports – Carl Yastrzemski of Boston hits two homers and drives-in 4 runs against the Washington Senators Pitcher. Joe Horlen of the Chicago White Sox pitches a no- hitter against the Detroit Tigers. It’s the first for the team in 10 years
Rick Barry announces he will sit out the coming NBA season rather than play again for the San Francisco Warriors. Barry, the NBA’s top scorer last season, signed a $225,000 three-year contract last June with the Oakland Oaks of the rival ABA. The Warriors took the move to court where it was ruled that Barry still had a year to go on his pact with the NBA club.
Three hottest shows currently on Broadway – Cabaret, Fiddler on the Roof, and Mame.
Greenwich Village happenings – Nina Simone/Montego Joe at the Village Gate.
Light My Fire? – Jim Morrison, lead singer of the Doors, is arrested onstage during a concert in New Haven, Connecticut for attempting to incite a riot
by telling the crowd that a policeman had sprayed him and his girlfriend, Pamela, with mace backstage before the concert.
Trends – Airline stewardesses get a kick into higher fashion. It all began 1965 when Italian designer Emilio Pucci delivered a new wave of fashions in the sky – specifically the stewardesses at Braniff International Airlines. Pucci was the first to depart from the traditional blue or gray suits worn by stewardesses when he put Braniff hostesses into pink, blue or green Pucci-print leotards and tunics for in-flight wear. By the end of 1968, stewardesses on almost every major airline will be wearing brightly colored ensembles created by top designers.
American Airlines joins the sky-high fashion parade this month when its stewardesses will introduce their new wardrobes by Mrs. Mary Joan Glynn – product styling director for Doyle Dane Bernback advertising agency.
Eastern Airlines gets into the groove with bright green summer uniforms designed by Don Loper, debuting May of next year. United Airlines, the company that originated stewardess service, will introduce new wardrobes designed by Jean Louis in mid-1968.
Some best-selling books –
A Second-Hand Life – Charles Jackson
Rosemary’s Baby – Ira Levin
The Eighth Day – Thornton Wilder
The Chosen – Chaim Potok
Our Crowd: The Great Jewish Families of New York – Stephen Birmingham
At Ease: Stories I Tell To Friends – Dwight D. Eisenhower
The Lawyers – Martin Mayer
Incredible Victory – Walter Lord
Music news – Have you heard the Rolling Stones new ditty – “We Love You.” Listen carefully. You’ll also hear the singing voices of Paul McCartney, John Lennon, and George Harrison. The clank of chains on the recording supposedly allude to the recent imprisonment of Mick Jagger and Keith Richard on narcotics charges and the record is a thank you to those who supported them during their trial.
Hollywood news – Singer Rosemary Clooney is granted a divorce from actor Jose Ferrer. They were married in 1953 and Miss Clooney filed for divorce in 1962, but they reconciled in 1963 before the divorce became final. Miss Clooney filed a second suit in August, 1966.
Frank Sinatra gets two of his front teeth fixed at the dentist – they are now part porcelain – thanks to the fist of Carl Cohen, a vice president of the Sands Hotel in Las Vegas. The two had a bitter breaking of Sinatra’s long connection with the plush Las Vegas hotel. Sinatra’s dentist, Dr. A.B. Weinstein, says that Sinatra’s upper lip was swollen and bruised but thinks he’ll be OK in a few days.
Actor Jack Palance suffers minor injuries when a stunt went awry and he fell 16 feet while filming the television drama “The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde.”
Judy Carne says she’s excited about the Rowan and Martin show and believes it will be a mid-season replacement on NBC. Although she doesn’t do a whole lot in the show, she believes it will be “a marvelous showcase for me.” As an actress, Ms. Carne has starred in two series – “The Bailey’s of Balboa” and “Love on a Rooftop” – both of which lasted one season. Judy says “You’ll get your money the second season, just you wait, they kept telling me. Hah! I’ve never HAD a second season!”
Eartha Kitt collapses on a stage at a summer theater in Washington, injuring her back. She’s being flown to her home in Beverly Hills to recuperate.
Ross Martin (Artemus Gordon) on “The Wild Wild West” will wed Olavee Grindrod next week. She’s a real estate saleswoman. It’s his second and her third.
President Johnson’s daughter Lynda Bird (23) says she will marry Marine Capt Charles Robb at the White House in December.
Debra Dene Barnes (20) wins the Miss America (1968) title in Atlantic City. She’s from Kansas.
MCA TV is formulating plans to re-issue to television reduced a library of the pre-1948 Paramount Features, which rolled up huge grosses five and six years ago. Strategy is to place into syndication about 150 of the top titles with outstanding name value, including 40 films in color. Company is spurred by ratings achieved by stations which are still running pre-1948 Paramount features. MCA-TV would mount extensive promotion-advertising campaign for package.
Madison Square Garden has sold exclusive TV rights of world middle-weight championship fight between champion Nino Benvenuti and challenger Emil Griffith to ABC-TV which plan to tape September 28 event for “ABC’s Wide World Of Sports” series, on September 30 from 5:00pm-6:30pm. ABC’s Howard Cosell will handle commentary from New York’s Shea Stadium site now under lease by MSG from the city. In other deals, MSG has completed negotiations for three-year contract with WOR-TV, New York, for a total of 45 regular season games played by the New York Rangers of the National Hockey League and New York Knickberbockers of National Basketball Association. In radio, MSG earlier this month closed similar three-year deal with WHN, New York.
Lincoln-Mercury Division of Ford Motor Co. and Rockwell Manufacturing Co. will sponsors the five-minute tape series “Arnold Palmer Golf Tips” being schedule on NBC-TV after American Football League postgame shows.
Here is another report from a theatre owner on a recent movie that he played at his theatre, “Son of a Gunfighter,” from MGM and starring Russ Tamblyn, Kieron Moore, and James Philbrick. A low-budget western with my favorite youngster, Runn Tamblyn. It’s okay! Played Wednesday and Thursday, Weather was cool – Charles Burton, Tri-Cities Drive-In, Lockwood, Missouri, population 852.
TV Mail –
“How old is Bill Mummy of Lost in Space? Who are his parents and where and when was he born? My friend says that June Lockhart (of the same
show) is his mother, but I think this is wrong.” … “Bill Mummy was born Feb. 1, 1954 in San Gabriel, Cal., his father is a cattleman and his mother is a former movie studio secretary. Bill lives with his parents in the Cheviot Hills district of Los Angeles.” “Who is older, Jerry, or Dick Van Dyke?” … Dick is 41, Jerry 36. “I have been watching Gentle Ben these first few weeks it’s been on. What can you tell me about Clint Howard, the little boy who plays Mark Wedloe on the show?” … “Clint is the younger brother of Ronnie Howard, who plays Opie on the Andy Griffith Show. He was born April 20, 1959 in Burbank, Cal., where he lives with his family. Clint made his acting debut at the age of 2 on the Andy Griffith Show. His next role was in the movie “The Courtship of Eddie’s Father, which starred Glenn Ford and co-starred his brother.” “How old is Ben Gazzara of Run for Your Life? Is he married? Does he have any children?” … “Gazzara is married to actress Janice Rule. They have two daughters; Kate, 10, Janice’s child from a previous marriage and Elizabeth, 7.” “I am an ardent fan of the Joey Bishop Show and I never miss it. Joey’s announcer, Regis, is A-1 in my book, but could you please tell me his last name? Whenever it is mentioned, I do not grasp it.” … “The full name is Regis Philbin.”
Television news –
ABC – “It’s A Very Special Season on ABC.”
CBS – “Get In The Winner’s Circle”
NBC – “Better Look at the Best/NBC Week Is Ready”
Folksinger Pete Seeger accuses CBS of censoring one of his songs performed on “The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour” last Sunday. He was asked by the network to drop one of the verses of “Waist Deep in the Big Muddy,” and that when he refused the entire song was dropped from the program. Says Seegar – “I’m very grateful to CBS for letting me return to commercial broadcasting, but I think what they did was wrong and I’m really concerned about it. I think the public should know that their airwaves are censored for ideas as well as for sex.” The song is about a soldier in 1942 who drowned because his commanding officer forced him to walk in water without knowing how deep it was. Seegar says it’s one of the best songs he’s ever done and he’s performed it in front of lots of family audiences.
Thursday Night Television –
CBS – CBS Evening News With Walter Cronkite, Cimarron Strip (A Bandit leader plans to use an Indian reservation as his sanctuary. Stars Stuart Whitman and Percy Herbert. Guest cast – Darren McGavin, Barbara Luna, Beau Bridges), CBS Thursday Night Movie
NBC – Huntley-Brinkley Report, Daniel Boone (Boone and Mingo, paddling home with their winter’s catch of furs, become victims of a pair of hit-and-run river pirates. Stars Fess Parker, Ed Ames, and Patricia Blair. Guest cast – Forrest Tucker and Victor Buono), Ironside (Series about a paraplegic detective and his aides who solve difficult cases in San Francisco. Stars Raymond Burr as Ironside; Don Galloway as Ed Brown; Barbara Anderson as Eve Whitfield and Don Mitchell as Mark Sanger. First episode – a major robbery thwarts Ironside from placing a bet on a sure winner and puts him on the trail of the thief. Guest cast – Gene Evans, James Gregory), Dragnet-1968, Dean Martin (Third season opens with Orson Welles, Jimmy Stewart and Juliet Prowse. In sketches – Orson Welles demonstrates how sound effects were done on radio. Stewart tells about his early days and plays piano)
ABC – Peter Jennings With The News, Batman (Yvonne Craig makes her debut as Batgirl and the Penguin plans to kidnap her), The Flying Nun (Sister Bertrille tries to prove a playboy-gambler Carlos, that her aerial talents have no religious significance), Bewitched (Endora promises Samantha she will not do any witchcraft while sitting with Tabatha, but breaks her word), That Girl (Ann Marie has a chance to do a soft drink commercial if she can learn to roller skate), Peyton Place, Good Company (F. Lee Bailey hosts and visits the home of Senator and Mrs. Everett Dirksen) , The Lid’s Off With Linkletter
At the movies at your local theatres:
Woman Times Seven
Anita Ekberg, Elsa Martinelli, Robert Morely, Lex Barker, and Patrick Wymark
Divorce American Style
Dick Van Dyke, Debbie Reynolds, and Jason Robards
Thoroughly Modern Millie
Julie Andrews, Mary Tyler Moore, Carol Channing, and James Fox
Tarzan and the Great River
Mike Henry, Jan Murray, Manuel Padilla, Rafer Johnson, and Diana Mullay
Two For The Road
Audrey Hepburn, Albert Finney, Eleanor Bron, William Daniels, Claude Dauphin, and Nadia Gray
Far From The Madding Crowd
Julie Christie Terence Stamp, Peter Finch, and Alan Bates, shown in 70 mm in select cities and on a reserved seat basis.
A Man For All Seasons
Wendy Hiller, Leo McKern, Robert Shaw, Orson Welles, Susannah York, Paul Scofield, Nigel Davenport, John Hurt, and Corin Redgrave
Bonnie & Clyde
Warren Beatty and Faye Dunaway
Don’t Look Back
Tom Laughlin, Elizabeth James, and Jeremy Slate
The Love-Ins
Richard Todd, James MacArthur, and Susan Oliver
The Trip
Peter Fonda and Susan Strasberg
Barefoot in the Park
Robert Redford, and Jane Fonda
Doctor Zhivago
Omar Shariff and Julie Christie. Re-issued from 1965.
Walt Disney’s The Happiest Millionaire
Fred MacMurry and Tommy Steele.
Pop Music This Week in 1967…
ODE TO BILLIE JOE – Bobbie Gentry
REFLECTIONS – Diana Ross & Supremes
BABY I LOVE YOU – Aretha Franklin
THE LETTER – Box Tops
ALL YOU NEED IS LOVE – Beatles
COME BACK WHEN YOU GROW UP – Bobby Vee & Strangers
Now!
Sources are reporting that Michael Strahan will be Regis Philbin replacement, taking over hosting duties alongside Kelly Ripa. Strahan, a former NFL player and current Subway spokesperson, is expected to keep his job as a host of “Fox’ NFL Sunday” show….CBS announced its roster of announcers for “NFL Football” will once again be led by Jim Nantz and Phil Simms. Other teams calling regional games will include Greg Gumbel with Dan Dierdorf, Ian Eagle and Dan Fouts and Marv Albert with Rich Gannon. Missing from the list are Randy Cross and Don Criqui who were on last year’s roster. The NFL Today pre-game show will once again feature James Brown with reporter Lesley Visser and analysts Dan Marino, Boomer Esiason, Shannon Sharpe and Bill Cowher as well as Jason La Canfora in the new role as the NFL Insider…CBS is bringing back the classic western series “Have Gun – Will Travel” which originally aired in 1957. The new take on the series will be overseen by writer/director/playwright David Mamet..Marco Pennette is taking over as show runner for NBC’s new comedy “Animal Practice.” The show, which got a prime time premiere during the Olympics will likely take a one-week hiatus after its third episode to help get Pennette up to speed….Goran Visnjic, best known for his work on “ER,” will return to television on ABC’s midseason drama “Red Widow.” The show centers on a woman who, after her gangster husband is brutally murdered, fights to find the truth about his death….CBS has won a hotly contested battle for a new comedy by Tad Quill about a bachelor firefighter who starts taking care of a 9-year-old girl. The show will star David Walton….CBS is back in business with Kari Lizer, the writer-producer behind “The New Adventures of Old Christine” with plans for a new comedy pilot. The show that hasn’t been named yet will be about a guy who falls in love with his cousin’s fiancé….ABC News leads the list of media companies providing content for YouTube’s upcoming Election Hub, showcasing political highlights and breaking news. The online video channel will stream ABC’s coverage of both the 2012 Presidential and Vice Presidential debates….The big three broadcast networks have told the Romney campaign that they will broadcast an hour of convention coverage on the final three nights — but no more. They’ll be skipping the speech from Ann Romney Monday night…Fisher Communications has signed affiliation agreements with MundoFox to add its new Spanish-language television network in Seattle and Portland. MundoFox, which officially launched this month, will air on the multicast tier of KUNS-TV in Seattle and KUNP-LP in Portland…
This fall FOX Sports will be turning up the heat Sunday afternoons with “BEING: Liverpool,” “Barclays Premier League Soccer,” and “UFC: Road to the Octagon.”
BEING is an original, ground-breaking new television franchise from FOX Sports Media Group that gives fans a deep, thoughtful look at the superstars and teams of today from their point-of-view at a critical juncture or telling moment that shows the viewer who or what they really are. It is intended to be an all-access invitation into the personal and professional lives of some of the iconic people and institutions in today’s sports universe, always asking the question, “What is it like to be you?” While the answer is certainly complex and different for all, the search is always fascinating. First up is BEING: LIVERPOOL coming this September.
“The BEING franchise is the next level of non-fiction storytelling, where we look forward, not back, and the stories unfold in front of you. We intend to provide fans a connection that humanizes sports heroes and institutions in a fresh and unique way,” said Eric Shanks. “Using brilliant cinematography and presentation, BEING has a unique and distinctive visual style which takes its lead from everything FOX Sports has done since its inception, calling on its signature, brand-defining attitude.”
BEING: LIVERPOOL will air Sunday, September 16th adjacent to your NFL game from 4:30 – 5:30pm ET immediately following the early NFL games OR from 3:00 – 4:00pm ET leading into the late NFL games.
Next up, Barclays Premier League Soccer! We’ll kick things off on Sunday, September 23rd, with the start of four marquee Barclays Premier League matches showcasing some of the world’s most storied soccer clubs: Manchester United, Liverpool, and Newcastle. Some of the hottest matches and most revered rivalries in the league will be on FOX on Sunday, 9/23, 10/7, and 11/4. These matches will air adjacent to your NFL game from 4:30 – 6:30pm ET immediately following the early NFL games OR from 2:00 – 4:00pm ET leading into the late NFL games. Your station’s NFL game assignments will be determined two-weeks out. (Note: Due to the cut-down format, local inventory for the 2-hour events will be 9 local units: 4:30 – includes end break).
***AS PREVIOUSLY ANNOUNCED: in anticipation of the live UFC event on FOX on December 8th, FOX Sports will offer an intense behind the scenes look at the fighters’ preparation leading up to the main event. UFC’s Road to the Octagon will air on Sunday, December 2nd and is the perfect introduction to your viewers for what will surely be a huge franchise on FOX this fall and beyond – the Ultimate Fighting Championship. UFC’s Road to the Octagon will air from 4:30 – 5:30pm ET immediately following the early NFL games OR from 3:00 – 4:00pm ET leading into the late NFL games.
On two SATURDAYS, 8 and 15, from 12:00mid-12:30am (ET/PT), FOX will air episodes of the FX Series TOTALLY BIASED WITH KAMAU BELL.
On TOTALLY BIASED WITH KAMAU BELL, Bell will dissect a multitude of topics including politics, pop culture, race, religion, and the media. The series will feature his commentary along with features from other contributors and sketch comedy. The half-hour installments will be shot in New York City. Chris Rock, Chuck Sklar, W. Kamau Bell, and Keri Smith Esquia are Executive Producers.
This week’s birthdays include: Jerome Robbins, director of the Broadway production of “West Side Story” and co-director of the screen version with Robert Wise (October 11, would have been 95), Luciano Pavarotti (October 12 would have been age 77), Robert Walker, Jr. (October 13, would have been 95), and Roger Moore “James Bond” (October 14, age 85).
If you have any questions or comments regarding “TV Talk,” you can reach Pete Sieler at [email protected] .
Stay Tuned
Pete Sieler Comment
TV Radio and Movies, then and now…
Sixty years ago – In Albuquerque, Gov. Adlai Stevenson declares that as President, he would direct federal agencies to deal “sternly and mercilessly” with Communist conspirators.
In California – Gov Adlai Stevenson tells a capacity crowd the Republican Party is the “party of fear” and that only the Democrats can lead the nation to a realization of the promise of the future.
In New York – Gen. Eisenhower speaks out against socialized medicine, as leading toward “assembly-line treatment” of patients.
Republicans claim that Sen. McCarthy’s thumping victory in the Wisconsin primary pulls the rug from under the Democrats on the issue of “McCarthyism.” The controversial author of Communist-in-government charges was one of a group of Truman administration foes to rack up wins in eight State primaries.
In St. Paul, Gen Eisenhower winds-up the first phase of his Midwest whistle stop tour by accusing the Democratic administration of “frittering away” the peace gained on the battlefields.
Actress Betty Gable is placed on suspension by 20th Century-Fox for refusing to accept a straight dramatic role. Work on the picture, in which she was to costar with Richard Widmark, was to have started next week. The film is tentatively titled “Blaze of Glory.”
John Wayne (44) and his wife, Esperanza (30), file simultaneous suits for divorce and separate maintenance following a break-down in negotiations between their lawyers.
DuMont TV network reports 62 stations signed to carry its telecast of 28 regular games of the National Football League teams this fall, starting September 28. DuMont will cover as many of three contests in single day on split-network basis. Sponsorship being shared by Miller Brewing, Atlantic Refining Co., and Brewing Corporation of America, and in some cities games are sponsored on a co-operative basis.
Jack Benny, radio star, starts his third season on CBS-TV, Sunday, October 5 at 7:30-8pm for American Tobacco Co. (Lucky Strike). Appearing on a monthly basis, he will spotlight members of his CBS Radio program.
Prescott S. Bush, CBS, Inc. minority stockholder and director, has been mentioned in political circles the past fortnight as a contender for the Connecticut Republican nomination for U.S. Senate. Mr. Bush’s name was raised as the special GOP State Convention prepared to meet in Hartford this week to nominate a candidate to assume the seat of the late Sen. Brian McMahon (D-Conn). Major activities are scheduled for this Thursday. The CBS. Inc. director, who olds 10 shares of Class A Stock in the corporation – or considerably less than 1%, was defeated in a senatorial election two years ago. He lost out to Senator William Benton (D-Conn), despite heavy use of radio and television. Senator Benton, who was nominated by the Democrats to fill the unexpired term, is running for re-election himself.
Sunday night television:
ABC-TV: Production for Freedom, The American Scene, You Asked for It, Everbody’s Business, King’s Crossroads, American in View, Focus, Billy Graham Hour of Decision, Films of Interest, and Drew Pearson
CBS-TV: Man of the week, See It Now, Gene Autry Show, This is Show Business, Toast of the Town, General Electric Theatre, Break the Bank, Celebrity Time, What’s My Line, and Sunday News Special.
DuMont: The Week in Religion, Georgetown U Form, Rocky King the Detective, Plainscloth Man, and They Stand Accused.
NBC-TV: Meet the Press, Roy Rogers, Red Skelton, Eddie Mayhoff, Colgate Comedy Hour, Goodyear/Philco Playhouse, and The Doctor.
Here is what one theater owner has to say about a movie that he recently played at his theatre, “Phone Call From a Stranger” (20th Century Fox), starring Shelley Winters, Gary Merrill, and Bette Davis. Gary Merrill was good as the stranger. Bette Davis didn’t have much to do but she was excellent. People enjoyed the show. Give us more like this and “All About Eve” (20th Century Fox). Business was fair. Played Sunday and Monday, weather was cool – Wm “Uncle Billy” Graham, Lasky Theatre, Detroit, Michigan. Neighborhood patronage.
Fifty Five years ago – Russia announces it will begin massive naval war games next week in Arctic waters within a few hundred miles of an era where the western NATO nations have scheduled sea exercises at the same time.
President Eisenhower “sorrowfully” terms inflation the nation’s major internal problem but rejects the concept of federal controls to combat it. He also said tax cuts could not be justified now.
Fears arrest – Gov. Orval Faubus of Arkansas telegraphs President Eisenhower that he was informed Federal agents planned to take him into custody. Just before Faubus’ news conference, Mayor Woodrow Mann of Little Rock criticized the Governor for using the guard. He said Faubus created tensions where none existed and that Little Rock police had no cases of interracial violence reported after almost a week of sensational developments.
President Eisenhower tells Gov. Faubus that he will use every legal means at his command to uphold the Federal Constitution in the Little Rock school integration controversy.
200,000 – Billy Graham draws the largest crowd in the history of modern evangelism (so far) to Times Square to hear the farewell sermon of his New York crusade.
Nine years after she jumped from the third floor of the Russian Consulate in Manhattan to escape being shanghaied back to Russia, 61 year old former school-teacher Mrs. Oksana Kasenko, still ailing, became a U.S. Citizen at a heavily guarded ceremony in Boston.
Honored at Jamestown, Tennessee (population 2,115) by his old 82nd Division (long since an airborne outfit), old (69), ailing Sergeant Alvin York whispered his thanks for a new auto equipped to carry his wheelchair (he was crippled by a stroke in 1954). Then exhausted, medal Honorman York beckoned to friends and was wheeled from the speaker’s platform while the oratory rumbled on and was returned by ambulance to his home in nearby Pail Mall.
Died: Thelma Chrysler Foy, fiftyish upper-crust society hostess and patron of the arts, daughter of the late auto magnate Walter P. Chrysler, wife of Chrysler Division Byron C. Foy, repeatedly voted among the world’s ten best-dressed women, of leukemia in Manhattan.
Architect Frank Lloyd Wright suggests that New York City erect two mile-high skyscrapers in Central Park, destroy the rest of the city and plant grass on it. “Think of what you’d have n the way of a beautiful city, with two mile-high skyscrapers in Central park. It would end the agony. And they would end congestion tremendously, that was one of the ideas in planning one” said Wright on Mike Wallace’s ABC- TV interview program.
Sports – Sal Maglie, veteran pitcher for the Brooklyn Dodgers is sold to the New York Yankees. The Yanks paid $25,000 for Maglie and agreed to deliver two minor league players. He once played for the New York Giants and he’s the only player on all three New York teams.
A trading stamp craze has hit some 33 million U.S. households – or two out of every three in the country. Seven out of 10 people say that the stores where they regularly shop give trading stamps with purchases.
Entertainment news – Ronnie Burns (22) son of George Burns and Gracie Allen is sentenced to pay a fine of 450 and spend a weekend in jail for having tested a new sports car too exuberantly. Police said Burns was clocked at 85mph in a 25mph zone on Beverly Drive in Beverly Hills.
Television news – Marlin Perkins, director of Chicago’s Lincoln Park Zoo, has been canceled. “Zoo Parade” which is hosted by Mr Perkins. The show was broadcast on Sunday afternoons. NBC says that two or three special one-hour “Zoo Parade” programs would be presented next season though.
Bartlesville project now a reality – A new era is launched, as premium cable TV now exists. The service is called “Telemovie.” The movie version of “The Pajama Game” starring Doris Day is the first film to be piped into cabled homes at Bartlesville, OK. The movie was seen on channel 3. Channel 5 viewers could watch Tyronne Power in “River Gambler.” Channel 3 will be used for first-run attractions with 13 changes a month and channel 5 will show re- runs of popular films of the last few years. The programs were transmitted by cable hooked directly into each subscriber’s home. The subscriber is billed $9.50 per month. The response has been good. The operation is owned by Video Theatres, with headquarters in Oklahoma City. One woman said she and her husband had not been to a movie in four years “because we couldn’t afford it.” Asked if they could now afford Telemovies, she said, “Oh, we haven’t decided to keep it.” Another women reported she had a house full of people and “reception is wonderful.” The company was swamped with calls because some viewers didn’t get their installations on time.
Friday night television –
CBS – Douglas Edwards news, Beat the Clock, West Point, Destiny, Mr. Adams and Eve (An old flame urges Howard to recapture his talent for writing poetry so Eve takes up portrait planning. Stars Howard Duff and Ida Lupino), Schlitz Playhouse, Undercurrent, Pantomime Quiz
NBC – Huntley-Brinkley news, Helen O’Connell, Blondie, Life of Riley, Joseph Cotton Show, The Big Moment, Boxing, Tonight w/Jack Paar
ABC – John Daly news, Rin Tin Tin (Rinty encounters a wolf pack led by a Mysterious snow-white wolf), Adventures of Jim Bowie (Story of Indian problems and their effect on life in the 19th century. Stars Scott Forbes), Passport to danger, Date with the Angels (Nephew Wheeler is shipped to California to forget his hometown romance. Stars Bill Williams and Betty White)
At the movies –
Audrey Hepburn, Gary Cooper, and Maurice Chevalier
An Affair To Remember
Cary Grant, Deborah Kerr, and Richard Denning
Jeanne Eagles
Kim Novak and Jeff Chandler
The Pajama Game
Doris Day, John Raitt, and Carol Haney
The Delicate Delinquent
The Sun Also Rises
Tyrone Power, Ava Gardner, Mel Ferrer, and Errol Flynn
All time high in network TV audience this year reported last Friday by Television Bureau of Advertising. TVB says 11% more homes are being reached by an average daytime TV advertiser, compared to last year, and 21% more homes by an average evening TV advertiser. Analysis is based on Nielsen Audience Research covering January-July of each year. Average evening network programs reached more than 8.2 million homes per broadcast or more than 1.3 million over past year. More than 3 million homes per broadcast reached by average daytime network programs, an increase of 294,000 over 1956.
Phillip Jones Corporation (Van Heusen Shirts) and Carter Products (Rise shave lather) sponsor “West Point Story” on ABC-TV, Tuesday nights from 10-10:30pm, starting October 8. The purchase gives ABC-TV sell-out of 10-10:30pm period on all weeknights for the first time in its history, and also assures continuation of Ziv Package whose dropping CBS-TV had brought public protest.
KELO-TV, Sioux Falls, South Dakota, has signed a new primary affiliate contract with CBS-TV “to be effective at the conclusion of our NBC Primary agreement,” announced last week by Joe Floyd, president of KELO-TV. He said the NBC contract expires November 15 but may be terminated sooner “by mutual agreement.” KELO-TV Carried ABC, CBS, and ABC programs and has two satellites, KDLO-TV, Florence, South Dakota and KPLO-TV, Reliance, South Dakota. Mr. Floyd has submitted his resignation to the NBC-TV Affiliates Advisory Board.
CBS-TV will present “Assignment Foreign Legion” in the Saturday 10:30-11pm time slot, replacing “The Jimmy Dean Show.” The English adventure series, which stars actress Merle Oberon, will make its American debut on September 14. “The Jimmy Dean Show” which is sponsored by Hazel Bishop, Inc. will moved from Saturday 12 noon to 1:00pm spot, replacing “The Big Top” which is being dropped this fall. Hazel Bishop will no longer sponsor the country show in the new one-hour time slot.
Feature films, as program material on KHJ-TV, Los Angeles, hit an all-time high beginning last week. A total of 29 different theatrical motion pictures are to be broadcast by the station each week. The total would be raised to 35 if the six repeat broadcasts of the “Channel 9 Movie Theatre,” which is televised Monday through Friday and twice on Sunday, are counted as separate programs. KHJ-TV will devote 42 hours 50 minutes and five seconds to these feature film broadcasts during the week, plus whatever time is given to commercials telecast in connection with the filmed programming. Totals include five one-hour westerns, KHJ-TV points out.
NBC-TV has announced the following changes in premiere dates for up-coming falls shows: “The Price Is Right,” originally scheduled to begin Monday, September 30 (7:30-8p), will premiere September 9 in the same time spot. “Wagon Train,” previously announced as beginning Wednesday, September 11 (7:30pm-8:30pm), will start instead on September 18. “The Nat King Cole Show” will start Tuesday, September 10 (7:30pm), instead of September 24. “The Loretta Young Show” will start Sunday, October 20 (10-10:30pm), instead of October 6.
Boris Karloff and Bela Lugosi, “horror” twins of the movies some years ago, may be headed for second stardom via TV features. The second feature film distributor in the past few weeks, AAP, Inc., announced it would join the parade toward “mystery-horror” films by offering a package of 52 features selected from Gold Mine Library. Screen Gems already is selling “horror” films (many starring Mr. Karloff) from the Universal Pictures package it had acquired and has declared “National Weird Week.” Among AAP Titles: “Face of Marble,” “Revenge of the Zombies,” “The Phantom of Chinatown,” “The Ape,” and “The Living Ghost.”
David Haft will produce a new TV film series, “Steve Canyon,” for an undisclosed TV production company beginning in October. Several aspirants are testing for the title role and one will be picked this week, it was reported. “Steve Canyon” is the name of a comic strip character drawn by Milton Caniff for syndication in approximately 400 newspapers. Mr. Haft has acquired the rights to the comic strip from King Features.
Program schedule for Miles City Closed Circuit TV for Sunday, September 1, 1957
3:00pm Movie – In Old Cheyenne
4:00pm Mr. Wizard (NBC-TV)
6:00pm This is the Life
6:30pm Along the Milky Way
7:30pm Date With the Angels (ABC-TV)
8:00pm The Steve Allen Show (NBC-TV)’
9:00pm Mikes Wallace (ABC-TV)
9:30pm This is the Answer
10:00pm Movie – Minstrel Monday
Playing a the local movie theatres in Miles City, on Sunday, September 1
Park Theatre
“Dance with Me Henry” starring Abbott and Costello
Montana Theatre
“Gunfight at the Ok Corral”
Liberty Theatre
Double Feature – “Girl in the Kremlin” and “The Deadly Mantis”
Showtimes: Kremlin at 7:00pm and 9:50pm, Mantis at 8:30pm
And playing also:
Sunset Drive In Theatre
“The Burning Hills”
Plans for a new $100,000 plant and 245 foot tower for KBMB-TV, Bismarck, North Dakota have been announced by John W. Boler, president of North Dakota Broadcasting Co. (KXJB-TV, Valley City, North Dakota, KBMB-TV, Bismarck, KCJB-TV-AM Minot, North Dakota, and KSJB Radio, Jamestown, North Dakota). Work, under the supervision of Lloyd Amoo, chief engineer of the stations, has begun and the target date for moving in is set for October 1. Power will go from 30 kw to 100 kw, with tower height increased another100 feet because of the increased elevation at the new location. Plans include a two-way micro relay system for feeds between Bismarck, Valley City and Minot. Frank Fitzsimonds is vice president in charge of KBMB-TV.
An FCC examiner last month issued an initial decision awarding Butte, Montana, channel six to Copper Broadcasting Co. The only remaining applicant. Examiner J.D. Bond note the commission previously had “found (the firm) legally, financially, technically and otherwise qualified.” The examiner found “no improper conduct,” in an agreement between Copper Broadcasting and Arthur W. Schweider, a former applicant for the same facility who withdrew with the promise of $7,500 compensation for out-of-pocket expenses.
WJMX Radio, Florence – seeks transfer of license from John R. Crowder and James P. Clark to Messrs. Clark and Crowder and James W. Tate for $15,000. Mr. Crowder (50%) and 25% each Messr Clark and Tate. Announced on August 12, 1957.
The new TV film series “26 Men” went before cameras in Phoenix last week. Russell Hayden producing and Tris Coffin as the star. The series, based on the real-life exploits of the 26 law enforcement officers making up the Arizona Rangers and reportedly the first TV series ever to be filmed completely in Arizona will be offered to stations and advertisers by ABC Film Syndication.
Television Programs of America, New York, TV film producers, and distributors, have retained Fay Emmett Associates, character merchandising organization, for licensing three of TPA’s TV film series. Programs are “Fury,” “New Adventures of Charlie Chan,” and “Captain Gallant of the Foreign Legion.”
MGM-TV will begin production next Monday of all-color pilot film for its new half-hour “adult action” series, “Northwest Passage,” announced last week. Pilot will be produced by Adrian Samish with Sam Max as executive producer. “Northwest Passage,” starring Keith Andes in the leading role is based on novel by Kenneth Roberts.
From the FCC: KATI, Casper, Wyoming seeks assignment of license from John L. Breece to KATI Corporation for $65,000. KATI Corporation is owned by John R. Brurrus (51%), Kenneth G. Prather (25%), and Misha S. Prather (24%). Mr. Burrus is in banking in Casper, Kenneth Prather is commercial manager and announcer at KATI, and Misha Prather is teacher.
WCMP-AM, Pine City, granted license for AM station and specify studio location and delete request for remote control.
KRSD-TV, Channel 7, Rapid City, South Dakota, granted modification of construction permit to change ERP to visual at 25.7kw and aural at 12.9 kw. Antenna, 540 feet above ground, change type of transmitter and antenna system, and make other equipment changes.
Here is what theatre owner has to say about a movie he recently played at his theatre: “Tarzan and the Last Safari” (MGM) starring Gordon Scott, Betta St. John, and Robert Beatty. This grossed double the previous Tarzan. Don’t let any fathead producer tell you that color doesn’t sell tickets! Tarzan sure isn’t dead, not by a long shot. Play this and you won’t regret it. Played Thursday, Friday and Saturday. Weather was hot – Jim Fraser, Auditorium Theatre, Red Wmg, Minnesota. Population 10,643.
Your Hit Parade Returns Saturday Night On NBC-TV. Cast Stars Are Virginia Gibson, Alan Copeland, Jill Corey, and Tommy Leonetti.
Fifty years ago – Asked at a press conference for comment on a suggestion that the U.S. should undertake an invasion of Cuba – President Kennedy said – “I am not for invading Cuba at this time. Such an action would be a mistake at any time.” At Newport, RI, President Kennedy arrives for a weekend family reunion with his wife and daughter, home from a vacation in Italy, and his son John, who has been staying with his grandmother. Earlier in the day, Mrs. Kennedy and Caroline arrived from Salerno – on Italy’s Gulf. They had been on vacation for nearly a
month.
The Soviet Union announces it has agreed to a Cuban request for delivery of military equipment. There is no detail as to the type or amount of equipment to be delivered.
An earthquake in Iran kills more than 4,000 people. At least 75 towns and villages are reported leveled in a broad triangular area west of Tehran. The death count could go as high as 10,000.
Heavy Soviet armored cars defy orders from the United States and its Western Allies to stay away from American Checkpoint Charlie with their load of guards for the Russian war memorial in West Berlin. A U.S. Army spokesman refused to give any information about the detachments newly stationed at the lesser checkpoints. Later, the Russians submit to Western orders to re-route Soviet armored cars entering West Berlin.
President Kennedy reports that Russia has provided Communist Cuba with short-range defensive missiles and warns Prime Minister Castro that the United States will not permit him to use them for aggression anywhere in the Western Hemisphere… The Kennedy administration moved to line up backing on Capitol Hill and among Latin-American nations for its “wait-and-see” policy toward Communist Cuba.
Algiers update – Dep. Premier Ahmed Ben Bella returns to Algiers in triumph to announce the end of the rebellion, which drove him from the capital two weeks ago. A cease-fire has been accepted by dissident guerrillas of Wilaya 4, the military region covering the capital, with a formal truce expected soon.
With an eye toward school openings and integration this week, the Ku Klux Klan begins burning crosses again in Louisiana. Said a Klansman – “We want everyone to know that the Ku Klux Klan has been reactivated in Louisiana and we are publicly demonstrating our resentment to integration by cross burning.” Crosses were burned in front of at least three Negro schools in Hode, near Bosco at a Negro minister’s house in Bastrop, and on the bridge connecting Monroe with West Monroe.
Could this be a trend? – Jubilee Homes in Southern California introduces some new homes with built-in color TV’s. The three bedroom, two-bath homes sell for $18,200.
Playing in Las Vegas –
Anna Maria Alberghetti – Desert Inn
Tony Bennett/Rowan and Martin – Dunes
Jack Carter/Juliet Prowse – Flamingo
Folies Bergere – Tropicana
Sammy Davis Jr. stars in “The Desperate Hours” at the Westport (Conn) playhouse.
Hollywood news – Barbara Eden and director Jack Shea form and purchase “Giddy Moment” by Ernestine Gilbreth. The comedy is about a lipstick that revolutionizes the cosmetic business because it has a love potion. You can catch the actress in “The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm.”
George MacKinnon – property master at Gene Autry’s Melody Ranch says a lot was lost in the fire that devastated the property. Melody Ranch was one of the top western film and television locations. “Anybody that’s ever watched western movies or western TV programs has seen sequences made here time and time again: ‘Annie Oakley,’ ‘Wyatt Earp,’ ‘Hopalong Cassidy,’ ‘Wild Bill Hickok,’ ‘The Lone Ranger,’ ‘Gunsmoke,’ ‘Range Rider,’ ‘Sheriff of Cochise,’ ‘Death Valley Days.” All in all – 54 structures – many of them false fronts – were destroyed in the fire. In addition to being a big western set, the ranch was one of the finest western museums in the nation. Burned were original Concord stagecoaches, antique furniture, numerous mementos of Tom Mix and other departed western stars. Gene Autry’s personal collection of 17,500 recordings went up in smoke. The ranch, a mile east of Newhall, was designed and built as a western film location in 1937 by the late Ernie Hickson of Monogram Studios.
Television news – Carol Burnett signs a long-term contract with CBS. The terms call for her to appear in a number of network specials and as guest star on regularly scheduled programs … ABC’s award winning “Art Carney Meets Peter and the Wolf,” which also stars the Bill Baird Marionettes – will get a third airing – November 25.
Bulova Watch Company has purchased sponsorship in nine ABC-TV nighttime programs during a special two month campaign in November and December. Shows include “Roy Rogers – Dale Evans Variety Hour,” “The Gallant Men,” “Stoney Burke,” “Wagon Train,” “Winston Churchill – The Valiant Years,” and four other primetime programs.
Spokesman for theatre owners groups opposing Pay-TV operations met last Tuesday in Washington with Attorney General Robert Kennedy and Lee Loevinger, assistant attorney general in charge of antitrust division, to explain their reason for opposing pay television. Marshall H. Fine, president of Allied States of Motion Picture Exhibitors, and John H. Stembler, president of the Theatre Owners of America, told the Justice Department officials that sales of current motion-picture features to pay-tv would be “economic suicide” for the film companies. They reportedly sought “clarification” of a recent Justice Dept. letter to film distribution companies about the distributors’ failure to cooperate with the RKO General pay-tv test in Hartford, Conn. Justice officials, according to Fine and Stembler, said the letters were merely to inquire what the distributors’ policy on the matter was, and did not suggest what the policy should be.
John Wayne has been set by Paramount to star in “Port Fury” as the fourth feature in a multiple-picture pack with the studio. James Edward Grant is writing the screenplay based on an original story by Federick Holger. Wayne is currently starring in the studio’s “Donovan’s Reef” which has been on location in Hawaii for the past several weeks under the direction of John Ford. Wayne’s current Paramount Pictures in release are “The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance” and “Hatari.”
Dan Blocker regular on “The Bonanza” TV series has been set by producers Bud Yorkin and Norman Lear for a top role in the up-coming Essex-Tandem Productions film for Paramount “Come Blow Your Horn,” starring Frank Sinatra. Howard Koch is executive producer with Yorkin directing from Lear’s screenplay. The film starts shooting on September 10. Molly Picon was previously set.
Here is what one local theatre operator has to say about a recent movie he played at his theatre: “Guns of Navarone,” starring Gregory Peck, David Niven, Anthony Perkins and James Darren. A fine motion picture which any exhibitor will be proud to play. Held the interest of the children as well as the adults. It should have received more Academy Awards. Played Sunday and Monday. Weather was warm. James Hardy, Crescent Theatre, Jasonville, Indiana. Population 950.
Thursday Night Television –
CBS – CBS news with Walter Cronkite (15min), Accent, Frontier Circus, Brenner, Zane Grey Theatre, CBS Reports
NBC – Huntley-Brinkley Report, Outlaws, Dr Kildare, The Lively Ones , Sing Along With Mitch (color), The Tonight Show (color)
ABC – Ozzie and Harriet, Donna Reed Show, The Real McCoys, My Three Sons,
The Law and Mr. Jones, The Untouchables. The Tonight Show (color) – Joey Bishop hosts with Salvatore Baccaloni, Forrest Tucker, Ted Lewis, Count Basie, Lenny Kent, Kay Armen, Joe E. Ross and Fabian
Saturday Night Television –
CBS – Perry Mason (Perry turns down an offer to defend a client, when he finds out that the man who is trying to hire him arranged for the client to be arrested), The Defenders (The Prestons defend an elderly man who is accused of stealing a large sum of money from a dress firm owned by his son and nephew. Stars E.G. Marshall and Robert Reed), Have Gun-Will Travel (Paladin hunts for a mentally unbalanced youth who has killed 11 people in hopes of gaining revenge for his father’s death during the Civil War. Richard Boone stars with guest stars Robert Blake, Hari Rhodes, and William Talman), Gunsmoke
NBC – Wells Fargo, The Tall Man, NBC Saturday Night at the Movies
ABC – Matty’s Funnys (with Beany and Cecil cartoons), Leave It To Beaver (Beaver believes that he’s reached an age at which nobody has any use for him. Sue Randall is Miss Landers), Calvin and the Colonel (cartoon), Room for One More, King of Diamonds
Howard Hughes, millionaire industrialist who has been buying up hotels and other properties in Las Vegas, is understood to be on verge of closing a deal for purchase of Channel 8, Las Vegas, Nevada. Price reportedly is in the area of $3 million cash to be paid to owner Herman M. (Hank) Greenspun, who is also publisher of Las Vegas Sun. Mr. Greenspun put the station on the air in 1953. It is affiliated with the CBS Television Network.
Jack Jones and Vikki Car will star in a musical “Very Special Occasion” to be seen Monday, September 4 on a 21 station line-up, including the Storer, WGN Continental, KTLA-TV Golden West, Taft, Triangle, General Electric, Royal Street and Corinthian groups, as well as WABC-TV, New York. The show is the first of 12 produced by the group for independent presentation and syndication.
His Excellency Fulton J. Sheen, Roman Catholic Bishop of Rochester, New York, will conduct a new daily half-hour color series from WNEW-TV, New York beginning this week and will also be syndicated to other TV stations outside New York. Some of Bishop’s Sheen’s previous programs, which began last fall on WNEW-TV, will be included in the new series.
A 90 minute adaptation of “Kismet,” starring Jose Ferrer and Anna Maria Alberghetti, will be presented on ABC-TV’s “Armstrong Circle Theatre,” Tuesday, October 24 (9:30-11pm). The Armstrong Cork Co., is the sponsor.
WJOT Radio, Lake City, South Carolina – seeks transfer of control from Isadore E. Blankenship to Russell George-Busdicker, Herbert E. Blankenship, Alvin Strasburger, Harvey L. Golden, and Leroy Strasburger as Lake City Broadcasting Corporation. Consideration $6,000. Announced by the FCC on August 22, 1967
Here is what one theatre owner has to say about a movie he recently played at his theatre: “Rasputin – The Mad Monk” (20th Century-Fox) and starring Christopher Lee, Barbara Shelley, and Richard Pasco. In combination with “The Reptile,” you will have an okay horror show. Played Wednesday. Arthur K. Dane, Scenic Theatre, Pittsfield, N.H. Population 2,300.
At the movies at your local theatre –
Walt Disney’s Big Red
Walter Pidgeon, Gilles Payant, Emile Genest, and Janette Bertrand
Damon and Pythias
Kim Novak, James Garner, and Tony Randall
That Touch Of Mink
Cary Grant and Doris Day
Kid Galahad
Elvis Presley, Gig Young, Lola Albright, Joan Blackman, and Charles Bronson
Hemingway’s Adventures of a Young Man
Richard Beymer, Diane Baker and Paul Newman
The Music Man
Robert Preston, Shirley Jones, Buddy Hackett, Hermione Gingold, and Paul Ford
The Interns
Michael Callan, Cliff Robertson, James MacArthur, Nick Adams, Suzy Parker, Haya Harareet, Anne Helm, Stefanie Powers, Buddy Ebsen, Telly Savalas, and Kay Stevens
The Pirates of Blood River
Kerwin Matthews, Glenn Corbett, and Christopher Lee
The Three Stooges in Orbit
Moe, Larry, Curly Joe, Carol Christensen, and Edson Stroll Boccaccio ‘70 – Vittorio DeSica, Sophia Loren
The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm
Panic in Year Zero
Ray Milland, Jean Hagen, and Frankie Avalon
Guns of Darkness
Leslie Caron and David Niven
The Delicate Delinquent
Jerry Lewis, Darren McGavin, Martha Hyer, Robert Ivers, and Horace McHahon
Forty five years ago – Psychedelic – Fur? Psychedelic colors and modern art seem to be everywhere. They flash at you in nightclubs, fill art galleries and have made their impact on fashion. Now they are invading the fur industry. Patterns include bold black and white designs and big-to-little stripes of white, yellow, purple and black.
On Broadway – Humorist Allen Sherman will make is debut as director in “The Crocodile and the Cockeyed Moose,” starring Jack Klugman – in late December. Klugman will play a husband whose wife solves her feelings of neglect by doing amateur social work among her neighbors.
Music news – The Cream – a British trio that has been setting some records at the Fillmore Auditorium in San Francisco, appear – at the Whisky A-Go-Go on the Sunset Strip. The group consists of Eric Clapton – lead guitar, Jack Bruce on bass, harmonica and lead singer, and Ginger Baker – drums.
Beatles news – the Beatles say they are dropping out of the raucous pop culture they helped create, to tune in on transcendental meditation . The guys say they will make a two-month pilgrimage through India to study the Hindu influence brought to their attention through the teachings of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi – a self-styled Indian holy man. The Beatles were sitting at his feet when word came of Brian Epstein’s death. Says John Lennon – “We want to sell this idea of transcendental meditation to everyone. Meditation strengthens understanding and makes people relax. We want to try to set up an academy in London and use all the power we have got to get it moving. This is how we plan to use our power now. They’ve always called us leaders of youth and we believe this is a good way to give a lead.” The Beatles also announce that there will be no replacement for Brian Epstein. Brian Epstein apparently died without leaving a will, with most of his fortune tied-up in his NEMS Enterprises. A routine autopsy failed to reveal the cause of the his death. Foul play was not suspected. Epstein’s pajama-clad body was found in the bedroom of his town house in London’s posh Belgravia section. At his bedside say police, were several bottles of pills he had been taken for various ailments.
Hollywood news – Passing – Actor James Dunn, who won the Academy Award in 1940 for his portrayal of the drunken waiter in “A Tree Grows in Brooklyn.”
MGM says it has purchased 1,849 acres of land west of Thousand Oaks, Calif (about 30 miles north of Hollywood) and may transfer its movie-making operations there from Culver City. The studio has incomplete plans for a $32 million studio complex on the property.
Twentieth Century-Fox Television has made available for syndication 30 post ’50 features. Sixteen of the 30 films are in color. The films known as “Century I” package, were previously shown on NBC-TV’s “Saturday Night At the Movies” from 9-11pm EDT. 20th Century Fox Television pointed out that this is “the first significant group of films” to be released directly into domestic syndication to local TV stations. Included among the features are “How to Marry A Millionaire,” “Snows of Kilimanjaro,” “Titanic,” “Desert Fox,” “There’s No Business like Show Business,” and “Cheaper by the Dozen.”
Henry Fonda, screen, stage and television actor, signed to host and narrate “Hollywood, The Great Talkies” and “Hollywood, The Great Stars” hour long shows for ABC-TV, which David Wolper is preparing as second and third segments in his series. “Hollywood, The Great Talkies” will be broadcast on the evening of January 23, 1966, and “The Great Stars” on March 13.
ABC-TV plans to present half-hour color special “College Football – 1967” featuring film excerpts of the 1966 collegiate season, narrated by Chris Schenkel and Bud Wilkinson. The special on September 7, 10:30-11pm comes about one week before ABC-TV begins its NCAA College Football schedule, starting September 16.
A Cairo, Egypt magazine is very angry with Egyptian actor Omar Sharif, for kissing Barbra Streisand in the movie “Funny Girl.” Streisand is Jewish. Says the magazine – “Omar is no longer an Arab. He has neither fidelity nor gratitude for his home country,” said the magazine Kawakib. The magazine claims Sharif has taken an anti-Arab line since he left Egypt three years ago.
TV news – “What’s My Line?” leaves the air after more than 17 years. The last mystery guest was the host himself – John Daley. The show was full of nostalgia and included the first show’s regular contestants – a diaper service executive, a veterinarian, and a Stork Club hat check girl.
The final episode of the Fugitive received huge ratings – a 50.7 rating, representing a 73.2% share of the audience. Star David Janssen later appeared on ABC’s The Joey Bishop Show, and it too, received huge ratings.
Labor Day Telethon – hosted by Jerry Lewis, raises $1,126,846 for Muscular Dystrophy. The telethon is broadcast on one station – WNEW-TV (channel 5) in New York City.
NBC is showing a series of pilot films from the last week of August through the first week of September. Some are in today’s Sat night TV schedule. Interesting to note, teenager Tim Matheson (who would go on to fame as a movie actor in the 70’s) stars in two of the NBC pilots. One is listed below. The other is “The Hardy Boys” which was shown last Friday. Based on Franklin W. Dixon’s books – it stars Rick Gates and Tim Matheson.
Danny Thomas reunites his old TV “family” – Marjorie Lord, Rusty Hamer, Angelia Cartwright, Hans Conreid, Sid Melton and Amanda Randolph – for one of his upcoming NBC programs.
“The Beverly Hillsbillies” go to England for a couple of shows next season. Premise: Jed inherits a castle over there.
Two of TV’s past suspense heroes turn up in a couple of present-day Westerns – Mark Richman (Cain’s Hundred) in a Daniel Boone, and James Day (Foreign Intrigue) in an episode of the new “Custer.”
MacDonald Carey switches from soap operas to comedy when he take a breather from the daily “Days of Our Lives,” to appear in an episode of “Bewitched.”
Bob Denver (“Gilligan’s Island”) visits “I Dream of Jeannie”.
Dale Robertson of ABC’s “The Iron Horse” has been chosen honorary chairman for California in the 1967 Christmas Seal campaign. This year’s seal features in old-time locomotive.
Ronny Howard – Opie of “The Andy Griffith Show” will be having his first romance in the season’s opening episode on September 11.
The new man in “Bonanza” is an actor with the unlikely name of David Canary. He will not be a member of the Cartwright clan, but a drifter named Candy who just happened to run into them.
Running the amut: Ethel Merman, who will be a guest villains in “Batman”, also is set to visit the cuddly confines of “Family Affair.” And Batman Adam West makes his fourth singing appearance on “The Hollywood Palace” next season.
Saturday Night Television –
CBS – Gunsmoke, My Three Sons (Tina Cole joins the cast as Robbie’s love interest and the Douglas family moves to Southern California) , Hogan’s Heroes (Assigned to sabotage a tunnel, Hogan and his men are hindered in their task by a scatterbrained British colonel. Stars Bob Crane, Werner Klemperer, John Banner, Robert Clary, Richard Dawson, Ivan Dixon, and Larry Hovis), Petticoat Junction, Jackie Gleason Show
NBC – Weekend, Miss America Pageant, Special-Rowan and Martin’s Laugh-In (Starring the comedy team of Dan Rowan and Dick Martin and their guests, Pamela Austin, Ken Berry, Ruth Buzzi, Judy Carne, Barbara Felden, Henry Gibson, Larry Hovis, Arte Johnson, Monty Landis, and Jo Anne Worley. Interesting because this would become a regular series in January. Some of these “guests” would make it, some would not make it), Pilot (Weekend – A pilot series about how the younger generation spends the weekend. Stars Tim Matheson, Rick Kelman and Lee Goodman. Guest stars are Lori Martin and Tony Dow), Get Smart (Smart and 99 close in on the KAOS agent behind a plot to dehydrate the United States – last of three parts).
ABC – The Dating Game, The Newlywed Game, Lawrence Welk, Piccadilly Palace.
At the movies in your local home town –
Born Losers
Tom Laughlin, Elizabeth James, Jeremy Slate, William Wellman Jr. and Jane Russell
The Love-Ins
Richard Todd, James MacArthur, Susan Oliver, and Joe Pyne.
In The Heat of the Night
Sidney Poitier and Rod Steiger
Bonnie and Clyde
Warren Beatty and Faye Dunaway
A Guide For The Married Man
Lucille Ball and Jack Benny
Caprice
Doris Day and Richard Harris
Gunn
Craig Stevens, Laura Devon, Edward Asner, Albert Paulsen, and Sherry Jackson
Doctor Zhivago
Geraldine Chaplin, Julie Christie, Tom Courtenay, Alec Guinness, and Siobhan, McKenna
Luv
Jack Lemmon, Peter Falk, and Elaine May
The Trip
Peter Fonda and Susan Strasberg
Barefoot in the Park
Robert Redford and Jane Fonda
El Dorado
John Wayne, Robert Mitchum, James Caan, Charlene Holt, Paul Fix, Author Hunnicutt, and Michele Carey
Walt Disney’s The Happiest Millionaire
No More Stately Mansions
Ingrid Bergman, Arthur Hill, and Colleen Dewhurst
You Only Live Twice
Sean Connery as James Bond
Don’t Look Back
Bob Dylan
Grand Prix
James Garner and Eva Marie Saint, filmed in single camera Cinerama and shown on a reserved seat basis in select cities.
NETWORK NEWS
Nielsen says that when all was said and done, the London Olympics were the most-watched event in U.S. television history, with 219.4 million people viewing some of the telecasts. The record had been held by the Beijing Games with a reach of 215 million viewers……It was probably inevitable that there would be complaints about NBC’s editing of the Olympics Closing Ceremonies from London. But because of Twitter and other social media sites, the U.S. audience knew exactly what it was missing–including some pretty big musical acts. There was also a lot of grumbling online about the network cutting into the coverage to give a preview of Animal Hospital…..As it happened the telecast also went dark on DirecTV for about half an hour during the ceremonies…… Miley Cyrus is said to be joining “Two and a Half Men” as a love interest for the “half” character of the title.
According to Bruce Leichtman, president and principal analyst of the Leichtman Research Group, the top nine cable operators lost a combined 540,000 basic video subscribers in the second quarter, less than the 600,000 lost the year before in the same period. Telcos picked up 275,000 new subs, down from 386,000 the year prior and the satellite providers lost 62,000. All that means that there were 327,000 fewer video subs in the second quarter…….On Monday, the Huffington Post launched an online video news network –HuffPostLive–with 12 hours a day of programming. Cadillac and Verizon are the “founding partners” of the network according to Huffington Post. Some published reports said the network was asking upwards of $5 million for sponsorships.
Last Friday’s two-hour grand finale of Univision’s telenovela “La Que No Podia Amar” averaged 5.8 million viewers, with 8 million watching at least part of the program. The show was the second-most watched show on all of broadcast in total viewers, A18-49 and A18-34, surpassed only by NBC’s telecast of the Olympics. In fact, the series was typically the second highest rated program in the younger demos throughout the Olympics……Carrie Underwood and Brad Paisley have signed on to once again host the “46th Annual CMA Awards,” which airs on ABC Thursday, November 1, 8-11PM.
“America’s Got Talent” was back on NBC after a two week Olympic hiatus and although it won its time period and put NBC on top in both HHs and A18-49, it earned essentially the same ratings as it had before the Games.
This week’s birthdays include: Mitzi Gaynor (September 4, age 82), William Devane (September 5, age 76), Bob Newhart (also September 5, age 83), Billy Rose (September 6, would have been 123), Peter Lawford (September 7, would have been 89), Sid Caesar (September 8, age 90) and Peter Sellers (also September 8, would have been 87).
If you have any questions or comments regarding “TV Talk,” you can reach Pete Sieler at [email protected] .
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Pete Sieler Comment
TV Radio and Movies, then and now…
Sixty Years ago – In front of the American Legion Convention in Madison Square Garden, Republican Presidential nominee Dwight D. Eisenhower pledges to end corruption in the government. “Let us end corruption in public office, at every level of government. In world opinion and in world effectiveness, the United States is measured by the moral firmness of its public officials.” Eisenhower also said that he does not believe the Russians are ready to fight and war will not come soon, unless “it is by accident of the powder keg variety.”
A leading manufacturer of brassieres says voluptuous Marilyn Monroe is man’s idea of perfection and leads their top-10 list. “Here we have a man’s idea of the perfect figure,” said Pauline Gordon, a spokesperson. “And so I guess it automatically becomes practically every woman’s goal to achieve a reasonable facsimile.” Also on the list – Katharine Hepburn – “exquisitely proportioned,” Dinah Shore – “an exquisite bustline,” actress-writer Ilka Chase – “the truly thoroughbred figure.”
Marries – Andre Previn (24), conductor, singer to Betsy Bennett (25).
Passing – Robin Rogers – only daughter of Roy Rogers of complications of mumps. She would have been two-years-old this week.
At your nearby Arthur Murray’s – learn to Rumba for only $25.00.
The sale of radio’s still outpaces the sale of TV sets. Over the last five years, 75 million radios were sold, compared to 17 million TV’s. Television is one of the fastest growing industries. Advertising gains for media are as follows for 1950-1951: Newspapers gained 10.8%, direct mail gained 15%, radio 11.9% and television gained 93.3%.
“The Patti Page Show” debuts this week. Unlike most stars, Patti Page has made the segue to television directly from records and not radio. Her biggest hit – “Tennessee Waltz”- has sold more than 4 million copies for Mercury records. Last year, she sold more than 6 million records.
Thursday night TV includes I’ve Got a Secret, Dinah Shore Show, Groucho Marx, Burns and Allen, Dragnet, Mr. Pepper, Racket Squad.
Admiral Corporation, Chicago, has introduced what it claims is the lowest-priced 21-inch TV table model thus far. At a showing before 400 dealers and distributors in Chicago, the company unveiled its 121DX11 for $199.95, which includes federal excise tax, a one year warranty on the picture tube and a 90 day parts warranty.
Four programs placed in the first fifteen in five of the six cities covered by C.E. Hooper Inc’s July 1-28 “Hooperade of TV Stars” released last week. The four: “Godfrey’s Talent Scouts,” “Godfrey’s Friends,” the Pabst boxing matches of July 2 and “My Little Margie,” all on CBS-TV.
TV’s growth appears to be “the major factor” in the closing of motion picture theatres throughout the country, according to National Association of Real Estate Boards. The NAREB revealed this opinion in commenting on the impact of theatre closings on surrounding estates.
One of TV’s top-rated programs, “Kukla, Fran & Ollie,” returned to NBC-TV on Sunday, 4-4:30pm EDT under the semi-sponsorship of NBC’s affiliated company, RCA Victor. RCA Victor will underwrite the program alternate weeks. Other sponsors have not yet been announced. The program will originate from NBC’s Central Division Headquarters though WNBQ-TV, Chicago.
Warner Bros Pictures has begun to promote the motion picture “Miracle of Our Lady of Fatima” opening at the Astor and Bijou Theatres in New York, on several television stations in the New York area, principally WNBT (TV), New York. The station announced last week that Warner Bros has allocated WNBT approximately 75% of total airtime planning for the campaign, which stated August 18.
Bing Crosby is not expected to appear on television this fall. His new contract with General Electric calls for his service in both radio and TV, but permits him to do as he wishes. Mr. Crosby reportedly feels that 39 half-hour radio shows plus two Paramount Pictures feature films will fill this season and therefore is postponing video activity until the next year.
Edward Lewis Productions, now filming CBS-TV “Schlitz Playhouse of Stars” at Tepeyac Studios, Mexico City, is in production on “Calamity Jane” for which Johnny Mercer has written special lyrics and music. the song will be used as the theme of a series to be developed from the half-hour pilot film, starring Joan Blondell and Tom Ewell. Robert Aldrich directs from a script by Luther Davis.
On the FCC docket: Darlington Bcstg. Co., Darlington, South Carolina, being advised that application for new AM on 590 kc, 500 watt daytime, issues questions on interference to WGTM, Wilson, North Carolina and WAYS, Charlotte, North Carolina, and indicated need of a hearing.
Also granted by the FCC for new radio station in Fairmont, North Carolina: Carolina Broadcasting Co. granted 860 kc, 1 kw daytime, antenna 251 feet, estimated construction cost of $16,275.00, first year operating at $24,000 and revenue at $36,000. Principals include W.V Morgan (50%), owner and general manager of Morgan Motor Company, Raeford, North Carolina, Secretary Treasurer W.D. Harris (47.5%), territory manager 1949-50 for General Tire and Rubber Company, and Anne P. Harris (2.5%), wife of W.D. Harris. Filed on August 1, 1951 and granted August 21, 1952.
Kellogg of Battle Creek, Michigan will sponsor the first half hour of “Super Circus,” Sunday 4-5PM on ABC-TV, effective September 28, 1952.
Here is what one local theatre owner has to say about a movie he recently played at his theatre: “Take Care of My Little Girl” starring Jeanne Crain, Dale Robertson, and Mitzi Gaynor. If it had not been for our technical school students, we would surely have gone in the red but the school was dismissed in order for the students to see this picture. Of course, all the teenagers felt it could not have been surpassed but adult comment was about 50-50 for and against. If you have a large school near you, put it on. But if not, our advice is to lay off or to double bill it. Played Wednesday and Thursday, weather was good – Sam Holmberg, New Regal Theatre, Sturgis, Sask. Canada. Rural Patronage.
At the movies –
Lana Turner and Fernando Lamas
Affair in Trinidad
Rita Hayworth and Glenn Ford
What Price Glory
James Cagney, Corinne Calvet, and Dan Dailey
Dreamboat
Clifton Webb and Ginger Rogers
Jumping Jacks
Dean Martin & Jerry Lewis
Pop music this week in 1952 – “Auf Wiederseh n Sweetheart” – Vera Lynn , “You Belong To Me” – Jo Stafford, “Botch-A-Me” – Rosemary Clooney, “Maybe” – Perry Como/Eddie Fisher, “Walkin’ My Baby Back Home “ – Johnnie Ray, “Sugarbush” – Doris Day/Frankie Laine, “Once In A While” – Patti Page.
Fifty five years ago – Teamster’s Western boss Frank Brewster, receives the maximum penalty for contempt of Congress – a year in jail and a $1000 fine. Senate Rackets investigators abruptly call off their grilling of Teamsters Union Boss James R. Hoffa with the charge that “the witness has no memory.”
In Japan before three judges – Army GI William S. Girard denies that he deliberately shot and killed a Japanese woman on a U.S. firing range last January.
Russia says it has successfully tested an intercontinental rocket missile which can “hit any spot on the globe.” If true, Russia has the first of its kind.
Refusal from the Senate Armed Services Committee – Actor James Stewart fails to get his Air Force Reserve Brigadier General star. Stewart’s advancement was blocked mainly by the efforts of Sen. Margaret Chase Smith (R-ME). She says Stewart is a fine fellow and admires his acting and WWII record, but according to her, he hasn’t been turning out for reserve training the way he should.
In Wisconsin – Democrat William E. Proxmire wins the U.S. Senate seat left vacant by the death of Republican Joseph McCarthy.
Civil Rights Bill Passed – “Most that could be done this year” says President Eisenhower as the civil rights bill is passed by the House, even though it fell short of what the President wanted. The measure was put to a motion by Sen. Strom Thurmond of South Carolina, who wanted to send it to the Judiciary Committee, but a vote by the senate, was successful enough to shunt the move. Thurmond conducted a one-man (24hour-19 minute filibuster) against the bill.
A federal grand jury indicts Teamster President Dave Beck on seven counts of tax evasion. His son, Dave Jr., is accused of conspiring to aid in the evasion.
In Nashville, segregationist John Kasper at a rally warns Negroes registering for first integration of public schools in a Deep South metropolis to “get out.”
The hottest hitter in baseball these days is newcomer/rookie Bob Hazle of the Milwaukee Braves with a batting average of .507. The Braves currently lead the National League by a wide margin.
The New York Giants beat the Rams 24-7. Halfback Frank Gifford, scored twice.
Ray Robinson agrees to fight Carmen Basillo for the world middleweight title September 23 at Yankee Stadium. The jackpot is $255,000.
Entertainment news –
Virginia Palance, wife of actor Jack Palance, seeks a divorce from her husband. Court papers allege he had been “habitually intemperate and has beat” and struck his wife.
A long way from Sunnybrook Farm, black-haired, 29 year old Shirley Temple, who squeezed coos and clucks from the movie going world as the gold-topped moppet of the 30’s announced that she would end an eight-year retirement from show business, she will be seeking ohs and ahs as the narrator and sometime star of a series of TV fairy tales. Tryout audience for her stories of dragons and derring-do, her children, Susan 9, Charles 5, and Lori 3.
Ho Chi Minh, the goateed scholar and activist who is President of the Communist North Viet Nam, last week smooched in comradely fashion with Polish Communist Chief Wladyslaw Gumulka this week he continues his bus ride through the satellites, reared back and thrust his deep-pile chops at Yugoslavia’s Marshal Tito. Then, to prove there was Marxism beneath the mush, he fired off a blast at “Imperial America and its puppets, who are continuing to arm themselves in an attempt to dominate the world.” Next target for Ho’s communal cuddling – Albania’s Enver Hoxha.
Covering the Mediterranean waterfront for the Hearst press, Elsa Maxwell tersely laid the scene of a Stavros Niarchos wingding – “The Creole” at anchor in the port of Villefranche, lay low in the water like a black panther of the sea” – pounded out the hard news with dispatch – “It was too funny for words. Mrs. Guinness took off her shoes, The Duchess did her conception of the Calypso, Harold Vanderbilt begged me to dance with him. I refused only because, though I love Harold, I cannot dance” – but lost control in her bread-and-butter blurb – “when I said good night to Stravros, I felt much of my old affection rush into my heart and I said, “You remarkable man, you are a fantastic greek and a great sailor, a real man of the sea.”
Comedian Red Skelton spends an hour praying at the Roman Catholic shrine of Our Lady of Fatima for the life of his 9-year-old son Richard, who is suffering from Leukemia. Arriving at Fatima, Portugal, Skelton said, “God alone can save my boy’s life, as science has done all it can.”
Television news – The FCC reports that the television industry has revenues from broadcasting operations in 1956 of $896,900,000, up 20.4% from 1955.
New TV film series based on the book “Trader Horn” will be filmed during the next few months in Africa and London for release to TV in the fall of 1958. The series will be produced by Michael Kraike, motion picture producer, who holds the TV rights to “Trader Horn.” In association with GroosKrasne, Ltd, A former producer of motion pictures for RKO, Columbia, and Universal-International, Mr. Kraike entered TV as producer of “The Ford Theatre” filmed programs. He organized TCF Television production, 20th Century Fox subsidiary, and was executive producer of the initial TCF series, “My Friend Flicka.”
CBS Television sales last week completed the sale in five cities of 130 episodes of “Our Miss Brooks,” just released for syndication, according to Thomas W. Moore, general sales manager. The five markets – New York, Detroit, Wilmington, Los Angeles, and Scranton represent 28.76% of the total number of sets in the nation. They bought the series 48 hours after it was put on the market, according to Mr. Moore. Meanwhile, CBS Television Film Sales reported sale of 12 properties to five foreign countries..
Ford Division of Ford Motor Company has renewed its sponsorship of NBC’s “The Ford Show” starring Tennessee Ernie Ford (Thursday, 9:30-10pm) for 52 weeks starting October 3, 1957.
National Carbon Company (Prestone anti-freeze and Eveready Batteries) has signed for ABC-TV for two John Daly newscast (Mon-Friday, 7-7:15pm) per week during October, three episodes of “Sugarfoot” (alt Tuesday 7:30-8:30pm) in October and November, and “Navy Log” (Thursday 10-10:30pm) on October 24th.
Mennen Company has signed to sponsor ABC-TV’s “O.S.S.” series, Thursday’s from 9:30-10pm. The cloak and dagger series is based of Office of Strategies Services in World War II. The series is being filmed at National Studio’s near London, England.
CBS-TV, which had hoped to inject “an adult eastern” titled “The Gray Ghost” into the network season this fall, but failed to attract a major advertiser, seems to be doing better on sales, now that it has placed “Ghosts” as a first-run syndicated series. In a report issued last week the company said it racked up sales to date in 75 markets, with 100 market sales not far off. “Gray Ghost” is a Lindsley Parson’s Productions, with the series filmed in Hollywood and distributed nationally by CBS-TV film sales. The series, which will begin showing October 10, has been purchased by Habitant Soup Company, Welch Grape Juice, Wesson Oil, and Snowdrift Sales. The new series deals with the Civil War exploits of Confederate Col. John S. Mosby, about whom stories were revived over the past few years by Virgil Carrington Jones, manager of the Washington, D.C. public relations office of Curtis Publishing (Saturday Evening Post, Holliday). Mr. Jones, who was retained by Parsons as an advisor on the filming of the series, wrote the two Henry Holt and Company books, “Ranger Mosby” and “The Gray Ghost” and “Rebel Raiders,” on which the series is based. An executive of Holt said last week that Mr. Jones had signed for no TV rights, but the TV series was “loosely based upon” the “idea” of “Gray Ghosts and the Rebel Raiders.” He added that Holt would effect merchandising tie-ins with several of the sponsors.
Four college football games, including the Army-Navy games (November 30) will be colorcast as well as shown in black-and-white this fall over NBC-TV. Other games set for color are Oklahoma-Notre Dame game on November 16 and two Big Ten games on October 19 and November 2. These games are part of the nine-date schedule of National Collegiate Athletic Assn. football games to be shown on NBC-TV.
Are rave reviews for TV dramatic programs necessarily indicative of guaranteed success of adaption’s at the movie house box office? No, say several members of the film industry, who feel the public will not pay for something they already have seen free. Cases in point: United Artists Corporation “Twelve Angry Men” and “Patterns,” both based on the TV scripts by, respectively: Reginald Rose for “Studio One;” and Rod Serling for “Kraft Television Theatre;” U-A’s “The Bachelor Party,” based on a Paddy Chayefsky script for the old “Philco-Goodyear Playhouse; Allied Art’s “Dino,” again by Mr. Rose; MGM’s “The Catered Affair,” based on another Chayefsky script and M-G-M’s “Edge of the City,” based on Robert Alan Arthur’s “A Man is Ten Feet Tall,” a Philco-Goodyear effort. These films while all enthusiastically greeted by reviewers, have floundered at the Box office, while thematically, these movies may seem a somewhat heavy diet for patrons used to light entertainment, film executives declare, the fact remains that people will not pay for something that at one time was “Free.” Consequently, Hollywood, while still eager for young TV writers, such as Gore Vidal, Messrs Chayefsky, Rose, Serling, and others is doing some double-thinking about purchasing new properties which initially received TV exposure.
Walt Disney, who has perfected to an art the ability to get the longest-stretching dollar out of his properties through merchandising tie-ins, has effected another means of added revenue when “Zorro” premieres on ABC-TV, October 10. “Zorro” billed as an adult western, deals with an early Californian, who leads two lives, one as an educated gentlemen, the other has a masked night rider, a sort of “gaucho Robin Hood.” Disney Production’s character merchandising Division in New York last week said it had signed merchandising or royalty contracts with over 50 toy and game manufacturers, jewelry and novelty manufacturers, sales promotion firms and soft goods companies. All items will bear one relation or another with the main character of “Zorro” or with the hero himself.
Here is what local movie theatre owner has to say about a movie that he recently played at his theatre, “Hollywood or Bust” from Paramount Pictures and starring Dean Martin, Jerry Lewis and Ekberg. Good enough comedy, business off. Play Sunday, Monday and Tuesday, weather was wet, D.W. Trisko, Runge Theatre, Runge, Texas, population 1,055.
Jackie Gleason, incidentally, has been bitten by the golfing bug. He’s been playing regularly at Fred Warning’s Shawnee-on-the-Delware and those who have watched him say he’s powerful but erratic.
NBC has finally decided on “Suspicion” as the title for its Monday night fall drama series originally named “Crisis.” Dennis O’Keefe signed as permanent host of the show.
Andre Baruch, announcer of “Your Hit Parade,” is cooking up a new panel-quiz show for the fall about look-alikes. It’s to be titled “Double Exposure.” If you think you’re a double for a famous person, send your picture to Andre.
“Studio One” opens its fall season September 9 with “The Night America Trembled” based on Orson Welles 1938 Radio Broadcast of “War of the Worlds.”
Saturday morning Kid’s TV –
CBS – On the Carousel, Captain Kangaroo, Mighty Mouse Playhouse, Susan’s Show, It’s a Hit! The Big Top, The Lone Ranger
NBC – Children’s Theatre, Howdy Doody, The Gumby Show, Fury, Captain Gallant
Saturday night television –
CBS – The Bucaneers, Jimmy Durante, Two for the Money, Gale Storm Show, S.R.O. Playhouse, Gunsmoke, Jimmy Dean Show (with Jan Crockett, Texas Wildcats, Jo Davis, Mary Klick, Alex Houston and the Country Lads)
NBC – People Are Funny, Julius La Rosa Show (Ames Brothers, Bob Hamilton Trio, Jay Lawrence, Sunny Gale and the Skypettos), Mystery Theater w/George Sanders, Dollar a Second, Encore Theatre, Adventure Theatre
ABC – Passport to Danger, Billy Graham, Lawrence Welk, Country Music Jamboree
Music news – Jerry Lee Lewis just made his first TV appearances, both on the Steve Allen Show. First was July 28 and the second was last week (11). While in New York, Lewis completed his stint for the movie “Jamboree” and he’s booked for the upcoming Alan Freed show at the Brooklyn Paramount August 28-September 8.
Dick Clark’s “American Bandstand,” which just debuted August 5, is getting decent reviews. The show airs 3-4:30 weekday afternoons. It’s produced by Tony Mammarella.
Ricky Nelson (17) has a recording contract approved by a judge. The one- year contract with Imperial Records has a year’s option and gives Ricky approximately 5% of the record sales. 50% of Ricky’s earnings will go into a savings trust fund established with his earnings from participation in his family’s TV show.
Country music star Jim Reeves will begin a daily afternoon (1 hour) radio show on ABC October 7. Broadcast from Nashville, the show will feature regulars the Anita Kerr Singers and Owen Bradley’s orchestra.
Milton Berle signs with Roulette Records to do a series of albums as a conductor, following the likes of Jackie Gleason, Phil Silvers, Steve Allen, Frank Sinatra and Alan Freed. He just cut his first, conducting a 40-pice orchestra and a chorus of 26 voices. Most recently, Phil Silvers did the Columbia album – Phil Silvers and Swingin’ Brass with “Sgt. Bilko” fronting a brass band. Frank Sinatra fronted a symphony orchestra at Columbia a few years ago.
Jocko Henderson, DJ rival to Alan Freed and heard over WOV (1280) is conducting a Labor Day R&R show.
Top Country & Western –
Bye, Bye Love – Everly Brothers
Fraulein – Bobby Helms
Whole Lotta Shakin’ Goin’ On – Jerry Lee Lewis
Fallen Star – Jimmy Newman
Gonna Find Me A Bluebird – Marvin Rainwater
My Shoes Keep Walking Back To You – Ray Price
Fallen Star/Prize Possession – Ferlin Husky
Next In Line – Johnny Cash
White Sport Coat – Marty Robbins
Tangled Mind – Hank Snow
Love Letters in The Sand – Pat Boone
All Shook Up – Elvis Presley
Teddy Bear – Elvis Presley
Island in the Sun – Harry Belafonte
Last Train To San Fernando – Johnny Duncan
Bye Bye Love – Everly Brothers
With All My Heart – Petula Clark
Puttin’ On the Style/Gamblin’ Man – Lonnie Donnegan
Fabulous – Charlie Gracie
Radio – Bob Crane, Who Came To KNX Los Angeles A Year Ago From WICC Bridgeport.
At the movies –
Doris Day and John Raitt
Man of a Thousand Faces
James Cagney
The Rising of the Moon
Nana
Martine Carol and Charles Boyer
A Novel Affair
Ralph Richardson and Margaret Leighton
The Sun Also Rises
Tyrone Power and Ava Gardner
Jeanne Eagles
Kim Novak, Jeff Chandler, and Agnes Moorehead
Chicago Confidential
Brian Keith, Beverly garland, and Dick Foran
Walt Disney’s The Story of Perri
Fifty Years ago – Asked at a press conference for comment on a suggestion that the U.S. should undertake an invasion of Cuba – President Kennedy said – “I am not for invading Cuba at this time. Such an action would be a mistake at any time.”
At Newport, RI, President Kennedy arrives for a weekend family reunion with his wife and daughter, home from a vacation in Italy, and his son John, who has been staying with his grandmother. Earlier in the day, Mrs. Kennedy and Caroline arrived from Salerno – on Italy’s Gulf. They had been on vacation for nearly a month.
The Soviet Union announces it has agreed to a Cuban request for delivery of military equipment. There is no detail as to the type or amount of equipment to be delivered.
An earthquake in Iran kills more than 4,000 people. At least 75 towns and villages are reported leveled in a broad triangular area west of Tehran. The death count could go as high as 10,000.
President Kennedy personally took a hand last week in the effort to get convicted spy Robert Soblen back to the U.S… JFK phoned Prime Minister Macmillan asking that Soblen either be put aboard a U.S. plane or that deportation proceedings are begun against him. The P.M. said he would do all he could. Incidentally, a Pan American plane, chartered by the U.S. Government has been standing by in London since Soblen arrived.
To soften the blow of new repressive measures in Southern Rhodesia, Federation Prime Minister Roy Welensky may soon name a Negro to his Cabinet. Likely candidate, a United Federation Party leader, Goodwin Lewanika.
The U.S. Plans to recognize the Peruvians Government late this week. The announcement was drafted for release a week ago, but it was held up pending new and stronger assurances from the junta and new elections will be held and the results accepted.
U.S. officials who attended Independence Day ceremonies in Kingston, Jamaica are miffed at British Colonial office representatives. The complaint: The Britishers spared no effort to keep Vice President Johnson from upstaging their own Princess Margaret. It took three days of dickering just to get permission for a joint picture.
Temporary injunctions were given to five rail unions to block the industry’s proposed changes on work rules. The injunction solves no basic issues; railroads will ask Appeals Court to vacate it so that the new rules can be put into effect this week. If this happens, the unions say they will be “forced” to strike.
Died: Robert Lyman (Dink) Templeton, 65, renowned track-and-field authority who produced ten world records holders and insisted on continual practice for his runners as coach at Sanford University from 1921-1939, of a heart attack in Palo Alto, California.
Also passing away, Ida Tobias Cantor, 70, wife of comedian Eddie Cantor for 48 years, and mother of his five daughters. The wide-eyed entertainer’s childhood sweetheart from the lower east side of New York who was the object of a favorite Cantor Song, “Ida,” died of a heart attack in Beverly Hills, California.
20th Century Fox Corporation is planning to increase its TV production activity as part of “firm policy” to secure significant place in field. Company’s plans were announced by Darryl F. Zanuck, president, following August 23 board of directors meeting. He said he had asked board for “full authority” to organize “complete television department” to produce various series. At present, Fox produces only one series, “Dobie Gillis.” Mr. Zanuck said TV strengthening is part of “realistic” policy to restore Fox to a “healthy condition” after a five year decline. He predicted company’s net losses this year would be about $25 million.
Two major southern TV licenses are competing for the right to build a cable system in Florence, South Carolina. The Florence Cable Company (75% owned by Jefferson Standard Publishing Co) last week asked the Florence City Council for a franchise. This application is mutually exclusive with one submitted several weeks ago by Broadcasting Company of the South. Jefferson which owns WBTW (TV) Florence and WBT-AM-FM and WBTV (TV) Charlotte, North Carolina, proposed a 12 channel system to cost $400,000. It would enable subscribers for a $20 installation fee and $5 monthly, to receive seven commercial stations, the state educational TV network, quality music, and 24 hour weather time and temperature service. Charles H. Crutchfield, executive vice president of Jefferson Standard, said the company is considering applying for cable systems in other cities. Broadcasting Company of the South owns WIS-AM-TV, Columbia, South Carolina and WSFA-TV, Montgomery, Ala. Richard Shafto, executive vice president of BCS, is president and major owner of Trehan Company, which holds cable tv franchises in Myrtle Beach, Conway and Georgetown, all South Carolina. Still another broadcaster entered cable tv when Miami Valley Broadcasting (WHIO-TV-AM-FM), Dayton, Ohio completed plans for $660,000 purchase of a system in Lewistown, Pa. The Lewiston cable system, Pennwise TV, supplies five channels to 4,344 subscribers. George F. Gardner, Pennwise president, announced the sale. WHIO-TV-AM-FM are James M Cox stations and are headed by J. Leonard Reinsch, advisor to President Kennedy. Other Cox stations include WSB-AM-FM-TV, Atlanta, Georgia, WSOC-AM-FM-TV, Charlotte, North Carolina and 30% of WCKT (TV) Miami.
National Telefilm Associates, New York, announced last week the purchase of exclusive tv distribution rights to “Top Rank,” 25 first run J. Arthur Rank (London) features and world wide syndication rights to “Peril 13,” a new series of 13 first hour thrillers from the Rank Organization. The first package includes seven films of the 1956 vintage and 10 color films.
Forty Five Years ago – President Johnson orders the construction of a community for 25,000 residents from all income groups on a 335-acre tract of surplus federal land in northeast Washington, D.C. It is intended as a pilot project to determine the feasibility of building more projects on other pieces of land owned by the federal government. The project is expected to take 5 to 7 years to complete. The President also names a task force to seek out other surplus land sites, or sites that could be declared surplus from Watts to New York City for other projects.
President Johnson says there is no deep division between military and civilian officials in the administration over Vietnam bombing policy.
In South Vietnam’s first presidential election since 1961, the military ticket of Chief of State Nguyen Van Thieu and his vice presidential running mate, Premier Nguyen Cao Ky, are the winners.
Egypt and Israel fight an artillery and naval battle that raged for nearly seven hours along the Suez Canal cease-fire line near the Red sea. It was the heaviest fighting at the canal in the six weeks. An U.N. observer team has patrolled the uneasy truce line.
Passing – Robert King High, popular five-term mayor of Miami, Fla – who dreamed of being governor and almost made it – of a heart attack at 43.
Forty Years ago – Miami – President Nixon is nominated for a second term and makes an appeal to the millions of youthful voters. “I don’t think the youth vote is in anyone’s pocket. I think they will be independent. They are casting their first vote. We have just as good a shot at it as the other side and we’re going to get it.”
Republican National Convention – Police in Miami quell an unruly demonstration with 212 arrests
Miami – Cheering Republicans hear Richard M. Nixon accept their presidential nomination. Nixon appealed to Democrats to “come home” to the GOP. “Six weeks ago, our opponents in their convention rejected many of the principles of the Democratic Party. To those millions who have been driven out of your home in the Democratic Party we say ‘Come Home.’ We say come home not to another party, but come home to the great principles we Americans believe in together.”
A crowd of 15,000 welcomes President Nixon home to the Western White House in San Clemente.
Vice President Agnew tells a Miami convention crowd that he was a new conciliatory candidate and did not intend to play the “cutting edge” role for the republicans that he had in the past. After his re-nomination, Agnew broke a self- imposed silence to tell newsmen he was “distressed at the generalized identity that I received as the vice presidential candidate in 1968 and as a campaigner in 1970.
New organization – “Mothers Alone, Inc.” founded to help unwed mothers who decide to keep their children and rear them by themselves, they meet each month at Chicago’s Roosevelt University.
Entertainment – Ali McGraw, who was to star as daisy opposite Robert Redford in “The Great Gatsby,” says she will not do the movie. She’s ending her marriage from Paramount’s studio chief Robert Evans.
Music news –
Would you believe it? The Osmonds break a record for the group with the biggest amount of gold records in a year (to this point). From March 1971 to March 1972, they had a total of 10 gold albums and singles. Up to this month, it’s now 12 with Donny’s latest album, “Too Young.” The year sum compares to the Beatles – with nine and Elvis Presley with eight.
Grace Slick and Paul Kantner of the Jefferson Airplane plead innocent to charges of assaulting a policeman after a concert in the Rubber Bowl at Akron. They were arrested after a rock throwing disturbance among persons in the audience.
Did you see John & Yoko’s “One-to-One’ Concert in Madison Square Garden? Also appearing – Roberta Flack, the cast of Godspell, Sha-Na-Na Stevie Wonder, Elephant’s Memory, Allen Ginsburg and Abbie Hoffman. The concert benefited retarded children. Appearing at the Apollo in Harlem – Jerry Butler, The Main Ingredient, The O’Jays and Chakachas.
The Robert Stigwood production of “Jesus Christ Superstar” has grossed over $62 million in both box office receipts and the sale of original cast albums in the U.S. alone. The original concert version of the show has played 454 performances in 155 cities across the U.S. Preparations are being made for staging the show in Finland, Austria, Switzerland, Belgium, Argentina, Chile, Venezuela, New Zealand, Hong Kong, Holland and Italy.
Neil Bogart, president of Buddah Records, says as the volume of product and tightening of radio playlists continue to challenge the exposure of new music, original music for motion pictures will become increasingly important as an avenue of exposure. Bogart said the immediate impact of Curtis Mayfield’s soundtrack for “Superfly,” an album which he says has shown the most immediate impact of any album in Buddah’s history. Some 212,000 albums had moved since the release date 10 days earlier. “Gone are the days of name musicians simply contributing background music. Music should never be merely incidental. Even instrumental music should have something to say.” “It’s silly to expect the masses to go see a movie today, particularly when they include the youth market, if the music isn’t dressed in the ideas the audience can understand.” Terry Knight is granted a $1 million order of attachment against Donald Brewer, Mark Farner, and Mel Schacher of Grand Funk Railroad. The order says each of the group must contribute one-third of the total amount. The court order states that the local or county sheriff “levy upon such property in which the said defendants have an interest and upon such debts owing to said the defendants as will satisfy the plaintiff’s demand of $1 million, together with interest, sheriff’s fees and expenses.” Knight is the band’s former manager.
The Robert Stigwood organization is planning to launch its own label, RSO in September. The label will be introduced with music from Eric Clapton and
the Bee Gees.
Hollywood – Contemporary Entertainment Services Inc asks the Civil Aeronautics Board for permission to charge out to rock bands and other entertainment groups, a jet plane fitted out as a flying rehearsal room. The Boeing 720A jet would be modified to provide two bedrooms, a dressing room, seats convertible for four more beds, a rehearsal area, a piano, three bathrooms, tub and shower, air-to-ground telephone and professional studio equipment.
Radio news –
More FM stations are programming beautiful music than ever before. Some 20% of all FM stations program the format, up from 13.7% in 1970.
In syndication – Dick Summer’s “Lovin’ Touch.”
WAPE (690) Jacksonville Lineup – Cleveland Wheeler, Larry Dixon, Tom Kennedy, Don Smith, Sean Conrad and John Moore.
WCBS-FM is switching to a rock-n-roll oldies format. Cross-town WOR-FM, which use to program up to 50% oldies, has backed off somewhat, and WCBS-FM feels there’s a nice hole here. Another CBS-FM station, WCAU-FM in Philadelphia has been successful with oldies as is WBBM-FM Chicago. Staff of WCBS-FM includes Johnny Michaels, Ed Williams, Bobby Wayne, Bill Brown, Don Kaye Reed, and John Vidaver. PD is Dick Bozzi.
Television news –
The Partridge Family just spent a week at Kings Island, a new entertainment center near Cincinnati, for a fall episode. In it, Keith falls for a PR girl, played by Mary Ann Mobley.
CBS will debut three new game shows on September 4 – The Joker’s Wild, New Price is Right, and Gambit.
Jay Stewart – the announcer on “Let’s Make A Deal,” will guest in an episode of Hawaii Five-O.
Sunday night television –
CBS – 50 Minutes, Movie, Life of Leonard da Vinci
NBC – Wonderful World of Disney, Jimmy Stewart Show, Bonanza (A grieving grandfather seeks vengeance for the murder of his young grandson. Written and directed by Michael Landon), The Bold Ones (Story of a tycoon who enters Craig Institute for a two-fold purpose – to have a routine checkup and to outsmart a ruthless rival. Guest stars Arthur Hill and Carol Lynley)
ABC – Olympic Games
PBS – French Chief, Masterpiece Theater, Evening At Pops
Now!
THIS AND THAT
CBS said late last week that its profit was up 8% in the second quarter, even though ad revenues fell 3% to $3.48 billion. Affiliate and subscription fees, which include retransmission fees, rose 8% to $465 million. CEO Les Moonves said the decline in ad dollars was totally attributable to the Olympics, which had pulled money from the market to NBC Universal. ….CBS also reports that it is nearly sold out of spots in the 2013 Super Bowl. Moonves says the pace is “well ahead of where we were three years ago.” According to Adweek, prices are at a record high average of $3.8 million per 30-second spot. General Motors famously decided not to purchase in the game and Joel Ewanick’s temporary successor at GM says there will be no change in strategy now that Ewanick is gone.
NBC has already sold about $200 million in ad time for the 2014 Winter Olympics from Russia, says the net. “The London Games created an enormous amount of credibility in the way we’ve programmed the event,” says Seth Winter, exec VP, sales and marketing, NBC Sports Group.
“The impact of social media and the collective viewer awareness at all times of the day drives people to the more familiar, lean-back environment of prime-time viewership,” he said. “We think we’ve really hit on something, and our advertisers recognize that. If there were a modicum of concern regarding the impact of live streaming on television, we have completely eradicated that.”
This weeks birthdays include: Ruby Keeler (August 25, would have been 103), Michael Rennie, actor and starred in the original “The Day the Earth Stood Still” with Patricia Neal (also August 25, would have been 103), Sean Connery, the original James Bond (August 26, age 82), and Tuesday Weld, teenage sensation in the 60’s and starred with Elvis Presley in “Wild In the Country” as well as “Return to Peyton Place” (August 27, age 69).
If you have any questions or comments regarding “TV Talk,” you can reach Pete Sieler at [email protected] .
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Pete Sieler Comment
TV Radio and Movies, then and now…
Sixty years ago -The Christian Nationalist Party announces it is going to enter Gen. Douglas MacArthur’s name as a Presidential candidate on at least 19 state ballots. MacArthur is not a candidate, but members want to reserve the right to vote for him as a symbol of “Americanism.”
Radio Moscow broadcasts of “terror” in New York … A monitored broadcast said “terror is rife” in this nation’s largest city. This terror, it was suggested, is not confined to the streets of New York, but also to its subways. Radio Moscow gave its reason for an upsurge in New York crime by claiming that people have been “driven to desperation” by the high cost of living.
Actress Lauren Bacall, wife of Humphrey Bogart, gives birth to a second child. She will be christened Leslie after the late actor Leslie Howard who was a close friend of Bogey’s.
New at the mart – Wonder Bread’s “Wonder Buns” – with the big 3 features – better for taste, better for health, better for toasting!
On sale –
men’s T-shirts and briefs – T-shirts, 2 for .59…briefs – .59 each.
At the mart –
a 1lb pkg of M&M’s candies – .59…
Gillette Blue Blades – pkg of 10 – .49…
In a letter written to a trade publication (Broadcasting/Telecasting) concerning a radio station in Wyoming, owned by Mildred and Joseph P. Ernst, the staff of WJON Radio in St. Cloud, wrote this letter in response to a listing in the annual broadcasting year book:
Dear Editor:
Because of the seriouness of the situation, we will come directly to the main reason for our writing. We have discovered what we fear may be the cause of final disaster to the radio industry. We are not speaking of any other advertising or entertainment medium, but of a startling danger which exists within the industry itself. Motivated by more curiosity, we were scanning the Yearbooks for 1952, when we, by chance, opened it to the section listing the stations in the state of Wyoming. It is found in the person of one Joesph P. Ernst. Under Riverton, KWRL 1450 ks, 250 watts, we find “…Joseph P. Ernst, program director, g&cm, president, ce, n, f, s and wd.” We shudder to think of our positions if the secret of Joseph P. Ernst is ever unleashed. To what avail, the talent and training of a writer, announcer, salesman, engineer or any other. I’m sorry, we have no openings at present. You know we have a Joseph P. Ernst on our staff. Gentlemen: the secret of Joseph P. Ernst must never be allowed to filter into the ranks. Our very security is at stake. And yours, for with Joseph P. Ernst at the helm, what need for a magazine telling of industry’s activities? We must formulate a forward looking program to overcome this threatening disaster.
Signed: The Staff
WJON Radio, St. Cloud, Minnesota.
Note from columnist. Later when the station, KWRB radio build a tv station in Thermopolis, Wyoming, by Joseph P. Ernst and his wife, Mildred, he became chief engineer and lived at the transmitter site on Boysen Peak, near Riverton from October thru the end of March, in the transmitter building, for over twenty years. He brought up enough food, water and supplies for six months for his stay. He later retired and moved to Escondido, California in the 1980’s.
Boysen Peak, TV Transmitter on top of mountain at the very top
It was said that salesmen for KFMB-TV, San Diego have sold just about everything except the test pattern. The station now announces that even the test pattern had been sold. Doug Weaver, Weaver Advertising Agency, was talking with Bill Edholm, KFMB-TV sales manager, about an agency client, the newly formed San Diego County Electronics Assn. Inc. non-profit organization composed of all San Diego TV technicans. Mr. Edholm mentioned, “Well, there’s always the test pattern.” Mr. Weaver quickly made arrangements for three one-minute spots of the associations emblem during the test pattern period and a series of announcements of association meetings. KFMB-TV reports that there has been a noticeable increase in association membership.
KTTV (TV), Hollywood has leased 300 feature films from Motion Pictures for Television, Inc. to be telecast on “Jackson’s Theatre,” thrice daily. The contract was negotiated by Dale Sheets, station’s film director, Sy Weintraub, vice president in charge of sales for MPFT’s New York office, and David Wolper, vice president in charge of MPFT’s West Coast Operations. Film stars Glenn Ford, Barbara Stanwyck, Gary Copper, and Marie Wilson among others.
NBC-TV’s “Joan Davis Show,” sponsored by General Electric, Wednesday, 8-8:30pm ET for 30 weeks from October 15, goes into production in Hollywood on September 1. Miss Davis will star in the situation comedy series written by Artie Stander, and featuring radio actor Jim Backus. Phil Rapp will direct and Dick Mack produces – probably at General Service Studios – and shows will be filmed with a live audience.
This is what one local theatre operator had to say about a movie he recently played at his theatre: “Ma and Pa Kettle Go to Town” starring Marjorie Main, Percy Kilbridge, and Richard Long. This series still amazes me as I think they are pure torture. But, again the people flocked out and a goodly portion of them were one who will pass up really fine pictures that I offer and kick about Hollywood not making good product. Fair terms made this a very pleasing run as business was about average. It didn’t draw as well as the first of the series did, but you can’t miss on this. If you haven’t run it, book it now and make some dough. Played Sunday, Monday and Tuesday, Weather was rain and fair. Bob Walker, Uintah Theatre, Fruita, Colorado. Small town and rural patronage.
Fifty five years ago -The United States ousts Syrian Ambassador Farid Zeineddine and a member of his staff in retaliation for Syria’s action in throwing out three American diplomats on spy charges.
In an open revolt against President Eisenhower’s leadership, the House passes a foreign aid appropriation slashed almost $810 million below what he called a rock-bottom minimum.
Testifying in Washington – James A. Hoffa, prospective president of the Teamsters Union, testifies he had borrowed about $120,000 since 1952, including interest free loans from union finds. Much of the money was borrowed without notes or collateral and some of it was used for purposes he could not remember.
Soviets taking Syria? The United States and Britain open consultations on the Communist power grab in Syria. Other NATO nations are expected to be called in, notably Turkey. Soviet control over Syria would bring Russian might to the shores of the Mediterranean, allowing it to outflank the West’s Mideast defense line and endanger the free flow of oil from Iraq to the West. Stones are hurled in an eruption of new violence after a Negro family moves into a home in Levittown , PA – an all white community.
President Eisenhower announces the western powers’ proposal to Russia that nuclear weapons tests be suspended for as much as two years in order to reach a “sound and safeguarded first-step arms control agreement.
The House Committee on Un-American Activities says it has sworn testimony that “clearly establishes” Martha Dodd, daughter of the former U.S. Ambassador to Germany, as a Soviet spy.
A Senate hearing on profits made by former Secretary George M. Humphrey on government nickel contracts was adjourned in a burst of angry accusations.
The U.S. resumed diplomatic relations with Peru.
East Berlin border guards shot a young boy who was trying to escape to Wester Berlin and let him lie dying for an hour at the foot of the Berlin Wall.
The Senate passed the communications-satelite bill.
Society Photographer Anthony Beauchamp, husband of sir Winston Churchill’s actress daughter Sarah, is found dead in his apartment overlooking London’s Hyde Park. He had just gotten off the phone with a friend, where he threatened suicide. Police blame an overdose of sleeping pills. He had just branched out into television work. One of his mot recent productions was the Fabian of Scotland Yard series.
The United States agrees to begin negotiations with Russia in October on exchanges of radio and television broadcasts between the two countries.
Sports – Major announcement – The New York Giants will be moving to San Francisco and everybody is holding their breath – will the Dodgers go to Los Angeles?
Dennis Hamilton, estranged husband of British Actress Diana Dors, sues Confidential magazine for an article titled “What Diana Dors Never Knew About Her Ever-lovin’ Husband.”
The British press which had dreamed up a romance between Princess Margaret and handsome horsy Lord Patrick Beresford, dithered madly over a major crisis. Beresford, currently serving as an office in the Royal House Guards, had been ordered to a tour of duty overseas (Cyprus in October), concluded London Columnists. Lord Patrick was being exiled at palace request. The young nobleman himself obligingly declared that, rather than go to Cyprus, he would resign his commission and become a jockey. Beresford changed his mind the next day, and by week’s end the monarchy was still secure. Beresford was still headed for Cyprus, and the press had another crisis to gasp abou – at a garden party, too much healthy princess brimmed out over Margaret’s low-cut gown. Twittered Daily Express man Williams Hickey: “could one or two extra pounds – a few extra dishes of strawberries and cream, a few extra ice creams at parties – have given the gown a look that wasn’t intended.”
Hollywood news – Actor Errol Flynn volunteers to defend the entire acting profession in the criminal libel trial of Confidential magazine. Flynn said he has been trying unsuccessfully for two years to get a court hearing of his own civil and criminal libel suits against Confidential for an article about his alleged antics on his wedding night.
In Rome, square jawed Dr. Mirko Skofic, handsome, press agent, business manager and no-nonsense chaperone of Cinema actress Gina Lollobrigida, looked on with satisfaction as Gina held a one-way conversation with their blue-eyes week old son, Mirko, Jr., said Gina wonderingly “His appetite is very big.”
Television news – 18-year-old Joyce Myron answers five complicated questions on atomic energy to win $64,000 on the popular CBS-TV quiz show.
Bob Hope will do six hour-long shows next season, each budgeted at close to $300,000. Two of these are planned for Saturday night showing, two for Sunday.
In the building department, ABC starts construction on its new $12,000,000 production and administration facilities. Every building on the present ABC-TV center is scheduled to be torn down and replaced. CBS is also planning two new studios, eight rehearsal halls and a new administration building.
The Rat Race: ABC will start its hour-long “Mystery Street” series a half hour before “Ed Sullivan” and “Steven Allen” on Sunday nights next season, while CBS will move its hour-long “Perry Mason Show” up to 7:30pm Saturday to give it a 30 minute jump on “Perry Como.” Even if the “Perry Mason” film series should only last one year, Raymond Burr claims he will realize about $1,000,000 from it – counting residuals.
Future of Joseph Cotton’s “On Trial,” which has been reported canceled, is still up in the air. Brian Keith will star in a “Wire Service” episode, “Escape to Freedom.” This will be the first time the show has departed from its rotating-star policy with Mercedes McCambridge, Dane Clark, and George Brent.
Herb Leonard, producer of “Rin Tin Tin” and “Bengal Lancers,” has a new series “Cheers for Miss Amy,” planned for the 1958-59 season.
“The Best of Post,” a half-hour anthology series based on Saturday Evening Post stories, will be turned out at M-G-M Studios by independent-producer Robert Enders.
National Telefilm Associates has plotted a series of half-hour musicals titled “The Big Little Show.” Which will include appearances of top singing stars.
Producer Marty Melcher (husband of Doris Day) and director Edward Girant are preparing a series called “Six Girls in a School, Inc.,” which they also plan to turn into a feature pic.
“Circus Boy” moves over to ABC next season with a new sponsor.
“Beverly Hillsbillies” is the title of a country-music test film which will be shot by producers Bill Thomas this month.
ABC Film Syndication, out of New York, reports gross sales on “26 Men,” a western TV series, are nearing the $1 million mark, with the latest sales to August Wagner Beer, out of Columbus, Ohio for five markets in Ohio and West Virginia.
California National Productions reports first sale of the new series, “Boots and Saddles – The Story of the Fifth Cavalry” to WNAC-TV, Boston, and will start airing the series next month.
Substitution of the summertime Nat King Cole show for the filmed “Panic” series in the Tuesday, 7:30-8pm period starting September 24, has been announced by NBC-TV last week. “Panic” goes into inventor, a network representative said. “Nat King Cole” has been in the Tuesday, 10-10:30pm period, since July 1 and was chosen for the fall schedule because of the program’s successful rating record, according to Manie Sacks, NBC vice president for television network programs. The fall program will continue to feature Mr. Cole with guest stars, Nelson Riddle and 16 piece orchestra, and the Randy Van Horne Choral Group. The program will originate in Hollywood.
“The Safeway Theatre, “ reportedly the top-rated local program of Washington Television for the past eight years, will move from WRC-TV to WMAL-TV on Saturday, September 7. Sponsored by Safeway Stores Inc., the feature film showcase will continue to show first-run properties starting at 10:30pm, Saturday and running until conclusion of the movie. John Batchelder, who has been with the show since its inception, will continue to serve as host.
Hartz on ABC-TV, Hartz Mountain Products (bird and pet products), New York is to sponsor “Paul Winchell and Jerry Mahoney” on ABC-TV, Sunday (4:30-5).
Dracket Company (Drano, Windex) out of Cincinnati, Ohio, understood to be considering sponsoring part of “Wagon Train” on NBC-TV in the fall (Wednesday, 7:30-8:30pm). The agency and the network are reportedly continuing negotiations this week.
Here is what one theatre operator has to say about a movie he recently played at his theatre: “Don’t Knock the Rock” (Columbia), starring Patrica Hardy, Fay Baker, and Jana Lund. Another rock and roll job with some excellent acts. The weather hurt on the draw. Played Saturday, The weather was rainy. D.W.Trisko, Runge Theatre, Runge, Texas, population 1,055.
Pat Boone planning a cool coup on his new ABC show. As one of the guests on the early show, he’s signing “Ozark Jubilee’s “ Red Foley – Pat’s father in law
“Studio One” renewed by its sponsor for next year.
More CBS – Edward R. Murrow and Fred Friendly, co-producers of “See It Now”
say they have developed a new program “Small World” making its debut in
October. Eric Sevareid will moderate. The show will feature three prominate
persons via telephone – people of all disciplines from novelists, to actors to
government leaders.
Thelma Ritter says, “In television, they don’t want it good; they want it Thursday.”
Eve Arden will be coming back to television this year. She took a hiatus after four seasons of “Our Miss Brooks.” It’ll be a new comedy in which she’ll produce.
Shari Lewis has a new show – “Hi Mom” – debuting this week on WRCA-TV New York. The program is aimed at parents of kids, including cooking advice and other ways parents can entertain their kids.
Nat King Cole’s NBC- TV gets a reprieve. He was dropped by the network and now, it’s announced, it will continue through November.
Johnny Carson is dropped by CBS after a run of two shows. Almost immediately, ABC-TV announces a new Carson show – “Do You Trust Your Wife?” It will emanate from New York’s Little Theatre on W. 44 th Street.
Lou Costello is set for three more guest appearance on NBC-TV’s Steve Allen show, that makes a total of six. Lou has been soloing since his partner, Bud Abbott, is in practical retirement.
DuMont, wants to get back into programming, but on a limited basis. It already has some minor network offerings, primarily news specials from its New York and Washington stations. For example, WABD-TV in New York has long fed the Monday night fights to stations across eastern U.S. and WTTG-TV in Washington is offering the senate labor and management investigation four hours a day to other stations.
Friday night television –
CBS – Beat the Clock, West Point, Destiny, Mr. Adams and Eve (A foreign beauty lands a screen part then gives lessons in the art of scene stealing. Stars Howard Duff and Ida Lupino), Schlitz Playhouse, Undercurrent, Pantomime Quiz
NBC – Helen O’Connell, Blondie (Finding a variety of merchandise in his house, Mr. Dithers is convinced his wife is a kleptomaniac and asks Blondie to investigate), Life of Riley, Joseph Cotton Show, The Big Moment, Boxing
ABC – Rin Tin Tin (Masters and a friend, crippled and armed only with knives, are cornered by a band of Indians), Adventures of Jim Bowie, Crossroads, Key Club Playhouse, Date With Angels (Stars Bill Williams and Betty White, and sponsored by Plymouth Division of Chrysler Corporation), Hawkeye and the Last of the Mohicans
Radio news – WINS New York goes top-40, except for the Alan Freed and Jack Lacy shows; 1010 WINS will adhere to a strict playlist. Freed and Lacy will be given wider latitudes.
Did you catch the jazz festival at New York’s Central Park? Featured – Michael P. Grace/Chris F. Anderson, Les and Mary Ford, the Hi-Lo’s, Lurlean Hunter, Slim Gaillard, Maynard Ferguson, Eddie Heywood and his Trio. Louis Johnson with Jackie Walcott and the Billy Williams Quartet.
RCA believes actor Tony Perkins is the next teen singing sensation Rock ‘n’ Roll in Britain is more popular than ever. Now at the top is Elvis Presley with “All Shook Up.” Next in line comes skiffler Lonnie Donegan with “Puttin’ On the Style,” followed by Elvis Presley’s “Teddy Bear.” Others on the bestseller list are the Everly Brothers “Bye Bye Love,” Pat Boone’s “Loveletters In The Sand,” Tommy Steele’s “Butterfingers,” and Little Richard’s “Lucille.”
Columbia Records says it is high on Jimmy Dean. The singing artist also has a morning show on CBS-TV. Look for a big push, according to Columbia head Mitch Miller.
Arthur Berg, president of the National Association of dance and affiliated Artists predicts that rock ‘n’ roll and Elvis Presley are here to stay. “Sure, some of that rock ‘n’ roll stuff is sort of savage. But people like it. They want it. And they want Elvis Presley. They’ll be wanting rock ‘n’ roll and Elvis for many years to come.” Berg believes Presley will be around for a while, “But he’ll change his style. Before long, I think you’ll find he’ll swing to ballad style stuff. If he does that, he’ll be around for years and years”
ABC (ABN) radio is experimenting with a “live” music show hosted by Herb Oscar Anderson. This is in sharp contrast to DJ shows and recorded music. This one will air middays.
At the movies –
Joan Collins, Richard Burton, Basil Sydney, and Cy Grant
The Adventures of Omar Khayyam
Cornel Wilde, Michael Rennie, Debra Paget, and John Derek
The Fuzzy Pink Nightgown
Jane Russell, Keenan Wynn, and Ralph Meeker
A Hatful of Rain
Eva Marie Saint, Don Murray, Anthony Franciosa, and Lloyd Nolan
Man of a Thousand Faces
James Cagney, Dorothy Malone, and Jane Greer
Silk Stockings
Fred Astaire, Cyd Charisse, Janis Paige, and Peter Lorre
Fifty years ago -West Berlin crowds battle their own police, attack Soviet vehicles, and make repeated attempts to storm the Berlin Wall in night riots. The bloody outbreak was the fourth in four days and the most violent since the Communists built their wall a year ago.
In Berlin, the Soviet Union summons officers of the three western powers and hands them an announcement saying that the Soviet command in Berlin is being abolished and that the commandant’s duties are being transferred to Soviet headquarters in East Germany. The United States says the move “appears to be an attempt by the Soviet Union to absolve itself from the responsibility for the Communist actions in Berlin which have increased so dangerously in that city.” The U.S. is consulting with the British and French who share the four-power control of Berlin, and that an allied announcement will be forthcoming soon.
At least four earthquakes jolt southern Italy. There was no immediate report of any damage at Ravello, where Mrs. Jacqueline Kennedy is vacationing with daughter Caroline. Later the nation receives a broadcast message of sympathy and condolence from the First Lady of America, who was on the fringe of one of the large quakes. The tremors left a trail of destruction from Naples to the opposite coast of the Italian peninsula 150 miles to the east. At least sixteen are dead. Said First Lady Jackie on Italian radio and television: “I am deeply distressed by the destruction caused by the earthquake in southern Italy. The past two weeks have reaffirmed my admiration and affection for the people of their part of the world and filled me with gratitude for all their kindness and courtesy. That they, who give so much in heart and spirit, should suffer loss of life and home is truly a calamity. I pray that all who have suffered may speedily be helped by their great need.”
President Kennedy announces the partial demilitarization of Guam, which has been under tight military control since just before WWII. Until recently, entry into Guam, the site of strategic Navy and Air Force installations, required a Navy security clearance. Immediate effect of the action will be to open much of the area to unlimited access by U.S. citizens. President Kennedy has ordered a similar opening of most U.S. trust territory islands, including the Caroline, Marshall and Mariana chains. Many of those islands were occupied by the Japanese before WWII and virtually all of them – Guam included – were occupied by Japanese soldiers throughout most of the war. Says President Kennedy: “I intend that these actions I have taken will foster political development … and enable the people of the islands to participate fully in the world of today.” The administration said it is backing legislation on Capitol Hill, which would provide for Guam an elected Governor and a non-voting delegate to Congress.
Naval sea raiders shell Miramar – a suburb of Havana, hitting a hotel headquarters of Soviet technicians helping the Castro government. Although damage was slight, near panic swept the hotel as sleepers were awakened by the midnight bombardment. Prime Minister Castro immediately blamed the U.S. and “mercenary agents who operate with impunity from the coasts of Florida.” It’s the most dramatic anti-Castro move since the Bay of Pigs invasion 16 months ago.
Assassins in a roadside ambush shoot out the rear window and two tires of President De Gaulle’s speeding car in a quiet Paris suburb, but the President and his party comes through unhurt. The attack involving 10 men, two vehicles and hastily set up gun posts, apparently had some strategic planning, but was unaccountably botched in execution. Paris police blame the attack on the European Secret Army.
Cape Canaveral – Mariner-2 blasts off for its 109-day journey to the planet Venus. The Atlas-Agena B booster engine powered the craft as it roared into the darkness at 1:53am. It should be in the vicinity of Venus around December 14, hopefully to radio back information on secrets of the planet.
A large part of Gene Autry’s “Melody Ranch” and movie studio is destroyed in a brush fire north of Los Angeles. It had been the Monogram Motion Picture Studio, where Autry made many of his earlier pictures. In recent years, it served as Autry’s own film production firm and had been used by numerous television shows such as Gunsmoke and Wyatt Earp. The ranch contained several outdoor sets including an entire Western street scene. A valuable film vault was reported saved, as was Autry’s ranch house where he and his wife often went to relax. Said Mrs. Autry – “We’re just so grateful that nobody was hurt.”
TV debate for the senate seat in Massachusetts – Edward M (Ted) Kennedy (30) and Atty. Edward McCormack (38) debate on local television over which of them is more qualified for the U.S. Senate. McCormack attacked the qualifications of Kennedy, charging that if his name were anything but Kennedy, his candidacy would be a joke. Kennedy said that “we should not be talking families or personalities but about the people’s destiny in Massachusetts.”
If Nikita Krushchev does turn up at the United Nations next month, he’s likely to find himself in splendid isolation. Prime Minister Macmillian, beset by Common Market and domestic problems, definitely won’t be on hand; and Whitehall has been assured that Commonwealth leaders, Nehru, Diefenbaker, Menzies, and Nkrumah won’t follow K to New York either. What more reports from Belgrade and Cairo indicated that neither Tito or Nasser will attend.
The Indus River development project has hit a serious snag, Patkistan President Ayub Khan has suddenly decided that the main dam should be built in his native Islamabad (and be named for it). This would virtually double the cost of the dam. Officials in the U.S. and the World Bank (who is helping finance the project) says the cost is out of the question, but so far Ayub Khan remains adamant.
Temporary injunction was given to five rail unions to block the industry’s proposed changes in work rules. The injunction solves no basic issues: railroads will seek Appeals Court to vacate it so that the new work rules can be put into effect this week. If this happens, the unions say they will be “forced” to strike.
First commercial use of the Telstar satellite was Air France’s transmission of a telephone reservation from Paris to New York.
U.S. International Communications should be handled by merging present competitors, RCA Chairman David Sarnoff says.
Soviet exports to Common Market countries are expected to decline by 4.2% to around 11.1 million tons this year.
In sports – Dodger coach Leo Durocher received a bad scare before a game with the Mets when he became violently ill after an injection of penicillin. Adrenaline and oxygen were administered to Durocher and he was taken to the hospital.
The hospital says he responded quickly. The gossip around the locker room was that he had a heart attack. All of the Dodgers were on the field when the public address announcer asked that a physician report to the visitors’ clubhouse.
Trends – so what are the popular teen-age dances of the day? – The Twist, Hully Gully, Continental, the Locomotion, Wobble, something called the Baseball (danced with a Pony-type beat in groups of four), and the Stupidity. It’s a satirical version of the “Pony Train.” The movements are still rhythmic, but very exaggerated.
Trends for men – The white dinner jacket is still in, but along the way, men are finding other colors to wear. Colors have become so popular with the country club set, that the jackets are called “club jacket.” One reason – white jackets don’t wrinkle as colors do.
Best sellers
Ship of Fools – Katherine Anne Porter
Dearly Beloved – Anne Morrow Lindbergh
The Agony And The Ecstasy – Irving Stone
Travels With Charley – John Steinbeck
Another Country – James Baldwin
Sex and the Single Girl – Helen Gurley Brown
My Life In Court – Louis Nizer
The Rothschilds – Frederic Morton
Who’s In Charge Here? – Gerald Gardner
Pennant Race – Jim Brosnan
Six Crises – Richard M. Nixon
Tuesday Night Television
CBS – Marshal Dillon, Password, Dobie Gillis (Dobie is caught up in the folk-singing craze, when he tries to compete with Chatsworth Osborne Jr. in a school election in which singing seems to have more voter appeal), The Comedy Spot (A misfit angel is forced to do battle with the Devil as he tries to help a nightclub owner besieged by debts. James Komack and Larry Storch star) , Ichabod and Me, Talent Scouts
NBC – Laramie, Alfred Hitchcock Presents, Dick Powell Show, Cain’s Hundred, The Tonight Show – Hal March hosts this week
ABC – Bugs Bunny, Bachelor Father, The New Breed, Yours For A Song, Alcoa Premiere
Wednesday Night Television –
CBS – CBS News With Walter Cronkite, Money Talks, Window on Main Street (Cameron doesn’t know what to make of a 12-year-old girl, who tells him she writes poetry because of a strange voice she hears while sitting in a tree. Stars Robert Young), Checkmate (A judge has his career and life threatened after one of his famous murder trials is re-enacted. Stars Anthony George, Sebastian Cabot, and Doug McClure. Guest cast – Dana Andrews, Lori March, Phillip Abbott), Dick Van Dyke (Sally may have to spend her birthday alone), U.S. Steel Hour (Three Korean war vets vow to avenge the death of one of their buddies by killing the soldier who betrayed their friend to the enemy. Stars James Daly, Mona Freeman, Harry Townes, Ralph Meeker, and Simon Oakland).
NBC – Huntley-Brinkley, Wagon Train, The Rebel, Mystery Theater (The owner of a gambling casino refuses to cooperate with an old friend and police when they try to break up a gang, which is counterfeiting passports. Stars Desi Arnaz, Rod Taylor, Akim Tamirofi, George Macready), Play Your Hunch, David Brinkley’s Journal
ABC – Howard K. Smith news and comment, Focus on America, Top Cat, Hawaiian Eye, Naked City (A wanted man tries to leave the country. Broke, he attempts to make some money by rolling dice. Stars Paul Burke, Horace McMahon, Harry Ballaver, Nancy Malone. Stars Eli Wallach, Keenan Wynn, Lois Nettleton, and Louis Criscuolo.)
Some kids cartoons and shows seen in larger cities – usually in the afternoons…
The Three Stooges
Mighty Hercules (with Newton)
Spunky and Tadpole
Bomba, the Jungle Boy (Allied Arts TV), sold to WBAP-TV, Fort Worth, Texas, WCIV-TV, Charleston, South Carolina, and WIS-TV, Columbia, South Carolina. Also sold later in the week to WJFB-TV, Augusta, Georgia and WRVA-TV, Richmond, Virginia.
Johnny Sheffield as Bomba, The Jungle Boy
Liggett & Myers Tobacco Co. through J. Walter Thompson Company, New York, has purchased one-half sponsorship of “The River Nile,” one-hour NBC News presentation scheduled for Sunday, October 28, from 10-11pm EST.
Procter and Gamble Co., S.C. Johnson & Son, and R.J. Reynolds will sponsor “Keefe Brasselle’s Variety Gardens,” one hour musical variety on CBS, Tuesday, September 18 from 10-11pm EDT.
Keefe Brasselle – CBS-TV
Here is what a local theatre operator had to say about a movie that he recently played at his theatre in 1962, “The Comancheros” from 20th Century Fox and starring John Wayne, Stuart Whitman, and Ina Balin. This is a very good picture that did only fair business here. Very good color and photography plus a fine musical score added to the picture. John Wayne must be slipping around here. Played Friday and Saturday, weather was hot. Larry Thomas, Fayette Theatre, Fayetteville, West Virginia, population 2,000.
With the “Mickey Mouse Club” now released as reruns on stations around the country, Disneyland Records will re-issue some earlier product. records, originally released under the ABC-Paramount banner in the 50’s when the show was first-run. will be re-released on Disneyland Records. In all, three singles and two albums are being re-released. One of the albums – “How To Be A Mouseketeer” includes a 12-page book and should sell for $3.98.
At the movies –
The Pigeon That Took Rome
Charlton Heston, Elsa Martinelli, Harry Guardino, Baccaloni, Brian Donlevy, and Gabriella Pallotta
The Best of Enemies
David Niven, Michael Wilding, Amedeo Nazzari, Harry Andrews, and introducing Alberto Sordi
Tarzan Goes to India
Jock Mahoney and Jai-the Elephant Boy
The Tartars
Orson Welles and Victor Mature
Hatari!
John Wayne and Red Buttons. Music by Henry Mancini
Birdman Of Alcatraz
Burt Lancaster, Karl Malden, and Thelma Ritter
El Cid
Charlton Heston, Sophia Loren, Herber Lom. Filmed in Super Technirama 70 and shown on a reserved seat basis.
5 Weeks In A Balloon
Red Buttons, Fabian, Barbara Eden, Cedric Hardwicke, Peter Lorre, Richard Haydn, Barbara Luna, and Billy Gilbert
The Two Little Bears
Eddie Albert, Jane Wyatt, Soupy Sales, and Brenda Lee
My Geisha
Shirley MacLaine, Yves Montand, Edward G. Robinson, and Bob Cummings
Guns of Darkness
Leslie Caron, David Niven, David Opatoshu, and James Robertson
Adventures of A Young Man
Richard Beymer, Diane Baker, Corinne Calvet, Fred Clark, Dan Dailey, James Dunn, Juano Hernandez, Arthur Kennedy, Ricardo Montalban, Susan Strasberg, Jessica Tandy, Eli Wallach, and Paul Newman
Advise & Consent
Henry Fonda, Charles Laughton, Don Murray, Walter Pidgeon, Peter Lawford, Gene Tierney, Franchot Tone, Lew Ayres, Burgess Meredith, Eddie Hodges, Paul Ford, George Grizzard, and Inga Swenson. The film was produced and directed by Otto Preminger.
The Music Man
Robert Preston, Shirley Jones, Buddy Hackett, Hermione Gingold, and Paul Ford
The Wonderful World Of The Brothers Grimm
Laurence Harvey and filmed in three camera Cinerama and shown on a Reserved Seat Basis at select theatre.
The Interns
Michael Callan, Cliff Robertson, James MacArthur, Buddy Ebsen, Telly Savalas, Kay Stevens, Nick Adams, Suzy Parker, Haya Harareet, Anne Helm, and Stefanie Powers
Music – Tommy Roe (19) – “Thomas David Roe” – Became a full-time member of show business immediately upon his graduation from high school in Atlanta. Formed his own band 3 years ago and has traveled throughout the Southwest on personal appearance tours. First hit – “Sheila.”
Music – The Springfields – Tom Springfield, Dusty Springfield and Tim Field. Tom and Dusty are from England, Tim from America. Tim Field joined Tom Springfield after Tom’s partner fell ill. They were performing in London clubs. Dusty, Tom’s younger sister then joined the act. They are well known around British show business circles. Current hit “Silver Threads And Golden Needles.”
Music – The Duprees – Joseph Canzano, Mike Arnone, Tom Bialaglow, John Salvato, and Joe Santollo – all from Jersey City. Formed the group five years ago. They got up enough nerve to audition for George Paxton of Coed Records. “You Belong To Me” looks like a hit.
The radio bug bites Dick Clark again – Clark says he plans a recorded “syndicated” radio series on radio for top-40 stations. The two-hour program would be broadcast five days a week and would be produced and distributed by Dick Clark Radio Productions and Mars Broadcasting, Inc. Dick Clark says the show will feature artist interviews and records and will be taped at Mars Broadcasting in Stamford, Conn. Clark was a Disc Jockey at WFIL Radio in Philadelphia when he landed the job as mc of “American Bandstand.”
Singer Jayne Morgan (42) is taken unconscious to a hospital in New York City, after telling a friend she had consumed a dose of sleeping pills. “I did it. I did it … I took some pills.” She regained consciousness and her condition was listed as good.
Radio news – Fred Wolf celebrates 12 years as the morning man on Detroit’s WXYZ (1270) … Paul Sherman, WINS, New York, replaces Bob (Bob-A-Loo) Lewis on the outlet’s Saturday and Sunday “Freedomland” remote broadcasts. Lewis is due to show up on rival WABC anytime.
Forty Five Years ago – Vietnam news – Communist gunners unleash rocket attacks on a U.S. Marine helicopter base near Dan Nang and a Marine base at Dong Ha. Seven Marines are killed with seventy-nine wounded.
The Soviet Union warns the new American escalation in Vietnam will force retaliatory steps from the Communist world. “Every new step of the United States to escalate the war in Vietnam inevitably leads to the necessary reply steps.”
As many as 15 of 18 skydivers perish when they jump over Lake Erie instead of dry land near Huron Ohio. Several of the survivors couldn’t believe what they saw after they jumped into the clouds – nothing but water. The plane inadvertently was in the wrong place. Said one “I was shocked and flabbergasted to see that I was over the lake. We assumed we were over a field. As soon as I broke out of the clouds, I new something was wrong. All I saw was water.” Authorities say the plane was flying by radar.
Former actress Shirley Temple Black (39) says she is going to be a Republican candidate for Congress in San Mateo County, CA this November.
In sports – Green Bay Packer coach Vince Lombardi admits he struck a Packer player last season. Lombardi says the player “loves everybody.” “In a game they beat on him. Everybody whacks him and he laughs. I guess I was trying to get him to hate me enough to take it out on the opposition, because to play this game you must have that fire in you, and there is nothing that stokes fire like hate.” Two cut tendons and a nerve could end the baseball career of Philadelphia Phillies third baseman Richie Allen. The injury occurred when his right hand broke through the headlamp of his stalled auto while he was trying to push the car.
Hippy happenings – Abby Hoffman and Jerry Rubin throw dollar bills onto the trading floor of the New York Stock exchange causing confusion and some disruptions. Hoffman dumped money from the gallery overlooking the trading floor of the New York Stock Market and watched as business ground to a halt as traders scrambled for dollar bills.
College campus wear for men this fall – sweaters are in – both V-neck and
crewneck pullovers, button cardigans, turtlenecks, button-front sweater shirts, mock turtles, and sleeveless V-necks that are often worn under sport coats… How to wear? The layered-look wearing a V- neck, a crew neck or a cardigan over a turtle or mock turtleneck sweater is very much a part of current college fashion. So is the use of sweater shirts worn over open-collar button-down oxford shirts… Colors? Navy blues, cranberry reds, rusts, heather mixes, olives, browns, blue/olives, both light and medium blues, and the ubiquitous whiskey shades. Tip for the guys – key your sweater colors to your sport coat or blazer.
How about college-bound gals? New leg fashions rate high on their shopping list. You can’t go wrong these days in mini pants, mini skirts, micro skirts and culottes, but the hot topic are the elegant innovations in pantyhose. Says Kathleen Bremond, director of styling for a leading hosiery maker. “Snaptites (from Hanes) have the unique advantage of pantyhose with the further advantage of providing the extended wear of separate stockings. Eachstocking is interchangeable with the other. The finish is the same on both sides. Double snaps enable the wearer to turn either stocking inside out and wear it on the opposite leg.” “This all-stretch Raschel-knit style consists of two separate waist-high stockings that snap together at the waist.” Snaptities have all the advantages of the pantyhose with the extended wear of separate stockings. “Alive” is a new basic stocking that gives the look of a perfect complexion. It’s made of spandex and each thread is completely wrapped in nylon. They look great even if you have slight imperfections – plus they provide a hug of support.
Greenwich Village happenings – The Blues Project … . Miles Davis Quintet and the Ornette Coleman Quartet at the Village Gate
Advertising – Coca-Cola will be test-marketing “ Frozen Coke ” in several markets. Now, you’ll be able to enjoy your Coca-Cola with a spoon.
Batman is menaced next season by such villains as Greer Garson, Ethel Merman, Ruddy Vallee, Eartha Kitt, and Dina Merrill, all of whom are soft sell heavies at best. Wilfred Hyde-White subs for George McCready at “Peyton Place.” He’ll do at least 15 episodes.. Desi Arnaz, executive producer of “The Mother’s In Law,” hired himself to play a bullfighter in one segment.
Jeannie Crain and Farley Granger, Hollywood stars from another era, are guests on a pair of new shows. Miss Crain does “Mannix,” while Granger portrays an ex-boozer in “Ironside.”
They’re breaking up that old gang of mine dept: Barbara Boylan and Bobby Burgess, dancing partners with Lawrence Welk for six years, are splitting up. She got married and he has a new dancing parter, Cissy King.
Here is what one theatre owner has to say about a film he recently played at his theatre: “Spinout” from M-G-M and starring Elvis Presley, Shelly Fabares, and Diane McBain. Certainly not Elvis Presley’s best but it did business. Lots of color and wiggling girls. Played, Sunday and Monday, weather was good. H.E. & C. W., Rowell Idle Hour Theatre, Hardwick, Vt. Population 1600.
Now!
After threatening to walk out and filing a lawsuit against 20th Century Fox Television, the adult actors on “Modern Family” have all received significant salary increases for the new season. They have dropped the lawsuit and resumed work. But now all the children on the show are asking for raises……ABC has announced the first 12 of the 13 All-Stars that will participate in the next “Dancing with the Stars.” They are: Kristie Alley, Bristol Palin, Emmitt Smith, Pamela Anderson, Joey Fatone, Helio Castroneves, Shawn Johnson Drew Lachey, Kelly Monaco, Gilles Marini, Apolo Anton Ohno and Melissa Rycroft. The 13th spot will be filled by either Sabrina Bryan, Carson Kressley or Kyle Massey. Viewers will choose which one by voting online. …..CBS’ new dating show “3” got off to a rocky start last Thursday. It drew only a 1.7/3 in HHs (in third place in the time period) and a 0.8/2 in A18-49 (tied for second place with “Rock Center.”)
A federal court has denied the petition filed by the National Association of Broadcasters that the FCC’s new rules on internet posting of stations’ political files be delayed. The FCC had already denied a similar request from the NAB, so it’s likely that the rule will go into effect starting August 2……Facebook reported $1.18 billion in revenues in the second quarter, a 32% jump from a year ago, but just a bit higher than analysts had forecast. Advertising accounted for 84% of that revenue….. MundoFox, the new Hispanic-targeted network, has hired Phillip Woodie to run a new rep firm for the net’s affiliates. Woodie was previously vice president of multicultural sales at Comcast Spotlight and president of network sales and marketing at Azteca America. The rep firm will open offices in New York, Los Angeles and Miami by September and has already hired six of the 17 people it eventually hopes to have on staff.
After just a week, and two low-rated performances, CBS has pulled the plug on its summer dating series “3.” The network will fill the show’s Sunday 9PM time slot with drama repeats until September 30 when “The Good Wife” is back with new episodes……NBC Universal CEO Steve Burke told analysts on a conference call yesterday that his company may break even on the 2012 Olympics. “We’re way ahead of where we thought we would be,” Burke said. NBC U had previously estimated that it might lose $200 million on these Games but come out ahead in future Olympics. The forecast was based on an estimate that ratings would be down 20% this year, but in fact they have been up 9% so far. Burke said the company’s success was because of a “…a strategy that embraces broadcast, digital and cable.”……Former “Will & Grace” star Sean Hayes is joining the cast of NBC’s “Up All Night” next season. And Melanie Griffith will have a major arc in Fox’s “Raising Hope”…Actor Vince Vaughn is developing a new version of “The Brady Bunch” for CBS.
Warner Bros. had made official what has been leaked over the last two weeks. Anderson is getting a bit of a tweak for next season. Most of the episodes will be live before a studio audience–and the show is actually changing its title to Anderson Live–and Anderson Cooper will have a different co-host every day.
This week’s birthdays include: Ann Blyth (August 16, age 83), Fess Parker, star of the TV series “Daniel Boone” (also August 16, would have been age 87), and Sam Goldwyn, movie producer (August 17, would have been age 129), Mae West, actress (also August 17, would have been 118), Maureen O’Hara , actress and starred in many John Wayne Movies (Also August 17, age 91), Walter Bernstein (August 20, would have been 92), and Jack Weston (August 21, would have been age 87).
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TV Radio and Movies, then and now…
Sixty years ago – Governor Stevenson (D., Ill.) gives the green light to efforts to draft him as an “unwilling” candidate for the Democratic Presidential nomination. He’s believed to be President Truman’s choice for the role – on the grounds that he would compromise differences between the Northern and Southern wings of the party
American Legion officials, planning their August 25-29 convention in New York City, banned electric canes (for tickling) and water pistols. Reason: “World Tensions” make hi-jinks “poor taste.”
Chicago stripper Marion Crawford after the city clamped down on night club acts during the duration of the political conventions: “I can’t take off much now, so I work in a little fast stepping at the end and give the customers some action.”
Funds for medical research reached an all-time high. Grants, Government and private, totaled $181 million – 10 times more than the annual spend on research in 1941.
The trend towards a merger of Protestant Churches in the U.S. is a sign of the times, said Dr. Ronald Bridges, president of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Servicemen of many faiths, praying under one chaplain, started the mergers, he added.
Frankfurters has become the all-American custom. Now available in more than 34 sizes, hot-dogs are big business, with one company alone turning out the casing for a billion pounds a year. Franks spread with a favorite condiment (before they are cooked) take on a new flavor as the seasoning seeps through. Serving in hollowed half’s of green peppers, catsup, mustard-relish (made for hot-dogs), piccalilli, and sauerkraut, add color to the setting and taste to the franks.
Police found that a disturbance they were investigating had been caused when one woman accused another of keeping company with strange men. The ladies age: 82 and 91.
Three gunmen barged into the Citizen’s State Bank building in Cincinnati, Iowa, left red-faced after finding that the bank had moved out of the building three years ago.
Considered collector’s item by many, $75 million worth of 1916 Czarist Russian bonds, disavowed by the Reds in 1917, traded at a steady clip on the New York Curb Exchange. With the price only 3%-4%of face value, buyers, including several big investment houses, wistfully hoped: (1) for better international relations; (2) for Congress to pass a bill to pay them off from a U.S. Treasury fund (made-up of money owed pre-red Russians, not paid.
KNXT (TV), Hollywood, a CBS owned and operated station, acquired 200 feature films from Motion Pictures for Television, Inc., which will be telecast as “The Late Show” Sunday thru Friday, starting this week. The deal, involving $165,000, was negotiated by Don Hine, stations production administrator, Sy Meintraub, vice president in charge of Sales for MPFT’s New York Office, and David Wolper, Vice President of Charge of MPFT’s west coast operation. Films include “Paisan,” “Open City,” “Jamaica Inn,” and “Meet John Doe” starring Gary Cooper.
“Meet John Doe” starring Gary Cooper and Barbara Stanwyck
Volcano Productions, Hollywood, headed by Bob Angus at General Service Studios, will film ABC-TV “Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet” to be sponsored on an alternate week basis by Hotpoint Co., and Lambert Drug, starting October 8, 1952. Ozzie Nelson, his wife and their two sons, David and Ricky will star the 40 half-hour films will be directed by Mr. Nelson, under the supervision of Cecil Barker, director of programming and production for ABC Western Division.
Here is what one theatre owner/manager has to say about a film he recently played at his theatre: “Ten Tall Men” starring Burt Lancaster, Jody Lawrence, and Gilbert Roland. An excellent adventure film that really pleased the patrons. There are humorous situations also that keep showing up at regular intervals. This picture did slightly above average business. Played Sunday and Monday. Weather: Chilly – Bob E. Thomas, Orpheum Theatre, Strawberry Point, Iowa. Small town and rural patronage.
Fifty Five Years ago -The Senate passes the first civil-rights bill since the civil war reconstruction days – March 1, 1875. The bill is a watered-down measure designed to protect Negro voting rights. Five senators from the “old south” voted for the bill: Albert Gore and Estes Kefauver of Tennessee, George Smathers of Florida, Ralph Yarborough of Texas, and Senate Democratic leader Lyndon Johnson of Texas. It now goes to the House.
Communist party Chief Khrushchev arrives in Eastern Berlin on a seven-day tour to sell Communism to reluctant East Germans. He received a cold, silent reception from officially mustered crowds.
Communist party Chief Khrushchev warns that the explosion of war over Germany would bring the United States under the threat of attack from hydrogen rockets.
Britain’s rising polio rate brings increasing pressure on the government to lift its ban on Salk vaccine from the United States. The British press accused the government of delay, muddle, and mismanagement and of underestimating the gravity of the situation. The disease has reached its highest peek in Britain since 1950.
A man who can be calm when there isn’t anything to be calm about, ex-President Harry S. Truman brushed aside a $1 bill proffered for his autograph, and declaimed: “I just can’t sign them any more. And you know why? That dammed Attorney General would just love to put me in jail. You can’t deface currency – that’s the law.” Asked if he was joking about Attorney General Herbert Brownell, Truman snorted “No, he is no good.” In Washington, the treasury “never has held that autograph’s or minor writing on currency is a violation of the law,” In fact outgoing Secretary of the Treasury George Humphrey has sometimes autographed banknotes himself.
Died: Admiral Frederick Carl Sherman, USN retired (1947), skipper of the World War II aircraft carrier Lexington, the last to leave her before she finally sank, May 8, 1942 in the Battle of the Coral Sea. He died of a heart ailment, in San Diego. A WW I submarine commander, “Ted” Sherman (no kin to his follow admiral Forrest Sherman) learned to fly at 47, took command of the Lexington in 1940. A cool leader under fire, he was a hard-hitting senior task group commander within the fast Carrier Task Force, in one four month period destroyed 350 enemy aircraft, 46 enemy ships and in his combat-starred Navy Career, won three crosses.
Quebec City – a chartered transatlantic airliner carrying British war vets and their families from London crashes in flames, killing all 79 aboard in Canada’s worst aviation disaster. They had been on a visit to their homes in England, leaving Toronto on July 10.
To Admiral Arthur W. Radford – President Eisenhower pins the decoration – a gold star in lieu of a fourth distinguished service medal at the White House. The Admiral is ready to retire from a very distinguished military career. The President told Admiral Radford that it was “with very great regret that we now say good-by to you officially, but we hope you will be around when we can talk to you personally.”
Syria orders the ouster of three American embassy officials after accusing the United States of plotting to overthrow President Shukri Kiwatly.
First Lady Mamie Eisenhower gives her name to a new park, which had been picnic ground for her when she was growing up in Denver. The ceremony was cut to 35 minutes from an hour because of the hot sun and what the Secret Service deemed “health and security” reasons.
Entertainment news – A number of Hollywood “old timers” turnout to say goodbye to Oliver Hardy. His partner, Stan Laurel, could not attend due to health reasons.
A former editor of Confidential Magazine admits on the witness stand that he has himself written “smear” stories bout Van Johnson, Marilyn Monroe, Richard Carlson, and John D. Rockefeller.
Marilyn Monroe leaves Doctors Hospital in New York. She entered August 1 and lost her baby by miscarriage. She was with husband Arthur Miller.
Television news –
Lassie changing over – Jon Provost (7) will be as Lassie’s new master this season. Gone will be Jan Clayton (mom), Tommy Rettig, and Donald Keeler. Jon has already made 13 of the Lassie sequences with the original family. He gets into the format by being found in the family barn. All efforts to trace his family fail and he is being processed for adoption, meanwhile living with Ms. Clayton, Tommy Rettig and Gramps instead of in an orphanage. As
soon as the producers select the new family to move into the Lassie home, Jon will be adopted by them. His name in the series is “Timmy.”
The Lucy-Desi Show will make its debut in late October or early November on CBS-TV. CBS says that five one-hour films will be televised over the coming season. Ford will sponsor.
On a role – Carol Burnett, singer and comedienne makes another appearance on Jack Paar’s late night show. She’ll sing, “I Made a Fool of Myself Over John Foster Dulles.” She sang the song last Tuesday on the Paar program and she’s reappearing on special request from Dulles’s staff. Meanwhile, Ms. Burnett has been signed for three appearances on the Ed Sullivan show, the first to be made on Sunday.
CBS is seeking a time period for “The Small World,” on which newscaster Eric Sevareid conducts life transatlantic phone calls with foreign diplomats and heads of state. A film of them will be televised to supplement the conversations. It is a production of the Edward R. Murrow – Fred Friendly office.
Look for “Omnibus” to return next fall as the Sunday-afternoon alternate with “Wide Wide World” on NBC – but without the Ford Foundation financing. And watch out for satirical series of the “Three Musketeers” featuring comedians Henny Youngman, Phil Foster, and Joe Adams. They hit on the idea of teaming up together when the three of them were guests on “To Tell The Truth.”
Hallmark Hall of Fame is trying to line up “Wonderful Town,” a Broadway Musical to lead off next season. Other five “Fame” shows during the year will be drama. Patrice Munsell signed to star in her own half-hour variety show next fall, probably on NBC.
Thursday night television –
CBS – Douglas Edwards news, Sergeant Preston, Bob Cummings (Bob decides he’s a bad example for Chuck and decides to make the supreme sacrifice to give up girls), Climax, Playhouse 90
NBC – Huntley-Brinkley news, Andy Williams/June Valli, Best of Groucho, Dragnet, The People’s Choice, High-Low (Hosted by Jack Barry), Lux Video Theatre, Tonight
ABC – John Daly news, The Long Ranger ( Lone Ranger dons (another) mask to save three ladies from a dangerous criminal), Film, Theatre Time, Championship Bowling, Damon Runyon Theatre
At the movies –
Rita Hayworth, Robert Mitchum, and Jack Lemmon
Escapade
Man Of A Thousand Faces
James Cagney, Dorothy Malone, and Jane Greer
La Strada
Fred Astaire and Cyd Charisse
The Curse Of Frankenstein
The Pride and the Passion
Cary Grant, Frank Sinatra, and Sophia Loren
From Chicago, Don’t Miss “Susan’s Show” Every Saturday Morning On CBS-TV.
Sunsan Heinkel is 12-years-old.
Here is what theatre owner in 1957 had to say about a movie he or she recently played at their theatre. “Lay the Rifle Down” starring Judy Canova, Robert Lowery, and Jacqueline DeWitt. Let’s say this. It was Judy Canova and laughs for her fans. Heartwarming and humorous Cinderella story of a hard-working hotel maid who was conned into a scam by swindlers. Those fans, I’ve learned, are big on Judy. Played Tuesday and Wednesday. Frank Sabin, Majestic Theatre, Eureka, Montana, population 929.
Fifty years ago – Grief-stricken Joe DiMaggio and 30 others, attend Marilyn Monroe’s funeral in Westwood, California. He leaned over her casket, kissed her lips and whispered, “I love you, I love you.” The beautiful actress lay in an open bronze casket during the non-denominational rites. In her hand was a bouquet of baby pink roses, put there by DiMaggio.
The Senate unanimously confirms Gen. Maxwell D. Taylor as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
Former President Eisenhower and Sir Winston Churchill – two of the great surviving victors of WWII – reunite in the quiet of a hospital room in London, where Sir Winston is recovering from a thigh operation. “It was a wonderful thing to see him. He looks the same old Winston to me… I… I well, I just had the feeling again, that I was seeing a very great man,” The former President is making a 12-day sentimental visit to Britain.
The Russians send their third astronaut into orbit, possibly for as long as a week. The newest cosmonaut is Maj. Andrian G. Nikolayev in the Vostok III spaceship. Later it’s learned that a fourth Russian astronaut, Lt. Col. Pavel Popovich inVostok IV, was also in space and that both cosmonauts were communicating with each other with their radios. They are in parallel orbits in sight of each other, historic event that could put the Soviet Union a giant step forward in the race to the moon…
Plans for Egypt’s first bullfight – to mark Nasser’s tenth year in power – produced this comedy of errors. First, Spanish Bulls were to be brought in and toreros recruited locally. The locals balked at the thought of the fierce Spanish animals. Then a call went out for Spanish bullfighters to perform with Egyptian bulls. The Spanish pro said this would be unfair to the tame local breeds. Cario’s animal lovers protested all around. When he heard of the ruckus, Nasser killed the idea.
The White House is looking for another ambassador to India. J. Kenneth Galbraight, it’s expected, will resign around the first of the year. His principal reason: He wants to get back to Harvard (where his leave expires in February). Friends predict Galbrighth will return to his economics professorship at Cambridge, but will travel to the White House with advice frequently.
From London came evidence that Britain’s first family, like America’s – has joined the wet set. The London Daily Express ran a picture of Princess Margaret on water skis. Meg sported a chic French bathing cap and – over her swim suit – a black rubber protective outfit to take the sting out of the spray. Introduced to the sport last May, she wore a life-jacket at first but abandoned it when her confidence increased. Last week tutor Peter Felix termed the Princess’s progress “unbelievable.” As for Lord Snowdon, Margaret’s husband, why, he’s so fearless on skis that Dr. Felix – a dentist as well as a champion water-skier – reported: “We have to restrain him from taking corners at 40 miles an hour.”
Best selling books –
Dearly Beloved – Anne Morrow Lindbergh
Youngblood Hawke – Herman Wouk
Ship of Fools – Katherine Anne Porter
Magnificent Destiny – Paul I. Wellman
Uhuru – Robert Ruark
My Life In Court – Louis Nizer
Portrait Of A Jew – Albert Memmi
Sex and the Single Girl – Helen Gurley Brown
Travels With Charley – John Steinbeck
Guns of August – Barbara W. Tuchman
The Rothschilds – Frederic Morton
Sports – Jerry Lucas of the Cleveland Pipers files a $100,000 libel and slander suit against general manager Frank Lane of the Chicago Zephyrs of the NBA. The suit is a result of remarks made by Lane at a basketball luncheon, where he was quoted as having said Lucas had signed a contract with the Pipers while he was a sophomore at Ohio State. Lane denies he made the statement. “Neither by implication nor positive statement did I question Lucas’ amateur standing as an Ohio State player.”
Hollywood news – The husband of actress Linda Darnell , Merle Robertson, files for divorce, charging the film star had neglected her duties as a wife.
When “The Cheyenne Show” starts the new season on ABC-TV in the fall, Clint Walker will still be the main character as Cheyenne Bodie, but Larry Ward will head up several episodes as the lone star in the role of a U.S. Marshal. Walker and Ward also will work together in a few shows.
Nick Adams 18 month old daughter, Allison, joins her dad in a segment of his new television series “Saints and Sinners.” Bob Hope’s first fall special will be October 24, with Bing Crosby, Lucille Ball and Juliet Prowse as guests. Miss Prowse also kicks off CBS-TV’s Red Skelton program on September 26.
Robert Culp, star of television old “Trackdown” series, will appear with Cliff Robertson and Ty Hardin in the film “PT 109.” Culp also wrote a two part episode, which inaugurates ABC-TV’s “Rifleman” series in the fall.
Ricardo Montalban will be one of the first guest stars of the new television series “The Virginians” on NBC-TV this fall. This is the first 90 minute color TV western to be on the network.
Marilyn Monroe’s death is listed as a probable suicide. Dr. Theodore Curphey, Los Angeles County coroner, says the actress died from sleeping pills and chloral hydrate, commonly called knockout pills. Either dose could have caused her death. Weighing heavily in this decision was the actress’ behavior prior to her death. She is described as having been a moody woman with a death wish.
Cary Grant is divorced by Betsy Drake this week. She said Grant “often fell asleep after dinner and preferred television to talking to me.”
Frank Sinatra signs an unknown, Tony Bill (21), to play his brother in “Come Blow Your Horn.” Sinatra has him under a seven-year contract. Bill, from San Diego, is a graduate of Notre Dame.
Dean Martin signs with Paramount for a comedy. “Every Wednesday Night” has Dino playing a bachelor marriage counselor to whom all his married friends turn for advice.
Tuesday Night Television –
CBS – CBS News with Walter Cronkite, Marshal Dillon (Doc Adams faces the wrath of a man who hates doctors after Doc operates on the man’s wife and she dies), Password, Dobie Gillis (Dobie and Maynard stow away on an ocean liner to escape the clutches of marriage-minded Zelda Gilroy), Comedy Spot (A young physician struggles to begin a practice in a small suburban community. Stars Don Porter, Phyllis Avery, Betty Burnham), Ichabod and Me, Talent Scouts
NBC – Huntley-Brinkley report, Laramie, Alfred Hitchcock Presents, Dick Powell, Cain’s Hundred, The Tonight Show (Hugh Downs hosts with Dick Gregory, Mimi Benzell and Seth Riggs.)
ABC – Bugs Bunny (Ricky and Mugsy, a pair of hoodlums, decide to break into TV by using gangster methods), The New Breed (Young lovers are faced with a difficult adult decision. Leslie Nielsen, John Beradino), Yours for a Song, Shelly Berman: A Personal Appearance
Mohawk Carpet Mills out of New York will sponsor “The Pat Boone Thanksgiving Special” to be broadcast on NBC on Thursday, November 22 from 5:30-6:30pm ET.
McCulloch Motors Corporation (chain saws) has lined up 117 TV stations to carry the syndicated series “The Deputy,” starring Henry Fonda, starting in October and running 26 weeks. The company first tried TV in 1960 and last year ran “Royal Canadian Mounted Police” on 97 stations.
Forty Five Years ago – Johnson predicts the war in Vietnam will “be tougher as it gets along” and enters a strong defense for his authority to conduct the fighting as he sees fit with no new congressional action… Senate support for President Johnson’s conduct of the war has eroded so sharply, that he may be hard to muster a majority for any broad endorsement of his Asian policies.
The U.S. command says that scores of American warplanes set a one-day record for combat missions over North Vietnam – for a total of 209 missions. That sets the previous record of 197 – August 3.
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. rejects black power talk of racial guerrilla war and says the civil rights movement must seek to restructure American society if poverty and injustice are to be erased. “An edifice which produces beggars must be restructured.” Dr. King reaffirmed his nonviolent creed and called for development of a program “that will drive this nation to a guaranteed annual income.”
Marries – Cassius Clay to Belinda Boyd (17). It’s his second marriage.
Hollywood news – Vidal Sassoon, master hairstylist, flies in from London to cut the locks of actress Mia Farrow. The cost – $5,000. All of this much ado about a haircut took place at Paramount Studios, not only as a publicity stunt, but also for the story line of “Rosemary’s Baby.” Though the actual shearing will not be shown in the movie, a Sassoon haircut comprises a key point in the picture. (This is that very short haircut.) Says the hair stylist – “Whether long or short, hair should be carved at a woman’s bone structure. Actually short hair is a state of mind .. Not a state of age .. the state of mind that wears clothing by such designers as Rudi Gernreich, Ungaro and Saint Laurent. Sassoon designed a look that is reminiscent of Clara Bow for Ungaro’s showing last year … a look that is fast catching on and becoming popular. The hair is short and curly – “but new looking.”
The road from TV roles to movie parts is becoming easier for series actors. Dick Van Dyke has another film, “Baggy Pants,” to be directed by Carl Reiner; Peter Falk fights at “Anzio” with Robert Mitchum, Dick Sargent (The Tammy Grimes Show) enlisted in Bob Hope’s “Private Navy of Sgt. O’Farrell,” Inger Stevens co-stars in Clint Eastwood’s western “Hang Em’ High.” Van Heflin, David Carradine (“Shane”) and Ian Bannen co-star with Mia Farrow in ABC’s “Johnny Belinda” special.
James Garner, now firmly established in theatrical films, is in “The Jolly Pink Jungle” comedy, playing a fashion photographer. Rod Taylor (“Hong Kong”) co-stars with Claudia Cardinale in “A Time for Heroes.” A Universal movie set in Europe after World War II.
The race is on among producers trying to sign up guests for next season’s variety shows. Saul Ilson and Ernest Chambers, co-producers of “The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour,” hired George Burns, Jimmy Durante, Bette Davis, Janet Leigh, Eddie Albert, Mickey Rooney, and Sammy Davis, Jr., for their show. Carol Burnett’s husband, producer Joe Hamilton, signed 30 guests for 30 of her CBS shows. Included on the roster are Richard Chamberlain, Vince Edwards, Nanette Fabray, Tini Lopez, Jonathan Winters, Robert Goulet, Jack Jones, Ella Fitzgerald, Jayne Mansfield, and Pearl Bailey.
Comedian Bill Cosby launches his singing career during a three-day stint at the Whisky a GoGo on the Sunset Strip. His repertoire, derived from Jimmy Reed, Ray Charles Motown, was backed by the 11-piece Watts 103rd St. Rhythm band and a troupe of singers and dancers in addition to his comic kit of faces and gestures. The highlights of Cosby’s routine were his frightened double takes at the liquid light show projected to the side of the stage as he was singing. He also did an interpretation of Stevie Wonder’s “Up Tight,” re-titled “Little Old Man.”
Rock music trends – Murray the K says that popular music has “reached a maturity” and, “in some cases, amplifies ideas and attitudes. People in radio are still treating it as if it were for teenie boppers.” One reason why music has matured, especially rock music, is that writer-producer-artist teams are able to earn much more from a record today than individual writers and performers did in years past … “five times as much.” With this type of financial situation, a performer – writer – producer can spend much more time experimenting with sounds and words. The production is different from the Phil Spector days “and he was one of the first producer kings. The evolution was from the a & r producer to the independent producer. Now, you have the producer who is a writer and performer, too. Like Simon & Garfunkel. Everybody is trying something different today. Johnny Rivers and Roy Orbison have both told me that they’re working on something entirely new in music.”
Top – 40 WMCA, New York PD Ruth Meyer says the station is playing more album cuts and more back-to-back music. At present, WMCA is playing five cuts from Bobbie Gentry’s new Capitol Records album “Ode to Billie Joe,’ including the hit title tune. The station has played fairly frequently “Byrd Avenue” from the new Spanky and Our Gang album. The problem says Ms. Meyer, is “with the exception of a group like the Beatles, the albums coming out today aren’t totally good.” Album cuts are auditioned in the WMCA Tuesday music meetings as if each were a single and votes are made on each. “Previously, a radio station would only play a cut from an album if they wanted to make a record company release it as a single. This is no longer the case. We’re not trying to do that.” The Spanky cut of “Byrd Avenue” had been programmed two or three weeks for its audience value, and then dropped from the playlist,” says Ms Meyer. Ruth Meyer feels too many record companies are putting out albums, however, with one or two hits and a bunch of hastily cut tunes. Listeners at home may be willing to wade through these albums to hear the good tune, but a radio station
can’t afford to program a weak album.
North American Philips Company is mounting a record second-half advertising campaign for its Norelco shavers. The bulk of the product’s $7 million budget for 1967 will be spent on television. Norelco will be a participating sponsor of the National Football League games, “The Smother’s Brothers,” “Mission Impossible,” “Mannix,” “ The Red Skelton Show,” “My Three Sons,” “The Thursday Night and Friday Night Movies,” “The Carol Burnett Show,” “Lost in Space,” “Cimarron Strip,” “Wild Wild West,” “Gunsmoke,” “Daktari,” and “The CBS Evening News with Walter Cronkite.” All on CBS-TV. In addition, the company is also undertaking an extensive spot TV schedule in the top 47 markets.
Carling Brewing out of Cleveland will sponsor CBS-TV’s presentation of the last five holes of the finals days of the fourth annual $200,000 “Carling World Golf Championship” in Woodbridge, Ontario, Sunday, September 3 (4:30-6:30pm) and Monday, September 4 (4:30-6pm).
ABC-TV plans to develop what it calls “the first story form ever created and written expressly for television.” An announcement last week from Leonard Goldberg, vice president in charge of TV network programming, said novelist Harold Robbins (“The Adventurers,” “The Carpetbaggers,” and “The Dream Merchants”) has been engaged to develop this new form. It was explained the form will be of a “TV Novel” with an ending to take the story as contrasted too much open-end serial drama as ABC-TV’s “Peyton Place,”. The project is targeted for ABC nighttime schedule in the 1968-69 season. Mr. Goldberg said the project tentatively has been titled “Harold Robbins’s The Survivors” and that the story would not be subject to “fixed standards of time” but will be presented over the course of as many weeks as are necessary to tell the complete story.
Now!
“MasterChef” has been renewed by FOX for a fourth season……FOX is making the debut episodes of two of its new series, “Ben & Kate” and “The Mindy Project,” available online for two weeks beginning Monday, August 27. The shows can be viewed on many sites, including Facebook, Hulu and Yahoo. Before that, the net is making the full first season of “New Girl” available to view on Yahoo beginning Monday, July 30. Those shows will also be able to be seen on fan site addtothejar.com. …..Johnny Depp, Jon Hamm, Elizabeth Banks, Zooey Deschanel, Steve Carell, Ryan Reynolds, Zach Galifianakis, Bryan Cranston, Rupert Grint, Sarah Michelle Gellar, Kanye West and Sofia Vergara are some of the stars that Fox has lined up as guest voices on its animated shows this fall……..its official. Mariah Carey will be a judge on the next season of “American Idol”…..Idol contestants can now audition online, at the American Idol Small Town Audition Bus Tour or through the Nominate an Idol program……..In Advertising Age’s annual survey of ad buyers about the new fall season, two CBS programs topped the list in expected ratings performance—“Elementary,” the remake of Sherlock Holmes on Thursdays at 10PM; and “Vegas,” the Tuesday night drama starring Dennis Quaid as a sheriff in the early days of Sin City.
NBC Universal and Twitter have announced a partnership that will see all of the tweets from Olympic athletes, their families, fans and NBC television personalities conglomerated into a single curated Twitter page. NBC will promote the page during its Olympic coverage. No money is changing hands in the partnership……..Here we go again. Meredith’s stations in Kansas City, Nashville and Springfield, MA could go dark on the Time Warner Cable systems at midnight on Wednesday if it cannot reach a new retransmission consent agreement with the cable operator. And as the Hearst situation makes clear, TWC is perfectly willing to play hardball these days.
“Matchbox Twenty” front man and solo artist Rob Thomas has joined “The Voice” as a mentor in the upcoming season……NBC has ordered 10 episodes of a new take on Dracula starring Irish actor Jonathan Rhys Meyers, who also played Henry XIII in “The Tudors.” The new version will be set in 1890s London where Dracula is living as an American businessman and waiting to exact revenge……The adult members of the “Modern Family” cast still do not have new deals and have in fact filed suit against the producer, 20th Century Fox Television seeking to void their current contracts. Production, which was supposed to start on Tuesday, has been delayed……NBC will make its entire lineup of new fall programs available online before they debut on the network. New comedies “Go On” and “Animal Practice” will be on the web the day after they are previewed during the Olympics on August 8 and August 12, respectively, and all other programs will be available two weeks before they premiere. Viewers can access the shows on demand and at NBC.com, Hulu, iTunes, Amazon and Xbox, among other platforms…. Sharon Osbourne says she will not be returning for the next cycle of “America’s Got Talent”–but it could just be a ploy to get a raise.
FOX says it is “ripping open the traditional scripted comedy development process” by airing “The Short-Com Comedy Hour” next summer. That show will consist of four short-form sit-coms, with the best being given series orders. The net says that both establish talent and newcomers will be featured…..NBC reports that it has officially passed the $1 billion mark for Olympic ad buys, the most ever, but still a bit below the cost of televising the event. A $6 million buy by the Obama campaign helped put the net over the billion dollar mark. NBC says it still has inventory left for last minute buyers. ….Norah O’Donnell has been named co-host of “CBS This Morning.” She’ll join Charlie Rose and Gayle King this fall, replacing Erica Hill who will take another role at CBS.
ABC has released the dates for its fall season debuts.
On Friday 9/14, “Shark Tank” at 8PM, “What Would You Do?” and “20/20” are back with new episodes. Shark Tank moves down to 9PM on 11/2 when “Last Man Standing” and “Malibu” air from 8-9PM. Monday, 9/24 brings the new seasons of “Dancing with the Stars: All Stars” at 8PM and “Castle” at 10PM. The “Dancing Results Show” will air for two hours at 8PM for four weeks starting 9/25. “Private Practice” premieres that same night at 10PM. Beginning on October 23, “Happy Endings” airs at 9PM and “Don’t Trust the B” at 9:30PM. “The Middle” gets a one-hour premiere on Wednesday, 9/26, followed by “Modern Family” and “The Neighbors” which moves up to 8:30PM the next week. “Suburgatory” debuts at 9:30 on 10/17. “Nashville” premieres at 10PM Wednesday 10/10. The Thursday lineup of “Last Resort,” “Grey’s Anatomy” and “Scandal” gets its fall launch on 9/27. On Sunday, 9/30, it’s the debut of the new season of “Once Upon a Time” at 8PM and “Revenge” at 9 and the series debut of “666 Park Ave.” at 10PM. “America’s Funniest Videos” is back at 7PM on 10/7.
This week’s birthdays include: Hulk Hogan (August 11, age 59), Arlene Dahl, actress and married at one time to Fernando Lamas (also August 11, age 88), and Cecil B. DeMille (August 12, would have been 131).
If you have any questions or comments regarding “TV Talk,” you can reach Pete Sieler at [email protected] .
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TV Radio and Movies, then and now…
Sixty years ago – Senator Nixon tells Republican State Central-Committee that Dwight D. Eisenhower is the candidate of the people and Adlai Stevenson is the candidate of the political bosses.
Dwight D. Eisenhower is quoted by the Illinois Republican leader as saying that Presidential respect for Congress must be restored.
Gov. Stevenson names Wilson Wyatt of Louisville as his personal campaign manager.
The Public Health services says that 1666 new cases infantile paralysis were reported in the nation last week – a new weekly high for the year and well above the five year average.
Sports – Helsinki – The United States scores its greatest Olympic Games Boxing triumph ever by winning five of the ten individual titles and a walk-way team victory.
The Olympic Games end in Finland, the U.S. won a total of 40 gold medals, the U.S. over took Russia in gold medals.
Flying saucer reports – One in Salem, MA and in Pasadena, California.
The movie industry will survive the challenge from television, so says Eric Johnston, President of the Motion Picture Association of America. Admissions sold every week run close to $55 million he said.
Television news – The George Burns and Gracie Allen CBS-TV comedy program will switch from live to film in the fall.
Sunday night television –
CBS – Man of the Week, “Its News to Me, Gene Autry, Your Luck Clue, Toast of the Town, Information please, Celebrity Time and Whats My Line.
NBC – Zoo Parade, Sky King Theatre, Are your Positive? Super Ghost, Meet the Press, The Big Pay off, Playhouse, Hall of Fame Theatre, and American Forum.
ABC– Your Asked for It, Behind Locked Doors
DuMont – Rocky King, Detective, They Stand Accused.
Fifty-one million viewers saw the Republican National Convention, according to an American Research Bureau report this week. Exact ARB figures was 50,930,000, about one-third of this nations entire population. ARB figures indicated that video sets in 14,980,000 homes had tuned in the convention, with an average of 3.4 viewers per set. Peak of TV viewing was reached during the keynote address of General Douglas MacArthur, with 21, 370,000 viewers in 8,220,000 homes. General Dwight D. Eisenhower was selected the Republican Nominee for President of the United States.
Lutheran Television productions of the Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod will launch its nation-wide video series “This is the Life,” beginning the week of October 5. The Missouri Synod has contracted for the 26 half-hour drama films written and produced in Hollywood.
A Alexander productions, Inc. out of Hollywood has acquired the TV distribution rights to two feature films “The Young In Heart,” produced by David Selznick, starring Paulette Goddard, Douglas Fairbanks and Janet Gaynor, and “Alaska Patrol,” produced by Edward L. Alperson and starring Richard Travis.
“The Young in Heart”
1938 Phantom Corsair in “The Young In Heart” movie
“Alaska Patrol” 1949
Roy Rogers Productions, Hollywood, is completing two more half-hour films in NBC-TV’s “Roy Rogers” series produced by Jack Lacey: “The Ride of the Ranchers by Mike Raison and “The Hijackers” by William Lively, both assigned to director Bob Walker.
Edmund Gwenn, 1947 Motion Picture Academy Award winner, signed by Screen Gems, Inc., Hollywood to star in “Snow Image,” a half-hour film in NBC-TV “Ford Theatre” series. The story of Nathaniel Hawthorne is being adapted by Edward Hope, a novelist and short story writer.
Playing at your local theatres –
Carrie
Laurence Olivier and Jennifer Jones
Jack and the Beanstalk
Abbott and Costello
The Greatest Show on Earth
Charlton Heston, Cornel Wilde, Betty Hutton, and James Stewart. Produced and directed by Cecil B. DeMille. A Paramount Release in Technicolor
Jumping Jacks
Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis
Affair in Trinidad
Rita Hayworth and Glenn Ford
Ivanhoe
Robert Taylor, Elizabeth Taylor, and Joan Fontaine, in Color and released by M-G-M
Dreamboat
Clifton Webb and Ginger Rogers.
Sudden Fear
Joan Crawford, Jack Palance, and Gloria Graham, released by RKO Pictures.
Tomorrow, we will look at what happened Fifty five years ago.
Fifty Five years ago – Senate attaches jury trials to the civil rights bill. It was the second major setback in the senate for the Administration on the civil rights bill. Earlier, Senator Johnson’s forces had stripped it by a vote of 52 to 38, of injunctive sanctions that could have been used to force school integration in the south. Vice President Nixon declared: “This is one of the saddest days in the history of the Senate because it was a vote against the right to vote.”
President Eisenhower denounces the senate-voted jury trial amendment in the civil rights bill as a blow to “our whole judicial system.”
Cuba – President Batista’s government imposes military rule over the Cuban people to combat rebellion. It then seized the rebel hotbed city of Santiago.
Moscow radio reports that President Tito of Yugoslavia and Nikita Khrushchev met for several days in satellite Rumania and agreed on “concrete forms of co-operation.” Western experts say this meeting could be the most significant accord since Tito broke with Stalin in 1948.
Rumors are flying that Premier Bulganin of Russia may be on his way out.
Passing – Walter George (79) – one-time country lawyer who represented Georgia in the U.S. senate for 34 years.
Sen. McClelland says that James R. Hoffa’s plan to put the entire nation’s transportation workers into a single union or federation would create a “super government.” Hoffa, the 44-year-old heir apparent to Dave Beck as Teamsters Union president, has said all truck, air, rail, and shipping unions should be combined into a single union or federation “for their own protection.”
Max Chester, a convicted labor racketeer, refuses 50 times to answer questions from senate rackets probers who had just heard he used terror tactics to shake down a businessman.
Passing – Oliver Hardy (65) half the famed “Laurel & Hardy” comedy team. Hardy died from the effects of stroke suffered last September 12. The stroke prevented him from speaking and he could hardly move. Stan Laurel, his skinny partner summed it up: “What’s there to say? … He was like a brother. That’s the end of the history of Laurel and Hardy.” The pair hadn’t made a picture since 1945.
A jury in Chicago rules that a television set was the cause of death for six-year-old Howard Erenstein of nearby Skokie. The thirteen-member jury says that the portable 1958 model General Electric television was defected such “that lethal voltages exist between its cabinet and ground.” The panel included eight engineers. GE says it regrets the accident – the first of its kind for the company and is prepared to make an electrical check of any General Electric portable set without charge.
In sports – Poncho Gonzales defeats Frank Sedgman at the $10 thousand Masters Round Robin Pro Tennis Championship in Los Angeles. He’ll take home most of the prize.
Pittsburgh Pirate manager Bobby Bragan gets axed and is replaced by Coach Danny Murtaugh.
Sports – Stan Musial hammers in four runs with four hits, including two homers and Sam Jones pitches an 8-0 victory as the St. Louis Cardinals take over the National League lead by completing a three-game series sweep over the New York Giants.
Senator John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts is in San Diego – acting as a technical advisor for the TV show “Navy Log” on ABC-TV. The episode is
“PT 109” and Kennedy will have the last word in authenticity. ABC says the script depicts the activities after the Japanese sank his PT boat in WWII.
At a store near you – Bell & Howell’s new 8mm electric eye movie camera! –
Uses the energy of light to set its own lens – you get perfect exposures without even thinking … Lets you shoot action the second you see it … Lets you keep shooting a scene even if light changes … Works more accurately than human judgment. “Finer products through imagination” – Bell & Howell.
In Paris, Christian Dior displays his new collection featuring a gold brassiere. The complete outfit, worn by a model – showed a new-styled brassiere and garter belt in white lace richly embroidered with gold lurex threads. The bra is joined to the garter belt with an elastic ribbon to hold it well down.
In radio news – Herb Oscar Anderson will be featured on ABC radio beginning September 2 – live from the Terrace Room of the New York Hilton. The show will feature a 20-piece orchestra and singers. The show is the first under ABC’s new network radio policy – which says it is eliminating recorded programs. The program will air 10-11am eastern time.
ABC gives the go for Howard Cosell’s “Sports Focus.” The show recently had a seven-week tryout. ABC says the show will air very early evening – Mon-Fri
beginning September 2.
Cellist Pablo Casals (80) – the world’s greatest living cellist – marries a 20-year-old music student.
A work dispute between ABC and its technicians forces “The Lawrence Welk Show” off the air this week. The dispute affected technicians in Los Angeles, New York, Chicago, and San Francisco – but they were retaliating for the network premiere of “American Bandstand” in Philadelphia at WFIL-TV (Channel6). NABET says the program is using local WFIL-TV employees instead of network union employees – depriving its members of work. Hosted by Philadelphia disc jockey Dick Clark, “Bandstand” has been a late afternoon mainstay on the station for several years before ABC decided to place the program on the network.
Speaking of which – WFIL-TV’s “Bandstand” makes its national debut this week as “American Bandstand.” It’s described as a 90-minute daytime program of recorded popular music, dance contests, interviews, and sometimes live recording artists. The show has been presented in Philadelphia since 1952. Dick Clark is master of ceremonies. The show replaces ABC-TV’s feature film series titled “Afternoon Film Festival” (Monday – August 5). Review after first show – J.P. Shanley of the New York Times reviews “American Bandstand” … “Presiding over the show, which originates in Philadelphia is Dick Clark, a well- groomed young man richly endowed with self-assurance. Mr. Clark is inclined, when expressing agreement with guests on his program to use contemporary idioms such as ‘Crazy!’ ‘I’m With You’ and ‘Ah, too much.’ Yesterday’s program began with Elvis Presley’s interpretation of ‘Teddy Bear.’” … “During the program, the studio from which it was televised was crowded with energetic teenagers who danced as the records were played. They were an attractive grip of youngsters. The girls wore pretty gowns and the boys were dressed conservatively. There were no motorcycle jackets and hardly a sideburn in the crowd.” “The quality of the dancing, however, was poor. There also was a shortage of boys. Quite a few girls had to dance with other girls and some of them looked grim about it.” “The format of the program is almost identical to that of a show that has been conducted in here over channel 9 by Ted Steele. The young set dances to records on that program too.” (Note – Ted Steele’s show is on at the same time as Dick Clark’s – 3pm each weekday afternoon.)
Bestsellers include – “The Durable Fire” – Howard Swiggett, “The World Of Suzie Wong” – Richard Mason, “The Hidden Persuaders” – Vance Packard, “The Day Christ Died” – Jim Bishop
A girl, weighing 4 pounds and 14 ounces is born prematurely to Elizabeth Taylor and husband Michael Todd. The girl – named Elizabeth (Liza) Frances Todd was delivered by Caesarean section. She was premature about 2 months.
Marilyn Monroe (31) loses her unborn baby by miscarriage after an emergency operation. She was 5 to 6 weeks pregnant. Doctors say she can have more children. Husband, Playwright Arthur Miller says , “She wants as many as she can get. I feel the same way.”
EJH Bar & Grill in Manhattan sues Eartha Kitt for $200 thousand, charging she poured Champagne on patrons, smashed glassware, and threw a fit after a $137 check. “This is a clip joint” she was heard saying. Kitt denies she threw into a rage over the check. Richard is featured in the wall painting
Red Skelton, his wife, daughter, and ailing son cut a five-day visit to London short after reading in one of the newspapers there that son Richard (9) was going to die. Richard has leukemia and read the headline in one of the local papers. Both father and son are convinced he’ll beat the disease. The family flew to Scotland and will visit Ireland and Copenhagen before returning to the States.
Monday television
ABC 3-4:30pm afternoons – “American Bandstand” w/Dick Clark. Billy Williams and the Chordettes guest.
CBS – Douglas Edwards news, Robin Hood, Burns and Allen, Godfrey Talent Scouts, Those Whiting Girls, Richard Diamond, Studio One
NBC – Huntley-Brinkley news, Georgia Gibbs, Charles Farrell Show, Action
Tonight, Twenty-One, Arthur Murray party, Ted Mack, Code 3, Tonight w/Jack Paar
ABC – John Daly news, Wire service, Bold Journey, Passport to Danger, Lawrence Welk, The Falcon
Wednesday night television –
CBS – Douglas Edwards news, My Friend Flicka, Vic Damone Show, The Millionaire, I’ve Got a Secret, Drama
NBC – Huntley-Brinkley news, Helen O’Connell, Masquerade party, Father Knows Best, Kraft Television Theatre, This Is Your Life, The Vise, Tonight w/Jack Paar
ABC – Disneyland, The Navy Lig, Ozzie and Harriet, Moment of Decision, Boxing, Vic Damone Show – Jack Whiting, Jaye P. Morgan, Sandra Deel, and Katty Lester. Disneyland – “Pluto’s Day.” Father Knows Best – Betty Anderson meets a playboy during an exciting rip to New York to be a bridesmaid.
Pop music this week in 1957 – “Diana” – Paul Anka, “Mr Lee” – The Bobettes, “Bye Bye Love” – The Everly Brothers, “Teddy Bear’ – Elvis Presley, “Whispering Bells” – The Dell-Vikings, “Honycomb” – Jimmy Rodgers, “Star Dust” – Billy Ward & His Dominoes, “Searchin’” – The Coasters, “Love Letters in the Sand’ – Pat Boone, “Goody Goody” – Frankie Lyman & The Teenagers, “Tammy” – Debbie Reynolds, “Around The World” – Mantovani, “And That Reminds Me”- Della Reese, “It’s Not for Me to Say” – Johnny Mathis, “Long Lonely Nights” – Lee Andrews & The Hearts, “Send For Me” – Nat King Cole, “In The Middle Of An Island” – Tony Bennett.
At the movies –
Fred Astaire, Cyd Charisse, Janis Paige, and Peter Lorre
Gun Glory
Stewart Granger and Rhonda Fleming
Loving You
Elvis Presley, Elizabeth Scott, and Wendell Corey
Jeanne Eagels
Kim Novak and Jeff Chandler
Band Of Angels
Clark Gable and Yvonne DeCarlo
Island In The Sun
James Mason, Joan Fontaine, Joan Collins, and Dorothy Dandridge.
Love In The Afternoon
Gary Cooper, Audrey Hepburn, and Maurice Chevalier
The Pride and the Passion
Cary Grant, Frank Sinatra, and Sophia Loren
Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter
Jayne Mansfield, Tony Randall, and Betsy Drake
Dino
Sal Mineo, Brian Keith, and Susan Kohner.
Here is what a local theatre owner has to say about a picture that he recently played at his theatre. “Canyon River” from Allied Artists Pictures and starring George Montgomery, Marcia Henderson and Peter Graves. A very good picture with enough action to please. Drew very well. Played Saturday only. Weather okay – D.W.Trisko, Runge Theatre, Runge, Texas, Population 1,055.
Fifty Years ago – Seeks abortion due to taking thalidomide – In cognito to escape publicity, Sherri Finkbine, and her husband Robert, fly to Los Angeles to escape “all that circus at home.” Mrs. Finkbine was “Miss Sherri” on TV’s “Romper Room” in Phoenix. When she learned a sedative she was taking contained thalidomide, she conferenced with her doctor. “The doctor showed us pictures in a British medical journal of children born to mothers who had used the drug, horrible pictures… the arms… legs… fingers and toes. He told us that I had one chance in two of having a normal baby and that ‘these are not the odds to gamble with.” This left no doubt in my mind about what I wanted to do.” Mrs. Finkbine’s hope of ending her three month pregnancy in Phoenix vanished last week when a judge ruled that he is powerless to authorize a legal abortion. It appears the Finkbine’s are headed to Sweden to have the abortion.
It’s estimated that 1.2 million American woman have their pregnancies ended in the United States by illegal operations. Deaths from these operations are estimated between 5,000 and 10,000. Most states allow abortions only after consultations among several doctors show that pregnancy endangers the life of the mother. Abortions are illegal even for victims of rape or incest, or as in the case of Mrs. Finkbine, where the taking of a drug may result in the child being born deformed.
The new democratic nation of Jamaica is born – ceasing to be a British colony. The U.S. is happy – it’ll act as a buffer to communist Cuba. Jamaican Prime Minister Sir Alexander Bustamante summed it up: “Even if the United States were to become Communist, Jamaica would continue to fight the red evil of tyranny and dictatorship.”
President Kennedy announces that America will propose to Russia a new system to detect international nuclear explosions – a step toward reaching an east-west ban on nuclear weapons – but on-site inspections will still be conducted on demand. “It may be that we shall not need as many as we have needed in the past, but we find no justification for the Soviet claim that a test ban treaty can be effective without on-site inspection.”
White House appointment secretary David Powers, his wife, and three children are injured in an auto accident near Herndon, Virginia. Powers was on his way to Camp David when the collision with another auto occurred. All were hurt with injuries ranging from cuts and bruises to a broken shoulder. Powers is a long-time friend of President Kennedy.
European Common Market industrial production rose two points to 134% of the 1958 average in the first four months of this year. Financially troubled (by jurisdictional strikes and stiffening competition). Eastern Airlines has requested a Federal subsidy of 23.9 million dollars – its fir request for government aid since 1938. Discouraging results of a recent airline poll (probing a potential source of new customers); only 10% of the auto travelers queried had ever considered flying. 73% wouldn’t even consider it if flying were is inexpensive as driving.
Virginia Senator Harry F. Byrd owns 4,000 acres of Shenandoah Valley orchards, making him the nation’s largest apple grower. Last winter, Byrd’s cannery in Berryville, Virginia burned down. He collected $300,000 insurance, then discovered that a provision in the administration’s pending tax-revision bill would entitle him to a $21,000 tax rebate for equipment purchased with the insurance money. Byrd consequently proposed an amendment – unanimously accepted by his colleagues on the Senate Finance Committee – rung out tax credit for insured losses. Why did he deprive himself of a potential windfall? “I brought up this amendment to point out the inconsistencies which are present in the whole tax-credit provision.”
David Sarnoff – chairman of the board of RCA – proposes that all American-international communications carriers be merged into one monopoly. “If America is to take full advantage of the possibilities that science now offers in communications, a single, privately-owned company regulated by the government seems to be the most practical solution.”
At the jail in Albany, Georgia, Dr. Martin Luther King is visited by his wife Coretta and three children. It was the first time the children called on him during one of his (frequent) jailings. King was let out of his cell to meet with the family. He is awaiting trial next week for his part in a demonstration last week. “He looks well. I think he feels much better after seeing the children. It gave him a lift,” said his wife.
Tired and weary-eyed, Mrs. Sherri Finkbine arrives in Sweden to seek abortion of the baby she fears may be deformed by the drug thalidomide. “I am hoping and praying that the Swedish medical men will be able to help me quickly,” said the teacher, who failed to get approval from an abortion from a court in her home state of Arizona.
The Soviet Union explodes a large nuclear bomb, estimated to be in the 40- megaton range in the atmosphere. The blast carries-out Premier Khrushchev’s threat to resume testing in retaliation for U.S. Pacific tests.
In Hollywood – Passing – Marilyn Monroe (36). Her nude body lying face down on her bed and clutching a telephone receiver – was found at 3:30am by a psychiatrist after breaking into her bedroom. She was dead an estimated 5 to 8 hours. An empty bottle beside several medicines was found near her bedside. The bottle had contained 50 Nembutal capsules. The coroner’s office is listing the death as a possible suicide, while the police report said the death could have been accidental. The actress had just recently bought the $75 thousand house. Her body was removed from the home wrapped in a pale-blue blanket and strapped to a stretcher.
Hollywood mourns the loss of Marilyn Monroe. Gene Kelly – “I am deeply shocked by this whole thing. I really don’t know what to say; I was going to see her this afternoon (Sunday). We had a project on file for next year.” Jack Lemmon – “I was terribly fond of her. We lost a unique and, as far as I’m
concerned, wonderful person.” Dean Martin – “I am sure it was an accident. Marilyn was at my home just a few days ago. She was happy, in excellent spirits and we were making plans to resume the picture early next year. She was a warm, wonderful person. The only one she ever hurt was herself.”
(Martin was supposed to star with her in the canceled movie “Something’s Got to Give” It was never made due to Marilyn Monroe’s frequent “illnesses.”)
More Marilyn – Between 1950 and her death, Marilyn Monroe appeared in 23 motion pictures that grossed $200 million. The pictures included “The Asphalt Jungle,” “All About Eve,” “The Fire Ball,” “A Ticket To Tomahawk,” “As Young As Your Feel,” Let’s Make It Legal,” Love Nest,” “Clash By Night,” We’re Not Married,” “Don’t Bother To Knock,” “The Seven Year Itch,” “Let’s Make Love,” and “The Misfits.”
President Kennedy confides to a group of talented young musicians that he once attempted to play the piano, but without much success. “I was once, when I was younger, one of those statistics which were thrown around so casually in those days.” “I played the piano so badly.”
“Now in the new issue of LOOK magazine – see the Nation’s #1 outdoor girl sailing, smiling and just plain frolicking with her clan of cousins! Don’t miss Look’s picture-packed article on CAROLINE KENNEDY’S WONDERFUL SUMMER. It’s at your newsstands now.”
Appearing on Ernie Ford’s TV show are Robert F. Kennedy, Ethel, and several of their children. On camera, dad made an age mistake with one of his kids. “There’s David, 7, Bobby, 9, Joseph, 10, and Kathy, 11. “I think I made a mistake,” Kennedy said getting a signal from Bobby. “Eight” said Bobby to the television audience.
Girl Watchers Watch – Don Sauers, president of the American Society of Girl Watchers, says the girl watchers are always watching. “The girl watchers are united in a simple thought. And that is that there is nothing more beautiful than a beautiful girl.” Sauers, a copywriter for a New York advertising agency, began the Society of Girl Watchers in 1954, timed to coincide with the publication of “The Girl Watcher’s Guide.” “Some members are specialists. There are those who contemplate feet or hands. Others confine the looking to faces. And so it goes.”
Sauers says it’s up to every member to decide the best place in town or office to girl watch. Males working near pencil sharpeners or water coolers are said to be in the best spot in an office. Times Square is also an ideal place to girl watch.
In sports – Bill Monbouquette of the Boston Red Sox pitches a no-hitter against the Chicago White Sox. At 1-0, he only walked one in the second inning.
Three-time all-American Jerry Lucas, late of the Cleveland Pipers, is free of any contractual obligations with that team and is basically free. Pipers president George Steinbrenner thinks he’ll stick with the team.
Passing – Jack Hope (62) – brother of Bob Hope – supervisor of Bob Hope Enterprises for 25 years.
It looks like Arthur Godfrey will not host the “Tonight” show on NBC on September 24th after all. Godfrey is under contract to CBS and they don’t like the idea.
CBS radio wants to drop 4 network shows: Art Linkletter’s “House Party” and the Bing Crosby / Rosemary Clooney Show – both heard mornings; “Yours Truly” and “Johnny Dollar” – heard on Sunday nights. The network has given the go-ahead for cancellation in the fall. Affiliates still have to approve the action.
NBC announces that its new animal series “Wild Kingdom” will debut in January. The show will bring back Marlin Perkins, who could be seen on “Zoo Parade” from 1949 to 1957.
New sales patterns seem to be developing in marketing of post –“48” feature films; sell first to the network and then to stations via syndication. Twentieth Century Fox is reporting to be placing into syndication on September 30 features that have played on NBC-TV this past season. Several weeks ago, packaged movies to released by United Artists contained many features that played on ABC-TV.
Slated for closing this week in Dallas is the largest community antenna transaction in history – involving over $10 million – for 20 plus systems serving more than 50,000 customers in eight states. Purchasing syndicate, in which Bill Daniels, Denver CATV owner and broadcaster is principal, understood to include also other broadcasting-connected financial interests and operating personnel.
The TV series based upon William L. Shirer’s best-selling “The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich” is being planned by MGM-TV for the 1963-64 season. MGM bought the movie as well as the television rights for the book before it was published. However, script and production difficulties in boiling the book down to movie length resulted in abandonment of the film plans. Ted Rogers, MGM-TV producer, will be in charge of adapting the book for documentary series. Available government film on the subject will be used for a major part of the series. When the property is developed into series form, it will be offered to the networks for the 1963-64 TV season.
Five CBS-TV stars, Lucille Ball, Jack Benny, Andy Griffith, Garry Moore, and Danny Thomas, will be featured in a one-hour special “Opening Night” to be presented on the network, September 24 from 8-9pm EDT.
CBS names its play-by-play announcers for its college football coverage – Lindsey Nelson , Mel Allen, Jim Simpson, Jim Morse, Bill Fleming, Johnny Lujack, and Terry Brennan.
ABC announces that it is auditioning eight Negroes and will select one as a news reporter for its network staff. It’s a first for a television network. Baseball great Jackie Robinson was interviewed for the position several months ago. Robinson is a vice-president at Chock Full O’ Nuts (coffee).
NBC signs Merv Griffin to host a daily variety show beginning in October. They liked the way he filled in on the “Tonight” Show.
Thursday Night TV –
CBS – CBS News With Walter Cronkite, Accent, Frontier Circus, Brenner(Ernie kills a man in the line of duty. Stars James Broderick as Ernie Brenner), Zane Grey Theater (Released from prison, a gunman is framed by a deputy for a bank robber. Stars Van Johnson. Ralph Bellamy hosts.)
NBC – Huntley-Brinkley, The Outlaws (Three fun-loving cavalry Men find themselves in a not-too amusing situation when they ride into an Indian ambush. Stars Bruce Yarnell, Don Collier, Slim Pickens, and Judy Lewis. Guest cast – Claude Akins, Jay Lanin, and Christopher King) , Dr. Kildare (Kildare sends the daughter of Dr. Gillespie to a psychiatrist when the young girl begs him to let her take her life when she finds out she is going to have a baby), The Lively Ones (Musical show hosted by Vic Damone. Guests Ella Fitzgerald, drummers Shelly Manne , Gene Krupa, and Louis Bellson, and vocalist Joe Williams), Sing Along With Mitch …
ABC – Ozzie and Harriet, The Donna Reed Show, The Real McCoys, My Three Sons (Robbie is the envy of all the guys after
assigned a beautiful girl as his study partner), The Law and Mr. Jones, The Untouchables (An arson expert is hired by the underworld to destroy a
federal building housing evidence against them)
On the charts – “The Loco-Motion” – Little Eva, “Breaking Up Is Hard To Do” – Neil Sedaka, “Roses Are Red (My Love)” – Bobby Vinton, “Ahab The Arab” – Ray Stevens, “You Belong To Me” – The Duprees, “The Wah Watusi” – The Orlons, “Sealed With A Kiss” – Brian Hyland, “Sheila” – Tommy Roe,
“Bring It On Home To Me” – Sam Cooke, “Twist & Shout” – The Isley Brothers, “You Don’t Know Me” – Ray Charles, “Ahab The Arab” – Ray Stevens, “I Can’t Stop Lovin’ You” – Ray Charles, “Wolverton Mountain” – Claude King, “Things” – Bobby Darin, “Party Lights” – Claudine Clark.
At the movies –
The Wonderful World Of The Brothers Grimm
Laurence Harvey, Claire Bloom, Karl Boehm, and Walter Slezak. This is the first picture telling a story in Cinerama and playing at select cities on a reserved seat basis.
Hatari!
John Wayne and Red Buttons
Walt Disney’s Bon Voyage
Fred MacMurray and Jane Wyman
The Notorious Landlady
Kim Novak, Jack Lemmon, and Fred Astaire
That Touch Of Mink
Cary Grant and Doris Day
The Spiral Road
Rock Hudson and Burl Ives
El Cid
Charlton Heston, Sophia Loren, and Herbert Lom
The Music Man
Robert Preston, Shirley Jones, and Buddy Hackett
In 1962, here is what a theatre owner has to say about a picture, that he recently played at his theatre. “The Great Imposter” from Universal International Pictures, starring Tony Curtis. I passed up U-I’s “The Great Imposter” for a long time thinking it would be uninteresting to my teenage patrons. However, it did a good business and held their interest. Nearly everybody like it. Tony Curtiss was a natural for this one. C.B Hancock, Princess Theatre, Whitesboro, Texas.
Forty Five years ago – Fire crackles in riot-torn Milwaukee despite a rigid curfew aimed at stemming new outbreaks of the rioting, sniping, arson and looting which broke- out recently.
The House Ways and Means Committee approves legislation that will levy $1.7 billion in additional payroll taxes on workers and employers next year to help finance $3.2 billion in increased Social Security benefits. Social Security taxes will rise up to $44 a year for employees and $64 for self-employed persons earning more than $6,600 a year.
President Johnson calls on Congress to levy a 10% surcharge on income taxes on all corporations and all but 16 million of the nation’s individual taxpayers. Chances are good that it will get passed.
Gov. Nelson Rockefeller of New York declares war on rats as the first step ‘to change the ghetto areas so the residents can have the opportunity to have full participation in society.” Rockefeller said the state was stepping in because the House had defeated a bill to consider President Johnson’s $40 million rat- control program. “An average of 2,000 children are bitten each year in New York City by rats in their homes. Others have died because of “rat bites” says the governor.
Comedian Dick Gregory leads 40 white and Negro anti-Vietnam war demonstrators in a peace march in downtown Atlanta – the largest demonstration to date in the South against the U.S. Southeast Asian policy.
At bookstores – “Bigger Than A Breadbox” – “The collected wit, humor and unmitigated fern of Steve Allen.”
Also at bookstores – “My Secrets of Playing Baseball” by Willie Mays. “Mays reveals his own special techniques of defensive and offensive play, and then gives his analysis of percentage baseball – including vital facts on the double play, the bunt, leading off a base, the cutoff, and innumerable other essentials.”
Some best-selling books –
The Eighth Day – Thornton Wilder
The Arrangement – Ella Kazan
Rosemary’s Baby – Ira Levin
Tales of Manhattan – Louis Auchincloss
The Chosen – Chaim Potok
The King of the Castle – Victoria Holt
The Secret of Santa Vittoria – Robert Crichton
The Plot – Irving Wallace
The New Industrial State – John Galbraith
Everything But Money – Sam Levenson
Games People Play – Eric Berne, MD
Edgar Cayce – Jess Stern The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell
Soda promotion – “The Blizzard Girls are Coming With Fresca … Win up to $100… Storms of Blizzard Girls for Fresca will be covering homes in your neighborhood soon. Yours could be one. You can win up to $50 or $100, if you have a bonus coupon. Get free details and valuable bonus coupons where you shop for sugar-free Fresca. Win the coldest cash in history. And enjoy the frosty taste of Fresca. It’s a Blizzard!”
Available by subscription only – a new magazine – “Avant Garde.” “As its name implies – Avant-Garde will be a forward-directed, daring and wildly hedonistic magazine. It will report on every aspect of the ebullient new life-style now emerging in America, and it will do so with no put-ons ad no inhibitions. The pages of Avant-Garde will explode with biting satire, incisive profiles, audacious reportage, lush graphic art, consciousness-expanding fiction and poetry that speaks. Avant-Garde will cover Art, Politics, Science and every other subject of interest to readers of superior intelligence and cultivated taste.” Some of what you’ll see in Advant-Garde:
Radio Free America – A professor’s plan to establish a pirate radio station off the coast of California.
Homage to Muhammad Ali – 35 Celebrities (including Marlon Brando, Jackie Robinson and Woody Allen) in praise of Cassius Clay.
Bob Dylan’s suppressed – and pithiest song lyrics.
Poets at War – Bitter anti-war verse by GI’s in Vietnam. John Lennon as a Master of Prose.
The Writing on the Wall – The emergence of graffiti as a medium of social protest.
Synthetic (and therefore legal) Marijuana
The Dead-Serious Movement to Run Allen Ginsberg for Congress
Ingenious and Perfectly Legal – new ways Around Abortion Laws.
The Fugs – New York’s most way-out electronic rag-rock nerve-thrill company
Understanding Zowie – A glossary of Switched-On generation jargon
Salvador Dali: A News Dimension in Erotic Art – Drawings created especially to celebrate the launching of Avant-garde.
The CIA’s Super-Salaried SuperSpook – An expose of an operative who is said to be paid $1 million a year to fink for Big Brother.
The Intellectual Companions of Jacqueline Kennedy
Passing – W.M. Kiplinger, founder of the Kiplinger Washington Letter and Changing Times magazine. He was 76.
Sunset Strip Happenings – “The Pandora Box” – the teenage nightspot that was the hotspot during the Sunset Strip riots last year is no more. Officials put a bulldozer to the building at 8118 Sunset Blvd.
Sports – The Chicago Cubs give manager Leo Durocher a new two-year pact with a salary increase to manage the Cubs through 1969.
Television news – Yvonne Craig has joined “Batman” as Batgirl. She says of the
show – “it’s wild and bizarre; while thrilling the kids with its action and costumes, its humor gets through to the adults who are watching with them. In fact, a politician recently told me he thinks Batman has produced some of the best political satire he’s ever seen.” Ms. Craig says she can really ride the Batcycle. “Oh, I can ride it all right. I just have trouble when it’s stopped; it’s so heavy I can’t hold it up. It fell over the other day and I decided to try talking to it. ‘Come-on,’ I said nicely – ‘you can get up, can’t you?’ It didn’t, so I kicked it.” When asked, Yvonne says her measurements are 35 1/2-21-34 1/2.
Rare television appearance – Mrs. John F. Kennedy will serve as narrator of CBS-TV’s “Heritage for the People,” a study of the four Presidential libraries and the proposed John F. Kennedy Memorial Library. Following an introduction by actor Gregory Peck, the former First Lady will lead viewers on brief visits to the four libraries erected for Presidents Herbert Hoover, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Harry S. Truman, and Dwight Eisenhower. Mrs. Kennedy will then display plans for the JFK memorial Library.
Senator Robert F. Kennedy will make his debut on his own series of television programs August 13. The first program will feature the Senator and Daniel Moynihan, a former assistant Secretary of labor. The series will only be seen in New York State and will primarily, deal with New York issues.
The first American television crew to enter Communist China, emerges with 9,800 feet of film. CBS correspondent Morley Safer spent three weeks last month visiting Peking, Shanghai, Canton, Sian and Yenan. The film includes interviews with Red Guards at Peking University and visits to communes, hospitals, and industrial exhibits, and will be shown August 15 on a CBS special titled “Morley Safer’s Red China Diary.”
Four NBC correspondents are assigned to the “Huntley-Brinkley” report early in September. They are John Chancellor, who rejoined NBC in June after two years as director of the Voice of America, Douglas Kiker, and Sander Vanocur. Washington correspondents, and Jack Perkins – correspondent in Hong Kong. All will work on “in depth” reports. Mr. Kicker will be based in New York and Mr. Perkins will work out of Los Angeles. Mr. Chancellor and Mr. Vanocur will report from Washington.
American Bandstand celebrates 10 years on ABC-TV. Host/producer Dick Clark says, “I spend half my life trying to find out what kids are doing … where they’re going”
After seven years, Frances Bavier, who portrays “Aunt Bee” on Andy Griffith, says it seems that everybody recognizes her. She says she soon learned that it’s not you they’re recognizing – “it’s the part.” “There are tie-ups in every profession, but I really must find something to do to separate my work from my real life. The trouble is I do the same thing at home as I do on the set. I leave the kitchen on the set and go home to my own kitchen. I’d really like to do something quite crazy, but actresses are not allowed to be crazy.” The actress says she likes to go to thrift shops to look for antiques, old laces, beautiful linens, and fine pieces of furniture.
Cissy King is Bobby Burgess’ new dance partner on the Lawrence Welk show, beginning this week. She replaces Barbara Boylan, who is leaving the Welk family to become a full-time housewife.
Friday Night Television –
CBS – CBS Evening News with Walter Cronkite, Wild, Wild
West (West and Gordon investigate systematic murders of the nation’s wealthiest men), Hogan’s Heroes, CBS Friday Night Movie (“Fail Safe” – Henry Fonda, Dan O’Herlihy, Walter Matthau, and Frank Overton.)
NBC – Huntley-Brinkley Report, Tarzan, Man from UNCLE (Agent Mark Slate (Noel Harrison) and Kuryakin attempt to train an entertainer (Joan Collins) to impersonate a baroness who works for THRUSH), T.H.E. Cat, Laredo
ABC – College All-Star game, Rango, Malibu U (Host Rick Nelson joins guest James Darren, Frankie Randall, and Harper’s Bizaare. Rick sings “Moonshine”), The Time Tunnel (Tony and Doug battle the Vikings, alongside the future King Arthur)
The Merv Griffin Show – Guests – Anthony Perkins, writer pat McCormick, comedienne Donna Jean Young, editor Helen Gurley Brown, comic Ronnie Martin, singer Arthur Prysock.
The Tonight Show with Johnny Carson – guests Agnes Moorehead, Jose Greco, Baja Marimba Band.
At the movies –
John Wayne, Kirk Douglas, Howard Keel, Robert Walker, Keenan Wynn, Bruce Cabot, and Joanna Barnes
You Only Live Twice
Sean Connery as James Bond
Don’t Make Waves
Tony Curtis, Claudia Cardinale, and introducing Sharon Tate, Robert Webber, Joanna Barnes, David Draper.
The Jokers
Michael Crawford, Oliver Reed, Harry Andrews, James Donald, Daniel Massey, and Michael Hordern
Don’t Look Back
Bob Dylan
Hurry Sundown
Michael Caine, Jane Fonda, John Phillip Law, Diahann Carroll, Robert Hooks, Faye Dunaway, and Burgess Meredeth
The Naked Runner
Frank Sinatra, Peter Vaughan, Derren Nesbitt, Nadia Gray, Toby Robins, and Inger Stratton
Grand Prix
Geraldine Chaplin, Julie Christie, Tom Courtenay, and Alec Guinness.
Walt Disney’s the Happiest Millionaire
Fred Mac Murray and Tommy Steele
Barefoot in the Park
Robert Redford, Jane Fonda, and Charles Boyer
Scene from “Barefoot in the Park”
Music news – Singer Chubby Checker, who popularized the Twist several times in the early 60’s, files an $110,000 suit against Cameo-Parkway Records. The singer, whose real name is Ernest Evans, says the record company was $32,000 short when it paid him last April 1 for the six-month period ending last Dec. 31.
At the Hollywood Bowl – Festival From India with – Ravi Shankar
Ali Akbar
Ashish Kahn
Mahapurush Mishra
Beatle news – Visiting Ravi Shankar during his Hollywood visit – Beatle George Harrison says – “Indian music makes God come through in a spiritual way. It makes one more aware God can be put into sound.” Harrison says of his own future – “All I know is I’m going to carry on being me – I don’t know where I’m going… The whole point of life is to change all the time.”
Here is what another theatre owner had to say about a movie, he recently played at his theatre in 1967, “Is Paris Burning” from Paramount Pictures and starring Kirk Douglas, Alain Delon, Glenn Ford and Robert Stack. A very good war picture based on the second World War. The acting was excellent and the story was terrific. Try it and see for yourself. Played Sunday thru Thursday. Weather was rainy – Peter A. Silloway, Star Theatre, St. Johnsbury, Vt. Population 6,809.
Now!
On the heels of the forthcoming ABC pilot “Devious Minds” series, Lifetime cable channel has ordered two drama pilots, “The Secret Lives of Wives” (current working title) and “Witches of East End” for 2013. Inspired by the book by Iris Krasnow, “The Secret Lives of Wives” will focus on the marriage of four different women, and the ultimate challenge of emotional and sexual longevity. Jill Gordon (of “Five”) who wrote the pilot, will also serve as executive producer with Dan Lin and Jennifer Gwartz. “Witches of East End,” based on the Melissa de la Cruz best selling novel, will center on the adventures of a mother and her two adult daughters in Long Island, who unknowingly are their family’s next generation of witches. When one of the daughters becomes engaged, a series of events forces her mother to admit to her daughters they are, in fact, powerful and immortal witches.
TNT is planning to expand its inventory of hit scripted dramas with an adaptation of “The Last Ship,” which is based on the novel by William Brinkley and will be executive produced by Michael Bay (“The Transformers). The project, which follows life after a global catastrophe, comes to TNT from the Platinum Dunes partners Brad Fuller and Andrew Forum.
Television pioneer William Asher, who introduced the early sitcom “Our Miss Brooks” starring Eve Arden, and then became a leading director on “I Love Lucy,” passed away recently in Palm Desert, California of complications of Alzheimer’s Disease. He was 90. He produced and directed the “Patty Duke Show,” on ABC and also produced and directed his then wife, Elizabeth Montgomery in “Bewitched.” He directed several movies, including “Muscle Beach Party,” Bikini Beach,” and “Beach Blanket Bingo” in the mid 1960’s, all released by American International Pictures. He also directed reunion TV shows, such as “I Dream of Jeannie..Fifteen years later” in 1985, and “Return to Green Acres” in 1990.
MTV has renewed drama “Teen Wolf” for a third season, with an expanded order for 24 programs. Historically, “Teen Wolf” is now the first primetime series on MTV to ever pass it’s second season and the largest episode order in the scripted category to date.
This week’s birthdays include: Robert Mitchum, star of tv mini-series “Winds of War” (August 6, would have been 95), Jane “Poni” Adams, actress and best known for her role as Nina in 1945’s “House of Dracula” (August 7, age 91), Dustin Hoffman, actor (August 8, age 75), Connie Stevens, actress and star of the tv series “Hawaiian Eye” during the late 50’s and early 60’s (also August 8, age 73) Esther Williams, actress (Also August 8, age 90), Victor Young, motion pictures composer (also August 8, would have been 112), Robert Aldrich, director of hit movies such as “The Dirty Dozen” and “Vera Cruz” (August 9, would have been 94) and Rhonda Fleming, actress of the 50s, she was also named “Queen of Technicolor” because of her fair complexion and flaming red hair photographed exceptionally well in Technicolor. (also August 9, age 89).
If you have any questions or comments regarding “TV Talk,” you can reach Pete Sieler at [email protected] .
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Which supermarket chain which currently had its headquarters in Deeside was founded in 1970 when businessmen Malcolm Walker and Peter Hinchcliffe opened the store in Oswestry ? | Iceland (supermarket) : Wikis (The Full Wiki)
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Iceland
Iceland is a supermarket chain in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland , owned by the Icelandic retail conglomerate Baugur . Iceland's primary product lines include frozen foods, such as frozen prepared meals and frozen vegetables.
Iceland's product range includes consumer durables such as freezers and refrigerators which are sold in larger stores.
Contents
13 External links
History
Iceland began business in 1970, when Malcolm Walker opened the first store in Oswestry , Shropshire with his business partners Peter Hinchcliffe, Colin Harris, Thomas Duffin and John Apthorp investing £30 each. This was for only one month's rent at their Shropshire store. They were all still employees of Woolworths at the time, and their employment was terminated once their employer discovered their job on the side. Iceland initially specialised in loose frozen food.
By 1975, there were 15+ Iceland outlets in North Wales , with the first supermarket-style outlet opening in Manchester a couple of years later. The firm's head office moved to Deeside , Flintshire in 1979. Iceland was floated on the London Stock Exchange in 1984, by which stage it had 81 outlets.
In 1989 Iceland bought its competitor Bejam which was some three times larger in terms of business. By January 2004, the combined chain had 760 stores throughout the United Kingdom.
Diversification
Finding the retail market more hostile in the late 1990s, Iceland pursued avenues for differentiation. In 1998, the firm began to focus on providing organic food and Genetically modified -free food. This policy saw the company convert its entire frozen vegetable range to organic in 2000.
In 1999, Iceland launched what it claimed to be the first nationwide, free, online grocery shopping service. This tied in with the rebranding of all outlets under the Iceland.co.uk. However, the rebranding exercise appears to have been quietly abandoned in the early 2000s, as the unadorned Iceland name is now used more widely, although some stores still have the Iceland.co.uk name on display.
The supermarket also attempted ties with British Home Stores . [1]
In the summer of 2000 Iceland merged with Booker plc with Booker's Stuart Rose taking the role of CEO of the merged company. He left for the Arcadia Group within a few months. He was replaced by Bill Grimsey in January 2001. [2]
Soon after Grimsey's appointment Malcolm Walker, Iceland's founder & Chairman, was forced to stand down as it was revealed he had sold £13.5 million of Iceland shares five weeks before the company released the first of several profits warnings. [3] [4] Walker was not fully cleared of these allegations until October 2004. [5]
Big Food Group
Iceland was renamed the Big Food Group in Feb 2002, [6] and attempted a refocus on the convenience sector with a bid for Londis . [7] Grimsey remained until the takeover and demerger of the Big Food Group by a consortium led by the Icelandic company, Baugur Group in February 2005. Walker returned to his previous role at Iceland. [6] Under Walker's control Iceland's website contains pages of polemic against Grimsey's period in control. [8]
Recent developments
Since Malcolm Walker's return to the company, Iceland has reduced the workforce by 500 jobs at the Deeside Head Office, with approximately 300 jobs moved in September as a result of a relocation of a distribution warehouse from Deeside to Warrington . During July 2006, 300 workers took industrial action with the support of their union, blocking several lorries from entering the depot. Despite this, the transfer to Warrington took place and the new warehouse was later outsourced to DHL in April 2007.
In January 2009, Iceland announced that it would buy 51 stores in the UK from the failed Woolworths Group chain, three days after the final 200 Woolworths stores closed their doors for the last time. [9]
In April 2009, Iceland announced plans to close its appliance showrooms by September 2009 to concentrate on food retailing [10]
Iceland's sales for the year ended 27 March 2009 were £2.08 billion, a 16% increase on the previous year, with net profits of £113.7 million. [11]
Republic of Ireland
In 1996, six stores were opened in Dublin and one in Letterkenny . They all closed down in 2005 due to financial difficulties.
In November 2008, a store reopened in Ballyfermot in Dublin , after Iceland agreed a franchise deal with an Irish cash and carry company, AIM [12] , and in November 2009 a second store reopened in Finglas , Dublin . They are currently the only two Iceland stores in the Republic of Ireland .
Promotions
The company has recently made large scale changes to the kinds of promotions it offers on products. In the past "Buy One Get One Free" and Meal Deals (a selection of products for a set price) were common in stores, although these have now been reduced and replaced with products offering bigger packs at the original prices. The pricing system has also been changed with many products having their prices rounded up or down to the nearest multiple of 25p (i.e. £1.29 becomes £1.25), this is known as Clear Cut Prices and aims to simplify the pricing system.
2006 also saw a huge surge in 'Home Delivery' promotion. This service is now one of the main focuses of the company. When a customer spends £25 or more on their shopping they have the option of free same-day home delivery.
Bonus Card
On 6 October 2008, Iceland officially launched the Bonus Card, a loyalty card and replacement for the original home delivery card with additional features, after being successfully trialled in other regions of the UK. Customers who register for the new card receive offers and vouchers from time to time, also whenever the card is used in store the customer is entered into a monthly prize draw to win £5,000 in cash, as well as several other prizes, including Trolley Dashes.
The Bonus Card loyalty card scheme and associated databases are being managed by marketing agency The Black Hole, whose other clients include Argos and M&M Direct. [13]
Identity and marketing
The supermarket historically advertised with the slogan Mums Love It, which was changed to Are we doing a deal or are we doing a deal? and Feel the deal in the early 2000s. The new adverts featuring television personality Kerry Katona has seen a return to a slogan more traditionally associated with Iceland - So that's why mums go to Iceland!. Their slogans have often been parodied.
An Iceland supermarket
On the 17th August 2009 Iceland Supermakets announced that Kerry would be sacked from their ad campaigns with immediate effect. This decision followed an investigation by the The News of The World which uncovered video evidence of Kerry snorting cocaine in her Essex house. [14]
When the chain bought rival Bejam in 1989, they launched the TV-advertising campaign "Use Our Imagination," which included a powerful song. The campaign was launched so quickly after the takeover that they hadn't time to convert all Bejam stores to the "Iceland" fascia. Because of this in the song for the commercial the singer proclaimed "We're at Bejam's too..."
Iceland staff have recently been given new uniforms. The uniform consists of a red polo-shirt with an orange band on the collar and sleeves, A black nylon jacket with the Iceland logo embroidered on it and black trousers.
Sponsorship
Iceland have been the sponsors of ITV show I'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! since 2006. This was a major sponsorship deal for the supermarket, and particularly fitting because of Kerry Katona , appearing on the Iceland advertisements; she also therefore appeared on the sponsorship adverts. The celebrity's autobiography appeared for sale in these supermarkets when it first was published. In 2007, former contestant Jason Donovan appeared as well as Kerry Katona and workers of the company had to wear green T-shirts displaying the TV shows' logo for the duration of the series and associated promotion. Scratch and peel cards were given to customers who spent over £10 in store: prizes included money off products and a holiday in Australia. In 2008, Christopher Biggins featured in the sponsorship adverts with Kerry Katona
| Iceland |
Which European country did a military coup, known as the Carnation Revolution, take place in 1974 ? | iceland supermarket : definition of iceland supermarket and synonyms of iceland supermarket (English)
12 External links
History
Iceland began business in 1970, when Malcolm Walker opened the first store in Oswestry , Shropshire with his business partner Peter Hinchcliffe investing £60 for one month's rent at their Shropshire store. They were still employees of Woolworths at the time, and their employment was terminated once their employer discovered their job on the side. Iceland initially specialised in loose frozen food.
By 1975, there were 15+ Iceland outlets in North Wales , with the first supermarket-style outlet opening in Manchester a couple of years later. The firm's head office moved to Deeside , Flintshire in 1979. Iceland was floated on the London Stock Exchange in 1984, by which stage it had 81 outlets.
In 1989 Iceland bought its competitor Bejam which was some three times larger in terms of business. By February 2004, the combined chain had 760 stores throughout the United Kingdom.
Iceland operates in the Republic of Ireland through a franchisee, AIM Group, which has announced plans to have 40 stores operating in Ireland by 2014. There are currently 9 stores in Ireland. [1]
Diversification
Finding the retail market more hostile in the late 1990s, Iceland pursued avenues for differentiation. In 1998, the firm began to focus on providing organic food and Genetically modified -free food. This policy saw the company convert its entire frozen vegetable range to organic in 2000.
In 1999, Iceland launched what it claimed to be the first nationwide, free, online grocery shopping service. This tied in with the rebranding of all outlets under the Iceland.co.uk fascia. However, the rebranding exercise appears to have been quietly abandoned in the early 2000s, as the unadorned Iceland name is now used more widely, although some stores still have the Iceland.co.uk name on display.
The supermarket also attempted ties with British Home Stores . [2]
In the summer of 2000 Iceland merged with Booker plc with Booker's Stuart Rose taking the role of CEO of the merged company. He left for the Arcadia Group within a few months. He was replaced by Bill Grimsey in January 2001. [3]
Soon after Grimsey's appointment Malcolm Walker, Iceland's founder & Chairman, was forced to stand down as it was revealed he had sold £13.5 million of Iceland shares five weeks before the company released the first of several profits warnings. [4] [5] Walker was not fully cleared of these allegations until October 2004. [6]
Big Food Group
Iceland's holding company was renamed the Big Food Group in Feb 2002, [7] and attempted a refocus on the convenience sector with a bid for Londis . [8] Grimsey remained until the takeover and demerger of the Big Food Group by a consortium led by the Icelandic company, Baugur Group in February 2005. Walker returned to his previous role at Iceland. [7] Under Walker's control Iceland's website contains pages of polemic against Grimsey's period in control. [9]
After Baugur Group collapsed in 2009, a 77% stake in Iceland came into the ownership of the Icelandic banks Landsbanki and Glitnir . In 2012 the stake was purchased by a consortium including Malcolm Walker and Graham Kirkham . [10]
Expansion
Iceland was one of the many major retailers who took advantage of the Enterprise Zone incentives offered by the giant Merry Hill Shopping Centre which was developed at Brierley Hill in the West Midlands between 1985 and 1990. It opened a store there in 1989, relocating from Dudley town centre, only for this store to close a decade or so later.
In 1996, six stores were opened in Dublin and one in Letterkenny . They all closed down in 2005 owing to financial difficulties. In November 2008, a store reopened in Ballyfermot in Dublin , after Iceland agreed a franchise deal with an Irish cash and carry company, AIM, [11] and in November 2009 a second store reopened in Finglas , Dublin . A third opened on the Navan Road in September 2010. A fourth store opened in the Ilac Centre in Dublin in November 2010. There are now five Iceland stores in Ireland. In November 2010 AIM announced plans to launch 40 new stores within 4 years.
Since Malcolm Walker's return to the company, Iceland has reduced the workforce by 500 jobs at the Deeside Head Office, with approximately 300 jobs moved in September as a result of a relocation of a distribution warehouse from Deeside to Warrington . During July 2006, 300 workers took industrial action with the support of their union, blocking several lorries from entering the depot. Despite this, the transfer to Warrington took place and the new warehouse was later outsourced to DHL in April 2007.
In January 2009, Iceland announced that it would buy 51 stores in the UK from the failed Woolworths Group chain, three days after the final 200 Woolworths stores closed their doors for the last time. [12]
In April 2009, Iceland announced plans to close its appliance showrooms by September 2009 to concentrate on food retailing [13]
Iceland's sales for the year ended 27 March 2009 were £2.08 billion, a 16% increase on the previous year, with net profits of £113.7 million. [14]
In 2010, the company began opening stores outside the United Kingdom and Ireland, in Eastern Europe.[ citation needed ]
An additional Iceland store opened in Dudley town centre on 2 December 2010 in part of the former Beatties department store, 21 years after store's closure. [15]
Iceland also operates a number of stores in Spain and Portugal, in conjunction with Spanish-based retailer Overseas . The stores stock Iceland products as well as Waitrose 's. [16]
Promotions
The company has recently made large scale changes to the kinds of promotions it offers on products. In the past "Buy One Get One Free" and Meal Deals (a selection of products for a set price) were common in stores, although these have now been reduced and replaced with products offering bigger packs at the original prices. The pricing system has also been changed with many products having their prices rounded up or down to the nearest multiple of 25p (i.e. £1.29 becomes £1.25), this is known as Clear Cut Prices and aims to simplify the pricing system.
2006 also saw a huge surge in 'Home Delivery' promotion. This service is now one of the main focuses of the company. When a customer spends £25 or more on their shopping they have the option of free same-day home delivery.
On 6 October 2008, Iceland officially launched their "Bonus Card", a loyalty card and an advanced replacement for the original home delivery card, after successfully trialling the scheme in some regions of the UK. Customers who register for the new card receive offers and vouchers from time to time, also whenever the card is used in store the customer is entered into a monthly prize draw to win one of 50 £100 Iceland Vouchers (a total giveaway of £5,000 in vouchers to a combined 50 customers per store), as well as several other prizes, including in store instant reward, trolley dashes, holidays and cars. [17]
Identity and marketing
The supermarket historically advertised with the slogan Mums Love It, which was changed to Are we doing a deal or are we doing a deal? and Feel the deal in the early 2000s. From the mid-2000s new ads featuring television personality Kerry Katona saw a return to a slogan more traditionally associated with Iceland - So that's why mums go to Iceland!. Their slogans have often been parodied.
An Iceland supermarket
On 17 August 2009 Iceland Supermakets announced that Kerry would be sacked from their ad campaigns with immediate effect. This decision followed an investigation by The News of The World which uncovered video evidence of Kerry snorting cocaine in her Wilmslow house. [18]
When the chain bought rival Bejam in 1989, they launched the TV-advertising campaign "Use Our Imagination," which included a powerful song. The campaign was launched so quickly after the takeover that they hadn't time to convert all Bejam stores to the "Iceland" fascia. Because of this in the song for the commercial featured the line "We're at Bejam's too..."
Iceland staff received new uniforms in June 2007. The uniform consists of a red polo shirt with an orange band on the collar and sleeves, A black nylon jacket with the Iceland logo embroidered on it and black trousers.
Another new uniform went live on 1 March 2011. It consists of a 'black' coloured shirt with orange,red and grey coloured stripes running down it and the Iceland logo embroidered on the sleeve, black and orange nylon fleeces and gilets with the logo embroidered, and black jeans. The new delivery drivers' uniform also consists of a large waterproof bomber jacket with the logo on the back, a baseball cap or 'beanie' hat and a striped scarf. Supervisors' uniform consists of black suit trousers and a silvery-grey shirt, and store managers have the addition of a suit jacket and red tie.
Sponsorship
This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability .
Iceland have been the sponsors of ITV show I'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! since 2006. This was a major sponsorship deal for the supermarket, and particularly fitting because of Kerry Katona appearing on the Iceland advertisements; she also therefore appeared on the sponsorship adverts. The celebrity's autobiography appeared for sale in these supermarkets when it was first published.
In 2007, former contestant Jason Donovan , appeared as well as Katona and workers of the company had to wear green T-shirts displaying the TV show's logo for the duration of the series and associated promotion. Scratch and peel cards were given to customers who spent over £10 in store: prizes included money off products and a holiday in Australia. In 2008, Christopher Biggins featured in the sponsorship adverts with Katona.
Since 2010, Stacey Solomon former X Factor finalist and I'm A Celebrity winner, has been featured in Iceland adverts.
Partnerships
Iceland products are also supplied to Manx retailer Shoprite (Isle of Man) .
New Face of Iceland
In Spring 2010, Iceland launched a new programme in search of a New Face of Iceland. Ideally customers were to put themselves forward for auditions to be involved with the marketing of all Iceland's products and services. Thousands of people applied, but only 52 made it through to the next round judged by Iceland directors, as well as Malcolm Walker and Coleen Nolan. From the 52 auditionees, seven were chosen to face the public vote, where Ellie Taylor eventually went on to become the 2010 Face of Iceland.
Ellie had her own weekly blog on the Iceland website. [19]
See also
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Amazing Facts
100 amazing & unknown facts!
# Our eyes remain the same size from birth onward, but our nose and ears never stop growing.
# The Barbie doll’s full name is Barbara Millicent Roberts.
# The Mona Lisa has no eyebrows.
# Ants never sleep!
# When the moon is directly overhead, you will weigh slightly less.
# Alexander Graham Bell, the inventor of the telephone, never called his wife or mother because they were both deaf.
# An ostrich’s eye is bigger than its brain.
# “I Am” is the shortest complete sentence in the English language.
# Babies are born without knee caps – actually, they’re made of cartilage and the bone hardens between the ages of 2 and 6 years.
# Happy Birthday (the song) is copyrighted.
# Butterflies taste with their feet.
# A “jiffy” is an actual unit of time for 1/100th of a second.
# It is impossible to sneeze with your eyes open.
# Leonardo Da Vinci invented the scissors.
# Minus 40 degrees Celsius is exactly the same as minus 40 degrees Fahrenheit.
# No word in the English language rhymes with month, orange, silver or purple.
# Shakespeare invented the words “assassination” and “bump.”
# Stewardesses is the longest word typed with only the left hand.
# Elephants are the only animals that cannot jump.
# The names of all the continents end with the same letter that they start with.
# The sentence, “The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog” uses every letter in the English language.
# The shortest war in history was between Zanzibar and England in 1896. Zanzibar surrendered after 38 minutes.
# The strongest muscle in the body is the tongue.
# The word “lethologica” describes the state of not being able to remember the word you want.
# Camels have three eyelids to protect themselves from the blowing desert sand.
# TYPEWRITER is the longest word that can be made using the letters on only one row of the keyboard.
# You can’t kill yourself by holding your breath.
# Money isn’t made out of paper. It’s made out of cotton.
# Your stomach has to produce a new layer of mucus every two weeks or it will digest itself.
# The dot over the letter “i” is called a tittle.
# A duck’s quack doesn’t echo. No one knows why!
# The “spot” on the 7-Up comes from its inventor who had red eyes – he was an albino. ’7′ was because the original containers were 7 ounces and ‘UP’ indicated the direction of the bubbles.
# Chocolate can kill dogs, as it contains theobromine, which affects their heart and nervous system.
# Because metal was scarce, the Oscars given out during World War II were made of plaster.
# There are only two words in the English language that have all five vowels in order: “abstemious” and “facetious.”
# If one places a tiny amount of liquor on a scorpion, it will instantly go mad and sting itself to death.
# Bruce Lee was so fast that they actually had to slow film down so you could see his moves.
# The original name for butterfly was flutterby.
# By raising your legs slowly and laying on your back, you cannot sink into quicksand.
# Dogs and cats, like humans, are either right or left handed.
# Charlie Chaplin once won the third prize in a Charlie Chaplin look-alike contest.
# Sherlock Holmes NEVER said “Elementary, my dear Watson”.
# The Guinness Book of Records holds the record for being the book most often stolen from Public Libraries.
# Bats always turn left when exiting a cave.
# The shortest English word that contains the letters A, B, C, D, E, and F is “feedback.”
# All Polar bears are left-handed.
# In England, the Speaker of the House is not allowed to speak.
# “Dreamt” is the only English word that ends in the letters “mt.”
# Almonds are a member of the peach family, and apples belong to the rose family.
# Peanuts are one of the ingredients of dynamite.
# The only 15 letter word that can be spelled without repeating a letter is “uncopyrightable”.
# In most advertisements, the time displayed on a watch is 10:10
# Tigers have striped skin, not just striped fur.
# Alfred Nobel, in whose name the Nobel prizes are instituted, was the inventor of dynamite.
# The planet Venus does not tilt, so consequently, it has no seasons. It is the only planet that rotates clock-wise.
# Honey is the only food that doesn’t spoil.
# The word “set” has more definitions than any other word in the English language.
# Molecularly speaking, water is actually much drier than sand.
# Human tonsils can bounce higher than a rubber ball of similar weight and size, but only for the first 30 minutes after they’ve been removed.
# US President John F. Kennedy was an accomplished ventriloquist.
# Coca-Cola was originally green.
# Moths are unable to fly during an earthquake.
# Contrary to popular belief, the white is not the healthiest part of an egg. It’s actually the shell.
# Nearly three percent of the ice in Antarctic glaciers is penguin urine.
# Hot water will turn into ice faster then cold water.
# “Rhythm” is the longest English word without a vowel.
# Like fingerprints, every person’s tongue print is different.
# No piece of normal-size paper can be folded in half more than 7 times.
# The tongue is the only muscle that is attached from one end only.
# Pumice is the only rock that floats in water.
# Camel’s milk does not curdle.
# Your foot is the same length as your forearm, and your thumb is the same length as your nose. Also, the length of your lips is the same as the index finger.
# Natural pearls melt in vinegar.
# Buttermilk does not contain any butter.
# The human brain is 80% water.
# Men’s shirts have the buttons on the right while women’s shirts have the buttons on the left.
# Human fingernails grow nearly 4 times faster than toenails.
# The Great Pyramid at Giza in Egypt holds a constant temperature of 68 degrees Fahrenheit.
# The liquid inside young coconuts can be used as a substitute for blood plasma.
# Oak trees do not produce acorns until they are fifty years of age.
# It takes approximately 2 million flowers for a bee to make 1 pound of honey.
# Human saliva has a boiling point three times that of regular water.
# It is physically impossible to urinate and give blood at the same time.
# The letter J does not appear anywhere in the periodic table of the elements.
# The right lung of a human is larger than the left one. This is because of the space and placement of the heart.
# Watermelons, which are 92% water, originated from the Kalahari Desert in Africa.
# The hair of some cancer patients treated with chemotherapy can grow back in a different colour, and sometimes even be curly or straight.
# The markings that are found on dice are called “pips.”
# 111,111,111 x 111,111,111 = 12,345,678,987,654,321
# The cigarette lighter was invented before the match.
# Leonardo Da Vinci never signed or dated his most famous painting, the Mona Lisa.
# The ampersand (&) was the last letter of the Latin alphabet.
# The palms of your hands and the soles of your feet cannot tan, or grow hair.
# Dolphins can swim and sleep at the same time, as they sleep with one eye open.
# Each nostril of a human being registers smell in a different way. Those by the right nostril are more pleasant than the left.
# The longest single-syllable word in the English language is “screeched.”
# The word “Checkmate” in chess comes from the Persian phrase “Shah-Mat,” which means “the king is dead”.
# Each king in a deck of playing cards represents a great king from history: Spades – King David, Clubs – Alexander the Great, Hearts – Charlemagne, and Diamonds – Julius Caesar.
# In Gulliver’s Travels, Jonathan Swift described the two moons of Mars, Phobos and Deimos, giving their exact size and speeds of rotation. He did this more than 100 years before either moon was discovered!
# If a statue in the park of a person on a horse has both front legs in the air, the person died in battle; if the horse has one front leg in the air, the person died as a result of wounds received in battle; if the horse has all four legs on the ground, the person died of natural causes.
Amazing Facts
Indonesia consists only of islands - 13,667 total
During World War II, the very first bomb dropped on Berlin by the Allies killed the only elephant in the Berlin Zoo
People who ride on roller coasters have a higher chance of having a blood clot in the brain
The tallest freestanding sculpture in the world is Chief Crazy Horse in South Dakota, USA
Marie Curie, the Nobel prize winning scientist who discovered radium, died of radiation poisoning
898 tornadoes were recorded to have occurred in the United States in the year 2000.
The word Popcorn is derived from the middle English word "poppe," which means "explosive sound"
The food that is digested in your stomach is called "chyme."
Alcohol beverages have all 13 minerals necessary for human life
The sentence "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog." uses everyletter in the alphabet. (Developed by Western Union to Test telex/twxcommunications)
The word housekeeping was invented by Shakespeare
The only two days of the year in which there are no professional sportsgames (MLB, NBA, NHL, or NFL) are the day before and the day after theMajorLeague All-Star Game.
In the great fire of London in 1666 half of London was burnt down but only 6 people were injured
Lack of sleep can affect your immune system and reduce your ability to fight infections
All dogs are the descendant of the wolf. These wolves lived in eastern Asia about 15,000 years ago
It is not possible to tickle yourself. The cerebellum, a part of the brain, warns the rest of the brain that you are about to tickle yourself. Since your brain knows this, it ignores the resulting sensation
Parma ham is only Parma ham if it is made in the Parma region of Italy. The British chain supermarket Asda, made and packaged its own "Parma ham" and was successfully sued by the real Parma ham people (Parma Ham Trade Association)
With winds of 50 miles per hour, The Statue of Liberty sways three inches and the torch sways five inches
A famous bullfighter, Lagarijo, killed 4,867 bulls in the 19th century.
Police detectives have used snapping turtles to help them locate dead bodies
In most advertisements, including newspapers, the time displayed on a watch is 10:10
The national sport of Japan is sumo wrestling
The early occurrence of a fetus yawning is at eleven weeks after conception
In a month, a fingernail grows an eighth of an inch
Edward VIII did not officially become the King of England as he abdicated the throne to marry an American divorcee
The book "Little Red Riding Hood" was banned in 1990 by two school districts in California. They did this because in the book there was a picture of a basket that had a bottle of wine in it
The reason why golf balls have dimples on them is because it helps in the ball to move a farther distance by reducing drag
Americans consume the most peanut butter in the world
Celtic warriors sometimes fought their battles naked, their bodies dyed blue from head to toe
To make butter more attractive in colour, carrot juice was used by people in the Middle Ages
Early hockey games allowed as many as 30 players a side on the ice
Most fleas do not live past a year old
It takes seven to ten days to make a jelly belly jellybean
Some asteroids have other asteroids orbiting them
Maine is the only state whose name is just one syllable
The male praying mantis cannot copulate while its head is attached to its body. The female initiates sex by ripping the males head off
There is enough concrete in the Hoover Dam to pave a two lane highway from San Francisco to New York
Americans on the average eat 18 acres of pizza every day
Every 238 years, the orbits of Neptune and Pluto change making Neptune at times the farthest planet from the sun
There is a certain species of kangaroo that is only 2.5 centimetres long when it is born
In a lifetime, the average house cat spends approximately 10,950 hours purring
The real name of Toto the dog in "The Wizard Of Oz" was Terry
Stannous fluoride, which is the cavity fighter found in toothpaste is made from recycled tin
It takes 12 honeybees to make one teaspoon of honey
Thomas Watson, who was the chairman of IBM in 1943 predicted that their would probably only be a world market for five computers.
The largest hamburger cooked in the world weighed in at 6,040 pounds
The first lighthouse was in Alexandria in 290 B.C
Heinz first started making ketchup in 1876 and the recipe has remained the same ever since
The largest wedding chapel in Las Vegas is the Viva Las Vegas Chapel, which can seat 100 people
The most popular name for a pet in the United States is Max
Spiral staircases in medieval castles are running clockwise. This is because all knights used to be right-handed. When the intruding army would climb the stairs they would not be able to use their right hand which was holding the sword because of the difficulties of climbing the stairs. Left-handed knights would have had no troubles, except left-handed people could never become knights because it was assumed that they were descendants of the devil
The largest shopping mall in the world is the West Edmonton Mall located in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
The CN Tower located in Toronto, Ontario Canada took a total construction time of 40 months to complete at an original cost of $63 million
The 20th president of the United States, James Garfield, was able to write Greek with one hand and Latin with the other at the same time
The country of Andorra has a zero percent unemployment rate
In Los Angeles, there are fewer people than there are automobiles
A woman has approximately 4.5 litres of blood in her body, while men have 5.6 litres
In India, pickled ginger, minced mutton and a cottage cheese like substance are popular pizza toppings
Oral-B were the first toothbrushes to go to the moon when they were aboard the Apollo 11 mission
A maple tree is usually tapped when the tree is at least 45 years old and has a diameter of 12 inches
In 1998, a law passed in the U.S. state of Virginia allows drivers to keep their road kill, as long as they report it within 12 hours. updated
A language becomes extinct in this world every two weeks
An acre of trees can remove about 13 tons of dust and gases every year from the surrounding environment
The decomposition point of Olive Oil is 220 degrees Celsius
Ten radishes only contain eight calories
Annually a thousand people are killed by scorpions in Mexico
Every year, 100 million sharks are killed by people
Tug of war was an Olympic event from 1900-1920
Of all the countries, Brazil has the most plant species, with over 56,000
One female mouse can produce up to 100 babies a year
Impotence is grounds for divorce in 26 U.S. states
Women who are romance novel readers are reported to make love 74% more often with their partners than women who do not read romance novels.
The average lifespan of a human taste bud is ten days
The monogram "RR" for Rolls-Royce has never been altered, except for when Sir Henry Royce passed away in 1933. Then it was changed from red to black.
People with darker skin will not wrinkle as fast as people with lighter skin
Fido means faithful in Latin
Pebbles cereal was actually named after the shape of the cereal and not the Pebbles Flintstone character
A group of kangaroos is called a mob
Cat's urine glows under a blacklight.
Every three seconds, a new baby is born
More than 260,000 people have been killed by volcanic activity since 1700 AD.
The only predator that polar bears have are humans
Many insects can carry 50 times their own body weight
The last land battle of the U.S. Civil War was fought in Texas
Annually 7 million tons of textiles and clothing is thrown out. Out of this, only 12% is used again or recycled
A scorpion can have up to 12 eyes
A snake charmer in Bangladesh once found 3,500 poisonous cobras and their eggs hidden underneath the floors of two suburban homes
The IRS employees tax manual has instructions for collecting taxes after a nuclear war
There are approximately fifty Bibles sold each minute across the world
The pectin that is found in apples aids in lowering cholesterol levels
Post-It Notes, which are adhesive notes, were invented while looking for a way to improve the acrylate adhesive found in tapes
Crayola Crayons currently has over 120 different crayon colours
Odontophobia is the fear of teeth
The width of a tornado can range from less than ten yards to more than a mile.
In Johannesburg, the average car will be involved in an accident once every four years.
The youngest actress to be nominated as best actress is Keisha Castle-Hughes who was nominated at just 13 years old
The Taj Mahal was actually built for use as a tomb
According to studies, an average roll of toilet paper lasts about five days in the bathroom
Almonds are members of the peach family
The oldest known disease in the world is leprosy
A fall of 30 feet can be survived my most cats
The largest member of the dolphin family are orcas
In 1477, the first diamond engagement ring was given to Mary of Burgundy by Archduke Maximillian of Austria
The hormone replacement drug "Premarin" is made from the urine of pregnant horses
TWIX Caramel Cookie Bars were first introduced in 1979
Nintendo was first establish in 1889 and they started out making special playing cards
People over the age of fifty will start to lose their dislike for foods that taste bitter
In Kentucky, 50 percent of the people who get married for the first time are teenagers
Elephants have been known to learn up to 60 commands
On average 1,668 gallons of water are used by each person in the United States daily
Copper is the second most used metal in the world.
Milton Bradley originally wanted to name the game Twister, Pretzel; but he could not since the name was copyrighted
According to studies, men prefer to have white bedrooms and women prefer to have blue bedrooms
If someone was to fly once around the surface of the moon, it would be equal to a round trip from New York to London
St. Patrick never really drove out any snakes from Ireland. This story was an analogy of how he drove paganism out of Ireland
Fat is important for the development of children and normal growth
The most common seasonings found in American homes are chili powder, cinnamon, and seasoned salts
People who have eaten beetles say that it tastes like apples
Montreal was named after a local mountain "Mont Royal."
Millie the White House dog earned more than 4 times as much as President Bush in 1991. And, rightfully so
In an average lifetime, a person will spend 4 years travelling in an automobile and six months waiting at a red light.
A small drip from a faucet can waste up to 50 gallons of water daily, which is enough water to run a dishwasher twice on a full cycle
Kotex was first manufactured as bandages, during W.W.I
The longest Monopoly game ever played was 1,680 hours long, which is seventy straight days
The first known contraceptive was crocodile dung, used by Egyptians in 2000 B.C
Over 1,600 people in North America have been victims of trunk entrapment (being locked inside of a car trunk)
A rhinoceros horn is made of compacted hair
In 1992, when EuroDisney first opened in France, the public beat some of the park characters because at the time most people had been against the park being built
A jiffy is an actual unit of time for 1/100th of a second. Thus the saying, I will be there in a jiffy.
There is a muppet named Kami that appears on the South African version of the T.V. show "Sesame Street" that is HIV-positive
There are approximately one hundred million people in the United States that have a chronic illness
The oldest working Post Office in the world is located in the village of Sanquer, located in the Scottish Lowlands. It has been operating since 1712
Columbia University is the second largest landowner in New York City, after the Catholic Church
Approximately three jars of peanut butter are sold every second
In Australia, the average person uses 876 gallons of water daily. In Switzerland they use only 77 gallons of water per person daily
Every person has a unique tongue print
Hair will fall out faster on a person that is on a crash diet
In 1890, there was no sunshine for the whole month of December in Westminster in London.
Charles Darwin spent 39 years studying earthworms
The Boeing 737 is nicknamed the Fat Albert
Florida has twice as many lightning injuries and deaths than any other state
Chocolate can be fatal to dogs. Chocolate contains a chemical theobromine, which is poisonous to dogs
In China, there is a species of yam that is used to make a dye
Annually, approximately 46 millions Cokes, five million pounds of french fries, and seven million hamburgers are consumed at Walt Disney World Resort
The Chihuahua Desert is the largest desert in North America, and is over 200,000 square miles
Every continent begins and ends in the same letter. eg AfricA, EuropE
Baseball games between college teams have been played since the Civil War
The real name of actress Whoopi Goldberg is Caryn Elaine Johnson
Researches have discovered that eating five or more apples a week is linked to better functioning of the lungs
Boeing completed more than 15,000 hours of wind-tunnel testing on the first 747
The most popular ethnic food in the United States is Italian food
Parts of the Dead Sea Scrolls appeared for sale in the June 1, 1954 issue of the Wall Street Journal
If the population of China walked past you in single file, the line would never end because of the rate of reproduction
The YKK that you see on zippers stands for Yoshida Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha which is the name of the founder of the zipper manufacturing company in Japan
The theme song of the Harlem Globetrotters is "Sweet Georgia Brown."
27% of female lottery winners hid their winning ticket in their bras
To lose one pound of fat, a person has to burn approximately 3,500 calories
In 1969, the American side of Niagara Falls was stopped completely for several months
The name for insect poop is frass
A can of Pepsi has 41 grams of sugar. This amount to about seven teaspoons of sugar
Montreal is actually located on an island
There are over 2,000 species of butterflies in the rainforests of South America
The world record for the number of body piercings on one individual is 702, which is held by Canadian Brent Moffat
Before toilet paper was invented, French royalty wiped their bottoms with fine linen
The earliest known example of an organized market for equities dates from Rome, second century B.C
There are over 2,000 different species of cactuses
Each day 400 gallons of recycled blood are pumped through the kidneys
Ten percent of the Russian government's income comes from the sale ofvodka.
Apples, not caffeine, are more efficient at waking you up in the morning
Bananas were discovered by Alexander the Great in 327 B.C. when he conquered India
Levan, which is located in Utah, got its name from "navel" which is levan spelt backwards. It was named this because it is in the center of Utah
Approximately one out of four injuries by athletes involve the wrist and hand
Former U.S. President Abraham Lincoln suffered a nervous breakdown in 1836
Musk is extracted from the bottom of a civet, and is used as an ingredient to make perfumes.
The first human heart transplant happened on December 3, 1967. Unfortunately the patient only lived for eighteen days, succumbing in the end to pneumonia
In New York City there are 6,374.6 miles of streets
The sound made by the Victoria Falls in Zimbabwe is so loud that it can be heard 40 miles away
Ancient Egyptians used to think having facial hair was an indication of personal neglect
In Czechhoslovakia, there is a church that has a chandelier made of human bones
The largest hotel in the world is the MGM Grand, which has 5,034 rooms and is located in Las Vegas, Nevada
The plastic things on the end of shoelaces are called aglets
The fleshy bulbs on each side of your nose are called the Alea (AY-lee) singular Ala (AY-luh)
Male koalas mark their territory by rubbing their chests on a tree. Male koalas have a dark scent gland in the middle of their chest
An octopus has three hearts
Roses generally need around 6 hours of sunlight to grow properly.
Buttermilk does not contain any butter, but is a cultured milk product which is usually made from fat free milk
Pineapples were first called "anana", which is Caribbean for "excellent fruit."
Human birth control pills work on gorillas
The tallest woman that ever lived was Zeng Jinlian who was 8 feet 2 inches tall of China. Shed died at the age of 17
An adult "Gold Frog" measures to be 9.8 millimeters in body length
Each day, anywhere from 35-150 species of life go extinct
Alexander Graham Bell, the inventor of the telephone, never telephoned his wife or mother because they were both deaf
Alexander the Great made his troops eat onions as he believed it would prove their vitality
Bill Russell was the first black head coach of a major league pro sports team
In 1945, a seven ounce bathroom cup was the first item Tupperware marketed
Central air conditioners use 98% more energy than ceiling fans.
The king of hearts is the only king without a mustache
Men can read smaller print than women; women can hear better
Everyday, U.S. business use enough paper to circle the Earth over 20 times
The Welwitschia plant can live up to 1,000 years
The dromedary camel can drink as much as 100 litres of water in just 10 minutes
According to the American Institute of Stress, job stress approximately costs the U.S. industry over $300 billion dollars per year
It takes 72 minutes for the restaurant at the top of the CN Tower to make one revolution
Coffee beans were chewed for more than 400 years before the first cup of coffee was brewed
All of the Peking ducks in the United States are descendents from three ducks and one drake imported to Long Island, New York in 1873
The first British ship to use the SOS distress signal was the Titanic
The Spring peeper (a frog) can survive the winter season with 65% of its body water as ice
Studies have shown that the scent of Rosemary can help in better mental performance and make individuals feel more alert
The search engine Google got its name from the word "googol," which refers to the number one with a hundred zeros after it
The Goliath beetle is about the size of your fist and can weigh as much as 3-4 ounces
If you fart consistently for 6 years and 9 months, enough gas is produced to create explosion that is equal to an atomic bomb
Humans have about the same number of hair follicles as a chimpanzee has
Studies indicate that listening to music is good for digestion
The Chihuahua was named after the Mexican state where they were discovered
There are no snakes in New Zealand
The most popular grown bulbs are tulips
Every day the human stomach produces about 2 liters of hydrochloric acid
The country of Bolivia is named after a fighter Simon Bolivar
Peanuts are one of the ingredients of dynamite
The first state to give the right to women to vote was Wyoming
In 1949 UNICEF produced the first charity Christmas card. The picture shown on the card was painted by a seven year old girl
Archeologists report that cannabis was most likely the first plant cultivated by humans. Cannabis was used for linen, paper, and garments
The garfish has green bones
Women who drink more than two cups of coffee a day have a higher chance of developing osteoporosis
The banana was officially introduced in 1876 in the U.S. at the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition. The bananas were wrapped in tinfoil and were sold for 10 cents each
A yawn usually lasts for approximately six seconds
Thirty-five percent of the people who use personal ads for dating are already married
The food that people crave the most is cheese
Every day more money is printed for Monopoly than the US Treasury
The only animal, besides humans that can get leprosy is the Armadillo
In 1894, the carnival made its debut in North America
The artist Vincent Van Gogh sliced part of his ear off in madness
According to Scientists, vampire bat saliva is the best known medicine for keeping blood from clotting.
People from North America prefer pickles with warts, where as Europeans prefer pickles with no warts
People that suffer from gum disease are twice as likely to have a stroke or heart attack
Close to 50% of the water used in a home originates from the bathroom
After the Krakatoa volcano eruption in 1883 in Indonesia, many people reported that, because of the dust, the sunset appeared green and the moon blue. The moon was said to appear blue for almost two years.
The country with the highest consumption of chocolate per capita is Switzerland, with 22 pounds per person, per year
In China, September 20 is "Love Your Teeth Day."
Actor Richard Gere was considered to play the role of John McClane in the movie Die Hard. Bruce Willis played the part instead
The record for the world?s worst drivers is a toss-up between two candidates: First, a 75-year-old man who received 10 traffic tickets, drove on the wrong side of the road four times, committed four hit-and-run offenses, and caused six accidents, all within 20 minutes on October 15, 1966. Second, a 62-year-old woman who failed her driving test 40 times before passing it in August, 1970 (by that time, she had spent over $700 in lessons, and could no longer afford to buy a car)
Tigers have striped skin, not just striped fur
Left-handed people are better at sports that require good spatial judgment and fast reaction, compared to right-handed individuals
Half of a cup of figs will give you just as much calcium as half a cup of milk
A "hairbreadth away" is 1/48 of an inch
In 1281, the Mongol army of Kublai Khan tried to invade Japan but were ravaged by a hurricane that destroyed their fleet
Walt Disney was afraid of mice
Studies show that couples that smoke during the time of conception have a higher chance of having a girl compared to couples that do not smoke
The reason why some people get a cowlick is because the growth of their hair is in a spiral pattern, which causes the hair to either stand straight up, or goes to a certain angle
Approximately 50% of Americans admit they have ran a red light
In 1755, the first Canadian post office opened in Halifax, Nova Scotia. The fist Deputy Postmaster General was American inventor Benjamin Franklin who was later dismissed for sympathizing with the American revolutionary cause
Reno, Nevada is west of Los Angeles, California.
On average, 90% of the people that have the disease Lupus are female
Unlike other four legged mammals, kangaroos cannot walk backwards
The itch from a mosquito bite can be soothed by cutting open a clove of garlic and rubbing it on the bite
If you have three quarters, four dimes, and four pennies, you have $1.19. You also have the largest amount of money in coins without being able to make change for a dollar
Most American car horns honk in the key of F
A superstition in baseball is to never lend your bat to anyone or you will be jinxed
Bats always turn left when exiting a cave
Penguins can jump as high as 6 feet in the air
In 1998, approximately 1.6 billion tree seedlings were planted in the United States. This amounts to about five trees per American
There are species of fish that can walk on land in search of water when its water source dries up. Some can survive as long as three days on land such as the snakehead fish
Racecar driver Lee Petty once left a pitstop and did a full lap at Nascar with a pit crew member still on the hood
The first fashion house to be set up was in 1858 by Charles Worth. He opened his store in Paris with the idea of having pre-made gowns presented on models to his customers
St. Patrick explained the Holy Trinity to King Laoghaire, using the shamrock to illustrate the trinity
More twins are born in the Western world than in the Eastern world
Nine egg yolks have been found in one chicken egg
The record for the longest Monopoly game played in a bathtub is ninety-nine hours
The flea can jump 350 times its body length, that is like a 6 foot-tall human jumping the length of 7 football fields
The 1988 move "Big" which was directed by Penny Marshall was the first movie by a female director to gross over $100 million domestically
When the Galileo Probe entered Jupiter's atmosphere, it was traveling at a speed of 106,000 miles per hour. This is the fastest impact speed ever achieved by a man-made object.
In 1972, a gorilla by the name of "Koko" was taught ASL (American Sign Language) for the deaf. By the year 2000, the gorilla could understand approximately 2,000 English words
3000 children die every day in Africa because of malaria
The reason why hair turns gray as we age is because the pigment cells in the hair follicle start to die, which is responsible for producing "melanin" which gives the hair colour
Approximately 125 people die in the United States from an anaphylaxis to foods each year
The word "vamp" is used to describe the upper front top of a shoe
Construction on the White House began in October of 1792
A galactic year is 250 million Earth-years. This is the time it takes for our solar system to make one revolution around the Milky Way Galaxy.
Leonardo da Vinci was dyslexic, and he often wrote backwards
The male platypus has poisonous spurs on its legs
Polar bears can smell seal from 20 miles away
Canadians Scott Abbott and Chris Haney invented Trivial Pursuit. They were planning on playing Scrabble and realized that some of the pieces were missing so they came up with the idea of making their own game; Trivial Pursuit
On average, there is about three molecules of ozone for every 10 million air molecules.
A person uses approximately fifty-seven sheets of toilet paper each day
The Barbie doll has more than 80 careers
James Buchanan was the only unmarried president of the United States
The Stanley Cup originally was only seven and a half inches high
In 1991, during an attempted political coup on Russian President Boris Yelstin, food supplies had dwindled down at the parliament buildings so they ordered Pizza Hut to deliver pizzas
Some people drink the urine of pregnant women to build up their immune system
The five Olympic rings represent the five continents linked together in friendship
Ray Kroc bought McDonalds for $2.7 million in 1961 from the McDonald brothers
It is possible to lead a cow upstairs but not downstairs
Shark cartilage has been used to make artificial skin for human burn victims
The first person to die in the electric chair was William Kemmler, an ax murderer from New York on August 6, 1890
Finland has 187,888 lakes and 179,584 islands
The average adult has approximately six pounds of skin
A crocodile can open and close its jaw but cannot move it side to side
There are over 1,000,000 swimming pools in Florida, eventhough the ocean is no farther than 80 miles away
99% of the blueberries that are produced in the United States are produced in the state of Maine
On May 9, 1999 approximately 600,000 gallons of whiskey flowed into the Kentucky River during a fire at Wild Turkey Distillery in Lawrenceburg
Thomas Jefferson had three achievements placed on his headstone at his request, "Here Was Buried Thomas Jefferson/Author Of The Declaration Of American Independence/Of The Statute Of Virginia For Religious Freedom/And Father Of The University of Virginia.? He never mentioned being President of the United States
Humans and cows have the same gestation period, which is about nine months
In the Victoria era, red tulips were a declaration of love
The sport Lacrosse was initially played by Native American Indians. They played the sport to prepare for war
It takes a sloth up to six days to digest the food it eats
According to Scandinavian traditions, if a boy and girl eat from the same loaf of bread, they are bound to fall in love
In 1796, Napoleon was only 26 years old when he took command of the French Army of Italy
A bomb dropped by the Allies on Berlin during World War II killed every animal in the Berlin Zoo except the elephant, which escaped and roamed the city. When a Russian commander saw hungry Germans chasing the elephant and trying to kill it, he ordered his troops to protect it and shoot anyone who tried to kill it
The expression "Tying the Knot" comes from an old Roman custom where the brides clothes were tied up all in knots and the groom was supposed to untie the knots
Snake is a delicacy in China
In 1999, All Nippon Airlines, had one of its jets fully decorated with Pokemon characters from nose to tail on its exterior
The Dead Sea has been sinking for last several years
Uranus has 27 moons
Actress Sally Field was paid $4,000 a week for her role in the TV show The Flying Nun
More pollution is emitted from the average home compared to the average car.
The snow leopard protects itself from extreme cold when it sleeps by wrapping its 3-foot-long tail around its nose
Only 4% of babies are born on their actual due date
In the 1940s, the FCC assigned television's Channel 1 to mobile Services(two-way radios in taxicabs, for instance) but did not re-number theotherchannel assignments. That is why your TV set has channels 2 and up, butnochannel 1.
A man named Charles Osborne had the hiccups for approximately sixty-nine years
There are more Subway restaurants in Canada than there are McDonald restaurants
The CN Tower, in Toronto, is the tallest freestanding structure in the world with a height of about 553 metres
The term "the whole 9 yards" came from W.W.II fighter pilots in the South Pacific. When arming their airplanes on the ground, the .50 caliber machine gun ammo belts measured exactly 27 feet, before being loaded into the fuselage. If the pilots fired all their ammo at a target, it got "the whole 9 yards."
Construction on the Leaning Tower of Pisa began on August 9th, 1173
President Lyndon Johnson used to smoke three packs of cigarettes a day
The Tibetan name for Mount Everest is Chomolungma
The word "laser" stands for "Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission by radiation."
In a lifetime, on average a honey bee produces 1/12th of a teaspoon of honey
There are 315 species of parrot in the world
The TV show Doctor Who, when it was popular, had an audience of 110 million people
The cost to build the Empire State Building was $40,948,900
A person who smokes a pack of cigarettes a day will on average lose two teeth every ten years
Wasps that feed on ferment occasionally get drunk and pass out
The largest cereal company in the world is Quaker Oats, located in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, USA
The first Olympic games only had one event - a foot race
Colonel Sanders traveled over 250,000 miles a year visiting various parts of his Kentucky Fried Chicken Empire
Some desert snails have been known to sleep for three to four years
Over 80% of the brain is water
From the age of thirty, humans gradually begin to shrink in size
Jackrabbits can reach a speed of fifty miles per hour and can leap as far as twenty feet
There are 40 official jelly belly flavours
Early sewing machines were destroyed by mobs or workers who felt their jobs were threatened by automation
In 1992, the Antarctic Ozone hole was larger than the continent of North America.
Someone gets divorced every ten to thirteen seconds
There is a certain type of Hawk Moth caterpillar from Brazil that inflates its thorax, which makes its head look like a head of a snake when it feels it is in danger or alarmed
The CIA has made a disk camera that is as big as a quarter. This gadget can take many pictures at a time when the disk is opened.
The Sanskrit word for "war" means "desire for more cows."
In Hong Kong, delivery times are primarily influenced by traffic conditions on elevators. It often takes drivers longer to travel vertically than horizontally, as access to elevators is so congested during "high peak" hours. This is due to the volume of people residing in high rises
The ancient Greeks had a fascination with the planet Mars. They attributed the planet to Ares, their god of war, because of its red colour
The only lizard that has a voice is the Gecko
In Israel, religious law forbids picking your nose on Sabbath
In twins, there is a great chance that one will be left handed
In the 1920's, Q-Tips were invented by Leo Gerstenzang who got the idea after watching his wife clean their baby's ears with cotton stuck onto a toothpick.
In the Pacific Islands when people get burns they often use a banana leaf as treatment
Acorns were used as a coffee substitute during the American Civil War
An airplane mechanic invented Slinky while he was playing with engine parts and realized the possible secondary use for the springs. Barbie was invented by Ruth Handler after watching her daughter play with baby dolls imagining then in grown up roles
When the female grasshopper lays eggs, she covers her eggs with a pasty liquid that protects the eggs throughout the winter
The longest recorded duration of a total solar eclipse was 7.5 minutes.
On average, an American makes three pounds of garbage in a day
Even if you eat food standing on your head, the food will still end up in your stomach
Only one person in two billion will live to be 116 or older.
The most common name in the world is Mohammed
Apple seeds are poisonous as they contain a cyanide compound
The word breakfast was coined due to the fact that after sleeping for hours, we are "breaking our fast."
The cardigan was originally made to be a military jacket made of knitted wool
The month of December is the most popular month for weddings in the Philippines
The deepest cave in the world is the "Lamprechtsofen-Vogelshacht" cave which can be found in Salzburg, Austria. The cave is 5,354 feet deep
The capital of Vermont, Montpelier is the only state capital in the United States that does not have a McDonalds
The longest engagement lasted 67 years, and the couple ended up marrying when they were 82 years old
Our eyes are always the same size from birth, but our nose and ears. never stop growing
Milk and cheese can aid in the reduction of tooth decay
On average, a strawberry has 200 seeds on it
Coconuts kill more people in the world than sharks do
The average person spends two weeks of their life kissing
Research has indicated that indoor pollution is 10 times more toxic than outdoor pollution
Eating a banana at night can help in falling asleep
The stapler was invented in Spring Valley, Minnesota.
The first television newscaster was Kolin Hager, who used to broadcast farm and weather reports in 1928
Pixie, a Siberian Husky, gave birth to 7 puppies, one of which was bright green
Back in 1953, it took 27 hours to make one Marshmallow Peep. Now it takes only six minutes
On average, an ear of a corn has 16 rows and approximately 800 kernels
The green ring that is formed around the yolk of eggs that have been cooked too long is formed by the chemical reaction from the iron in the yolk and the sulphur in the white part of the egg
The silk that is produced by spiders is stronger than steel
The first president to have a picture taken was John Quincy Adams
Some brands of toothpaste contain glycerin or glycerol, which is also an ingredient in antifreeze
1 in 2000 babies are born with a tooth that is already visible
It was during World War II that clothes with elastic waists were introduced. This is because the metal used in zippers was badly needed for the war
In 1902, the game table tennis was brought to the U.S. from Europe by Parker Brothers
Hershey's Kisses are called that because the machine that makes themlooks like it's kissing the conveyor belt.
The fat from sheep, which is called tallow can be used to make soap and candles
Next to bone marrow, hair is the fastest growing tissue in the human body
Sigmund Freud had a morbid fear of ferns
When playing competitive darts the player must be 7 feet 9 1/4 inches back from the dartboard. Also the board must be 5 feet 8 inches above the floor
In England, the Speaker of the House is not allowed to speak
Earthworms have 5 hearts
If all the gold sitting in the oceans and seas were mined, every person on this plant would get about 20 kilograms of gold each.
To make an espresso 42 coffee beans are needed
The oil that is found in poison ivy is called "urushiol."
Of all the days of the week, the most popular day for people to eat ice cream is Sunday
The first museum in Moscow that was set up in 1791 was the Natural History Laboratory at Moscow University. This later was changed to the Zoological Museum
A surfer once sued another surfer for "stealing his wave." The case was thrown out because the court was unable to put a price on "pain and suffering" endured by the surfer watching someone else ride "his" wave
Many people in parts of China eat insects. Some common insects are bean worms, scoprions, and locusts
The largest dog in the world is the Irish Wolfhound
Ernest Vincent Wright wrote a fifty thousand-word novel, "Gadsby," without any word containing the letter "e."
The projection light used for IMAX theaters can be seen from space.
The human liver performs over 500 functions
Ballroom dancing is a course at Brigham Young University in Utah
The word "maverick" came into use after Samuel Maverick, a Texan, refused to brand his cattle. Eventually any unbranded calf became known as a Maverick
Finnish folklore states that when Santa comes to Finland to deliver gifts, he leaves his sleigh behind and rides on a goat named Ukko instead
More than $1 billion is spent each year on neck ties in the United States
In the 18th century, potatoes were given out as a dessert. They were served in a napkin, salted and hot
The only poisonous birds in the world are the three species of Pitohui. The Hooded Pitohui from Papua New Guinea is the most deadliest out of the three
Pretzels were originally invented for Christian Lent. The twists of the pretzels are to resemble arms crossed in prayer
The American Airlines Center in Dallas has more toilets per capita than any other sports and entertainment venue in the country
After 8 months, babies are more likely to get a diaper rash
The first modern toothbrush was invented in China. Its bristles came from hogs hair or the mane of a horse that were then put into ivory handles
The New Zealand Kiwi bird cannot fly
66% of wedding cards are hand delivered by people
Heavier lemons produce more, and tastier, juice
The leading cause of poisoning for children under the age of six in the home is liquid dish soap
The same amount of calories are burned by doing 6 sessions that are 5 minutes each of an activity and doing 1 session of that activity for 30 minutes
General William Booth is the founder of the Salvation Army
Iguanas can stay under water for up to thirty minutes
The fastest flying butterfly is the Monarch, which has been clocked with a speed as high as 17 miles per hour
Egyptian pyramid builders used to eat a lot of garlic because they thought it would increase their strength
The average office document gets copied 19 times
In just the first 56 days of life, the larva of the polyphemus moth eats about 86,000 times its birthweight
Every hour one billion cells in the body must be replaced
American actor Jack Nicholson, and American singer Bobby Darrin were raised believing their grandmothers were their mothers and their mothers were their older sisters
The first Ford cars had Dodge engines
The average height of an NBA basketball player is 6 feet 7 inches
One in five Americans move homes every year
The chocolate chip cookie was invented in 1933
The capital of Burkina Faso is Ouagadougou
A catfish has about 100,000 taste buds
The Liberty Bell was the first mechanical slot machine, which was invented by Charles Fey, a car mechanic in 1895.
A Russian man who wore a beard during the time of Peter the Great had to pay a special tax
The silkworm moth has lost the ability to fly ever since it has been domesticated
The first cheerleaders in the U.S. were men
The name Jeep came from the abbreviation used in the army for the "General Purpose" vehicle, G.P
The odds of having quadruplets are 1 in 729,000
In 1965, the price for an issue of TV Guide was 15 cents
In 1565 In St. Augustine, Florida the first orange trees were planted
Nose prints are used to identify dogs, much like humans use fingerprints
In the United States, six tubs of Cool Whip, a brand of whipping cream, are sold every second
The most popular chocolate bar in the United Kingdom for the last 15 years has been Kit Kat
White-Out was invented by Bette Nesmith Graham, who is the mother of Michael Nesmith from the "The Monkees."
There are over 2,000 different types of cheese in the world
The giant squid has the largest eyes in the world
Owls swallow their prey whole because they have no teeth. After approximately 12 hours they cough up the feathers, bones, and fur in a shape of a football pellet
Historically, a blue ribbon has been awarded for first prize
Seventy-one percent of households report they have at least one snorer. Forty-five percent of those surveyed admit they snore, 35% said their partner snores, 12% said their child snores and 9% reported their pet snores
The original meaning of the word grocer was referring to a person who traded food in wholesale. These people would usually sell in large quantities, or by the "gross."
Research indicates that mosquitoes are attracted to people who have recently eaten bananas
Actress Michelle Pfeiffer was the first choice to play Clarice Starling in the movie "Silence of the Lambs." She turned down the role because she found it too scary
The White House has 35 bathrooms, 3 elevators, 132 rooms, and 412 doors in it
Due to the deforestation of the forests in North China, over one million tons of sands blows into Beijing from the Gobi desert. It sometimes causes the sky to turn yellow.
Cows are able to hear lower and higher frequencies better than human beings
Approximately 60% of the water used by households during the summer is used for watering flowers, and lawns
The largest diamond that was ever found was 3106 carats.
In 1970, Chip maker Intel purchased a pear orchard to build their corporate headquarters on
The mating call of a male toadfish, who are underwater, is so loud that it can be heard by humans above water
The most popular jelly belly jellybean flavour is buttered popcorn
The Nike swoosh was invented by Caroline Davidson back in 1971. She received $35 for making the swoosh. The first shoe with the swoosh was introduced in 1972
Slaves under the last emperors of China wore pigtails so they could be picked out quickly
A crocodile cannot stick its tongue out
Kiwis are the only known bird to have nostrils located at the tip of their beak
An adult esophagus can range from 10 to 14 inches in length and is one inch in diameter
A squash ball moving at 150 kilometers per hour has the same impact of a .22 bullet
Telephonophobia is the fear of telephones
The word alligator comes from the Spanish word El Lagarto, which means "The Lizard."
While still in college, Bill Gates and Paul Allen once built a special purpose machine called "Traff-O-Data." It was a machine that would analyze information gathered by traffic monitors. They never found any buyers.
The citric acid found in lemon juice is said to be able to dissolve a pearl
Robert Southey wrote the story "Goldilocks and the Three Bears" in 1834
The tallest woman in the world is American Sandy Allen who is 7 feet 7 inches
American Airlines saved $40,000 in 1987 by eliminating one olive from each salad served in first-class
Astronauts get taller when they are in space
Only 5 to 10 percent of cheetah cubs make it to adulthood
Dentyne gum was invented in 1899 by a druggist from New York named Franklin V. Canning
It takes about three hours for food to be broken down in the human stomach
When former Texas Governor James Hogg was on his deathbed he made a special request that a pecan tree be planted at the head of his grave instead of a tombstone. The governor passed away on March 2, 1906, which is Texas Independence Day. The pecan tree is now the state tree of Texas
In a year, there are 60,000 trampoline injuries that occur in the U.S
There is an organization called SCROOGE in Charlottesville, Virginia that stands for Society to Curtail Ridiculous, Outrageous, and Ostentatious Gift Exchanges. This was formed to keep gift giving affordable and simple
The first World Series baseball playoffs occurred in 1903
Archipelago is the word to describe a large group of islands that are located close together
The life expectancy of a garbage disposal is about 5 to 10 years
In the original movie "101 Dalmatians," there are exactly 6,469,952 spots on all 101 Dalmatians as they are shown in 113,760 frames of the film combined
The average North American car contains 300 pounds of plastics
A person who is a specialist in wine making is called an oenologist
You can only smell 1/20th as well as a dog
The number one cause of rabies in the United States are bats
The music for "The Star Spangled Banner" comes from a British drinking song named "Anacreon."
27 percent of U.S. male college students believe life is "a meaningless existential hell." (big surprise, eh?)
Close to fifty percent of the bacteria in the mouth lives on the surface of our tongue
Less than 1% of the women in the world will ever be able to wear a diamond that is the size of a carat or more
Ketchup originated in China as a pickled fish sauce called ke-tsiap
An ostrich's eye is bigger that it's brain.
In Britain, The Red Lion is the most common name for a pub
In 1997, the record for the highest skydive by a dog at 4,572 feet was established by a dog named Brutus
The majority of burglaries occur during the daytime when people are not home
Traditionally, wild cabbage was used as an aphrodisiac
Tiger Woods was introduced to golf at nine months of age by his father
A person will burn 7 percent more calories if they walk on hard dirt compared to pavement
It would take 29 million years for a car travelling 100 miles per hour to reach the nearest star
Blue Jays can imitate the calls of hawks
There are over three trillion craters on the moon, with some being having a diameter over three feet
In India, a 9-year-old girl was "married" to a stray dog, which tribal custom requires in order to protect a child whose first tooth appears on the upper gum
There is now an ATM at McMurdo Station in Antarctica, which has a winter population of two hundred people
In Canada, men are three times more likely than women to have seen a doctor in the last year
The most expensive spice in the world is saffron
In one night, an adult hippopotamus eats approximately 150 pounds of grass
The U.S. paid Russia $7.2 million for Alaska in 1867
Cows can detect odors up to five miles away
There are about 125 million multiples (twins, triplets, etc.) worldwide
Arthur Giblin was the inventor of the first "flushable" toilet
Consuming chocolate was once considered a sin during the 16th and 17th century. During that time it was provided in the form of a drink and since drinking wine during lent was a sin, so was drinking chocolate
Approximately 40% of the states in the U.S. have severe, or extreme pollution problems
Wendel Clark holds the record for the longest span between NHL All-Star appearances, with 13 years (1986-1999)
Ancient Egyptians believed that onions would keep evil spirits away
Dill seeds are so small that approximately 10,000 dill seeds would be required to make an ounce
To make one pound of whole milk cheese, 10 pounds of whole milk is needed
If all the insects in the world were put on a scale, they would out weigh all creatures
Women smile more than men do
A ripe cranberry will bounce. Another name for a cranberry is bounceberry
Termites work 24 hours per day -- they do not sleep
The Romans used to clean themselves with olive oil since they did not have any soap. They would pour the oil on their bodies, and then use a strigil, which is type of blade, to scrape off any dirt along with the oil
The act of stretching and yawning is referred to as pandiculation
In the 1960 movie "Psycho" by Alfred Hitchcock, chocolate syrup was used to show the blood in the shower scene
Carolyn Shoemaker, famous astronomer, has discovered 32 comets and approximately 300 asteroids
The longest fangs of a snake are found on the Gaboon Viper (Bitis gabonica), and can reach over 2 inches in length
Once a human reaches the age of 35, he/she will start losing approximately 7,000 brain cells a day. The cells will never be replaced
The only king without a moustache in a deck of cards is the king of hearts
Approximately 100,000 people get married in Las Vegas each year
Amish people do not believe in the use of aerosal air fresheners
Coca-cola used to use the slogan "Good to the last drop," in 1908. This slogan was later used by Maxwell House
The blind cavefish is born with eyes, but they fall off as the fish grows
In ancient Egypt, Priests plucked EVERY hair from their bodies including their eyebrows and eyelashes
The Indian election in 1984 was the largest election of any country. Over 379,000,000 voters were eligible to vote at over 480,000 polling stations
A single chocolate chip gives enough energy to a human being to walk 150 feet
There are 54 bones in your hands including the wrists
The name for Oz in "The Wizard of Oz" was thought up when the creator, Frank Baum, looked at his filing cabinet and saw A-N, and O-Z, hence "Oz."
The town of Churchill, Manitoba, located in Canada, is known as the "Polar Bear Capital of the World"
Amtrak is the combination of the words "American" and "Track"
On average, an American relocates 11 times in their life
Fires onland generally move faster uphill than downhill
The cartoon character Popeye was actually based on a real person named Frank "Rocky" Fiegel who was a tough guy who was quite similar to Popeye physically
Frisbee got its name from William Russel Frisbee, who was a pie baker. He used to sell his pies in a thin tin pan, which had Frisbee written on it. When Walter Frederick Morrison thought of the idea of making saucer like disks to play catch, he visited the campus of Yale and noticed people there were using the pie pan to play catch so he therefore renamed his invention to Frisbee
Some arthritis medications contain gold salts, which is used as an anti-inflammatory
Lemon juice can aid in reducing the swelling caused by insect bites
LSD is made from lysergic acid, which is found in ergot, a type of fungus
DC-10, the name of an airplane stands for "Douglas Commercial."
In approximately 18 months, the papaya tree can grow to be 20 feet tall
Parrots cannot eat chocolate because it is poisonous to their body
Americans are responsible for generating roughly 20% percent of the garbage in the world
Termites are roasted and eaten like popcorn in South Africa
The official state tree of Illinois is The White Oak
It takes 3,000 cows to supply the NFL with enough leather for a year'ssupply of footballs.
In 1971, the postal code was introduced in Ottawa, Ontario
The tridacna clam can grow up to four feet long and weigh up to 500 pounds
The state that has the most diners in the world is New Jersey, which is referred to as the "Diner Capital of the World."
Approximately 1-2 calorie are burned a minute while watching T.V
The first recipe for a lasagna type dish was found to be from a British cookbook in the 14th century. Therefore, Italians were not the first ones to come up with the popular dish as believed
Only one person in two billion will live to be 116 or older
If an identical twin grows up without having a certain tooth, the other twin will most likely also grow up with that tooth missing
Albert Einstein was offered the presidency of Israel in 1952, but he declined
According to legend, tea originated in China when tea leaves accidentally blew into a pot of boiling water
When you sneeze, all your bodily functions momentarily stop, including your heart
Kite flying is a professional sport in Thailand
Urine from men?s public urinals was sold as a commodity in Ancient Rome. It was used as a dye and for making clothes hard
All 50 states are listed across the top of the Lincoln Memorial on the back of the $5.00 bill
1 out of 350,000 Americans get electrocuted in their life
New Mexico is known as the "Land of Enchantment."
In 1890, Scott Paper produced the first toilet paper to be available on a roll
An elephant in the wild can eat anywhere from 100 - 1000 pounds of vegetation in a 16 hour period
Some of the other names that were thought of for the dwarfs in the Disney movie "Snow White" were Awful, Dirty, Shifty, Hotsy, and Jumpy
In the U.S., over 35 million people have used some sort of illegal drug in the last year
96% of candles that are purchased are by women
The oldest bird on record was Cocky, a cockatoo, who died in the London Zoo at the age of 82
A cow averages 40,000 jaw movements a day
The reason the soft drink Dr Pepper is called that is because the inventor Wade Morrison named it after Dr. Charles Pepper who had given him his first job
Annually 17 tons of gold is used to make wedding rings in the United States
Sex acts like a natural antihistamine, in can clear up a stuffy nose
Women on average live seven years longer than men do
A British term for slot machine is "fruit machine" or "one-armed bandit."
Most dust particles in your house are made from dead skin
Even though the rose does not bear any fruit, the rose hips have more Vitamin C than most vegetables and fruits
In 1946 Danon Yogurt were the first to add fruit to commercially produced yogurt in U.S
The first domain name ever registered was Symbolics.com on March 15, 1985.
American Airlines saved $40,000 in 1987 by eliminating one olive from each salad served in first class
The first flavour of a cheese ball was called "Cheddy Blue."
Over 500 million gallons of Kool-Aid drink are consumed each year
The waste produced by one chicken in its lifetime can supply enough electricity to run a 100-watt bulb for five hours
Hydrogen solid is the most dense substance in the world, at 70.6g/cc
Missouri has been to most NCAA tournaments than any other college without reaching the final four
The hump of a camel can weigh up to 35 kilograms
Lake Malawi has the largest number of fish species in the world
The country of Fiji is made up of 332 islands
The first Labor Day holiday was celebrated on Tuesday, September 5, 1882, in New York City
The word "sophomore" means "sophisticated moron."
Jim Bristoe, an American, invented a 30-foot-long, 2-ton pumpkin cannon that can fire pumpkins up to five miles.
There are about 61,300 pizza restaurants in the United States of America
To tell if a egg is fully cooked or raw, just spin it. If the egg wobbles then it is still raw, and if it easily spins it is fully cooked
Used in art the word "sfumato" refers to the subtle blending of an outline by gradually blending one tone into another
There is a species of bird, Antpitta avis canis Ridgley, that barks like a dog
The flu pandemic of 1918 killed over 20 million people
Approximately 20% of Americans have a passport
The Nobel prize was first awarded in 1901
The reason why milk is white is because it contains a protein called Casein, which is white. Milk also contains fat, which is also white
After twenty-seven years, Betty Rubble made her debut as a Flintstones Vitamin in 1996
When telephone companies first began hiring telephone operators, they chose teenage boys for the job. They switched to women because the teenage boys were wrestling instead of working and pulling pranks on callers
In a lifetime, the heart pumps about one million barrels of blood
The Sears Tower in Chicago contains enough steel to build 50,000 automobiles
The first words that Thomas A. Edison spoke into the phonograph were, "Mary had a little lamb."
There are 400 species of bacteria in the human colon
On average, 100 people choke to death on ballpoint pens every year.
In the 20th century, over three million people have died from earthquakes
It is impossible to sneeze with your eyes open
People still cut the cheese shortly after death
In ancient Egypt, the only person who was allowed to wear cotton was the High Priest
Blueberries have more antioxidents than any other fruit or vegetables
The Mount Horeb Mustard Museum which is located in Wisconsin has the biggest collection of prepared mustards. They have approximately 4,000 different jars and tubes from all over the world
Bananas trees are not really trees. They are considered to be giant herb plants
Sponge Candy was invented in Buffalo, NY
When the volcano Krakatoa off the Java islands exploded in 1883, it was so loud that it woke some people up in South Australia
Pearls are rarely found in North American oysters
The average cocoon contains about 300-400 metres of silk
Lake Nicaragua boasts the only fresh-water sharks in the entire world
Boxing champion Gene Tunney taught Shakespeare at Yale University
The most popular pickle is the Dill pickle
Diabetes is the fourth leading cause of death in the U.S., accounting for about 180,000 deaths per year
Every year approximately 3,000 people choke to death
Cow is a Japanese brand of shaving foam
The fastest running bird is the Ostrich, which has been clocked at 97.5 kilometres per hour
When the divorce rate goes up in the United States, toy makers report that the sale of toys also rise
Q-Tip Cotton Swabs were originally called Baby Gays
The Pacific island of Tonga once issued a stamp that was banana shaped
A mole can dig a tunnel three hundred feet long in a single night
The glue on Israeli postage stamps is certified kosher
The only commercial aircraft that is able to break the sound barrier is the Concorde.
U.S. Postal Service processes 38 million address changes each year
In 1984, Ronald Reagan declared the month of July to be "National Ice Cream Month."
The small intestine in the human body is about 2 inches around, and 22 feet long
In 1905, the first pizzeria in the U.S. opened in New York City
In the early nineteenth century some advertisements claimed that riding the carousel was good for the circulation of blood
For the blockbuster movie "The Terminator," O.J. Simpson was considered to play the role of the Terminator, but producers did not choose him as they thought he would not be taken seriously
The actor who played the T-1000 in Terminator 2 (Robert Patrick) and the lead singer of Filter are brothers
The sole purpose of a drone bee is to mate with the queen bee
There are more plastic flamingos in America than real ones
Walt Disney had a fear of mice
Cleopatra married two of her brothers
In an average lifetime, people spend four years traveling in cars and six months waiting for red light to turn green
At one time, pumpkins were recommended for removing freckles
In just one drop of liquid, 50 million bacteria can be present
The Montreal Canadians hockey team has won the most Stanley Cups with 24
Nylon is a man-made fibre that is made from coal and petroleum
When the First Lady, Eleanor Roosevelt, received an alarming number of threatening letters, soon after her husband became President at the height of the Depression, the Secret Service insisted that she carry a pistol in her purse
Swiss engineer George de Mestral, who got the idea after noticing burrs were sticking to his pants after his regular walks through the woods, invented Velcro.
Bees can communicate with other bees by dancing. Their dance can alert other bees as to which direction and the distance nectar and pollen is located
The steepest street in the world is Baldwin Street located in Dunedin, New Zealand. It has an incline of 38%
One billion pounds of pasta would need approximately 2,021,452,000 gallons of water to cook it. This is equivalent to 75,000 Olympic-size swimming pools
Nutmeg is extremely poisonous if injected intravenously
The average Super Bowl party has 18 people
An ant can detect a movement through 5 centimeters of earth
One out of 200 women is colorblind
On average, the rainfall across the Amazon is 7 feet annually.
Passion fruits have a tranquilizing effect on the body
It is physically impossible for pigs to look up into the sky
A snail can sleep for 3 years
"Dreamt" is the only English word that ends in the letters "mt"
There is a large brass statue of Winnie-the-Pooh in Lima, Peru
In 1982, Larry Walters tied 24 weather balloons to his lawn chair in Los Angeles and climbed to an altitude of 16,000 feet
Centuries ago in India, a person could get their nose chopped off for breaking the law
The sound of E.T. walking was made by someone squishing her hands in Jello
The total number of steps in the Eiffel Tower are 1665
The amount of blood a female mosquito drinks per serving is five millionths of a liter
An adult porcupine has approximately 30,000 quills on its body, which are replaced every year
The name for Ivory Soap was inspired by a verse from the Bible. Harley Proctor got though of the name when the minister read from Psalms 45:8, "All thy garments smell of myrrh and aloes and cassia, out of the ivory palaces whereby they have made thee glad."
A survey done by Clairol 10 years ago came up with 46% of men stating that it was okay to color their hair. Now 66% of men admit to coloring their hair
The name of the squiggly line "~" is called a tilde
In 1747, the first American mention of the Christmas tree occurred. However, it was a not a tree but instead a pyramid made out of wood and decorated with apples and evergreen boughs
There are more Barbie dolls in Italy than there are Canadians in Canada
The study of ants is called Myrmecology
In the United States, you are more likely to be killed by a bee sting than a shark attack
Coca-Cola was the first soft drink to be consumed in outer space
Frozen food can be just as nutritious as fresh food
Fourteen people die each day from asthma in the United States
The average amount of time spent kissing for a person in a lifetime is 20,160 minutes
The human body has approximately 37,000 miles of capillaries
The most expensive shoes in the world are ruby slippers located in Harrods in London, which cost $1.6 million, has a full time security guard. The shoes are made from platinum thread and has 642 rubies in them. It took over 700 hours to produce the shoe
Only 55% of all Americans know that the sun is a star
The city of Denver was originally chosen to host the 1976 Winter Olympics, but had to withdraw because Colorado voters rejected to finance it
The longest bout of sneezing recorded was by Donna Griffith. It began in January 13 1981 and continued until September 16 1983 and lasted for 978 days
The Taj Mahal, located in Agra, India, was actually built for use as a tomb by Mogul ruler Shah Jehan for his wife, Arjuman Banu Begum
In 1943, the July issue of "Transportation Magazine" had an article entitled "1943 Guide to Hiring Women."
Spotted skunks do handstands before they spray
A dime has 118 ridges around the edge
Scientists with high-speed cameras have discovered that rain drops are not tear shaped but rather look like hamburger buns.
Ancient Egyptian women used to wear perfume cones made of wax that would melt in the heat letting out a nice fragrance
Mardi Gras means "Fat Tuesday." This is the festival that New Orleans, Louisiana is famous for having every year
There was once a fish caught in Delaware Bay with a watch still ticking inside
In Singapore, it is illegal to sell or own chewing gum
During the female orgasm, endorphines are released, which are powerful painkillers. So headaches are in fact a bad excuse not to have sex
Donkeys kill more people annually than plane crashes
The nut "filbert" got its name from St. Philbert which is celebrated on August 22nd, which is also when the nut matures
Every time Beethoven sat down to write music, he poured ice water over his head
Some species of dolphin sleep with one eye open
The chewing gum Juicy Fruit has 10 calories. This is approximately the same as a bite of whole wheat bread
In ancient Egypt, doctors used jolts from the electric catfish to reduce the pain of arthritis
In order to scare away predators, Giant petrels, a type of seabird, throw up all over the intruder
Elvis Presley used to be a truck driver before he started singing
The average cow produces about 2,305 gallons of milk each year
Former U.S. president Ronald Reagan worked as a lifeguard in his youth at a beach near Dixon, Illinois and saved over 77 lives
In 2000, there were 1,579,566 drug arrests in the United States. Of those, close to half were for marijuana
Just like fingerprints, every cats nose pad is different
Popeye is 34 years old, weighs 158 lbs, and is 5 feet 6 inches tall
Researchers have shot footage of Orcas (killer whales) attacking and killing great white sharks
The three most valuable brand names on earth: Marlboro, Coca Cola, and Budweiser, in that order
One bushel of wheat can make enough sandwiches that you could eat three sandwiches a day for over six months
In 1992, approximately 750 deaths occurred in the United States due to workplace violence
In the movie "Babe", the piglet was played by over 30 different piglets they outgrew the part so quickly during the production of the film
Research indicates that people prefer the colour blue for their casual clothing
The leading cause of deaths for children between the ages of 1 and 4 are motor vehicle crashes
The first toilet being flushed in a motion picture was in the movie "Psycho."
The human brain has about 100,000,000,000 (100 billion) neurons
One acre of wheat can produce enough bread to feed a family of four people for about ten years
Queen Victoria used marijuana, to help relieve menstrual cramp pain
On a ship a toilet is called a head
About 1 in 5,000 North Atlantic lobsters are born bright blue
Approximately 10.5 gallons of water is used in a dishwasher. Washing the dishes by hand can use up to 20 gallons of water
The thing that hangs from the top of the beak of a turkey is called the snood
Ticks can be as small as a grain of rice and grow to be as big as a marble
An American chews an average of 300 sticks of gum in a year
Most cows give more milk when they listen to music
Giant flying foxes, which are a type of bat, that live in Indonesia have wingspans of nearly six feet
Heavier lemons contain more and tastier juice
Since 1950, over 230 million eggs of Silly Putty have been sold
Oral-B is a combination of oral hygiene and the letter B, which stands for the word better
Frank Wathernam was the last prisoner to leave Alcatraz prison on March 21, 1963
A blink lasts approximately 0.3 seconds
In 1903 Mary Anderson invented the windshield wipers
Both Thomas Jefferson and Jimmy Carter, U.S. presidents, were peanut farmers at one time
A cow releases about 125 gallons of gas per day
The Apollo 17 crew were the last men on the moon
Spartacus led the revolt of the Roman slaves and gladiators in 73 B.C
The Mexican version of the Tooth Fairy is known as the Tooth Mouse, which takes the tooth and leaves treasures in its place
In a day the blue whale calf drinks approximately 130 gallons of milk
Right-handed people live, on average, nine years longer than left-handed people do
All racehorses in the U.S. celebrate their birthday on January 1st
A person would have to drink more than 12 cups of hot cocoa to equal the amount of caffeine found in one cup of coffee
The oldest documented footwear found was a 8,000 year-old sandal found in a cave located in Missouri, USA
Broccoli was first introduced into France during the royal marriage of Catherine de Medici to Henry II of France
By federal law, for a noodle to actually be a noodle it must have 5.5 percent egg solids in it, otherwise it cannot be called a noodle
The first female guest host of Saturday Night Live was actress Candace Bergen
The human heart beast roughly 35 million times a year
People that use mobile phones are 2.5 time more likely to develop cancer in areas of the brain that are adjacent to the ear they use to talk on the mobile phone
Turkeys can have heart attacks. When the Air Force was conducting test runs and breaking the sound barrier, fields of turkeys dropped dead because of heart attacks
The act of sneezing is referred to as sternutation
The average medium size piano has about 230 strings
A study revealed that men that were born with a low birth weight were less likely to get married
It takes about 63,000 trees to make the newsprint for the average Sunday edition of The New York Times
On average, you would need 12.5 gallons of milk to make one gallon of ice cream
A leech can gorge itself up to a maximum of five times its body weight
There are places in Saskatchewan called Elbow, Eyebrow, and Drinkwater
A butterfly has to have a body temperature greater than 86 degrees to be able to fly
The beeswax that is produced by Honey bees comes from eight paired glands that are located on the underside of their stomach
People in low-income homes spend 50% more time playing video games than people in high-income homes
Lighthouse keepers were nicknamed "wickies" because they tended the lamps wick
Taco Bell serves over 35 million consumers each week in the USA
During the Roman times, people used urine, called lotium in Latin, as a hair product
There are approximately 90 people that have been frozen after their death.
The smallest will ever written was 3.8 cm in diameter. It had 40 words written on it and was signed by two witnesses
The length of a human esophagus is 25 centimeters
In 1942 the Jello company introduced Cola flavored jello, which only lasted a year
Males account for 60% of toy injuries that occur in the U.S
The company "Sony" was originally called "Totsuken." They felt the name "Sony" would be easier to pronounce. The name was invented by a cross between the name "sonus" and "sonny." The name sound and sonic are derived. Sonny was used to represent a young man or boy, which would show a energetic young company
The Red Cross is called the Red Crescent in Arab countries
The Olympics were originally held for the Greek god Zeus
The oldest inhabited house in Scotland is the Traquair Castle. The castle has had 27 kings as visitors
Four billion pounds of watermelon were grown in the United States in 1999
Wham-O manufactured twenty-thousand hula-hoops a day at the peak of hula-hoop popularity in 1958
JELL-O was declared The "Official State Snack" of Utah in January 2001
Elvis Presley was obsessed with brushing his teeth
When the Statue of Liberty was moved from France to the United States, 214 crates were used to transport it. The Statue was also reduced to 350 pieces
There are approximately 2000 thunderstorms that are active at the same time which results in 100 lightning flashes a second.
In-vitro babies are born in Australia more than any other country in the world
Uranus? winter and summer seasons last the equivalent of 21 Earth years
More people die from eating sharks then from being eaten by them. This is due to a poison in shark meat
The murder rate in the United States is about four times greater than in Japan. In Japan, no private citizen can buy a handgun legally
The rarest chocolate bar in the world is the Porcelana bar. There are only 20,000 of these bars produced a year, and they sell for $90 per pound
The reason why locusts swarm are because when they are in groups, a "hot-spot" behind their hind legs is stimulated, which in turn causes their destructive nature. A large swarm of locusts can eat eighty thousand tons of corn in a day
There are an equivalent number of cows and people in Friesland, Netherlands
Centipedes always have an uneven pairs of walking legs
A chicken once had its head cut off and survived for over eighteen months, headless
The largest diamond found in the United States was a 40.23 carat white diamond. It was found in 1924 and nicknamed the "Uncle Sam."
Following directions off the Internet and chemicals obtained from a mail order company, a team of U.S. scientists created an identical copy of the polio virus.
Every day, the Hubble telescope transmits enough data to fit 10,000 standard computer disks
The average number of people that go to a party for the Super Bowl is 17
The amount of Kit Kat chocolate bars that are made at the York factory every 15 minutes are enough to outstack the Eiffel Tower
The skin of a shark is made up of "tiny teeth" which are called dermal denticles
The strongest gust of wind was recorded at the Mount Washington Observatory on April 12th, 1934, and measured 231 miles per hour.
The company Chanel claims that every 30 seconds, somewhere in the world, a bottle of Chanel No 5 is sold
In their lifetime, house cats spend approximately 10,950 hours purring
The reason why bubbles are round is because this is the most efficient shape that the soap film can take for the amount of air trapped inside
It is very common for babies in New Zealand to sleep on sheepskins. This is to help them gain weight faster, and retain their body heat
From 1526 to 1707, the first six Mogul emperors of India ruled in unbroken succession from father to son
A one kilogram packet of sugar will have about 5 million grains of sugar
Bats emit ultrasonic sounds to communicate with each other
Rats can survive up to 14 days without any food
Canola oil is actually rapeseed oil but the name was changed in Canada for marketing reasons
Three consecutive strikes in bowling is called a turkey
In a year, about 90 million jars of Skippy Peanut Butter are sold. This works out to three jars sold every second
In a lifetime, an average man will shave 20,000 times
The Pentagon has 284 restrooms
From 1967-1976, the town of Tororo located in Uganda had thunder 251 out of the 365 days in a year for those years.
Children grow faster in the springtime than any other season during the year
Another name for licorice is "Sweet Wood" or "Spanish Juice."
The reason the Animal Crackers box is designed with a string handle is because when the popular circus theme was introduced in 1902 they thought it would also be a good idea to package them with a string as a Christmas novelty so they could be hung from Christmas trees
Sheep can detect other sheep faces like humans do. They can remember up to 50 sheep faces
The loudest insect in the world is the male cicadas, which are like crickets. When they rub their abdomens, the sound made can be heard from 1300 feet
Each year 96 billion pounds of food is wasted in the U.S
In the past 60 years, the groundhog has only predicted the weather correctly 28% of the time. The rushing back and forth from burrows is believed to indicate sexual activity, not shadow seeking
Pretzel snacks have been around for over 1300 years. A European monk invented the snack using used leftover bread dough
Sharks are capable of surviving on average six weeks without eating. The record observed in an aquarium is fifteen months by a species of shark known as the "swell shark."
The destruction of the Berlin Wall began when private citizens began to demolish entire sections of the Wall without interference from government officials on November 9, 1989
Most American women have their first baby when they are 24.3 years old
Frogs do not need to drink water as they absorb the water through their skin
A group of larks is called an exaltation
The Kool Aid Man used to be known as "Pitcher Man" when he was first introduced in 1975
Wheel of Fortune star Vanna White holds the record for putting her hands together approximately 140,000 times to clap
Men sweat more than women. This is because women can better regulate the amount of water they lose
Research has indicated that approximately eleven minutes are cut off the life of an average male smoker from each cigarette smoked
The triangular shape that Toblerone chocolates are packaged in, is protected by law
In 1945, the first "floating ice cream parlor" was built for sailors in the western Pacific. This "floating ice cream parlour" could produce ten gallons of ice cream every seven seconds
The formula for Coca-cola has never been patented
The average day is actually 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4.09 seconds. We have a leap year every four years to make up for this shortfall
Before its name was changed, the African Penguin used be called the Jackass Penguin because of its donkey-like braying call
During the high feeding season, it has been estimated that an adult blue whale can eat up to 40 million krill in one day. (Krill are shrimp like creatures)
Pound for pound, leopards are said to be seven times stronger than humans
One average, men spend 60 hours a year shaving
Botanically a rhubarb is a vegetable. It was changed to a fruit in 1947 by a U.S. Custom Court
Sawney Beane, his wife, 8 sons, 6 daughters, and 32 grandchildren were a family of cannibals that lived in the caves near Galloway, Scotland in the early 17th Century. Although the total number is not known, it is believed they claimed over 50 victims per year. The entire family was taken by an army detachment to Edinburgh and executed, apparently without trial
The movie that grossed the most money that was adapted from a T.V. cartoon is Scooby-Doo
There are five million scent receptors located in a human beings nose
When Coca-Cola was invented, American tourists that visited Spain were surprised to see that Coke was three times as expensive as a glass of brandy
Some silkworms can spin cocoons that contain more than two miles of silk
The mother of famous astronomer Johannes Kepler was accused of being a witch
At one time, Pumpkins were recommended for the removal of freckles and curing snake bites
The Eisenhower interstate system requires that one mile in every five must be straight. These straight sections are usable as airstrips in times of war or other emergencies
Approximately 200 pets are buried in a pet cemetery out of the thousands of pets that die each day
The average Hostess Twinkie is 68 percent air as measured by volume according to university researchers
In Haiti, only 1 out of every 200 people own a car. This is ironic considering approximately 33% of the country's budget on import is spent on equipment for fuel and transportation.
Every U.S. bill regardless of denomination costs just 4 cents to make
About 30% of American admit to talking to their dogs or leaving messages on their answering machines for their dogs while they are away
A duck’s quack doesn’t echo, and no one knows why
Caterpillar means "hairy cat" in Old French
The ostrich has two toes on each feet which gives it greater speed
On September 3, 1970, a hailstone was found in Coffeyville, Kansas that was eight inches in diameter and weighed 1.67 pounds.
Honorificabilitudinitatibus is the longest English word that consists strictly of alternating consonants and vowels
It can take up to a month for a rattlesnake to re-supply its venom
Close to 3 billion movie tickets are sold in India every year
The word racecar and kayak are the same whether they are read left to right or right to left
There were approximately 2,228 people on board the Titanic when it sank. Of this, only 706 people survived
An elephant can live up to the age of seventy, or in some cases even more
The giant squid has the largest eyes in the world
Elephants can't jump. Every other mammal can.
The name "cranberry" comes from German and Dutch settlers. The berry was intially called "crane berry." The reason it was called this was because when the flowers bloom, the petals of the flowers twist backwards and look very much like the head of a crane. Eventually the name was shortened down to be "cranberry."
In New Mexico, over eleven thousand people have visited a tortilla chip that appeared to have the face of Jesus Christ burned into it
On average, he ratio of yellow kernels to white kernals in a bag of popcorn is 9:1
The first toilet stall in a public washroom is the least likely to be used. It is also the cleanest
In 1955, only 330 Volkswagen Beetle's were sold at a price of $1800 each in the United States.
Printed on the tablet being held by the Statue of Liberty is July IV, MDCCLXXVI
The country of Fiji is made up of 332 islands
Orville Wright, a pilot, was involved in the first aircraft accident. His passenger, a Frenchman, was killed.
The first company to mass produce teddy bears was the Ideal Toy Company
Princess Anne from the British royal family competed in the 1976 Summer Olympics
Brazil produces the most oranges in the world
Average life span of a major league baseball: 7 pitches.
The eyeball of a human weighs approximately 28 grams
A human head remains conscious for about 15 to 20 seconds after it is been decapitated
Witchcraft means "Craft of the Wise Ones."
500,000 kids in the US live in same sex households
In July 1874, a swarm of Rocky Mountain locusts flew over Nebraska covering an area estimated at 198,600 square miles. It is estimated that the swarm contained about 12.5 trillion insects. These insects became extinct thirty years later
Tropical rainforests cover about 7% of the Earth and receive over 80 inches of rain every year
The feet have approximately 250,000 sweat glands
Approximately 7.5% of all office documents get lost
The desert tortoise can live without having to drink any water. It extracts the water it needs from the vegetation it eats
There were 13 couples celebrating their honeymoon on the Titanic
A cat has 32 muscles in each ear
There are 336 dimples on a regulation golf ball
Elvis Presley had a twin brother named Jesse Garon Presley who died at birth
Robert Wadlow is the tallest man recorded in history. He grew to be eight feet and eleven inches and weighed 490 pounds when he died
Bank robber John Dillinger played professional baseball
Research indicates that plants grow healthier when they are stroked.
France is known as the perfume capital of the world
According to psychologists, the shoe and the foot are the most common sources of sexual fetishism in Western society
Constipation is caused when too much water is absorbed in the large intestine and the feces become dry
One ton of grapes can produce 720 bottles of wine
Eating about twenty tart cherries a day could reduce inflammatory pain and headache pain
In 2001, the five most valuable brand names in order were Coca-Cola, Microsoft, IBM, GE, and Nokia
Milk chocolate was invented in Switzerland by David Peter in 1876
In November 1999, two women were killed by a lightning bolt. The underwire located in their bras acted as a electrical conductors, and when the lightning bolt hit the bra they left burn marks on their chest
Basketball was invented by Canadian James Naismith in 1891
Over 100,000 birds and sea animals are killed every year due to plastic garbage
The big toe is the foot reflexology pressure point for the head
85% of weddings are held in a synagogue or church
The sport of surfing originated in Hawaii
It is possible to lead a cow upstairs...but not downstairs
Before soccer referees started using whistles in 1878, they used to rely on waving a handkerchief
Tobacco kills more Americans each year than alcohol, cocaine, crack, heroin, homicide, suicide, car accidents, fire and AIDS combined
The best time for a person to buy shoes is in the afternoon. This is because the foot tends to swell a bit around this time
Dead cells in the body ultimately go to the kidneys for excretion
Americans, on average, spend 18% of his or her income on transportation as compared to only 13% spent on food
There are some species of snails that are venomous. Their venom can be fatal to humans
The first box of Crayola that was ever sold had the same eight colours that are sold in the box today consisting of red, blue, yellow, green, violet, orange, black and brown. The box was sold for a nickel in 1903
A turtle can breathe through its butt.
The rarest coffee in the world is Kopi Luwak, which is found in Indonesia. It cost about $300 a pound
The average America online user spends 70 minutes day online
The song with the longest title is "I?m a Cranky Old Yank in a Clanky Old Tank on the Streets of Yokohama with my Honolulu Mama Doin? Those Beat-o, Beat-o Flat-On-My-Seat-o, Hirohito Blues" written by Hoagy Carmichael in 1945. He later claimed the song title ended with ?Yank? and the rest was a joke
People of Ancient China believed that swinging your arms could cure a headache
In 1938, Cliquot Club ginger ale was the first soft drink to be canned
The largest apple pie ever baked was forty by twenty three feet
Roughly 44% of junk mail is thrown away unopened
Catfish have tastebuds located on their whiskers
The laundry detergent Tide, has a market share of about forty percent market
A Canadian, Troy Hurtubise, spent $100,000 and almost went bankrupt building a RoboCop style suit so that he could withstand a bear attack
The 3 most valuable brand names on earth: Marlboro, Coca-Cola, andBudweiser, in that order.
The only two days of the year in which there are no professional sports games (MLB, NBA, NHL, or NFL) are the day before and the day after the Major League all-stars Game
In the United States, 8.5 million cosmetic surgical and non-surgical procedures were done in the year 2001
The Bible has been translated into Klingon.
Ian Fleming named his character "James Bond" after real-life ornithologist and author
Most dinosaurs walked on their toes.
On December 17 1991, the Cleveland Cavaliers beat the Miami Heat 148-80, the largest margin of victory in an NBA game
There are mirrors on the moon. Astronauts left them so that laser beams could be bounced off of them from Earth. These beams help give us the distance to the moon give or take a few metres.
The U.S. army packs Tabasco pepper sauce in every ration kit that they give to soldiers
The trunk of an elephant can hold up to two gallons of water
Every year, an igloo hotel is built in Sweden that has the capacity to sleep 100 people
During the holiday season, approximately $220 million worth of Poinsettias are sold
A newborn kangaroo weighs approximately 0.03 ounces and is small enough to fit in a teaspoon
When Scott Paper Co. first started manufacturing toilet paper they did not put their name on the product because of embarrassment
The most senior crayon maker Emerson Moser retired after making 1.4 billion crayons for Crayola. It was then that he revealed that he was actually colorblind
The highest point in Pennsylvania is lower than the lowest point inColorado.
Scientists have determined that having guilty feelings may actually damage your immune system
"Go." is the shortest complete sentence in the English language
There are more than 250,000 rivers in the United States, which amounts to 3.5 million miles of rivers
Forty-one percent of women apply body and hand moisturizer at least three times a day
Pretzel that have no salt on them are called "baldies."
The 1912 Olympics was the last Olympics that gave out gold medals that were made entirely out of gold
Monopoly is the best-selling board game in the world
There was a book written fourteen years before the sinking of the Titanic happened titled "Futility" by Morgan Robertson. This book was remarkably similar to the tragedy that happened to the Titanic in 1912
One ounce of chocolate has about 20 mg of caffeine in it
A giraffe can go longer without water than a camel
Vikings, after killing their enemies, used their skulls as drinking vessels
Studies have shown that classical music helps cows produce more milk
Two out of five people end up marrying their first love
The Hawaiian alphabet only has 12 letters
The name "Muppet" was coined by Jim Henson. The word was made from a combination of the word "marionette" and "puppet."
In the Sahara Desert, there is a town named Tidikelt, which did not receive a drop of rain for ten years
The Christmas season begins after sunset on December 24th and lasts until January 5th. This is also known as the Twelve Days of Christmas
Mosquitoes are attracted to the color blue more than any other color
In Italy, Santa Claus is known by the name Babbo Natale
Two objects have struck the earth with enough force to destroy a whole city. Each object, one in 1908 and again in 1947, struck regions of Siberia. Not one human being was hurt either time
When blue whales are first born, they gain as much as 200 pounds a day while they are calves
Families who do turn off the television during meals tend to eat healthier. This was regardless of family income, or education
About 25 percent of all the energy consumed in the US is from natural gas
American novelist Mark Twain was the first known author to submit a typed manuscript
If you fart consistently for 6 years and 9 months, enough gas is produced to create the energy of an atomic bomb
Canada is the only country not to win a gold medal in the Summer Olympic games while hosting the event
The sound made by the toadfish when mating underwater is so loud that it can be heard by humans on the shore
In America, approximately 20% of children between the ages of 2 - 7 have televisions in their rooms
Traveling by air is the safest means of transportation.
In 1996, toy company Mattel released a "Harley Davidson" Barbie. This dolls distinctive feature is a birth mark on her face that changes position with every new release of the doll
The most common injury caused by cosmetics is to the eye by a mascara wand
There have been close to 200 coups and counter-coups in the country of Bolivia
On average, pigs live for about 15 years
Roughly 42% of people in the United Kingdom snore
No NFL team which plays its home games in a domed stadium has ever won a Superbowl
Beluga whales which are also called "white whales" are not born white. They are born grey in color, and by the age of six become completely white
Tiger Woods is the first athlete to has been named "Sportsman of the Year" by magazine Sports Illustrated two times
The eight most popular foods to cause food allergies are: milk, eggs, wheat, peanuts, soy, tree nuts, fish, and shellfish
Club Direct, a travel insurance company in Britain, provides insurance plans for protection from falling coconuts
There are some bananas that are red instead of yellow
Only one out of every three people wash their hands when leaving a public bathroom
570 gallons of paint would be needed to paint the outside of the White House
Baby robins eat 14 feet of earthworms every day
Every three seconds a baby is born somewhere in the world
The total mileage driven by all U-Haul trucks in a year is enough to move a person from the Earth to the moon five times a day for an entire year
The Eisenhower interstate system requires that one mile in every fivemust be straight. These straight sections are usable as airstrips intimes ofwar or other emergencies.
Pluto was discovered on February 10, 1930 by Clyde Tombaugh
Termites have been around for over 250 million years
The average person changes their career every 13 years
The New York Yankees have appeared in the World Series a league leading 38 times and won 26 titles
Approximately 18 billion disposable diapers end up in landfills each year. These diapers can takes as long as 500 years to finally decompose
Over 4.5 billion sticks have Trident gum have been chewed. If the stick of gum were laid out end to end they could circle the globe approximately 1.8 times
Oak trees can live 200 or more years
The brain of an ant has about 250,000 brain cells
About 26 per cent of all indoor water used by households in Sydney, Australia are for laundry
A rainbow can occur only when the sun is 40 degrees or less above the horizon
If you spray an antiseptic spray on a polar bear, its fur will turn purple
Over $7 billion a year is spent on chocolates by consumers
During World War II, Russians used dogs strapped with explosives to blow up German tanks. They trained the dogs to associate the tanks with food and ended up destroying about 25 German tanks using this method
Butterflies taste with their feet
St. Louis, Missouri was the first U.S. city to host the summer Olympics in 1904
The phrase "rule of thumb" is derived from an old English law whichstated that you couldn't beat your wife with anything wider than yourthumb.
Every year Alaska has about 5,000 earthquakes, 1,000 of which measure above 3.5 on the Richter scale
A fetus develops fingerprints at eighteen weeks
It takes about a half a gallon of water to cook macaroni, and about a gallon to clean the pot
The cornea is the only living tissue in the human body that does not contain any blood vessels
In the U.S. peanuts account for 66% of all snack nuts
There are approximately 7,000 feathers on an eagle
Sharks can sense a drop of blood from a mile away
As a defense mechanism, the North American Opossum closes its eyes and becomes totally limp. Basically it plays dead
The longest town name in the world has 167 letters
A sneeze zooms out of your mouth at over 600 m.p.h
A cesium atom in an atomic clock that beats over nine billion times a second.
The mythical Scottish town of Brigadoon appears for one day every one hundred years
Kermit the frog delivered the commencement address at Southampton College located in the state of New York in 1996
In World War II, the German submarine U-120 was sunk by a malfunctioning toilet
The phrase "Often a bridesmaid, but never a bride," actually originates from an advertisement for Listerine mouthwash from 1924
Over 50% of lottery players go back to work after winning the jackpot
The largest cultivated crop in the United States is corn
Walt Disney holds the record for the most Oscar nominations with sixty-four
On average, Americans eat one hundred acres of pizza a day. This amounts to about three hundred fifty slices per second
As an iceberg melts, it makes a fizzing sound because of the compressed air bubbles popping in the ice
The Arctic Ocean covers an area of about 14,056,000 sq miles
The first known contraceptive was crocodile dung, used by Egyptians in 2000 B.C
Most toilets flush in E flat
Bile produced by the liver is responsible for making your feces a brownish, green colour
At one time the group "Grateful Dead" were called "The Warlocks."
Bats can detect food up to 18 feet away and what type of insect the food may be using their sense of echolocation
At the equator the Earth spins at about 1,038 miles per hour
People whose mouth has a narrow roof are more likely to snore. This is because they have less oxygen going through their nose
In one day, a human sheds 10 billion skin flakes. This amounts to approximately two kilograms in a year
On average, an American home has 3-10 gallons of hazardous materials
On average, 35 meters of hair fibre is produced on the adult scalp
Dalmatian puppies do not have any spots on them when they are born. They actually develop them as they get older
Male goats will pee on each other in order to attract mates
A dog by the name of Laika was launched into space aboard the Russian spacecraft Sputnik 2 in 1957
In 2002, dogs have killed more people in the U.S. than the Great White shark has killed in the past 100 years
The study of twins is known as gemellology
On an American one-dollar bill, there is an owl in the upper right-hand corner of the "1" encased in the "shield" and a spider hidden in the front upper right-hand corner
During one seven year period, Thomas Edison obtained approximately three hundred patents. In is whole life he obtained over one thousand patents.
When Black Jack Ketchum was hung back in 1901 in Clayton New Mexico, the noose actually ended up taking his head off. The head had to be sewn back on so Black Jack could be buried properly
Every 40,000 children are killed by fires
The highest recorded speed of a sneeze is 165 km per hour
In 1985, a pregnant women was falsely accused of shoplifting a basketball
In every episode of Seinfeld there is a Superman somewhere
The adult electric eel can produce a five hundred volt shock, which is enough to stun a horse
When the are in danger, kangaroos will beat the ground loudly with their hind feet
To manufacture a new car approximately 148,000 liters of water is needed.
In 410 A.D. Alaric the Visigoth demanded that Rome give him three thousand pounds of pepper as ransom
Actress Jamie Lee Curtis invented a special diaper for babies that has a pocket
Honeybees use the sun as a compass which helps them navigate
An average driver spends approximately 2 hours and 14 minutes kissing in their car in a lifetime
In gangster slang, a boxing match that is fixed is called a "barney."
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Updated May 17, 2013, 12:23 AM
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Amazing Facts
100 amazing & unknown facts!
# Our eyes remain the same size from birth onward, but our nose and ears never stop growing.
# The Barbie doll’s full name is Barbara Millicent Roberts.
# The Mona Lisa has no eyebrows.
# Ants never sleep!
# When the moon is directly overhead, you will weigh slightly less.
# Alexander Graham Bell, the inventor of the telephone, never called his wife or mother because they were both deaf.
# An ostrich’s eye is bigger than its brain.
# “I Am” is the shortest complete sentence in the English language.
# Babies are born without knee caps – actually, they’re made of cartilage and the bone hardens between the ages of 2 and 6 years.
# Happy Birthday (the song) is copyrighted.
# Butterflies taste with their feet.
# A “jiffy” is an actual unit of time for 1/100th of a second.
# It is impossible to sneeze with your eyes open.
# Leonardo Da Vinci invented the scissors.
# Minus 40 degrees Celsius is exactly the same as minus 40 degrees Fahrenheit.
# No word in the English language rhymes with month, orange, silver or purple.
# Shakespeare invented the words “assassination” and “bump.”
# Stewardesses is the longest word typed with only the left hand.
# Elephants are the only animals that cannot jump.
# The names of all the continents end with the same letter that they start with.
# The sentence, “The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog” uses every letter in the English language.
# The shortest war in history was between Zanzibar and England in 1896. Zanzibar surrendered after 38 minutes.
# The strongest muscle in the body is the tongue.
# The word “lethologica” describes the state of not being able to remember the word you want.
# Camels have three eyelids to protect themselves from the blowing desert sand.
# TYPEWRITER is the longest word that can be made using the letters on only one row of the keyboard.
# You can’t kill yourself by holding your breath.
# Money isn’t made out of paper. It’s made out of cotton.
# Your stomach has to produce a new layer of mucus every two weeks or it will digest itself.
# The dot over the letter “i” is called a tittle.
# A duck’s quack doesn’t echo. No one knows why!
# The “spot” on the 7-Up comes from its inventor who had red eyes – he was an albino. ’7′ was because the original containers were 7 ounces and ‘UP’ indicated the direction of the bubbles.
# Chocolate can kill dogs, as it contains theobromine, which affects their heart and nervous system.
# Because metal was scarce, the Oscars given out during World War II were made of plaster.
# There are only two words in the English language that have all five vowels in order: “abstemious” and “facetious.”
# If one places a tiny amount of liquor on a scorpion, it will instantly go mad and sting itself to death.
# Bruce Lee was so fast that they actually had to slow film down so you could see his moves.
# The original name for butterfly was flutterby.
# By raising your legs slowly and laying on your back, you cannot sink into quicksand.
# Dogs and cats, like humans, are either right or left handed.
# Charlie Chaplin once won the third prize in a Charlie Chaplin look-alike contest.
# Sherlock Holmes NEVER said “Elementary, my dear Watson”.
# The Guinness Book of Records holds the record for being the book most often stolen from Public Libraries.
# Bats always turn left when exiting a cave.
# The shortest English word that contains the letters A, B, C, D, E, and F is “feedback.”
# All Polar bears are left-handed.
# In England, the Speaker of the House is not allowed to speak.
# “Dreamt” is the only English word that ends in the letters “mt.”
# Almonds are a member of the peach family, and apples belong to the rose family.
# Peanuts are one of the ingredients of dynamite.
# The only 15 letter word that can be spelled without repeating a letter is “uncopyrightable”.
# In most advertisements, the time displayed on a watch is 10:10
# Tigers have striped skin, not just striped fur.
# Alfred Nobel, in whose name the Nobel prizes are instituted, was the inventor of dynamite.
# The planet Venus does not tilt, so consequently, it has no seasons. It is the only planet that rotates clock-wise.
# Honey is the only food that doesn’t spoil.
# The word “set” has more definitions than any other word in the English language.
# Molecularly speaking, water is actually much drier than sand.
# Human tonsils can bounce higher than a rubber ball of similar weight and size, but only for the first 30 minutes after they’ve been removed.
# US President John F. Kennedy was an accomplished ventriloquist.
# Coca-Cola was originally green.
# Moths are unable to fly during an earthquake.
# Contrary to popular belief, the white is not the healthiest part of an egg. It’s actually the shell.
# Nearly three percent of the ice in Antarctic glaciers is penguin urine.
# Hot water will turn into ice faster then cold water.
# “Rhythm” is the longest English word without a vowel.
# Like fingerprints, every person’s tongue print is different.
# No piece of normal-size paper can be folded in half more than 7 times.
# The tongue is the only muscle that is attached from one end only.
# Pumice is the only rock that floats in water.
# Camel’s milk does not curdle.
# Your foot is the same length as your forearm, and your thumb is the same length as your nose. Also, the length of your lips is the same as the index finger.
# Natural pearls melt in vinegar.
# Buttermilk does not contain any butter.
# The human brain is 80% water.
# Men’s shirts have the buttons on the right while women’s shirts have the buttons on the left.
# Human fingernails grow nearly 4 times faster than toenails.
# The Great Pyramid at Giza in Egypt holds a constant temperature of 68 degrees Fahrenheit.
# The liquid inside young coconuts can be used as a substitute for blood plasma.
# Oak trees do not produce acorns until they are fifty years of age.
# It takes approximately 2 million flowers for a bee to make 1 pound of honey.
# Human saliva has a boiling point three times that of regular water.
# It is physically impossible to urinate and give blood at the same time.
# The letter J does not appear anywhere in the periodic table of the elements.
# The right lung of a human is larger than the left one. This is because of the space and placement of the heart.
# Watermelons, which are 92% water, originated from the Kalahari Desert in Africa.
# The hair of some cancer patients treated with chemotherapy can grow back in a different colour, and sometimes even be curly or straight.
# The markings that are found on dice are called “pips.”
# 111,111,111 x 111,111,111 = 12,345,678,987,654,321
# The cigarette lighter was invented before the match.
# Leonardo Da Vinci never signed or dated his most famous painting, the Mona Lisa.
# The ampersand (&) was the last letter of the Latin alphabet.
# The palms of your hands and the soles of your feet cannot tan, or grow hair.
# Dolphins can swim and sleep at the same time, as they sleep with one eye open.
# Each nostril of a human being registers smell in a different way. Those by the right nostril are more pleasant than the left.
# The longest single-syllable word in the English language is “screeched.”
# The word “Checkmate” in chess comes from the Persian phrase “Shah-Mat,” which means “the king is dead”.
# Each king in a deck of playing cards represents a great king from history: Spades – King David, Clubs – Alexander the Great, Hearts – Charlemagne, and Diamonds – Julius Caesar.
# In Gulliver’s Travels, Jonathan Swift described the two moons of Mars, Phobos and Deimos, giving their exact size and speeds of rotation. He did this more than 100 years before either moon was discovered!
# If a statue in the park of a person on a horse has both front legs in the air, the person died in battle; if the horse has one front leg in the air, the person died as a result of wounds received in battle; if the horse has all four legs on the ground, the person died of natural causes.
Amazing Facts
Indonesia consists only of islands - 13,667 total
During World War II, the very first bomb dropped on Berlin by the Allies killed the only elephant in the Berlin Zoo
People who ride on roller coasters have a higher chance of having a blood clot in the brain
The tallest freestanding sculpture in the world is Chief Crazy Horse in South Dakota, USA
Marie Curie, the Nobel prize winning scientist who discovered radium, died of radiation poisoning
898 tornadoes were recorded to have occurred in the United States in the year 2000.
The word Popcorn is derived from the middle English word "poppe," which means "explosive sound"
The food that is digested in your stomach is called "chyme."
Alcohol beverages have all 13 minerals necessary for human life
The sentence "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog." uses everyletter in the alphabet. (Developed by Western Union to Test telex/twxcommunications)
The word housekeeping was invented by Shakespeare
The only two days of the year in which there are no professional sportsgames (MLB, NBA, NHL, or NFL) are the day before and the day after theMajorLeague All-Star Game.
In the great fire of London in 1666 half of London was burnt down but only 6 people were injured
Lack of sleep can affect your immune system and reduce your ability to fight infections
All dogs are the descendant of the wolf. These wolves lived in eastern Asia about 15,000 years ago
It is not possible to tickle yourself. The cerebellum, a part of the brain, warns the rest of the brain that you are about to tickle yourself. Since your brain knows this, it ignores the resulting sensation
Parma ham is only Parma ham if it is made in the Parma region of Italy. The British chain supermarket Asda, made and packaged its own "Parma ham" and was successfully sued by the real Parma ham people (Parma Ham Trade Association)
With winds of 50 miles per hour, The Statue of Liberty sways three inches and the torch sways five inches
A famous bullfighter, Lagarijo, killed 4,867 bulls in the 19th century.
Police detectives have used snapping turtles to help them locate dead bodies
In most advertisements, including newspapers, the time displayed on a watch is 10:10
The national sport of Japan is sumo wrestling
The early occurrence of a fetus yawning is at eleven weeks after conception
In a month, a fingernail grows an eighth of an inch
Edward VIII did not officially become the King of England as he abdicated the throne to marry an American divorcee
The book "Little Red Riding Hood" was banned in 1990 by two school districts in California. They did this because in the book there was a picture of a basket that had a bottle of wine in it
The reason why golf balls have dimples on them is because it helps in the ball to move a farther distance by reducing drag
Americans consume the most peanut butter in the world
Celtic warriors sometimes fought their battles naked, their bodies dyed blue from head to toe
To make butter more attractive in colour, carrot juice was used by people in the Middle Ages
Early hockey games allowed as many as 30 players a side on the ice
Most fleas do not live past a year old
It takes seven to ten days to make a jelly belly jellybean
Some asteroids have other asteroids orbiting them
Maine is the only state whose name is just one syllable
The male praying mantis cannot copulate while its head is attached to its body. The female initiates sex by ripping the males head off
There is enough concrete in the Hoover Dam to pave a two lane highway from San Francisco to New York
Americans on the average eat 18 acres of pizza every day
Every 238 years, the orbits of Neptune and Pluto change making Neptune at times the farthest planet from the sun
There is a certain species of kangaroo that is only 2.5 centimetres long when it is born
In a lifetime, the average house cat spends approximately 10,950 hours purring
The real name of Toto the dog in "The Wizard Of Oz" was Terry
Stannous fluoride, which is the cavity fighter found in toothpaste is made from recycled tin
It takes 12 honeybees to make one teaspoon of honey
Thomas Watson, who was the chairman of IBM in 1943 predicted that their would probably only be a world market for five computers.
The largest hamburger cooked in the world weighed in at 6,040 pounds
The first lighthouse was in Alexandria in 290 B.C
Heinz first started making ketchup in 1876 and the recipe has remained the same ever since
The largest wedding chapel in Las Vegas is the Viva Las Vegas Chapel, which can seat 100 people
The most popular name for a pet in the United States is Max
Spiral staircases in medieval castles are running clockwise. This is because all knights used to be right-handed. When the intruding army would climb the stairs they would not be able to use their right hand which was holding the sword because of the difficulties of climbing the stairs. Left-handed knights would have had no troubles, except left-handed people could never become knights because it was assumed that they were descendants of the devil
The largest shopping mall in the world is the West Edmonton Mall located in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
The CN Tower located in Toronto, Ontario Canada took a total construction time of 40 months to complete at an original cost of $63 million
The 20th president of the United States, James Garfield, was able to write Greek with one hand and Latin with the other at the same time
The country of Andorra has a zero percent unemployment rate
In Los Angeles, there are fewer people than there are automobiles
A woman has approximately 4.5 litres of blood in her body, while men have 5.6 litres
In India, pickled ginger, minced mutton and a cottage cheese like substance are popular pizza toppings
Oral-B were the first toothbrushes to go to the moon when they were aboard the Apollo 11 mission
A maple tree is usually tapped when the tree is at least 45 years old and has a diameter of 12 inches
In 1998, a law passed in the U.S. state of Virginia allows drivers to keep their road kill, as long as they report it within 12 hours. updated
A language becomes extinct in this world every two weeks
An acre of trees can remove about 13 tons of dust and gases every year from the surrounding environment
The decomposition point of Olive Oil is 220 degrees Celsius
Ten radishes only contain eight calories
Annually a thousand people are killed by scorpions in Mexico
Every year, 100 million sharks are killed by people
Tug of war was an Olympic event from 1900-1920
Of all the countries, Brazil has the most plant species, with over 56,000
One female mouse can produce up to 100 babies a year
Impotence is grounds for divorce in 26 U.S. states
Women who are romance novel readers are reported to make love 74% more often with their partners than women who do not read romance novels.
The average lifespan of a human taste bud is ten days
The monogram "RR" for Rolls-Royce has never been altered, except for when Sir Henry Royce passed away in 1933. Then it was changed from red to black.
People with darker skin will not wrinkle as fast as people with lighter skin
Fido means faithful in Latin
Pebbles cereal was actually named after the shape of the cereal and not the Pebbles Flintstone character
A group of kangaroos is called a mob
Cat's urine glows under a blacklight.
Every three seconds, a new baby is born
More than 260,000 people have been killed by volcanic activity since 1700 AD.
The only predator that polar bears have are humans
Many insects can carry 50 times their own body weight
The last land battle of the U.S. Civil War was fought in Texas
Annually 7 million tons of textiles and clothing is thrown out. Out of this, only 12% is used again or recycled
A scorpion can have up to 12 eyes
A snake charmer in Bangladesh once found 3,500 poisonous cobras and their eggs hidden underneath the floors of two suburban homes
The IRS employees tax manual has instructions for collecting taxes after a nuclear war
There are approximately fifty Bibles sold each minute across the world
The pectin that is found in apples aids in lowering cholesterol levels
Post-It Notes, which are adhesive notes, were invented while looking for a way to improve the acrylate adhesive found in tapes
Crayola Crayons currently has over 120 different crayon colours
Odontophobia is the fear of teeth
The width of a tornado can range from less than ten yards to more than a mile.
In Johannesburg, the average car will be involved in an accident once every four years.
The youngest actress to be nominated as best actress is Keisha Castle-Hughes who was nominated at just 13 years old
The Taj Mahal was actually built for use as a tomb
According to studies, an average roll of toilet paper lasts about five days in the bathroom
Almonds are members of the peach family
The oldest known disease in the world is leprosy
A fall of 30 feet can be survived my most cats
The largest member of the dolphin family are orcas
In 1477, the first diamond engagement ring was given to Mary of Burgundy by Archduke Maximillian of Austria
The hormone replacement drug "Premarin" is made from the urine of pregnant horses
TWIX Caramel Cookie Bars were first introduced in 1979
Nintendo was first establish in 1889 and they started out making special playing cards
People over the age of fifty will start to lose their dislike for foods that taste bitter
In Kentucky, 50 percent of the people who get married for the first time are teenagers
Elephants have been known to learn up to 60 commands
On average 1,668 gallons of water are used by each person in the United States daily
Copper is the second most used metal in the world.
Milton Bradley originally wanted to name the game Twister, Pretzel; but he could not since the name was copyrighted
According to studies, men prefer to have white bedrooms and women prefer to have blue bedrooms
If someone was to fly once around the surface of the moon, it would be equal to a round trip from New York to London
St. Patrick never really drove out any snakes from Ireland. This story was an analogy of how he drove paganism out of Ireland
Fat is important for the development of children and normal growth
The most common seasonings found in American homes are chili powder, cinnamon, and seasoned salts
People who have eaten beetles say that it tastes like apples
Montreal was named after a local mountain "Mont Royal."
Millie the White House dog earned more than 4 times as much as President Bush in 1991. And, rightfully so
In an average lifetime, a person will spend 4 years travelling in an automobile and six months waiting at a red light.
A small drip from a faucet can waste up to 50 gallons of water daily, which is enough water to run a dishwasher twice on a full cycle
Kotex was first manufactured as bandages, during W.W.I
The longest Monopoly game ever played was 1,680 hours long, which is seventy straight days
The first known contraceptive was crocodile dung, used by Egyptians in 2000 B.C
Over 1,600 people in North America have been victims of trunk entrapment (being locked inside of a car trunk)
A rhinoceros horn is made of compacted hair
In 1992, when EuroDisney first opened in France, the public beat some of the park characters because at the time most people had been against the park being built
A jiffy is an actual unit of time for 1/100th of a second. Thus the saying, I will be there in a jiffy.
There is a muppet named Kami that appears on the South African version of the T.V. show "Sesame Street" that is HIV-positive
There are approximately one hundred million people in the United States that have a chronic illness
The oldest working Post Office in the world is located in the village of Sanquer, located in the Scottish Lowlands. It has been operating since 1712
Columbia University is the second largest landowner in New York City, after the Catholic Church
Approximately three jars of peanut butter are sold every second
In Australia, the average person uses 876 gallons of water daily. In Switzerland they use only 77 gallons of water per person daily
Every person has a unique tongue print
Hair will fall out faster on a person that is on a crash diet
In 1890, there was no sunshine for the whole month of December in Westminster in London.
Charles Darwin spent 39 years studying earthworms
The Boeing 737 is nicknamed the Fat Albert
Florida has twice as many lightning injuries and deaths than any other state
Chocolate can be fatal to dogs. Chocolate contains a chemical theobromine, which is poisonous to dogs
In China, there is a species of yam that is used to make a dye
Annually, approximately 46 millions Cokes, five million pounds of french fries, and seven million hamburgers are consumed at Walt Disney World Resort
The Chihuahua Desert is the largest desert in North America, and is over 200,000 square miles
Every continent begins and ends in the same letter. eg AfricA, EuropE
Baseball games between college teams have been played since the Civil War
The real name of actress Whoopi Goldberg is Caryn Elaine Johnson
Researches have discovered that eating five or more apples a week is linked to better functioning of the lungs
Boeing completed more than 15,000 hours of wind-tunnel testing on the first 747
The most popular ethnic food in the United States is Italian food
Parts of the Dead Sea Scrolls appeared for sale in the June 1, 1954 issue of the Wall Street Journal
If the population of China walked past you in single file, the line would never end because of the rate of reproduction
The YKK that you see on zippers stands for Yoshida Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha which is the name of the founder of the zipper manufacturing company in Japan
The theme song of the Harlem Globetrotters is "Sweet Georgia Brown."
27% of female lottery winners hid their winning ticket in their bras
To lose one pound of fat, a person has to burn approximately 3,500 calories
In 1969, the American side of Niagara Falls was stopped completely for several months
The name for insect poop is frass
A can of Pepsi has 41 grams of sugar. This amount to about seven teaspoons of sugar
Montreal is actually located on an island
There are over 2,000 species of butterflies in the rainforests of South America
The world record for the number of body piercings on one individual is 702, which is held by Canadian Brent Moffat
Before toilet paper was invented, French royalty wiped their bottoms with fine linen
The earliest known example of an organized market for equities dates from Rome, second century B.C
There are over 2,000 different species of cactuses
Each day 400 gallons of recycled blood are pumped through the kidneys
Ten percent of the Russian government's income comes from the sale ofvodka.
Apples, not caffeine, are more efficient at waking you up in the morning
Bananas were discovered by Alexander the Great in 327 B.C. when he conquered India
Levan, which is located in Utah, got its name from "navel" which is levan spelt backwards. It was named this because it is in the center of Utah
Approximately one out of four injuries by athletes involve the wrist and hand
Former U.S. President Abraham Lincoln suffered a nervous breakdown in 1836
Musk is extracted from the bottom of a civet, and is used as an ingredient to make perfumes.
The first human heart transplant happened on December 3, 1967. Unfortunately the patient only lived for eighteen days, succumbing in the end to pneumonia
In New York City there are 6,374.6 miles of streets
The sound made by the Victoria Falls in Zimbabwe is so loud that it can be heard 40 miles away
Ancient Egyptians used to think having facial hair was an indication of personal neglect
In Czechhoslovakia, there is a church that has a chandelier made of human bones
The largest hotel in the world is the MGM Grand, which has 5,034 rooms and is located in Las Vegas, Nevada
The plastic things on the end of shoelaces are called aglets
The fleshy bulbs on each side of your nose are called the Alea (AY-lee) singular Ala (AY-luh)
Male koalas mark their territory by rubbing their chests on a tree. Male koalas have a dark scent gland in the middle of their chest
An octopus has three hearts
Roses generally need around 6 hours of sunlight to grow properly.
Buttermilk does not contain any butter, but is a cultured milk product which is usually made from fat free milk
Pineapples were first called "anana", which is Caribbean for "excellent fruit."
Human birth control pills work on gorillas
The tallest woman that ever lived was Zeng Jinlian who was 8 feet 2 inches tall of China. Shed died at the age of 17
An adult "Gold Frog" measures to be 9.8 millimeters in body length
Each day, anywhere from 35-150 species of life go extinct
Alexander Graham Bell, the inventor of the telephone, never telephoned his wife or mother because they were both deaf
Alexander the Great made his troops eat onions as he believed it would prove their vitality
Bill Russell was the first black head coach of a major league pro sports team
In 1945, a seven ounce bathroom cup was the first item Tupperware marketed
Central air conditioners use 98% more energy than ceiling fans.
The king of hearts is the only king without a mustache
Men can read smaller print than women; women can hear better
Everyday, U.S. business use enough paper to circle the Earth over 20 times
The Welwitschia plant can live up to 1,000 years
The dromedary camel can drink as much as 100 litres of water in just 10 minutes
According to the American Institute of Stress, job stress approximately costs the U.S. industry over $300 billion dollars per year
It takes 72 minutes for the restaurant at the top of the CN Tower to make one revolution
Coffee beans were chewed for more than 400 years before the first cup of coffee was brewed
All of the Peking ducks in the United States are descendents from three ducks and one drake imported to Long Island, New York in 1873
The first British ship to use the SOS distress signal was the Titanic
The Spring peeper (a frog) can survive the winter season with 65% of its body water as ice
Studies have shown that the scent of Rosemary can help in better mental performance and make individuals feel more alert
The search engine Google got its name from the word "googol," which refers to the number one with a hundred zeros after it
The Goliath beetle is about the size of your fist and can weigh as much as 3-4 ounces
If you fart consistently for 6 years and 9 months, enough gas is produced to create explosion that is equal to an atomic bomb
Humans have about the same number of hair follicles as a chimpanzee has
Studies indicate that listening to music is good for digestion
The Chihuahua was named after the Mexican state where they were discovered
There are no snakes in New Zealand
The most popular grown bulbs are tulips
Every day the human stomach produces about 2 liters of hydrochloric acid
The country of Bolivia is named after a fighter Simon Bolivar
Peanuts are one of the ingredients of dynamite
The first state to give the right to women to vote was Wyoming
In 1949 UNICEF produced the first charity Christmas card. The picture shown on the card was painted by a seven year old girl
Archeologists report that cannabis was most likely the first plant cultivated by humans. Cannabis was used for linen, paper, and garments
The garfish has green bones
Women who drink more than two cups of coffee a day have a higher chance of developing osteoporosis
The banana was officially introduced in 1876 in the U.S. at the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition. The bananas were wrapped in tinfoil and were sold for 10 cents each
A yawn usually lasts for approximately six seconds
Thirty-five percent of the people who use personal ads for dating are already married
The food that people crave the most is cheese
Every day more money is printed for Monopoly than the US Treasury
The only animal, besides humans that can get leprosy is the Armadillo
In 1894, the carnival made its debut in North America
The artist Vincent Van Gogh sliced part of his ear off in madness
According to Scientists, vampire bat saliva is the best known medicine for keeping blood from clotting.
People from North America prefer pickles with warts, where as Europeans prefer pickles with no warts
People that suffer from gum disease are twice as likely to have a stroke or heart attack
Close to 50% of the water used in a home originates from the bathroom
After the Krakatoa volcano eruption in 1883 in Indonesia, many people reported that, because of the dust, the sunset appeared green and the moon blue. The moon was said to appear blue for almost two years.
The country with the highest consumption of chocolate per capita is Switzerland, with 22 pounds per person, per year
In China, September 20 is "Love Your Teeth Day."
Actor Richard Gere was considered to play the role of John McClane in the movie Die Hard. Bruce Willis played the part instead
The record for the world?s worst drivers is a toss-up between two candidates: First, a 75-year-old man who received 10 traffic tickets, drove on the wrong side of the road four times, committed four hit-and-run offenses, and caused six accidents, all within 20 minutes on October 15, 1966. Second, a 62-year-old woman who failed her driving test 40 times before passing it in August, 1970 (by that time, she had spent over $700 in lessons, and could no longer afford to buy a car)
Tigers have striped skin, not just striped fur
Left-handed people are better at sports that require good spatial judgment and fast reaction, compared to right-handed individuals
Half of a cup of figs will give you just as much calcium as half a cup of milk
A "hairbreadth away" is 1/48 of an inch
In 1281, the Mongol army of Kublai Khan tried to invade Japan but were ravaged by a hurricane that destroyed their fleet
Walt Disney was afraid of mice
Studies show that couples that smoke during the time of conception have a higher chance of having a girl compared to couples that do not smoke
The reason why some people get a cowlick is because the growth of their hair is in a spiral pattern, which causes the hair to either stand straight up, or goes to a certain angle
Approximately 50% of Americans admit they have ran a red light
In 1755, the first Canadian post office opened in Halifax, Nova Scotia. The fist Deputy Postmaster General was American inventor Benjamin Franklin who was later dismissed for sympathizing with the American revolutionary cause
Reno, Nevada is west of Los Angeles, California.
On average, 90% of the people that have the disease Lupus are female
Unlike other four legged mammals, kangaroos cannot walk backwards
The itch from a mosquito bite can be soothed by cutting open a clove of garlic and rubbing it on the bite
If you have three quarters, four dimes, and four pennies, you have $1.19. You also have the largest amount of money in coins without being able to make change for a dollar
Most American car horns honk in the key of F
A superstition in baseball is to never lend your bat to anyone or you will be jinxed
Bats always turn left when exiting a cave
Penguins can jump as high as 6 feet in the air
In 1998, approximately 1.6 billion tree seedlings were planted in the United States. This amounts to about five trees per American
There are species of fish that can walk on land in search of water when its water source dries up. Some can survive as long as three days on land such as the snakehead fish
Racecar driver Lee Petty once left a pitstop and did a full lap at Nascar with a pit crew member still on the hood
The first fashion house to be set up was in 1858 by Charles Worth. He opened his store in Paris with the idea of having pre-made gowns presented on models to his customers
St. Patrick explained the Holy Trinity to King Laoghaire, using the shamrock to illustrate the trinity
More twins are born in the Western world than in the Eastern world
Nine egg yolks have been found in one chicken egg
The record for the longest Monopoly game played in a bathtub is ninety-nine hours
The flea can jump 350 times its body length, that is like a 6 foot-tall human jumping the length of 7 football fields
The 1988 move "Big" which was directed by Penny Marshall was the first movie by a female director to gross over $100 million domestically
When the Galileo Probe entered Jupiter's atmosphere, it was traveling at a speed of 106,000 miles per hour. This is the fastest impact speed ever achieved by a man-made object.
In 1972, a gorilla by the name of "Koko" was taught ASL (American Sign Language) for the deaf. By the year 2000, the gorilla could understand approximately 2,000 English words
3000 children die every day in Africa because of malaria
The reason why hair turns gray as we age is because the pigment cells in the hair follicle start to die, which is responsible for producing "melanin" which gives the hair colour
Approximately 125 people die in the United States from an anaphylaxis to foods each year
The word "vamp" is used to describe the upper front top of a shoe
Construction on the White House began in October of 1792
A galactic year is 250 million Earth-years. This is the time it takes for our solar system to make one revolution around the Milky Way Galaxy.
Leonardo da Vinci was dyslexic, and he often wrote backwards
The male platypus has poisonous spurs on its legs
Polar bears can smell seal from 20 miles away
Canadians Scott Abbott and Chris Haney invented Trivial Pursuit. They were planning on playing Scrabble and realized that some of the pieces were missing so they came up with the idea of making their own game; Trivial Pursuit
On average, there is about three molecules of ozone for every 10 million air molecules.
A person uses approximately fifty-seven sheets of toilet paper each day
The Barbie doll has more than 80 careers
James Buchanan was the only unmarried president of the United States
The Stanley Cup originally was only seven and a half inches high
In 1991, during an attempted political coup on Russian President Boris Yelstin, food supplies had dwindled down at the parliament buildings so they ordered Pizza Hut to deliver pizzas
Some people drink the urine of pregnant women to build up their immune system
The five Olympic rings represent the five continents linked together in friendship
Ray Kroc bought McDonalds for $2.7 million in 1961 from the McDonald brothers
It is possible to lead a cow upstairs but not downstairs
Shark cartilage has been used to make artificial skin for human burn victims
The first person to die in the electric chair was William Kemmler, an ax murderer from New York on August 6, 1890
Finland has 187,888 lakes and 179,584 islands
The average adult has approximately six pounds of skin
A crocodile can open and close its jaw but cannot move it side to side
There are over 1,000,000 swimming pools in Florida, eventhough the ocean is no farther than 80 miles away
99% of the blueberries that are produced in the United States are produced in the state of Maine
On May 9, 1999 approximately 600,000 gallons of whiskey flowed into the Kentucky River during a fire at Wild Turkey Distillery in Lawrenceburg
Thomas Jefferson had three achievements placed on his headstone at his request, "Here Was Buried Thomas Jefferson/Author Of The Declaration Of American Independence/Of The Statute Of Virginia For Religious Freedom/And Father Of The University of Virginia.? He never mentioned being President of the United States
Humans and cows have the same gestation period, which is about nine months
In the Victoria era, red tulips were a declaration of love
The sport Lacrosse was initially played by Native American Indians. They played the sport to prepare for war
It takes a sloth up to six days to digest the food it eats
According to Scandinavian traditions, if a boy and girl eat from the same loaf of bread, they are bound to fall in love
In 1796, Napoleon was only 26 years old when he took command of the French Army of Italy
A bomb dropped by the Allies on Berlin during World War II killed every animal in the Berlin Zoo except the elephant, which escaped and roamed the city. When a Russian commander saw hungry Germans chasing the elephant and trying to kill it, he ordered his troops to protect it and shoot anyone who tried to kill it
The expression "Tying the Knot" comes from an old Roman custom where the brides clothes were tied up all in knots and the groom was supposed to untie the knots
Snake is a delicacy in China
In 1999, All Nippon Airlines, had one of its jets fully decorated with Pokemon characters from nose to tail on its exterior
The Dead Sea has been sinking for last several years
Uranus has 27 moons
Actress Sally Field was paid $4,000 a week for her role in the TV show The Flying Nun
More pollution is emitted from the average home compared to the average car.
The snow leopard protects itself from extreme cold when it sleeps by wrapping its 3-foot-long tail around its nose
Only 4% of babies are born on their actual due date
In the 1940s, the FCC assigned television's Channel 1 to mobile Services(two-way radios in taxicabs, for instance) but did not re-number theotherchannel assignments. That is why your TV set has channels 2 and up, butnochannel 1.
A man named Charles Osborne had the hiccups for approximately sixty-nine years
There are more Subway restaurants in Canada than there are McDonald restaurants
The CN Tower, in Toronto, is the tallest freestanding structure in the world with a height of about 553 metres
The term "the whole 9 yards" came from W.W.II fighter pilots in the South Pacific. When arming their airplanes on the ground, the .50 caliber machine gun ammo belts measured exactly 27 feet, before being loaded into the fuselage. If the pilots fired all their ammo at a target, it got "the whole 9 yards."
Construction on the Leaning Tower of Pisa began on August 9th, 1173
President Lyndon Johnson used to smoke three packs of cigarettes a day
The Tibetan name for Mount Everest is Chomolungma
The word "laser" stands for "Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission by radiation."
In a lifetime, on average a honey bee produces 1/12th of a teaspoon of honey
There are 315 species of parrot in the world
The TV show Doctor Who, when it was popular, had an audience of 110 million people
The cost to build the Empire State Building was $40,948,900
A person who smokes a pack of cigarettes a day will on average lose two teeth every ten years
Wasps that feed on ferment occasionally get drunk and pass out
The largest cereal company in the world is Quaker Oats, located in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, USA
The first Olympic games only had one event - a foot race
Colonel Sanders traveled over 250,000 miles a year visiting various parts of his Kentucky Fried Chicken Empire
Some desert snails have been known to sleep for three to four years
Over 80% of the brain is water
From the age of thirty, humans gradually begin to shrink in size
Jackrabbits can reach a speed of fifty miles per hour and can leap as far as twenty feet
There are 40 official jelly belly flavours
Early sewing machines were destroyed by mobs or workers who felt their jobs were threatened by automation
In 1992, the Antarctic Ozone hole was larger than the continent of North America.
Someone gets divorced every ten to thirteen seconds
There is a certain type of Hawk Moth caterpillar from Brazil that inflates its thorax, which makes its head look like a head of a snake when it feels it is in danger or alarmed
The CIA has made a disk camera that is as big as a quarter. This gadget can take many pictures at a time when the disk is opened.
The Sanskrit word for "war" means "desire for more cows."
In Hong Kong, delivery times are primarily influenced by traffic conditions on elevators. It often takes drivers longer to travel vertically than horizontally, as access to elevators is so congested during "high peak" hours. This is due to the volume of people residing in high rises
The ancient Greeks had a fascination with the planet Mars. They attributed the planet to Ares, their god of war, because of its red colour
The only lizard that has a voice is the Gecko
In Israel, religious law forbids picking your nose on Sabbath
In twins, there is a great chance that one will be left handed
In the 1920's, Q-Tips were invented by Leo Gerstenzang who got the idea after watching his wife clean their baby's ears with cotton stuck onto a toothpick.
In the Pacific Islands when people get burns they often use a banana leaf as treatment
Acorns were used as a coffee substitute during the American Civil War
An airplane mechanic invented Slinky while he was playing with engine parts and realized the possible secondary use for the springs. Barbie was invented by Ruth Handler after watching her daughter play with baby dolls imagining then in grown up roles
When the female grasshopper lays eggs, she covers her eggs with a pasty liquid that protects the eggs throughout the winter
The longest recorded duration of a total solar eclipse was 7.5 minutes.
On average, an American makes three pounds of garbage in a day
Even if you eat food standing on your head, the food will still end up in your stomach
Only one person in two billion will live to be 116 or older.
The most common name in the world is Mohammed
Apple seeds are poisonous as they contain a cyanide compound
The word breakfast was coined due to the fact that after sleeping for hours, we are "breaking our fast."
The cardigan was originally made to be a military jacket made of knitted wool
The month of December is the most popular month for weddings in the Philippines
The deepest cave in the world is the "Lamprechtsofen-Vogelshacht" cave which can be found in Salzburg, Austria. The cave is 5,354 feet deep
The capital of Vermont, Montpelier is the only state capital in the United States that does not have a McDonalds
The longest engagement lasted 67 years, and the couple ended up marrying when they were 82 years old
Our eyes are always the same size from birth, but our nose and ears. never stop growing
Milk and cheese can aid in the reduction of tooth decay
On average, a strawberry has 200 seeds on it
Coconuts kill more people in the world than sharks do
The average person spends two weeks of their life kissing
Research has indicated that indoor pollution is 10 times more toxic than outdoor pollution
Eating a banana at night can help in falling asleep
The stapler was invented in Spring Valley, Minnesota.
The first television newscaster was Kolin Hager, who used to broadcast farm and weather reports in 1928
Pixie, a Siberian Husky, gave birth to 7 puppies, one of which was bright green
Back in 1953, it took 27 hours to make one Marshmallow Peep. Now it takes only six minutes
On average, an ear of a corn has 16 rows and approximately 800 kernels
The green ring that is formed around the yolk of eggs that have been cooked too long is formed by the chemical reaction from the iron in the yolk and the sulphur in the white part of the egg
The silk that is produced by spiders is stronger than steel
The first president to have a picture taken was John Quincy Adams
Some brands of toothpaste contain glycerin or glycerol, which is also an ingredient in antifreeze
1 in 2000 babies are born with a tooth that is already visible
It was during World War II that clothes with elastic waists were introduced. This is because the metal used in zippers was badly needed for the war
In 1902, the game table tennis was brought to the U.S. from Europe by Parker Brothers
Hershey's Kisses are called that because the machine that makes themlooks like it's kissing the conveyor belt.
The fat from sheep, which is called tallow can be used to make soap and candles
Next to bone marrow, hair is the fastest growing tissue in the human body
Sigmund Freud had a morbid fear of ferns
When playing competitive darts the player must be 7 feet 9 1/4 inches back from the dartboard. Also the board must be 5 feet 8 inches above the floor
In England, the Speaker of the House is not allowed to speak
Earthworms have 5 hearts
If all the gold sitting in the oceans and seas were mined, every person on this plant would get about 20 kilograms of gold each.
To make an espresso 42 coffee beans are needed
The oil that is found in poison ivy is called "urushiol."
Of all the days of the week, the most popular day for people to eat ice cream is Sunday
The first museum in Moscow that was set up in 1791 was the Natural History Laboratory at Moscow University. This later was changed to the Zoological Museum
A surfer once sued another surfer for "stealing his wave." The case was thrown out because the court was unable to put a price on "pain and suffering" endured by the surfer watching someone else ride "his" wave
Many people in parts of China eat insects. Some common insects are bean worms, scoprions, and locusts
The largest dog in the world is the Irish Wolfhound
Ernest Vincent Wright wrote a fifty thousand-word novel, "Gadsby," without any word containing the letter "e."
The projection light used for IMAX theaters can be seen from space.
The human liver performs over 500 functions
Ballroom dancing is a course at Brigham Young University in Utah
The word "maverick" came into use after Samuel Maverick, a Texan, refused to brand his cattle. Eventually any unbranded calf became known as a Maverick
Finnish folklore states that when Santa comes to Finland to deliver gifts, he leaves his sleigh behind and rides on a goat named Ukko instead
More than $1 billion is spent each year on neck ties in the United States
In the 18th century, potatoes were given out as a dessert. They were served in a napkin, salted and hot
The only poisonous birds in the world are the three species of Pitohui. The Hooded Pitohui from Papua New Guinea is the most deadliest out of the three
Pretzels were originally invented for Christian Lent. The twists of the pretzels are to resemble arms crossed in prayer
The American Airlines Center in Dallas has more toilets per capita than any other sports and entertainment venue in the country
After 8 months, babies are more likely to get a diaper rash
The first modern toothbrush was invented in China. Its bristles came from hogs hair or the mane of a horse that were then put into ivory handles
The New Zealand Kiwi bird cannot fly
66% of wedding cards are hand delivered by people
Heavier lemons produce more, and tastier, juice
The leading cause of poisoning for children under the age of six in the home is liquid dish soap
The same amount of calories are burned by doing 6 sessions that are 5 minutes each of an activity and doing 1 session of that activity for 30 minutes
General William Booth is the founder of the Salvation Army
Iguanas can stay under water for up to thirty minutes
The fastest flying butterfly is the Monarch, which has been clocked with a speed as high as 17 miles per hour
Egyptian pyramid builders used to eat a lot of garlic because they thought it would increase their strength
The average office document gets copied 19 times
In just the first 56 days of life, the larva of the polyphemus moth eats about 86,000 times its birthweight
Every hour one billion cells in the body must be replaced
American actor Jack Nicholson, and American singer Bobby Darrin were raised believing their grandmothers were their mothers and their mothers were their older sisters
The first Ford cars had Dodge engines
The average height of an NBA basketball player is 6 feet 7 inches
One in five Americans move homes every year
The chocolate chip cookie was invented in 1933
The capital of Burkina Faso is Ouagadougou
A catfish has about 100,000 taste buds
The Liberty Bell was the first mechanical slot machine, which was invented by Charles Fey, a car mechanic in 1895.
A Russian man who wore a beard during the time of Peter the Great had to pay a special tax
The silkworm moth has lost the ability to fly ever since it has been domesticated
The first cheerleaders in the U.S. were men
The name Jeep came from the abbreviation used in the army for the "General Purpose" vehicle, G.P
The odds of having quadruplets are 1 in 729,000
In 1965, the price for an issue of TV Guide was 15 cents
In 1565 In St. Augustine, Florida the first orange trees were planted
Nose prints are used to identify dogs, much like humans use fingerprints
In the United States, six tubs of Cool Whip, a brand of whipping cream, are sold every second
The most popular chocolate bar in the United Kingdom for the last 15 years has been Kit Kat
White-Out was invented by Bette Nesmith Graham, who is the mother of Michael Nesmith from the "The Monkees."
There are over 2,000 different types of cheese in the world
The giant squid has the largest eyes in the world
Owls swallow their prey whole because they have no teeth. After approximately 12 hours they cough up the feathers, bones, and fur in a shape of a football pellet
Historically, a blue ribbon has been awarded for first prize
Seventy-one percent of households report they have at least one snorer. Forty-five percent of those surveyed admit they snore, 35% said their partner snores, 12% said their child snores and 9% reported their pet snores
The original meaning of the word grocer was referring to a person who traded food in wholesale. These people would usually sell in large quantities, or by the "gross."
Research indicates that mosquitoes are attracted to people who have recently eaten bananas
Actress Michelle Pfeiffer was the first choice to play Clarice Starling in the movie "Silence of the Lambs." She turned down the role because she found it too scary
The White House has 35 bathrooms, 3 elevators, 132 rooms, and 412 doors in it
Due to the deforestation of the forests in North China, over one million tons of sands blows into Beijing from the Gobi desert. It sometimes causes the sky to turn yellow.
Cows are able to hear lower and higher frequencies better than human beings
Approximately 60% of the water used by households during the summer is used for watering flowers, and lawns
The largest diamond that was ever found was 3106 carats.
In 1970, Chip maker Intel purchased a pear orchard to build their corporate headquarters on
The mating call of a male toadfish, who are underwater, is so loud that it can be heard by humans above water
The most popular jelly belly jellybean flavour is buttered popcorn
The Nike swoosh was invented by Caroline Davidson back in 1971. She received $35 for making the swoosh. The first shoe with the swoosh was introduced in 1972
Slaves under the last emperors of China wore pigtails so they could be picked out quickly
A crocodile cannot stick its tongue out
Kiwis are the only known bird to have nostrils located at the tip of their beak
An adult esophagus can range from 10 to 14 inches in length and is one inch in diameter
A squash ball moving at 150 kilometers per hour has the same impact of a .22 bullet
Telephonophobia is the fear of telephones
The word alligator comes from the Spanish word El Lagarto, which means "The Lizard."
While still in college, Bill Gates and Paul Allen once built a special purpose machine called "Traff-O-Data." It was a machine that would analyze information gathered by traffic monitors. They never found any buyers.
The citric acid found in lemon juice is said to be able to dissolve a pearl
Robert Southey wrote the story "Goldilocks and the Three Bears" in 1834
The tallest woman in the world is American Sandy Allen who is 7 feet 7 inches
American Airlines saved $40,000 in 1987 by eliminating one olive from each salad served in first-class
Astronauts get taller when they are in space
Only 5 to 10 percent of cheetah cubs make it to adulthood
Dentyne gum was invented in 1899 by a druggist from New York named Franklin V. Canning
It takes about three hours for food to be broken down in the human stomach
When former Texas Governor James Hogg was on his deathbed he made a special request that a pecan tree be planted at the head of his grave instead of a tombstone. The governor passed away on March 2, 1906, which is Texas Independence Day. The pecan tree is now the state tree of Texas
In a year, there are 60,000 trampoline injuries that occur in the U.S
There is an organization called SCROOGE in Charlottesville, Virginia that stands for Society to Curtail Ridiculous, Outrageous, and Ostentatious Gift Exchanges. This was formed to keep gift giving affordable and simple
The first World Series baseball playoffs occurred in 1903
Archipelago is the word to describe a large group of islands that are located close together
The life expectancy of a garbage disposal is about 5 to 10 years
In the original movie "101 Dalmatians," there are exactly 6,469,952 spots on all 101 Dalmatians as they are shown in 113,760 frames of the film combined
The average North American car contains 300 pounds of plastics
A person who is a specialist in wine making is called an oenologist
You can only smell 1/20th as well as a dog
The number one cause of rabies in the United States are bats
The music for "The Star Spangled Banner" comes from a British drinking song named "Anacreon."
27 percent of U.S. male college students believe life is "a meaningless existential hell." (big surprise, eh?)
Close to fifty percent of the bacteria in the mouth lives on the surface of our tongue
Less than 1% of the women in the world will ever be able to wear a diamond that is the size of a carat or more
Ketchup originated in China as a pickled fish sauce called ke-tsiap
An ostrich's eye is bigger that it's brain.
In Britain, The Red Lion is the most common name for a pub
In 1997, the record for the highest skydive by a dog at 4,572 feet was established by a dog named Brutus
The majority of burglaries occur during the daytime when people are not home
Traditionally, wild cabbage was used as an aphrodisiac
Tiger Woods was introduced to golf at nine months of age by his father
A person will burn 7 percent more calories if they walk on hard dirt compared to pavement
It would take 29 million years for a car travelling 100 miles per hour to reach the nearest star
Blue Jays can imitate the calls of hawks
There are over three trillion craters on the moon, with some being having a diameter over three feet
In India, a 9-year-old girl was "married" to a stray dog, which tribal custom requires in order to protect a child whose first tooth appears on the upper gum
There is now an ATM at McMurdo Station in Antarctica, which has a winter population of two hundred people
In Canada, men are three times more likely than women to have seen a doctor in the last year
The most expensive spice in the world is saffron
In one night, an adult hippopotamus eats approximately 150 pounds of grass
The U.S. paid Russia $7.2 million for Alaska in 1867
Cows can detect odors up to five miles away
There are about 125 million multiples (twins, triplets, etc.) worldwide
Arthur Giblin was the inventor of the first "flushable" toilet
Consuming chocolate was once considered a sin during the 16th and 17th century. During that time it was provided in the form of a drink and since drinking wine during lent was a sin, so was drinking chocolate
Approximately 40% of the states in the U.S. have severe, or extreme pollution problems
Wendel Clark holds the record for the longest span between NHL All-Star appearances, with 13 years (1986-1999)
Ancient Egyptians believed that onions would keep evil spirits away
Dill seeds are so small that approximately 10,000 dill seeds would be required to make an ounce
To make one pound of whole milk cheese, 10 pounds of whole milk is needed
If all the insects in the world were put on a scale, they would out weigh all creatures
Women smile more than men do
A ripe cranberry will bounce. Another name for a cranberry is bounceberry
Termites work 24 hours per day -- they do not sleep
The Romans used to clean themselves with olive oil since they did not have any soap. They would pour the oil on their bodies, and then use a strigil, which is type of blade, to scrape off any dirt along with the oil
The act of stretching and yawning is referred to as pandiculation
In the 1960 movie "Psycho" by Alfred Hitchcock, chocolate syrup was used to show the blood in the shower scene
Carolyn Shoemaker, famous astronomer, has discovered 32 comets and approximately 300 asteroids
The longest fangs of a snake are found on the Gaboon Viper (Bitis gabonica), and can reach over 2 inches in length
Once a human reaches the age of 35, he/she will start losing approximately 7,000 brain cells a day. The cells will never be replaced
The only king without a moustache in a deck of cards is the king of hearts
Approximately 100,000 people get married in Las Vegas each year
Amish people do not believe in the use of aerosal air fresheners
Coca-cola used to use the slogan "Good to the last drop," in 1908. This slogan was later used by Maxwell House
The blind cavefish is born with eyes, but they fall off as the fish grows
In ancient Egypt, Priests plucked EVERY hair from their bodies including their eyebrows and eyelashes
The Indian election in 1984 was the largest election of any country. Over 379,000,000 voters were eligible to vote at over 480,000 polling stations
A single chocolate chip gives enough energy to a human being to walk 150 feet
There are 54 bones in your hands including the wrists
The name for Oz in "The Wizard of Oz" was thought up when the creator, Frank Baum, looked at his filing cabinet and saw A-N, and O-Z, hence "Oz."
The town of Churchill, Manitoba, located in Canada, is known as the "Polar Bear Capital of the World"
Amtrak is the combination of the words "American" and "Track"
On average, an American relocates 11 times in their life
Fires onland generally move faster uphill than downhill
The cartoon character Popeye was actually based on a real person named Frank "Rocky" Fiegel who was a tough guy who was quite similar to Popeye physically
Frisbee got its name from William Russel Frisbee, who was a pie baker. He used to sell his pies in a thin tin pan, which had Frisbee written on it. When Walter Frederick Morrison thought of the idea of making saucer like disks to play catch, he visited the campus of Yale and noticed people there were using the pie pan to play catch so he therefore renamed his invention to Frisbee
Some arthritis medications contain gold salts, which is used as an anti-inflammatory
Lemon juice can aid in reducing the swelling caused by insect bites
LSD is made from lysergic acid, which is found in ergot, a type of fungus
DC-10, the name of an airplane stands for "Douglas Commercial."
In approximately 18 months, the papaya tree can grow to be 20 feet tall
Parrots cannot eat chocolate because it is poisonous to their body
Americans are responsible for generating roughly 20% percent of the garbage in the world
Termites are roasted and eaten like popcorn in South Africa
The official state tree of Illinois is The White Oak
It takes 3,000 cows to supply the NFL with enough leather for a year'ssupply of footballs.
In 1971, the postal code was introduced in Ottawa, Ontario
The tridacna clam can grow up to four feet long and weigh up to 500 pounds
The state that has the most diners in the world is New Jersey, which is referred to as the "Diner Capital of the World."
Approximately 1-2 calorie are burned a minute while watching T.V
The first recipe for a lasagna type dish was found to be from a British cookbook in the 14th century. Therefore, Italians were not the first ones to come up with the popular dish as believed
Only one person in two billion will live to be 116 or older
If an identical twin grows up without having a certain tooth, the other twin will most likely also grow up with that tooth missing
Albert Einstein was offered the presidency of Israel in 1952, but he declined
According to legend, tea originated in China when tea leaves accidentally blew into a pot of boiling water
When you sneeze, all your bodily functions momentarily stop, including your heart
Kite flying is a professional sport in Thailand
Urine from men?s public urinals was sold as a commodity in Ancient Rome. It was used as a dye and for making clothes hard
All 50 states are listed across the top of the Lincoln Memorial on the back of the $5.00 bill
1 out of 350,000 Americans get electrocuted in their life
New Mexico is known as the "Land of Enchantment."
In 1890, Scott Paper produced the first toilet paper to be available on a roll
An elephant in the wild can eat anywhere from 100 - 1000 pounds of vegetation in a 16 hour period
Some of the other names that were thought of for the dwarfs in the Disney movie "Snow White" were Awful, Dirty, Shifty, Hotsy, and Jumpy
In the U.S., over 35 million people have used some sort of illegal drug in the last year
96% of candles that are purchased are by women
The oldest bird on record was Cocky, a cockatoo, who died in the London Zoo at the age of 82
A cow averages 40,000 jaw movements a day
The reason the soft drink Dr Pepper is called that is because the inventor Wade Morrison named it after Dr. Charles Pepper who had given him his first job
Annually 17 tons of gold is used to make wedding rings in the United States
Sex acts like a natural antihistamine, in can clear up a stuffy nose
Women on average live seven years longer than men do
A British term for slot machine is "fruit machine" or "one-armed bandit."
Most dust particles in your house are made from dead skin
Even though the rose does not bear any fruit, the rose hips have more Vitamin C than most vegetables and fruits
In 1946 Danon Yogurt were the first to add fruit to commercially produced yogurt in U.S
The first domain name ever registered was Symbolics.com on March 15, 1985.
American Airlines saved $40,000 in 1987 by eliminating one olive from each salad served in first class
The first flavour of a cheese ball was called "Cheddy Blue."
Over 500 million gallons of Kool-Aid drink are consumed each year
The waste produced by one chicken in its lifetime can supply enough electricity to run a 100-watt bulb for five hours
Hydrogen solid is the most dense substance in the world, at 70.6g/cc
Missouri has been to most NCAA tournaments than any other college without reaching the final four
The hump of a camel can weigh up to 35 kilograms
Lake Malawi has the largest number of fish species in the world
The country of Fiji is made up of 332 islands
The first Labor Day holiday was celebrated on Tuesday, September 5, 1882, in New York City
The word "sophomore" means "sophisticated moron."
Jim Bristoe, an American, invented a 30-foot-long, 2-ton pumpkin cannon that can fire pumpkins up to five miles.
There are about 61,300 pizza restaurants in the United States of America
To tell if a egg is fully cooked or raw, just spin it. If the egg wobbles then it is still raw, and if it easily spins it is fully cooked
Used in art the word "sfumato" refers to the subtle blending of an outline by gradually blending one tone into another
There is a species of bird, Antpitta avis canis Ridgley, that barks like a dog
The flu pandemic of 1918 killed over 20 million people
Approximately 20% of Americans have a passport
The Nobel prize was first awarded in 1901
The reason why milk is white is because it contains a protein called Casein, which is white. Milk also contains fat, which is also white
After twenty-seven years, Betty Rubble made her debut as a Flintstones Vitamin in 1996
When telephone companies first began hiring telephone operators, they chose teenage boys for the job. They switched to women because the teenage boys were wrestling instead of working and pulling pranks on callers
In a lifetime, the heart pumps about one million barrels of blood
The Sears Tower in Chicago contains enough steel to build 50,000 automobiles
The first words that Thomas A. Edison spoke into the phonograph were, "Mary had a little lamb."
There are 400 species of bacteria in the human colon
On average, 100 people choke to death on ballpoint pens every year.
In the 20th century, over three million people have died from earthquakes
It is impossible to sneeze with your eyes open
People still cut the cheese shortly after death
In ancient Egypt, the only person who was allowed to wear cotton was the High Priest
Blueberries have more antioxidents than any other fruit or vegetables
The Mount Horeb Mustard Museum which is located in Wisconsin has the biggest collection of prepared mustards. They have approximately 4,000 different jars and tubes from all over the world
Bananas trees are not really trees. They are considered to be giant herb plants
Sponge Candy was invented in Buffalo, NY
When the volcano Krakatoa off the Java islands exploded in 1883, it was so loud that it woke some people up in South Australia
Pearls are rarely found in North American oysters
The average cocoon contains about 300-400 metres of silk
Lake Nicaragua boasts the only fresh-water sharks in the entire world
Boxing champion Gene Tunney taught Shakespeare at Yale University
The most popular pickle is the Dill pickle
Diabetes is the fourth leading cause of death in the U.S., accounting for about 180,000 deaths per year
Every year approximately 3,000 people choke to death
Cow is a Japanese brand of shaving foam
The fastest running bird is the Ostrich, which has been clocked at 97.5 kilometres per hour
When the divorce rate goes up in the United States, toy makers report that the sale of toys also rise
Q-Tip Cotton Swabs were originally called Baby Gays
The Pacific island of Tonga once issued a stamp that was banana shaped
A mole can dig a tunnel three hundred feet long in a single night
The glue on Israeli postage stamps is certified kosher
The only commercial aircraft that is able to break the sound barrier is the Concorde.
U.S. Postal Service processes 38 million address changes each year
In 1984, Ronald Reagan declared the month of July to be "National Ice Cream Month."
The small intestine in the human body is about 2 inches around, and 22 feet long
In 1905, the first pizzeria in the U.S. opened in New York City
In the early nineteenth century some advertisements claimed that riding the carousel was good for the circulation of blood
For the blockbuster movie "The Terminator," O.J. Simpson was considered to play the role of the Terminator, but producers did not choose him as they thought he would not be taken seriously
The actor who played the T-1000 in Terminator 2 (Robert Patrick) and the lead singer of Filter are brothers
The sole purpose of a drone bee is to mate with the queen bee
There are more plastic flamingos in America than real ones
Walt Disney had a fear of mice
Cleopatra married two of her brothers
In an average lifetime, people spend four years traveling in cars and six months waiting for red light to turn green
At one time, pumpkins were recommended for removing freckles
In just one drop of liquid, 50 million bacteria can be present
The Montreal Canadians hockey team has won the most Stanley Cups with 24
Nylon is a man-made fibre that is made from coal and petroleum
When the First Lady, Eleanor Roosevelt, received an alarming number of threatening letters, soon after her husband became President at the height of the Depression, the Secret Service insisted that she carry a pistol in her purse
Swiss engineer George de Mestral, who got the idea after noticing burrs were sticking to his pants after his regular walks through the woods, invented Velcro.
Bees can communicate with other bees by dancing. Their dance can alert other bees as to which direction and the distance nectar and pollen is located
The steepest street in the world is Baldwin Street located in Dunedin, New Zealand. It has an incline of 38%
One billion pounds of pasta would need approximately 2,021,452,000 gallons of water to cook it. This is equivalent to 75,000 Olympic-size swimming pools
Nutmeg is extremely poisonous if injected intravenously
The average Super Bowl party has 18 people
An ant can detect a movement through 5 centimeters of earth
One out of 200 women is colorblind
On average, the rainfall across the Amazon is 7 feet annually.
Passion fruits have a tranquilizing effect on the body
It is physically impossible for pigs to look up into the sky
A snail can sleep for 3 years
"Dreamt" is the only English word that ends in the letters "mt"
There is a large brass statue of Winnie-the-Pooh in Lima, Peru
In 1982, Larry Walters tied 24 weather balloons to his lawn chair in Los Angeles and climbed to an altitude of 16,000 feet
Centuries ago in India, a person could get their nose chopped off for breaking the law
The sound of E.T. walking was made by someone squishing her hands in Jello
The total number of steps in the Eiffel Tower are 1665
The amount of blood a female mosquito drinks per serving is five millionths of a liter
An adult porcupine has approximately 30,000 quills on its body, which are replaced every year
The name for Ivory Soap was inspired by a verse from the Bible. Harley Proctor got though of the name when the minister read from Psalms 45:8, "All thy garments smell of myrrh and aloes and cassia, out of the ivory palaces whereby they have made thee glad."
A survey done by Clairol 10 years ago came up with 46% of men stating that it was okay to color their hair. Now 66% of men admit to coloring their hair
The name of the squiggly line "~" is called a tilde
In 1747, the first American mention of the Christmas tree occurred. However, it was a not a tree but instead a pyramid made out of wood and decorated with apples and evergreen boughs
There are more Barbie dolls in Italy than there are Canadians in Canada
The study of ants is called Myrmecology
In the United States, you are more likely to be killed by a bee sting than a shark attack
Coca-Cola was the first soft drink to be consumed in outer space
Frozen food can be just as nutritious as fresh food
Fourteen people die each day from asthma in the United States
The average amount of time spent kissing for a person in a lifetime is 20,160 minutes
The human body has approximately 37,000 miles of capillaries
The most expensive shoes in the world are ruby slippers located in Harrods in London, which cost $1.6 million, has a full time security guard. The shoes are made from platinum thread and has 642 rubies in them. It took over 700 hours to produce the shoe
Only 55% of all Americans know that the sun is a star
The city of Denver was originally chosen to host the 1976 Winter Olympics, but had to withdraw because Colorado voters rejected to finance it
The longest bout of sneezing recorded was by Donna Griffith. It began in January 13 1981 and continued until September 16 1983 and lasted for 978 days
The Taj Mahal, located in Agra, India, was actually built for use as a tomb by Mogul ruler Shah Jehan for his wife, Arjuman Banu Begum
In 1943, the July issue of "Transportation Magazine" had an article entitled "1943 Guide to Hiring Women."
Spotted skunks do handstands before they spray
A dime has 118 ridges around the edge
Scientists with high-speed cameras have discovered that rain drops are not tear shaped but rather look like hamburger buns.
Ancient Egyptian women used to wear perfume cones made of wax that would melt in the heat letting out a nice fragrance
Mardi Gras means "Fat Tuesday." This is the festival that New Orleans, Louisiana is famous for having every year
There was once a fish caught in Delaware Bay with a watch still ticking inside
In Singapore, it is illegal to sell or own chewing gum
During the female orgasm, endorphines are released, which are powerful painkillers. So headaches are in fact a bad excuse not to have sex
Donkeys kill more people annually than plane crashes
The nut "filbert" got its name from St. Philbert which is celebrated on August 22nd, which is also when the nut matures
Every time Beethoven sat down to write music, he poured ice water over his head
Some species of dolphin sleep with one eye open
The chewing gum Juicy Fruit has 10 calories. This is approximately the same as a bite of whole wheat bread
In ancient Egypt, doctors used jolts from the electric catfish to reduce the pain of arthritis
In order to scare away predators, Giant petrels, a type of seabird, throw up all over the intruder
Elvis Presley used to be a truck driver before he started singing
The average cow produces about 2,305 gallons of milk each year
Former U.S. president Ronald Reagan worked as a lifeguard in his youth at a beach near Dixon, Illinois and saved over 77 lives
In 2000, there were 1,579,566 drug arrests in the United States. Of those, close to half were for marijuana
Just like fingerprints, every cats nose pad is different
Popeye is 34 years old, weighs 158 lbs, and is 5 feet 6 inches tall
Researchers have shot footage of Orcas (killer whales) attacking and killing great white sharks
The three most valuable brand names on earth: Marlboro, Coca Cola, and Budweiser, in that order
One bushel of wheat can make enough sandwiches that you could eat three sandwiches a day for over six months
In 1992, approximately 750 deaths occurred in the United States due to workplace violence
In the movie "Babe", the piglet was played by over 30 different piglets they outgrew the part so quickly during the production of the film
Research indicates that people prefer the colour blue for their casual clothing
The leading cause of deaths for children between the ages of 1 and 4 are motor vehicle crashes
The first toilet being flushed in a motion picture was in the movie "Psycho."
The human brain has about 100,000,000,000 (100 billion) neurons
One acre of wheat can produce enough bread to feed a family of four people for about ten years
Queen Victoria used marijuana, to help relieve menstrual cramp pain
On a ship a toilet is called a head
About 1 in 5,000 North Atlantic lobsters are born bright blue
Approximately 10.5 gallons of water is used in a dishwasher. Washing the dishes by hand can use up to 20 gallons of water
The thing that hangs from the top of the beak of a turkey is called the snood
Ticks can be as small as a grain of rice and grow to be as big as a marble
An American chews an average of 300 sticks of gum in a year
Most cows give more milk when they listen to music
Giant flying foxes, which are a type of bat, that live in Indonesia have wingspans of nearly six feet
Heavier lemons contain more and tastier juice
Since 1950, over 230 million eggs of Silly Putty have been sold
Oral-B is a combination of oral hygiene and the letter B, which stands for the word better
Frank Wathernam was the last prisoner to leave Alcatraz prison on March 21, 1963
A blink lasts approximately 0.3 seconds
In 1903 Mary Anderson invented the windshield wipers
Both Thomas Jefferson and Jimmy Carter, U.S. presidents, were peanut farmers at one time
A cow releases about 125 gallons of gas per day
The Apollo 17 crew were the last men on the moon
Spartacus led the revolt of the Roman slaves and gladiators in 73 B.C
The Mexican version of the Tooth Fairy is known as the Tooth Mouse, which takes the tooth and leaves treasures in its place
In a day the blue whale calf drinks approximately 130 gallons of milk
Right-handed people live, on average, nine years longer than left-handed people do
All racehorses in the U.S. celebrate their birthday on January 1st
A person would have to drink more than 12 cups of hot cocoa to equal the amount of caffeine found in one cup of coffee
The oldest documented footwear found was a 8,000 year-old sandal found in a cave located in Missouri, USA
Broccoli was first introduced into France during the royal marriage of Catherine de Medici to Henry II of France
By federal law, for a noodle to actually be a noodle it must have 5.5 percent egg solids in it, otherwise it cannot be called a noodle
The first female guest host of Saturday Night Live was actress Candace Bergen
The human heart beast roughly 35 million times a year
People that use mobile phones are 2.5 time more likely to develop cancer in areas of the brain that are adjacent to the ear they use to talk on the mobile phone
Turkeys can have heart attacks. When the Air Force was conducting test runs and breaking the sound barrier, fields of turkeys dropped dead because of heart attacks
The act of sneezing is referred to as sternutation
The average medium size piano has about 230 strings
A study revealed that men that were born with a low birth weight were less likely to get married
It takes about 63,000 trees to make the newsprint for the average Sunday edition of The New York Times
On average, you would need 12.5 gallons of milk to make one gallon of ice cream
A leech can gorge itself up to a maximum of five times its body weight
There are places in Saskatchewan called Elbow, Eyebrow, and Drinkwater
A butterfly has to have a body temperature greater than 86 degrees to be able to fly
The beeswax that is produced by Honey bees comes from eight paired glands that are located on the underside of their stomach
People in low-income homes spend 50% more time playing video games than people in high-income homes
Lighthouse keepers were nicknamed "wickies" because they tended the lamps wick
Taco Bell serves over 35 million consumers each week in the USA
During the Roman times, people used urine, called lotium in Latin, as a hair product
There are approximately 90 people that have been frozen after their death.
The smallest will ever written was 3.8 cm in diameter. It had 40 words written on it and was signed by two witnesses
The length of a human esophagus is 25 centimeters
In 1942 the Jello company introduced Cola flavored jello, which only lasted a year
Males account for 60% of toy injuries that occur in the U.S
The company "Sony" was originally called "Totsuken." They felt the name "Sony" would be easier to pronounce. The name was invented by a cross between the name "sonus" and "sonny." The name sound and sonic are derived. Sonny was used to represent a young man or boy, which would show a energetic young company
The Red Cross is called the Red Crescent in Arab countries
The Olympics were originally held for the Greek god Zeus
The oldest inhabited house in Scotland is the Traquair Castle. The castle has had 27 kings as visitors
Four billion pounds of watermelon were grown in the United States in 1999
Wham-O manufactured twenty-thousand hula-hoops a day at the peak of hula-hoop popularity in 1958
JELL-O was declared The "Official State Snack" of Utah in January 2001
Elvis Presley was obsessed with brushing his teeth
When the Statue of Liberty was moved from France to the United States, 214 crates were used to transport it. The Statue was also reduced to 350 pieces
There are approximately 2000 thunderstorms that are active at the same time which results in 100 lightning flashes a second.
In-vitro babies are born in Australia more than any other country in the world
Uranus? winter and summer seasons last the equivalent of 21 Earth years
More people die from eating sharks then from being eaten by them. This is due to a poison in shark meat
The murder rate in the United States is about four times greater than in Japan. In Japan, no private citizen can buy a handgun legally
The rarest chocolate bar in the world is the Porcelana bar. There are only 20,000 of these bars produced a year, and they sell for $90 per pound
The reason why locusts swarm are because when they are in groups, a "hot-spot" behind their hind legs is stimulated, which in turn causes their destructive nature. A large swarm of locusts can eat eighty thousand tons of corn in a day
There are an equivalent number of cows and people in Friesland, Netherlands
Centipedes always have an uneven pairs of walking legs
A chicken once had its head cut off and survived for over eighteen months, headless
The largest diamond found in the United States was a 40.23 carat white diamond. It was found in 1924 and nicknamed the "Uncle Sam."
Following directions off the Internet and chemicals obtained from a mail order company, a team of U.S. scientists created an identical copy of the polio virus.
Every day, the Hubble telescope transmits enough data to fit 10,000 standard computer disks
The average number of people that go to a party for the Super Bowl is 17
The amount of Kit Kat chocolate bars that are made at the York factory every 15 minutes are enough to outstack the Eiffel Tower
The skin of a shark is made up of "tiny teeth" which are called dermal denticles
The strongest gust of wind was recorded at the Mount Washington Observatory on April 12th, 1934, and measured 231 miles per hour.
The company Chanel claims that every 30 seconds, somewhere in the world, a bottle of Chanel No 5 is sold
In their lifetime, house cats spend approximately 10,950 hours purring
The reason why bubbles are round is because this is the most efficient shape that the soap film can take for the amount of air trapped inside
It is very common for babies in New Zealand to sleep on sheepskins. This is to help them gain weight faster, and retain their body heat
From 1526 to 1707, the first six Mogul emperors of India ruled in unbroken succession from father to son
A one kilogram packet of sugar will have about 5 million grains of sugar
Bats emit ultrasonic sounds to communicate with each other
Rats can survive up to 14 days without any food
Canola oil is actually rapeseed oil but the name was changed in Canada for marketing reasons
Three consecutive strikes in bowling is called a turkey
In a year, about 90 million jars of Skippy Peanut Butter are sold. This works out to three jars sold every second
In a lifetime, an average man will shave 20,000 times
The Pentagon has 284 restrooms
From 1967-1976, the town of Tororo located in Uganda had thunder 251 out of the 365 days in a year for those years.
Children grow faster in the springtime than any other season during the year
Another name for licorice is "Sweet Wood" or "Spanish Juice."
The reason the Animal Crackers box is designed with a string handle is because when the popular circus theme was introduced in 1902 they thought it would also be a good idea to package them with a string as a Christmas novelty so they could be hung from Christmas trees
Sheep can detect other sheep faces like humans do. They can remember up to 50 sheep faces
The loudest insect in the world is the male cicadas, which are like crickets. When they rub their abdomens, the sound made can be heard from 1300 feet
Each year 96 billion pounds of food is wasted in the U.S
In the past 60 years, the groundhog has only predicted the weather correctly 28% of the time. The rushing back and forth from burrows is believed to indicate sexual activity, not shadow seeking
Pretzel snacks have been around for over 1300 years. A European monk invented the snack using used leftover bread dough
Sharks are capable of surviving on average six weeks without eating. The record observed in an aquarium is fifteen months by a species of shark known as the "swell shark."
The destruction of the Berlin Wall began when private citizens began to demolish entire sections of the Wall without interference from government officials on November 9, 1989
Most American women have their first baby when they are 24.3 years old
Frogs do not need to drink water as they absorb the water through their skin
A group of larks is called an exaltation
The Kool Aid Man used to be known as "Pitcher Man" when he was first introduced in 1975
Wheel of Fortune star Vanna White holds the record for putting her hands together approximately 140,000 times to clap
Men sweat more than women. This is because women can better regulate the amount of water they lose
Research has indicated that approximately eleven minutes are cut off the life of an average male smoker from each cigarette smoked
The triangular shape that Toblerone chocolates are packaged in, is protected by law
In 1945, the first "floating ice cream parlor" was built for sailors in the western Pacific. This "floating ice cream parlour" could produce ten gallons of ice cream every seven seconds
The formula for Coca-cola has never been patented
The average day is actually 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4.09 seconds. We have a leap year every four years to make up for this shortfall
Before its name was changed, the African Penguin used be called the Jackass Penguin because of its donkey-like braying call
During the high feeding season, it has been estimated that an adult blue whale can eat up to 40 million krill in one day. (Krill are shrimp like creatures)
Pound for pound, leopards are said to be seven times stronger than humans
One average, men spend 60 hours a year shaving
Botanically a rhubarb is a vegetable. It was changed to a fruit in 1947 by a U.S. Custom Court
Sawney Beane, his wife, 8 sons, 6 daughters, and 32 grandchildren were a family of cannibals that lived in the caves near Galloway, Scotland in the early 17th Century. Although the total number is not known, it is believed they claimed over 50 victims per year. The entire family was taken by an army detachment to Edinburgh and executed, apparently without trial
The movie that grossed the most money that was adapted from a T.V. cartoon is Scooby-Doo
There are five million scent receptors located in a human beings nose
When Coca-Cola was invented, American tourists that visited Spain were surprised to see that Coke was three times as expensive as a glass of brandy
Some silkworms can spin cocoons that contain more than two miles of silk
The mother of famous astronomer Johannes Kepler was accused of being a witch
At one time, Pumpkins were recommended for the removal of freckles and curing snake bites
The Eisenhower interstate system requires that one mile in every five must be straight. These straight sections are usable as airstrips in times of war or other emergencies
Approximately 200 pets are buried in a pet cemetery out of the thousands of pets that die each day
The average Hostess Twinkie is 68 percent air as measured by volume according to university researchers
In Haiti, only 1 out of every 200 people own a car. This is ironic considering approximately 33% of the country's budget on import is spent on equipment for fuel and transportation.
Every U.S. bill regardless of denomination costs just 4 cents to make
About 30% of American admit to talking to their dogs or leaving messages on their answering machines for their dogs while they are away
A duck’s quack doesn’t echo, and no one knows why
Caterpillar means "hairy cat" in Old French
The ostrich has two toes on each feet which gives it greater speed
On September 3, 1970, a hailstone was found in Coffeyville, Kansas that was eight inches in diameter and weighed 1.67 pounds.
Honorificabilitudinitatibus is the longest English word that consists strictly of alternating consonants and vowels
It can take up to a month for a rattlesnake to re-supply its venom
Close to 3 billion movie tickets are sold in India every year
The word racecar and kayak are the same whether they are read left to right or right to left
There were approximately 2,228 people on board the Titanic when it sank. Of this, only 706 people survived
An elephant can live up to the age of seventy, or in some cases even more
The giant squid has the largest eyes in the world
Elephants can't jump. Every other mammal can.
The name "cranberry" comes from German and Dutch settlers. The berry was intially called "crane berry." The reason it was called this was because when the flowers bloom, the petals of the flowers twist backwards and look very much like the head of a crane. Eventually the name was shortened down to be "cranberry."
In New Mexico, over eleven thousand people have visited a tortilla chip that appeared to have the face of Jesus Christ burned into it
On average, he ratio of yellow kernels to white kernals in a bag of popcorn is 9:1
The first toilet stall in a public washroom is the least likely to be used. It is also the cleanest
In 1955, only 330 Volkswagen Beetle's were sold at a price of $1800 each in the United States.
Printed on the tablet being held by the Statue of Liberty is July IV, MDCCLXXVI
The country of Fiji is made up of 332 islands
Orville Wright, a pilot, was involved in the first aircraft accident. His passenger, a Frenchman, was killed.
The first company to mass produce teddy bears was the Ideal Toy Company
Princess Anne from the British royal family competed in the 1976 Summer Olympics
Brazil produces the most oranges in the world
Average life span of a major league baseball: 7 pitches.
The eyeball of a human weighs approximately 28 grams
A human head remains conscious for about 15 to 20 seconds after it is been decapitated
Witchcraft means "Craft of the Wise Ones."
500,000 kids in the US live in same sex households
In July 1874, a swarm of Rocky Mountain locusts flew over Nebraska covering an area estimated at 198,600 square miles. It is estimated that the swarm contained about 12.5 trillion insects. These insects became extinct thirty years later
Tropical rainforests cover about 7% of the Earth and receive over 80 inches of rain every year
The feet have approximately 250,000 sweat glands
Approximately 7.5% of all office documents get lost
The desert tortoise can live without having to drink any water. It extracts the water it needs from the vegetation it eats
There were 13 couples celebrating their honeymoon on the Titanic
A cat has 32 muscles in each ear
There are 336 dimples on a regulation golf ball
Elvis Presley had a twin brother named Jesse Garon Presley who died at birth
Robert Wadlow is the tallest man recorded in history. He grew to be eight feet and eleven inches and weighed 490 pounds when he died
Bank robber John Dillinger played professional baseball
Research indicates that plants grow healthier when they are stroked.
France is known as the perfume capital of the world
According to psychologists, the shoe and the foot are the most common sources of sexual fetishism in Western society
Constipation is caused when too much water is absorbed in the large intestine and the feces become dry
One ton of grapes can produce 720 bottles of wine
Eating about twenty tart cherries a day could reduce inflammatory pain and headache pain
In 2001, the five most valuable brand names in order were Coca-Cola, Microsoft, IBM, GE, and Nokia
Milk chocolate was invented in Switzerland by David Peter in 1876
In November 1999, two women were killed by a lightning bolt. The underwire located in their bras acted as a electrical conductors, and when the lightning bolt hit the bra they left burn marks on their chest
Basketball was invented by Canadian James Naismith in 1891
Over 100,000 birds and sea animals are killed every year due to plastic garbage
The big toe is the foot reflexology pressure point for the head
85% of weddings are held in a synagogue or church
The sport of surfing originated in Hawaii
It is possible to lead a cow upstairs...but not downstairs
Before soccer referees started using whistles in 1878, they used to rely on waving a handkerchief
Tobacco kills more Americans each year than alcohol, cocaine, crack, heroin, homicide, suicide, car accidents, fire and AIDS combined
The best time for a person to buy shoes is in the afternoon. This is because the foot tends to swell a bit around this time
Dead cells in the body ultimately go to the kidneys for excretion
Americans, on average, spend 18% of his or her income on transportation as compared to only 13% spent on food
There are some species of snails that are venomous. Their venom can be fatal to humans
The first box of Crayola that was ever sold had the same eight colours that are sold in the box today consisting of red, blue, yellow, green, violet, orange, black and brown. The box was sold for a nickel in 1903
A turtle can breathe through its butt.
The rarest coffee in the world is Kopi Luwak, which is found in Indonesia. It cost about $300 a pound
The average America online user spends 70 minutes day online
The song with the longest title is "I?m a Cranky Old Yank in a Clanky Old Tank on the Streets of Yokohama with my Honolulu Mama Doin? Those Beat-o, Beat-o Flat-On-My-Seat-o, Hirohito Blues" written by Hoagy Carmichael in 1945. He later claimed the song title ended with ?Yank? and the rest was a joke
People of Ancient China believed that swinging your arms could cure a headache
In 1938, Cliquot Club ginger ale was the first soft drink to be canned
The largest apple pie ever baked was forty by twenty three feet
Roughly 44% of junk mail is thrown away unopened
Catfish have tastebuds located on their whiskers
The laundry detergent Tide, has a market share of about forty percent market
A Canadian, Troy Hurtubise, spent $100,000 and almost went bankrupt building a RoboCop style suit so that he could withstand a bear attack
The 3 most valuable brand names on earth: Marlboro, Coca-Cola, andBudweiser, in that order.
The only two days of the year in which there are no professional sports games (MLB, NBA, NHL, or NFL) are the day before and the day after the Major League all-stars Game
In the United States, 8.5 million cosmetic surgical and non-surgical procedures were done in the year 2001
The Bible has been translated into Klingon.
Ian Fleming named his character "James Bond" after real-life ornithologist and author
Most dinosaurs walked on their toes.
On December 17 1991, the Cleveland Cavaliers beat the Miami Heat 148-80, the largest margin of victory in an NBA game
There are mirrors on the moon. Astronauts left them so that laser beams could be bounced off of them from Earth. These beams help give us the distance to the moon give or take a few metres.
The U.S. army packs Tabasco pepper sauce in every ration kit that they give to soldiers
The trunk of an elephant can hold up to two gallons of water
Every year, an igloo hotel is built in Sweden that has the capacity to sleep 100 people
During the holiday season, approximately $220 million worth of Poinsettias are sold
A newborn kangaroo weighs approximately 0.03 ounces and is small enough to fit in a teaspoon
When Scott Paper Co. first started manufacturing toilet paper they did not put their name on the product because of embarrassment
The most senior crayon maker Emerson Moser retired after making 1.4 billion crayons for Crayola. It was then that he revealed that he was actually colorblind
The highest point in Pennsylvania is lower than the lowest point inColorado.
Scientists have determined that having guilty feelings may actually damage your immune system
"Go." is the shortest complete sentence in the English language
There are more than 250,000 rivers in the United States, which amounts to 3.5 million miles of rivers
Forty-one percent of women apply body and hand moisturizer at least three times a day
Pretzel that have no salt on them are called "baldies."
The 1912 Olympics was the last Olympics that gave out gold medals that were made entirely out of gold
Monopoly is the best-selling board game in the world
There was a book written fourteen years before the sinking of the Titanic happened titled "Futility" by Morgan Robertson. This book was remarkably similar to the tragedy that happened to the Titanic in 1912
One ounce of chocolate has about 20 mg of caffeine in it
A giraffe can go longer without water than a camel
Vikings, after killing their enemies, used their skulls as drinking vessels
Studies have shown that classical music helps cows produce more milk
Two out of five people end up marrying their first love
The Hawaiian alphabet only has 12 letters
The name "Muppet" was coined by Jim Henson. The word was made from a combination of the word "marionette" and "puppet."
In the Sahara Desert, there is a town named Tidikelt, which did not receive a drop of rain for ten years
The Christmas season begins after sunset on December 24th and lasts until January 5th. This is also known as the Twelve Days of Christmas
Mosquitoes are attracted to the color blue more than any other color
In Italy, Santa Claus is known by the name Babbo Natale
Two objects have struck the earth with enough force to destroy a whole city. Each object, one in 1908 and again in 1947, struck regions of Siberia. Not one human being was hurt either time
When blue whales are first born, they gain as much as 200 pounds a day while they are calves
Families who do turn off the television during meals tend to eat healthier. This was regardless of family income, or education
About 25 percent of all the energy consumed in the US is from natural gas
American novelist Mark Twain was the first known author to submit a typed manuscript
If you fart consistently for 6 years and 9 months, enough gas is produced to create the energy of an atomic bomb
Canada is the only country not to win a gold medal in the Summer Olympic games while hosting the event
The sound made by the toadfish when mating underwater is so loud that it can be heard by humans on the shore
In America, approximately 20% of children between the ages of 2 - 7 have televisions in their rooms
Traveling by air is the safest means of transportation.
In 1996, toy company Mattel released a "Harley Davidson" Barbie. This dolls distinctive feature is a birth mark on her face that changes position with every new release of the doll
The most common injury caused by cosmetics is to the eye by a mascara wand
There have been close to 200 coups and counter-coups in the country of Bolivia
On average, pigs live for about 15 years
Roughly 42% of people in the United Kingdom snore
No NFL team which plays its home games in a domed stadium has ever won a Superbowl
Beluga whales which are also called "white whales" are not born white. They are born grey in color, and by the age of six become completely white
Tiger Woods is the first athlete to has been named "Sportsman of the Year" by magazine Sports Illustrated two times
The eight most popular foods to cause food allergies are: milk, eggs, wheat, peanuts, soy, tree nuts, fish, and shellfish
Club Direct, a travel insurance company in Britain, provides insurance plans for protection from falling coconuts
There are some bananas that are red instead of yellow
Only one out of every three people wash their hands when leaving a public bathroom
570 gallons of paint would be needed to paint the outside of the White House
Baby robins eat 14 feet of earthworms every day
Every three seconds a baby is born somewhere in the world
The total mileage driven by all U-Haul trucks in a year is enough to move a person from the Earth to the moon five times a day for an entire year
The Eisenhower interstate system requires that one mile in every fivemust be straight. These straight sections are usable as airstrips intimes ofwar or other emergencies.
Pluto was discovered on February 10, 1930 by Clyde Tombaugh
Termites have been around for over 250 million years
The average person changes their career every 13 years
The New York Yankees have appeared in the World Series a league leading 38 times and won 26 titles
Approximately 18 billion disposable diapers end up in landfills each year. These diapers can takes as long as 500 years to finally decompose
Over 4.5 billion sticks have Trident gum have been chewed. If the stick of gum were laid out end to end they could circle the globe approximately 1.8 times
Oak trees can live 200 or more years
The brain of an ant has about 250,000 brain cells
About 26 per cent of all indoor water used by households in Sydney, Australia are for laundry
A rainbow can occur only when the sun is 40 degrees or less above the horizon
If you spray an antiseptic spray on a polar bear, its fur will turn purple
Over $7 billion a year is spent on chocolates by consumers
During World War II, Russians used dogs strapped with explosives to blow up German tanks. They trained the dogs to associate the tanks with food and ended up destroying about 25 German tanks using this method
Butterflies taste with their feet
St. Louis, Missouri was the first U.S. city to host the summer Olympics in 1904
The phrase "rule of thumb" is derived from an old English law whichstated that you couldn't beat your wife with anything wider than yourthumb.
Every year Alaska has about 5,000 earthquakes, 1,000 of which measure above 3.5 on the Richter scale
A fetus develops fingerprints at eighteen weeks
It takes about a half a gallon of water to cook macaroni, and about a gallon to clean the pot
The cornea is the only living tissue in the human body that does not contain any blood vessels
In the U.S. peanuts account for 66% of all snack nuts
There are approximately 7,000 feathers on an eagle
Sharks can sense a drop of blood from a mile away
As a defense mechanism, the North American Opossum closes its eyes and becomes totally limp. Basically it plays dead
The longest town name in the world has 167 letters
A sneeze zooms out of your mouth at over 600 m.p.h
A cesium atom in an atomic clock that beats over nine billion times a second.
The mythical Scottish town of Brigadoon appears for one day every one hundred years
Kermit the frog delivered the commencement address at Southampton College located in the state of New York in 1996
In World War II, the German submarine U-120 was sunk by a malfunctioning toilet
The phrase "Often a bridesmaid, but never a bride," actually originates from an advertisement for Listerine mouthwash from 1924
Over 50% of lottery players go back to work after winning the jackpot
The largest cultivated crop in the United States is corn
Walt Disney holds the record for the most Oscar nominations with sixty-four
On average, Americans eat one hundred acres of pizza a day. This amounts to about three hundred fifty slices per second
As an iceberg melts, it makes a fizzing sound because of the compressed air bubbles popping in the ice
The Arctic Ocean covers an area of about 14,056,000 sq miles
The first known contraceptive was crocodile dung, used by Egyptians in 2000 B.C
Most toilets flush in E flat
Bile produced by the liver is responsible for making your feces a brownish, green colour
At one time the group "Grateful Dead" were called "The Warlocks."
Bats can detect food up to 18 feet away and what type of insect the food may be using their sense of echolocation
At the equator the Earth spins at about 1,038 miles per hour
People whose mouth has a narrow roof are more likely to snore. This is because they have less oxygen going through their nose
In one day, a human sheds 10 billion skin flakes. This amounts to approximately two kilograms in a year
On average, an American home has 3-10 gallons of hazardous materials
On average, 35 meters of hair fibre is produced on the adult scalp
Dalmatian puppies do not have any spots on them when they are born. They actually develop them as they get older
Male goats will pee on each other in order to attract mates
A dog by the name of Laika was launched into space aboard the Russian spacecraft Sputnik 2 in 1957
In 2002, dogs have killed more people in the U.S. than the Great White shark has killed in the past 100 years
The study of twins is known as gemellology
On an American one-dollar bill, there is an owl in the upper right-hand corner of the "1" encased in the "shield" and a spider hidden in the front upper right-hand corner
During one seven year period, Thomas Edison obtained approximately three hundred patents. In is whole life he obtained over one thousand patents.
When Black Jack Ketchum was hung back in 1901 in Clayton New Mexico, the noose actually ended up taking his head off. The head had to be sewn back on so Black Jack could be buried properly
Every 40,000 children are killed by fires
The highest recorded speed of a sneeze is 165 km per hour
In 1985, a pregnant women was falsely accused of shoplifting a basketball
In every episode of Seinfeld there is a Superman somewhere
The adult electric eel can produce a five hundred volt shock, which is enough to stun a horse
When the are in danger, kangaroos will beat the ground loudly with their hind feet
To manufacture a new car approximately 148,000 liters of water is needed.
In 410 A.D. Alaric the Visigoth demanded that Rome give him three thousand pounds of pepper as ransom
Actress Jamie Lee Curtis invented a special diaper for babies that has a pocket
Honeybees use the sun as a compass which helps them navigate
An average driver spends approximately 2 hours and 14 minutes kissing in their car in a lifetime
In gangster slang, a boxing match that is fixed is called a "barney."
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Taking place in 1970 and 1971, which Asian country suffered a conflict called 'Black September' that is sometimes called @The Era of Regrettable Events' ? | The Global Challenges of Peace 506
CONCLUSION 516
INTRODUCTION
In January 1969, America needed to change the philosophy and practice of its foreign policy.
Whoever took office four years ago would have faced this challenge. After a generation, the postwar world had been transformed and demanded a fresh approach. It was not a question of our previous policies having failed; indeed, in many areas they had been very successful. It was rather that new conditions, many of them achievements of our policies, summoned new perspectives.
THE WORLD WE FOUND
The international environment was dominated by seemingly intractable confrontation between the two major nuclear powers. Throughout the nuclear age both the fears of war and hopes for peace revolved around our relations with the Soviet Union. Our growing nuclear arsenals were largely directed at each other. We alone had the capacity to wreak catastrophic damage across the planet. Our ideologies clashed. We both had global interests, and this produced many friction points. We each led and dominated a coalition of opposing states.
As a result, our relationship was generally hostile. There were positive interludes, but these were often atmospheric and did not get at the roots of tension. Accords were reached on particular questions, but there was no broad momentum in our relationship. Improvements in the climate were quickly replaced by confrontation and, occasionally, crisis. The basic pattern was a tense jockeying for tactical advantage around the globe.
This was dangerous and unsatisfactory. The threat of a major conflict between us hung over the world. This in turn exacerbated local and regional tensions. And our two countries not only risked collision but were constrained from working positively on common problems.
The weight of China rested outside the international framework. This was due partly to its own attitude and its preoccupation with internal problems, and partly to the policies of the outside world, most importantly the United States. In any event, this Administration inherited two decades of mutual estrangement and hostility. Here the problem was not one of a fluctuating relationship but rather of having no relationship at all. The People's Republic of China was separated not only from us but essentially from the world as a whole.
China also exemplified the great changes that had occurred in the Communist world. For years our guiding principle was containment of what we considered a monolithic challenge. In the 1960's the forces of nationalism dissolved Communist unity into divergent centers of power and doctrine, and our foreign policy began to differentiate among the Communist capitals. But this process could not be truly effective so long as we were cut off from one-quarter of the globe's people. China in turn was emerging from its isolation and might be more receptive to overtures from foreign countries.
The gulf between China and the world distorted the international landscape. We could not effectively reduce tensions in Asia without talking to Peking. China's isolation compounded its own sense of insecurity. There could not be a stable world order with a major power remaining outside and hostile to it.
Our principal alliances with Western Europe and Japan needed adjustment. After the devastation of the Second World War we had helped allies and former adversaries alike. Fueled by our assistance and secure behind our military shield, they regained their economic vigor and political confidence.
Throughout the postwar period our bonds with Europe had rested on American prescriptions as well as resources. We provided much of the leadership and planning for common defense. We took the diplomatic lead. The dollar was unchallenged. But by the time this Administration took office, the tide was flowing toward greater economic and political assertiveness by our allies. European unity which we had always encouraged, was raising new issues in Atlantic relations. The economic revival of Europe was straining the Atlantic monetary and commercial framework. The relaxation of tensions with the Communist world was generating new doctrines of defense and diplomacy.
The imperatives of change were equally evident in our Pacific partnership with Japan. Its recovery of strength and self-assurance carried political and psychological implications for our relationship. Its spectacular economic growth had made it the world's third industrial power; our entire economic relationship was undergoing transformation. The earlier paternalism of U.S.-Japanese relations no longer suited either partner.
The Vietnam war dominated our attention and was sapping our self-confidence. Our role and our costs had steadily grown without decisive impact on the conflict. The outlook at the conference table was bleak. The war was inhibiting our policy abroad and fostering dissent and self-doubt at home. There was no prospect of either an end to the fighting or an end to our involvement.
Although the historical imperatives for a new international approach existed independently, the war made this challenge at once more urgent and more difficult. More than any other factor, it threatened to exhaust the American people's willingness to sustain a reliable foreign policy. As much as any other factor, the way we treated it would shape overseas attitudes and American psychology.
The context for our national security policy was fundamentally altered. From the mid-1940's to the late 1960's we had moved from America's nuclear monopoly to superiority to rough strategic balance with the Soviet Union. This created fresh challenges to our security and introduced new calculations in our diplomacy. The U.S. defense effort remained disproportionate to that of our allies who had grown much stronger. The threats from potential enemies were more varied and less blatant than during the more rigid bipolar era. These changes, combined with spiraling military costs and the demands of domestic programs, were prompting reexamination of our defense doctrines and posture. They were underlining the importance of arms control as an element in national security. They were also leading some in this country to call for policies that would seriously jeopardize our safety and world stability.
Around the world, friends were ready for a greater role in shaping their own security and well-being. In the 1950's and 1960's other nations had looked to America for ideas and resources, and they found us a willing provider of both. Our motives were sound, the needs were clear, and we had many successes. By 1969, scores of new nations, having emerged from colonial status or dependency on major powers, were asserting themselves with greater assurance and autonomy.
Four years ago this growing capacity of friends was not reflected in the balance of contributions to security and development. This meant that others could do more, and the United States need do proportionately less, in the provision of material resources. More fundamentally, it meant that increasingly the devising of plans belonged outside of Washington. The sweeping American presence was likely to strain our capabilities and to stifle the initiative of others.
There were new issues that called for global cooperation. These challenges were not susceptible to national solutions or relevant to national ideologies. The vast frontiers of space and the oceans beckoned international exploration for humanity's gain. Pollution of air, sea, and land could not be contained behind national frontiers. The brutal tools of assassination, kidnapping, and hijacking could be used to further any cause in any country. No nation's youth was immune from the scourge of international drug traffic. The immediate tragedies of national disasters and the longer-term threat of overpopulation were humanitarian, not political, concerns.
At home we faced pressures that threatened to swing America from over-extension in the world to heedless withdrawal from it. The American people had supported the burdens of global leadership with enthusiasm and generosity into the 1960's. But after almost three decades, our enthusiasm was waning and the results of our generosity were being questioned. Our policies needed change, not only to match new realities in the world but also to meet a new mood in America. Many Americans were no longer willing to support the sweeping range of our postwar role. It had drained our financial, and especially our psychological, reserves. Our friends clearly were able to do more. The Vietnam experience was hastening our awareness of change. Voices in this country were claiming that we had to jettison global concerns and turn inward in order to meet our domestic problems.
Therefore the whole underpinning of our foreign policy was in jeopardy. The bipartisan consensus that once existed for a vigorous American internationalism was now being torn apart. Some of the most active proponents of America's commitment in the world in previous decades were now pressing for indiscriminate disengagement. What was once seen as America's overseas obligation was now seen as our overseas preoccupation. What was once viewed as America's unselfishness was now viewed as our naivete. By 1969 we faced the danger that public backing for a continuing world role might be swept away by fatigue, frustration and over-reaction.
THIS ADMINISTRATION'S APPROACH
We were determined to shape new policies to deal with each of these problems. But our first requirement was philosophic. We needed a fresh vision to inspire and to integrate our efforts.
We began with the conviction that a major American commitment to the world continued to be indispensable. The many changes in the postwar landscape did not alter this central fact. America's strength was so vast, our involvement so broad, and our concerns so deep, that to remove our influence would set off tremors around the globe. Friends would despair, adversaries would be tempted, and our own national security would soon be threatened. There was no escaping the reality of our enormous influence for peace.
But the new times demanded a new definition of our involvement. For more than a score of years our foreign policy had been driven by a global mission that only America could fulfill--to furnish political leadership, provide for the common defense, and promote economic development. Allies were weak and other nations were young, threats were palpable and American power was dominant.
By 1969, a mission of this scale was no longer valid abroad or supportable at home. Allies had grown stronger and young nations were maturing, threats were diversified and American power was offset. It was time to move from a paternal mission for others to a cooperative mission with others. Convinced as we were that a strong American role remained essential for world stability, we knew, too, that a peace that depends primarily on the exertions of one nation is inherently fragile.
So we saw the potential and the imperative of a pluralistic world. We believed we could move from an environment of emergencies to a more stable international system. We made our new purpose a global structure of peace-comprehensive because it would draw on the efforts of other countries; durable because if countries helped to build it, they would also help to maintain it.
To pursue this fundamental vision, we had to move across a wide and coordinated front, with mutually reinforcing policies for each challenge we faced.
Peace could not depend solely on the uneasy equilibrium between two nuclear giants. We had a responsibility to work for positive relations with the Soviet Union. But there was ample proof that assertions of good will or transitory changes in climate would not erase the hard realities of ideological opposition, geopolitical rivalry, competing alliances, or military competition. We were determined not to lurch along--with isolated agreements vulnerable to sudden shifts of course in political relations, with peaks and valleys based on atmosphere, with incessant tension and maneuvering. We saw as well that there were certain mutual interests that we could build upon. As the two powers capable of global destruction, we had a common stake in preserving peace.
Thus we decided to follow certain principles in our policy toward the Soviet Union. We would engage in concrete negotiations designed to produce specific agreements, both where differences existed and where cooperation was possible. We would work with Moscow across a broad front, believing that progress in one area would induce progress in others. Through the gathering momentum of individual accords we would seek to create vested interests on both sides in restraint and the strengthening of peace. But this process would require a reduction in tactical maneuvering at each other's expense in favor of our shared interest in avoiding calamitous collision, in profiting from cooperation, and in building a more stable world.
Peace could not exclude a fourth of humanity. The longer-term prospects for peace required a new relationship with the People's Republic of China. Only if China's weight was reflected in the international system would it have the incentive, and sense of shared responsibility, to maintain the peace. Furthermore, the time was past when one nation could claim to speak for a bloc of states; we would deal with countries on the basis of their actions, not abstract ideological formulas. Our own policies could be more flexible if we did not assume the permanent enmity of China. The United States had a traditional interest in an independent and peaceful China. We seemed to have no fundamental interests that need collide in the longer sweep of history. There was, indeed, rich potential benefit for our two peoples in a more normal relationship.
So we launched a careful process of private diplomacy and public steps to engage the People's Republic of China with us and involve it more fully in the world. We did so, confident that a strong, independent China was in our national interest; resolved that such a process need not--and would not--be aimed at any other country; and looking for a reciprocal attitude on the part of the Chinese.
Peace must draw upon the vitality of our friends. Our alliances with Western Europe and Japan would continue as major pillars of our foreign policy, but they had not kept pace with the changed international environment. We thus sought to forge more equal partnerships based on a more balanced contribution of both resources and plans.
America had been the automatic source of political leadership and economic power. Now we needed new modes of action that would accommodate our partners' new dynamism. The challenge was to reconcile traditional unity with new diversity. While complete integration of policy was impossible, pure unilateralism would be destructive.
Before, we were allied in containment of a unified Communist danger. Now Communism had taken various forms; our alliances had stabilized the European and Northeast Asian environments; and we had laid the foundations for negotiation. We had to decide together not only what we were against, but what we were for.
Peace required the ending of an ongoing war. Our approach to the Vietnam conflict and our shaping of a new foreign policy were inextricably linked. Naturally, our most urgent concern was to end the war. But we had to end it--or at least our involvement--in a way that would continue to make possible a responsible American role in the world.
We could not continue on the course we inherited, which promised neither an end to the conflict nor to our involvement. At the same time, we would not abandon our friends, for we wanted to shape a structure of peace based in large measure on American steadiness. So we sought peace with honor--through negotiation if possible, through Vietnamization if the enemy gave us no choice. The phased shifting of defense responsibilities to the South Vietnamese would give them the time and means to adjust. It would assure the American people that our own involvement was not open-ended. It would preserve our credibility abroad and our cohesion at home.
Given the enemy's attitude, peace was likely to take time, and other problems in the world could not wait. So we moved promptly to shape a new approach to allies and adversaries. And by painting on this larger canvas we sought both to put the Vietnam war in perspective and to speed its conclusion by demonstrating to Hanoi that continued conflict did not frustrate our global policies.
Peace needed America's strength. Modifications in our defense policy were required, but one central truth persisted-neither our nation nor peace in the world could be secure without our military power. If superiority was no longer practical, inferiority would be unthinkable.
We were determined to maintain a national defense second to none. This would be a force for stability in a world of evolving partnerships and changing doctrines. This was essential to maintain the confidence of our friends and the respect of our adversaries. At the same time, we would seek energetically to promote national and international security through arms control negotiations.
Peace involved a fresh dimension of international cooperation. A new form of multilateral diplomacy was prompted by a new set of issues. These challenges covered a wide range--the promise of exploration, the pollution of our planet, the perils of crime---but they were alike in going beyond the traditional considerations doctrine and geography. They required cooperation that reached not only across boundaries but often around the globe. So we resolved to work both with friends and adversaries, in the United Nations and other forums, to practice partnership on a global scale.
Above all, peace demanded the responsible participation of all nations. With great efforts during the postwar period we had promoted the revitalization of former powers and the growing assurance of new states. For this changed world we needed a new philosophy that would reflect and reconcile two basic principles: A structure of peace requires the greater participation of other nations, but it also requires the sustained participation of the United States.
To these ends, we developed the Nixon Doctrine of shared responsibilities. This Doctrine was central to our approach to major allies in the Atlantic and Pacific. But it also shaped our attitude toward those in Latin America, Asia, and Africa with whom we were working in formal alliances or friendship.
Our primary purpose was to invoke greater efforts by others--not so much to lighten our burdens as to increase their commitment to a new and peaceful structure. This would mean that increasingly they would man their own defenses and furnish more of the funds for their security and economic development. The corollary would be the reduction of the American share of defense or financial contributions.
More fundamental than this material redistribution, however, was a psychological reorientation. Nations had habitually relied on us for political leadership. Much time and energy went into influencing decisions in Washington. Our objective now was to encourage them to play a greater role in formulating plans and programs. For when others design their security and their development, they make their destiny truly their own. And when plans are their plans, they are more motivated to make them realities.
The lowering of our profile was not an end in itself. Other countries needed to do more, but they could not do so without a concerned America. Their role had to be increased, but this would prove empty unless we did what we must. We could not go from over-involvement to neglect. A changing world needed the continuity of America's strength.
Thus we made clear that the Nixon Doctrine represented a new definition of American leadership, not abandonment of that leadership. In my 1971 Report, I set forth the need for a responsible balance:
"The Nixon Doctrine recognizes that we cannot abandon friends, and must not transfer burdens too swiftly. We must strike a balance between doing too much and thus preventing self-reliance, and doing too little and thus undermining self-confidence.
"The balance we seek abroad is crucial. We only compound insecurity if we modify our protective or development responsibilities without giving our friends the time and the means to adjust, materially and psychologically, to a new form of American participation in the world.
"Precipitate shrinking of the American role would not bring peace. It would not reduce America's stake in a turbulent world. It would not solve our problems, either abroad or at home."
Peace had a domestic dimension. Steadiness abroad required steadiness at home. America could continue to make its vital contribution in the world only if Americans understood the need and supported the effort to do so. But understanding and support for a responsible foreign policy were in serious jeopardy in 1969. Years of burdens, Cold War tensions, and a difficult war threatened to undermine our constancy.
While new policies were required to meet transformed conditions abroad, they were equally imperative because of the changing climate at home. Americans needed a new positive vision of the world and our place in it. In order to continue to do what only America could, we had to demonstrate that our friends were doing more. While maintaining strong defenses, we also had to seek national security through negotiations with adversaries. And where American families were most directly affected, we had to gain a peace with honor to win domestic support for our new foreign policy as well as to make it credible abroad.
We have thus paid great attention, as in these Reports, to the articulation, as well as the implementation, of our new role in the world.
THE PAST YEAR
My previous Reports chronicled our progress during the first three years of this Administration. Despite shifting currents, and recognizing that the calendar cannot draw neat dividing lines, there has been a positive evolution.
In 1969, we defined our basic approach, drawing the blueprint of a new strategy for peace.
In 1970, we implemented new policies, building toward peace.
In 1971, we made essential breakthroughs, and a global structure of peace emerged.
This past year we realized major results from our previous efforts. Together they are shaping a durable peace.
--Three years of careful groundwork produced an historic turning point in our relations with the People's Republic of China. My conversations with Chinese leaders in February 1972 reestablished contact between the world's most powerful and the world's most populous countries, thereby transforming the postwar landscape. The journey to Peking launched a process with immense potential for the betterment of our peoples and the building of peace in Asia and the world. Since then we have moved to concrete measures which are improving relations and creating more positive conditions in the region. China is becoming fully engaged with us and the world. The process is not inexorable, however. Both countries will have to continue to exercise restraint and contribute to a more stable environment.
--The May 1972 summit meeting with the leadership of the Soviet Union achieved a broad range of significant agreements. Negotiations across a wide front, which set the stage for the meeting, were successfully concluded in Moscow. Progress in one area reinforced progress in others. For the first time two nations agreed to limit the strategic weapons that are the heart of their national survival. We launched cooperative ventures in several fields. We agreed on basic principles to govern our relations. Future areas of cooperation and negotiation were opened up. There has been, in sum, major movement toward a steadier and more constructive relationship. On the other hand, areas of tension and potential conflict remain, and certain patterns of Soviet behavior continue to cause concern.
--The attainment of an honorable settlement in Vietnam was the most satisfying development of this past year. Successful Vietnamization and intensive negotiations culminated in the Agreement signed on January 27, 1973. This was quickly followed by a settlement in neighboring Laos in February. The steady courage and patience of Americans who supported our policy through the years were echoed in the moving salutes of our returning men. But the coals of war still glow in Vietnam and Laos, and a cease-fire remains elusive altogether in Cambodia. Much work remains to consolidate peace in Indochina.
--In Western Europe the inevitable strains of readjustment persisted as we moved from American predominance to balanced partnerships. Generally these were healthy manifestations of the growing strength of countries who share common values and objectives. With less fanfare, but no less dedication, than in our negotiations with adversaries, we consulted closely with our friends. Such a process may not be as susceptible to dramatic advances, but we believe that we have paved the way for substantial progress in Atlantic relations in the coming months. Major political, security and economic negotiations are on the agenda. They will test the wisdom and adaptability of our Alliance.
--There was continued evolution toward a more mature and equitable partnership with Japan. Confidence in our shared purposes, which appeared shaken in 1971, has since been reaffirmed. Nevertheless we have not yet fully defined our new political relationship, and serious economic problems confront us. Our relations with Tokyo will be an area of prime attention during the coming year.
--In the past year we advanced toward major reform of the international economic system. With others we have launched proposals to create a more stable international monetary system, and a more open world trading order through new international trade negotiations. This process of readjustment is not without crises, however, and voices of narrow nationalism are heard on both sides of the ocean. We have a long and difficult way to go.
--The explosive Middle East continued in the twilight zone between peace and open conflict. The cease-fire arranged at our initiative lasted into its third year, but no genuine progress was made toward a permanent settlement. Some foreign military forces were withdrawn from the region, but the mix of local animosities and external power still makes the Middle East a most dangerous threat to world peace. Efforts to find political solutions are menaced by the upward spiral of terrorism and reprisal.
--For the South Asian Subcontinent it was a year of rebuilding and readjustment after the conflict in 1971. India, Pakistan, and the new nation of Bangladesh made tentative moves toward accommodation. But there is still a long road to the stability and reconciliation that are required if the massive human needs of one-fifth of mankind are to be met.
--In the Western Hemisphere the United States followed its deliberate policy of restraint, encouraging others to furnish concepts as well as resources for Hemispheric development. A healthy process of regional initiatives and self-definition is now underway, and the foundations have been established for a more mature partnership with our Latin American friends. The common task of redefining and imparting fresh purpose to our community, however, is far from completed.
--Asia has witnessed a settlement of the Vietnam war and major developments in relations among the principal powers. It is there that the Nixon Doctrine has been most extensively applied. There has been positive growth in self-help and regional cooperation. But these nations are entering a period of delicate re. adjustment and American steadiness will be crucial.
--In Africa our goals remained economic development, racial justice, and a stable peace resting on independent states. We continue to recognize, however, that these are largely the tasks of the African nations themselves--and there were both hopeful and discouraging events this past year. Our policies of political restraint and economic support are designed to help Africa realize its rich potential.
--We moved down the interrelated paths of national security, arms control, and a strong defense. The strategic arms limitation pacts with the Soviet Union were a milestone, but major tasks remain--the extension of limitations on strategic arms and then their reduction; the mutual and balanced reduction of conventional forces in Central Europe. In our defense posture we have maintained a clearly sufficient power, and we reached an all-volunteer army. But we are still searching for doctrines and deployments fully adequate to changing times and surging costs. Our fundamental principle remains keeping America strong enough to preserve our vital interests and promote the prospects of peace.
--We paid increasing attention to global issues that more and more demand international solutions. Progress was encouraging in some areas, such as reducing the flow of drugs. The world community still refused to grapple effectively, however, with other issues such as terrorism. The global dimension of diplomacy has been developing unevenly.
Since last year's Report, there has been historic progress. A changed world has moved closer to a lasting peace. Many events were colorful, but their true drama is that they can herald a new epoch, not fade as fleeting episodes.
As in any year, however, there were disappointments as well as successes. And wherever there is progress, new challenges are added to an always unfinished agenda.
Shaping a peaceful world requires, first of all, an America that stays strong, an America that stays involved.
But the United States alone cannot realize this goal. Our friends and adversaries alike must share in the enterprise of peace.
The President and the Administration alone cannot pursue this goal. We need the cooperation of the Congress and the support of the American people.
It is to these audiences at home and abroad that this Report is addressed.
PART I: BUILDING NEW RELATIONSHIPS
--China
--The Soviet Union
CHINA
In this Administration we have begun a new chapter in American-Chinese relations, and as a result the international landscape has been fundamentally changed.
For two decades our two countries stared at each other icily across a gulf of hostility and suspicion. Misunderstanding was assured. Miscalculation was a constant danger. And constructing a permanent peace was impossible.
This estrangement had global ramifications that went far beyond our bilateral relationship. So long as we were not dealing with the People's Republic of China, our foreign policy could not truly reflect the emerging multipolar world. The isolation of one-fourth of the human race, partly self-imposed and partly the result of the policies of others, distorted the international scene. It also tended to reinforce China's own sense of insecurity. There could be no stable world order if one of the major powers remained outside it and antagonistic toward it.
In the past four years this situation has been transformed. Bilaterally, deep differences in ideology and policy remain; neither we nor the Chinese leaders have illusions that our discussions will convert each other. But extensive and frank dialogue has greatly increased mutual understanding. The risk of confrontation therefore has been sharply reduced, and in any event it should no longer flow from miscalculation. Without either side abandoning its principles, we now have the potential for positive enterprises.
There are concrete manifestations of this new chapter in our relationship.
Before, there was no dialogue at all between our governments, except for desultory meetings in third countries. Now we have held hundreds of hours of direct talks at the highest levels. Liaison Offices are being established in Peking and Washington.
Before, there was virtually no contact between a quarter of the world's population and the American people. Now there is a significant exchange of groups and persons in a wide spectrum of fields. This will increase substantially.
Before, our bilateral trade was miniscule. Now it is reaching very substantial levels. There will be further expansion.
This process in turn has helped to create new possibilities on a global scale. Our own diplomacy has been broadened; we can more effectively promote an inclusive peace. The People's Republic of China has become more fully engaged in the world scene; much more than before, it is making its contributions to shaping the international order.
The turning point came at the summit in February 1972 when the leaders of the People's Republic of China and the United States met and put their personal imprint on a new direction for our two nations, and with it new contours for the world.
THE ROAD TO THE SUMMIT
Three years of meticulous preparation preceded my trip to Peking.
When I took office, I was determined to reestablish contact between the most populous and most powerful countries in the world. The following considerations prompted us and served as policy guidelines:
--We could not build toward a global structure of peace while excluding 800 million people. A more stable international system had to reflect the massive weight and potential of China.
--Changes in the world generally, and in the Communist world particularly, called for a broader American approach. Having recovered from the ravages of World War II, our allies began asserting their autonomy. Independent voices began to be heard in the once solid Socialist community. The international environment had become multipolar; it was time our diplomacy did too.
--The United States has had a traditional interest in a peaceful, independent, and self-reliant China. This remained a more positive prospect than a China that felt isolated or threatened.
--There were many potential areas where bilateral contact could enrich the lives of our two peoples.
--There did not seem to be major clashes of national interest between our two countries over the longer term. Our policies could be less rigid if we and the Chinese did not treat each other as permanent adversaries.
--A new approach was not to be directed against other countries. In. deed it could serve to broaden the horizons of international dialogue and accommodation.
--We believed that the People's Republic of China might be receptive to our approach.
So the times called for a fresh approach to China. But formidable obstacles, technical as well as political, lay in the way. In last year's Report I described the problems and the policies we employed to overcome them. Against a twenty-year backdrop of non-communication and sterile mutual recrimination, our task was twofold: to convey privately our views to the Chinese leadership and to indicate publicly the direction of our policy.
We had to find discreet and reliable means to transmit our views to Peking and get authoritative Chinese responses. We began this effort during the first weeks of my Administration. Up until the summer of 1971, we engaged in a delicate diplomatic minuet during which mutual confidence gradually increased and mutual intentions became more concrete.
Meanwhile we carefully orchestrated a succession of unilateral initiatives and positive statements. From mid-1969 onwards, we took a series of steps to relax trade and travel restrictions. They did not require a response from the Chinese; they were therefore neither dependent on Chinese reciprocity nor vulnerable to Chinese rejection. Individually these were not major steps, but cumulatively they etched the pattern more and more clearly. At the same time in official speeches and statements, such as my annual foreign policy reports, we mapped in increasingly sharp relief the road we were taking.
During the spring of 1971 the tempo accelerated in public and in private, with greater responsiveness from the Chinese. Peking's invitation to an American table tennis team to visit China in April was one among many public signals. Privately during that period we agreed that Dr. Kissinger should visit Peking from July 9 to July 11.
On that trip we opened the door. Dr. Kissinger held intensive discussions with Premier Chou En-lai, and agreement was reached that I would visit the People's Republic of China. In the brief joint announcement that I read on July 15 we stated that "the meeting between the leaders of China and the United States is to seek the normalization of relations between the two countries and also to exchange views on questions of concern to the two sides."
In October, Dr. Kissinger returned to Peking to discuss the broad agenda for my visit and settle on the other major arrangements. The groundwork was thus laid for meetings at the highest levels.
THE JOURNEY TO PEKING
My trip to the People's Republic of China from February e I to February 28, 1972 was the watershed in reestablishing Sino-American relations.
The carefully nurtured preparation held out the promise of a new direction; my meetings with Chairman Mao Tsetung and Premier Chou En-lai firmly set our course. The Joint CommuniquпїЅ at the end of my visit established the framework for progress; developments since then have accelerated the process of normalization.
Seldom have the leaders of two major countries met with such an opportunity to create a totally new relationship. It had taken two and a half years to cross the gulf of isolation and reach the summit. At the same time, the very factors which had made this journey so complicated offered unusual opportunities. The absence of communication, while making initial contact complex to arrange, also gave us a clean slate to write upon. Factors such as geography and China's recent concentration on internal matters meant that we had few bilateral matters of contention, though we lined up often on different sides of third country or multilateral problems.
Accordingly, the agenda for our discussions could be general and our dialogue philosophical to a much greater extent than is normally possible between nations. Indeed, it was this context and these prospects that, in our view, called for a summit meeting. With the Soviet Union a meeting at the highest levels was required to give impetus to, and conclude, a broad range of concrete negotiations. With the People's Republic of China, on the other hand, such a meeting was needed to set an entirely new course. Only through direct discussions at the highest levels could we decisively bridge the gulf that had divided us, conduct discussions on a strategic plane, and launch a new process with authority.
The primary objective, then, of my talks with the Chinese leaders was not the reaching of concrete agreements but a sharing of fundamental perspectives on the world. First, we had to establish a joint perception of the shape of our future relationship and its place in the international order. We needed a mutual assessment of what was involved in the new process we were undertaking and of one another's reliability in carrying the process forward. If we could attain this type of mutual comprehension, agreements could and would flow naturally.
Last February I described our expectations as I set out on my journey:
"Both sides can be expected to state their principles and their views with complete frankness. We will each know clearly where the other stands on the issues that divide us. We will look for ways to begin reducing our differences. We will attempt to find some common ground on which to build a more constructive relationship.
"If we can accomplish these objectives, we will have made a solid beginning."
Our discussions ranged broadly and freely. Both sides set forth their views with candor, neither evading nor downgrading differences. We were able to fulfill the expectations I had set forth earlier.
On February 27, 1972 we issued a Joint CommuniquпїЅ in Shanghai that reflected this solid beginning. This document purposely was very unorthodox. CommuniquпїЅs often use general language, stress agreements, gloss over disputes, and use ambiguous formulas to bridge differences.
The Chinese leaders and we thought that such an approach would be unworthy of our unique encounter and our discussions. To pretend that two nations, with such a long separation and such fundamental differences, suddenly were in harmony would have been neither honest nor credible. The use of general or compromise language to paper over disputes would have been subject to misinterpretation by others; and it ran the risk of subsequent conflicting interpretations by the two sides.
We decided instead to speak plainly. We echoed the frankness of our private talks in our public announcement. Each side forthrightly stated its world and regional views in the communiquпїЅ, and the lines of our ideology and foreign policy were clearly drawn.
Against this candid background, the areas where we could find agreement emerged with more authority. Our conversations made clear that in addition to genuine differences there were also broad principles of international relations to which we both subscribed. There was as well a joint determination to improve our relations both by accommodating our differences and developing concrete ties.
Accordingly, in the communiquпїЅ we agreed that despite differences in social systems and foreign policies, countries should conduct their relations on the basis of respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity, non-aggression against other states, non-interference in the internal affairs of others, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence. International disputes should be settled on this basis without the use or threat of force. We and the People's Republic of China agreed to apply these principles to our mutual relations.
With these international principles in mind we stated that:
"--progress toward the normalization of relations between China and the United States is in the interests of all countries;
"--both wish to reduce the danger of international military conflict;
"--neither should seek hegemony in the Asia-Pacific region and each is opposed to efforts by any other country or group of countries to establish such hegemony; and
"--neither is prepared to negotiate on behalf of any third party or to enter into agreements or understandings with the other directed at other states.
"Both sides are of the view that it would be against the interests of the peoples of the world for any major country to collude with another against other countries, or for major countries to divide up the world into spheres of interest."
These principles were of major significance. They demonstrated that despite our clear disagreements and our long separation we shared some fundamental attitudes toward international relations. They provided both a framework for our future relations and a yardstick by which to measure each other's performance.
With respect to the relationship of Taiwan to the mainland, the United States reaffirmed its interest in a peaceful solution of this question by the Chinese themselves. We based this view on the fact that all Chinese on either side of the Taiwan Strait maintain that there is but one China and that Taiwan is a part of China.
The communiquпїЅ then laid down the foundations for tangible improvements in our relations. These would allow us to move from the elimination of mistrust and the establishment of broad understandings to more concrete accomplishments:
--We agreed to facilitate bilateral exchanges in order to broaden the understanding between our peoples. Specific areas mentioned were science, technology, culture, sports, and journalism.
--We undertook to facilitate the progressive growth of trade between our countries. Both sides viewed economic relations based on equality and mutual benefit as being in the interests of our peoples.
--We decided to maintain contact through various channels, including sending a senior U.S. representative to Peking periodically to exchange views directly. This reflected a mutual desire to expand our communications.
--We also subsequently established a formal channel through our two embassies in Paris. This would institutionalize our contacts and facilitate exchanges, trade, and travel.
MAJOR ADVANCES IN THE PAST YEAR
Since my visit to Peking the momentum of our relations has grown in all the fields covered by the Shanghai CommuniquпїЅ.
As foreseen in the communiquпїЅ, Dr. Kissinger returned to Peking in June to review international issues with the Chinese and to stimulate progress in the various bilateral programs. Our embassies in Paris also facilitated the flow of groups and goods.
The growth of our bilateral trade has exceeded expectations. In 1971, U.S. imports from China totalled $4.9 million, while our exports were negligible. In 1972 we imported $32.3 million worth of goods and exported $60.2 million, an expansion of trade helped by the attendance of more than 150 American businessmen at the spring and fall sessions of the Canton Export Commodities Fair• In 1973, two-way trade is likely to show substantial additional growth, and may well place the United States among China's five largest trading partners. To encourage this expansion of commercial relations, a National Council for U.S.-China Trade was formed in early 1973 by a distinguished group of private business executives. This organization will seek to promote the orderly development of bilateral trade through exchange of information and facilitation of contacts between Chinese and American manufacturers, exporters, and traders.
A substantial beginning was made in the development of exchanges between our two countries. A championship table tennis team from the People's Republic toured the United States in April 1972, in return for the visit of the American team which had played in Peking a year earlier.
Groups of Chinese doctors and scientists visited their counterparts in this country during the fall, under the sponsorship of the Committee on Scholarly Communication with the People's Republic of China. And in December, the Shenyang Acrobatic Troupe performed in four major American cities in a visit facilitated by the National Committee on U.S.-China Relations.
In turn, increasing numbers of Americans visited the People's Republic of China. The Majority and Minority leaders of the Senate were guests of the Chinese People's Institute of Foreign Affairs in April 1972, as were the House leaders in June. A group of doctors from the National Medical Association and a delegation of computer scientists visited their counterparts in China in the summer and fall. Among the journalists who toured the People's Republic during the year was a delegation from the American Society of Newspaper Editors. And in the scholarly areas, groups of distinguished American economists and China specialists
toured the country, as well as substantial numbers of individual scientists and scholars from various fields.
Thus there was a significant resumption of cultural, scientific, and scholarly contacts, and the public media began to inform our peoples about one another. Chinese and Americans were rebuilding historic bonds.
A solid foundation was therefore established before Dr. Kissinger returned to Peking in February of this year in the wake of the Vietnam peace settlement. The joint announcement after that trip pointed to major progress in our relations with the People's Republic of China:
--There were "earnest, frank, and constructive" talks in an "unconstrained atmosphere" with Chairman Mao, Premier Chou, and other Chinese officials.
--The two sides reaffirmed the principles of the Shanghai CommuniquпїЅ and agreed to accelerate the normalization of relations.
--We agreed to broaden contacts in all fields, and establish a concrete program to expand trade and exchanges still further.
--We decided to settle in a comprehensive manner the long-standing issues of private U.S. claims against the Chinese government and blocked Chinese assets in the United States. Secretary of State Rogers and Chinese Foreign Minister Chi Peng-fei reached agreement in principle on this issue a week later in Paris. Final settlement will open the way for further expansion of our bilateral commercial relations.
--Most importantly, we agreed that each country would establish a Liaison Office in the capital of the other. They will be functioning very slowly. Both sides have appointed senior representatives with long diplomatic; experience. This major step both reflects--and will promote the increase in our communications and bilateral programs. Practically, the offices will enable us to deal with each other directly in Washington and Peking. Symbolically, they underline the progress made to date and our joint intention to proceed on the path we have chosen. They represent a milestone in our developing relationship.
--The Chinese agreed to free the two American pilots captured during the Vietnam War. They also promised to review later the already shortened sentence of another American prisoner. The pilots were released on March 15, 1973, while the other American was released early on March 10, 1973.
We thus moved decisively from the conceptual to the concrete. What was theoretically desirable was increasingly being practiced. What was still partly tentative and experimental would now be reinforced and expanded. What was indirect could now be made direct.
Several factors contributed to this major advance in our relationship: --Eighteen months of authoritative and wide-ranging discussions had made clear to each side the other's philosophy and principles. We both decided that our shared interests in bettering relations, outweighed our differences on specific questions. Where differences existed, we had found ways to accommodate them without sacrificing principles.
--Since the initial openings, the two sides had established considerable reliability in our dealings, both bilateral and multilateral.
--Implementation of the Shanghai CommuniquпїЅ had proceeded satisfactorily, and it was agreed that new steps were required to accelerate progress. Both we and the Chinese believed that it was important to institutionalize our new relationship.
--Finally, while most of these factors had been developing for many months, the Vietnam War bad still inhibited our progress. With the achievement of a negotiated settlement, the major obstacle to improved relations was removed.
OUR FUTURE COURSE
In my first term we moved a long way with the People's Republic of China. Together we have revived our historic association, set a new direction, and launched a purposeful process.
We are resolved to continue on this course. We are under no illusions, however, that its development is inexorable. There will be a continuing need for meticulousness and reliability for although we have come a remarkable distance, two decades of blanket hostility cannot be erased completely in two years. In any event, our ideologies and views of history will continue to differ profoundly. These differences, in turn, will be translated into opposing policies on some issues which will continue to require mutual restraint and accommodation. And over the longer term the inevitable changes in the world environment will continually inject new factors that could test our relationship.
We nevertheless remain basically confident that relations between the United States and the People's Republic of China will continue to develop in a positive direction. The driving force behind this process is not personalities, or atmosphere, or a sense of adventure, or transitory tactical benefits. Our two nations undertook this course in full knowledge of our differences. We chose to change our relationship because this served our fundamental national purposes.
America maintains its historic concern for an independent and peaceful China. We see in this prospect nothing inimical to our interests. Indeed, we consider it to be strongly in the interest of regional and world stability. China, in turn, has nothing to fear from America's strength. The broadening of diplomatic horizons has already paid dividends for us both and represents an enduring asset. Or past differences notwithstanding, we have many positive elements to draw upon--the traditional friendship of our two peoples, the cultural and scientific contributions we offer one another, the lack of any directly conflicting interests, and the commonly shared principles of international relations expressed in the Shanghai CommuniquпїЅ.
This Administration will pursue the further improvement of relations with the People's Republic of China with dedication and care. The same considerations that prompted us to begin this process four years ago motivate us now to continue it. And our guidelines remain constant:
--Our objective is to build a broader and steadier structure of peace.
--We seek the tangible dividends of a flourishing relationship between the Chinese and American peoples.
--Our relations will be based on equality and reciprocity.
--This process is not directed against any other country.
--We shall pursue our policy in close consultation with our friends. Within this framework we will work increasingly to realize the perspectives that we and the Chinese envisioned at the close of the Shanghai CommuniquпїЅ:
"The two sides expressed the hope that the gains achieved during this visit would open up new prospects for the relations between the two countries. They believe that the normalization of relations between the two countries is not only in the interest of the Chinese and American peoples but also contributes to the relaxation of tension in Asia and the world."
THE SOVIET UNION
In the week of May 22-29, 1972, the United States and the Soviet Union took a decisive turn away from the confrontations of the past quarter-century. We agreed to limit the growth of strategic weaponry. We established a set of basic principles to govern our relations. And we constructed a framework of agreements leading to more normal bilateral cooperation.
Each of the accords signed in Moscow was a significant achievement in itself. Never before have two adversaries, so deeply divided by conflicting ideologies and political rivalries, been able to agree to limit the armaments on which their survival depends. Nor has there been, at any time in the postwar period, a code of conduct that both sides could accept as the basis for regulating their competition and channeling their efforts toward more constructive endeavors.
But beyond their individual merits, the summit agreements taken together represent a major advance toward a goal set forth at the beginning of this Administration: to effect a basic change in our relations with the Soviet Union in the interest of a stable world peace from which all countries would benefit.
In considering the course of Soviet-American relations during the past year, it is important to understand the nature of the specific agreements, the conditions that have made these achievements possible, and what the future may hold.
THE INITIAL APPROACH: 1969--70
Four years ago, our relations with the Soviet Union and international relations generally were still dominated by the fears, anxieties, and atmosphere of the Cold War. The invasion of Czechoslovakia had recently occurred. While the Soviet Government made overtures for better relations, its motives seemed largely tactical. Yet, beneath the surface, it was apparent that the pattern of world politics was in the process of major transformation. The salient features of this change have been described in my previous Reports. Certain elements had special relevance for our relations with the Soviet Union.
--Divisions within the Communist world had deepened; state and national interests of the major Communist powers were increasingly reflected in their policies toward non-Communist countries.
--The realignment of political forces in the Communist world coincided with the economic revival of Western Europe and Japan, reinforcing the trend toward multipolarity.
--In particular, the more nearly equal strategic balance between the United States and the Soviet Union suggested that conditions might be optimal for reaching agreement to limit strategic competition.
Recognizing these international trends, this Administration began in 1969 to reassess our relations with the Communist countries. Certain aspects of Soviet-American relations were clear: the postwar rivalry with the Soviet Union was not a result simply of misunderstanding, or personal animosities, or a failure to create a good atmosphere for negotiations. The conflict was rooted in deeper differences: irreconcilable ideologies, the inevitable geopolitical competition of great powers conducting global policies and, to a certain degree, bureaucratic momentum and the disillusionment created by decades of fluctuation between hopes and tensions.
To break the pattern of the postwar period required policies that distinguished between the sources of conflict and their external or temporary manifestations. We needed not merely a better climate for our relations, but a new environment in which the United States and the Soviet Union could exercise their special responsibilities for peace. Ultimately we hoped to create mutual interests in maintaining and developing an international structure based on self-restraint in the pursuit of national interests.
The approach we adopted reflected certain general concepts. --It was no longer realistic to allow Soviet-American relations to be predetermined by ideology. We had to recognize, of course, that many basic Soviet values would remain inimical to ours. Both sides had to accept the fact that neither was likely to persuade the other through polemical debates. But ideological elements did not preclude serious consideration of disputed issues.
--Irrespective of ideology, any relationship between two great powers would be highly competitive. Both sides had to recognize, however, that in this continuing competition there would be no permanent victor, and equally important, that to focus one's own policy on attempts to gain advantages at the other's expense, could only aggravate tensions and precipitate counteractions.
--Both sides had to accept the fact that our differences could not be hidden merely by expressions of goodwill; they could only be resolved by precise solutions of major issues.
--Both sides had to understand that issues were interrelated; we could not effectively reduce tensions through marginal agreements or even an isolated agreement of importance. Experience had shown that isolated accomplishments were likely to fall victim to tensions and crises in other aspects of the relationship. Thus, if we were to achieve more than a superficial change, we had to address a broad range of issues.
--Finally, we would judge Soviet actions rather than words. The basic criterion would be a willingness to act with restraint. We would respond constructively to Soviet initiatives; progress in one area would help maintain momentum in other negotiations. We would also make it clear that aggressive behavior could imperil our entire relationship. By linking all aspects of Soviet-American relations, we could hope that progress, if it came, could lead to a broadly based understanding about international conduct.
These general principles were translated into specific proposals during 1969 and 1970.
After a painstaking evaluation of all aspects of limiting strategic arms, we agreed to begin negotiations in November 1969. On other disarmament matters, we revived negotiations on prohibiting nuclear arms from the seabeds and took up the new challenge of limiting biological warfare.
In Europe, we reconfirmed NATO proposals to begin discussing mutual and balanced force reductions in Central Europe where the concentrations of opposing forces were heaviest. We proposed to approach the issue of European security by negotiating, first of all, improvements in the situation in Berlin. The Berlin negotiations would be critical, not only because that divided city had been the scene of tense confrontations in the past, but because it was also the keystone in West Germany's effort to create a more normal relationship with its Eastern neighbors. That normalization would, in turn, influence the new prospects for a wider discussion of European security and cooperation, including a possible conference of European governments, Canada, and the United States.
As for economic relations, I indicated that the United States was prepared to have normal economic exchanges with any country that was equally willing to move toward normal relations in both political and economic fields.
On the Middle East, we agreed to discussions with the United Kingdom, France, and the Soviet Union, and we encouraged the Arab governments and Israel to undertake direct negotiations.
In this initial period, we tried to create circumstances that would offer the Soviet leaders an opportunity to move away from confrontation through carefully prepared negotiations. We hoped that the Soviet Union would acquire a stake in a wide spectrum of negotiations and would become convinced that its interests, like ours, would be best served if this process involved most of our relations. We sought, above all, to create a vested interest in mutual restraint.
Our relations with the Soviet Union passed through several tactical phases. It was apparent that Soviet policy had contradictory tendencies. Some factors pointed toward a more stable relationship with the United States; others suggested a continued probing for tactical gains. In this period, we dealt with these contradictory manifestations by responding to positive efforts and demonstrating firmness in the face of pressures. I opened a direct channel to the Soviet leaders so we could discuss the issues frankly and privately.
The first phase, lasting throughout 1969, was marked by obvious caution, as we made only limited progress in engaging major issues but achieved some improvement in the tone of exchanges. In the spring of 1970 we agreed to negotiate on Berlin, and the Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT) moved from initial explorations to concrete discussions.
A period of tension, however, occurred in 1970 over the Soviet role in Egyptian cease-fire violations in the Middle East, the Syrian attack on Jordan, and Soviet naval activities in Cuba. Similar tension arose from the crisis in the Indian subcontinent for a period in late 1971. Such developments gave us grounds for serious concern, and we reacted vigorously.
At the same time, the Soviet Union pursued a policy of relaxing tensions in Europe, suggesting that its strategy was to differentiate between the United States and our allies. This tactic, however, had limited potential since European issues were inseparable from the strategic framework of U.S.-Soviet relations. Moreover, the Soviet emphasis on certain bilateral relations lacked a general European framework, which could not be developed without the United States or without considering the impact of a controlled relaxation of tensions in East Europe.
THE ROAD TO THE SUMMIT
Thus we passed through a series of episodes that gave the Soviet Union no advantage and achieved no fundamental change. In each phase we sought to demonstrate the wisdom of restraint and the dangers of its absence. At the end of 1970, it appeared that the tensions in U.S.-Soviet relations might lead the Soviet leaders to reconsider their relations with the United States. I felt that an opportune moment had arrived for new initiatives to end tactical maneuvering and to move toward accommodation.
Despite the erratic developments of 1969 and 1970, some positive trends were evident. As I said at the United Nations in the fall of 1970, we shared certain compelling common interests, above all an interest in reducing the dangers of war. That the Soviet Union shared this concern was reflected in the continuation of the negotiations on strategic arms limitations, the mutual willingness to pursue an agreement on Berlin and the insulation of these serious issues from developments in Southeast Asia.
In the winter of 1970-71 Soviet leaders were looking toward their Party Congress, where broad policy guidelines are usually enunciated. It appeared at the time, and even more clearly in retrospect, that the broad changes in the nature of international relations, as well as their experience of the previous two years in relations with us, were having an impact on their preparations. It was thus a promising moment to delineate the progress that could be made if certain decisions were taken.
--SALT negotiations were temporarily deadlocked over whether to negotiate an agreement limiting anti-ballistic missiles (ABMs) alone, as the Soviets insisted, or an agreement embracing both defensive and offensive limits. For the United States, it was essential that an initial SALT agreement should 'begin to break the momentum in the growth of offensive forces. If the buildup continued unchecked, it would almost certainly produce dangerous strategic instabilities--especially if limitations on missile defense created a premium on striking first. This was not a tactical dispute, but a major substantive issue that could only be resolved by high-level political decisions.
--The treaty reached between West Germany and the Soviet Union in August 1970 had changed the character and significance of the Berlin negotiations among the Four Powers. Ratification of this treaty depended on the outcome of the negotiations over Berlin. And it was general Western policy that the prospect for a wider European dialogue on security was similarly conditioned on a Berlin agreement that would safeguard access to the city and its links to the Federal Republic. Thus, progress on Berlin would also involve basic decisions in Moscow.
Through intense and private exchanges with the Soviet leaders, a breakthrough was made, first in SALT, then in the Berlin negotiations.
--A new framework was created for SALT in May 1971 maintaining the link between offensive and defensive limitations, as the United States believed essential. At the same time, we agreed to concentrate our efforts on ABM limitations. Since these systems were not extensively deployed, we envisaged a permanent treaty. We also agreed to work out an interim accord limiting certain offensive weapons. Both agreements would be completed simultaneously.
--The Berlin agreements were blocked by conflicting legal positions on the status of the city and on West Berlin's ties to the Federal Republic of Germany. Progress became possible in July and August 1971 when all concerned agreed to seek an agreement that dealt concretely with the practical question of how to maintain West Berlin's many links to the Federal Republic, including unimpeded access to West Berlin by road and rail.
These breakthroughs on major substantive issues made it possible to look toward a summit meeting.
The SALT discussion resumed in July 1971, building on the political framework agreed upon with the Soviet leaders. Two agreements were signed in September-one to improve the "hot line" between Washington and Moscow, and the other to reduce the likelihood of an accidental nuclear war by exchanging information on certain missile testing activities. The breakthrough on Berlin led to the signing in September of 1971 of the first part of the Four Power Agreement, which in turn opened the way for further negotiations between East and West Germany on the technical questions of access to the city.
My private communications with the Soviet leaders had included the possibility of a meeting at the highest level. My views on this question of a meeting had been stated in the first weeks of my Administration: a meeting at the summit would only be justified if it were carefully prepared and if there were sufficient reasons to believe that it would be the most effective way of proceeding toward solutions of major questions. By the fall of 1971, it appeared we could meet these conditions. Thus, when Foreign Minister Gromyko visited Washington in October 1971, we agreed that a summit meeting would be held, not for its own sake, but as a culmination of concrete progress and as a means of stimulating further advances. It was agreed the meeting should be held in May 1972.
I envisaged this meeting as having four aspects: --As political relations improved, it became possible to initiate discussions on a wide range of projects for bilateral cooperation. In themselves, these projects were not crucial to our relationship. But cumulatively, as cooperation in such fields widened and deepened, they would reinforce the trend toward more constructive political relations. In the pre-summit period we discussed cooperation in science, technology, health, the environment, outer space, and maritime activities. The prospect of a summit meeting gave these discussions a special impetus and high-level attention. At the summit, these discussions could culminate in a series of agreements.
--Advances in political relations had by that time made it possible to address economic relations. The starting point was the removal of long-standing obstacles to closer commercial contacts--such as the unsettled World War II lend-lease debt. Then we could go on to establish long-term arrangements for expanding trade and other types of economic cooperation on a scale appropriate to the size of our two economies.
--The summit could complete the first phase of the SALT negotiations and provide impetus for the next, even more far-reaching phase.
--Finally, on the basis of all of these specific achievements, carefully prepared in the previous months of painstaking negotiations, the summit would afford an opportunity to review the whole range of international issues and to delineate certain fundamental principles to govern U.S.-Soviet relations in the future.
Thus, the summit could redirect the momentum of the past and chart a new direction in our relations with the Soviet Union, creating in the process a vested interest in restraint and in the preservation of peace.
THE MOSCOW SUMMIT
We prepared for and conducted the summit on this basis. We sought to establish not a superficial "spirit of Moscow" but a record of solid progress. The number and scope of the agreements that emerged make it clear we accomplished that goal.
Bilateral Cooperation. The prospect of a meeting at the highest level accelerated the negotiations on bilateral matters. At the summit it was thus possible to conclude agreement on significant cooperative projects.
--Cooperation in the exploration of outer space, including a joint experiment in rendezvous and docking of Apollo and Soyuz space vehicles during 1975.
--Cooperation in solving the most important of the problems of the environment.
--Joint efforts in the field of medical science and public health.
--Expanded cooperation in many areas of science and technology and establishment of a Joint Commission for this purpose.
--Cooperation between the American and Soviet navies to reduce the chances of dangerous incidents between ships and aircraft at sea.
Since the summit, all of the agreements have been carried out as expected. Our space agencies have conducted preliminary tests of models of the spacecraft docking system and crew training will begin this summer. The Joint Committee on Environmental Protection met in Moscow in September 1972 and planned 30 collaborative projects on a variety of subjects, including air and water pollution. Programs for cooperative research on cancer and heart disease were developed by our public health authorities in October and November 1972. The Joint Commission on Science and Technology met in Washington in March 1973 and agreed to carry out some 25 projects in such fields as energy, chemistry, biology, and agricultural research. American and Soviet naval officers will meet this year to review the agreement on reducing incidents between ships and aircraft.
This process of cooperation has begun to engage an ever widening circle of people in various professions and government bureaus in both countries. Direct contact, exchanges of information and experience, and joint participation in specific projects will develop a fabric of relationships supplementing those at the higher levels of political leadership. Both sides have incentives to find additional areas for contact and cooperation, and I anticipate further agreements patterned on those already concluded.
Economic Relations. In the past, many in the United States believed trade could open the way to improved political relations. Others argued that increased economic relations would only strengthen the power of a potential adversary. In fact, trade and other aspects of economic relations could never flourish if political relations remained largely hostile. Occasional business transactions might be worked out on an individual basis. But without some reasonable certainty that political relations would be stable and free from periodic turbulence, both sides would be reluctant to enter into long-term commercial relations. Nor would the Congress support an expanding economic relationship while our basic relations with the Soviet Union were antagonistic. With these considerations in mind, in the earlier years of this Administration I linked the expansion of economic relations with improved political relations.
Since progress was being made in the pre-summit period in removing sources of political tension, I authorized explorations in the economic sphere. I sent the Secretaries of Commerce and Agriculture to the Soviet Union for discussions. The Soviet Ministers of Foreign Trade and Agriculture came to the United States for the same purpose. We began negotiations on a maritime agreement to make concrete arrangements for orderly transport of goods between the two countries.
By the time of the summit, sufficient progress had been made so that in my discussion with the Soviet leaders we were able to agree on a general plan for moving toward a more normal economic relationship. We agreed it was essential to clear away the long-standing Soviet lend-lease debt to the United States. We also decided that a formal trade agreement was needed to provide the basis for resolving the many technical problems resulting from the long absence of economic intercourse. We agreed to act in accord with generally established international practice as regards: arbitration of disputes, establishment of commercial facilities in each country, procedures to prevent market disruption, reciprocal extension of Most Favored Nation (MFN) treatment, reciprocal extension of commercial credits, and determination of the general level of trade. We established a Joint Commercial Commission to maintain contacts, to resolve issues that might arise, and to be responsible for carrying out the general agreement worked out with the Soviet leaders.
Following the summit, intensive negotiations began under the leadership of U.S. Secretary of Commerce Peterson and Soviet Minister of Foreign Trade Patolichev. In July 1972, a three-year agreement for the export of United States agricultural products and for the extension of credits to finance these sales was concluded. By October, the principal agreements were completed: a settlement of the lend-lease question, a formal trade agreement, and a maritime agreement.
--We had tried to work out a lend-lease settlement immediately after World War II, again in 1951 and in 1960, but had failed on each occasion. The main issues were the amount of settlement, whether interest payments should be included, and the length of time for repayment. The settlement reached in October 1972 provides for a total repayment of approximately $722 million, to be paid over a period of about 30 years. This compares favorably with other settlements of wartime obligations.
--The trade agreement anticipates a total exchange over the next three years of goods worth about $1.5 billion; it also provides for expanded business facilities for American firms in the Soviet Union, a large trade center complex in Moscow, provisions for third-party arbitration of disputes, and procedures to prevent market disruptions.
--Each country will reduce tariffs on the other's imports, so that the level of tariff charges is about the same as that charged against the products of any other country (MFN treatment). This had been the practice in Soviet-American relations from 1935 to 1951, when it was terminated during the Korean War. Extension of Most Favored Nation treatment is consistent with the principles of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).
--The October agreement also provides for the reciprocal extension of credit arrangements, customary in financing an expansion of exports. I authorized the Export-Import Bank to engage in credit transactions with the Soviet Union, and the Soviet Foreign Trade Bank and other Soviet organizations will provide credits to American businesses.
--An agreement on maritime relations signed on October 14, 1972, was another essential element to the orderly expansion of commerce. We agreed to ease procedures for access of Soviet and American ships to each other's ports. The agreement also provides that the ships of each side will carry equal and substantial shares of future oceanborne commerce. And it provides for a system of equitable freight rates.
These agreements open the way not only for a prompt invigoration of trade but also for developing these relations into a permanent component of the overall relationship projected at the summit. It is not a question of whether certain elements should be separable, or conditional, but whether we wish the entire process of a broadly based new relationship with the Soviet Union to unfold.
The next step is to end discrimination against imports of Soviet goods into this country so that the Soviet Union can earn the dollars to help it pay for imports from the United States. This step will require action by the Congress to provide the President with authority to negotiate the reciprocal extension of Most Favored Nation treatment. I have submitted legislation to the Congress in this regard, as I am committed to do under the agreements reached with the Soviet Union. Extension of MFN is a logical and natural step in the emerging relationship; it is not a unilateral concession but a means to expand commerce in the context of broadly improved relations.
We are also prepared to consider possible longer-term cooperative ventures. The Soviet Union has vast natural resources, such as natural gas, that can be developed with the help of American capital and technology. These resources would then be available for export to the United States, thus enabling the Soviet Union to repay our credits and pay for imports from the United States. The role of our government should be to establish a framework within which private firms might work out specific contracts. Since the Soviet Union plans its economic program for five-year periods, its willingness to enter into long-term ventures of this kind suggests an expectation of cooperative relations and imports requiring dollar payments well into the future. Such ventures do not create a one-sided dependence by the United States upon Soviet resources; they establish an interdependence between our economies which provides a continuing incentive to maintain a constructive relationship.
The SALT Agreements. Of historic significance were the two agreements which General Secretary Brezhnev and I reached limiting strategic arms: a treaty limiting anti-ballistic missile systems, and an interim agreement limiting certain strategic offensive weapons. These agreements are discussed in detail in the Arms Control section of this Report. Technical aspects of arms control were at the core of the negotiations, but the significance of the agreements transcends specific provisions and goes to the heart of the postwar competition between us.
Some years ago, when the United States was strategically predominant, an agreement freezing the strategic balance was unrealistic. It was highly improbable that the Soviet Union would resign itself to permanent inferiority. Indeed, after the 1962 Cuban missile crisis, the Soviet Union began a major expansion in its strategic weaponry. Had this expansion continued unabated through the 1970's, the United States would have had no choice but to launch a massive new strategic armament program. The present moment thus offered a unique opportunity to strike a reasonable balance in strategic capabilities and to break with the pattern of unlimited competition.
Such an opportunity posed a fundamental question: could both sides accept the risks of restraint explicit in arms limitations? In the defensive field, new programs offered some element of protection but beckoned a new round of competition. Offensive systems were required to guarantee security, but their steady accumulation created a momentum toward capabilities that threatened strategic equilibrium.
Each of us had the power single-handedly to destroy most of mankind. Paradoxically, this very fact, and the global interests of both sides, created a certain common outlook, a kind of interdependence for survival. Although we competed, our conflict did not admit of resolution by victory in the classical sense. We seemed compelled to coexist. We had an inescapable joint obligation to build a structure for peace. Recognition of this reality has been the keystone of United States policy since 1969.
Obviously, no agreement could be reached involving weapons that guaranteed national survival if both sides did not believe their interests were served despite the risks. No decision of this magnitude could have been taken unless it was part of a broader commitment to place relations on a new foundation of restraint, cooperation, and steadily evolving confidence. Even agreements of such overriding importance cannot stand alone, vulnerable to the next crisis. Their tremendous historical and political significance is guaranteed, in part, by the fact that they are woven into the fabric of an emerging new relationship that makes crises less likely.
There is reason to hope that these accords represent a major break in the pattern of suspicion, hostility, and confrontation that has dominated U.S.-Soviet relations for a generation.
Principles of U.S.-Soviet Relations. The fourth area of major progress at the summit was the agreement on twelve Basic Principles signed on May 29, 1972. This far-reaching step placed all our other efforts on a broader foundation. A new relationship would require new attitudes and aspirations. It was appropriate that this change be reflected in a formal statement. These principles codify goals that the United States had long advocated, as I did for example, in my address to the United Nations in October 1970. The main provisions state that both sides will:
--do their utmost to avoid military confrontations and to prevent the outbreak of nuclear war;
--always exercise restraint in their mutual relations and will be prepared to negotiate and settle differences by peaceful means. Discussions and negotiations on outstanding issues will be conducted in a spirit of reciprocity, mutual accommodation, and mutual benefit;
--recognize that efforts to obtain unilateral advantage at the expense of the other, directly or indirectly, are inconsistent with these objectives;
--make no claim for themselves, and not recognize the claims of anyone else, to any special rights or advantages in world affairs.
These are specific obligations. They meet some of our fundamental concerns of the postwar period. They are the elements that made it possible to summarize one general principle governing Soviet-American relations:
"They will proceed from the common determination that in the nuclear age there is no alternative to conducting their mutual relations on the basis of peaceful coexistence. Differences in ideology and in the social systems of the United States and the Soviet Union are not obstacles to the bilateral development of normal relations based on the principles of sovereignty, equality, non-interference in internal affairs, and mutual advantage."
What we have agreed upon is not a vain attempt to bridge ideological differences, or a condominium of the two strongest powers, or a division of spheres of influence. What we have agreed upon are principles that acknowledge differences, but express a code of conduct which, if observed, can only contribute to world peace and to an international system based on mutual respect and self-restraint.
These principles are a guide for future action, not a commentary on the past. In themselves, they will have no meaning if they are not reflected in action. The leaders of the Soviet Union are serious men. Their willingness to commit themselves to certain principles for the future must be taken as a solemn obligation. For our part we are prepared to adhere to these principles, and hope that the Soviet leaders have the same serious intention.
THE ROAD AHEAD
In reporting last year to the Congress on prospects for a summit meeting, I noted that we could not expect to solve the accumulated problems of two decades in one meeting, but that we did have the opportunity to open a new era in international relations. If we were successful, I said, the transformation of Soviet-American relations could become one of the most significant achievements of our time.
I believe we have now taken that essential first step in freeing both of our countries from perpetual confrontation. From confrontation we have moved to negotiation and then to a broadening range of fields. The promise of this beginning obliges us to see it through.
The tasks ahead reflect the successes of this past year as well as the disappointments:
--We are now in the second phase of our effort to limit strategic arms. We can build on what has been achieved. We understand each other's concerns better now than four years ago. We have established a common vocabulary and a technical framework in which to examine issues. And we have developed a measure of respect and confidence in each other's seriousness of purpose.
--But we face a severe challenge: each side is called on to make commitments, limiting its strategic offensive weapons for this decade and beyond. This will require political decisions to respect each other's basic security requirements and a willingness to balance each other's legitimate interests in an equitable and mutually satisfactory settlement.
--In Europe, the progress in Soviet-American relations has been a catalyst for further change. Whereas East-West relations in Europe were confined to bilateral relations in the past few years, we are now entering negotiations that involve fuller participation by our allies. The issues of European security and cooperation or reciprocal and balanced force reductions cannot be settled by the United States and the Soviet Union alone. We and the Soviet Union, however, can each make a significant contribution to progress on these issues--and that progress, in turn, will reinforce the favorable momentum in our bilateral relations by demonstrating that detente is broadly based and serves the interest of all European countries.
--In the Middle East, the United States and the Soviet Union, separately and perhaps together, can also make a contribution to peace. Each of us plays a different role and has different interests and conceptions. But we have a common interest in averting confrontation. Proceeding from this principle, we can both exert our influence in the direction of a peaceful settlement among the parties directly concerned.
--In bilateral relations we can build on the progress already achieved at the summit. Though less dramatic than the larger political issues, harnessing our technological expertise and creativity in the service of both our peoples can produce lasting benefits for all.
--We have an opportunity and obligation to convert the promise of our agreements on economic relations into reality. We are discovering areas where the American and Soviet economies are complementary. The Soviet Union has certain resources that meet our needs, while we can export commodities and products which the Soviet Union wishes to import.
A year ago, I reported that a new momentum had been given to efforts for achieving a more constructive relationship with the Soviet Union. I believe that this momentum has carried us across a new threshold.
We are now in a new period, but we have only witnessed its initial phase. It is only realistic to recognize that there have been periods of relaxed tensions before, and earlier hopes for a permanent end to the hostilities of the Cold War. Present trends of course can be reversed; new factors will appear; attitudes can shift. This may be particularly true in a period of transition.
In the past, changes in our relations with the Soviet Union proved episodic, in part because they reflected 'tactical motives or were limited to changes in climate rather than substance. What we created at the summit last year is more durable. It rests on solid, specific achievements that engage the interests of both sides. But it will take patience, hard work, and perseverance to translate our broad understandings into concrete results. If we can do this, the United States and the Soviet Union can move from coexistence to broad cooperation and make an unparalleled contribution to world peace.
PART II: ENDING CONFLICT
--Laos and Cambodia
VIETNAM
On January 27, 1973, when the United States and the three Vietnamese parties signed "The Agreement on Ending the War and Restoring Peace In Vietnam," we completed one of the most difficult chapters in our history. It was an honorable ending to a long and costly effort.
Peace in Indochina is not yet solid or comprehensive. But four years of intensive negotiations and the steady transfer of responsibilities to our friends achieved the fundamental goals we had set. As a result of the Agreement:
--Our military forces have left South Vietnam with honor.
--Our prisoners have returned to their homes and families. A full accounting for all those missing in action is stipulated.
--There is a cease-fire, though still imperfectly observed, in Vietnam and Laos.
--The South Vietnamese people have the opportunity to determine their own political future.
The settlement is a tribute to the brave people of South Vietnam. It is also a monument to the valor of American fighting men and the steadfastness of the American people who supported an unselfish but extremely difficult mission until that mission was accomplished.
WHAT WE FOUND
From the moment I took office, my highest priority was to bring an honorable end to the war in Vietnam. America had been involved for eight years in a well-motivated but costly and seemingly endless effort. Every year we had sent more men to Vietnam. Our casualties, draft calls, and financial costs had risen steadily. The war dominated our national attention. Abroad it complicated our efforts to adjust to changing conditions. At home it fostered growing dissent.
Clearly we needed to end the war, or at least our involvement in it. But if this was our most urgent task, it was also our most difficult. For the way we went about it would have much to do with the future of American foreign policy and the future of our own society.
The costs and frustrations of our involvement had led an increasing number of Americans to urge extreme solutions--either massive military escalation or immediate retreat. We rejected both options. Trying to win the conflict by all-out military measures would have deepened the divisions in our society, and risked drawing other nations into the war. It would not have addressed the complex nature of the struggle and therefore was likely to be indecisive.
Immediate withdrawal from Vietnam might have brought a sense of temporary relief in this country. But soon this mood would have turned to regret and recrimination. We could not suddenly abandon allies with whom we had stood for so many years. We could not mock the sacrifices of Americans who had given their lives. We could not set out to shape a responsible American foreign policy with a first step of heedless abdication. Reckless withdrawal certainly would have brought neither peace to South Vietnam nor honor to America. It might have led to the collapse of Southeast Asia, and it would have crippled our efforts to build peace in the world.
But neither could we continue on the path we found. Our troop levels had risen steadily for five years and had reached an authorized level of 549,500. Our combat deaths had mounted to an average of 278 weekly during 1968. We were spending an additional See billion each year on the war. Draft calls had risen to a monthly average of 30,000. And despite this investment, there was no decisive outcome on the battlefield.
The picture was similarly bleak at the conference table. As a result of our bombing halt, public negotiations had been launched in Paris, but they had proved sterile. Only procedural matters had been settled. No comprehensive plans for a settlement lay on the table. No prospects for a breakthrough existed.
THE BASIC FOUNDATION: VIETNAMIZATION
Faced with this situation, we chose what we believed to be the only responsible course--to follow the parallel tracks of negotiation and Vietnamization. Our first preference was a negotiated settlement, and we undertook both public and private diplomacy to this end. Our irreducible conditions were that the people of South Vietnam be allowed to determine their own future and that all our prisoners be returned. We also looked toward a cease fire to end the war for all participants.
But one side cannot negotiate a peace, and the North Vietnamese constantly made two unacceptable demands. First, they insisted we withdraw totally from South Vietnam before any other conditions were even discussed. Secondly, they demanded we overthrow the existing government in South Vietnam and replace it with a Communist-dominated structure. This was the only way, they said, to get our prisoners back or obtain an overall settlement. Unless we were prepared to hand South Vietnam over to the enemy, there was no prospect of an early breakthrough at the conference table.
Therefore, even while we sought peace through negotiations, we needed an alternative course of action. We wanted to ensure that:
--Our withdrawal would not depend on the enemy's reasonableness at the conference table. We wanted to reduce our involvement to demonstrate that it was not open-ended.
--The act of our withdrawal would not overthrow the non-Communist forces. We were determined to disengage responsibly.
We thus developed the Vietnamization program in close cooperation with the Government of the Republic of Vietnam (GVN). This policy was designed to strengthen the armed forces and the people of South Vietnam so that they could defend themselves. As their forces increased in numbers, equipment, combat skills, and leadership, they progressively assumed responsibility for their own defense. The process also involved the extension of governmental authority in the countryside through the pacification program, the growth of economic capacities, the development of political institutions-all the elements that would allow South Vietnam to stand on its own.
While negotiations foundered on Communist intransigence, Vietnamization was an honorable and convincing alternative. We had the following considerations in mind:
--Vietnamization allowed us unilaterally to achieve our objective of winding down our involvement.
--We had to ensure that our friends over the longer term could take over their self-defense completely, since we could not stay there indefinitely.
--Our policy reflected our overall approach to friends and allies around the world--we would continue to play a strong supporting role, but we would increasingly look to our partners to assume greater responsibilities for their security and development.
--We needed to demonstrate to Hanoi and its allies that we had an option so long as they blocked progress at the conference table--one that enabled our allies to stand on their own and could gain the support of the American people for a continuing role until our allies were ready.
The tangible progress of Vietnamization was reflected in the statistics. In four years, we progressively reduced our presence from more than half a million men to 27,000, a 95 percent cut, by December 1, 1972. Other allied forces from Korea, Thailand, Australia, New Zealand, and the Philippines were withdrawn or phased down during the period. American casualties in South Vietnam fell from almost 300 a week when we took office to 26 a week in 1971, and to four a week during the final six months of our involvement. Over 60 percent of the casualties under this Administration occurred in 1969 before our policies could take hold. We reduced the cost of the war by billions of dollars each year.
During this period, the South Vietnamese progressively took over the battle. Our ground combat role was steadily reduced and officially ended on June 30, 1972. Our friends also assumed all naval missions and an increasing share of direct air support. The South Vietnamese armed forces and people shouldered the burdens with courage and skill. And all the other crucial indicators of the struggle stayed promising also--the security situation in the countryside, the performance of the economy, and the cohesiveness of the political fabric.
THE NEED FOR DECISIVE ACTION
During this process, firm but measured military actions were also required:
--To protect our men in Vietnam as their numbers declined.
--To assure the continued success of Vietnamization and thus reduce our presence, our casualties, and our costs.
--To demonstrate that the enemy could not wage war on South Vietnam with impunity while using the rest of Indochina as a base area and stalling us at the conference table.
The North Vietnamese stepped up their pressure during the first months of each year, after building up their potential during the dry season. In 1969 shortly after we took office, they increased their attacks in South Vietnam. In 1970, they launched major attacks in Cambodia, attempting to link up their base areas into one continuous band. In 1971 they staged a major buildup in southern Laos.
These operations threatened American and allied forces. Beyond that, they challenged the whole Vietnamization program. The Communists were intent on expanding their base areas bordering South Vietnam, strengthening their logistics network, and linking up conventional and guerrilla forces for future assaults.
Our basic strategy was to blunt the threat to our men, meet the challenge to our program, and buy the time needed to make our ally self-sufficient. Our actions were defensive and limited in both duration and scope. In 1970 there were joint U.S.-South Vietnamese operations against the North Vietnamese base areas in Cambodia. In 1971 the South Vietnamese, with our support, attacked the enemy base areas in Laos.
These actions achieved the objectives we set. In the months following each action, our troop levels and casualties showed a marked decline while South Vietnam's security situation and self-confidence improved.
Each of these phases in turn demonstrated the continuing success of Vietnamization. The 1969 Communist attacks made little headway because the enemy had suffered heavy losses in their Tet Offensive the year before and our own forces were still at a peak level. In the 1970 Cambodia operation, the South Vietnamese conducted large scale military operations of their own alongside U.S. forces. In 1971 in Laos our allies carried on all of the ground combat while our role was limited to air and logistic support. At each stage the South Vietnamese did more and we did less; and after each stage we were able to accelerate the shifting of responsibilities. In 1972, when the most severe test of all came, the South Vietnamese were ready.
By early 1972, South Vietnam had made impressive progress across the board. Militarily, its forces had taken over virtually all of the ground fighting and much of the close air support mission. Over one million civilians had joined the People's Self-Defense Forces. The government had the confidence to supply this local militia with weapons. The pacification program was succeeding. Eighty percent of the population lived in areas under government control. Nearly all of South Vietnam's 2,200 villages had elected their own local leaders. Comprehensive economic reforms had cut the rate of inflation and stabilized South Vietnam's economy. Industrial output, exports, and tax revenues had reached their highest point in many years. A vigorous land reform program had transferred nearly one million acres of farm land to former tenants, and the government had established a widespread system of low interest agricultural loans. The rice harvest promised a bumper crop, thanks in part to high yield grains introduced with our assistance. School attendance and classroom construction had reached new high levels. Nearly one million refugees-most of them displaced by the Communists' Tet Offensive in 1968--had resettled or were being cared for.
In the spring of 1972, faced with South Vietnam's growing military, economic, and political strength, North Vietnam launched its most massive challenge. On March 30, its troops poured through the Demilitarized Zone separating North and South Vietnam which the 1954 Geneva Agreements had established. In so doing, Hanoi abandoned its previous tactics and fundamentally changed the nature of the fighting, for it employed almost its entire army in an all-out frontal assault.
This challenge came just as we were trying to revive private negotiations in Paris to get a response to a comprehensive U.S.-GVN peace proposal that had been tabled on January 27, 1972. While Hanoi was preparing its major military assault-and even after it was underway--we tried every route of restraint. After months of effort, we finally arranged a secret meeting in Paris on May 2 with the North Vietnamese. This proved abortive as they rejected all possibilities for de-escalation or for settlement. They were obviously determined to settle matters through military action.
South Vietnamese valor and America's forceful support blunted the Communist offensive. On May 8, faced with aggression in Vietnam and intransigence in Paris, I announced that we were mining all major North Vietnamese ports and were resuming air and naval attacks in North Vietnam to interdict the flow of troops and supplies into the South. At the same time, I held out the alternative of a peaceful settlement along lines that eventually began to emerge five months later to the day.
I took these actions only after all other options had been exhausted and the imperatives were clear. We could not passively acquiesce in all-out aggression, fueled by the arms of outside powers and conducted in total disregard of international agreements and understandings. Most immediately, the enemy attacks threatened our remaining forces in South Vietnam as well as regional stability. Beyond that, it challenged America's credibility and thus the chances for stability around the world. Finally, it was the eve of my journey to Moscow: how could the President of the United States go to a summit meeting while our ally was being overrun with the help of arms supplied by the country he was visiting?
The South Vietnamese stood up well under the massive attack, which was designed to inflict political, psychological, and economic damage as well as to gain territory. Enemy guns pounded civilian centers, such as Quang Tri City and An Loc, into rubble, but the Communists kept little territory, and they failed to crack the spirit of the South Vietnamese. Buoyed by our actions, our allies rolled back most Communist territorial gains and liberated Quang Tri City, the only provincial capital the Communists had been able to take. More than one million South Vietnamese "voted with their feet" by moving into areas controlled by their government rather than staying with the enemy. Local leaders performed well under pressure. Even opposition groups closed ranks with the government against the common enemy. The inevitable economic dislocations were slight. The land reform program continued and, by March 1973, two and a half million acres had been distributed by the government, virtually eliminating land tenancy in South Vietnam.
Thus, the North Vietnamese offensive had failed. The steady development of Vietnamization and the allied military reactions of 1970 and 1971 had made possible the defense of South Vietnam in 1972. The climactic military phase gradually underlined to all parties the futility of continued conflict and the need for genuine negotiations.
In sum, the military measures we took in Indochina were a difficult but essential aspect of our peace-making efforts. In each case we made clear our limited objectives. Throughout we emphasized the alternative route of a negotiated end to the conflict. Reinforcing the tracks of Vietnamization and negotiations, these decisive actions made an indispensable contribution to the peace that was finally achieved.
NEGOTIATING THE PEACE
The Agreement which was signed in Paris on January 27, 1973, culminated four years of intensive negotiating effort. Throughout this process, our fundamental attitude was as I described it on November 2, 1972:
"We are going to sign the agreement when the agreement is right, not one day before. And when the agreement is right, we are going to sign without one day's delay."
In Vietnamization the guiding principle was to give the South Vietnamese the chance to defend themselves; in negotiations it was to give the South Vietnamese the chance to choose for themselves.
In reviewing the long negotiating record, certain basic elements should be kept in mind.
Our preference was always to solve military questions alone. The best way to ensure that the South Vietnamese could determine their own political future was to leave political questions to them. We believed that we should not negotiate a political settlement for South Vietnam. Furthermore, we knew that military issues would be easier to resolve than political issues that would be extremely difficult given Vietnam's long and bitter history. We were neither qualified, nor justified, in detailing specific political formulas such as governmental bodies or electoral processes for the Vietnamese people. Nor did we wish to be directly involved in---or responsible for--the functioning of the political machinery.
We preferred to concentrate on those aspects of a settlement that directly involved us--the military activity, withdrawals, and prisoners. We felt the political future should be negotiated by the South Vietnamese themselves, hopefully in a calmer atmosphere. We did not seek to impose a political victory, any more than a military victory, but we were not prepared to impose a political defeat.
Until the final stage the North Vietnamese and their allies insisted on a settlement that would effectively guarantee that the future of South Vietnam would be Communist. Public speculation and commentary to the contrary, they never agreed to separate military from political issues until the end of 1972. And when, in light of this position, we presented comprehensive proposals, including political elements, they never wavered from their basic goals.
However they packaged their proposals, the fundamental provisions were a fixed date for our total and unconditional withdrawal; the removal of the leadership of the Government of South Vietnam; and the installation of Communist rule disguised as a so-called coalition government.
This basic philosophic clash, not the failure to find precise formulas, delayed a settlement for four years. So long as the Communists insisted on their basic demands, we were faced at the conference table with one overriding issue. I addressed this question in last year's Report:
"Will we collude with our enemies to overturn our friends? Will we impose a future on the Vietnamese people that the other side has been unable to gain militarily or politically? This we shall never do."
The only solution offered by our domestic critics was to turn our ally over to the Communists, either through accepting their terms in Paris or removing all our support from South Vietnam. And neither course provided any guarantee that we would obtain the release of our prisoners.
Instead--as we pursued fruitless negotiations in Paris--we wound down our presence in South Vietnam responsibly. Vietnamization reassured our allies and spurred their initiative. South Vietnam's steady advance toward self-reliance was certainly a factor in the enemy's ultimate decision to negotiate seriously.
In the end we emerged with a settlement that met our basic principles and gave the South Vietnamese people a chance to determine their own future.
The First Three Years. In last year's Report I detailed our public initiatives and secret diplomacy for peace during the first three years of this Administration. Briefly, the record was as follows:
--At the outset we took unilateral steps to induce negotiations, such as the progressive withdrawal of our troops and reduction in air sorties in Vietnam. Each of our measures was met by fresh and more stringent demands by the enemy.
--We also moved publicly to define the framework for a negotiated settlement, emphasizing the withdrawal of foreign troops and general principles to allow the South Vietnamese to determine their own political future. On May 14, 1969, we proposed a settlement that would remove all outside forces from South Vietnam and establish internationally supervised elections. On July 11, 1969, the Republic of Vietnam offered free elections to be run by a mixed electoral commission, in which all parties could participate. On April 20, 1970, I spelled out the principles of a political solution that would reflect the choice of the South Vietnamese people and the existing relationship of political forces within the country. I pledged that the United States would abide by the outcome of any political process chosen by the South Vietnamese.
--On October 7, 1970, we presented an overall proposal for a settlement that looked to the resolution of military questions and free political choice for the South Vietnamese. We proposed an internationally supervised cease-fire; an Indochina Peace Conference; the withdrawal of all American forces from South Vietnam; a political solution based on the principles of April so; and the immediate unconditional release of all prisoners of war.
--Throughout this period we intensively pursued secret diplomacy in the hopes that a private forum might produce genuine negotiations. Dr. Kissinger went to Paris regularly to meet with the North Vietnamese Special Advisor Le Duc Tho and Minister Xuan Thuy.
--In these secret sessions we spelled out positions that were more detailed and forthcoming than our public stance, as we made maximum efforts to make a breakthrough toward peace. On May 31, 1971, we offered a special settlement of military issues alone-the withdrawal of all U.S. forces in exchange only for an Indochina cease-fire and release of all prisoners. All other questions would be left to the South Vietnamese.
--The North Vietnamese continued to insist that political questions also be included, specifically that a coalition government dominated by their side be installed. During the following months the Communists followed a particularly cynical negotiating procedure designed to mislead public opinion. On June 26, they tabled a secret nine-point proposal; five days later, on July 1, the South Vietnamese Communists made a public seven-point proposal. Our own subsequent secret positions responded to both plans. Meanwhile the North Vietnamese castigated us publicly for not responding to the seven-point proposal even though privately they said we should respond to their nine-point proposal, and we had done so.
--In view of Hanoi's insistence that political issues be addressed, we presented during the summer a series of increasingly generous and comprehensive peace plans which were designed to frame a political process as well as settle the military questions. By August we offered our total withdrawal in nine months; a political process which included elections and our pledge to neutrality and acceptance of the outcome; limitations on military aid to South Vietnam providing there were limits on aid to North Vietnam as well; non-alignment for South Vietnam and all of Indochina; and reunification to be worked out between North and South Vietnam.
--On October 11, in response to North Vietnamese comments, we conveyed still another comprehensive plan to Hanoi and proposed another secret meeting in November to consider it. They agreed to meet on November 20, but abruptly cancelled the session just three days before, on November 17.
--On January 25, 1972, after waiting in vain for more than three months for the North Vietnamese to answer our proposal to meet, we were compelled to explain the situation to the American people and try to elicit Hanoi's reaction to our offers. We revealed the scope of our private diplomacy, and President Thieu and I offered a new comprehensive plan for peace. Once again we sought to make the political process as free and open to all parties as possible while resolving the military conflict.
--Our proposal provided that within six months of a settlement all U.S. and allied forces would withdraw from South Vietnam; all prisoners throughout Indochina would be released; there would be a cease-fire throughout the region; and a new Presidential election would take place in South Vietnam. In addition, President Thieu offered to resign one month before the elections. We spelled out these provisions and others in considerable detail. We also made clear, as we had proposed in May 1971, that we were prepared to settle only the military issues and to leave political matters for later resolution by the South Vietnamese.
January-October 1972. The North Vietnamese response to our comprehensive offer was to continue their massive military buildup in South Vietnam and to launch their Easter invasion. They never replied to our negotiating proposal; they refused to meet us privately; and they repeated their same negotiating demands publicly.
The North Vietnamese finally agreed to meet again in Paris privately on May e. We made every effort to find a way to end or scale down military conflict. We proposed a variety of approaches: mutual de-escalation; a de facto cease-fire; a partial withdrawal of the invading forces; an overall military settlement; or more comprehensive solutions. All of our proposals were rejected.
Accordingly, we had little choice but to respond with the decisive measures of May 8, 1972. At the same time we proposed a fair settlement, one that would prove eventually to be the framework for peace: the cessation of all our military activities and the withdrawal of all our forces within the same period, and a cease-fire. We told Hanoi that we would resume private negotiations at any time.
The North Vietnamese eventually decided to resume talks in Paris on July 19, 1972. As these discussions went on throughout the summer, the enemy continued to insist on a comprehensive political and military solution along familiar lines. While there were marginal changes in their approach, enough to justify continuing the negotiations, there was no real progress toward a solution. In the July, August, and September sessions, their positions, however modified around the edges, contained the unacceptable core--imposition of a coalition government that the Communists would control.
Until October 1972, therefore, the basic stumbling block remained North Vietnam's demand that political victory be handed to them as a pre-condition for settling all military questions. In that case, of course, the latter would become totally irrelevant since the very issue that the struggle was all about would have been settled.
THE OCTOBER BREAKTHROUGH
On October 8, 1972, the North Vietnamese presented a new plan in Paris accepting the basic principles of our position. It was the essential breakthrough toward a negotiated settlement. For the first time, Hanoi agreed, in effect, to separate military questions from the principal political issues. They spelled out specific solutions to the former while the latter were to follow later and were left basically up to the South Vietnamese. Moreover, they dropped their insistent demand for President Thieu's resignation and formation of a coalition government.
To be sure, there were major problems in their plan, and tough negotiations lay ahead. But, in their own words, the North Vietnamese had essentially accepted the approach that I had outlined in my May 8th speech. We could see that, given a constructive attitude on their part, there was, at long last, the genuine prospect of a negotiated peace.
Once this breakthrough was achieved, we moved decisively and quickly toward a final settlement. The North Vietnamese negotiated seriously as well. In areas where there had never been significant movement, there was now rapid progress. Through intensive negotiations from October 8-12 and on October 17, and diplomatic communications, we hammered out a basic draft agreement.
Perhaps to catch the South Vietnamese off balance, perhaps to pin us down to a settlement before our own elections, the North Vietnamese insisted on a very short timetable, with October 31, 1972, the date for final signature. After refusing to negotiate seriously for three years, the enemy 'now demanded that we complete the negotiations within three weeks of their proposal. We promised to make a maximum effort to meet the deadline, subject to discussions with Saigon and a final negotiating round to complete the draft.
To prove our serious intentions and to reflect the progress that was being made, I ordered suspension of all bombing above the 20th parallel in North Vietnam on October 23, 1972. During this period, as a result of several developments since the October 17 meetings in Paris, we told the North Vietnamese privately that, while we stood by the basic draft agreement, we could not meet the October 31 target date.
There were three main reasons we could not do so:
--During the last half of October, we received mounting evidence that the Communists were planning to take advantage of the cease-fire with military offensives. This threw a different light on their eagerness to complete the agreement rapidly. Our South Vietnamese friends would have minimum time to prepare for the new situation. It also made more imperative the need to tighten up certain aspects of the agreement, including the supervisory mechanisms. Failure to settle on international machinery would mean that any violations would occur in an unsupervised context.
--At the very time we were conducting delicate consultations with our ally, Hanoi's leadership made public comments suggesting the possibility of a coalition government, which both sides had firmly agreed was not envisaged in the settlement. These and other ambiguities had to be put to rest.
--We ran into opposition in Saigon. Our South Vietnamese ally wanted many changes in the agreement, and they wanted more time for consultations. We were not prepared to accept all their proposals, but their deep concerns and the other factors made it essential to take a little more time. We believed a country that had suffered so much was entitled to have its views fully considered. We made clear, however, that we would maintain the integrity of the draft settlement.
On October 26, Hanoi publicly revealed the outlines of the agreement we were negotiating and repeated its insistence that we sign by the end of the month. We had agreed to keep the content of the negotiations private so as not to jeopardize their outcome. The North Vietnamese disclosures, however, gave us the choice of either breaking off negotiations or affirming our commitment to the framework of the settlement while describing the types of changes still needed. We chose the latter course and publicly outlined our position in response to North Vietnam's propaganda offensive.
Our primary audiences were Hanoi and Saigon. We believed that peace was very near, and we wanted to underline the message to both capitals. To our adversary, we committed ourselves publicly to the essence of the draft agreement. To our friends, we emphasized that we would take their concerns very seriously into account, but we left no doubt that we considered the basic settlement fair to all parties. We sympathized with Saigon's perspective. The war, after all, was on their soil; they would have to live with any agreement after we departed. But we were determined to conclude a settlement as soon as we were satisfied it was sound.
We emphasized our conviction that the remaining problems could be solved in one more negotiating round of three or four days, as had been foreseen earlier in October, if Hanoi continued to share our serious attitude. We did not wish to release the full text of the draft agreement or to get into specifics. To do so would only give observers a scoreboard on which to register points won by each side in subsequent bargaining. It would hurt the chances for a final settlement by making the outstanding problems matters of prestige for the parties.
Therefore, we indicated the general nature of the issues that still needed resolution in order to solidify the settlement:
--We wished to elaborate the details of the control and supervisory machinery which was established in principle.
--We wanted to speed up cease-fires in neighboring Laos and Cambodia, for the conflict affected all of Indochina.
--We needed clarification of certain ambiguities. For example, the North Vietnamese and we clearly agreed that no coalition government was contemplated in the settlement, but the Vietnamese text of the agreement could be read to suggest a new governmental organ.
--We needed to work out the signing procedure for the four parties.
--We wished to clarify a few other technical problems in the text. These matters were important in order to solidify the agreement, but they were minor compared to the hurdles that had already been surmounted. We would not be stampeded into an agreement by an arbitrary deadline. We would negotiate until it was right. And once we believed it was right, we would not be deflected from signing it. Only the terms of the settlement would determine the date of our signature--not enemy pressures, nor excessive requests from our friends, nor an electoral deadline.
THE FINAL STAGES
In retrospect, peace certainly was near in late October--the ending of a twelve-year conflict was reached twelve weeks later. But the record of those twelve weeks makes it equally clear that peace could have come even sooner if it were not for a cynical North Vietnamese approach at the end of 1972.
On November 20, negotiations resumed and lasted five days. We took up the remaining problems in the agreement and presented draft protocol designed to supplement it. These were technical documents. They introduced no new issues but spelled out in neutral detail the implementation of such aspects as cease-fire supervision and prisoner release. At first the North Vietnamese remained serious. We made significant progress in the agreement itself, although we received no responses on the protocol. A stalemate developed over the few residual issues, however, and both sides agreed to recess until December 4 to reconsider their positions.
Throughout this period we continued our intensive discussions with the Republic of Vietnam. We consulted through our Ambassador in Saigon, with South Vietnamese representatives in Paris, and through high level emissaries to each other's capital. We listened closely to South Vietnam's concerns and presented many of them forcefully in Paris. We did not adopt all of them as our own, however. We determined what we thought would make a fair agreement, and we stayed within the framework of the October draft.
On December 4, when we resumed the talks, the North Vietnamese attitude had changed fundamentally. The final issues could have been resolved in a few days given a serious attitude on both sides. The North Vietnamese began this round, however, by withdrawing all the changes they accepted in November. We spent the next few days working arduously back to where we had been two weeks previously. Then we reached a total impasse. Throughout the last several days of the negotiations in December it became very clear that Hanoi had no intention of settling at that time. We therefore recessed on December 13 after several fruitless and exasperating sessions.
Many of the problems we had pointed to on October 26 had been settled: the prospects for an early cease-fire in Laos at least were firmer, and various technical improvements had been made in the agreement. But other problems remained and, because of the North Vietnamese approach, they were growing, rather than shrinking.
On December 16, we explained the reasons for the stalemate. Although many ambiguities in the provisions had been clarified, a few remained. We still had to work out a signing procedure for the agreement that would accommodate the sensibilities of the various participants. We were still far apart on the concepts of supervisory machinery for the cease-fire, and the North Vietnamese had allowed no serious discussions of any of the protocol.
The impasse was created both by North Vietnamese rigidity on these specific issues and by their whole negotiating approach. They kept a settlement continuously out of reach by injecting new issues whenever current ones neared solution. At technical level meetings, scheduled only to conform the English and Vietnamese texts, they raised fresh substantive problems. Questions already resolved in the agreement were revived by the North Vietnamese in the protocol. Instead of the constructive approach of October, there were now determined, often frivolous, tactics designed to frustrate the negotiations.
In mid-December, therefore, we had little choice. Hanoi obviously was stalling for time, hoping that pressures would force us to make an unsatisfactory agreement. Our South Vietnamese friends, in turn, still had some strong reservations about the settlement. The more difficult Hanoi became, the more rigid Saigon grew. There was a danger that the settlement which was so close might be pulled apart by conflicting pressures. We decided to bring home to both Vietnamese parties that there was a price for continuing the conflict.
On December 18, we moved strongly in both directions. We resumed bombing north of the 20th parallel in North Vietnam, which we had suspended while serious negotiations were underway. We had to make clear that Hanoi could not continue to wage war in the South while its territory was immune, and that we would not tolerate an indefinite delay in the negotiations.
At the same time, we talked sternly with our friends in South Vietnam. In our view they were holding out for terms that were impossible to achieve without several more years of warfare--if then. We therefore reemphasized our determination to conclude the agreement if the North Vietnamese should once again prove reasonable in Paris.
During this time we maintained direct private communications with Hanoi. Once we had been assured that serious talks could again be undertaken, we suspended our bombing of North Vietnam above the 20th parallel on December 31, 1972.
On January 2, 1973, the technical talks on the protocol to the agreement resumed in Paris and serious drafting began. From January 8 to 13, Dr. Kissinger and Le Duc Tho met. The serious approach of October reappeared. There was rapid progress on the remaining issues in the agreement on the protocol. The residual ambiguities in the text were resolved. We agreed on a procedure for signing the agreement that satisfied all parties. Four protocol were elaborated into final, agreed form, detailing such key military provisions as cease-fire supervision and release of prisoners. In short, we had achieved essentially all that we had set out to do on October 26.
Simultaneously, we continued consultations with the South Vietnamese Government, and these moved to a successful conclusion. On many questions we had improved the agreement to our ally's satisfaction; on others, the South Vietnamese changed their positions for the sake of concluding the settlement.
On January 25, 1973, Dr. Kissinger returned to Paris for a final meeting. On that date the United States and North Vietnam, with the concurrence of their allies, initialled the agreement.
That evening in announcing the settlement, I said:
"We must recognize that ending the war is only the first step toward building the peace. All parties must now see to it that this is a peace that lasts, and also a peace that heals, and a peace that not only ends the war in Southeast Asia, but contributes to the prospects of peace in the whole world."
In Paris, on January 27, 1973--the first anniversary of the comprehensive U.S.-GVN peace plan--Secretary of State Rogers signed the agreement for the United States.
THE AGREEMENT
This Agreement met the essential conditions that we had laid down on January 27, and on May 8, 1972; a cease-fire, return of all prisoners, the withdrawal of American forces, and the political future of the South Vietnamese to be determined by the people themselves. The major elements were:
--An internationally-supervised cease-fire throughout Vietnam, effective at 7:00 p.m., Eastern Standard Time, Saturday, January 27, 1973.
--The release within 60 days of all captured Americans held throughout Indochina, and the fullest possible accounting for those missing in action.
--The parallel withdrawal of all United States and allied forces and military personnel from South Vietnam.
--A ban on infiltration of personnel into South Vietnam.
--A ban on the introduction of war material into South Vietnam except one-for-one replacement of military equipment worn out, damaged, destroyed, or used up after the cease-fire.
--The reduction and demobilization of both sides' forces in South Vietnam.
--The withdrawal of all foreign troops from Laos and Cambodia.
--A ban on the use of Laotian or Cambodian base areas to encroach on the sovereignty and security of South Vietnam.
--The determination of the political future of South Vietnam by the South Vietnamese themselves.
--Formation of a non-governmental National Council of National Reconciliation and Concord operating by unanimity, to organize elections as agreed by the parties and to promote conciliation between the parties and implementation of the Agreement.
--Respect for the Demilitarized Zone dividing South and North Vietnam.
--The eventual reunification of North and South Vietnam through peaceful means, step by step, through direct negotiations.
--Respect for the independence, sovereignty, unity, territorial integrity, and neutrality of Laos and Cambodia.
--In accordance with traditional United States policy, U.S. participation in postwar reconstruction efforts throughout Indochina.
--An International Commission of Control and Supervision (ICCS) composed of Canada, Hungary, Indonesia, and Poland to control and supervise the elections and various military provisions of the Agreement.
--Joint Military Commissions of the parties to implement appropriate provisions of the Agreement.
--An International Conference within thirty days to guarantee the Agreement and the ending of the war.
There were also four protocol which spelled out the implementation of the Agreement in the following areas: the cease-fire and the Joint Military Commission; the ICCS; the release of prisoners; and mine clearance in North Vietnam.
These then are the principal provisions of the Agreement and the negotiating history that produced it. The following points emerge.
The Agreement corresponded to our overall approach. We consistently held the view that a settlement should involve specific resolution of military questions alone. This was, we believed, the most feasible and rapid route to peace. The final settlement embodied this principle. The military issues--such as the cease-fire, prisoner release, withdrawals, and supervision--were spelled out in detail in the Agreement and accompanying protocol. On the political side, the provisions were general, leaving those matters to be negotiated between the two South Vietnamese parties.
The Agreement included the basic features of our earlier peace plans. An internationally supervised cease-fire, return of all prisoners, the withdrawal of Americans and allied forces, and an international conference were basic provisions of all our plans since October 1970. Internationally supervised elections were always the centerpiece of the U.S.-GVN political approach. And the National Council corresponded in many respects to the mixed electoral commission of our January 1972 plan.
The settlement represents a compromise by both sides. While our essential principles were met, we and the Communists had to make compromises. Many of these were more significant for our ally than for us. For example, we did not insist on the withdrawal of North Vietnamese forces from South Vietnam. On the other hand, this had not been part of our negotiating position since our October 7, 1970, plan. There were other mutual compromises. But the fact these were made reflected the de facto situation and represented an outcome fair to all parties. Neither side could expect to impose at the conference table what it had not gained on the battlefield. The military outcome was not clear-cut and therefore the political future was yet to be determined. For us the important principle is that the Agreement does not hand over this political future to the Communists. Our friends have every opportunity to demonstrate their inherent strength.
It was not possible to reach this Agreement any sooner than we did. Some observers have asked why we did not negotiate this settlement four years ago. The answer is simply that it was impossible to do so at any time before October 1972. As the record makes clear, the North Vietnamese from the very outset always insisted on linking political and military issues. They always demanded removal of the government in South Vietnam and the installation of a Communist-dominated structure. They never varied from that basic approach until the final months of this Administration's first term. Once we had achieved this breakthrough, we moved as rapidly as possible to complete the settlement.
Peace in Vietnam will depend not only on the provisions GI the Agreement but on the spirit in which it is implemented. It was vital to reach a settlement that would provide a framework for South Vietnamese self-determination and for our honorable disengagement. We have never been under the illusion, however, that any single document would instantly move the people of the region from a generation of war and hatred to peace and reconciliation.
We have laid the best obtainable foundation for the beginning of this process. We hope that the contending factions will now prefer to pursue their objectives through peaceful means and political competition rather than through the brutal and costly methods of the past. This choice is up to them. We shall be vigilant concerning violations of the Agreement. We are always ready to encourage accommodation among the South Vietnamese. But the peace and progress of South Vietnam and its political future depend on the people themselves.
ONGOING EFFORTS TO MAINTAIN THE PEACE
In the period immediately following the signing of the Agreement, we moved on several fronts to promote its implementation. We talked to our adversaries, to our friends, and to other countries principally involved in guaranteeing the peace.
Prisoners of War and Missing in Action. The Four Party Joint Military Commission started immediately to make the arrangements for release of our prisoners of war. The two sides exchanged lists of prisoners of war on January 27, the date of the signing. The list of prisoners captured in Laos was furnished by North Vietnam on February 1. A U.S. team from the State and Defense Departments flew to Hanoi on February 12 to pick up the first group of returnees; another group was freed in South Vietnam the same day, and further releases were due at 15 day intervals. When there appeared to be stalling, we immediately held up U.S. force withdrawals to emphasize the importance we attached to prompt and full compliance with the Agreement and Protocol. Releases then continued on schedule. A final dispute over the release of the U.S. prisoners of war captured in Laos was resolved when the Communist side agreed to release them in Hanoi on March 28. In the meanwhile, the Republic of Vietnam, with our support released the more than 26,000 prisoners of war in its custody.
With the return of our prisoners, our efforts turned to the missing in action. More than 1300 U.S. military personnel and civilians remain in this category. The Vietnam Agreement contained unprecedentedly specific language on this issue-with similar provisions in the Laos cease-fire agreement--and we made clear to the Communist side our determination to secure the fullest possible accounting for each of our men. As stipulated in the protocol, a Four Party Joint Military Team is being maintained to gather information about the missing in action. We also established a Joint Casualty Resolution Center (JCRC) in Thailand--near the Laos and Vietnam borders--to search for the missing. These efforts will continue until we have exhausted all possible means to find information on each of our men.
North Vietnam. Dr. Kissinger visited Hanoi from February 10 to 13, for direct conversations with Prime Minister Pham Van Dong and other North Vietnamese leaders. As stated in the Joint CommuniquпїЅ after the visit, the two sides carefully reviewed implementation of the Agreement, problems in Laos and Cambodia, postwar economic reconstruction, and the International Conference on Vietnam that was held shortly afterwards. They also considered the bilateral relationship between our two countries and concrete steps to normalize our relations.
A significant result of this trip was an agreement to establish a Joint Economic Commission to develop economic relations between the United States and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. This Commission began its work in Paris on March 15, 1973. Its agenda includes not only economic assistance but the whole range of economic matters. And it could become not only a technical group but a forum for a more constructive dialogue between our two nations.
The essential message we have for North Vietnam's leaders, and which was conveyed during this trip, is as follows.
We do not assume Hanoi will give up its long-range goals. We do expect it to pursue those goals without using force. Hanoi has two basic choices. The first is to exploit the Vietnam Agreement and press its objectives in Indochina. In this case it would continue to infiltrate men and materiel into South Vietnam, keep its forces in Laos and Cambodia, and through pressures or outright attack renew its aggression against our friends. Such a course would endanger the hard won gains for peace in Indochina. It would risk revived confrontation with us. It would, of course, destroy the chances for a new and constructive bilateral relationship with the United States, including economic assistance.
The second course is for North Vietnam to pursue its objectives peacefully, allowing the historical trends of the region to assert themselves. This would mean observance of the Vietnam settlement and the removal of foreign forces on both sides from Laos and Cambodia. It would transform years of military conflict in Indochina into political struggle. It would enable the United States and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam to normalize relations. If Hanoi follows this path, the United States will abide by whatever the historical process produces in Indochina.
If North Vietnam chooses the peaceful option, the United States remains committed to better relations. We are convinced, as stated in the Joint CommuniquпїЅ at the conclusion of Dr. Kissinger's visit to Hanoi, that this process would "help to ensure stable peace in Vietnam and contribute to the cause of peace in Indochina and Southeast Asia."
Indochina Reconstruction. Thus the basic challenge in Indochina is to move from two decades of violent struggle to peaceful evolution. It will not be easy to make this transition after a generation of conflict, to discard familiar techniques and join in constructive enterprises, and to rely on political competition and the forces of history for the achievement of goals.
The economic assistance we propose in concert with others, for the reconstruction and development of the entire region would help make this transition a reality. To be effective it must include the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. The rebuilding of war-torn economies of former enemies is a traditional policy of this country and served the goal of reconciliation [in] the period after World War II. This concept was first proposed for Indochina by the previous Administration in 1965. We have reaffirmed it on many occasions during this Administration, including last year's Report. It would be a sound investment in peace, providing avenues and incentives for an insulated and suspicious country to engage in peaceful and cooperative pursuits. It responds to humanitarian needs as well as to political and psychological necessities.
We will pursue this program with determination. The funds required will not be drawn from any domestic programs. As we proceed, however, we will be guided by two fundamental principles:
--We will observe Constitutional requirements both in letter and spirit and consult closely with the Congress at every step of the way.
--We will not provide aid to the Democratic Republic of Vietnam if it violates the Agreement. Hanoi cannot expect to receive our economic assistance while pursuing its goals through military pressure.
We believe that the American people and the Congress will agree to provide the relatively modest amounts to help keep the peace that ended such a long and costly war.
South Vietnam. The Republic of Vietnam and the United States fought and suffered together many years. We supported that government and its people in their valiant efforts against aggression. And we consulted closely with them throughout the long, torturous road of negotiations. We now look forward to working together in peace as we did on the battlefield and at the conference table.
The Republic of Vietnam will find us a steady friend. We will continue to deal with its government as the legitimate representative of the South Vietnamese people, while supporting efforts by the South Vietnamese parties to achieve reconciliation and shape their political future. We will provide replacement military assistance within the terms of the Agreement. We expect our friends to observe the Agreement just as we will not tolerate violations by the North Vietnamese or its allies.
We will also continue to contribute generously to South Vietnam's economic rehabilitation and development. That country is making a major effort to make its economy self-sufficient, but the peace agreement does not lessen its need for substantial outside assistance. South Vietnamese requirements will, in fact, increase in the short term. The government's heavy military Budget will decline only slowly, for it must maintain a vigilant defense and support the total military responsibility created by the withdrawal of the American and allied forces. Simultaneously, South Vietnam will bear the double burden of creating new jobs for demobilized personnel and of meeting massive expenditures for relief of refugees and war victims. Finally, the country faces other heavy financial drains as it reconstructs the many destroyed towns, repairs the country's transportation and irrigation systems, and brings back into production large arable regions abandoned during twenty years of fighting.
None of the country's major economic tasks can be accomplished without substantial economic assistance. With such aid, none of these problems is insuperable. South Vietnam has the natural and human resources to be economically independent and viable. What is needed is time for these resources, diverted or idled by the war, to be put back to productive use.
The Republic of South Vietnam now seeks the economic counterpart to Vietnamization. As we helped them take over their own defense in conflict, we will help them now become economically self-sustaining in peace.
These were the principles I expressed to President Thieu when we met at San Clemente a few weeks ago. His visit to the United States symbolized both our common struggle in past years and our common endeavors in the years to come. As we said in our joint communiquпїЅ:
"... both Presidents agreed that through the harsh experience of a tragic war and the sacrifices of their two peoples a close and constructive relationship between the American and the South Vietnamese people has been developed and strengthened. They affirmed their full confidence that this association would be preserved as the foundation of an honorable and lasting peace in Southeast Asia."
The International Conference. From February 26, 1973, to March 2, 1973, the International Conference on Vietnam met in Paris. Twelve nations--the four parties to the Agreement, the four ICCS countries, and the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council-plus the Secretary General of the United Nations, attended. The Final Act signed on March 3, 1973, endorsed the Vietnam Agreement; called for its strict observance by the four parties; pledged respect for the Accord by members of the Conference; urged all other countries to do so as well; set up procedures for reporting violations of the Agreement and reconvening of the Conference; and called for countries to respect the independence, sovereignty, unity, territorial integrity, and neutrality of Cambodia and Laos, as stipulated in the Agreement.
A single meeting lasting several days cannot guarantee the peace. But the gathering and the statements of the nations involved underlined the reality that all countries, not just those directly concerned, have a stake in peace in Indochina. We expect the nations that signed the Act of the Conference to live up to their obligations. We will take their performance into account in the conduct of our bilateral relations.
FUTURE TASKS
Achieving an end to the war was exceptionally difficult, but keeping the peace will be no less challenging. It involves not just Vietnam but all of Indochina, and not just the Indo-Chinese countries but outside nations as well. The following are the major tasks:
--Strengthening the peace in Vietnam.
--Implementing the agreement on Laos.
--Achieving a cease-fire and beginning negotiations on Cambodia.
--Ensuring restraint toward the region by outside powers.
The peace in Vietnam itself remains fragile. A period of misunderstandings and ambiguities was to be expected in the first months of peace after so many years of war. The process of reconciliation and mutual accommodation is bound to take time. Nevertheless the overall record so far has been less positive than we had hoped.
The United States has scrupulously carried out its obligations, and we have urged all others to do likewise. On those military elements of the agreement directly affecting us the record has been generally good. Our listed prisoners have returned from Indochina. There remains, however, the difficult task of accounting for all those missing in action throughout the region, and we will not rest until this task is completed. All American and allied military forces and advisors have been withdrawn from South Vietnam. We have strictly observed the cease-fire and have given full cooperation and support to the supervisory organization. And we began to clear the mines from all North Vietnamese ports and waterways, a complicated and time-consuming job.
Observance of the cease fire is now, of course, in the hands of the Vietnamese. Compliance has been spotty, and substantial fighting continues. While violations and casualties have diminished from the first weeks, much greater efforts are needed to stop the conflict completely and fully stabilize the situation.
The most ominous aspect of the situation to date has been the continued infiltration of North Vietnamese troops in violation of the Agreement. In blatant disregard of Articles 7, 15, and 20, Hanoi has continued to send troops and military supplies into South Vietnam. It has also continued its military activities in Laos and Cambodia in violation of Article 20. In so doing, it has built up the military potential of the Communist forces in South Vietnam. Whether this is a prelude to another offensive is not clear. What is clear is that it must cease. We have told Hanoi, privately and publicly, that we will not tolerate violations of the Agreement.
On the political front, the two South Vietnamese parties are now negotiating in Paris on such subjects as the functioning of the National Council of National Reconciliation, the elections, the issues of civilian prisoners held by both sides, and the reduction and demobilization of both sides' armed forces. We hope that the South Vietnamese parties make progress on these issues and settle their differences.
Laos and Cambodia will be treated in more detail later in this Report. It is important to point out here that the Vietnam settlement obligates all foreign countries to withdraw their forces from these two countries, cease sending military personnel and equipment into the two countries, and stop using their territories 'to encroach on .other countries. These obligations are clear and unconditional. Here, too, Hanoi has not yet carried out the terms of the Agreement. We expect North Vietnam to withdraw its forces from Laos and Cambodia in the near future, and to comply with the other provisions regarding those countries. As I have stated repeatedly, there cannot be stable peace in Vietnam until its neighbors are also at peace. The conflict has been indivisible. The peace must be too.
Countries outside the region have a strong interest in the maintenance of peace in Indochina. If the flames of conflict flare up again, there will be renewed suffering for the peoples of the area, the danger of another war, and a threat to the improvement of relations among the major world powers.
Accordingly, we look to outside powers to lend a moderating influence to the affairs of Indochina. This means, first of all, that there can be no reasonable justification for sending Hanoi large arms shipments now that there is a negotiated settlement. North Vietnam certainly is not threatened by its neighbors. A military buildup would raise questions not only about its intentions, but also about the motivations of the suppliers. Restraint in the North on this matter will be matched by restraint in the South.
Beyond that, we believe that friends of the Vietnamese belligerents can helpfully underline to them the advantages of maintaining the peace instead of rekindling the war. This will be our approach. For there cannot be a global structure of peace while conflict persists in Indochina.
This is a complex and difficult agenda. Unlike that of the last dozen years, our role will not be dominant. But it will remain substantial and important. And it will require both generosity and firmness, both patience and vigilance.
America has those qualities and will exercise them in the interest of peace in the region.
LAOS AND CAMBODIA
There cannot be lasting peace in Vietnam until its neighbors are at peace.
As of this writing, the situation in both Laos and Cambodia remains fluid. In Laos, the parties reached a cease-fire settlement in February 1973, but the framework is fragile, and the Communists have delayed negotiations which were stipulated in the Agreement to reach a definitive settlement. In Cambodia, the Communists have stepped up their military attacks since the Vietnam and Laos cease-fires, rejecting both the Government's unilateral military restraint and its call for negotiations. In both countries, North Vietnam continues to violate the past international agreements to which it was a party. And in both countries it is now violating the Vietnam Agreement it signed in January 1973.
North Vietnam, as well as the other parties to the Vietnam Agreement, has unambiguous obligations with respect to Laos and Cambodia. Article 20 of that Agreement stipulates that:
--The parties participating in the Paris Conference on Vietnam shall strictly respect the 1954 Geneva Agreements on Cambodia and the 1962 Geneva Agreements on Laos, and shall respect the neutrality of Cambodia and Laos.
--They will undertake to refrain from using the territory of Cambodia and the territory of Laos to encroach on the sovereignty and security of one another and of other countries.
--Foreign countries shall put an end to all military activities in Cambodia and Laos, totally withdraw from and refrain from reintroducing into these two countries troops, military advisers and military personnel, armaments, munitions, and war materiel.
--The internal affairs of Cambodia and Laos shall be settled by the people of each of these countries without foreign interference.
--The problems existing between the Indo-Chinese countries shall be settled by the Indo-Chinese parties on the basis of respect for each other's independence, sovereignty, and territorial integrity, and noninterference in each other's internal affairs.
These provisions are clear. They are not tied to any other conditions. To date they have been ignored by Hanoi. Although fighting has subsided in Laos, attacks there by the North Vietnamese and their allies continue. In Cambodia, Communist forces have increased their attacks in a major effort to isolate Phnom Penh and other population centers. Hanoi has continued to infiltrate men and supplies into and through Laos and Cambodia. It gives no sign of ending this flow or withdrawing its forces from either country.
The U.S. position is clear. We will not tolerate violations of the Vietnam Agreement. We have every interest in seeing peace observed in Laos and peace attained in Cambodia. The legitimate governments of the two countries are working toward this end. In both countries we will honor whatever agreements are worked out by the peoples themselves. We firmly intend to implement all the provisions of the Vietnam Agreement, and we insist that all other parties do so as well.
Hanoi has always exploited Laos and Cambodia in its conduct of the Vietnam War. It has etched a similar, distressing pattern in both of South Vietnam's neighbors in recent years:
--Neither Laos nor Cambodia has ever threatened North Vietnam, nor could they threaten it.
--The neutrality, independence, sovereignty, and territorial integrity of both countries were established by international agreements signed by Hanoi and its allies.
--The North Vietnamese have continually violated all these principles for years by sending tens of thousands of their troops into both countries and organizing insurgent forces.
--Hanoi's primary target has been South Vietnam. It has used Laos and Cambodia for infiltration corridors for its troops and supplies, for base areas for launching attacks on South Vietnam, and for sanctuaries.
--In the process, North Vietnam has also threatened the neutral governments in Vientiane and Phnom Penh.
--The helpless people of both nations, wanting nothing but to be left alone, have been subjected for years to outside aggression and exploitation.
Given the indivisibility of the Indochina conflict, our policy toward Laos and Cambodia has always been closely related to our policy in Vietnam. A fundamental concern has been with the Communist use of Laos and Cambodia in pursuit of their main objectives in South Vietnam. We also have been concerned with Hanoi's breaking of international agreements on these countries, and we have an interest in the independence and neutrality of the states in Southeast Asia.
Diplomatically, all our negotiating proposals on Vietnam have included Laos and Cambodia as well. The basic elements of our plans, such as cease-fire, release of American prisoners, the ban on infiltration and base areas, and the holding of an international conference concerned all of Indochina. Militarily, we have provided air and logistic support to the internationally recognized governments in Vientiane and Phnom Penh. This policy has been essential to protect the independence of South Vietnam and to enforce the Indochina aspect of the Vietnam peace settlement.
In Laos and Cambodia we have never undertaken the primary role but have confined our efforts to supporting those of the indigenous governments. This is true both at the conference table and on the battlefield:
--We have supported the attempts of the Laotian and Cambodian Governments to negotiate peace either on their own or as part of an overall Indochina settlement. In these efforts they have taken the lead and shaped the nature of the settlements they were seeking.
--While negotiations have been blocked by Hanoi's intransigence, the Lao and Cambodians have carried the ground combat responsibility while we provided military and economic assistance and, at their request, air and logistic support. We also supported South Vietnamese defensive strikes into North Vietnamese base areas in these two countries.
--Our role has been, and will continue to be, strictly limited: no U.S. ground combat personnel, a minimum American presence overall, and military support strictly tailored to the pressures of the North Vietnamese, the situation in South Vietnam, and the requests of the threatened governments.
--Our help has nevertheless been crucial for the independence of these countries and the pursuit of our objectives in Vietnam.
LAOS
The United States Government has always favored a stable peace in Laos and the genuine independence and neutrality of that nation. Our objective has been a Laos free of conflict, free of outside forces, and free to determine its own future.
We therefore welcome the Agreement on Laos negotiated and concluded by the Laotian parties themselves on February 21, 1973. We hope that this Agreement, coupled with the related provisions of the Vietnam settlement, will secure a lasting peace in Laos and finally permit that country to devote itself to the tasks of reconstruction and development.
A Fragile Peace. In the negotiations on Vietnam we took the consistent position that there should be an early cease-fire in Laos as well as Vietnam. The shaping of a settlement there was, of course, up to the parties themselves. Our friends needed no encouragement from us to negotiate the end of the conflict, so we pressed in Paris for Hanoi to ensure Pathet Lao readiness to conclude a settlement.
Negotiations between the Laotian parties began on September 18, 1972, and ran parallel to our talks with the North Vietnamese. One of the issues still not resolved to our satisfaction in late October in Paris was the prospect for early peace in Laos. As we moved toward a final settlement for Vietnam, the Laotian parties made progress in their talks. By the time we signed the Vietnam Agreement on January 27, 1973, we were confident that a cease-fire in Laos would be achieved within a matter of weeks, and we knew that our prisoners captured in Laos would be released within sixty days. Final obstacles to a Laos settlement remained, however, when Dr. Kissinger visited Vientiane, Bangkok, Hanoi, and Peking in mid-February and accordingly the Laos situation was a major topic on the agenda for those visits.
During this period, the final issues were settled by the Laotian parties and the Agreement was signed on February 21, 1973. It has the following main provisions:
--Affirmation of respect for the Geneva Accords of 1954 and 1962.
--An immediate in-place cease fire supervised by a Joint Military Commission with the assistance of the current International Control Commission (ICC), composed of India, Canada, and Poland.
--The formation of a new bipartite coalition government (the Provisional Government of National Union) and a consultative political council within 30 days of the cease-fire. The two Laotian parties were to negotiate and agree on the modalities and the exact membership in these bodies during the interim.
--The withdrawal of all foreign forces within 60 days after the installation of the new political bodies.
--The release of all POWs within the same 60-day period, except for Americans captured in Laos who were released within the 60 days provided for prisoner release under the Vietnam Agreement.
--The eventual holding ,of legislative elections to be organized by laws adopted by the new Consultative Council and Provisional Government.
--Pending these elections and the formation of a permanent government of national union, the separate administration by the two sides of the areas under their respective control. Following signature of the Agreement, the Royal Laotian Government made a maximum effort to reach final agreement on the protocol implementing its political and military provisions. The government presented concrete proposals to the Pathet Lao in order to obtain agreements on these matters necessary to form the Provisional Government within the specified 30-day period and thus speed the withdrawal of North Vietnamese and other foreign forces. However, the Laotian Communists adopted obvious delaying tactics in the implementing talks, including keeping their senior negotiator away from the conference table for weeks on end. As a result, the 30-day period for the establishment of a new government and a Consultative Council passed without agreement.
The same pattern persisted on other related questions such as the talks concerning a Joint Military Commission and a revitalized ICC. Meanwhile, in blatant violation of its international obligations, North Vietnam has continued its military activities in Laos and expanded its logistics and base network there, threatening South Vietnam.
U.S. Support. We have consistently maintained the supporting role that the previous Administrations inaugurated. On the diplomatic plane, as already indicated, we have continually backed Prime Minister Souvanna Phouma's efforts to negotiate a peace.
In the face of enemy aggression, and in light of the threats to South Vietnam, we have also responded to the Laotian government's request for military and economic assistance. By Congressional action, our total assistance expenditures in Laos were limited to $375 million in fiscal year 1973. Our economic aid efforts were devoted primarily to programs for the care of refugees and the stabilization of the heavily burdened Laotian economy. Military assistance involved primarily the delivery of supplies and equipment to the Laotian forces. These forces carried the ground combat role and, even in the air war, the Laotian Air Force provided much of the air support.
With the conclusion of a cease-fire in Laos, we look forward toward reductions in U.S. operations and expenditures there. Since the cease-fire, limited U.S. military activities in Laos have been conducted at the request of the government. They were necessitated by and taken in direct response to North Vietnamese and Pathet Lao violations of the Laos cease-fire agreement. Considerable financial assistance will continue to be needed.
--When requested, and within the provisions of the Agreement, we will provide military supplies so that Laotian forces can maintain a high level of readiness in the future.
--We will continue an adequate economic aid program to help the Lao move ahead to better their conditions and their lives.
--We will include Laos in the overall reconstruction effort in Indochina which we consider to be an important investment in peace.
Hanoi will largely determine whether the peaceful people of Laos will at long last gain a respite from conflict and enjoy a period of tranquility and progress. If North Vietnam and its allies observe the cease-fire in Laos, move toward completion of a definitive settlement, and honor the obligations of both the Vietnam and Laos settlements, they will find a forthcoming response from the Royal Laotian Government and its friends. If they choose instead to maintain an aggressive course, the whole fabric of regional peace will be jeopardized.
CAMBODIA
Our objectives and our policies in Cambodia run parallel to those in Laos.
We aim for an independent neutral and stable country. We do not insist on any particular political orientation, but we believe any course should be the free choice of the people themselves, not one imposed by North Vietnamese arms. Nor should Cambodia be used as a sanctuary or staging area for Vietnamese Communist assaults on South Vietnam.
In light of these objectives, we have supported the Cambodian government. That government favors independence, neutrality, and stability. It is willing to deal with its indigenous opponents at the conference table. It is fighting North Vietnamese aggression not only against Cambodia but also against South Vietnam.
The Cambodians, like the Lao, are clearly innocent victims who wish only to live in peace. Like the Lao they are carrying the brunt of the battle for their self-defense, while we supply military and economic assistance and, when specifically requested, air support.
The Past Year. Since last year's Report, there has been little progress in Cambodia. The military picture has remained spotty and at times precarious. The Khmer armed forces have managed to contain most enemy thrusts and maintain control of the major population centers. However, Communist forces have often temporarily interdicted key routes and lines of communication in an attempt to isolate the urban areas. This has on occasion generated short-term needs for airlift or special land and water convoys to bring supplies to the capital and other cities.
The mixed security situation in Cambodia should be kept in perspective. Three years ago many observers thought that it would only be a matter of months, if not weeks, before the Communists would topple the Lon Nol government. Since then the Cambodian people have shown courage and resilience against repeated pressures. The Cambodian army has grown from a largely ceremonial force of 35,000 in 1970 to some 200,000, most of whom are volunteers. It has undertaken an internal reorganization, further training, and important reforms to develop its full potential for future self-defense. Progress in self-defense efforts, however, has been uneven and needs to be accelerated.
The crucial ingredient in Cambodia remains political stability. Since 1970 most of the population and opposition leaders have rallied in opposition to Communist aggression. Politically, there were both positive and negative developments during 1972. In the past year, the Khmer Republic adopted a Constitution, elected a president and a bicameral legislature, and put into operation various organs of government provided by the new Constitution. The government also initiated programs to improve community self-defense and to encourage the return of Khmer who have taken up arms against it. On the other hand, the leading non-Communist groups and personalities have not always worked effectively together and, at times, they have been openly at odds. This only serves to undercut morale, jeopardize the security situation, and prevent the establishment of an effective base from which to negotiate with the enemy if the enemy ever chooses to do so. Greater efforts for a unified front against the Communists are clearly needed. Recently, the Lon Nol government moved to broaden its political base by including more of the non-Communist opposition.
The Continuing Conflict. In the Vietnam negotiations we pressed very hard for an early peace in Cambodia to accompany the cease-fires in Vietnam and Laos. We succeeded in getting the clear-cut provisions for both Laos and Cambodia of Article 20 included in the Vietnam Agreement. In response to our insistence that all American prisoners throughout Indochina be released within sixty days of that Agreement, we were assured that there were no Americans held captive in Cambodia. But while we signed the Agreement with the expectation that there would be an early cessation of hostilities in that country, we did not have the firm confidence in this prospect that we held for Laos.
During the final stage of the Paris negotiations, the other side repeatedly pointed out that the situation in Cambodia was more complex than in Laos because of the many factions involved and the lack of an established framework for negotiations. However, Communist actions in the Khmer Republic since the Vietnam and Laos Agreements raise serious questions about Hanoi's professed desire for early peace in that country.
The signing of the Vietnam Agreement brought a brief ray of hope to Cambodia. On January 28, 1973, the day the Vietnam cease-fire went into effect, President Lon Nol ordered his forces to cease all offensive activities and urged the enemy to follow suit. He repeated his willingness to enter into direct negotiations to turn a de facto cease-fire into a more definitive settlement.
We welcomed these measures, suspended our own combat air operations in support of the Khmer forces, and hoped that the North Vietnamese and the Khmer insurgents would respond favorably. Unfortunately, then--and since--the Communist side rebuffed this gesture and all other efforts by the government to inaugurate contacts with a view to ending the fighting.
Instead, Hanoi to date has chosen to pursue its aggression in Cambodia. Indeed, since the Vietnam and Laos settlements, Communist military operations in Cambodia have reached new levels. Widespread attacks have continued, chiefly against the important lines of communications and the population centers. In light of this situation and at the request of the Khmer Government, the United States resumed the air operations in Cambodia which we had suspended in an effort to promote a cease-fire. The objective of our assistance to Cambodia is the full implementation of the Vietnam Accords and an end to the fighting in Cambodia which threatens the peace in Vietnam.
The Cambodian Government has repeatedly declared its desire for a cease-fire and prompt political negotiations. We are prepared to halt our military activity in Cambodia as soon as there is a cease fire. On the other hand, if Hanoi still pursues aggression in Cambodia, we will continue to provide the Khmer Republic with U.S. air support and appropriate military assistance. We will not introduce U.S. ground forces into Cambodia.
The Cambodian situation is a serious threat to the hard-won peace in Vietnam. The only feasible solution is an end to the conflict and direct negotiations among the Cambodians themselves. We fully support the efforts of the present government to launch this process.
We call on North Vietnam to observe its solemn pledges in the Vietnam Agreement and to give the people of both Laos and Cambodia the chance to live their own lives.
PART III: STRENGTHENING PARTNERSHIPS
--Europe and the Atlantic Alliance
--Japan
--Latin America
EUROPE AND THE ATLANTIC ALLIANCE
The United States has regularly renewed its commitment to the flourishing of trans-Atlantic unity with our oldest and closest allies. I carried this message to Europe immediately after taking office in 1969. It is a central element of this Report to the Congress, for no aspect of U.S. foreign policy commands greater attention and care than our relations with Western Europe.
I have referred to 1973 as the year of Europe, not because we regarded Europe as less important in the past or because we expect to overcome the problems of the Atlantic Community in any single year. This will be a year of Europe because changes in the international environment, and particularly in Europe, pose new problems and new opportunities.
The alliance between the United States and Western Europe has been a fundamental factor in the postwar era. It provided the essential security framework for American engagement in Europe and for Western defense. It created the political confidence that allowed the countries of Europe to recover from the devastation of the war. It helped to reconcile former enemies, a prerequisite for European unity. And it was the principal means of forging the common policies that were the source of Western strength in an era of tension and confrontation.
When the alliance was created, power relations, economic factors, and political conditions were far different than today: traditional power centers in both Europe and Asia were greatly weakened, and the United States and the Soviet Union had emerged with vastly enhanced strength and influence as leaders of hostile coalitions in Europe. Western Europe looked to America for protection and for leadership. The alliance came to rely on American prescriptions and became accustomed to ratifying American solutions to the major military, political, and economic problems.
When this Administration took office, a period of transition had begun; new trends affecting America's relations with Europe were already evident:
--Western Europe's economic and political revival coincided with deepening divisions in the Communist world. The bipolar confrontation of the postwar period no longer dominated international relations. Alliance relationships in Europe coexisted with increasingly fluid international relationships. Both sides of the Atlantic had to recognize that a new balance of power in the world would challenge our unity.
--In Europe, as the military vacuum was filled by the strength of the Atlantic coalition, the danger of war receded. But the altered strategic environment created totally new problems of deterrence and defense.
--The European unity forged by the original six members of the Common Market made Europe a formidable economic power. Expansion of the European Community to include the United Kingdom, Denmark, and Ireland added a new political dimension to economic integration.
In these conditions, America's relations with the new Europe were bound to change. In the three fundamental aspects--economic, military, and political trans-Atlantic relations had come to be based on different principles that led to different modes of action:
--In economics, members of the European Community, individually and collectively, stressed regional autonomy, while the United States remained dedicated to the integrity of an open international system.
--Militarily, unity was the predominant factor: the NATO allies operated on the principle of integrated forces and common strategic planning. But forces designed when the United States enjoyed an unqualified strategic advantage had not been fully adjusted to the reality of a more nearly equal strategic balance with the Soviet Union.
--Politically, the Western Allies shared abstract goals of detente, but we had not developed new principles to reconcile national objectives with demands for a unified Western policy. Now, America and Europe are challenged to forge a more mature and viable partnership in which we cooperate:
--in developing a new and more equitable international economic system that enables the Europeans to reinforce their unity, yet provides equitable terms for the United States to compete in world markets;
--in providing a strong defense with the forces necessary to carry out a realistic strategy in light of the nuclear balance of the 1970'S while meeting our mutual defense commitments with an equitable sharing of the burdens;
--in building a common framework for diplomacy to deal with fundamental security issues--such as mutual and balanced force reductions--in the new international environment, reconciling the requirements of unity with those of national interest.
In the past four years we have progressed toward these goals. The advances have been more pronounced in diplomacy and defense because habits of consultation were long-standing in these areas and common interests were easier to define. Fundamental problems persist in economic relations with the European Community. Though Europeans have begun to pursue a collective economic policy, their lack of a comparable degree of political unity handicaps the resolution of economic issues with the United States.
ATLANTIC PARTNERSHIP AND EUROPEAN UNITY
Throughout the postwar period, the United States has supported the concept of a unified Western Europe. We recognized that such a Europe might be more difficult to deal with, but we foresaw manifold advantages. Unity would replace the devastating nationalist rivalries of the past. It would strengthen Europe's economic recovery and expand Europe's potential contributions to the free world. We believed that ultimately a highly cohesive Western Europe would relieve the United States of many burdens. We expected that unity would not be limited to economic integration, but would include a significant political dimension... We assumed, perhaps too uncritically, that our basic interests would be assured by our long history of cooperation, by our common cultures and our political similarities.
The Economic Dimension. The advance toward the goal we supported for so long has, in fact, created a new dimension in European-American relations. Mutual prosperity developed on the principle of relatively free trade. As the European Community progressed, however, it designed policies to protect its own special interests. Moreover, its growing economic weight stimulated other states to protect their access to that thriving market of more than 250 million persons. The prospect of relatively closed trading systems within Europe, notably in agriculture, and in preferential arrangements with third countries, was proceeding as the United States was suffering an increasingly unfavorable balance of payments.
In the area of monetary policy, the European Community has to a large degree been preoccupied with the search for a reasonable path toward internal monetary unity. At the same time, the growing strengths of some of its national economies--and relative weakness of others--have both impeded that progress and limited the will and ability of Europe to deal effectively and expeditiously with fundamental reform of the international monetary system.
The Europeans have thus been pursuing economic regionalism; but they want to preserve American protection in defense and an undiminished American political commitment. This raises a fundamental question: can the principle of Atlantic unity in defense and security be reconciled with the European Community's increasingly regional economic policies?
We have also faced challenges in redefining our relationships with the other North American member of the Atlantic Alliance--Canada. Our northern neighbor has been reassessing its position in the world just as we have been establishing a new view of our own. Frank reappraisals of our respective interests have brought some new problems to the fore, particularly in economic relations between the two countries. When I visited Ottawa in April 1972, I reaffirmed with Prime Minister Trudeau our common belief that mature partners must have autonomous, independent policies and explored with him how we might work together while respecting Canada's right to ensure its own identity and to chart its own ecooomic course.
A Comprehensive Approach. We thus face a new situation. There are elements of economic conflict, and there has been a lack of direction. Concrete economic issues, not abstract principles, must be addressed. But if economic issues are confronted in isolation, or from purely technical perspectives, each party will try to protect its own narrow commercial interests. The outcome will be a deadlock, with the prospect of constant conflict.
The overriding task is to develop a broader political perspective from which we can address these economic questions, one that encourages reconciliation of differences for the sake of larger goals. Each partner will have to subordinate a degree of individual or regional autonomy to the pursuit of common objectives. Only by appealing to interests that transcend regional economic considerations can inevitable deadlocks be broken.
We have begun to move toward a comprehensive European-American dialogue. An essential first step was the European decision on the nature and scope of the relations with the United States. Last October, the leaders of the European Community met to chart their long-term course. The keynote was sounded by President Pompidou:
"Our links with this great country, the world's foremost economic power, with which eight of our countries are united within the Atlantic Alliance, are so close that it would be absurd to conceive of a Europe constructed in opposition to it. But the very closeness of these links requires that Europe affirm its individual personality with regard to the United States. Western Europe, liberated from armies thanks to the essential contribution of American soldiers, reconstructed with American aid, having looked for its security in alliance with America, having hitherto accepted American currency as the main element of its monetary reserves, must not and cannot sever its links with the United States. But neither must it refrain from affirming its existence as a new reality."
This was an invitation to begin the complex process of redefining our basic partnership, a goal we had set in 1969. Accordingly, on October 27, I strongly endorsed the European Community declaration:
"It is, and has always been my own deeply held view that progress toward a unified Europe enhances world peace, security, and prosperity.
"It is also of the highest importance that the United States and Europe work closely together. For this reason I particularly welcome the Community's declared intent to maintain a constructive, forthcoming dialogue with us . . . I wish to reaffirm our commitment to work with the members of the European Community for reform of the international economic system in a way which will bring about a new freedom of world trade, new equity in international economic conduct and effective solutions to the problems of the developing world.
"These are the objectives with which the United States will approach forthcoming negotiations on monetary and trade reform. We will be prepared to take bold action with our European partners for a more equitable and open world economic order."
The stage is now set for comprehensive negotiations with our European partners. In effect, these negotiations began in my meetings with Prime Minister Heath, NATO Secretary General Luns, Premier Andreotti, and Chancellor Brandt. They will continue when I meet with President Pompidou and when I visit Europe later this year.
The issues we face are not abstract. European unity is not at issue. Nor are the requirements for common internal and external policies which reinforce that unity. Our aim is to examine concrete problems that impinge on the specific interests of the United States and to agree on a comprehensive way to resolve these issues.
Major negotiations will begin next fall on international trade. Our basic objectives are to restore the integrity of a more open trading system that was the underlying principle of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), and to halt the drift toward economic protectionism on both sides of the Atlantic. We believe there should be a gradual reduction in tariffs and other barriers to trade in both industrial and agricultural products. We believe also that the adverse effects of preferential trading arrangements between Europe and less developed countries should be eliminated. Such arrangements should not work against the ability of the United States or others to compete in European markets or those of the countries with which it has special trade arrangements.
These, and many broader problems discussed in the chapter on international economic policy in this Report, require major reforms. The negotiations will be protracted and difficult. If, however, we can confront our economic differences in the same spirit of partnership developed in defense, we can reinforce Atlantic unity.
ALLIANCE DEFENSE
In April 1969 the North Atlantic Alliance completed its twentieth year. For two decades the nations of the Atlantic community had been united in a formidable coalition. No military alliance in modern times has so successfully maintained the peace. Unity had come naturally in military affairs because the threats to Europe were unambiguous, the requirements to meet them were generally agreed upon, and the basic strategy of nuclear retaliation was credible and effective.
By the mid-1960's, however, it was increasingly clear that military conditions had changed and that earlier strategic assumptions were no longer realistic. At the meeting of NATO foreign ministers in April 1969, I stressed the need to reexamine the Alliance's military position in light of the strategic and political environment of the 1970's. Certain factors were of overriding concern:
--The West no longer enjoyed the nuclear predominance it once possessed. The Soviet Union was greatly expanding its strategic forces; the United States had ended its building programs in favor of qualitative improvements. Strategic arms talks, if they succeeded, would almost certainly codify a balance that was roughly equal.
--Anticipating this new strategic balance, the allies had quite correctly developed a new doctrine of flexible response to meet threats with means other than immediate and massive nuclear retaliation.
--In conditions of near strategic parity, the ability to defend Western Europe with conventional forces assumed far greater significance than in the 1950's, when the West could afford temporary weaknesses because of the American nuclear guarantee. In these circumstances, actual alliance performance was inconsistent with the implications of the strategic balance:
--Despite adoption of a new doctrine, the composition, levels, and armaments of NATO forces remained virtually unchanged. Indeed, with U.S. redeployments in 1968, as well as previous reductions, the level of NATO forces had declined.
--Soviet forces in Eastern Europe, on the other hand, were being reequipped and modernized. After the invasion of Czechoslovakia, the forward deployment of Soviet forces increased by several divisions. Meanwhile, the United States had withdrawn one and one-third divisions.
--Spending for defense in the NATO area, measured in real purchasing power, declined steadily from 1964 through 1969.
--The distribution of defense costs had shifted. Manpower absorbed an increasingly larger share of expenditures while equipment purchases declined.
--There was no agreement among the allies on a common level of supplies in critical munitions. Yet, obviously, if certain countries could sustain combat for only a few days, it was irrelevant that others had stocks for much longer periods.
--There was agreement on the importance of conventional defense, but a reluctance, especially in Europe, to give priority to non-nuclear capabilities. Europe feared that doing so might imply a weakening of the credibility of the nuclear deterrent.
In addition, there was concern in the United States about our heavy commitments to the Alliance in manpower and expenditure. Critics persistently asked why the United States could not reduce its forces in Europe. Moreover, there was a growing opinion that our European deployments only further aggravated an already adverse balance of payments.
This environment of 1969-70 led me to insist on a full-scale review, not only of the American commitment but also of the Alliance's policies. It was futile to simply debate whether the United States should cut its forces by this or that number. The real issues were whether those forces were the instruments of an agreed and rational strategy, whether their presence made an essential difference, and whether the burdens of commitment were shared equitably.
Throughout 1969 and 1970 the United States and its allies engaged in a searching reexamination of defense policy. The principal results, announced in December 1970, were significant:
--All agreed it was essential to reverse the trend of declining capabilities and adopt a concerted, long-term program to improve existing conventional forces.
--The European allies agreed to a specific five-year program to improve and modernize their own forces by spending more for equipment.
--The Alliance concluded that a commitment of substantial U.S. forces was indispensable to Western Europe's defense.
--We, in turn, reaffirmed our commitment to maintain and improve our own forces in Europe, given a similar effort by the allies.
Force Improvements. Our European allies increased defense expenditures in both 1971 and 1972. Even allowing for inflation, the net increase was three to four percent. In each year since 1970, they have committed an additional $ 1 billion through the European Defense Improvement Program. Their defense budget increases in 1972 were more than $1 billion, and last December the European Defense Ministers announced that in 1973 their additional contributions would total $1.5 billion. Since 1970, the European allies have increased equipment expenditures by $1.4 billion. During 1971 and 1972 they bought 1,100 main battle tanks, 700 antitank weapons, and 400 modern combat aircraft, as well as other equipment. This has been an impressive response in a period of rising costs and of growing demands of domestic programs. Sharing the Defense Burden. Improvements in European forces are the most important aspect of sharing the defense burden. As almost all European defense expenditures are directly related to NATO, increased European effort means in practice that the U.S. share is less. This is an appropriate solution, since the United States maintains forces to meet global commitments and therefore devotes a much higher share of its economic product to defense than do the Europeans.
There is another aspect of the defense burden, however, that has not been satisfactorily resolved. Our position is unique in that our deployments in Europe add significantly to our general balance of payments deficit. In 1972 the United States spent about $2.1 billion in other NATO countries to support our NATO deployments. Allowing for NATO military spending in the United States, mainly for equipment and training, our net military deficit was about $1.5 billion. This net deficit has risen since 1970 and for a variety of reasons, including the devaluation of the dollar, will continue to rise.
In previous years, the Federal Republic of Germany offset a large part of this deficit, primarily by purchases of military equipment in the United States. In the current agreement for 1972-73, the German government also contributed to the costs of rehabilitating the barracks for U.S. forces in Germany.
Nevertheless, the Alliance as a whole should examine this problem. As a general principle, we should move toward a lasting solution under which balance of payments consequences from stationing U.S. forces in Europe will not be substantially different from those of maintaining the same forces in the United States. It is reasonable to expect the Alliance to examine this problem this year. Eliminating the periodic requirement to renegotiate a temporary arrangement with only one ally would strengthen the solidarity of the Alliance as a whole.
The Role of United States Forces. The efforts undertaken by our allies since 1970 are the basis for my pledge to maintain our NATO commitments. At the NATO Council meeting last December, I reaffirmed my position:
"In light of the present strategic balance and of similar efforts by our allies, we will not only maintain but improve our forces in Europe and will not reduce them unless there is reciprocal action by our adversaries."
This pledge rests on a fundamental view, as valid today as it has been since World War II, that the security of Western Europe is inseparable from our own.
The conditions of this decade require the United States to maintain substantial forces in Europe. In conditions of near strategic parity, a strong capability to defend with non-nuclear forces becomes increasingly important; the United States contributes about one-quarter of NATO's forces in Europe's vital central region, though our allies' proportionate share of forces in the entire European NATO area is far higher.
The balance of conventional forces in the center of Europe would be seriously upset by the unilateral withdrawal of a substantial number of U.S. forces. Unless our reductions were completely replaced by European forces, deterrence would be weakened. In the event of hostilities, a weaker conventional defense could confront the Alliance with the choice of either capitulating or using nuclear weapons immediately.
Defense cooperation within Europe may be a long-term alternative to the American troop contribution. But the prerequisite for such an alternative is a far greater degree of European political unity. Yet even if such unity develops, it is unlikely that the Europeans alone could maintain a strategic balance against the enormous nuclear power of the Soviet Union.
In short, disengaging our forces would risk serious instability in Europe, the consequences of greatly enhanced Soviet influence, and the dangerous implications ,of a greater reliance on nuclear weapons. If, on the other hand, we and our allies maintain our strength, we can contribute to political stability, reduce the likelihood of war, and conduct a credible diplomacy to negotiate a mutual reduction of forces.
We cannot enter serious negotiations if, at the outset, we or our allies allow our positions to weaken. I intend to maintain an effective American military contribution to the alliance and to pursue negotiations for a mutual force reduction that will create a viable balance in which the incentives for attack are effectively eliminated.
Unfinished Tasks. In the past four years the Alliance has diagnosed some fundamental weaknesses and agreed on remedies. In 1971 and 1972 we embarked on a concerted effort to improve our forces. The immediate and, in many ways, the most urgent problem has been faced. We are now in a position to examine more systematically some of the longer-term issues:
--In the later 1970's, all allies will face the enormous expense of maintaining more sophisticated equipment, paying larger costs for personnel, and maintaining a high degree of combat readiness while national conscription may be eliminated or the terms of service reduced.
--In these circumstances, it is essential to define more precisely what we mean by an adequate NATO defense. Specifically, what do we mean by forward defense? Should we plan for maximum effort during some initial period of combat? Should we plan for a sustained effort over a longer period? If so, for what purpose? Can we maintain the logistical support for a sustained defense?
--If we can maintain the high level of conventional defense that is our goal, we still must examine our nuclear doctrines. When, in what way, and for what objective should we use tactical nuclear weapons? How do independent national nuclear forces affect Alliance decisions? Do we require different institutions to examine such overriding issues within the Alliance?
--What is the relationship between existing and planned defense programs and the diplomatic effort to reduce forces?
The answers to these questions are vital to Alliance policy in the 1970's. They require urgent but careful consideration. The United States believes that a strong conventional defense is essential to credible deterrence and that the Alliance must also possess a credible nuclear deterrent. But in the strategic conditions of this decade these issues must be reexamined, and the contribution of each ally determined for the long term.
In particular, the prospect of mutual and balanced force reductions in Central Europe raises some immediate questions for the Alliance. Mutual force reductions are first of all a military problem; specific reductions must be measured against their effect on our defense capabilities. We therefore need a common security concept within which we can contemplate some reductions. If we justify force reductions as part of a political accommodation, or as a means to promote detente, the Alliance will be involved in endless debate over what level of reductions will produce what degree of political relaxation. In such a debate, it would be almost impossible to find an answer that would satisfy everyone and that would not undermine security.
Our objective should be to create a military balance that is more viable because it deals with the concerns of both sides and is seen by all to be in the common interest. We want a greater degree of stability, in which neither side gains an advantage because of lower force levels.
The Alliance should thus proceed on three parallel courses: first, to continue the effort to bring our forces to the level and quality required by the doctrine of flexible response; second, to review the strategic options involved in conducting a nuclear defense if necessary; and third, to prepare within the Alliance a military political framework that integrates defense planning with the diplomacy of negotiating mutual and balanced force reductions.
Alliance Diplomacy. Through most of the 1960'S, the problem of reconciling allied unity with national diplomacy was not critical. East-West relations were virtually frozen. Confrontation required less in the way of creative initiative, but put a premium on allied unity.
This broad cohesion and strength of the Alliance contributed to the changing international conditions that in turn offered a new opportunity for Alliance diplomacy in 1969. But important political problems also emerged.
--International diplomacy is still conducted by nation states. The European members of NATO have regional security interests, which they must accord priority, and each ally has a national stake in European security. Increasingly in recent years, however, individual European states have pursued their bilateral relations with the Soviet Union as well as with other members of the Warsaw Pact.
--The United States has vital interests outside of Europe, and must deal bilaterally with the Soviet Union on strategic matters and on many global issues. Each member of NATO, however, has an interest in, and is affected by, the development of U.S.-Soviet relations; our allies wish to influence our relations with the Soviet Union to strengthen their own security. At times our allies have urged the United States to be more flexible in approaches to the Soviet Union; in other periods, they have criticized us for moving too fast or too far in relations with Moscow.
In 1969, the NATO allies were persuaded that new initiatives were required but, in the wake of the invasion of Czechoslovakia, were uncertain whether to renew contacts with the East. Some allies regarded a European Security Conference as a possible starting point; others urged negotiations on force reductions. The United States was preparing for strategic arms limitation talks. Unless we would agree on a common strategy, no substantial progress could be expected that did not strain our unity. Accordingly, in April 1969, I urged the Alliance to revive the process of close consultations and committed the United States to continuing Alliance review of SALT. Consultations would address certain general tasks.
First, we needed to identify the specific sources of tensions that might be resolved.
Second, we had to agree on how to manage the priorities and interrelationship among major issues: those of primary concern to one country, for example West Germany's Eastern policy; those of regional concern, such as mutual force reductions and a European security conference; and those of international concern, such as SALT.
Third, we had to recognize that issues would be dealt with by different countries in different forums. Such diversity required an essential harmonization of purposes as well as a degree of national autonomy.
Initial Progress. The United States urged that the Alliance take the initiative in proposing negotiations on Berlin as an essential first step. Berlin was a natural starting point for several reasons. It was a source of recurrent confrontations. If the Soviet Union chose, it could continue exploiting the vulnerability of West Berlin's access routes across East Germany to exert pressure against West Germany and the three Western Powers. On the other hand, there was no objective reason why the Soviet Union could not permit practical improvements in travel to Berlin if, as it claimed, it had a serious interest in a relaxation of European tensions. If we could not resolve this one specific issue, there was little prospect of resolving broader security questions.
Thus, the negotiations over Berlin were an initial opportunity to explore whether East-West relations could move away from the rigidities of the Cold War. Moreover, the Federal Republic of Germany had embarked on an Eastern policy to normalize its relations with the Soviet Union. Ultimately, the Federal Republic's ratification of its August 1970 treaty with the Soviet Union became dependent on the success of the Berlin negotiations being conducted by the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and the Soviet Union.
In September 1971, the first part of a Berlin agreement was reached. Unimpeded access between West Germany and West Berlin was guaranteed by the Soviet Union, without affecting the rights and responsibilities of the three Western powers in Berlin. The agreement provided for subsequent negotiations between the Federal Republic, the West Berlin government, and East Germany over the modalities of access to Berlin and travel from West Berlin to East Berlin and East Germany. During my meeting with the Soviet leaders in May 1972, it was agreed that the final Protocol, bringing all parts of the Berlin agreements into effect, would be signed on June 3, 1972. The West German government, following parliamentary approval of the treaties with the Soviet Union and Poland, proceeded to bring them into force, opening the way for it to negotiate a general treaty regulating relations with East Germany.
These past four years have been a period of active European and international diplomacy. In addition to the Berlin agreement and the German treaties, France agreed on a set of principles for political consultations with the Soviet Union. Canada agreed on a somewhat similar arrangement during Premier Kosygin's visit. West Germany and Italy negotiated long-term economic agreements with the Soviet Union. There have been several summit meetings between Soviet and West European leaders. And the United States agreed with the Soviet Union on strategic arms limitations, measures of bilateral cooperation, and some basic principles governing our relations.
In sum, the allies have intensified their national diplomacy within a framework of unity. But the very success of the past four years has created some new problems. Each of the European countries will want to continue the development of its own bilateral economic and political relations with the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. The United States also wishes to pursue the favorable trends that have developed in our relations with the Soviet Union. Each of our allies naturally wants a major voice in negotiations affecting Europe as a whole, and in those aspects of Soviet-American relations that affect international stability.
Two specific issues will test the ability of the Western coalition to reconcile its unity with its diversity: the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe and the negotiations on mutual and balanced force reductions.
The Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe. In March 1969, the Warsaw Pact revived its proposal to convene a European Security Conference. Such a conference would be largely symbolic; its purpose would be to confirm the territorial and political status quo in Europe. There was some feeling in the West that this proposal should be accepted; it was thought that it might be a way to dissipate the tensions over the invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968 and to test Soviet policy. Some viewed it as a way of creating a better atmosphere for subsequent talks, while others saw it as a link to more specific issues, such as force reductions.
We were skeptical about symbolic acts that failed to deal with the substance of East-West tensions. The urgent issues of European security were the tensions over Berlin and Germany and the military confrontation in Central Europe. We could not hand over our responsibilities in Berlin to a European conference. If we could not make progress on a central issue such as Berlin, the results of a broad conference would be illusory. To stimulate an atmosphere of detente through symbolic gestures could only lead to disillusionment and insecurity.
The United States, therefore, took the position that a European conference would only be acceptable if there was progress on specific issues, including the Berlin negotiations. A conference might be appropriate if individual countries succeeded in regulating their relations and resolving some of their territorial and political issues.
This was accomplished by West Germany's treaties with the Soviet Union and Poland, the Quadripartite Agreement on Berlin, and the SALT agreements. At my summit meeting with the Soviet leaders in May 1972, I agreed that we now could begin preparing for a European Conference with the aim of broadening European cooperation.
Preparatory talks began last November to find out whether there was sufficient common ground to justify a conference of Foreign Ministers. A provisional agenda is being developed, which the Foreign Ministers could consider. Progress thus far suggests that the conference can be convened this year and that it may be possible to move forward on several important questions.
--The participants will address certain principles of security and cooperation. If all European countries subscribe to common principles of conduct, and carry them out in practice, there could be a further relaxation of tensions. Certain military security matters designed to improve confidence will also be considered.
--The conference would be an appropriate forum to discuss practical cooperation in economics, cultural exchange, science, and technology, on which there has already been progress in bilateral relations.
--The conference can consider how to facilitate contacts among the peoples of Europe and how to encourage countries to exchange ideas and information.
The Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe thus can set a new tone for European relations and establish new modes of conduct and means of cooperation. These would be practical steps toward normal relations.
Mutual and Balanced Force Reductions. The exchanges leading up to the conference also acted as a bridge to negotiations on a more specific and central security issue--mutual and balanced force reductions in Central Europe. The prospects for arms control in Europe are obviously linked to political improvements between East and West. Throughout the 1950's and 1960's there were proposals for arms control in Europe. But it was unrealistic to expect to negotiate a reduction of forces--for example, in Germany, where there were almost continuous crises over Berlin. Moreover, the reduction of military forces in Central Europe was related to the strategic balance between the United States and Soviet Union and to the political situation within the Warsaw Pact.
For these reasons, the NATO proposals of June 1968 to begin negotiations on force reductions were received coolly by the Warsaw Pact. Not until the Berlin and SALT agreements were concluded in 1972 was it possible to work out a sequence for beginning negotiations in separate forums on a Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe and on mutual and balanced force reductions.
The initial talks on mutual and balanced force reductions, now underway in Vienna, will lay the groundwork for more formal negotiations next fall. The military and arms control aspects of force reductions are treated in other sections of this Report. Certain points that affect Atlantic political unity should be summarized.
Perhaps more than any other single issue, the problem of force reductions crystalizes the basic issue of reconciling Alliance unity and national diversity. We will need an unprecedented degree of unity on fundamental military and political security questions. The outcome of the negotiations will affect the entire Alliance, regardless of who sits at the table or which forces are reduced. Indeed, the very process of negotiating will test our common purposes.
Each member brings to this issue strongly held national viewpoints. We must avoid efforts to protect national interests by procedural devices or tactical solutions. That approach would merely defer or avoid the hard questions. Ultimately it will be disruptive and open the Alliance to exploitation by the other side.
Our goal must be agreement on basic security principles. We must meet individual national concerns within a common concept of security, and forthrightly address the question of how to maintain our security at reduced force levels. The issues are highly sensitive, and Alliance discussions will be painstaking and difficult.
The United States is engaged in the most serious consultations with our allies to prepare for negotiations later this year. Force reductions in Central Europe are, of course, an element of the complex of U.S.-Soviet relations. The U.S. and Soviet forces are comparable in that they are not indigenous to Central Europe and might be candidates for reduction.
The United States will not subordinate the security of the Alliance to Soviet-American relations. We are aware of European concerns in this regard. Repeated American reassurances, however, have not alleviated these concerns. Mutual confidence within the Alliance will develop only through an agreement on the basic security framework for the negotiations.
RELATIONS WITH EASTERN EUROPE
The improvement in our relations with the Soviet Union during 1972 has created a better atmosphere for our relations with the countries of Eastern Europe. But we do not regard our relations with any East European countries as a function of our relations with Moscow. We reject the idea of special rights or advantages for outside powers in the region. We welcomed and responded to opportunities to develop our relations with the East European countries long before the Moscow Summit. And we shall continue to seek ways to expand our economic, scientific, technological, and cultural contacts with them. Mutual benefit and reciprocity are governing principles.
As the postwar rigidity between Eastern and Western Europe eases, peoples in both areas expect to see the benefits of relaxation in their daily lives. These aspirations are fully justified. An era of cooperation in Europe should produce a variety of new relationships not just between governments but between organizations, institutions, business firms, and people in all walks of life. If peace in Europe is to be durable, its foundation must be broad.
My visits to Romania in 1969, Yugoslavia in 1970, and Poland in 1972 were designed to help open the door to these broader relationships.
During my visit to Warsaw last June, I agreed with the Polish leaders to increased U.S.-Polish trade and exchanges in science, technology, culture, tourism, and transportation. A joint American-Polish trade commission has been established. After our governments had reciprocally agreed to export financing arrangements, I determined that Export-Import Bank credits should be made available for transactions with Poland. Other agreements to facilitate trade, increase exchanges in science and technology, and improve consular facilities also have been signed.
Secretary of State Rogers' visit in July to Yugoslavia reaffirmed our long-standing and cordial relationship with that important nonaligned country. Its independence, political stability, and economic well-being are key factors for continuing peace in Europe.
Romania's desire for close and mutually beneficial relations has led during the past three years to practical cooperation and to helpful consultations, including my visit to Bucharest and President Ceausescu's trip to Washington. Last year we approved the extending of guarantees to private investment in Romania, and I continue to hope that the Congress will provide authority to extend Most Favored Nation tariff treatment to that country. In December we signed the most comprehensive cultural and scientific exchange agreement in the history of our relations with Romania.
Last summer Secretary Rogers signed consular conventions with both Romania and Hungary. His visit to Budapest and the subsequent settlement of the long-standing United States claims against Hungary have improved prospects for more normal relations.
We remain ready to establish constructive relationships on a reciprocal basis with all countries in Eastern Europe. Differences in social, economic, and political systems exist, and must be acknowledged frankly. But they will not bar our cooperation with any country that seeks it.
THE OUTLOOK
In 1972, the face of world politics changed dramatically. But one constant factor in this changing pattern has been the close relationship among the Atlantic allies. It has been true, however, that as the relaxation of East-West tensions became more pronounced, some of our allies questioned whether the United States would remain committed to Europe or would instead pursue a new balance of power in which the older alignments would be diluted and distinctions between allies and adversaries would disappear. Apprehensions may be inevitable in a period of great international change after a long period of confrontation. As relations between adversaries are ameliorated, those not directly involved tend to worry that their own interests are somehow subordinate to new relationships.
But the United States will never compromise the security of Europe or the interests of our allies. The best reassurance of our unity, however, lies not in verbal pledges but in the knowledge of agreed purposes and common policies. For almost a decade the Alliance has debated questions of defense and detente--some urging one course, others a different priority. Now the debates should end. We must close ranks and chart our course together for the decade ahead. There is an obvious agenda for Alliance action.
--The United States supports European unity, as we always have. But now we need to define together the basis of cooperative economic relations between the United States and the European Community in this decade. To do this, we need a new affirmation of our common goals, to give political direction to our economic negotiations and promote cooperative solutions.
--The United States will maintain its forces in Europe. We will not withdraw unilaterally. But together we need to agree on our common defense requirements and on the contributions each ally and the Alliance collectively must make to preserve our security in new conditions.
--We need a concerted strategy for dealing with security and diplomatic issues of common concern, in whatever forum these are pursued.
--In the 1970's we face new common issues, such as ensuring the supply of energy resources for industrialized nations. This must be a new area of our cooperation.
1973 is the year of Europe because of the historic opportunities we face together. The United States, Canada, and Western Europe have a decisive contribution to make to a healthy world economy and to a new peaceful international order. These are new creative tasks for our partnership.
JAPAN
Today we see a new Japan. Her emergence is one of the most striking new features of the international landscape of the 1970's and one of the most dramatic transformations since the period following the Second World War. To speak of Japan's phenomenal economic performance has long been commonplace. Less noted, more recent--and of fundamental importance-is the impact of this power on the international political order. This is a challenge for Japanese policy, for American policy, and for the alliance that binds us together.
--In the economic dimension, Japan is a superpower. By 1968 she was the world's third greatest industrial nation, and she may become the second greatest within a decade's time. Her rate of real growth annually in the 1960's was 11.3 percent, the fastest of any industrial nation. She impacts upon the world as a trading power of enormous strength: over the period 1968-1971 her exports grew faster than 20 percent per year. In 1971, she ran an extraordinary trade surplus of $4.1 billion with the United States, $1 billion with the European Community, and $9 billion with the world as a whole. A chronic imbalance of such a scale could not fail to have implications for the stability and equity of the international economic system.
--In her foreign economic policy, while not in her diplomacy and security policy, Japan began as early as the mid-1950's to move out independently. Her economic assistance to the developing world is second only to that of the United States, and more than a third of it is in the form of credits tied to Japanese exports. Japan has long had trade relations with the major Communist powers. Unofficial Japanese trading relationships existed with the People's Republic of China as early as 1952, and Japan had an unofficial trade office in Peking by 1964; by 1971, when American trade with the People's Republic was still negligible, Sino-Japanese trade was $900 million. Japan signed a Treaty of Commerce and Navigation with the Soviet Union in 1957, which has been the basis for a series of subsequent trade agreements; in recent years they have begun cooperation in the development of Siberian resources--an economic relationship of great potential. While the United States held back from East-West trade, Japan staked out for herself a role in bridging the gap between East and West with her economic ties.
--It was inevitable that these economic relations would develop into political ties, particularly in the new atmosphere of detente. Japan has moved actively in this direction in the past two years. Prime Minister Tanaka's historic visit to Peking in September 1972 led to the establishment of full diplomatic relations, again putting formal Sino-Japanese ties at a more advanced stage than Sino-American relations, while she still maintains her extensive economic ties with Taiwan. Japan and the Soviet Union reopened discussions in 1972 of a possible final peace treaty and territorial settlement, in the interest of normalization of their political relations. Prime Minister Tanaka will shortly match his visit to Peking with a visit to Moscow. Japan has now moved out in many directions into the arena of complex geopolitical relationships among the major powers.
--Japan has accelerated and broadened her political involvement in Asia in particular. She extended recognition • to Mongolia and Bangladesh in advance of the United States, as did a number of other nations. She has taken a special interest in the security and diplomacy of the Korean peninsula, and in postwar reconstruction in Indochina, opening in the process a dialogue with North Vietnam. She takes a greater part today in regional institutions. Asia is the focus of her economic assistance to the developing world. It is an active diplomacy of Asian involvement, after a generation.
--Japan has now come into increasing interchange with the world beyond Asia and the Pacific, both as a participant and as a competitor. The CommuniquпїЅs of my summit meetings with Prime Ministers Sato and Tanaka reflected our review of global problems, including arms control and East-West diplomacy. Japan's economic expansion has brought her increasingly into the markets of Europe and Latin America. Her political contacts with Europe are steadily expanding; in September, for example, Prime Minister Heath became the first British Prime Minister to visit Japan, and Prime Minister Tanaka plans a return visit this fall. Japan's dependence on Middle East oil has given her a special interest in the energy problem. Her participation in United Nations diplomacy has grown more active, and she has shown interest in claiming a permanent seat on the Security Council as a major power.
--In the security field, Japan has for years relied on her Treaty with the United States and on the American nuclear deterrent, which freed resources and energies that would otherwise have been required for defense. But she has steadily improved her own conventional defenses, emphasizing modernization rather than size, upgrading her forces in firepower, mobility, and anti-submarine warfare and air defense capability. Her Fourth Defense Plan, f, or 1972-1976, doubles the expenditure of her Third Plan. This still represents less than one percent annually of her Gross National Product, while this Gross National Product has been growing at over ten percent a year. With the reversion of Okinawa, Japanese forces have now moved southward to take over its defense. These are important steps toward self-reliance and improved capacity for conventional defense of all Japanese territory. This was an inevitable evolution.
There was no way that Japan and Japan's role in the world could go unaffected by the profound transformation of the international order over the last 25 years. All our alliances have been affected. The recovery and rejuvenation of allies has eroded the rigid bipolar system and given all our allies greater room for independent action. The easing of the Cold War military confrontation has brought other aspects of power--economic, in' particular--to the forefront of the international political stage. U.S. military protection no longer suffices as the principal rationale for close partnership and cooperation. In every allied country, leadership has begun to pass to a new generation eager to assert a new national identity at home and abroad.
Japan's emergence is a political fact of enormous importance. Japan is now a major factor in the international system, and her conduct is a major determinant of its stability.
As I have indicated in each ,of my previous Foreign Policy Reports, I have been concerned since the beginning of this Administration that our alliance relations with Japan had to keep in step with these new conditions. We are faced with new responsibilities toward each other and toward the world. We are challenged to respond to this evolution creatively and together, to keep our alliance on a firm basis in a new era.
For the U.S.-Japanese alliance remains central to the foreign policies of both countries. We are two major powers of the free world, interdependent to an extraordinary degree for our prosperity and our security. The United States therefore places the highest possible value upon this partnership, as it has for more than two decades.
In this year of new commitment to strengthening our ties with Western Europe, I am determined no less to strengthen our alliance with Japan.
OUR ALLIANCE AND ITS EVOLUTION
In 1969, when I came into office, the challenge of new conditions presented itself concretely in the issue of Okinawa. For 25 years since the war, the United States had retained the administrative rights to Okinawa to protect military installations there which were, and still are, vitally important to the defense of East and Southeast Asia. By the mid-1960's, however, the Japanese had come to feel strongly that our continued administration of Okinawa was inconsistent with Japan's national dignity and sovereignty. We risked a crisis in our relations if we did not respond.
Therefore, I made the basic choice: our long-term relationship with Japan was clearly our fundamental interest. Accordingly, at my summit meeting with Prime Minister Sato in November 1969, we announced our agreement on the reversion of Okinawa to Japanese administration by 1972. The United States could continue to use such facilities there as the two countries agreed were required for mutual security, but subject to the same terms as facilities elsewhere in Japan. At the same time, in the communiquпїЅ of that summit meeting, Japan and the United States declared more explicitly than ever before our joint commitment to active cooperation in diplomacy and security in the Far East, and in economic relations bilaterally and worldwide.
Thus in 1969 the United States acknowledged the new Japan. Our two governments addressed an outstanding problem, treated it as a common problem, and solved it. We reaffirmed our essential unity of purpose. In 1970, when the Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security became technically subject to review, neither government raised any doubt about its continuing validity and importance.
But the adjustment we made in 1969 proved to be only the beginning of a complex process of transition in our relations.
For twenty years we had achieved common policies in the areas of East-West diplomacy, economics, and mutual security with relative ease. It is clear today that this was in part the product of unique conditions in the postwar period that are no longer with us. An adjustment in all our alliance relationships was inevitable. Today, the harmony of our policies is far from automatic. We and all our allies have a heavy responsibility to proceed from an understanding of both the positive and the negative possibilities of our independent action.
It was also inevitable that this transition into a new political environment would pose a particular challenge for Japan.
The character of our alliance had been shaped in the period of Japanese dependence. Defeat in war had shattered her economy, political system, and national confidence. Occupation, the Cold War, and Japan's own renunciation of offensive military capability put her in the position of almost total reliance on our military protection. Japan accepted American leadership and only gradually came to take part in international diplomacy.
This was not an uncomfortable arrangement then for either the United States or Japan. The United States in the postwar period assumed the role and bore the responsibilities which our preponderant power gave us. We acted as the protector and champion of a network of' alliances locked in rigid confrontation with the Communist world--as the leader, senior partner, and chief actor. Japan found this arrangement consistent with her own objectives--not only in the conditions of her postwar weakness but even for a time as she recovered her political and economic vitality. By geography and history, unlike most of our European allies, Japan was a late-comer to global multilateral diplomacy. Even in the twentieth century, her focus has been in the Pacific. The conditions she faced after World War II inevitably caused her to gear her policy and policy making structure to the needs of economic recovery and expansion.
By the time I came into office, an alliance relationship of this character-which was suited to postwar conditions and had served us both well--needed adjustment.
Japan's resurgence from a recipient of American aid into a major economic power and competitor was bound to affect the external political framework which had helped make it possible. In her dealings with the United States, in particular, Japan no longer needed or could afford an almost exclusive concentration on her economic advancement or a habit of acting as a junior partner. She still enjoyed the special advantage that her reliance on the United States for her security freed resources for her economic expansion. The political relationships which continued to safeguard her would require greater reciprocity in her economic relations.
Moreover, Japan was no longer just a regional Pacific power dependent on the United States in the broader diplomatic field. Europe, Asia, North and South America, and Africa were now part of one vast arena of multilateral diplomacy in which Japan was a major factor. Japan was already acting autonomously in an expanding sphere. Her power now brought her new responsibilities. The weight of her economic involvement in the world--her stake in the free world's economic system, her extensive aid programs, and her growing economic ties with Communist powers--would require that she make her decisions on broader policy grounds than economic calculations. We and Japan, as allies, would have to face up to the problem of keeping our independent policies directed at common objectives.
These are the fundamental developments I have sought to address over the last four years. I have sought to adapt our partnership to these transformed conditions of greater equality and multipolar diplomacy. My three meetings with Japanese Prime Ministers, my decision on Okinawa, our discussions of new cooperation in the Far East and in bilateral and multilateral economic areas, and our policies toward China--were all part of this.
The intimacy of the postwar U.S.-Japanese alliance, however, inevitably gave Japan a special sensitivity to the evolution of United States foreign policy. We thus found the paradox that Japan seemed to feel that her reliance on us should limit change or initiatives in American policy, even while she was actively seeking new directions in many dimensions of her own policy. But our abandoning our paternalistic style of alliance leadership meant not that we were casting Japan or any ally adrift, but that we took our allies more seriously, as full partners. Our recognizing the new multipolarity of the world meant not a loss of interest in our alliances, but the contrary--an acknowledgement of the new importance of our allies. American initiatives, such as in China policy or economic policy, were not directed against Japan, but were taken in a common interest or in a much broader context--and in some cases in response to Japanese policies.
The underlying basis of our unity endured. The very centrality of the alliance in Japanese policy was at the heart of the problem. But Japan had to face the implications of her new independence and strength just as the United States was seeking to do. And until this psychological adjustment was fully made by both sides, anomalies in our relations were bound to persist.
This is the background to the events of the past two years and the current public issues facing the U.S.-Japanese alliance.
THE ISSUES ON OUR COMMON AGENDA
The Economic Dimension. The most urgent issue in U.S.-Japanese relations today is economic--the enormous imbalance in our bilateral trade. We must reduce this imbalance to manageable size in the earliest possible time frame.
As Prime Minister Tanaka has recognized, this is not merely an American problem; it is also a Japanese problem. This is not only because persistent disputes over these economic issues threaten to disrupt the political relations that hold our alliance together; the imbalance is a threat to a stable international system in which Japan herself has a major stake. In 1972, Japan's trade was in surplus with all the major industrial nations of the world. As long as the United States remains the largest single factor in international trade and the dollar is still the principal factor in the monetary structure, the disequilibrium of the American position, in particular, is a chronic problem of the world system. The United States therefore seeks cooperative solutions, bilaterally and multilaterally, to build a new stable and open system of world monetary and trade relations.
The responsibility that falls on Japan as the free world nation with the strongest trading position is necessarily heavy.
The challenge to leadership on all sides is to give firm political direction to our economic relations because of the broader objectives that are at stake. Organizationally, on all sides, there is a tendency for actions to be taken or policies to be established from the viewpoint of a purely economic national interest or under pressure from particular domestic economic interests. This has only resulted in destabilizing both our economic and our political relations, and we can no longer afford it.
The U.S.-Japanese bilateral economic relationship is at the heart of the issue. It is extraordinary in its scale, importance, and interdependence. The Gross National Product of the United States and Japan together is 40 percent of the total Gross National Product of the world. Trade between us totalled $12.5 billion in 1972. Japan is our most important trading partner in the world aside from Canada. Our economic policies, internal and global, necessarily affect each other bilaterally to a profound degree.
On August 15, 1971, the United States took a number of unilateral economic steps which inevitably had a particular impact on Japan. They were emergency measures, forced upon us by a monetary crisis; their focus was on putting our own house in order and in setting the stage for international reform. The measures which applied to our external relations were nondiscriminatory, affecting all our trading partners. The resolution of the crisis could only be achieved multilaterally, by cooperation among all the major economic nations, as was accomplished at the Smithsonian in December 1971. Coming a month after the China announcement, however, these measures intensified the fears of many on both sides of the Pacific that our relations with Japan were in danger. Unlike the case of China policy, where the divergence of interest between the United States and Japan was largely illusory, the strain in our economic relations was clearly real. It was a deep-seated and growing difficulty to which the United States had long been calling attention. The economic events of August 1971 had the salutary effect of finally bringing attention to this problem and bringing political urgency to its solution.
Japan's trade surplus with the United States reflects to a certain extent the competitiveness and productivity of the Japanese economy, as well as the slowness of American exporters to exploit potential markets in Japan. But to a significant degree it has been promoted by anachronistic exchange rates and an elaborate Japanese system of government assistance, complex pricing policies, and restrictions on imports and foreign investment in Japan--vestiges of an earlier period when Japan was still struggling to become competitive with the West. Japan's interest in protecting weaker sectors in her home market is now no different from that of every other nation. The requirement today is a fair system of mutual access to expand trade in a balanced way in both directions. Continued cooperation in dealing with this problem positively is crucial to the ability to fend off growing protectionist pressures and to ensure that the United States is able to address the issues of international trade positively as well. This is a political imperative for both sides.
We believe we have made some progress in the past year.
In January 1972 we concluded an agreement moderating the growth of Japanese synthetic textiles sales in the U.S. market, mitigating what had become a major irritant. Voluntary quota arrangements have been reached governing steel. Last July, in preparation for my summit meeting with Prime Minister Tanaka, high-level bilateral negotiations at Hakone, Japan, produced important measures of liberalization of access to the Japanese market and commitments to increase Japanese purchases of agricultural products, civil aircraft, uranium enrichment services, and military items from the United States. At our meeting in Hawaii, Prime Minister Tanaka committed his government to promote imports from the United States and to reduce the imbalance to a more manageable size. The Japanese Government has publicly pledged to reduce Japan's global surplus in foreign trade and other current transactions to one percent of Japan's Gross National Product in two or three years. A further step was taken at the end of April 1973 to liberalize restrictions on foreign investment in Japan.
Two major currency revaluations have raised the value of the yen by over 35 percent with respect to the dollar, and there are indications that these are beginning to have an effect on our trade. For the future there is interest on both sides of the Pacific in creating regular mechanisms of monitoring and adjustment, to anticipate trade imbalances in particular sectors and head them off before they generate protectionist pressures and political crises. This is a constructive approach, and we should pursue it.
The United States can only place the highest importance on the carrying out of these policies.
The problem, of course, is an international one. The multilateral realignments of currencies in December 1971 and February 1973 were important steps toward a solution, and Japan's participation in these was constructive and crucial. But the basic problem is structural, and the solution is a thoroughgoing multilateral reform of the system. Japan's active contribution to this process is indispensable, because no system is achievable or workable unless the most powerful economic nations are engaged in it and help actively to make it work.
It is no accident that the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty commits our two nations to "seek to eliminate conflict in their international economic policies and . . . encourage economic collaboration between them." Without conscious effort of political will, our economic disputes could tear the fabric of our alliance.
Japan's New Diplomacy. As Japan today moves out in many directions over the terrain of multipolar diplomacy, it will be another test of statesmanship on both sides to ensure that our policies are not divergent. Japan's foreign policy will continue to be shaped by her unique perspectives, purposes, and style. Japan has interests of her own, of which she herself will be the ultimate judge. Our foreign policies will not be identical or inevitably in step. What will preserve our alliance in the new era is not rigidity of policy but a continuing consciousness of the basic interest in stability which we have in common. We must work to maintain a consensus in our policies.
Our respective approaches toward China in 1972 reflected the opportunities and complexities we face, as allies, in the common endeavor of reducing tensions with adversaries.
Japan had for many years been developing economic and cultural contacts with the People's Republic of China when the United States had virtually none. Geography, culture, history, and trade potential have always made China a powerful natural attraction for Japan. Some Japanese criticized the United States for the mutual isolation between the United States and the People's Republic of China, and offered Japan as a natural bridge between the two countries. Today, Japan has full diplomatic relations with the People's Republic, while the United States has not, and Japan's trade with China continues to exceed our own by a wide margin.
I have never believed, however, that American and Japanese interests in our China policies were in conflict.
On July 15, 1971, when I announced my forthcoming visit to Peking, Japan-because of her special closeness to the United States--feared that our independent action foreshadowed a divergence or conflict with Japan's interest, or a loss of American interest in the U.S.-Japanese alliance. It is obvious now that our China policy involved no inconsistency with our Japan policy. As I explained in last year's Report, I made a conscious decision to preserve the secrecy of Dr. Kissinger's exploratory trip to Peking until its outcome was clear. It was then announced immediately, and the announcement was followed up by a process of intensive substantive consultation with Japan, culminating in my meeting with Prime Minister Sato in San Clemente in January 1972, in advance of my Peking trip. Prime Minister Sato and I found that we were in substantial agreement on the major issues of peace in the Far East; the lessening of tensions in Asia was the goal both allies sought. There was no diminution of our overriding commitment to our alliance.
In Peking a month later, when the People's Republic of China expressed its reservations about the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty and its fears of so-called Japanese "militarism," the United States declared categorically in the Shanghai CommuniquпїЅ itself that "the United States places the highest value on its friendly relations with Japan" and "will continue to develop the existing close bonds."
At my summit meeting in Hawaii with Japan's new Prime Minister, Kakuei Tanaka, we addressed our common diplomacy as well as our economic problems. We discussed global issues, Asian issues, and bilateral issues, and strongly reaffirmed the commitment of both countries to our political alliance. It was quickly evident that our China policies, while not identical, were still in basic harmony. Prime Minister Tanaka's own historic journey to Peking was proof of this. Overcoming a legacy of bitterness and mistrust far deeper than that between the United States and the People's Republic of China, these two great Asian nations pledged themselves to the same goals as the Shanghai CommuniquпїЅ, and went beyond it to the establishment of full diplomatic relations.
Thus, there is no inconsistency in principle between our alliance and the new hopeful prospects of relaxation of tension multilaterally. No third country need fear our alliance. Neither Japan nor the United States need fear that our unity precludes a broader community of normalized relations, or independent approaches.
In the years ahead, the kind of close consultation between the United States and Japan which accompanied our respective Peking Summits in 1972 will be critically important to all our diplomatic endeavors. More than our alliance is at stake. Japan has always been conscious of the external global framework within which she was pursuing her own objectives. What is new in the 1970's is her sharing in increased responsibility for it. This responsibility is now implied inescapably in her economic power and her engagement in many directions in global diplomacy.
The complexity of today's geopolitical environment, even in the Asian context alone, is a challenge to a nation of Japan's energy and national spirit undertaking a more active political role. Japan now has the obligations of a major power-restraint, reciprocity, reliability, and sensitivity to her overriding interest in a stable pattern of global relationships.
Today's multilateralism does not diminish the importance of the U.S.-Japanese alliance. On the contrary, our alliance, which has ensured stability in Asia for 20 years, still does, and serves an essential mutual interest in the new conditions. Secured by her alliance with the United States, Japan can engage herself economically and diplomatically in many directions independently, without fearing for her security or being feared by others. It provides a stable framework for the evolution of Japanese policy. This is a general interest.
The U.S.-Japanese alliance in the new era is thus presented with the same challenge as the Atlantic Alliance. We cannot conduct our individual policies on the basis of self-interest alone, taking our alliance for granted. We have an obligation not to allow our short-term policies to jeopardize our long-term unity, or to allow competitive objectives to threaten the common goals of our political association.
CHALLENGES FOR THE FUTURE
Mature countries do not expect to avoid disputes or conflicts of interest. A mature alliance relationship, however, means facing up to them on the basis of mutuality. It means seriously addressing the underlying causes, not the superficial public events. We are now moving in this direction. We must carry it forward.
This means certain obligations on both sides.
In the economic area, the most urgent and divisive area, we both have an obligation to address and solve the common problem of our trade imbalance. We have a responsibility to the international system to normalize the bilateral economic relationship that bulks so large in the international economy. We have an obligation to keep the specific commitments made to each other. We have an opportunity to explore positive approaches to averting clashes in the future. We have a responsibility to provide positive leadership in the urgent efforts at multilateral reform.
In both the political and the economic dimensions, we have an obligation as allies to pursue our individual objectives in ways that serve also our common purposes. Whether the issue be the worldwide energy problem, or economic or political relations with Communist countries, or the provision of resources to developing countries, there are competitive interests necessarily involved, but also an overriding collective interest in a stable global environment. It will require a conscious effort of political will not to make the key decisions according to short-term economic or political advantage. This is more than a problem of bureaucratic management; it is a test of statesmanship.
The United States will be sensitive to Japan's unique perspective on the world and Japan's special relationship with the United States. To this end, we have redoubled our efforts at consultation. This consultation is institutionalized at several levels and in several channels--through our able Ambassadors; through high-level political consultations such as Dr. Kissinger's three visits to Tokyo in 1972 and 1973; through meetings at the Foreign Minister level such as Mr. Ohira's discussions with Secretary Rogers in Washington in October; through regular Cabinet-level meetings of the Japan-U.S. Committee on Trade and Economic Affairs; and through the three meetings I have had with Japanese Prime Ministers since taking office and the fourth I expect to have this year.
This interchange has a symbolic value in reaffirming a political commitment and also a tangible value in giving it substance.
The same dedication to mutual confidence and close consultation on the part of Japan will be essential as she marks out her independent paths. The complexity of the new diplomacy puts a premium on our steadiness and reliability in all our relationships, particularly with each other.
Japan's foreign policy is for Japan to decide. Both her security and her economic interests, however, link her destiny firmly to that of the free world. I am confident that the political leaders on both sides of the Pacific are deeply conscious of the common interest that our alliance has served, and deeply committed to preserving it.
ASIA AND THE PACIFIC
Since V-E Day in 1945, nearly every American killed in war has died in Asia. That fact alone compels our attention and our concern. But there are other vital facts as well which dictate that the vast, changing, throbbing world of Asia will figure importantly in our thoughts and policy calculations as far ahead as any of us can see. Asia is where half of mankind lives and works and dies. What happens to that half of the human race will have a profound impact on the other half. Asia is also that part of the world where developed and developing nations alike have achieved the greatest levels of economic growth in the past decade. That growing economic power is having a profound influence on the lives of the people involved, their neighbors, and the rest of the world.
The United States has been part of the Asian world since we became involved in the China trade in the early 19th Century, and especially after the Spanish-American War made the Philippines an American responsibility. But after the Pacific phase of World War II, our involvement in Asia deepened enormously. Through bilateral and multilateral arrangements, we became the guarantor of the security of many Asian nations--from Japan and Korea around the rim of Asia to Thailand and on southward to Australia and New Zealand. We also became the principal source of economic and military assistance for many countries in the region. It is against the background of this deep and broad involvement that Asia today has special meaning for most Americans.
But beyond this elaborate record, there are other overriding reasons for our present day concerns about Asia and its future. We continue to have treaty obligations to many Asian allies--promises to help as much as we can to preserve their independence and their right to live their own lives in peace.
That network of alliances takes on special meaning in 'light of Asia's special significance on the world scene today. Asia, and particularly Northeast Asia, is the locus of interaction among four of the five great power centers in our world. China is the heartland of this vast region. Siberia and the Far Eastern territories of the Soviet Union spread across the north of Asia from China to the Arctic, from Europe to the Bering Strait. The islands of Japan form a 2,000-mile crescent just off the mainland, running from the frigid waters of the North Pacific to semi-tropical Okinawa. The fourth major power of the Pacific area is, of course, the United States. The ways in which these powers act and interact will, to a significant degree, shape the future and determine the stability of Asia. At the same time, issues and developments within Asia will play an important part in shaping overall relationships among the major powers.
Failure to achieve the kind of reconciliation toward which we have moved so far in the past year could prove a mortal blow to the structure of peace. That stark reality is what makes the political evolution of Asia critically important to us and to the world.
ASIA: AREA OF CHANGE
Last year I went to Peking, the first American President to visit the People's Republic of China. That visit began the process of overcoming long years of antagonism, suspicion, and open rivalry. Only a few weeks ago, American prisoners of war and the last American troops returned from Vietnam, marking an end to our direct involvement in our longest and most misunderstood war. These developments remind us that change is the immutable law of international life.
Nowhere has the fact of change been more dramatically evident than in Asia over the past generation. Only 25 years ago, Japan was an occupied country and its people were only beginning to dig themselves out of the rubble of war and to rebuild a shattered society. Korea, too, was occupied but also divided at the 38th parallel where a new war was about to explode. China, the most populous nation on earth, was torn by a bloody civil war that would soon turn it into a Communist state. In the Philippines, the United States had carried out its pledge to grant full independence to a proud people. But elsewhere in Asia, colonialism had not yet run its course. The French were trying to restore their control over Indochina. The Dutch were contending with the forces of Indonesian revolution. Malaya was not yet fully independent, and British control over Burma had only just ended.
The scars and trauma of war were everywhere evident. Economies had been badly shattered. Hunger and hopelessness were widespread. A mood of revolution was palpable in the atmosphere of most Asian capitals.
Asia today is a very different region. Former colonial territories have long since achieved independence. Japan has revived to become the third industrial power in the world. Other countries have also enjoyed economic "miracles" of their own, smaller quantitatively than Japan's to be sure. but hardly less impressive in terms of rates of growth. The Republic of Korea is a good example. After the Korean War, many forecasters were predicting that South Korea could survive for decades to come only as a beneficiary of the international dole. But South Korea has proved the prophets wrong, achieving annual rates of economic growth of as much as ten percent, and becoming an important exporter of manufactured goods.
Despite international political fluctuations, the skill and energy of the people of Taiwan have produced remarkable increases in per capita income (more than 13 percent last year) and made Taiwan a leading trading nation. While simultaneously moving toward the goal of normal relations with Peking, the United States has maintained a policy of friendship for the 15 million people of Taiwan. We retain diplomatic ties, commitments under the Mutual Defense Treaty of 1954, and close economic contacts with them.
Thailand, despite the pressures of externally supported insurgency, has continued to make steady economic progress. It has also made an important contribution to regional economic development as well as to the security of the area. Malaysia and Singapore, _with imagination and hard work, have raised living standards and maintained stable political systems. The Philippines have had a worldwide impact through their innovative role in introducing high-yield rice strains as part of the Green Revolution. Indonesia, Southeast Asia's most populous country, is forging ahead under able national leadership. Overall, the non-Communist nations of Asia have achieved a remarkable rate of economic growth averaging close to seven percent a year.
Change in Asia has not been confined to achieving independence and making economic progress. South and North Korea, for example, have begun a dialogue to explore the possibility of settling major differences and have agreed that the ultimate unification of their country must be reached by peaceful means. Only a decade ago, Malaysia and Indonesia were virtually at war; today they are cooperative partners in regional organizations.
Japan has also been engaged in difficult adjustments. A generation ago, there was deep suspicion and bitterness between Japan and Korea. Today, though past scars of a painful history have not entirely healed, the two countries have moved toward a closer and mutually beneficial relationship. Japan and the People's Republic of China had for some time been engaged in commercial and cultural exchanges. Last year they agreed to resume full diplomatic relations. Despite the lack of a formal peace treaty, Japan and the Soviet Union are discussing projects for cooperative development of Siberian natural resources and increasing trade. If successful, these steps could help promote better political and economic relations between them.
The most obvious area of unresolved antagonism in Asia is in Indochina-between North Vietnam and its local followers on the one hand, and the legal governments of South Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia on the other. Cease-fire agreements were reached in January in Vietnam and in February in Laos. These were important and hopeful steps toward ending the conflict in Indochina. At this writing, some fighting continues. It is our deepest hope that this continuing violence will soon end and that lasting peace will be achieved.
THE U.S. RESPONSE TO ASIA
When this Administration took office, we determined that a reordering of our relationships with Asia and with other parts of the world was needed. It seemed to many Americans, as it did to me, that our role was too dominant, our presence too pervasive in the changed circumstances of the 1970's. It was time for others--especially those who had achieved new strength and prosperity--to do more for themselves and for others. The sacrifices of Vietnam and the internal strains it had created played an important part in shaping this outlook. Another determinant was the continuing deficit in our balance of payments and the pressures this put on the dollar and our economic health. These and other factors were even pushing some Americans into a mood of growing isolationism.
We recognized this as the gravest kind of threat. Heedless American abdication of its responsibilities to the world would destroy the global balance and the fabric of peace we had worked so hard and long to develop. Those who relied on us to help assure their security would be gravely concerned. Adversaries who had shown a willingness to reconcile long-standing differences would promptly revise their calculations and alter their actions. It was a prescription for chaos.
And so we charted our course between over-extension and withdrawal. We would continue to play a major and active role in world affairs, but we would ask our allies to draw increasingly on their new strength and on their own determination to be more self-reliant. The immediate context for this definition of policy was the defense of Asia. In July 1969, I outlined at Guam the main elements of this new United States approach.
First, the United States will keep all of its treaty commitments. We will adjust the manner of our support for our allies to new conditions, and we will base our actions on a realistic assessment of our interests. But as a matter of principle, and as a matter of preserving the stability of Asia, we made it clear that the United States would never repudiate its pledged word nor betray an ally.
Second, we shall provide a shield if a nuclear power threatens the freedom of a nation allied with us or of a nation whose survival we consider vital to our security. Maintaining a balance of deterrence among the major powers is the most critical responsibility we bear. We have a special obligation to protect non-nuclear countries against nuclear blackmail and to minimize their incentive to develop nuclear weapons of their own. Only the United States can provide this shield in Asia.
Third, in cases involving other types of aggression we shall furnish military and economic assistance when requested in accordance with our treaty commitments. But we shall look to the nation directly threatened to assume the primary responsibility for providing the manpower for its defense. No nation, large or small, can have any reasonable security unless it is able to mobilize its people and resources for its own defense. Without that kind of national effort, external help cannot fill the vacuum of local indifference against any significant and prolonged threat. Moreover, without a determined local effort, it would be impossible to achieve the kind of broad political support needed in the United States to back another country in any sustained way.
The most important and most obvious application of this new approach to security cooperation was the Vietnamization program which enabled the South Vietnamese to assume the full burden of their own defense. But the Nixon Doctrine has been applied in other countries as well. Japan is gradually expanding its capability for conventional defense of its own territory within its constitutional prohibition against developing offensive forces. There has been expanded joint use of military base areas in Japan, and we are in the process of consolidating many of our base areas, particularly in and around metropolitan Tokyo.
In 1971, we reached an agreement with the Republic of Korea to assist in modernizing its armed forces. At the same time, we reduced U.S. forces stationed in Korea by one-third, bringing home more than 20,000 men. Reduced Congressional appropriations for military assistance in the past two years have forced a slowdown in this program.
The Philippines have become increasingly self-reliant. We have reduced the number of facilities we maintain there and reduced our forces by almost 13,000 men.
In all, in addition to the 550,000 men who have returned from Vietnam, nearly 100,000 American military personnel and dependents have come home from other parts of Asia during this Administration.
The economic dimension of the Nixon Doctrine recognizes that growing self-reliance and confidence must rest on a secure base of economic stability and growth. We are providing technical and financial resources to help friendly nations cope with problems of security and economic development without putting undue strain on their fragile economic base. Other industrial countries are increasing their share of such help. Multilateral participation has increased through cooperation among international developmental institutions, the Asian Development Bank, and the developed countries. The authority to extend generalized tariff preferences which I have requested in my new Trade Reform Bill, would help the developing countries of the region by increasing the potential for their exports and thus expanding their capacity to increase imports and speed their development.
This evolving process has brought us close to our goals--a more balanced American role in security arrangements in Asia, an increase in the capacity and willingness of our alliance partners to carry heavier burdens of responsibility for their own protection, and a more equitable sharing of the material and personal costs of security.
Translation of this doctrine into deeds has made it unmistakably clear to all that we are, and will remain, a Pacific power, maintaining balanced forces in the region. It has also made clear that, while adjusting our role in defensive alliances, we are supporting a compensating increase in the ability of Asians to defend themselves.
These decisions and actions had important consequences. I have no doubt that they influenced Hanoi's decision at long last to negotiate seriously and reach an agreement to end the fighting and return our prisoners. I am convinced that never would have happened if we had decided to end our involvement unilaterally, or if we had not helped South Vietnam to strengthen and improve its own military forces.
Our firmness in Southeast Asia and the maintenance of durable partnerships with our other Asian allies made it possible for us to reach out to other adversaries. And recognizing our determination to remain a power in the Pacific encouraged them to respond positively. The most dramatic example was, of course, my visit to Peking in February 1972 and my meetings there with the leaders of the People's Republic of China.
LOOKING AHEAD
The rapidly changing face of Asia presents those who live there, and others who are deeply involved, with vast opportunities and challenges. The transition from war to peace, the movement from rigid confrontation to gradual accommodation, are heartening signs of what may lie ahead. But nothing is assured in this world, and the promise of progress will be fulfilled only by determination and positive actions on the part of all concerned.
If peace is to be made secure, if men and nations are to be able to continue to advance in reasonable safety, the largest responsibility must be borne by the major powers. It is of critical importance that they continue to move down the path of reconciliation, working together to overcome old bitterness, to settle differences amicably, and to broaden and deepen their efforts to develop new forms of cooperation. Similarly, they must act with the greatest restraint in dealing with each other and with smaller nations. The alternative is renewed confrontation which carries with it the threat of disaster--for those directly involved and for the world.
The smaller nations of Asia will also have to carry heavy responsibilities. The key ingredient of sustained economic progress will continue to be what they do for themselves. The key ingredient of their safety will continue to be the manpower and resources they are willing and able to invest. And their peace will depend heavily on their ability and readiness to overcome historic rivalries, old territorial disputes, and religious and political differences with their neighbors.
A new spirit of cooperation has developed among many of the countries of Asia in recent years. Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and the Philippines are joined in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) to grapple with common concerns of many kinds. The Asian Development Bank and the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (ECAFE) have proved successful instruments for promoting economic progress, and have become outstanding examples of what developed and developing nations can accomplish by working together.
Economic progress and heightened cooperation among Asian nations cannot obscure the many problems facing those nations, or the several dangers shared by them and their friends, including the United States. We have noted many of the promising developments in present day Asia. But it is not foreordained that all or any of them will finally succeed. There are huge obstacles to be overcome--distrust, deep differences of ideology and social systems, political and economic rivalries. Improvements in atmosphere could easily prove ephemeral, especially if many outstanding issues prove too difficult to settle in a reasonable period of time.
Moreover, some long-standing rivalries may prove intractable and dangers will doubtless continue. North Vietnam's ambition to dominate all of Indochina has not diminished, though it may resort to different tactics or alter the time frame for attaining that goal. There is continuing fighting in South Vietnam and a residue of hatred that will persist for a long time. South and North Korea have been talking to each other, but no one who knows the recent history of that troubled peninsula believes that reconciliation will be easy or will come early. There are other disputes and differences between other Asian nations, and none of them will be resolved quickly.
There is promise, however, in the evolving pattern of efforts by most of those concerned with Asia to limit the dangers of military conflicts flowing from political differences. We can hope that all concerned will come to recognize the high stake they have in the process of normalizing relations. Stable balances, local and multilateral, may ultimately turn into a stable system of peace.
The United States has a deep interest in that outcome and responsibilities to help achieve it. One of those responsibilities is to make sure that our strength and will are not undermined to the point where our presence in Asia has lost most of its relevance. For if our friends conclude that they can no longer depend on the United States for at least the critical margin of assistance in protecting themselves, they may feel compelled to compromise with those who threaten them, including the forces of subversion and revolution in their midst. Equally important, if adversaries conclude that we no longer intend to maintain a significant presence, or that our willingness to take stern measures when pushed too far has disappeared, then the importance of reaching balanced agreements with us will have largely evaporated.
The end result could be an abrupt and deeply dangerous upsetting of the balance that has been created--and a disintegration of the bridges to reconciliation whose construction has been so effectively begun.
We shall continue to work closely with the governments and peoples of Asia in their efforts to improve the quality of their lives and raise their standards of living. Obviously, what we do in this area can only supplement the central efforts that they make themselves. But that supplement can be of great importance--both to their progress and to the quality of the political relations we enjoy with those concerned.
The United States will continue to be a major power in Asia and to make its essential contribution to the creation of a stable framework of peace. To that end, we give our pledge:
--to be steadfast and dependable in support of our friends;
--to continue to bear our fair share of the responsibility for the security of our allies;
--to develop, with realism and imagination, new and mutually beneficial relations with former adversaries in Asia;
--to help, within our limitations, the continued impressive economic progress of one of the world's most vital regions; and
--above all, to take every step within our power to prevent the recurrence of conflict in an area that has known so much suffering and sacrifice for so many centuries.
We can do no more. We would not be true to ourselves or to our deepest interests if we did less.
LATIN AMERICA
Over the past four years, our interest has been focused on, and our energies dedicated to, a number of supremely important tasks in the world arena: ending a war in an honorable way; putting our relations with long-standing antagonists on a more rational and workable basis; correcting major imbalances in our trade and monetary relationships; and, above all, creating the foundations for a durable structure of peace.
The time and concentration that have gone into these complicated but absolutely crucial efforts have produced allegations that we were neglecting other problems, other areas, and especially other friendly nations. In Latin America this feeling has been particularly widespread, and it is quite understandable. Most Latin Americans, their governments and institutions have become accustomed to dealing with us on the most intimate basis. The flow of people, information, ideas, capital, and goods between the United States and Latin America has increased greatly, particularly since World War II. In some ways, this created a sense of psychological and economic dependence on the United States.
Meanwhile, U.S. attention to Latin America has seemed to wax and wane. At times we appeared to take Latin America for granted. At other times, our zeal and our sense of "mission" led us to take a tutelary role with our neighbors. When we raised the banner of reform, as in the Alliance for Progress, we sometimes tried to tell our neighbors what they really needed and wanted. While all this was done with good intentions and humanitarian concern, and while our efforts had many positive results, they raised expectations to a level that simply was not realizable. Moreover, our approach tended to increase dependence on the United States--for ideas, for direction, and for money.
At the outset of this Administration, we surveyed the world problems that confronted us, and we made several deliberate decisions regarding our posture toward Latin America. First, we resolved to avoid what we saw as the two basic flaws of past performance: taking our Latin neighbors for granted, assuming that they were irrevocably linked to us by commerce and friendship; and launching a crusade in which we would promise to lead the peoples of the hemisphere to prosperity and happiness under our guidance and our formulas.
Our second decision was that, if we were to have a strong and prospering community of nations in this part of the world, we would have to help develop a new, more healthy relationship among the United States and its neighbors in Latin America and the Caribbean. The kind of mature partnership we envisaged was one in which Latin America would assume increasing responsibility for ideas, for initiatives, and for actions. While the United States would continue to be an active partner, there would be a lessening of the dominant role the United States had previously played.
Thus, we deliberately reduced our visibility on the hemispheric stage, hoping that our neighbors would play more active roles. And they have--not always in perfect harmony, it is true, and sometimes looking more to short-range national advantage than to the possibly greater long-range rewards of cooperation. Still, an open dialogue has begun in the family of the Americas and a more balanced and healthy relationship may be taking shape.
We knew that this course would be criticized by some old friends. There would be those who had become accustomed to old forms and old ways of conducting our common business and who might, therefore, feel we were abandoning them. Others would continue to say "If the Americans aren't in the lead, it won't work" or "If Washington doesn't finance this project, nothing will happen." Others would complain that the United States was concerned mainly with Europe and Asia and was losing interest in Latin America.
These voices have indeed been heard. On the other hand, many leaders and governments have used these years to take a more searching look at their own problems and to develop their own solutions. Some have moved imaginatively to increase their industrial production and foreign trade. A few have taken courageous actions, sometimes putting themselves in political peril, to correct their worst internal economic and social problems. Some have taken effective steps to eliminate terrorism. Of course, not all countries have been willing or able to do these things, and some have failed to provide real benefits for their peoples.
THE POLITICAL CLIMATE
All the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean share the need for economic and social progress. Most have to deal with high rates of unemployment among the unskilled and even the educated youth and severe inequities in the distribution of the wealth produced.
These problems place heavy burdens on the political apparatus of these countries. In addition, many have other strictly political problems. Some nations have only the most fragile tradition of democratic ways. Often, local conditions provide opportunities for political extremists and revolutionaries. Political violence and terrorism continue in some capitals. In others, military forces provide the most stable and disciplined group.
Most governments in the hemisphere recognize these problems and are trying to find solutions--with varying degrees of success. There is an eager striving for both economic progress and social justice. Yet that striving is taking place against heavy odds, and setbacks and discouragement are common.
The upsurge of national efforts to meet pressing internal problems is in part a direct result of rising nationalism. An increasing sense of national identity characterizes every one of the American states. But it is only part of the explanation for their strong desire to overcome internal weakness.
Another component is the fact that pressures for economic development have become so urgent that governments cannot long survive if they ignore the plight of their people. Modern communications have brought the outside world into the most remote areas and made apparent to millions the vast gulf that separates their way of life from that of even an average family in industrially advanced countries. Those millions are no longer content to accept hunger and poverty and injustice as their preordained lot. They are increasingly less patient with governments that fail to produce results quickly. Any government that ignores this broadening demand for progress does so at its own jeopardy.
As a result, new governments have arrived on the scene in many countries with leaders promising to do more for their people. Some have achieved power through the electoral process; others have seized power. Many members of these governments are from the military services. Styles of operation vary from capital to capital. In some cases, there is a tendency to seek support by appealing to xenophobic attitudes and adopting anti-American themes. In the long run, however, performance will count the most in shaping the judgments of the people.
THE U.S. RESPONSE
It would be an error to ignore the role the United States has played in helping to encourage Latin America's move toward greater self-reliance. For from the Rio Grande to Tierra del Fuego, governments and peoples have come to recognize that the days of relying principally on North America to solve their problems have ended. We and others can help, of course. Indeed, some problems can only be solved with the understanding cooperation of others. But the solutions will require each country's own initiative and imagination and energy. I am convinced that the low-keyed course we have followed over the past four years--the avoidance of slogans and gimmickry, the emphasis on Latin initiatives--has helped in an important way to provide the basis for a stronger, healthier, and more realistic relationship among the members of our hemispheric community.
Accommodation to the diversity of the world community is the keystone of our current policy. That does not diminish our clearly stated preference for free and democratic processes and for governments based thereon. Nor does it weaken our firmly-held conviction that an open economic system and the operation of the market economy are the engines that best generate economic advance. But it does mean that we must be prepared to deal realistically with governments as they are, provided, of course, that they do not endanger security or the general peace of the area.
In Latin America, as in other parts of the world, most of the day-to-day relations of the United States are handled through the bilateral channels of traditional diplomacy. Most of us cannot know how extensive this effort is, how varied, and how time consuming. Cables flow in and out around the clock. A Congressional delegation is visiting here; an American student has been thrown in jail there; a fishing boat has been seized; an investment contract has been signed; an earthquake has leveled half a city. Many of these events never come to the attention of the American public. But our bilateral relations--and the continuing, intensive contacts, consultations and communications they require--provide the foundation and the framework of our foreign relations.
Because of the important role they play in so many countries of Latin America, a special word should be devoted to our relations with the military forces of the hemisphere. Those forces represent a key element in almost all Latin American societies, and in many they have assumed national leadership. Because we have recognized their various roles and because of our mutual security interests, we have developed over the years close ties of cooperation and friendship with many of the military leaders of Latin America. We work cooperatively with them in a variety of ways--combined exercises, conferences, joint mapping ventures. Many of these leaders have attended our advanced training and technical schools. Because of the nature of military organizations, these ties have largely been handled through professional channels.
At one time, the United States was by far the principal source of military equipment for Latin American governments. After World War II, and again after the Korean War, surplus military supplies enabled us to fill most of the hemisphere's needs. But that picture has changed remarkably. We estimate that the governments of Latin America have ordered in the last four years more than $1.2 billion worth of military equipment from third countries, principally from Britain, France, West Germany, Canada, Italy, and the Netherlands. That is about six times more than they bought from the United States.
There are several possible reasons for this dramatic shift. In some cases, European sellers have provided highly attractive terms of sale. In other cases, the precise equipment wanted was not immediately available from the United States but was from Europe. Some countries may have wished to reduce their dependence on the United States and to develop other sources of military supplies. But one important reason for Europe's ascendancy in this field has been the limitations we have imposed on ourselves-for example, by fixing annual ceilings on sales of military equipment worldwide and in this hemisphere, and by restricting credit for such sales.
What is involved is the requisition by Latin American countries of relatively modest amounts of equipment for replacement of materiel and for modernization. Our hopes that by unilaterally restricting sales we could discourage our Latin neighbors from diverting money to military equipment and away from development needs have proved unrealistic. And the cost to us has been considerable: in friction with Latin American governments because of our paternalism, and in valuable military relationships which, in turn, provide an important channel for communication across a wide spectrum and influence our total relationships. The domestic costs are also high: in lost employment for our workers, lost profits for business, and loss of balance of payments advantages for our nation.
THE INTER-AMERICAN SYSTEM
Beyond our purely bilateral relations, there are important institutions and forums in which several or all of the states of the Americas are associated. And for some of these institutions, a moment of truth has arrived.
In 1822, the United States established diplomatic relations with Colombia. We thus became the first nation outside Latin America to recognize the independence and sovereignty of a Latin American state. Over the ensuing 150 years, formal and informal bonds linking the nations of the Western Hemisphere have expanded and grown strong. Gradually, machinery was developed to provide for increasing cooperation and consultation in this family of nations. It makes up what is called the inter-American system. It has been said that if this machinery had not existed, we would have been forced to invent it. But it does exist--in the Rio Treaty; in the Inter-American Development Bank; in the Organization of American States and its associated bodies, including the Economic and Social Council, the Council for Science, Education and Culture; and in the many other groups and organizations through which we work together.
The question now facing us is not whether these organizations have served useful purposes in the past, but whether they are organized to best serve the current interests of the Americas.
In a thoughtful discussion I had not long ago with Dr. Carlos Sanz de Santamaria, the distinguished Latin American diplomat and economist, he argued that, "The time is ripe to begin developing new forms of hemispheric cooperation." He suggested: "We should identify the many areas in which the best interests of Latin America and the United States converge. Our joint interests in improving the quality of life everywhere in this hemisphere are overriding. They far surpass the issues that have brought about confrontation in recent years or have led many to focus on the divergent interests of Latin America and the United States."
I agree. There has been an unfortunate tendency among some governments, in some organizations, to make forums for cooperation into arenas of confrontation. This phenomenon was evident at the recent meeting of the UN Security Council in Panama. There has also been a tendency to develop Latin American positions-often on a lowest-common-denominator basis--which fail to take realistic account of viewpoints strongly held by the United States. These efforts tend to provoke reactions contrary to those sought. We must recognize the dangers inherent in such an approach.
We should not deal with important questions in an emotional mood or react out of pique or frustration. The kind of mature partnership we all seek calls for calm reflection and a reasonable exchange of views. In my message to the recent OAS General Assembly, I noted: "That kind of partnership implies that there are common goals to which we aspire. It implies a trust and confidence in one another. It implies that we can attain our goals more effectively by pursuing them more cooperatively. Above all, it implies that we consider interdependence an essential ingredient in the life of our hemisphere."
For our part, we shall actively support and participate in the review of ways in which we can most effectively achieve political cooperation and economic and social development in this hemisphere. This process has begun--at the meeting of the Inter-American Economic and Social Council in Bogota in February 1973 and, most importantly, at the General Assembly of the OAS in April. It is our hope that this process of careful review will produce stronger and more effective ways to identify and advance our common interests in the final quarter of the 20th Century.
Any discussion of the inter-American system raises the question of Cuba. We are asked: if it is desirable to seek reconciliation with countries like the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union, why do we not seek the same with Cuba? In fact, the situations are quite different. I have dealt with our relations with Peking and Moscow elsewhere in this Report. As for Cuba, our policy strongly supports decisions taken after careful study by the overwhelming majority of members of the Organization of American States. Those decisions were based on the conclusion that Cuba's active encouragement and support for the subversion of legitimate governments in the hemisphere represented a threat to peace and security in this part of the world.
Havana's rhetoric in support of violent revolution has diminished somewhat, and it is selecting its targets for subversion with greater care. But extremists and revolutionaries from many Latin American countries are still being trained in Cuba today in the techniques of guerrilla war, in sabotage, and subversion. Those trained agents and saboteurs are then returned to their home countries, or to neighboring countries, to carry out violence against established governments. Money and arms flow from Cuba to underground groups in some countries. This activity continues to threaten the stability of our hemisphere.
A second reason for concern is that Cuba became the first member of the American family to welcome into the hemisphere the armed power of a non-American state. That action created, among other things, the Cuban missile crisis of 1962. And there is no evidence that Havana's military ties with Moscow have markedly changed.
One final consideration: one obvious way to undercut the prestige and effectiveness of any international body is for individual members to act alone contrary to joint decisions. We have assured fellow members of the OAS that the United States will not act unilaterally in this matter. We will consider a change in policy toward Cuba when Cuba changes its policy toward the other countries of the hemisphere. But in considering any change, we shall act in concert with our fellow members of the OAS.
THE ECONOMIC CLIMATE
Wc have considered some of the political forces at work in the hemisphere. It is equally important to look at economic developments. These underscore both the progress that has been made as well as the profound problems that beg for early solution.
Economic growth in Latin America as a whole continued at a healthy pace last year, possibly exceeding the 6.3 percent rate achieved in 1971. On the other side of the ledger, the area's high rate of population increase--nearly three percent overall-added millions of new mouths to feed and cut per capita income growth to less than four percent. Nevertheless, this was still well above the 2.5 percent set as a goal for the hemisphere in the early 1960's.
The most impressive economic growth was achieved in the largest country of the area, Brazil, where the GNP is estimated to be more than 10 percent above the 1971 level. Mexico's economy advanced substantially, with exports reaching $1.8 billion last year, up almost 23 percent over 1971. Argentina's trade also grew after a disastrous trade deficit in 1971. Colombia cut its trade deficit in half and exports were at record high levels. Venezuela enjoyed its usual healthy trade surplus.
In most of the countries of the hemisphere, however, inflation continued to eat away at the fruits of economic growth. Some governments were willing to take the stern financial and economic measures needed to bring it under control. Those that did not---or that were guided by political rather than economic motives-watched prices and wages spiral upward and living standards decline. Once-prosperous Chile saw its inflation rate reach an estimated 180 percent, accompanied by shortages of food and consumer goods.
Foreign trade, an essential ingredient of economic development, enjoyed a healthy expansion in Latin America as a whole. In 1972, Latin American exports to the United States rose to $6.2 billion, 18 percent more than in 1971. Trade with Europe and Asia also expanded. Over the past two years, Latin America's foreign exchange reserves have increased by more than $2 billion, to $8.9 billion by the end of 1972.
The United States remains determined to improve our own trading relations with Latin America because we recognize that growing trade is good for all concerned. As Latin American economies develop, they become an increasingly important market for U.S. goods--for everything from wheat to tractors to computers. And a steadily expanding U.S. economy can absorb a growing volume of Latin America's products, not only of raw materials but increasingly of component parts, semi-processed goods, and finished manufactured products. To encourage this trade, we have introduced legislation to provide preferential access to the U.S. market for products of developing countries. Surely this most prosperous of all nations should do no less in extending the hand of cooperation to our neighbors in this hemisphere and to others in the developing world.
Meanwhile, approaching worldwide trade negotiations place our bilateral and regional trading problems in the Western Hemisphere in a larger context. Our initiatives in pressing for these new negotiations received welcome support from most of our Latin American trading partners. Members of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, at their meetings in Geneva in late 1972, paid considerable attention to the concerns of developing countries. To deal with these and other matters, the members organized a Preparatory Committee to develop procedures for the coming negotiations. Membership in that committee is open, not only to GATT Contracting Parties, but to all developing countries who want to take part.
Major steps are also being taken in the monetary and financial areas that will alter greatly the international economic system. The annual meetings of the World Bank and International Monetary Fund last September were landmark events in the world of international finance. The Committee of Twenty has been established under the IMF, with three of its members from Latin America, to develop new and more workable mechanisms for the world's monetary relationships.
While production, trade, and foreign exchange reserves have increased substantially, serious economic and social problems continue to beset many of the nearly 300 million inhabitants of Central and South America and the Caribbean. The gross national product of the region averaged close to $600 per person over the last two years. But about one-half of the people have a per capita income of less than $250, and for one-fifth of the people the figure is less than $150. In most countries there is only one doctor for every 2,000 or 3,000 people and life expectancy is 50 years or less in half a dozen countries. High rates of illiteracy in much of Latin America represent a huge social deficit, virtually eliminating all hope for progress among millions of people.
THE U.S. RESPONSE
The United States cannot solve these great social and economic problems, nor can the world community. The initiative must come from the peoples and governments concerned. But we are helping, and we will continue to do so. In fiscal year 1972, United States bilateral assistance to Latin America and the Caribbean amounted to $338 million. We provided an additional $103 million under the Food for Peace program. Our Export-Import Bank extended long-term loans of more than $500 million to help fund important development programs.
This direct assistance is designed to meet specific needs that can best be handled on a bilateral basis. Nevertheless, we have long realized that bilateral aid is often a cause of friction between governments and the target of local criticism, however biased and unfair. Extreme leftist critics regularly attack their governments for accepting U.S. aid and thereby becoming "puppets." Obviously, no country is obliged to accept aid. But in an atmosphere of increasing nationalism, we recognize that such allegations, however unfounded, have political and emotional impact.
To meet this problem, we have deliberately worked to balance our economic assistance efforts between bilateral programs and cooperative efforts through multinational organizations. In the mid-1960's, roughly two-thirds of our aid to Latin America was bilateral. Today, the proportion has been reversed and two-thirds of our aid flows through multinational organizations such as the Inter-American Development Bank, the World Bank, and the United Nations Development Program.
These multinational programs have several advantages. It is politically easier for a country to accept assistance from an international bank or other organization than from one country. And international organizations can impose strict conditions for loans on economic grounds without opening the door to charges of political "meddling."
It is regrettable that U.S. contributions to the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) have lagged in the past year. The Administration will make a strong effort to persuade the Congress to correct this deficiency and provide the necessary appropriations to meet our pledge. The continued effective functioning of the IDB will hinge in large part on the full cooperation of the United States.
Our firm support for economic development in the Western Hemisphere is good politics and good economics. We live with other nations of the hemisphere in one neighborhood. And no neighborhood is a very healthy place if many of its people are living daily with poverty, disease, and frustration. People forced to live at the fringe of survival cannot produce the goods the human family needs, master the technology that makes progress achievable, or buy the products of other people's labor. They cannot become full partners in the 20th Century.
Economic development is a product of many forces. The most critical factor is the most obvious--what a people and their government are prepared and able to do for themselves. Trade is another essential element for healthy growth. Beyond that, direct bilateral assistance and multilateral funding can provide the capital and technological expertise for success. But there is a fourth element in successful development, often underestimated and more often misunderstood, and that is private investment.
Foreign investment can provide a highly efficient and effective channel for the flow of modern technology, which is so sorely needed by developing countries.
It can broaden production and employment. More than that, inflows of foreign capital help to stimulate the mobilization of local capital for development tasks. As one looks at the record of economic growth among developed and developing countries alike over the past two or three decades, it is not accidental that the most rapid growth has occurred in countries that provided a healthy climate for private investment.
There is, of course, a legitimate concern about specific forms of foreign investment and the terms under which foreign businesses operate. Every country, whether underdeveloped or advanced, imposes restrictions on types and levels of external involvement in its economy. These restrictions can and should be worked out in ways that protect the legitimate interests of both investors and recipients.
The evident economic advantages of sound foreign investment responsibly adapted to the needs of developing countries have not been effectively explained to most local public. Increasingly, foreign investment has become the special target of extreme nationalists and leftist politicians. In some cases, governments have tried to use foreign companies as political lightning rods or as scapegoats for their own shortcomings.
These factors--nationalism, ideological hostility, and the search for scapegoats-have led some governments to seize foreign assets and to cancel the contracts under which foreign companies were operating. Under international law, any sovereign government has a right to expropriate property for public purposes. But that same international law requires adequate and prompt compensation for the investors or owners.
Moreover, one can fairly question, on economic grounds alone, the wisdom of many such seizures. It is not uncommon for a foreign company, although it is providing considerable local employment and paying sizable taxes, to be seized, only to have the successor enterprise run by the government, provide less production and smaller income for the state. Financial resources often required to subsidize the operation of seized properties and to maintain inflated payrolls could be used much more beneficially for other, badly needed local investment.
Expropriations, even when there is fair compensation, can create deep concern among those whose resources developing countries wish to attract---commercial banks, international lending institutions, private investors. Such actions tend to dry up sources of investment for other purposes.
All these factors--the legitimate protection of American businesses abroad, the requirements of international law, the preservation of a reasonable and mutually beneficial atmosphere for foreign investment-led us in early 1972 to define our policy toward expropriations. We have made it clear that if an American firm were seized without reasonable efforts to make effective payment, we would provide no new bilateral economic assistance to the expropriating country. We would consider exceptions only if there were overriding humanitarian concerns or other major factors involving our larger interests. Nor would we support applications for loans by such countries in international development institutions.
The book value of U.S. investments in Latin America has risen to more than $16 billion. But our Latin American friends point out that the rate of growth of U.S. investment has been less in their countries than in Europe and Asia. The difference is accounted for in part, perhaps decisively, by the judgment investors make regarding the relative welcome their investments will receive.
Changes in attitudes toward investment will take time. But we believe these changes are underway in most parts of the hemisphere, in the private as well as the public sector. We are moving toward a better understanding that private investments, properly managed, operating under reasonable conditions, and sensitive to the needs and aspirations of the societies in which they function, can be mutually advantageous to investors and recipients.
CURRENT PROBLEMS
In October 1969, I said that our policy toward Latin America would be based on five principles:
--firm commitment to the inter-American system;
--respect for national identity and national dignity;
--continued U.S. assistance to economic development;
--belief that this assistance should take the form of U.S. support for Latin American initiatives and should be extended primarily on a multilateral basis;
--dedication to improving the quality of life in the New World. Those principles remain as valid today as when I first stated them. In candor, however, we must admit that our performance has not always been fully what we and our friends may have wished. I believe we can do better in our second term. I am determined that we shall do better. We owe it to those who created and passed along the unique inter-American system. We should leave to those who will inherit our works a structure of peaceful cooperation more effective than the one we found.
A number of bilateral and multilateral problems call for urgent attention. If we can solve them, or at least move toward their solution, we can create a new and positive atmosphere in our hemisphere.
The single most important irritant in relations with our nearest Latin neighbor, Mexico, is the high salinity of the waters of the Colorado River diverted to Mexico under our 1944 Water Treaty. I discussed this matter with President Echeverria last June. My personal representative, former Attorney General Herbert Brownell, has been working intensively on this problem and has made his recommendations to me. We shall soon be presenting our Mexican neighbors with what I hope will be a permanent, definitive, and just solution. With mutual understanding and common efforts, I believe this problem can be removed from the agenda of outstanding issues.
Another serious problem, of deep concern to every responsible government, is the illegal flow of narcotics across national boundaries. Some of these drugs are produced in the Western Hemisphere. And some Latin American countries have been used by international drug traffickers as a channel for drugs from Europe, the Middle East, and Asia into this hemisphere and on to the United States.
Over the past year, we and many Latin American governments have made intensive efforts to restrict this dangerous flow. Our common effort has taken a variety of forms: special training for customs and immigration agents; improved equipment ranging from two-way radios to helicopters; exchanges of intelligence data; tightened anti-drug laws; extradition treaties, and others. It is vitally important that we press forward with the campaign to destroy this dangerous traffic which menaces us all, especially our young.
Another international issue that confronts the Americas, as well as the rest of the world community, concerns the law of the sea. Every country, whether or not it touches on an international body of water, is affected. The problems include: the extent to which any nation can claim adjoining waters as its territorial sea; the proper limit on each nation's control over the resources in and under the sea; guarantees of the rights of free passage through international straits and other navigational freedoms; the preservation of the marine environment; and the status of traditional high seas freedoms. Resolution of these and many related questions are of profound importance to all nations. Political, economic, and security interests of the highest sensitivity will have to be considered.
An international conference on the law of the sea will soon be convened to consider and solve these complicated problems. We know it will not be easy. But we know, too, that an effective agreement that deals equitably with the vital concerns of all nations would be a landmark in international affairs.
In the Americas, maritime disputes have centered on the question of fishing rights in waters that we consider to be beyond the limits of national jurisdiction which a state may claim under international law, but that some of our neighbors claim as their territorial seas or exclusive resource zones. These differences have sometimes led to confrontations, including the seizure of U.S. fishing boats and the imposition of heavy fines. Neither party to this kind of dispute enjoys any real benefit. Indeed, both suffer because of the resulting exacerbation of political, economic, and security relations.
The real point is not fishing rights or retaliation. Rather it is: what rules shall govern the use of the oceans? If countries make unilateral claims over ocean space without international agreement, conflict over uses of the area and its resources are inevitable. We believe that the Law of the Sea Conference provides the appropriate forum for resolving outstanding law of the sea problems. We intend to work with the Latin Americans and all other nations toward achieving a timely and successful conference.
Another important unresolved problem concerns the Panama Canal and the surrounding Zone. U.S. operation of the Canal and our presence in Panama are governed by the terms of a treaty drafted in 1903. The world has changed radically during the 70 years this treaty has been in effect. Latin America has changed. Panama has changed. And the terms of our relationship should reflect those changes in a reasonable way.
For the past nine years, efforts to work out a new treaty acceptable to both parties have failed. That failure has put considerable strain on our relations with Panama. It is time for both parties to take a fresh look at this problem and to develop a new relationship between us--one that will guarantee continued effective operation of the Canal while meeting Panama's legitimate aspirations.
LOOKING TO THE FUTURE
I intend to underscore our deep interest in Latin America through expanded personal involvement. Last year, I emphasized my concern by sending two personal representatives, former Secretary of the Treasury Connally and Federal Reserve Chairman Burns, to a number of countries in Latin America. The detailed and perceptive reports I received from these special envoys helped to keep me abreast of current problems and developments. This year, I will be consulting with my fellow presidents in the hemisphere and with other knowledgeable Latin Americans on our future course. I have asked Secretary of State Rogers to visit Latin America to convey our intention to continue to work closely with our neighbors. And I plan to make at least one visit to Latin America this year.
At the same time, I hope Members of the Congress will travel to the area and see what is happening in this part of the world. Such visits could produce new insights into the complex problems we and our neighbors confront. They would provide an awareness of what able and dedicated Americans are doing in those countries. And it would create a base of knowledge from which understanding legislative action might come.
I urge the Congress to take a new and thorough look at existing legislation that affects our relations with Latin America. We need to study, for example, whether various legislative restrictions serve the purposes for which they were designed. Do they deter other governments from various actions, such as seizing fishing boats? Or do they merely make the solution of such problems more difficult? I believe some current restrictions are entirely too rigid and deprive us of the flexibility we need to work out mutually beneficial solutions.
Similarly, we should inquire whether current limitations on military equipment sales serve our interests and whether they promote or weaken our cooperation with Latin America. I believe our unilateral efforts to restrict arms sales have helped contribute to the rise of nationalist feelings and to the growing resentment against remnants of U.S. paternalism. The irritation thus aroused helps explain at least some of our problems in other matters. I urge the Congress to take a hard look at this problem and to take steps to rectify past errors. For I think we have been hurting ourselves more than anyone else by insisting on such limitations, and harming our relations with Latin America in the process.
I noted earlier the problem .of modernizing the machinery of cooperation and consultation in the inter-American system. This process has now begun. We look forward to working with Latin America to make the inter-American system more responsive to modern needs. This will require imagination and initiative from all concerned. It also calls for a hardheaded assessment of existing institutions. Are they effective? Are they doing what is most needed? Are they accurately defining the most urgent needs? In prescribing actions, do they take into full account the material, political, and psychological limitations under which all governments must function? I have instructed my advisors to give this matter close attention in the months ahead, and I feel confident that other heads of government will do the same. By focusing on the many areas in which the best interests of Latin America and the United States converge, we can begin a new and promising phase of hemispheric cooperation.
Over the next four years, the United States will be heavily engaged in giving substance to the new world order that now is taking shape. High on the agenda will be problems of world trade and of strengthening the international monetary system. These matters will be of special concern to Latin America as it continues to expand its exports outside the hemisphere. Because we recognized this interest, we strongly supported the inclusion of three Latin American governments in the Committee of Twenty that is considering monetary reform. As we move into this period of intensive trade and monetary negotiations, it will be to our mutual advantage if the United States and neighboring governments work closely together on these issues. We have many shared interests in assuring an expansion of world trade and in preventing the rise of restrictive trading blocs which would inhibit the growth of U.S. and Latin American commerce. We therefore plan to undertake intensive consultation with Latin American governments and representatives-in the OAS and its organs, the Inter-American Development Bank, the International Monetary Fund, GATT, and other appropriate bodies. The process of hemispheric cooperation can be strengthened as we confront these difficult issues together.
Over the next four years, we will also continue our assistance efforts--through bilateral and multilateral channels--to help improve the quality of life of all the people of this hemisphere.
As we move toward the end of our first 200 years as a nation--and toward the end of a troubled century--we face many exciting challenges. They will require the best that is in us. But we now have a framework for peaceful cooperation on which to build. And as we build, the lives and health and happiness of the hundreds of millions of people living in Latin America will be in the forefront of our concern.
PART IV: REGIONS OF TENSION AND OPPORTUNITY
--Middle East
--Africa
THE MIDDLE EAST
Peace in the Middle East is central to the global structure of peace. Strategically, the Middle East is a point where interests of the major powers converge. It is a reservoir of energy resources on which much of the world depends. Politically, it is a region of diversity, dynamism, and turmoil, rent by national, social, and ideological division--and of course by the Arab-Israeli conflict. Two world wars and the rising tide of nationalism have broken down the pre-1914 order, but new patterns of stability have not yet been established. Modern quarrels have compounded long-standing ones. Because of the area's strategic importance, outside powers have continued to involve themselves, often competitively. Several times since World War II, the Middle East has been an arena of major crisis.
The irony is that the Middle East also has such great potential for progress and peaceful development. Of all the regions of the developing world, the Middle East, because of its wealth, is uniquely not dependent on the heavy infusion of capital resources from outside. Its wealthier nations have been willing and able to provide the capital for their own development and have begun to assist their neighbors' development. Mechanisms of regional self-reliance and cooperation are already functioning. The yearning for unity is strong within the Arab world; it has deep historical and cultural roots and its positive thrust has found new expression in these cooperative enterprises.
The region's drive for self-reliance matches the philosophy of United States foreign policy in a new era. Technical assistance and the provision of skills, now the most relevant forms of external aid in much of the Middle East, are forms of aid which the United States is uniquely capable of providing and can sustain over a long term. The United States has long been a champion of the region's independence from colonial or other external domination. In conditions of peace, there is a natural community of interest between the United States and all the nations of the Middle East--an interest in the region's progress, stability, and independence.
The requirements of peace in the Middle East are not hard to define in principle. It requires basic decisions by the countries of the Middle East to pursue political solutions and coexist with one another. Outside powers with interests in the area must accept their responsibility for restraint and for helping to mitigate tensions rather than exploiting them for their own advantage.
These are principles which the United States has sought to engage the other great powers in observing. Coexistence, negotiated solutions, avoiding the use or threat of force, great power restraint, noninterference, respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of states, renunciation of hegemony or unilateral advantage these are the principles of the Shanghai CommuniquпїЅ of February 1972 and the Basic Principles of U.S.-Soviet Relations of May 1972. They are not new principles; every member state of the United Nations has subscribed to their essential elements. The UN Security Council in passing Resolution 242 on November 22, 1967, envisioned a settlement of the Arab-Israeli dispute that would be consistent with them--a settlement which would include "withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from territories occupied in the recent conflict; termination of all claims or states of belligerency and respect for and acknowledgement of the sovereignty, territorial integrity and political independence of every state in the area and their right to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries free from threats or acts of force."
A commitment to such principles by the outside powers is itself a contribution to the framework for peace in the Middle East. A similar commitment by the principal countries directly involved, concretely expressed in processes of negotiation, is essential.
THE ARAB-ISRAELI CONFLICT
The focus of attention in the Middle East has been the prolonged crisis of the Arab-Israeli conflict and the persistent efforts to resolve it.
In my first Foreign Policy Report three years ago, I pointed out the serious elements of intractability that marked this conflict. It was a dispute in which each side saw vital interests at stake that could not be compromised. To Israel, the issue was survival. The physical security provided by the territories it occupied in 1967 seemed a better safeguard than Arab commitments to live in peace in exchange for return of all those territories commitments whose reliability could be fully tested only after Israel had withdrawn.
To the Arabs, negotiating new borders directly with Israel, as the latter wished, while Israel occupied Arab lands and while Palestinian aspirations went unfulfilled, seemed incompatible with justice and with the sovereignty of Arab nations. A powerful legacy of mutual fear and mistrust had to be overcome. Until that was done no compromise formula for settlement was acceptable to either side. To the major powers outside, important interests and relationships were at stake which drew them into positions of confrontation.
The problem remains. For this very reason, I have said that no other crisis area of the world has greater importance or higher priority for the United States in the second term of my Administration. At the beginning of this year I met personally with Jordan's King Hussein, Egyptian Presidential Adviser Hafiz Ismail, and Israeli Prime Minister Meir to renew explorations for a solution.
The United States has no illusions. Instant peace in the Middle East is a dream--yet the absence of progress toward a settlement means an ever-present risk of wider war, and a steady deterioration of the prospects for regional stability and for constructive relations between the countries of the area and the world outside. Arab-Israeli reconciliation may seem impossible--but in many areas of the world, accommodations not fully satisfactory to either side have eased the intensity of conflict and provided an additional measure of security to both sides. Peace cannot be imposed from outside--but I am convinced that a settlement in the Middle East is in the national interest of the United States and that for us to abandon the quest for a settlement would be inconsistent with our responsibility as a great power.
The issue for the United States, therefore, is not the desirability of an Arab-Israeli settlement, but how it can be achieved. The issue is not whether the United States will be involved in the effort to achieve it, but how the United States can be involved usefully and effectively.
The Last Four Years. Over the last four years, the United States has taken a series of initiatives and explored a variety of approaches to promoting a negotiating process. The effort has resulted in restoration of the cease-fire along the Suez Canal. It has also provided sharp definition of the issues and basic negotiating positions of the parties and a measure of realism on all sides. However, we have not succeeded in establishing a negotiating process between the parties or in achieving any substantive agreement concrete enough to break the impasse.
In 1969, starting from Resolution 242, four permanent members of the Security Council, and the United States and Soviet Union in particular, began to discuss a framework for an Arab-Israeli settlement in order to explore how the outside powers might usefully relate to the process of settlement. Their approaches differed, but the discussions illuminated the issues that divided them. By late 1969 and early 1970, significant further progress seemed unlikely for the time being.
In the summer of 1970, with the Four Power discussions stalemated and the military conflict along the Suez Canal escalating sharply with the active participation of Soviet air and air defense units, the United States launched a major initiative to reestablish the cease fire and to start negotiations. The firing stopped on August 7, but the start of negotiations was delayed by the violation in Egypt of a related military standstill agreement. A month later the authority of the Government of Jordan was challenged by the Palestinian guerrillas and an invasion from Syria. The challenge was put down, and the return of stability enhanced the ability of the Jordanian government to address the question of peace.
Early in 1971, Ambassador Jarring, the special representative of the UN Secretary General, began discussions with Israel and Egypt to try to promote agreement between the parties in accordance with his mandate under Resolution 242. When this effort lost momentum by the end of February 1971, attention shifted to the possibility of a step-by-step approach to peace, beginning with a limited pullback of Israeli troops from the Suez Canal and the opening of the Canal. At the request of Egypt and Israel, Secretary Rogers explored this approach. Talks to this end, which occupied most of the summer and fall, tried to grapple with these basic issues: the relationship of such an interim agreement to an overall peace agreement; the distance of the limited Israeli withdrawal; the nature of the Egyptian presence in the evacuated territory; the timing of Israel's use of the Canal; and the duration of the cease fire. In late 1971 and early 1972, the United States sought, again without success, to initiate indirect negotiations under its aegis between Egypt and Israel on an interim agreement.
In 1972, attention again focused on the relationship of the United States and the Soviet Union to the Middle East problem. At the Moscow Summit in May both sides reviewed their positions and reaffirmed their readiness to play a part in bringing about a settlement based on Resolution 242. The United States emphasized that a genuine negotiating process between the nations in the area was essential. The danger of inadvertent great power confrontation over the Middle East was reduced by the Moscow Summit, and also by a decision by the Government of Egypt in July to request the withdrawal of most Soviet military personnel from Egypt.
American policy has sought in other ways to promote stability in the Middle East and to preserve the possibility of solution by negotiation rather than by force of arms. During the September 1970 crisis in Jordan, the United States acted firmly to deter a wider war and dampen a dangerous situation. Throughout the period, this Administration continued its established policy of maintaining a military balance in the Middle East. I have said many times that an arms balance is essential to stability in that area--but that it alone cannot bring peace. The search for a negotiated settlement must continue.
The cease-fire reestablished in 1970 at American initiative continues to this day, and remains essential to any hope for a peaceful settlement of the Arab-Israeli conflict. The cessation of organized fighting has not only saved hundreds and perhaps thousands of lives; it has also preserved a climate that would permit negotiation. But the cease-fire will necessarily remain uneasy unless the hope for peace can be sustained by active negotiations.
A serious threat to the cease-fire and to the prospects for any political solution is the bitterness engendered by the mounting spiral of terrorism and reprisal. Terrorist acts took on a new and horrible dimension last year with the shootings at Israel's Lod Airport in the spring, where a number of Americans lost their lives, and the murder of Israeli athletes at the Munich Olympics in September. This was followed during the fall by a series of Israeli attacks on Lebanese and Syrian military installations as well as on Palestinian guerrilla bases in Lebanon and Syria. A Libyan civilian airliner was downed by Israeli aircraft while straying over the Sinai in February 1973. The following month, terrorists murdered two American diplomats and a Belgian diplomat held hostage in Khartoum. In April 1973, terrorists attacked Israeli targets in Cyprus, and Israel attacked headquarters and installations of fedayeen organizations in and around Beirut, killing three prominent Palestinian militants.
International terrorism is not exclusively an Arab-Israeli problem; it is an international problem, which the United States has made a major international effort to combat. But a generation of frustration among displaced Palestinians has made the Middle East a particular focal point for such violence.
The Situation Today. America's objective in the Middle East is still to help move the Arab-Israeli dispute from confrontation to negotiation and then toward conditions of peace as envisioned in UN Security Council Resolution 242.
But a solution cannot be imposed by the outside powers on unwilling governments. If we tried, the parties would feel no stake in observing its terms, and the outside powers would be engaged indefinitely in enforcing them. A solution can last only if the parties commit themselves to it directly. Serious negotiation will be possible, however, only if a decision is made on each side that the issues must be finally resolved by a negotiated settlement rather than by the weight or threat of force. This is more than a decision on the mechanics of negotiation; it is a decision that peace is worth compromise. It should be possible to enter such negotiations without expecting to settle all differences at once, without preconditions, and without conceding principles of honor or justice.
Two negotiating tracks have been discussed. One is Ambassador Jarring's effort to help the parties reach agreement on an overall peace settlement. The second is the offer of the United States to help get talks started on an interim agreement as a first step to facilitate negotiations on an overall settlement.
A persistent impasse, which is substantive as well as procedural, has blocked both of these approaches. It is rooted primarily in the opposing positions of the two sides on the issue of the territories. Israel has insisted that its borders should be the subject of negotiations and that substantial changes in the pre-1967 lines are necessary. Egypt, while stating its readiness to enter into a peace agreement with Israel, has insisted that before it could enter negotiations, even on an interim agreement, Israel must commit itself to withdraw to the pre-1967 lines. Jordan has also made clear its commitment to a peaceful settlement with Israel, but insists on the return of the occupied West Bank without substantial border changes and on restoration of a sovereign position in the Arab part of Jerusalem.
Recognizing the difficulty of breaking the impasse in one negotiating step--of reconciling Arab concern for sovereignty with Israeli concern for security--the United States has favored trying to achieve agreement first on an interim step. Since both Egypt and Israel asked us in 1971 to help them negotiate such an interim agreement, we proposed indirect talks between representatives of the two sides brought together at the same location. In February 1972, Israel agreed to enter talks on this basis; Egypt has expressed reservations about any negotiations in the absence of prior Israeli commitment to total withdrawal from Sinai in an overall settlement.
The dilemmas are evident. Egypt's willingness to take new steps, for example, is inhibited by the fear that further concessions could erode the principle of sovereignty without assuring that Israel is interested in reaching agreement or will make appropriate concessions in return. Israel's incentive to be forthcoming depends on a difficult basic judgment whether its giving up the physical buffer of territory would be compensated by less tangible assurances of its security--such as Arab peace commitments, demilitarization and other security arrangements, external guarantees, and a transformed and hopefully more secure political environment in the Middle East. Urging flexibility on both parties in the abstract seems futile. Neither appears willing, without assurance of a satisfactory quid pro quo, to offer specific modifications of basic positions sufficient to get a concrete negotiating process started.
A step-by-step approach still seems most practical, but we fully recognize that one step by itself cannot bring peace. First, there is a relationship between any initial step toward peace and steps which are to follow toward a broader settlement. We are open-minded on how that relationship might be established in a negotiating process, and on what role the United States might play. But the relationship cannot be ignored. Second, all important aspects of the Arab-Israeli conflict must be addressed at some stage, including the legitimate interests of the Palestinians. Implementation can occur in stages, and it should not be precluded that some issues and disputes could be resolved on a priority basis. But a comprehensive settlement must cover all the parties and all the major issues.
The issues are formidable, interlinked, and laden with emotion. The solutions cannot be found in general principles alone, but must be embodied in concrete negotiated arrangements. The parties will not be tricked into compromise positions by artful procedures. But there is room for accommodation and an overwhelming necessity to seek it.
THE INTERESTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE MAJOR POWERS
Too often in recent history, Middle East turbulence has been compounded by the involvement of outside powers. This is an ever-present danger. Our efforts with other major powers to move from an era of confrontation to an era of negotiation have addressed this problem directly.
The nations of the Middle East have the right to determine their own relationships with the major powers. They will do so according to their own judgment of their own requirements. The United States has no desire to block or interfere with political ties freely developed between Middle East countries and other major nations in the world. We have our close ties with Israel, which we value, and we also have a strong interest in preserving and developing our ties with the Arab world. Other powers have the same right. But attempts at exclusion or predominance are an invitation to conflict, either local or global.
The first dimension of the problem is, of course, the direct involvement of the great powers in the Arab-Israeli conflict. A significant Soviet presence and substantial Soviet military aid continue in the area. The Soviet Union signed a friendship treaty with Iraq in April 1972. New shipments of Soviet military equipment have now been concentrated in Syria, Iraq, and the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen. The significant factor is whether the Soviet presence is paralleled by a Soviet interest in promoting peaceful solutions. The major powers have a continuing obligation to refrain from steps which will raise again the danger of their direct engagement in military conflict.
The danger of immediate U.S.-Soviet confrontation, a source of grave concern in 1970 and 1971, is at the moment reduced. The Moscow Summit and the agreement on the Basic Principles of our relations contributed to this, not only for ,the present but also for the longer term. Neither side at the summit had any illusions that we could resolve the Arab-Israeli conflict, but there was agreement that we could keep it from becoming a source of conflict between us. The United States has no interest in excluding the Soviet Union from contributing to a Middle East settlement or from playing a significant role there. In fact, at the summit we agreed that we each had an obligation to help promote a settlement in accordance with Resolution 242.
The responsibilities and interests of the major powers in the Middle East go beyond the Arab-Israeli dispute. There are extensive political and economic ties between the countries of the region and the outside world. Here, too, there is a world interest in not allowing competitive interests to interfere with a stable evolution.
The United States considers it a principal objective to rebuild its political relations with those Arab states with whom we enjoyed good relations for most of the postwar period but which broke relations with us in 1967. We were able to restore diplomatic relations with the Yemen Arab Republic at the time of Secretary of State Rogers' visit there in July 1972; reestablishment of ties with Sudan followed shortly thereafter. We assigned two American diplomats to the interests section in Baghdad, Iraq, in 1972. We have just concluded an agreement with Algeria on a major project for the import of Algerian liquified natural gas. The United States is prepared for normal bilateral relations with all the nations of the Middle East.
The European Community is also expanding and consolidating direct ties with many nations of the Middle East and North Africa. This is a natural development; it builds on historical relationships and the economic advantages of geography. It gives these nations a greater stake in relations with the West. It gives the Western European countries an important role in maintaining the structure of peace beyond Europe. We are concerned, however, that as these relations evolve they not embody discriminatory arrangements which adversely affect our trade and that of other countries.
Economic competition in the Middle East between the United States and other free world nations could be particularly damaging in the critical area of energy. The traditional relationship between suppliers and consumers of energy has radically, and probably irrevocably, changed. In the Persian Gulf, where about two-thirds of the world's known oil reserves are located, Arab oil-producing countries have joined to reorder their relations with the international oil industry and the consumer countries. Iran has taken over operation of the companies working there. Our own requirements for Persian Gulf oil have been small--about ten percent of our total oil imports--but they will rise as U.S. energy demand expands. Assurance of the continuing flow of Middle East energy resources is increasingly important for the United States, Western Europe, and Japan. This should be addressed as a common interest.
As for the relations between producer and consumer nations, here too we believe there is a shared interest. We both stand to gain from a stable and reliable economic relationship, ensuring revenues for them and energy resources for us. Oil revenues paid to Persian Gulf states have trebled in the last five years, financing their economic development and providing an expanding market for us. Their rapidly growing foreign exchange reserves give them increasing weight--and an increasing stake--in the international monetary system. We share these countries' desire to find arrangements which enhance the region's prosperity while assuring an effective means for meeting the world's demand for energy.
THE REGIONAL FRAMEWORK
Stability in the Middle East does not depend only on Arab-Israeli peace and stable relationships with and among the great powers. Personal rivalries, ideological conflict, territorial disputes, economic competition, religious and ethnic divisions are indigenous sources of turmoil which exacerbate and are in turn exacerbated by--these other tensions. Stability therefore depends also on strengthening regional forces for cooperation and collaboration.
At the end of 1971, the nations of the Persian Gulf passed through a critical transition, with the termination of the century-old protectorate relationship between Great Britain and the nine Arab Emirates of the lower Gulf. Considering the number of states involved and the diversity of political and economic conditions, the transition of this area to independence has been remarkably smooth. The Emirates have developed new political ties among themselves and assumed responsibility for their own security and destiny. Some territorial disputes and rivalries remain, but these have not been allowed to undermine their perceived common interest in unity and stability. Two of the largest Gulf states, Iran and Saudi Arabia, have undertaken greater responsibility for helping to enhance the area's stability and for ensuring that the destiny of the Gulf will be determined by the nations of the Gulf without interference from outside.
Mutual assistance among Middle East nations has an important economic dimension. The wealthier nations of the area have--in their own interest and in the general interest--taken on the responsibility of assisting economic and social development. On the occasion of my visit to Tehran last May, I joined with His Imperial Majesty the Shah of Iran in affirming that "the economic development and welfare of the bordering states of the Persian Gulf are of importance to the stability of the region." The Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development has worked effectively in this area for some time. The Government of Saudi Arabia is providing significant support to its neighbors. Iran and other Middle East nations are adding to the flow of financial and technical help within the region.
These are positive developments. They strengthen the forces of moderation. There is reason for hope that these trends of collaboration will survive, gather strength over time, and contribute in turn to a favorable political evolution.
AGENDA FOR THE FUTURE
Looking ahead several years, what does the United States hope to see in the Middle East? We hope to see, first of all, a region at peace--with a number of strong, healthy, and independent political units cooperating among themselves, free of external interference, and welcoming the constructive participation of outside powers. I have no doubt that this is also the objective of the peoples and governments of all the countries in the Middle East.
The United States will therefore address itself to these specific tasks:
--First is the settlement of the Arab-Israeli conflict through a process of negotiation. There must be realism on all sides about what is achievable. Neither side will attain its maximum demands, but an accommodation is possible that preserves the honor and security of both sides. The absence of peace is a threat to both sides, which will increase, not diminish, over time.
--Second, the world and the region have an interest in turning great power relationships with the Middle East into a force for stability. This means that the principles of restraint, peaceful settlement, and avoidance of confrontation that are set forth in the Basic Principles of U.S.-Soviet Relations must become enduring realities. It will require outward looking economic relations among the Middle East, North Africa, the European Community, and the United States. It will require stable and dependable relations between suppliers and consumers of energy.
--Third, the United States will seek to strengthen its ties with all its traditional friends in the Middle East and restore bilateral relations where they have been severed. In conditions of security and peace, there are prospects for new forms of cooperation, in the interest of enhancing the independence of the area's nations.
--In the economic dimension particularly, the United States can make a unique contribution to progress and stability. Where capital assistance is not the greatest need, American technical and managerial skills can be a major spur to modernization. Where promising new development programs are being undertaken, the United States can contribute resources productively. If the peoples of the area are to realize their aspirations for a better future in conditions of peace, economic rehabilitation and development will be essential, and the United States will do its share. The United States is committed to helping achieve these objectives.
SOUTH ASIA
The American interest in South Asia is clear-cut: we want the region to be a contributor to global peace, not a threat to it. We want the region to be an example to the world of peaceful progress.
Last year in South Asia was a year of rebuilding. Societies torn by political upheaval, war, and natural disaster took up the tasks of reconstruction. The nations of the subcontinent began reshaping the relations among themselves. They began rebuilding their relations with the world outside. This is an arduous process, but the United States has an important stake in its success.
I have always believed that the United States, uniquely among the major powers, shared a common interest with the nations of the subcontinent in their peace, independence, and stability. Today this is more true than ever. The United States has no economic or strategic interest in a privileged position, nor in forming ties directed against any country inside the region or outside the region, nor in altering the basic political framework on the subcontinent. We have an interest in seeing that no other great power attempts this either--and we believe the best insurance against this is a stable regional system founded on the secure independence of each nation in it. The destiny of each nation of South Asia should be for it to determine. The United States serves its own interest by respecting that right and helping them preserve it.
As I wrote last October to my Advisory Panel on South Asian Relief Assistance after it reported to me on its visit to Bangladesh, "The United States could not and cannot ignore the needs and the aspirations of the more than 700 million South Asians. Our effort to join other nations in meeting the most urgent needs of those who live in this area has reflected not only our compassion for them in their distress but also our recognition that an orderly society depends on the capacity of governments to 'promote the general welfare.'"
We therefore want to see Pakistan consolidate its integrity as a nation, restore its economic vitality, and take its place among the proud democratic nations of the world. We want to see the new People's Republic of Bangladesh flourish as a non-aligned and economically viable democratic state. We want to join with India in a mature relationship founded on equality, reciprocity, and mutual interests, reflecting India's stature as a great free nation. We want to see all the small countries of South Asia live in stability and secure in their independence.
THE STRUCTURE OF PEACE IN SOUTH ASIA
In 1971 the breakdown of peace in South Asia not only brought war and suffering to the millions of people directly affected. It raised concern about stability for the whole region from the Persian Gulf to Southeast Asia. It involved the great powers in a potentially dangerous confrontation whose significance went far beyond the immediate South Asian conflict.
Today we can hope that the subcontinent has found a new foundation for stability.
This will depend first and foremost on the normalization of relations between India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. This means, to begin with, resolving the issues left by the events of 1971: repatriation of prisoners of war and other personnel detained; recognition and establishment of diplomatic relations; and resumption of trade and equitable division of assets and liabilities between Pakistan and Bangladesh. Beyond this, it means consolidating a new stability on the subcontinent: an end to the arms race; an end to territorial disputes; expanded economic cooperation; and creation of a climate of security and, ultimately, reconciliation.
The primary responsibility for this process rests necessarily on the region's nations. The Simla Conference in June-July 1972 between President Bhutto and Prime Minister Gandhi, which produced agreement on the outline of a settlement between Pakistan and India, was a dramatic and promising step. Progress since then has been slow, as the relationship between India and Pakistan has become intertwined with the resolution of the unsettled issues between Pakistan and Bangladesh. President Bhutto has been understandably insistent on the return of the 90,000 Pakistani prisoners of war detained in India. India has been unwilling to release them without Bangladesh's concurrence. Prime Minister Mujib, until recently, insisted that Pakistani recognition of Bangladesh must precede any other steps toward reconciliation, and he has sought the return of Bengalees detained in Pakistan. Just this past month, however, new efforts have been made to break the impasse.
The United States, from its Vietnam experience, has a natural sympathy for Pakistan's desire for the return of its prisoners of war, and for the repatriation of all detainees. It is a basic humanitarian concern and also a way of liquidating one of the vestiges of the war and beginning a process of reconciliation. At the same time, recognition of Bangladesh as a new reality in the subcontinent is a key step toward stabilization of relations in South Asia.
As a general matter, reconciliation on the subcontinent is not a process the United States can directly affect, except to give encouragement and support to constructive actions. We have sought, on the other hand, through our bilateral relations with the nations of the area, to address the fundamental problems of recovery and stability.
Pakistan. As I stated in my Report last year, "Our concern for the well-being and security of the people of Pakistan does not end with the end of a crisis." The United States has always had a close and warm relationship with Pakistan, and we have a strong interest today in seeing it build a new future.
Pakistan entered 1972 a deeply troubled and demoralized nation. Crisis and defeat in 1971 had torn apart its political structure, halved its population, and shattered the established patterns of its economy. Yet the events of 1971 also brought to power the first civilian administration Pakistan has had since 1958 and produced a new and determined effort to develop institutions of representative government. The National Assembly in April 1973 has just adopted a new democratic federal constitution. President Bhutto has taken many courageous steps of political, economic, and social reform. He has restored much of the self-confidence of his countrymen.
The cohesion and stability of Pakistan are of critical importance to the structure of peace in South Asia. Encouragement of turmoil within nations on the subcontinent can bring not only the devastation of civil and international war, but the involvement of outside powers. This is the basis of America's interest in helping Pakistan now consolidate its integrity as a nation.
To this end, since January 1972 we have provided over $300 million to assist Pakistan's program of economic recovery. Our assistance in the form of new loans to facilitate imports essential to Pakistan's industrial and agricultural growth totaled $120 million. We worked with Pakistani and United Nations authorities to channel $14 million in food and commodity emergency relief to the roughly 1.2 million Pakistanis displaced from their homes by the 1971 war. We have committed $124 million in Title I PL-480 food:stuffs (including 1.3 million tons of wheat) to meet shortages resulting from inadequate rainfall and the dislocations of the war. We provided $5 million in technical assistance. We made about $45 million in aid available to support the multilateral Indus Basin development program. In addition, we joined with other members of the Pakistan Consortium, led by the World Bank, to provide emergency debt relief, the U.S. share totaling $50 million over 1979 and 1973.
As Pakistan now turns its efforts again to long term economic and social development, the United States once again stands ready to assist in collaboration with the Consortium and the World Bank. The prospects are encouraging, particularly because of the success Pakistan has had through its own efforts in the past year to reorient its economy after the loss %f the eastern wing. Pakistan has already managed to expand its international markets for its cotton and rice to more than offset the loss of the east as a market and as an exporter. Its export earnings this year may even surpass the combined export earnings of East and West Pakistan in 1970, the last pre-war year.
The United States believes that Pakistan, like any other nation, has a right to its independence and security. Peace and stability on the subcontinent cannot be founded on any other basis. I made a.. decision in March 1973 to fulfill outstanding contractual obligations to Pakistan and India for limited quantities of military equipment whose delivery had been suspended in 1971. Our policy now, as before 1971, is to permit the export of nonlethal equipment and of spare parts for equipment previously supplied by the United States. There is no change in our purpose. We are not participating in an arms race in the subcontinent.
Bangladesh. Bangladesh emerged from the 1971 crisis with a surge of enthusiasm, an unpredictable political situation, and a shattered economy. Its leaders faced the formidable tasks of restoring civil peace and harnessing national energies for building the political and administrative organization for a new state, while meeting ,he emergency and long-term human and development needs of what is now one of the world's most populous--and poorest-nations.
While the United States deplored the fact that military solutions were resorted to in 1971, we did not dispute the aspirations of the people of East Bengal for autonomy. My Foreign Policy Report last year described our efforts in 1971 to promote a peaceful political resolution of the crisis. We opposed not independence, but the outbreak of international war. Throughout the crisis year of 1971, the United States provided two-thirds of the world's relief to East Bengal, and supported the administration of that relief effort by international authorities. Once the issue was settled by the fact of independence, our principal interest was in the rehabilitation and stability of the new state. Our relief effort continued even in the absence of diplomatic relations. The United States formally recognized Bangladesh in April 1972, and established diplomatic relations in May.
Since January 1972, first under United Nations auspices and since May also bilaterally, the United States has contributed over a third of a billion dollars to relief and rehabilitation in Bangladesh. The mobilized efforts and resources of the world forestalled a major famine, and the United States provided more than any other nation. We provided $144 million in PL-480 food and grants for food distribution; $21 million in grants to American voluntary agencies to aid in the resettlement of thousands of Bengalee families; a $35 million grant to the UN Relief Operation Dacca, mainly for food distribution; and $145 million in bilateral grants to the Bangladesh Government for essential commodities and to restore transportation services, power stations, hospitals, and schools, for the rehabilitation of the economy.
The political and economic progress of the new nation is an enormous challenge to its leaders. Unemployment, inflation, and commodity shortages remained serious in 1972. Civil disorders continued. The Bangladesh Government in 1972 was able to begin effective rehabilitation programs and to begin considering its pressing longer term development needs in cooperation with friendly nations and international lending institutions. We are particularly encouraged by its achievement of a new constitution, a new parliament, and a strong electoral mandate for the leadership of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. Our interest in Bangladesh is in its stability-lest turmoil there affect other nations-and in its genuine non-alignment and peaceful policies. Instability anywhere in the subcontinent is an invitation to interference from outside.
Bangladesh's success in meeting this challenge will be a most important determinant of the future of peace in South Asia in the years to come.
India. India emerged from the 1971 crisis with new confidence, power, and responsibilities. This fact in itself was a new political reality for the subcontinent and for all nations concerned with South Asia's future. For the nations of that region, the question was how India would use its power. For the nations outside the region, the question was what the relationship of this power would be to that of other powers in the world.
Last year I explained that the United States was prepared for a serious dialogue with India on the future of our relations. We have taken steps in that direction in 1972. The United States respects India as a major country. We are prepared to treat India in accordance with its new stature and responsibilities, on the basis of reciprocity.
Because India is a major country, her actions on the world stage necessarily affect us and our interests.
--India's relationships with the major powers are for it to decide, and we have no interest in inhibiting their growth. However, we have a natural concern that India not be locked into exclusive ties with major countries directed against us or against other countries with whom we have relationships which we value.
--There have been serious differences over U.S. policy in Indochina. With the ending of the war, that problem is reduced, and we feel that India, as a chairman of the International Control Commission for Laos and Cambodia and a country with a stake in Asian peace, has an opportunity to play an important positive role in consolidating a just peace in Indochina.
--India's policy toward its neighbors on the subcontinent and other countries in nearby parts of Asia is now an important determinant of regional stability, which is of interest to us.
--Other aspects of Indian policy affect us, and we have had our natural concerns. We have expressed unhappiness when Indian leaders have used the United States as a scapegoat in domestic disputes, which does not serve our common objective of improved relations.
Fundamentally, I believe that the United States and a non-aligned India have no significant conflicting interests. The United States has an interest in India's independence, and a natural preference. to see democratic institutions flourish. We share an interest in the success and stability of Bangladesh. And as India and Pakistan move toward more normal relations, external military supply loses its relevance to the politics of the subcontinent. In short, the United States wants to see a subcontinent that is independent, progressive, and peaceful. We believe India shares these objectives-and this can be the firm basis of a constructive relationship.
--The United States will not join in any groupings or pursue any policies directed against India. Our normalization of relations with the People's Republic of China is not directed against India or inconsistent with our desire to enjoy good relations with India. The United States and China declared in the Shanghai CommuniquпїЅ that we both saw attempts at collusion, hegemony, or spheres of interest as inconsistent with peace in Asia. I believe that on this principle a constructive pattern of relations is possible among all the major countries of Asia, and this is the objective of United States policy.
--Both the United States and India are interested in defining a new basis for a mature economic relationship between us over the longer term. In October 1972, the United States joined in a program to reschedule the Indian debt under the aegis of the World Bank, and in March 1973 we lifted the suspension imposed in December 1971 on the flow of $87.6 million in past development loans. For the future, both sides are now interested in how to move toward Indian self-reliance. This raises the issues of the role of U.S. development assistance, our trade relations, our consultation on world trade and monetary issues that affect Indian interests, and our common interest in promoting economic development on the subcontinent and elsewhere in Asia. A new framework for this economic relationship is a fruitful topic for our dialogue.
Our dialogue has now begun. Secretary Connally, on his visit to New Delhi, Dacca, and Islamabad last July, had frank and important talks on my behalf with Prime Minister Gandhi and her government's leaders. Indian Finance Minister Chavan consulted with Secretary Shultz in Washington in March 1973 on trade and monetary issues. Ambassador Moynihan's cordial reception in India was a sign that the passage of time and constructive attitudes on both sides have laid a foundation for a serious improvement in our relations. The recent discussions which Deputy Secretary of State Rush had in New Delhi on his trip to South Asia confirmed this.
We both understand, of course, that the issue is not one of communication or atmosphere. Our differences in 1971 injected a healthy realism and maturity into the U.S.-Indian relationship. We can deal with each other now without sentimentality and without the illusion that because we are both great democracies our foreign policies must be the same. Nor do great nations decide their policies on the ephemeral criterion of popularity. We have our interests and responsibilities; India's policy choices are for India to make. Good relations will come not from an identity of policies, but from respect for each other's concerns and a consciousness of the basic interest we share in global peace.
The Smaller Nations of South Asia. The smaller nations of South Asia are part of the regional system, and their well-being and independence are important to it. We do not view them as part of any country's sphere of influence. They have a right to their independence and non-alignment and a right to remain neutral with respect to the problems of their larger neighbors. Each has its own character, aspirations, and problems, and we seek relationships with each one on the basis of mutual respect.
We welcome the improvement in our relations with Sri Lanka in the past few years. Sri Lanka has strengthened its internal stability, and we hope to maintain and expand our cooperation and to assist Sri Lanka's progress. The United States joined with many other nations to assist Afghanistan in its recovery from a two-year drought and we will continue our cooperation in its economic development. We have assisted Nepal in its efforts to modernize its agriculture and transport, and we will welcome the opportunity to continue this relationship as our help is wanted. We value our contacts with all the small countries of the region--from Bhutan to the Maldives.
Every country on the subcontinent has a basic right to determine its own destiny without interference or dominance by any other. The United States places a high value on this right, out of conviction and out of our interest in a peaceful regional system. Every major power--now including India, with its new power in the region--has a basic responsibility toward the international system to exercise its power with restraint, so that these smaller nations may look to the future confident of their security and independence.
AGENDA FOR THE FUTURE
When I visited South Asia in 1969, I said, "I wish to communicate my government's conviction that Asian hands must shape the Asian future." This was not a statement of lack of interest in South Asia; it was, on the contrary, a recognition that America's relationship with Asia would change and that our involvement would require the increasing assumption of responsibility for the Asian future by the people of Asia. The United States role would be one of assistance; we would cooperate, but would not prescribe.
That was a time of significant progress and hope in South Asia. In conditions of peace, the gains from major economic policy decisions and reforms during the 1960's in both India and Pakistan were being consolidated. The full potential of the Green Revolution was beginning to be recognized and in some areas realized. The concepts and practices of economic development and population planning were maturing.
Along with this progress, enormous problems remained on the agenda, and we discussed these at length in both India and Pakistan during my visits: the need for peace and normalization of relations between India and Pakistan; the future direction of Asia, of South Asian nations in relation to the rest of Asia, and of the United States, the Soviet Union, and the People's Republic of China in relation to them; the need for a new relationship between aid donor and aid recipient; and the continuing efforts of governments to meet the demands and aspirations of their people for economic and social development.
The crisis of 1971 interrupted and enormously complicated these tasks--and underlined their urgency. For the United States the crisis of 1971 illustrated again that we did not control the destiny of South Asia--but that we had an important stake in it. The agenda for the future is both the natural outgrowth of the agenda we faced in 1969 and the legacy of the upheaval of 1971.
The first responsibility for building the future of South Asia rests on the leaders and peoples of South Asian nations themselves.
--To a unique degree, the political future of the subcontinent depends on the ability of institutions to meet basic human needs--the needs of the victims of drought, cyclone, flood, war, disease, hunger, and unemployment. No particular political form guarantees that these needs will be met. What is important is the determination to build institutions that can respond to human needs and give diverse elements a stake in a larger community.
--A precondition for the fulfillment of these aspirations is a sense of security and a lessening of tensions between nations on the subcontinent. Each nation must respect the integrity of the other, and each must have the confidence that it can maintain its integrity and choose its future without fear of pressure or dominance from outside.
--The relations between the countries of South Asia and countries outside the region must be consistent with the peace and independence of the subcontinent and the peace of the world. If any outside power acquires an exclusive position in an area of this mass and potential, others will be forced to respond. The major powers all have important relationships there. No South Asian interest is served if those relationships are embroiled in local tensions.
The United States will support, as we can, South Asian efforts to address this agenda.
First, the United States will contribute, where asked and where possible, to meeting human needs and to the process of development. We do this out of the traditional humanitarian concern of the American people, and out of a common interest in supporting the effectiveness and stability of institutions. Where our economic assistance does not serve mutual interests, it should not be provided. Where it does, ways must be found to assure that the form of aid is consistent with the dignity of both the donor and the recipient. The donor must not expect special influence in return; the recipient must acknowledge a mutuality of interest, for only in a relationship of acknowledged common purpose are assistance programs sustainable.
Second, United States policies globally and regionally will support the independence of South Asian nations. Within the region, we shall encourage accommodation and help to promote conditions of security and stability. We see no reason why we cannot have bilateral ties with each country in South Asia consistent with its own aspirations and ours, and not directed against any other nation. We shall gear our relations with other major powers outside the region to encourage policies of restraint and noninterference. This is our responsibility as a great power, and should be theirs.
Third, we shall seek to assure that the concerns of all South Asians are heard in world councils on the issues of global peace and on all issues that affect them. This is not only for their benefit; it is for the general interest in building economic and political relations globally that all have a stake in preserving. As I wrote in my Foreign Policy Report in 1971: "More than ever before in the period since World War II, foreign policy must become the concern of many rather than few. There cannot be a structure of peace unless other nations help to fashion it." It is in the world interest that South Asia make a positive contribution.
I hope to see South Asia become a region of peace instead of crisis, and a force for peace in the world.
AFRICA
The birth of Africa's new nations was one of the dramatic features of the postwar period. The assertion of black nationhood in Africa coincided with a new affirmation of Black dignity in America/, creating a special bond of sympathy between the United States and the new Africa. But in the conditions of the time, the United States was preoccupied with African crises. We assumed we would be drawn into assertive involvement on the continent economically and politically, both because of endemic instability and poverty and the threat of aggressive competition from Communist powers. In an exuberant phase of our own foreign policy, the Uniued States exaggerated its ability to help solve many of Africa's problems.
Conditions had changed by the time I came into office. The United States clearly needed a more coherent philosophy for a long-term, positive role in Africa's future. There was no question about America's continuing commitment to the goals of regional peace, economic development, self-determination, and racial justice in Africa. The issue was to focus seriously on effective ways America could contribute to them in new conditions.
--The stark, long-term problems which Africa faced had not disappeared. But in many countries a new generation of leaders had come into power who knew that rhetoric was no substitute for determined effort to govern effectively and mobilize their peoples to meet the tasks ahead. Given underdevelopment, ethnic rivalries, and the arbitrary boundaries left by the colonial powers, the political cohesion and stability achieved by Africa's 41 nations was a testimony to African statesmanship. Moreover, African nations had proven to be the best guarantors of their own sovereignty. The continent was not divided into great power spheres of influence nor did it become an arena of great power confrontation.
--In the economic sphere, while the United States was able to maintain the level of its governmental assistance, the most promising sources of capital to finance African development were now trade and private investment. The means of American support for African development would thus necessarily be more diverse, and the first responsibility for mobilizing energies and resources would clearly rest on the Africans themselves.
--The yearning for racial justice in the southern half of the continent continued unfulfilled after more than a decade of violence and excessive rhetoric. The task now was to devise new and practical steps toward beneficial change.
Our policy goals in Africa are unchanged: political stability, freedom from great power intervention, and peaceful economic and social development. We seek positive bilateral relations with African nations founded on their self-reliance and independence, and on forms of support which we can sustain over the long term.
ECONOMIC PROGRESS IN AFRICA
The principal role America can play in the continent's future is that of support for economic development--one of the primary objectives of all African countries. This is what Africa's leaders have told me they need--and this is the field in which the United States can contribute most effectively.
Our common objective is Africa's self-reliance. African efforts, national and regional, are the key to this accomplishment.
We are encouraged by the growth and success of African institutions of regional cooperation. The recent creation of the African Development Fund is a promising example of such African initiatives.
Our interests in supporting Africa's development efforts rests on many bases. A central motive is our humanitarian concern. We also believe that as the quality of life improves on the continent, so will the prospects for regional peace. In addition a developing African economy will mean expanding potential markets for American goods. Moreover, Africa is becoming a major source of energy for the United States and Western Europe. Libya is one of the world's important producers of oil; Nigeria's oil production is increasing; Algerian natural gas is a rapidly growing source of world energy. One fourth of the world's known uranium ore reserves are in Africa. As the West seeks new and alternative sources of energy, African development becomes increasingly important.
There should be no illusions about the barriers to economic progress in Africa. The average per capita Gross National Product of most African nations ranges between $100 and $200 a year. Subsistence agriculture is the principal means of livelihood for much of their population. Malnutrition and disease are widespread. Africa still needs to build its social infrastructure-education and technical skills, public health, new methods of agricultural production, and improved transport links within nations and on a regional scale-
The United States can be proud of its record of direct development assistance to Africa. We have assisted Africa both through bilateral aid and by contributing over 30 percent of the funds provided to Africa by international agencies. In this Administration, in spite of limited resources available for our total foreign aid program, we have increased our assistance to Africa in each of the last three years. In 1972 our bilateral and multilateral aid was $600 million--up from $550 million in 1971 and $450 million in 1970. Our programs have reflected an increasing emphasis on areas of technical assistance that are relevant to broad regional needs, such as food and livestock production and regional transportation systems. Two thousand four hundred Peace Corps volunteers are currently serving in Africa, bringing needed skills and demonstrating America's commitment to helping others.
American direct private investment in Africa has almost doubled in the last four years, reaching a total of $4 billion, and 75 percent of that total is in Africa's developing countries. We have promoted trade and development in Africa through our Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC), which promotes the flow of American capital to the developing world, and through the guarantee and other facilities of the Export-Import Bank, whose long-term loans for African trade reached a record total of $113 million in 1972•
American firms can be a conduit for the transfer of skills, resources, and technology. The productive impact of these enterprises may be the most direct as well as the most reliable outside stimulus to the raising of living standards in developing Africa.
Obviously such private activity must be undertaken in ways consistent with the sovereignty and policies of African governments. We accept the basic principle of the Charter of the Organization of African Unity that the natural and human resources of Africa must be harnessed for the total advancement of African peoples. The specific conditions for private outside investment, and the degree of local participation in control and in profits, should be determined on a fair basis reflecting the interdependence of the relationship. American companies seek no special privileges, and the United States seeks no special advantage. Where investment has been allowed to take root and flourish, economic performance has been impressive. This is the clearest demonstration of a shared interest.
Trade expansion is important to both Africa and the United States. Our two-way trade has grown 30 percent in the last three years, but it is still modest in scale-only about $3.1 billion in 1972. The U.S. sponsored African Trade and Development Conference in Washington last October brought together representatives of African Governments, our Government, and the American business community to promote trade with developing Africa. We have an interest in seeing U.S.-African trade expand in a balanced way. Such trade reflects a healthy interdependence which serves the needs both of African progress and of the American economy. Our imports from Africa in 1972 rose to $1.6 billion, a 33 percent increase over the previous year. U.S. exports to Africa, however, declined slightly in 1972.
The future of our trade with Africa and our hopes for its expansion will be affected by still-unresolved problems concerning the international terms of trade. One issue is that of commodity agreements. Understandably, African nations heavily dependent on a single crop like cocoa or coffee are interested in agreements stabilizing the prices of these commodities. The United States as a consuming nation, on the other hand, seeking to control inflation at home, tends to favor free-market determination of price. This is a difficult problem involving divergent interests, and we recognize its vital importance to many African countries. We are committed to addressing the problem cooperatively and are prepared for regular consultation and exchanges of information on market conditions.
Another important issue for the United States is the evolving economic relationship between African nations and the European Community. The growth of preferential arrangements discriminating against competing American products in both European and African markets is naturally of concern to the United States. In this year of important multilateral trade negotiations, the United States will work for solutions that serve the long-term general interest in an open global system of expanding trade.
The United States has continued to respond to many of Africa's needs with humanitarian assistance. This is a reflection of the traditional concern of the American people. For decades, dedicated Americans have worked--through private and voluntary agencies and public programs--to help Africans combat illiteracy, starvation, disease, and the effects of natural disasters. We can take particular pride in our contribution to a major seven-year campaign to control smallpox throughout Central and West Africa. Working with the World Health Organization and twenty African Governments, we helped virtually to eliminate the disease from the area. We are continuing efforts to reduce the prevalence of measles in the area. In the semi-arid states south of the Sahara, where another year of inadequate rainfall threatened large-scale starvation, the United States provided emergency grain above and beyond the quantities already being provided.
Where civil strife has occurred, the United States has responded with generosity and impartiality to the basic human needs of the victims of conflict. In the last year, even before the resumption of diplomatic ties with Sudan, we provided humanitarian aid to the Sudanese Government for the resettlement of refugees in the southern part of that country. The United States contributed to international programs to relieve the suffering of refugees who had fled from Burundi to neighboring countries. When Asians were expelled from Uganda, this country opened its doors to. 1,500 of their number.
STABILITY IN AFRICA
There is no area of the world where states are more assertive of their national independence and sovereignty than in Africa. This is understandable because of still fresh memories of colonial experiences and because so many of these states continue to feel vulnerable to outside intervention and internal subversion. In each of my Foreign Policy Reports to Congress I have affirmed that non-interference in African internal affairs is a cardinal principle of United States policy. I reaffirm that principle, and pledge that we shall respect it. The same obligation rests on other outside powers. We believe that restraint should characterize great power conduct. This is in the interest of Africa's secure place in the international system, and in the interest of Africa's stability.
Africa's nations themselves have proven to be the best champions of their right to determine their own future. African leadership has accomplished impressive examples of nation-building.
--Ethiopia, under the Emperor's leadership, has for decades been a symbol of African independence and a leader of institutions of African unity.
--Nigeria has not only survived a bitter civil war; it has gone far toward national reconciliation. Today it is a united, confident nation.
--Strife-torn Congo (Kinshasa) has transformed itself into the new and stable Zaire, with promising prospects for development.
--In Sudan, years of warfare between north and south were ended in 1972 and the nation embarked on a new era of unity and reconstruction.
These achievements by four of Africa's largest and most important states are grounds for confidence in Africa's future.
African nations have also shown their determination to safeguard the peace of their own continent. Out of their great diversity, they have fashioned institutions which have dampened political conflicts and provided mutual support for common purposes. The Organization of African Unity, celebrating its tenth anniversary this year, deserves special note. African states also have worked out bilateral solutions to serious problems. The accord reached in 1972 between Sudan and Ethiopia, which helped settle Sudan's internal conflict, and the understanding reached last year between Morocco and Algeria over their border dispute were two noteworthy achievements.
There also were serious disappointments in 1972. It would be less than candid not to mention them, for I am sure they were disappointments, too, to Africans who are working for peace and justice on the continent.
The situation in Burundi posed a genuine dilemma for us and for African countries. Non-interference in the internal political affairs of other countries is a paramount and indispensable principle of international relations. But countries have a right to take positions of conscience. We would have expected that the first responsibility for taking such positions rested upon the African nations, either individually or collectively. The United States urged African leaders to address the problem of the killings in Burundi. We provided humanitarian assistance, impartially, to those who needed it in Burundi or who fled. All of the African leaders we spoke to voiced their concern to us; some raised it with Burundi's leaders. But ultimately none spoke out when these diplomatic efforts failed.
In Uganda, the attacks on that country's intellectual class, as well as the expulsion of Asians, were deplorable tragedies. The United States has provided refuge for some of the Asians, whose expulsion, whatever the rationale, had racial implications which do no credit or service to Africa.
While events in these two countries were tragic in comparison with the continent's other achievements, the ability of African leaders to maintain independence and territorial integrity while welding ethnic diversity into nationhood remains an undeniable source of real hope for the future.
SOUTHERN AFRICA
The denial of basic rights to southern Africa's black majorities continues to be a concern for the American people because of our belief in self-determination and racial equality.
Our views about South Africa's dehumanizing system of apartheid have been expressed repeatedly by this Administration in the United Nations, in other international forums, and in public statements. As I said in my Foreign Policy Report two years ago, however, "just as we will not condone the violence to human dignity implicit in apartheid, we cannot associate ourselves with those who call for a violent solution to these problems."
We should also recognize that South Africa is a dynamic society with an advanced economy, whose continued growth requires raising the skills and participation of its non-white majority. It is particularly gratifying that some American companies have taken the lead in encouraging this. They recognized that they were in a unique position to upgrade conditions and opportunities for all their employees regardless of race, to the fullest extent possible under South African laws.
In addition, we have sought to maintain contact with all segments of South African society. We do not endorse the racial policies of South Africa's leaders. But we do not believe that isolating them from the influence of the rest of the world is an effective way of encouraging them to follow a course of moderation and to accommodate change.
In the Portuguese territories, we favor self-determination. We have clearly expressed this position in the United Nations, and we shall continue to do so.
The United States continues to enforce--more strictly than many other countries--an embargo on sales of arms to all sides in South Africa and in the Portuguese territories. While we favor change, we do not regard violence as an acceptable formula for human progress.
We do not recognize the regime in power in Rhodesia; as far as permitted by domestic legislation exempting strategic materials, the United States adheres strictly to the United Nations program of economic sanctions. In Namibia, we recognize United Nations jurisdiction and discourage United States private investment.
No one who understands the complex human problems of Southern Africa believes that solutions will come soon or easily. Nor should there be any illusion that the United States can transform the situation, or indeed, that the United States should take upon itself that responsibility. This is the responsibility of the people who live there, not of any outside power.
It is important that all who seek a resolution of these problems address them with seriousness, honesty, and compassion.
THE FUTURE OF U.S.-AFRICAN RELATIONS
It is important to us that we have been able to preserve our political ties with this important sector of the Third World 'in this new period. My fourteen personal meetings with African leaders during my first term in office were an opportunity to further this process, as were the extensive visits to Africa by the Vice President and the Secretary of State--the first visit by an American Secretary of State to black Africa. A very special event occurred in January 1972--an official trip to Africa by Mrs. Nixon. Her warm reception in Ghana, the Ivory Coast, and Liberia was a symbol of the friendship of Africans toward Americans and was particularly gratifying for that reason. I will have further meetings with African leaders this year. I traveled to Africa four times before becoming President, and I hope to become the first American President to visit black Africa while in office. I intend as President to demonstrate my concern for Africa--as a matter both of personal conviction and of national policy.
American policy toward Africa in the 1970's will reflect not only our friendship but a mature political relationship. The United States and African nations can deal with each other with frankness and mutual understanding. There will be differences of view, and there should be no illusions about this on either side. But the United States will seek bilateral relations with African countries on the basis of sovereign equality and mutual respect.
We have an interest in the independence and nonalignment of African countries. We ask only that they take truly nonaligned positions on world issues and on the roles of the major powers.
Our most tangible contribution to Africa's future is our support for its economic progress. We will continue to emphasize our aid, trade, and investment efforts.
We will continue to encourage evolutionary change in Southern Africa through communication with the peoples of the area and through encouragement of economic progress.
These are practical measures of support. They reflect our conviction that .. Africa needs concrete measures that have a real impact on its problems. Our approach represents a positive and constructive role for America to play over the long term. It sets goals we can meet. In a new period, this philosophy suits the new maturity of American policy, of African policy, and of our relationship.
PART V: DESIGNING A NEW ECONOMIC SYSTEM
INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC POLICY
International economic forces have a direct bearing on the lives of people in all countries. The monetary, trade, and investment policies of any government strongly affect the jobs, prices, and incomes of its people. They influence conditions in many other countries as well. Inevitably, they have a major impact on international relations.
We have moved far toward resolving political differences through negotiation in recent years. But the peace and stability we seek could be jeopardized by economic conflicts. Such conflicts breed political tensions, weaken security ties, undermine confidence in currencies, disrupt trade, and otherwise rend the fabric of cooperation on which world order depends.
It is imperative therefore that our efforts in the international economic arena be no less energetic, no less imaginative, and no less determined than our efforts to settle other complicated and vitally important problems.
In the past two years we have begun a major effort to reform the international monetary system, improve the mechanisms of world trade, and normalize our commercial relations with the People's Republic of China, the Soviet Union, and the nations of Eastern Europe. We have moved closer to new agreements that will provide greater prosperity for us and for other nations while ensuring that economic relations reinforce traditional ties and contribute to the development of new ones. We have the chance to make economic relations a strong force for strengthening the structure of peace.
THE INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC SYSTEM
The economic arrangements and institutions created following World War II served well until recent years. But as nations gained strength, points of economic contact between them multiplied and relative positions shifted, their policies had a deeper and broader effect on one another. International institutions and arrangements proved incapable of coping with the major problems that arose. Conflicts, imbalances, divisions, and protectionist tendencies threatened political, security, and economic cooperation. Nations were forced to meet repeated crises but did not get at their causes. In August 1971 we decided to take strong action toward fundamental reform of the world economic system. Our initiatives and proposals in 1972 moved the international community further towards that needed reform.
Our goal is to work with other nations to build a new economic order to meet the world's needs in the last quarter of this century. We believe these new arrangements should achieve six major objectives:
--continued economic progress from which all nations benefit;
--a broader sharing of responsibility commensurate with new economic power relationships and the potential benefits to be gained;
--rules that reflect an equitable balance among the interests of all nations;
--the widest possible consensus for principles of open economic intercourse, orderly economic behavior, and effective economic adjustment;
--improved methods for assuring that those principles are adhered to; and
--sufficient flexibility to allow each nation to operate within agreed standards in ways best suited to its political character, its stage of development, and its economic structure.
The achievement of these objectives can create a new balance between diverse national economic needs and a greater international unity of purpose. Economic relations can become a source of strength and harmony among countries rather than a source of friction.
But these objectives can be achieved only if nations make a strong commitment to them. Close and constructive cooperation among the European Community, Japan, and the United States--the three pillars of the Free World economy--will be essential. Other nations, including the developing countries, Canada, and Australia must play a major role. All have an important stake in an improved economic system. Our country, for example, will import increasing amounts of energy fuels and raw materials and therefore will have to sell more abroad to pay for them. But the stakes go beyond the problems of individual nations. Nations must be determined to channel potential conflict into constructive competition to strengthen their mutual prosperity and the prospects for a more peaceful world order.
INTERNATIONAL MONETARY POLICY
In the late 1960's, the monetary system created at Bretton Woods a quarter of a century before was beset by crisis. By mid-1971 it had given rise to serious imbalance and instability which placed intolerable pressures on the United States. My decision of August 15--10 suspend dollar convertibility and to impose a ten percent surcharge on imports--set the stage for thoroughgoing reform.
The Smithsonian Agreement of December 1971 moved toward more realistic exchange rates. By making both surplus and deficit nations responsible for balance of payments adjustment, it had important implications for the future. But its greatest significance was as the essential prologue to full reappraisal and reform of the system.
The Agreement was not designed to resolve all the problems. Heavy speculative pressures developed periodically; the substantial deficit continued in America's balance of payments, and many countries reinforced exchange controls.
Proposals for Reform. Early in 1972 we sought to establish a new forum to examine the problem. The members of the International Monetary Fund established the Committee of Twenty with representatives of both developed and developing nations for this purpose.
After consultations with other governments we took advantage of the annual meeting of the International Monetary Fund/World Bank in September 1972 to put forward our views on needed reform in specific and comprehensive terms.
Of the proposals we put forward at the September meeting, one in particular-improvement of the balance of payments adjustment process--has important foreign policy implications. Because it deals with trade, investment, and monetary flows affecting the lives of people in all nations, balance of payments adjustment is an extremely sensitive issue. Relative competitive positions are particularly vital to the economic well-being of those living in nations that depend substantially on foreign trade. Exchange rates have a major impact on the international competitiveness of nations and thus affect the jobs and incomes of their people. When exchange rates are seriously out of line, the prospect of abrupt change in currency markets creates uncertainty, disrupts trade, and adversely affects the domestic economies of all nations. When one nation believes that another's adjustment or failure to adjust damages its interests, serious international friction can result.
Too little attention was paid to adjustment under the Bretton Woods System. Nations put a high premium on holding their exchange rates fixed. Remembering the dollar shortage of the early postwar period, many countries came to feel more secure with substantial surpluses and were reluctant to undertake adjustments to reduce them. Even after they had achieved large payments surpluses and growing reserves, some governments continued to help certain export industries and inefficient domestic industries. Yet precisely because of their large surpluses and reserves, balance of payments adjustments should have been made. Once the psychology of building surpluses and emphasizing exports had taken firm root, countries were concerned with the domestic repercussions of changing course.
There were other deficiencies in the system:
--there was no agreed way to determine when an imbalance should be corrected;
--there were too few means to induce surplus nations to reduce imbalances;
--there were too few methods used to adjust imbalances. In the industrialized countries, domestic fiscal and monetary policies were considered the most appropriate methods, but we and others have learned that such measures are not always adequate or feasible.
Eventually these deficiencies produced intolerable pressures. For a time after World War II the world benefited from American deficits. Others needed our dollars to restore their liquidity, to buy our goods, and to finance expanding trade. When our deficits grew large, other countries urged us to bring our balance of payments into equilibrium and to stop using what they saw as the "special privilege" of having our trading partners hold dollars indefinitely. But our ability to adjust unilaterally was severely limited. Moreover, the effects of doing so by a change in exchange rates, when most transactions were valued in dollars and most reserves were held in dollars, were almost certain to be disruptive. Ironically, countries accumulating dollars they did not want were reluctant to revalue their own currencies for fear of losing their competitive advantage.
By August 1971 dollars held abroad far exceeded U.S. reserve assets. Some countries with large dollar reserves continued to maintain substantial balance of payments surpluses. The world became increasingly skeptical of the ability of the United States to convert outstanding dollars into other reserve assets and doubted the ability of other countries to maintain the exchange value of the dollar at its then current rate. As confidence waned, the rush to sell dollars and buy other currencies accelerated. The stability of the world's economic system was at stake and the need for reform was clear.
The history of the adjustment problem demonstrates the need for more effective and balanced adjustment machinery. Obviously no nation can fully control its balance of payments. The action or inaction of one country affects the domestic and international economic situations of others. Nations naturally want as much control as possible over their economic policy to meet the social and economic needs of their citizens. But failure to accommodate the interests of others weakens the world economy, to the disadvantage of all. Our proposals would give each nation maximum discretion in choosing ways to adjust its payments imbalance, but would give the international community the means to ensure effective adjustment.
We believe governments should employ a variety of methods to achieve balance of payments adjustment. They should continue to use fiscal and monetary policy that fits their circumstances. Beyond this, they should have more latitude to adjust the international price of their currency when they face a payments imbalance. For countries choosing to maintain set par values for their currencies, greater flexibility could be achieved by allowing a "band" of permissible exchange rate fluctuation around parity wider than that under Bretton Woods. Under agreed conditions, countries might sometimes seek adjustment by a transitional float to a new par value, by a float on an indefinite basis, or by a move directly to a new set rate. All three techniques have been used in recent realignments.
Countries in surplus should also use trade and investment liberalization to contribute to adjustment. In exceptional circumstances, temporary trade restrictions may be an appropriate supplementary adjustment action for deficit countries. If imports are to be restrained for this purpose, it should be by barriers such as a surcharge rather than by quotas. Surplus countries also can contribute importantly to adjustment by increasing the amount of foreign aid which they give without requiring purchases from them.
We believe that criteria should be established which will identify when an adjustment is needed. The need should be demonstrated before an imbalance becomes so great that the adjustment to correct it would pose serious difficulties either domestically or internationally for the nation involved. These criteria should apply even-handedly to surplus and deficit nations alike. In our view the disproportionate gain or loss in a country's reserves should be the primary indicator that balance of payments adjustment is needed. If in a particular case a country believed the reserve indicator to be misleading and the adjustment inappropriate, a multilateral review could help determine the proper action. But if that review did not override the indicator and if the country did not take action, the international community should apply pressures and inducements to bring it about.
Recent Events. Repeated crises over recent years have clearly demonstrated the need for closer international cooperation to speed progress toward monetary reform and improved payments equilibrium. In February and March of 1973, the United States and several other countries jointly acted to deal with the latest in a series of major crises. The high degree of international cooperation that marked the handling of these critical monetary issues can produce the fundamental reforms the system requires. We hope the outlines of a new approach can be agreed upon at the International Monetary Fund meeting in Nairobi this September, and we will work closely with others to attain that objective.
FOREIGN TRADE
In determining their trade policies, governments must balance the desires of all their people. Some workers, farmers, and businessmen want greater access to foreign markets; others want to limit imports; and consumers want the widest variety of goods at the lowest possible prices.
Recent problems in the international trading system reflect in part the high priority some countries place on promoting certain exports and protecting favored producers. Over-emphasis by some countries on promoting certain exports has forced their own consumers to pay more for these products by reducing their availability at home and has sometimes led to disruptive increases in imports in the markets of other nations. Over-emphasis by countries on protection has penalized their domestic consumers and limited exports of other nations.
When such excesses by one nation occur, adversely affected groups in other countries demand retaliation or protection. These demands are particularly hard for governments to deal with in the present climate. International rules adopted in the 1940's to prevent or solve these and other problems have often been ignored. In some cases they do not meet contemporary needs. Nations on occasion have felt they had no choice but to accommodate particular domestic interests in ways that not only further complicate the international problem but also damage other domestic interests. The result has been an erosion of confidence in the trading system, and economic and political friction.
The U.S. Response. Balancing domestic and foreign interests in this environment has been one of the most difficult problems faced by the United States. Early in 1972 the United States secured agreement from Japan to reduce trade barriers on a variety of industrial and farm products. At our meeting in Honolulu later that year and in subsequent talks as well, Japan agreed to take additional steps to boost imports of American products and to liberalize its internal distribution system. Although these actions have benefited American exporters, they have not been adequate and we are seeking further progress in these areas. In talks with our trading partners and in the forum provided under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade we are pressing for solutions to other problems including compensation for the impairment of our trade interests as a result of enlargement of the European Community and its new arrangements with other European countries.
Special problems caused by rapidly rising steel and textile imports into the United States have been eased by export restraint agreements reached with major foreign producers. Enforcement of antidumping and countervailing duty laws, which protect American workers and industry from injury due to unfair import competition, has improved markedly.
We have also taken steps to cut inflation and to benefit American consumers. We suspended import quotas on meats and relaxed them on certain dairy products. The entire oil import program was recently restructured to help ensure adequate supplies for the domestic market. These measures also have helped foreign exporters. Moreover, we have eliminated export subsidies on farm products, contributing to a sounder balance between exports and home supplies and to a better world agricultural trading order.
But despite the actions we and other nations have taken to meet domestic needs and to help establish more sustainable trade arrangements, problems and grievances remain. Although farmers, workers, businessmen, and consumers together benefit overwhelmingly from foreign trade, trade issues continue to be the subject of intense debate. In some cases, pressures such issues generate prevent nations from reducing trade barriers even though to do so would be in their overall interest. In other cases, they produce pressures for new barriers that adversely affect both their own domestic consumers and other nations.
In the United States, these pressures-magnified by a period of high unemployment and a large payments deficit--have created demands for erecting high barriers against foreign competition. For both domestic and international reasons I do not favor this course. This approach might ease a few problems, but it would cause many more of a serious and permanent nature. Our consumers would have to pay higher prices. The many American industries that depend on imported materials and components would be seriously hurt and their products would become less competitive. This course could also trigger an escalation of international trade barriers which would cut American industrial and agricultural exports and strike at the roots of international cooperation and prosperity. The collective result would be highly damaging to our domestic well-being and to our foreign policy interests. We have agreed with our trading partners to pursue a wiser and better alternative.
The Need for a Multilateral Response. The solution to the problems we face lies in a major international effort to develop an improved world trading system. We must build a system which allows nations to satisfy their domestic needs while participating fully in mutual gains from trade. Such a system should expand export opportunities and give consumers the benefit of less expensive and more varied goods. It should establish a set of rules under which a country could limit imports temporarily where necessary to give workers and industries time to adjust smoothly to sudden disruptive increases in foreign competition. And it should bring about an improvement in international trading rules and arrangements. Together these will enable us to better meet the needs of American agriculture, labor, business, and consumers.
The international commitment to multilateral trade negotiations provides the opportunity to achieve these goals. In February 1972, the United States, the European Community, and Japan agreed to "initiate and actively support multilateral and comprehensive negotiations in the framework of GATT beginning in 1973 • • • with a view to the expansion and greater liberalization of world trade . . . on the basis of mutual advantage and mutual commitment with overall reciprocity." At Honolulu, Prime Minister Tanaka and I reaffirmed that commitment. In October leaders of the enlarged European Community reemphasized their pledge to work toward a reduction of tariff and non-tariff barriers, expressing the hope that the negotiations could be concluded in 1975. Responding to these expressions, I sent new trade legislation to the Congress and announced my intention to work toward the timetable suggested by the European leaders.
The Task of Negotiations. We now have the chance to move from confrontation to negotiation in the field of trade. The negotiating process holds the greatest hope for reducing barriers to our exports, for resolving trade differences with friends, and for developing the improved trading system the world needs.
The impending negotiations can substantially lower world tariff barriers. But we do not look upon this effort merely as another round of tariff reductions--an area in which much progress has already been made. They also provide a major opportunity to settle a variety of other trade issues. Most nations employ a variety of non-tariff trade barriers. A number of these are erected for social, political, and security reasons. Others exist because of government procurement, health, and safety standards. It will be hard to eliminate these barriers or reduce their trade distorting effects without affecting the domestic interests that fostered them. But minimizing their adverse trade effects will open broad new areas for international commerce.
The majority of the world's people, in all nations, will benefit from more open agricultural trade and the resulting lower cost and increased availability of farm products. It is particularly important to the United States to remove the barriers which stand in the way of expanded agricultural trade. We are efficient producers of many farm commodities, and our farm policies are predicated on a more open, more market-oriented agricultural trading system.
Preferential trading arrangements, which discriminate against the trade of those who do not participate in them, cannot be reconciled with the Most Favored Nation principle, the basic tenet of world trade. In certain cases we have actively encouraged closer regional political and economic relations. But close relations, where the objective is not a fuller economic and political union, need not include discriminatory trade arrangements. Where they do, we believe steps should be taken to reduce or eliminate their adverse trade effects. Regional arrangements that are part of a broader economic or political unity must be distinguished from preferential arrangements that primarily divert trade from other countries.
We also need a multilateral agreement on safeguards that nations can apply for a limited time to permit smooth adjustment to rapid increases in imports. As we pursue a more open trading world for the benefit of all, it is self-defeating to ignore the fact that adjustment to more open competition may be difficult for some. Effective procedures to ease this process are the most realistic way to ensure that open trade will bring the benefits we expect.
We also need better means to avoid trade conflicts and to settle them in an orderly way when they develop. One nation's efforts to promote some segment of its economy or to protect it against external competition can significantly damage other countries. One way to avoid the resulting frictions is to agree_on more effective rules for trade. Another is frequent consultations so that nations consider the views of their trading partners before making decisions and assure that problems are faced promptly and candidly. At a time when we are moving from confrontation to negotiation in other areas, we need new trading arrangements and rules to solve trade problems in the same spirit.
Principles for Success. The coming trade negotiations will have the best chance of achieving their major objectives if they are based on sound political and economic principles:
--Negotiations should seek maximum feasible reliance on market forces as a means of guiding trade. Such arrangements will allow us to sell the goods we produce most competitively and to buy goods others produce most competitively, increasing the earnings of workers and farmers and giving the consumer more for his money. This is the most efficient way of using each nation's resources; it avoids the vicious circle of protection and counter protection. The temptation to dwell on the "cost" of particular concessions must be avoided in favor of the overall objective of lessening trade barriers and improving the world trading system. The benefits that will accrue to all nations--not only economically but also in their broader relationships--should be the guiding objective.
--Negotiations should significantly reduce barriers in all trade sectors. Only all-inclusive negotiations permit a full weighing of broader national interests of participating countries. From our point of view, it is especially important that the negotiations reduce barriers in certain areas of agricultural trade. Other nations have areas in which they want similar results. To pay less attention to one nation's priorities will make that nation less inclined to meet the priority needs of others.
Prospects for the Future. Over the past year this Administration has stressed the importance of creating a more open and equitable trading order. We have worked to get other nations to pledge full cooperation in this effort. We do not expect the coming negotiations to solve all trade problems, but they can successfully launch us toward that goal. Last October's declaration by leaders of the European Community and similar statements by Japanese leaders demonstrated their dedication to this effort. Other nations are similarly committed. But we must seize the moment, or the momentum that has developed could be lost.
I recently sent the Congress my proposed Trade Reform Act of 1973. This legislation would give the President authority to negotiate a system that will increase world trade, give the United States an opportunity to share fairly in that increase, and insure that trade becomes a source of stability and cooperation among nations. Meanwhile we are dealing with individual trade problems using, where available, the procedures of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. Effective action on such matters could clear up some existing differences and improve the climate for broader negotiations. We look to other nations to work with us in forthcoming negotiations in a test of joint statesmanship to bring about a world trading order which serves the needs of all.
THE DEVELOPING NATIONS
Despite a record of significant accomplishment-including an average annual increase in economic growth of more than 5.5 percent in the last decade, the success of the Green Revolution, and rapid advances in health and education--hundreds of millions of people in the developing countries still exist in conditions of extreme hunger, poverty, and disease. Basic humanitarian considerations call on us to assist these countries in improving the lives of their people. But we also have a major economic and political interest in the growth and stability of these countries and in their active cooperation.
Many of these countries have energy resources and raw materials that we will need in significantly increasing amounts. Some of them have become fast-growing markets for our exports. Almost one-third of U.S. exports went to developing countries in 1972 and the future growth of these countries will expand our markets.
But an increased pace of development is essential. Unless substantial progress occurs--through efforts by developed and developing nations alike--the stability of many countries and regions can be jeopardized as essential needs of people go unsatisfied.
There has been a growing tendency to question our commitment to help developing nations. Attracted to rapid solutions and under-estimating the time and effort needed to stimulate development, Americans are frustrated by the slow pace of visible progress. But, our future economic and political needs will be far better served by actively cooperating with the developing countries for our mutual benefit than by neglecting their needs. We must pursue a realistic policy of development assistance and find better ways of dealing with the trade and monetary interests of developing nations.
Foreign Assistance. I have long been convinced that we needed major improvements in our foreign assistance program. Numerous statements in committees responsible for aid legislation and by individual Congressmen suggest that broad support exists for a modified approach to aid.
We have already improved our aid system in several ways. Bilateral aid is now focused on a few key areas--such as population planning, agriculture, health, and education--in which the Agency for International Development (AID) has a high degree of experience and expertise. Development assistance has been separated organizationally from assistance given for security reasons. A new International Narcotics Control Assistance Program is helping developing countries improve their ability to control the production and flow of illicit narcotics. And we have strengthened our capacity to provide urgently needed emergency assistance to countries that have suffered disasters.
Effective coordination of aid has increased its efficiency and benefits for recipients. AID is increasingly coordinating its programs with those of other nations and international bodies. In cooperation with other nations, we have provided short-term relief to countries whose debt burden was so overwhelming that it threatened their growth and stability.
We deal with recipient countries as partners recognizing their growing expertise and their ability to determine their own development needs. While we help in the planning, funding, and monitoring of development programs, we no longer take the lead in setting priorities or in detailed execution.
We have made substantial contributions to development assistance through international institutions such as the World Bank, the Inter-American Development Bank, the Asian Development Bank, and the United Nations Development Program. Because of their multilateral and non-political character, these institutions frequently can be more rigorous and frank on issues of development policy with recipient states. They have done an outstanding job in providing the framework for coordinating donor contributions and in assuming their appropriate role of leadership in the development assistance effort. The funds I have requested for these institutions and for our bilateral programs are essential to the peoples of the developing countries and to the structure of our relationship with the developing world.
Development Through Trade. While foreign assistance is important, developing nations have to earn by far the largest part of their foreign exchange through trade. Traditionally, they have exported mainly raw materials, though manufactured goods have increasing potential for expansion. They must export these goods in increasing amounts in order to buy the machinery and other products necessary for their future development. Recognizing this fact, we have included in our proposed trade legislation a provision for generalized tariff preferences which would allow many products of the developing countries to enter the U.S., as they already enter Europe and Japan, without duty.
In the 19th and early 20th Centuries there was considerable friction among developed nations as a result of their discriminatory commercial arrangements with the poorer areas of the world. Today's special preferential arrangements are also a source of such friction. And they run counter to the interests of many developing countries. We seek a system that improves developing country access to the markets of the developed countries without discrimination and without restricted preferential arrangements. Our legislation reflects this approach.
In the forthcoming trade negotiations, developing countries have an opportunity to help create a general improvement of trade conditions. Most of them want greater freedom in agricultural trade and increased exports to developed countries of their manufactured and semi-manufactured goods. We and the developing countries which share these objectives have an interest in working together to achieve them. And, reductions in the import barriers of developing countries could benefit their economies and help make the system work more effectively.
Monetary Policy and the Developing Nations. The developing countries have a major interest in the reform of the world's monetary system. Their trade, exchange reserves, and debt positions are directly affected by monetary events. Yet in the past they have had little voice in monetary negotiations. The inclusion of nine representatives of the developing nations on the Committee of Twenty on international monetary reform is a significant and positive step. We are working closely with these nations to achieve reforms that serve our mutual interests.
FUTURE ISSUES
1972 began an era of negotiation and reform in international economic policy. We laid the groundwork for a thorough restructuring of the international economy and opened doors to new commercial relations with the Communist world. The critical task facing us now is to carry forward the work of reordering the world economy to make it more responsive to the needs and realities of our time. We must develop new rules for international economic activity that reflect changing circumstances, Nations must share the responsibility for making the system work so that all can benefit from a more open and equitable world economy. All nations must work together cooperatively so that we can move into a new era of broadly shared prosperity.
Our goals will be to:
--carry forward negotiations in the Committee of Twenty to devise a monetary system that meets the needs of all nations;
--begin multilateral negotiations aimed at substantial reduction of barriers to open trade and improvement of the trading system;
--widen public understanding of our international economic goals and obtain necessary legislative authority for our active participation in building a stronger world economy;
--expand cooperation with the lower income countries to help their development efforts through improved aid policies and by opening the international system to their more effective participation;
--continue to broaden economic exchanges with the Soviet Union, the People's Republic of China, and the nations of Eastern Europe. We must take advantage of the foundation laid in 1972 to build an international economic structure that will promote healthy competition, enhance prosperity for us and other countries, and contribute to a peaceful world order in the decades to come.
PART VI: MAINTAINING
--Arms Control
DEFENSE POLICY
Of all the changes in the international situation over the postwar period discussed in this Report, one of the most fundamental has been the shift in our strategic position.
THE CHALLENGE WE FACED
When I entered office we faced a situation unique in American postwar experience. An era was behind us. In the immediate aftermath of World War II challenges to our security could be met with the assurance that our strategic nuclear position was overwhelmingly superior. By January 1969, the United States no longer enjoyed this strategic preponderance.
The Soviet Union had embarked on a formidable expansion of its nuclear arsenal. We could chart with some certainty when the Soviet Union would surpass us in numbers of intercontinental and submarine launched ballistic missiles; we could also project when they could close the technological gap in strategic weapons. Our own offensive building program had virtually ceased, as we had shifted our effort to qualitative improvements. We had developed a concept for ballistic missile defense of our territory, but had no active deployment. We faced a negotiation on strategic arms controls, but had only begun to analyze the relationship to strategic weapons decisions.
At the same time, our spending for defense had grown substantially. Almost all the increases, however, had been absorbed by the war in Vietnam. The costs of new weapons were escalating, as were the expenses of maintaining the men of our armed forces. In addition, we were bearing burdens abroad for the common defense that seemed out of proportion to those borne by our allies. More than a million Americans were stationed overseas, and our reserves at home were minimal.
Yet, I found that our strategic doctrine called for an American capability to fight in two major theaters simultaneously. The confrontation atmosphere of the Cold War persisted in both Europe and Asia. But the international environment after 25 years suggested new opportunities for diplomacy and, accordingly, for adjustments in military planning. The rigidity of the confrontation between East and West was easing, and the conduct of nations could no longer be viewed in the simple bipolar context of military blocs.
The need for an urgent reexamination of our national security policy and programs was obvious. There were four overriding questions:
--What doctrine was appropriate for our strategic forces in an era when the threat of massive retaliation alone was no longer credible in all circumstances and decisive nuclear superiority was probably unattainable?
--What should the interrelationship be between the programs required for maintaining our strength and our proposals for limiting strategic arms through negotiations?
--How could we simultaneously satisfy pressing domestic needs, meet our responsibilities in Vietnam, and maintain the capabilities of our other forces in a period when non-nuclear challenges were an important dimension of the security problem?
--How could we, in coordination with our allies, strengthen our mutual defense in a manner that retained their confidence in our reliability but permitted them to play a more prominent role?
Early in my first term, I made a series of decisions that resulted in a new concept of national security, reflected in the Nixon Doctrine.
In strategic nuclear policy, we adopted the doctrine of sufficiency. We could no longer be complacent about the strategic status quo merely because we could cause a certain level of destruction in response to an attack. We therefore began to develop a sounder and more flexible doctrine for our forces that would provide other retaliatory options besides a direct attack on millions of people.
Concurrently, in order to reduce our vulnerability and to compensate for the Soviet buildup, we launched a program to modernize our strategic forces. We continued to convert our land and sea-based missiles to multiple independently targetable warheads (MIRVs). Thus, our missiles which would survive an attack would be able in retaliation to strike their targets with greater assurance of eluding defenses. We laid plans for a new long-range missile and submarine that would reduce vulnerability by allowing operation in a larger ocean area while still in range of targets. In addition, to increase the survivability of our retaliatory forces, we began planning a new strategic bomber to replace the aging B-52 force. We also initiated the Safeguard anti-ballistic missile (ABM) program to protect our land-based retaliatory forces.
Each of these decisions was taken, however, with the full understanding that, as an integral part of our national security policy, we also would seriously pursue negotiations for arms limitations. We would offer the Soviet Union the opportunity to reach agreement on measures that would enhance the security of both sides.
Finally, we began to assess our security obligations to determine how our alliance defense posture might be strengthened through mutual effort. We examined whether U.S. forces in some forward areas might be reduced; in those regions where security required a strong and continuing American presence, as in Europe, we and our allies initiated new programs for sharing the defense burden.
In the past four years we have laid a solid foundation for safeguarding American security for the remainder of this decade. We are now entering a period of promising prospects for increasing international stability. But the outcome is by no means guaranteed. We are still in a challenging period of transition. We still face difficult decisions.
There have been a number of positive developments since 1969. Unprecedented progress has been made in strategic arms controls. For the first time in two decades there is a genuine possibility of mutual and balanced force reductions in Europe. Our allies in Western Europe and Asia have become stronger, both economically and militarily, and are contributing more to mutual defense. Tensions in these two regions have been casing. A Vietnam Peace Agreement has been signed and our force of a half million men has returned home.
On the other hand, we cannot ignore the negative trends that persist. Even though Vietnam is entering a new phase, conflict remains in Indochina and ferment persists in other key areas of the world such as the Middle East where the interests of major powers are involved. Modern weapons are still being delivered to areas of great instability. The Soviet Union is strengthening its armed forces in every major category, including those in which the United States traditionally has had a substantial margin of superiority. A Soviet military presence now has been established in many strategic areas of the world.
As we determine the requirements for our defense in these circumstances and approach ongoing arms control negotiations, five factors of the current situation are of particular importance:
--There is approximate parity between the strategic forces of the United States and the Soviet Union. Soviet numerical advantages are offset by superior American technology.
--In such an era greater reliance must be placed on non-nuclear forces.
--Technological change while creating new opportunities also poses a potential threat to existing strategic stability.
--Manpower costs have increased substantially. They now absorb more than 56 percent of our entire defense budget, compared with 42 percent a decade ago. Now that we have chosen to rely on all-volunteer forces, the proportion devoted to manpower is not likely to decrease.
--The costs of increasingly complex modern weapons are also spiraling, further constraining our ability to maintain conventional force levels.
At the same time, the political climate at home has changed. In spite of the adjustments we have already made to new conditions, we face intensified pressures for further withdrawals of our deployed forces and for greater reductions. In the post-Vietnam environment, some Americans seem eager to return to the prevalent philosophy of the 1930's, and resist U.S. involvement in world affairs. The consensus which sustained our national commitment to a strong American military posture over the postwar period is no longer unchallenged.
The emerging global order, however, has neither exact historical parallels nor a predestined outcome. American actions will be a decisive determinant of its shape. In a period of developing detente, it is easy to be lulled into a false sense of security. Threats are less blatant; the temptation is greater to make unilateral reductions and neglect the realities of existing forces of potential adversaries.
In such a fluid period we have no responsible choice but to remain alert to the possibility that the current trend toward detente with the Soviet Union and China may not prove durable. We have only begun an area of negotiations. We must not now ignore fundamental changes in the balance of forces or in the potential strength of our adversaries in an era of rapid change. To do so would only tempt challenges to our security interests and jeopardize chances for achieving greater stability through further agreements.
Military adequacy is never permanently guaranteed. To maintain security requires a continuing effort. But faced with escalating costs of manpower and weapons and competing domestic demands, we must insure that defense spending is based on a realistic assessment of our security requirements, and we must endeavor to reduce expenditures through more effective management.
There is, however, an irreducible minimum below which we cannot go without jeopardizing the very foundations of our diplomacy, our interests, and our national security. This Nation cannot afford the cost of weakness. Our strength is an essential stabilizing element in a world of turmoil and change. Our friends rely on it; our adversaries respect it. It is the essential underpinning for our diplomacy, designed to increase international understanding and to lessen the risks of war.
While taking the necessary steps to maintain the sufficiency of our strength, we are seeking a sound basis for limiting arms competition. Both elements are fundamental to a national defense that insures a more stable structure of peace.
STRATEGIC POLICY
Deterrence of war is the primary goal of our strategic policy and the principal function of our nuclear forces. Thus, our objectives continue to be:
--to deter all-out attack on the United States or its allies;
--to face any potential aggressor contemplating less than all-out attack with unacceptable risks; and
--to maintain a stable political environment within which the threat of aggression or coercion against the United States or its allies is minimized.
Strategic forces are the central component of our military posture. It is on them that our security and that of our allies is most heavily dependent.
While our goals are unchanged, there have been fundamental changes in the strategic military environment. Approximate nuclear parity between the United States and the Soviet Union is now a strategic reality and has been confirmed in strategic arms control agreements. Certain technological advances, however, could become destabilizing. So it is, therefore, imperative that we continue to assess the adequacy of our strategic policy and programs in light of advances made by potential adversaries.
The task is greatly complicated by the long lead time required to make significant changes in these forces. Because of the extended development phase for new systems, a lengthy period could pass before a nation perceived that it was falling dangerously behind. From that point, it would require another considerable period before the imbalance could be corrected.
We must plan now to have a strategic force that will be adequate to meet potential threats of the next decade. We must develop our programs in the context of an uncertain world situation and accelerating technological possibilities.
During the 1960's missiles were relatively inaccurate and single warheads were the rule. Today, accuracies have improved significantly and missiles carry multiple warheads that can be independently targeted. In the present environment it would be misleading to measure sufficiency only by calculating destructive power in megatonnage. The quality of weapons systems, and their survivability, are vital determinants of sufficiency.
The SALT Agreement of May 1972 halted the rapid numerical growth of Soviet strategic offensive systems. Within the limits of the current SALT Agreement, however, strategic modernization programs may continue. We must, therefore, carefully assess the efforts the Soviets are making to improve their capabilities and must pace our programs accordingly.
--At least three new Soviet Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) are being developed: a new, very large missile which could have greater capability than the SS-9, which is now the largest operational Soviet missile; a smaller ICBM, possibly intended as a follow-on to the SS-II missile; and a solid propellant ICBM, probably designed to replace the SS-13 or possibly to provide a mobile capability.
--These new missiles may well carry MIRVs with accuracies which would increase the vulnerability of our landbased missiles, thus jeopardizing the current strategic stability.
--The Soviet Union has begun deployment of a new submarine capable of submerged launch of a 4,000-mile-range missile.
--The Soviet ABM research and. development program continues unabated.
If present trends continue and we do not take remedial steps, the forces which we currently rely upon to survive an attack and to retaliate could be more vulnerable. At some time in the future we could face a situation in which during a crisis there could be a premium to the side that initiated nuclear war. This would be an unstable and dangerous strategic relationship. Such a strategic environment is unacceptable.
In the late 1960's the effectiveness of American strategic nuclear forces was measured by a criterion known as "assured destruction." This concept assumed that deterrence could be maintained if it were clear that following a large-scale nuclear strike the United States could retaliate and inflict an unacceptable level of damage on the population and industry of the attacker.
In the 1970's strategic doctrine must meet different criteria. While the specter of an unacceptable response is fundamental to deterrence, the ability to kill tens of millions of people is not the only or necessarily the most effective deterrent to every challenge. Such a drastic course can be creditably reserved only for the most overwhelming threats to national survival. Moreover, the measurement of the effectiveness of our strategic forces in terms of numbers of dead is inconsistent with American values.
A different strategic doctrine is required in this decade when potential adversaries possess large and more flexible nuclear forces. The threat of an all-out nuclear response involving the cities of both sides might not be as credible a deterrent as it was in the 1960's. An aggressor, in the unlikely event of nuclear war, might choose to employ nuclear weapons selectively and in limited numbers for limited objectives. No President should ever be in the position where his only option in meeting such aggression is an all-out nuclear response. To deal with a wide range of possible hostile actions, the President must maintain a broad choice of options.
Credible deterrence in the 1970's requires greater flexibility:
--Lack of flexibility on our part could tempt an aggressor to use nuclear weapons in a limited way in a crisis. If the United States has the ability to use its forces in a controlled way, the likelihood of nuclear response would be more credible, thereby making deterrence more effective and the initial use of nuclear weapons by an opponent less likely.
--Therefore, to extend deterrence over a wider spectrum of possible contingencies we should ensure that our forces are capable of executing a range of options.
--If war occurs--and there is no way we can absolutely guarantee that it will not--we should have means of preventing escalation while convincing an opponent of the futility of continued aggression.
Greater flexibility in the employment of our forces does not necessitate any drastic change in our nuclear programs. The fundamental objective of military forces remains deterrence. Potential aggressors must be aware that the United States will continue to have both the resolve and the capacity to act in the face of aggression in all circumstances.
STRATEGIC PROGRAMS
Our weapons programs are planned within the framework of this strategic policy. We must also consider Soviet strategic developments, arms limitations, and the potential for technological change. In light of the current strategic situation, I have determined that the U.S. must continue its modernization programs to ensure the future sufficiency of our nuclear forces.
--We are therefore improving our ICBM force. Silos for Minuteman missiles are being hardened, and 550 Minuteman III missiles with multiple independently targeted warheads will be deployed by the mid- 1970's.
--Development of a new strategic submarine, the Trident, has been undertaken to provide a highly survivable replacement for our current ballistic missile submarines.
--We are developing a generation of submarine launched missiles with substantially greater range. With these new missiles our Trident and Poseidon submarines will be able to operate in a much larger ocean area while still within range of targets, and thus will be less vulnerable.
--The survivability of B-52 bombers has been increased by decreasing the time required for take-off on warning of an attack and by developing new basing concepts. This will reduce the threat from the growing force of Soviet ballistic missile submarines.
--We have also begun engineering development of the B-I bomber as a potential replacement for the aging B-52s. The B-I would maintain our bomber force as an important element in our mix of retaliatory forces, providing assurance against technological breakthroughs, complicating an enemy's offensive and defensive planning, and ensuring flexibility of response.
--The ABM facility at Grand Forks, North Dakota, is being completed. This installation will give us operational ABM experience while directly enhancing the survivability of Minuteman ICBMs. We will also continue our planning for the Washington, D.C. ABM site in order to provide additional security for the major control center of our forces.
--Similarly, we are improving facilities for command and communications to control our responses in crisis situations.
We cannot prudently ignore the long-term strategic requirements of our security. But at the same time we are conscious of a serious responsibility--to preserve an environment which enhances stability and encourages further efforts to limit nuclear arms. Our forces, therefore, are not designed to provide a capability for a disarming first strike. Moreover, our programs are not so substantial that our objectives could be misunderstood, conceivably spurring a Soviet building cycle. There is not necessarily a direct relationship between every change in the strategic forces of the two sides. Some changes reflect an action-reaction cycle in the strategic arms programs of the two nations. In other cases, the similarity between American and Soviet forces results simply from the fact that roughly the same technologies are employed.
This year we will continue to assess how to deal more effectively with the implications of parity and to guard against unanticipated technological breakthroughs. At the same time, our efforts will reflect the essential defensive and deterrent purposes of our doctrine and forces.
GENERAL PURPOSE FORCES
In a strategic environment of approximate parity, nuclear weapons alone are less likely to deter the fuji range of possible conflicts. Our success in negotiating strategic limitations has thus increased the importance of maintaining other deterrent forces capable of coping with a variety of challenges.
In recent years conventional forces have played a critical role in numerous conflicts involving great power interests, including Arab-Israeli and Jordanian-Syrian fighting in the Middle East; the India-Pakistan war; and the North Vietnamese invasion of Laos, Cambodia, and South Vietnam.
The United States cannot protect its national interests, or support those of its allies, or meet its responsibilities for helping safeguard international peace, without the ability to deploy forces abroad. In the Jordan crisis of 1970, for example, our forces helped stabilize an explosive situation. When warnings went unheeded and the North Vietnamese launched an all-out invasion of the South in the spring of 1972, our determination to act decisively with conventional forces was tested. The bombing and mining of North Vietnam complemented the defensive action of our South Vietnamese allies on the battlefield and provided a convincing incentive for serious negotiations. In both instances the combination of local superiority and a strong U.S. defense posture decreased the likelihood of challenge to these forces.
When I came into office, I ordered a reassessment of the rationale upon which our conventional force planning was based. Our analysis concluded that a coordinated attack by the major Communist powers simultaneously in both Europe and Asia was unlikely. We determined, however, that our forces should still be adequate to meet a major threat in either Europe or Asia and to cope simultaneously with a lesser contingency elsewhere.
The specific potential threats we face in Asia or Europe continue to be the primary determinants of the size, composition, and disposition of our general purpose forces. Our principal forward deployments are in these areas where, supplementing the forces of our allies, they help counterbalance the strong forces of potential adversaries. The strength of the defenses of Western Europe remains the cornerstone of our own security posture. The American presence in Europe and Asia is essential to the sense of security and confidence of our friends which underpins all our common endeavors--including our joint efforts in the common defense. Our forces are deployed to provide a responsive and efficient posture against likely threats.
But planning based on the threats in these two areas alone is not sufficient. We also need forces to deal with lesser contingencies that pose a threat to our interests--a capability not necessarily provided by units positioned for a major conflict overseas.
Moreover, even in a period of developing detente, we cannot ignore the reality of a modern Soviet navy operating increasingly in the Caribbean, Indian Ocean, the Mediterranean and along the coasts of Africa; newly established Soviet security commitments, support, facilities, and communications networks in key areas of the Third World; or increasing Soviet arms programs in these areas.
The credibility of our force posture has two basic determinants; overall size and the level of forward deployments. Our general purpose forces are now substantially below the peak levels of the Vietnam buildup and well below even the levels maintained prior to the Vietnam war. This is the result of changing assessments of security requirements, our success in developing allied capabilities, and the increasing costs of replacing obsolescent systems and maintaining existing forces.
Our ground, naval, and air forces have now reached the absolute minimum necessary to meet our commitments and provide a credible conventional deterrent in an age of strategic parity. Compared to levels in June 1964, we have a third fewer combat ships, 37 fewer aircraft squadrons and 3 1/3 fewer ground. divisions.
Manpower has been cut to a comparable degree. In the last four years we have reduced our forces by more than a million men. They are now one-third smaller. They are at the lowest level since the Korean War, and are nearly half a million below levels prior to the Vietnam War.
About one-third of our general purpose forces are necessarily deployed abroad to provide a capability for responding rapidly to threats to American and allied interests, for guaranteeing the credibility of our joint defense, and for underpinning our diplomacy. The forces remaining in the United States serve as a ready reserve for reinforcing our forward deployments, and for protecting our interests in other parts of the world. The largest portion of our overseas forces is stationed in Western Europe; a smaller increment is stationed in the Mediterranean and Asia.
PRE AND POST VIETNAM FORCE LEVELS
Pre-Vietnam Peak Vietnam Current
June 1964 June 1968 June 1973
Ships:
Attack carriers 15 15 14
Anti-submarine, including attack submarines 381 379 252
Fleet air defense 53 75 73
Amphibious assault 134 148 65
............................................................................................... 583 617 404
Attack and Fighter Aircraft Squadrons:
Air Force 90 103 71
Navy 85 80 70
............................................................................................... 19 1/3 22 1/3 *16
*1 division not shown consists of armored, air cavalry, and airmobile units.
--Our NATO force in Europe consists of 4 1/3 Army Divisions, 21 Air Force attack and fighter squadrons, and naval units in the North Atlantic.
--In the Mediterranean we maintain two attack carrier task forces and a Marine amphibious group which help protect NATO's southern flank as well as meet non-NATO challenges in this volatile area.
--United States forces in Asia consist of those still supporting operations in Indochina and normal forward deployments not directly related to Vietnam needs. The basic forces include: one Army division stationed in Korea and two-thirds of a Marine division located in Okinawa; ten Air Force and five Marine fighter/attack squadrons distributed in Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Thailand, Okinawa, and the Philippines; and three attack carrier forces and two Marine amphibious groups operating in the Western Pacific.
Although NATO deployments have been relatively constant in recent years, Asian force levels are now substantially below those maintained prior to the Vietnam War.
Given our broad requirements, the uncertainty of the current international situation, and the post-Vietnam contraction of our armed forces, it would be unwise to make further unilateral cuts in deployments or significant reductions in overall force levels in the foreseeable future. To do so would raise questions about the adequacy of our force posture to safeguard our interests. The limitations of our current force levels were illustrated by the strain placed on our forces as a whole by our effort last year to help counter the invasion of South Vietnam by a small nation with practically no navy or air force.
Obviously, American forces alone cannot balance the strong capabilities of potential adversaries. For this reason our planning under the Nixon Doctrine has emphasized the strengthening of mutual defense by bolstering allied capabilities.
In NATO, it is often forgotten that our allies provide nearly 90 percent of ground forces and the majority of alliance air and naval craft. American ground forces are concentrated in Germany where they constitute over one-fourth of the forces in this vital area. Along with our allies we are taking additional measures to strengthen NATO forces. Expenditures by individual members for force modernization have increased for the third consecutive year, and under the billion dollar five-year European Defense Improvement Program, NATO communications, anti-armor and air defense capabilities continue to improve. United States capabilities are also being improved, and our ground forces are being strengthened by selectively transferring men from support to combat units.
Programs in Asia too have achieved remarkable success in strengthening allied capabilities. In Southeast Asia, progress in Vietnamization was demonstrated by the effective Vietnamese defense on the ground against all-out invasion. In Northeast Asia, South Korean forces are growing in effectiveness as a result of our joint program for modernization, and the Korean economy is now able to support more of the recurring costs of maintaining these forces without hampering normal economic growth.
Our Asian allies are also becoming more self-sufficient in dealing with subversion and guerrilla warfare, which remain a potent threat. As our friends develop greater local and regional military sufficiency under the Nixon Doctrine the need for our direct involvement diminishes. In the meantime, the stabilizing presence of our forces in the area enhances the wider framework of security and gives encouragement to further allied efforts to develop their capacity for self-defense.
In the current delicate international balance of forces, I believe our general purposes forces are now at the minimum level consistent with our safety and our interests. However, as we assess our requirements for the late 1970's and beyond, we will not let the perceptions and experiences of the past drive our planning for deterrence of wars of the future. We will ensure that our planning and doctrine are attuned to the evolving international situation and to our strategic needs in a new era.
SECURITY ASSISTANCE
Many nations in the world whose security we consider important to our own face military challenges, often instigated or supplied by third countries. A stable international system requires that small countries be secure and independent, and that they be able to protect their security and independence mainly by their own efforts.
For this reason, American support of other nations' defense efforts has always been a vital component of our security policy and an essential element in maintaining international stability. In today's multipolar world, and as the United States adjusts its role from one of preponderance to one of sharing responsibilities more widely, this supportive role becomes all the more central to our policy. As great as our resources are, it is neither possible nor desirable for the United States to pay most of the costs, provide most of the manpower, or make most of the decisions concerning the defense of our allies. Nor, is it necessary. Our allies are determined to meet the threats they face as effectively as possible within the limits of their resources. Under the Nixon Doctrine, our role in our Security Assistance programs is to share our experience, counsel, and technical resources to help them develop adequate strength of their own.
We provide this support through various programs of Security Assistance: grant military assistance to friendly countries unable to afford equipment which is essential to their self-defense; foreign military sales for cash or credit; and supporting assistance, which provides budgetary support to a few key countries to enable them to sustain their economies in spite of unusually heavy defense requirements.
These programs have been a part of our policy for more than 25 years. They have met specific needs in a wide variety of cases. Our programs and means have reflected a careful and continuing assessment of our interests and needs in changing conditions.
The success of these programs is strikingly evidenced by the changes over time in the composition of the program. The growing self-sufficiency and self-reliance of our friends--which our assistance is designed to promote--are reflected in the declining necessity for grant aid and the dramatic increase in their ability to take financial responsibility for their defense needs. Our grant military assistance has dropped from over $4 billion twenty years ago to less than $1 billion today, exclusive of South Vietnam. Where once our program was almost entirely on a grant basis, today sales make up by far the major portion of the program.
In 1966 the largest military assistance grants went to the Republic of Korea, Turkey, the Republic of Vietnam, the Republic of China, Greece, and Iran. In 1974, in contrast, Iran will purchase all military equipment, paying fully for everything received. Greece and the Republic of China will receive no grant materiel, and both are turning increasingly to cash and credit sales. The security requirements of South Korea and Turkey continue to require grant assistance, but both are moving toward increased use of credits as their economies continue to expand. The success of our programs in helping South Vietnam and South Korea build capable forces of their own has permitted us to withdraw all our forces from South Vietnam and 20,000 men from South Korea. These are two of the most significant demonstrations of how Security Assistance is precisely what enables allies to take up more of the responsibility for their own defense.
The assistance of the United States cannot be effective unless an ally is willing and able to mobilize its own people and resources for its national defense. No country can escape responsibility for its own future. None of our friends would wish to do so. The encouragement, counsel, and assistance we provide can make a crucial difference to their success.
RESOURCES FOR NATIONAL DEFENSE
Managing Modernization. In today's conditions, maintaining modern forces at adequate levels is a major challenge. General purpose forces now take three times as much of the defense budget as strategic forces. Yet the Soviet Union has made significant qualitative improvements in conventional forces, while many of our essential programs have been deferred because of more pressing Vietnam requirements.
A major modernization effort is underway to provide our forces with adequate weapons for the decade ahead. Our national technological base is one of the foundations of our national security. But the continual escalation of weapons costs and complexity limits our ability to exploit all the latest technical advances. Even with adjustments for inflation, weapons today cost, on 'the average, two to three times more than those ones they replace. Sophisticated equipment is often more difficult to repair. Complexity frequently results in higher operating costs and lower reliability. These trends make it difficult to replace older weapons on a one-for-one basis. But the higher performance of new systems does not always compensate for the severe reduction of flexibility caused by fewer numbers.
This cost problem is most acute with respect to tactical aircraft. New first-line aircraft are four to five times more costly than the older planes being replaced, primarily because of their sophisticated electronics and fire control systems. The same problem arises in modern ship and ground force systems.
The long lead time for new weapons development has far-reaching implications. It is therefore imperative that proposed programs provide sufficient improvements to justify their expense, and that once adopted they do not exceed planned costs or fall to perform as intended. Unless we improve management performance in this area, we simply will not be able to maintain the minimum force levels necessary to meet the needs of our security without drawing increasingly on funds required for such essential intangibles as force manning, training, and readiness.
We are taking a number of innovative steps to grapple with this problem. In evaluating proposals for increased technical sophistication, .more weight is now being given to cost, and greater care is being devoted to assessing the real gain in terms of mission relevance and military effectiveness. In addition, combinations of high and low cost weapons are being developed for major missions. For example, a less costly lightweight fighter is being developed at the same time as the highly sophisticated F-15 fighter. This approach also has been used in meeting diverse ship requirements. Low-cost patrol frigates are being purchased for convoy duties while more expensive nuclear-powered guided missile frigates are being constructed to escort nuclear carriers as part of a rapid reaction task force.
We also are improving techniques for closer monitoring of the development process. Benchmarks have been established for more frequent checking of compliance with cost and performance standards. Operational testing is being emphasized to ensure that new equipment is reliable and effective under combat conditions.
Manpower. Rising manpower costs are one of the most significant factors limiting overall force levels and the resources available for modernization. Even after the large personnel reductions we have made, manpower today takes more than half the defense budget. These rising costs result principally from the effort to make military pay competitive with that of other professions. While the program to attract volunteers and correct past financial inequities is expensive, it is also essential to manning our armed forces at adequate levels.
Our success in attracting volunteers into the services gives us confidence that manpower constraints will not seriously limit the manning of our forces in peacetime. We are now able to support our military strategy without a draft. When I first announced my intention to end the draft, many feared we would not be able to maintain the force levels, readiness, and morale needed to support defense needs in an increasingly technical environment. But initial experience under this program suggests these fears were unwarranted. The quality of volunteers has fully met the service needs and compares favorably with the quality in the past.
Current projections indicate that the portion of the defense budget devoted to manpower should stabilize, but the expense of personnel programs will require continuing attention,
Defense Spending. Allocation of resources between security needs and domestic requirements is one of the most difficult tasks of the budgetary process. Though the upward pressures of manpower and weapons costs have complicated the problem, defense spending has leveled off in real terms. As a result, we have been able to shift Federal budgetary priorities markedly from security toward domestic needs. Defense today takes only six percent of our total national output, compared to eight to nine percent in the 1960's. National security once took nearly half of every budget dollar; now it requires less than one-third.
Nevertheless, unless we aggressively meet the management challenge of spiraling weapons and manpower costs, it will be nearly impossible to maintain modern forces at the levels necessary for national security. I have directed the Secretary of Defense to give these matters the most urgent attention.
In the next four years, we will continue to be faced with important choices concerning national priorities. But I am determined that our military power will remain second to none. The experiences of the past four years have confirmed the wisdom and absolute necessity of a strong and committed America in the world. It is the only sound foundation on which peace can be built.
ARMS CONTROL
The progress recorded in arms control over the past four years has been unprecedented. Four major agreements have been achieved:
--In February 1971, an international treaty was signed that bans the emplacement of nuclear weapons on the seabed or ocean floor.
--In September 1971, the United States and the Soviet Union agreed on a series of measures to reduce the danger of accidental war.
--In April 1972, an international treaty was signed that bans the development, production, and stockpiling of biological weapons and toxins.
--On May 26, 1972, I signed for the United States two agreements with the Soviet Union limiting strategic offensive and defensive armaments. These accomplishments represent the initial fulfillment of my .commitment to limit the most dangerous forms of weaponry as part of our broader objective of moving from confrontation to negotiation. Each of these agreements is important. But their cumulative impact is even greater than their specific merits. They reflect a new political attitude toward arms limitation by the United States and the Soviet Union and within the international community generally.
Arms control has taken on new significance in the nuclear age and represents an important component of national security policy. When this Administration took office there were several factors that suggested an agreement to limit strategic weapons might be attainable:
--In the classical balance of power system, most national leaders were concerned with accumulating geopolitical and military power that could be translated into immediate advantage. In the nuclear era, both the United States and the Soviet Union have found that an increment of military power does not necessarily represent an increment of usable political strength, because of the excessive destructiveness of nuclear weapons in relation to the objective.
--The accumulation of strategic power offered no guarantee of achieving a decisive military advantage, since neither the United States nor the Soviet Union would passively accept a change in the overall balance. Moreover, with modern weapons, a potentially decisive advantage requires a change of such magnitude that the mere effort to obtain it could produce a disaster.
--Modern technology, however, offered an apparently endless opportunity for the further sophistication of both offensive and defensive weaponry. In particular, a nation might be able simultaneously to develop offensive weapons that could destroy a substantial number of an opponent's retaliatory forces and a defense that could blunt a retaliatory strike. In such circumstances a high premium would be placed on striking first.
--Neither side could afford to concede an advantage in strategic defense. The gap between the rapid advances in offensive technology and the embryonic state of defensive systems was growing. For a considerable period, therefore, both the United States and the Soviet Union would be vulnerable to devastating attacks. Yet, inherent in new technology is the prospect of enhanced first strike capabilities.
These were the strategic circumstances facing the United States in 1969. They suggested certain principles for our approach to arms control negotiations as an instrument of national security.
--As President, my overriding responsibility is to protect the security of the United States. We had to maintain our strategic weapons programs and develop new ones as appropriate. Unilateral restraint in anticipation of the negotiations would not advance the chances for an agreement; weakness has been the incentive for aggression much more frequently than the arms race.
--Our objective in negotiations would be to reduce the gap between the capability for a first strike and the capability to retaliate. An agreement should help ensure that a first strike could not disarm either side.
--We would seek to gain some control over military technology so that the basic political relationships with the Soviet Union would not be dominated by competition in this area.
--Our objective would be to break the momentum and moderate the process of strategic competition. The basic decisions of war and peace would then remain in the hands of the political leaders and not be dictated by the balance of weapons.
--Finally, we recognized that any agreement would have to provide equal security to both sides. No agreement was even conceivable if its purpose was to ratify a clear advantage for one side.
These were the principles that evolved in the course of our preparation for negotiation in 1969. They were our basic criteria throughout the talks.
The advances in other areas of arms control have reflected a similar approach. We concentrated on those specific issues where it was possible to make immediate progress so that agreements would contribute to a broader improvement of relations. We looked for areas where we could strengthen the principle of mutual restraint. We decided that progress should not be tied solely to the state of technical or procedural discussions but should take into account the political relationships, especially with the Soviet Union, that would ultimately determine the success or failure of the agreements.
--In 1969-70 we concentrated on banning nuclear weapons from the seabeds, because this was an area where the nuclear powers and the nonnuclear countries had clear common interests and where the political, environmental, and strategic policies offered a chance for early progress. Moreover, by separating nuclear weapons from all other military activities affecting the seabeds, we could crystallize agreement on the aspect most important to control.
--The questions of control over biological weapons and chemical weapons had been linked, although there was no objective reason to do so. We first took a unilateral step by renouncing the use and possession of biological weapons. Then we moved to eliminate procedural questions by proposing the separation of biological and chemical issues, with priority for biological controls. This course ultimately produced a treaty prohibiting biological weaponry.
--The progress in arms control from 1969 to 1972 added to the general improvement in Soviet-American relations and helped to break the deadlock over opening negotiations on the reduction of military forces in Central Europe. Preliminary talks began in Vienna in January 1973 to prepare for formal negotiations this fall. In preparing for the negotiations on mutual and balanced force reductions in Central Europe we are following much the same pattern as in SALT. We have concentrated initially on a complex technical analysis to illuminate all the individual issues and on that basis to develop basic concepts of reductions.
We can be proud of the accomplishments of the past four years: --In an area of overriding importance, we have limited the strategic arsenals of the United States and the Soviet Union and created the conditions for further progress.
--There is now momentum on a broad international front that enhances the prospects for additional agreements.
--In the region of major confrontation in Central Europe the foundations have been laid for serious negotiations to begin this year.
STRATEGIC ARMS LIMITATION (SALT)
On November 17, 1969, representatives of the United States and the Soviet Union met in Helsinki to begin the first discussions on the limitation of strategic armaments. At that time, I characterized the meetings as the "most momentous negotiations ever entrusted to an American delegation." I repeated my pledge, made at the United Nations in September 1969, that the United States would deal with the issues "seriously, carefully, and purposefully" to achieve the goal of "equitable accommodation." We were embarked on a "sustained effort not only to limit the build-up of strategic forces but to reverse it."
The agreements I signed on May 26, 1972, in St. Catherine's Hall in the Kremlin were a major step toward fulfilling this commitment. We had not only succeeded in resolving extraordinarily complex technical issues, but had also raised Soviet-American relations to a new level of mutual understanding. The political commitment reflected in these agreements was a vital element in the broader effort we were engaged in, one that culminated in the Basic Principles of U.S.-Soviet relations agreed upon in Moscow.
Since last May, Government officials have testified before the Congress at length on all aspects of these agreements, and I have discussed them with Congressional leaders. We have fully described What we believe they accomplished and their significance for Soviet-American relations and international security. In this Report certain points are emphasized so that future prospects can be related to the perspective of these past four years.
The Negotiating History. In 1969 there was no dearth of ideas, suggestions, and proposals on how to limit strategic arms and conduct the talks. There was never any question that we would agree to negotiate. The task was to be sure that we had a well-defined position for a negotiation of this magnitude. We had to analyze all conceivable limitations for each of the major weapons systems to understand how they would affect our own and Soviet programs. We also had to determine whether we could verify compliance with the limitations and by what means. These building blocks enabled us to examine the strategic interrelationship caused by various combinations of limitations. Then we could go on to identify realistic alternatives and compare them with likely developments should no agreements be reached.
Our aim was to be in a position to sustain momentum in the negotiations. Meticulous preparations for the negotiations gave us the best chance of moving from general principles through specific proposals to concrete agreements. The fact that the agreements on such complex and vital issues were signed only two years after the first specific proposals were introduced by the United States testifies to the value of that approach.
We recognized that there would be deadlocks and that, with national security at stake, frequent high level political decisions would be required. But we wanted to ensure that when deadlocks did occur, they would not be over technical issues, and carefully analyzed alternatives would be ready for my immediate decision.
Certain fundamental strategic factors influenced our preparations and our initial approach to the talks:
--By 1969 the United States had stopped building major new offensive systems in favor of making qualitative improvements in existing systems. We had no current plan to deploy additional Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs), Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs), or heavy bombers. The Soviet Union, on the other hand, was engaged in a dynamic buildup of both ICBMs and SLBMs.
--At the same time, both sides were only in the initial stages of Anti-Ballistic Missile ( ABM ) deployment. The Soviet Union had already deployed a small system to protect its capital, while most of the U.S. program was designed to protect our retaliatory forces.
--The United States had aircraft deployed at bases abroad and on carriers, while the Soviet Union had medium and intermediate range missiles and bombers capable of attacking our bases and the territory of our allies.
--There was a vast difference in the composition of the forces on each side. The Soviet Union had several types of ICBMs and was developing two classes of ballistic missile launching submarines. The United States had one basic class of ICBMs, a modern and more effective submarine force, and a substantial advantage in heavy bombers.
These asymmetries meant that defining strategic equivalence in individual categories or in a general sense would be technically complicated and involve significant political judgments.
The initial exploratory phase in November-December 1969 produced a general work program. Full negotiations began in the spring of 1970, and both sides outlined comprehensive programs to control a wide spectrum of armaments.
This parallel effort, however, gradually became deadlocked over two major issues. First, should both offensive and defensive limitations be included from the outset? The Soviet Union proposed that the deadlock be resolved by limiting ABM systems only. The United States thought it essential to maintain a link between offensive and defensive limits; we believed that an initial agreement that permitted unrestrained growth in offensive forces would defeat the basic purpose of SALT.
Second, what offensive forces should be defined as "strategic"? The Soviet Union wanted to include all nuclear delivery systems capable of reaching Soviet territory. The United States maintained that major intercontinental systems should have priority in negotiating limitations.
By late 1970 these two issues had blocked further progress. I decided to take the initiative in direct contacts with the Soviet leaders to find a solution. The result of our exchanges was an agreement on May 20, 1971, that we would concentrate the negotiations on a permanent treaty limiting ABM systems, while working out an Interim Agreement freezing only certain strategic offensive systems and leaving aside other systems for consideration in a further agreement.
This left for resolution the precise level of ABMs and the scope of those offensive weapons to be included in an initial agreement. Progress was made during the next year on these matters and on technical questions so that by the time of the summit meeting in Moscow only a few key issues remained.
The ABM solution was to limit both sides to two sites. The United States would continue construction of an ABM site in Grand Forks, North Dakota, for the protection of an ICBM field, while the Soviet Union would have the fight to deploy a similar site. The Soviet Union would retain the ABM site already deployed around Moscow, and we would have the right to build a similar site around Washington. Both sides would have essentially the same systems and would be limited to an ABM level low enough to preclude a heavy defense of national territory--the mode of ABM deployment that could be most strategically destabilizing.
Defining which offensive systems would be frozen in an interim agreement proved more difficult. The Soviet Union wished to include ICBMs only. We pressed for the inclusion of both ICBM s and SLBMs. These were active Soviet programs; the purpose of SALT, in our view, was to break the momentum of unconstrained growth in strategic systems. Furthermore, since we had no active building programs in these categories, the numerical gap would widen without an agreement.
A freeze on ICBM and sea-based ballistic missile systems was clearly in the United States interest. I used my direct channel to the Soviet leaders to urge the inclusion of SLBMs in the Interim Agreement. We finally reached agreement in late April 1972 when the Soviet leaders accepted a proposal to place a ceiling on their SLBM force. The final details were negotiated at the summit the following month.
The Provisions of the Agreements. The highlights of the two agreements are as follows:
The ABM treaty allows each side to have too ABM interceptors at each of its two sites. The two sites must be at least 800 miles apart in order to prevent the development of a territorial defense. The treaty contains additional provisions which effectively prohibit the establishment of a radar base for the defense of populated areas as well as the attainment of capabilities to intercept ballistic missiles by conversion of air defense missiles to anti-ballistic missiles.
The Interim Agreement on offensive arms is to run for five years, unless replaced earlier by a permanent agreement which is the subject of the current negotiations. This agreement froze the number of strategic offensive missiles on both sides at approximately the levels operational and under construction at the time of signing. For ICBMs, this is 1,054 for the United States and 1,618 for the Soviet Union. Within this overall ceiling, there is a freeze on the Soviet Union's heavy ICBM launchers, the weapons most threatening to our strategic forces. There is also a prohibition on conversion of light ICBMs into heavy missiles. These provisions are buttressed by verifiable provisions and agreed criteria; of particular importance is the prohibition against any significant enlargement of missile silos.
The submarine limitations are more complicated. The Soviet Union is restricted to a level of 740 submarine ballistic missile launchers, some of them on an old type of nuclear submarine. However, they are permitted to build as many as 62 modern nuclear submarines and 950 SLBM launchers if--and only if--they dismantle an equal number of older ICBMs or older submarine-launched ballistic missiles to offset the new construction. This would mean dismantling 210 older ICBM launchers if the Soviet Union chooses to build up to the SLBM ceiling. The United States gave up no active offensive program.
The Significance of the Agreements. Two questions have been asked concerning these accords.
Do the agreements perpetuate a U.S. strategic disadvantage? Clearly they do not. The present situation is, on balance, advantageous to the United States. The Interim Agreement perpetuates nothing that did not already exist and that could only have grown worse without an agreement. Considering the momentum of the Soviet ICBM and SLBM programs, the ceilings in the Interim Agreement will make major contributions to our national security, while we proceed with negotiations for a permanent agreement.
Our present strategic military situation is sound. The United States is not prohibited from continuing current and planned strategic modernization and replacement programs for offensive systems. The imbalance in the number of missiles between the United States and the Soviet Union is only one aspect. There are other relevant factors such as deployment characteristics and qualitative differences between their system and ours. For example, the Soviet Union requires three submarines for every two of ours in order to keep an equal number on station, though they are testing longer range missiles that would ultimately change this ratio.
The quality of the weapons must also be weighed. We have a major advantage in nuclear weapons technology and in warhead accuracy. And with our Multiple Independently Targetted Reentry Vehicles (MIRVs) we have a 2 to 1 lead in numbers of warheads. Because of our continuing programs we will maintain this lead during the period of the agreement, even if the Soviets develop and deploy MIRVs of their own.
Moreover, to assess the overall balance it is also necessary to consider those forces not in the agreement; our bomber force, for instance, is substantially larger and more effective than the Soviet bomber force.
Thus, when the total picture is viewed, our strategic forces are seen to be completely sufficient.
Will the agreements jeopardize our security in the future? The Soviet Union has proved that it can best compete in sheer numbers. This is the area limited by the agreements. The agreements thus confine competition with the Soviets to the area of technology where, heretofore, we have had a significant advantage.
Clearly, the agreements enhance the security of both sides. No agreement that failed to do so could have been signed or would have stood any chance of lasting. As I told the Congressional leaders last June, I am convinced that these agreements fully protect our national security and our vital interests. The Congress accepted this judgment and gave the agreements overwhelming approval.
I am determined that our security and vital interests shall remain fully protected. We are therefore pursuing two parallel courses:
--We have entered the current phase of the strategic arms limitations talks with the same energy and conviction that produced the initial agreements. Until these negotiations succeed we must take care not to anticipate their outcome through unilateral decisions.
--We shall continue our research and developmental programs and establish the production capacity to sustain a sufficient strategic posture should new agreements prove unattainable. This effort also dissuades the other side from breaking the agreements.
These agreements are not isolated events. They are embedded in the fabric of an emerging new relationship, and can be of great political and historical significance. For the first time, two great powers, deeply divided by their values, philosophies, and social systems, have agreed to restrain the very armaments on which their national survival depends. A decision of this magnitude could only have been taken by two countries which had chosen to place their relations on a new foundation of restraint, cooperation, and steadily growing confidence.
The possibility always exists that the agreements will not be respected. We concluded them not on the basis of trust, but rather on the enlightened self-interest of both sides. They contain extensive and carefully negotiated provisions for verification. Beyond the legal obligations, both sides have a stake in all of the agreements that have been signed and the broad process of improvement in relations that has begun.
We are confident that the Soviet leaders will not lightly abandon the course that led to the summit meeting and the initial agreements. For our own part, we will not change direction without major provocation, because we believe our present course is in the interest of this country and of mankind. We will remain fully protected as long as we maintain our research and development effort and the strategic programs for modernization and replacement that I have recommended to the Congress.
Future Prospects. In November 1972 the second stage of SALT began. In this new phase we are dealing with those new issues inherent in working out permanent, rather than temporary, arrangements and with some of the problems set aside in SALT I.
There is mutual agreement that permanent limitations must meet the basic security interests of 'both sides equitably if they are to endure in an era of great technological change and in a fluid international environment. There obviously can be no agreement that creates or preserves strategic advantages. But each side perceives the strategic balance differently and therefore holds differing concepts of an equitable framework for a permanent agreement.
The problem of defining a balance that establishes and preserves an essential equivalency in strategic forces is no less complicated than it was four years ago. It involves the numerical levels of major systems, the capabilities of individual systems, and the overall potential of the entire strategic arsenal that each side can develop.
The impact of unconstrained technological developments in particular must be considered. On the one hand, both sides will want to ensure that their forces can be modernized. They will want confidence in the reliability of their forces and their survivability in foreseeable strategic circumstances. On the other hand, if competition in technology proceeds without restraint, forces capable of destroying the retaliatory forces of the other side could be developed; or the thrust of technology could produce such a result without deliberate decisions. Competition could inexorably intensify to the point that there could be a high premium on striking first. Thus a major challenge is to determine where a balance of capabilities enhances stability and where it could generate severe competition for advantage in first strike capabilities.
Given the different roads we and the Soviet Union have followed in developing our respective forces, perfect symmetry is not possible. To the extent that one side retains certain technological capacities, the other side must be conceded similar rights or some form of compensation in other areas of technology.
The Soviet Union has deployed a very large and heavy ICBM. The weight this missile can deliver to its target is several times greater than that of our Minuteman ICBM. The entire Soviet ICBM force, therefore, has a "throw weight" approximately four times greater than ours.
On the other hand, the United States is deploying MIRVs on our Minuteman ICBM and Poseidon while the Soviet Union thus far has not begun such a deployment.
Once MIRVs are developed and tested, however, the greater throw weight capacity of Soviet ICBMs will allow the Soviet Union to deploy a larger number of MIRVs than the United States.
These are the types of extremely complicated issues that arise in defining an essential equivalency. Moreover, verification of limitations on technological capabilities will be extraordinarily more difficult than monitoring limitations on the numbers of weapons.
Nevertheless, there are a number of factors which give us reason to hope for continuing progress:
--The initial agreement provides a foundation of confidence.
--For the past four years both sides have engaged in a dialogue on strategic matters that was inconceivable in 1969. We now understand each other's concerns better than we did then. We have a common language for discussion.
--The limits of ABM systems should provide an incentive for limiting further growth in offensive capabilities.
--At the present levels of strategic forces, small differences in numbers assume less importance. A further question is the impact of future agreements on other states. We will not make agreements that reduce the security of other countries. Nor can we permit threats to our allies to develop unchecked because of SALT agreements. Such factors do not limit the prospects for further U.S.-Soviet limitation on offensive systems, but they do delimit the area for negotiation.
In sum, a future agreement should:
--establish an essential equivalence in strategic capabilities among systems common to both sides;
--maintain the survivability of strategic forces in light of known and potential technological capabilities;
--provide for the replacement and modernization of older systems without upsetting the strategic balance; ---be subject to adequate verification;
--leave the security of third parties undiminished.
MUTUAL AND BALANCED FORCE REDUCTIONS (MBFR)
Preparations. In June 1968, before this Administration took office, the North Atlantic Alliance made a proposal to begin discussions with the Warsaw Pact on a mutual reduction of forces in Central Europe. Although this overture had met with no positive response, we reaffirmed the Alliance proposal in April 1969. Troop reduction was a concrete security issue, rather than an exercise in atmospherics, and was thus consistent with the general effort to move from confrontation toward negotiations.
At the same time, we found that the idea of mutual reductions had not been systematically analyzed before 1969. The general theories were that it would be possible to maintain security at lower force levels and that force reductions in themselves would enhance the relaxation of political tension.
We decided to follow an analytical approach similar to the one we used for SALT. We investigated the feasible reductions of all the forces that might be involved, analyzed the effect of reductions on the capabilities of each side, and examined the changing balance of forces should the agreements be violated and both sides begin reinforcing. We also studied the verification requirements and how they might affect the possible kinds of reductions.
The following considerations illustrate the complexities of the MBFR process:
--Reductions provide an inherent advantage for the side that has postured its forces along offensive lines: offensive forces would retain the initiative to concentrate and attack, while the defense must continue to defend the same geographical front with fewer forces.
--Major deployments of equipment, especially those with offensive capabilities, are therefore an important element in the reduction process.
--How can equivalence be established between different categories of equipment? What ratios would be equitable?
--Manpower, of course, is a common denominator to all the forces in Central Europe. In large forces however, reducing manpower may not necessarily be the only important aspect. If manpower is reduced, what becomes of the equipment? Should it be destroyed or reassembled in depots for continuing surveillance?
--Small reductions of manpower cannot be verified except under well-defined and stringent circumstances; demobilization of national forces on their own territory is particularly difficult to monitor except in very large numbers.
--The forces in Central Europe are both indigenous and "foreign" but this is a political as well as a military distinction. Should all forces be treated equally? If so, what compensation is necessary for the fact that the United States would withdraw its forces across the Atlantic, while the Soviet Union would withdraw only several hundred miles?
--Following actual reductions, control on the reintroduction of forces into the area for maneuvers or for replacements needs to be considered along with related verification requirements.
--How quickly each side could restore its forces to a pre-reduction level through mobilization and reinforcement becomes a significant factor. Compensation for advantages that one side may have should be considered.
As in SALT, the analysis of such questions provides us with the building blocks which can be put together in different ways to help us understand the implications of different reduction processes:
--Proportionately equal reductions. Each side would apply a common percentage to reduce its forces. This appears to be a simple but equitable approach. If applied to all forces, however, it could create an imbalance because it would favor the offense and because of the geographical advantages of the Warsaw Pact.
--Reductions to equal levels. This would in effect produce a common ceiling for Central Europe. There would be some unequal cuts in absolute numbers, but the residual capabilities would be more balanced and offensive potential would thereby be reduced.
--Mixed, asymmetrical reductions. This means reductions would be made by different amounts in various categories of weapons or manpower. It could prove extremely complex to define equivalence between different weapons systems.
We have now completed our technical evaluation. We understand the major issues related to actual reductions and which approaches are realistic. We have shared the results of our studies with our NATO allies and have contributed to studies within the Alliance.
Allied Consultations. We now enter the final and most important stage in building an Alliance position. In addition to the completion of technical studies and diplomatic plans, we face one basic question: what security concept will the Alliance follow in developing its position for the negotiations next fall?
The Alliance is committed to "undiminished security" in the MBFR process, but we must agree on what this means in concrete terms. Different political viewpoints shape the attitudes of each ally, especially if its forces or territory may be involved. Issues of this magnitude could become divisive if there were no common concept. The Alliance must approach force reductions from the standpoint of their effect on military security in a period that may be marked by a further amelioration of tensions. Some of the key questions are:
--How do we reconcile reductions in roughly balanced conventional forces with the fact that the strategic balance is no longer clearly favorable to the Alliance?
--What are the capabilities to sustain a conventional defense of NATO territory with reduced forces?
--Could a substantial reduction in conventional defense lead to a greater or earlier reliance on nuclear weapons?
--Can reduced forces be maintained and improved in the present political environment?
--What would be the net effect of a new balance in Central Europe on the flanks of NATO?
-How would reductions affect the relative burdens of American and European forces?
To deal with these kinds of issues effectively, the Alliance must first set its security goals and relate them to technical MBFR analysis. Then, however the negotiations may unfold, the Alliance position throughout will be determined by a common concept of security rather than by negotiating tactics or abstract political formulas. We can then rationally address the questions of which forces and equipment should be reduced and by what amounts. We can translate our technical analysis into detailed proposals that both protect our interests and offer the other side a proposal for reductions that will enhance military stability in the heart of Europe.
Our security and that of the Alliance is inextricably linked. We will pursue these negotiations in full agreement with our allies. We will negotiate with the same dedication we displayed in SALT. We will also observe a fundamental principle of those talks; we will not enter into agreements that undermine international equilibrium or create threats to other countries.
OTHER ARMS CONTROL ISSUES
During the past year we have pursued arms control on several multilateral fronts.
Biological Arms Control. On April 10, 1972, the United States, the Soviet Union, and over 70 other nations signed an international treaty banning the development, production, and stockpiling of biological and toxic weapons and requiring destruction of existing stocks. The treaty has now been signed by more than 100 nations. I submitted it to the Senate on August 10, 1972, for advice and consent. Meanwhile, we are taking steps to implement some provisions.
The facilities that once produced these weapons are now doing research for peaceful purposes. The former biological warfare facility at Pine Bluff Arsenal in Arkansas has become a center for research on the adverse effects of chemical substances in man's environment. The former military biological research facility at Fort Detrick, Maryland, now houses a national center for cancer research. Scientists from all nations are being invited to share in the humanitarian work of these centers.
Chemical Arms Control. This Administration remains firmly committed to achieving effective international restraints on chemical weapons.
During the past year the United States played a leading role in the discussion of chemical weapons controls at the Conference of the Committee on Disarmament in Geneva. We presented a comprehensive work program on the prohibition of chemical weapons and several technical studies of this subject.
The basic problem is that several nations may have these weapons and the capacity to produce them is widespread. It is exceedingly difficult to verify existing stocks, let alone their reduction, or to distinguish between civilian and military production. Furthermore, however remote the threat may be that any nation would use chemical weapons offensively, that threat must be countered with certain defensive capabilities.
The major issue is whether competition will continue or whether, as in SALT, some partial measures can be adopted to facilitate more comprehensive measures.
Comprehensive Test Ban. The United States has continued to support the objective of an adequately verified agreement to ban all nuclear weapons testing.
Some countries maintain that national means of verification would be sufficient to monitor such a ban with confidence. We disagree. Despite substantial progress in detecting and identifying seismic events, including underground nuclear tests, we believe that national means of verification still should be supplemented by some On-site inspection.
The United States shares the view of many other nations that an adequately verified comprehensive test ban would be a positive contribution to moderating the arms race. For this reason we are giving high priority to the problem of verification. We will continue to cooperate with other nations in working toward eventual agreement on this important issue.
The responsibility for controlling arms does not rest with the great powers alone. As the United States and the Soviet Union seek to curb the nuclear arms race, and the nations with forces in Central Europe seek to reduce conventional forces, other countries should develop regional arms control arrangements which will enhance mutual security and reduce the danger of local conflicts. External powers should respect such arrangements by restricting the flow of weapons into such areas. The United States is prepared to do so.
PART VII: NEW INTERNATIONAL
| Jordan |
"Which stage show, with music by Sir Elton John and launched in 2005, is based on a film of 2000 and contains the songs ""Born To Boogie"" and ""Granma's Song"" ?" | The Global Challenges of Peace 506
CONCLUSION 516
INTRODUCTION
In January 1969, America needed to change the philosophy and practice of its foreign policy.
Whoever took office four years ago would have faced this challenge. After a generation, the postwar world had been transformed and demanded a fresh approach. It was not a question of our previous policies having failed; indeed, in many areas they had been very successful. It was rather that new conditions, many of them achievements of our policies, summoned new perspectives.
THE WORLD WE FOUND
The international environment was dominated by seemingly intractable confrontation between the two major nuclear powers. Throughout the nuclear age both the fears of war and hopes for peace revolved around our relations with the Soviet Union. Our growing nuclear arsenals were largely directed at each other. We alone had the capacity to wreak catastrophic damage across the planet. Our ideologies clashed. We both had global interests, and this produced many friction points. We each led and dominated a coalition of opposing states.
As a result, our relationship was generally hostile. There were positive interludes, but these were often atmospheric and did not get at the roots of tension. Accords were reached on particular questions, but there was no broad momentum in our relationship. Improvements in the climate were quickly replaced by confrontation and, occasionally, crisis. The basic pattern was a tense jockeying for tactical advantage around the globe.
This was dangerous and unsatisfactory. The threat of a major conflict between us hung over the world. This in turn exacerbated local and regional tensions. And our two countries not only risked collision but were constrained from working positively on common problems.
The weight of China rested outside the international framework. This was due partly to its own attitude and its preoccupation with internal problems, and partly to the policies of the outside world, most importantly the United States. In any event, this Administration inherited two decades of mutual estrangement and hostility. Here the problem was not one of a fluctuating relationship but rather of having no relationship at all. The People's Republic of China was separated not only from us but essentially from the world as a whole.
China also exemplified the great changes that had occurred in the Communist world. For years our guiding principle was containment of what we considered a monolithic challenge. In the 1960's the forces of nationalism dissolved Communist unity into divergent centers of power and doctrine, and our foreign policy began to differentiate among the Communist capitals. But this process could not be truly effective so long as we were cut off from one-quarter of the globe's people. China in turn was emerging from its isolation and might be more receptive to overtures from foreign countries.
The gulf between China and the world distorted the international landscape. We could not effectively reduce tensions in Asia without talking to Peking. China's isolation compounded its own sense of insecurity. There could not be a stable world order with a major power remaining outside and hostile to it.
Our principal alliances with Western Europe and Japan needed adjustment. After the devastation of the Second World War we had helped allies and former adversaries alike. Fueled by our assistance and secure behind our military shield, they regained their economic vigor and political confidence.
Throughout the postwar period our bonds with Europe had rested on American prescriptions as well as resources. We provided much of the leadership and planning for common defense. We took the diplomatic lead. The dollar was unchallenged. But by the time this Administration took office, the tide was flowing toward greater economic and political assertiveness by our allies. European unity which we had always encouraged, was raising new issues in Atlantic relations. The economic revival of Europe was straining the Atlantic monetary and commercial framework. The relaxation of tensions with the Communist world was generating new doctrines of defense and diplomacy.
The imperatives of change were equally evident in our Pacific partnership with Japan. Its recovery of strength and self-assurance carried political and psychological implications for our relationship. Its spectacular economic growth had made it the world's third industrial power; our entire economic relationship was undergoing transformation. The earlier paternalism of U.S.-Japanese relations no longer suited either partner.
The Vietnam war dominated our attention and was sapping our self-confidence. Our role and our costs had steadily grown without decisive impact on the conflict. The outlook at the conference table was bleak. The war was inhibiting our policy abroad and fostering dissent and self-doubt at home. There was no prospect of either an end to the fighting or an end to our involvement.
Although the historical imperatives for a new international approach existed independently, the war made this challenge at once more urgent and more difficult. More than any other factor, it threatened to exhaust the American people's willingness to sustain a reliable foreign policy. As much as any other factor, the way we treated it would shape overseas attitudes and American psychology.
The context for our national security policy was fundamentally altered. From the mid-1940's to the late 1960's we had moved from America's nuclear monopoly to superiority to rough strategic balance with the Soviet Union. This created fresh challenges to our security and introduced new calculations in our diplomacy. The U.S. defense effort remained disproportionate to that of our allies who had grown much stronger. The threats from potential enemies were more varied and less blatant than during the more rigid bipolar era. These changes, combined with spiraling military costs and the demands of domestic programs, were prompting reexamination of our defense doctrines and posture. They were underlining the importance of arms control as an element in national security. They were also leading some in this country to call for policies that would seriously jeopardize our safety and world stability.
Around the world, friends were ready for a greater role in shaping their own security and well-being. In the 1950's and 1960's other nations had looked to America for ideas and resources, and they found us a willing provider of both. Our motives were sound, the needs were clear, and we had many successes. By 1969, scores of new nations, having emerged from colonial status or dependency on major powers, were asserting themselves with greater assurance and autonomy.
Four years ago this growing capacity of friends was not reflected in the balance of contributions to security and development. This meant that others could do more, and the United States need do proportionately less, in the provision of material resources. More fundamentally, it meant that increasingly the devising of plans belonged outside of Washington. The sweeping American presence was likely to strain our capabilities and to stifle the initiative of others.
There were new issues that called for global cooperation. These challenges were not susceptible to national solutions or relevant to national ideologies. The vast frontiers of space and the oceans beckoned international exploration for humanity's gain. Pollution of air, sea, and land could not be contained behind national frontiers. The brutal tools of assassination, kidnapping, and hijacking could be used to further any cause in any country. No nation's youth was immune from the scourge of international drug traffic. The immediate tragedies of national disasters and the longer-term threat of overpopulation were humanitarian, not political, concerns.
At home we faced pressures that threatened to swing America from over-extension in the world to heedless withdrawal from it. The American people had supported the burdens of global leadership with enthusiasm and generosity into the 1960's. But after almost three decades, our enthusiasm was waning and the results of our generosity were being questioned. Our policies needed change, not only to match new realities in the world but also to meet a new mood in America. Many Americans were no longer willing to support the sweeping range of our postwar role. It had drained our financial, and especially our psychological, reserves. Our friends clearly were able to do more. The Vietnam experience was hastening our awareness of change. Voices in this country were claiming that we had to jettison global concerns and turn inward in order to meet our domestic problems.
Therefore the whole underpinning of our foreign policy was in jeopardy. The bipartisan consensus that once existed for a vigorous American internationalism was now being torn apart. Some of the most active proponents of America's commitment in the world in previous decades were now pressing for indiscriminate disengagement. What was once seen as America's overseas obligation was now seen as our overseas preoccupation. What was once viewed as America's unselfishness was now viewed as our naivete. By 1969 we faced the danger that public backing for a continuing world role might be swept away by fatigue, frustration and over-reaction.
THIS ADMINISTRATION'S APPROACH
We were determined to shape new policies to deal with each of these problems. But our first requirement was philosophic. We needed a fresh vision to inspire and to integrate our efforts.
We began with the conviction that a major American commitment to the world continued to be indispensable. The many changes in the postwar landscape did not alter this central fact. America's strength was so vast, our involvement so broad, and our concerns so deep, that to remove our influence would set off tremors around the globe. Friends would despair, adversaries would be tempted, and our own national security would soon be threatened. There was no escaping the reality of our enormous influence for peace.
But the new times demanded a new definition of our involvement. For more than a score of years our foreign policy had been driven by a global mission that only America could fulfill--to furnish political leadership, provide for the common defense, and promote economic development. Allies were weak and other nations were young, threats were palpable and American power was dominant.
By 1969, a mission of this scale was no longer valid abroad or supportable at home. Allies had grown stronger and young nations were maturing, threats were diversified and American power was offset. It was time to move from a paternal mission for others to a cooperative mission with others. Convinced as we were that a strong American role remained essential for world stability, we knew, too, that a peace that depends primarily on the exertions of one nation is inherently fragile.
So we saw the potential and the imperative of a pluralistic world. We believed we could move from an environment of emergencies to a more stable international system. We made our new purpose a global structure of peace-comprehensive because it would draw on the efforts of other countries; durable because if countries helped to build it, they would also help to maintain it.
To pursue this fundamental vision, we had to move across a wide and coordinated front, with mutually reinforcing policies for each challenge we faced.
Peace could not depend solely on the uneasy equilibrium between two nuclear giants. We had a responsibility to work for positive relations with the Soviet Union. But there was ample proof that assertions of good will or transitory changes in climate would not erase the hard realities of ideological opposition, geopolitical rivalry, competing alliances, or military competition. We were determined not to lurch along--with isolated agreements vulnerable to sudden shifts of course in political relations, with peaks and valleys based on atmosphere, with incessant tension and maneuvering. We saw as well that there were certain mutual interests that we could build upon. As the two powers capable of global destruction, we had a common stake in preserving peace.
Thus we decided to follow certain principles in our policy toward the Soviet Union. We would engage in concrete negotiations designed to produce specific agreements, both where differences existed and where cooperation was possible. We would work with Moscow across a broad front, believing that progress in one area would induce progress in others. Through the gathering momentum of individual accords we would seek to create vested interests on both sides in restraint and the strengthening of peace. But this process would require a reduction in tactical maneuvering at each other's expense in favor of our shared interest in avoiding calamitous collision, in profiting from cooperation, and in building a more stable world.
Peace could not exclude a fourth of humanity. The longer-term prospects for peace required a new relationship with the People's Republic of China. Only if China's weight was reflected in the international system would it have the incentive, and sense of shared responsibility, to maintain the peace. Furthermore, the time was past when one nation could claim to speak for a bloc of states; we would deal with countries on the basis of their actions, not abstract ideological formulas. Our own policies could be more flexible if we did not assume the permanent enmity of China. The United States had a traditional interest in an independent and peaceful China. We seemed to have no fundamental interests that need collide in the longer sweep of history. There was, indeed, rich potential benefit for our two peoples in a more normal relationship.
So we launched a careful process of private diplomacy and public steps to engage the People's Republic of China with us and involve it more fully in the world. We did so, confident that a strong, independent China was in our national interest; resolved that such a process need not--and would not--be aimed at any other country; and looking for a reciprocal attitude on the part of the Chinese.
Peace must draw upon the vitality of our friends. Our alliances with Western Europe and Japan would continue as major pillars of our foreign policy, but they had not kept pace with the changed international environment. We thus sought to forge more equal partnerships based on a more balanced contribution of both resources and plans.
America had been the automatic source of political leadership and economic power. Now we needed new modes of action that would accommodate our partners' new dynamism. The challenge was to reconcile traditional unity with new diversity. While complete integration of policy was impossible, pure unilateralism would be destructive.
Before, we were allied in containment of a unified Communist danger. Now Communism had taken various forms; our alliances had stabilized the European and Northeast Asian environments; and we had laid the foundations for negotiation. We had to decide together not only what we were against, but what we were for.
Peace required the ending of an ongoing war. Our approach to the Vietnam conflict and our shaping of a new foreign policy were inextricably linked. Naturally, our most urgent concern was to end the war. But we had to end it--or at least our involvement--in a way that would continue to make possible a responsible American role in the world.
We could not continue on the course we inherited, which promised neither an end to the conflict nor to our involvement. At the same time, we would not abandon our friends, for we wanted to shape a structure of peace based in large measure on American steadiness. So we sought peace with honor--through negotiation if possible, through Vietnamization if the enemy gave us no choice. The phased shifting of defense responsibilities to the South Vietnamese would give them the time and means to adjust. It would assure the American people that our own involvement was not open-ended. It would preserve our credibility abroad and our cohesion at home.
Given the enemy's attitude, peace was likely to take time, and other problems in the world could not wait. So we moved promptly to shape a new approach to allies and adversaries. And by painting on this larger canvas we sought both to put the Vietnam war in perspective and to speed its conclusion by demonstrating to Hanoi that continued conflict did not frustrate our global policies.
Peace needed America's strength. Modifications in our defense policy were required, but one central truth persisted-neither our nation nor peace in the world could be secure without our military power. If superiority was no longer practical, inferiority would be unthinkable.
We were determined to maintain a national defense second to none. This would be a force for stability in a world of evolving partnerships and changing doctrines. This was essential to maintain the confidence of our friends and the respect of our adversaries. At the same time, we would seek energetically to promote national and international security through arms control negotiations.
Peace involved a fresh dimension of international cooperation. A new form of multilateral diplomacy was prompted by a new set of issues. These challenges covered a wide range--the promise of exploration, the pollution of our planet, the perils of crime---but they were alike in going beyond the traditional considerations doctrine and geography. They required cooperation that reached not only across boundaries but often around the globe. So we resolved to work both with friends and adversaries, in the United Nations and other forums, to practice partnership on a global scale.
Above all, peace demanded the responsible participation of all nations. With great efforts during the postwar period we had promoted the revitalization of former powers and the growing assurance of new states. For this changed world we needed a new philosophy that would reflect and reconcile two basic principles: A structure of peace requires the greater participation of other nations, but it also requires the sustained participation of the United States.
To these ends, we developed the Nixon Doctrine of shared responsibilities. This Doctrine was central to our approach to major allies in the Atlantic and Pacific. But it also shaped our attitude toward those in Latin America, Asia, and Africa with whom we were working in formal alliances or friendship.
Our primary purpose was to invoke greater efforts by others--not so much to lighten our burdens as to increase their commitment to a new and peaceful structure. This would mean that increasingly they would man their own defenses and furnish more of the funds for their security and economic development. The corollary would be the reduction of the American share of defense or financial contributions.
More fundamental than this material redistribution, however, was a psychological reorientation. Nations had habitually relied on us for political leadership. Much time and energy went into influencing decisions in Washington. Our objective now was to encourage them to play a greater role in formulating plans and programs. For when others design their security and their development, they make their destiny truly their own. And when plans are their plans, they are more motivated to make them realities.
The lowering of our profile was not an end in itself. Other countries needed to do more, but they could not do so without a concerned America. Their role had to be increased, but this would prove empty unless we did what we must. We could not go from over-involvement to neglect. A changing world needed the continuity of America's strength.
Thus we made clear that the Nixon Doctrine represented a new definition of American leadership, not abandonment of that leadership. In my 1971 Report, I set forth the need for a responsible balance:
"The Nixon Doctrine recognizes that we cannot abandon friends, and must not transfer burdens too swiftly. We must strike a balance between doing too much and thus preventing self-reliance, and doing too little and thus undermining self-confidence.
"The balance we seek abroad is crucial. We only compound insecurity if we modify our protective or development responsibilities without giving our friends the time and the means to adjust, materially and psychologically, to a new form of American participation in the world.
"Precipitate shrinking of the American role would not bring peace. It would not reduce America's stake in a turbulent world. It would not solve our problems, either abroad or at home."
Peace had a domestic dimension. Steadiness abroad required steadiness at home. America could continue to make its vital contribution in the world only if Americans understood the need and supported the effort to do so. But understanding and support for a responsible foreign policy were in serious jeopardy in 1969. Years of burdens, Cold War tensions, and a difficult war threatened to undermine our constancy.
While new policies were required to meet transformed conditions abroad, they were equally imperative because of the changing climate at home. Americans needed a new positive vision of the world and our place in it. In order to continue to do what only America could, we had to demonstrate that our friends were doing more. While maintaining strong defenses, we also had to seek national security through negotiations with adversaries. And where American families were most directly affected, we had to gain a peace with honor to win domestic support for our new foreign policy as well as to make it credible abroad.
We have thus paid great attention, as in these Reports, to the articulation, as well as the implementation, of our new role in the world.
THE PAST YEAR
My previous Reports chronicled our progress during the first three years of this Administration. Despite shifting currents, and recognizing that the calendar cannot draw neat dividing lines, there has been a positive evolution.
In 1969, we defined our basic approach, drawing the blueprint of a new strategy for peace.
In 1970, we implemented new policies, building toward peace.
In 1971, we made essential breakthroughs, and a global structure of peace emerged.
This past year we realized major results from our previous efforts. Together they are shaping a durable peace.
--Three years of careful groundwork produced an historic turning point in our relations with the People's Republic of China. My conversations with Chinese leaders in February 1972 reestablished contact between the world's most powerful and the world's most populous countries, thereby transforming the postwar landscape. The journey to Peking launched a process with immense potential for the betterment of our peoples and the building of peace in Asia and the world. Since then we have moved to concrete measures which are improving relations and creating more positive conditions in the region. China is becoming fully engaged with us and the world. The process is not inexorable, however. Both countries will have to continue to exercise restraint and contribute to a more stable environment.
--The May 1972 summit meeting with the leadership of the Soviet Union achieved a broad range of significant agreements. Negotiations across a wide front, which set the stage for the meeting, were successfully concluded in Moscow. Progress in one area reinforced progress in others. For the first time two nations agreed to limit the strategic weapons that are the heart of their national survival. We launched cooperative ventures in several fields. We agreed on basic principles to govern our relations. Future areas of cooperation and negotiation were opened up. There has been, in sum, major movement toward a steadier and more constructive relationship. On the other hand, areas of tension and potential conflict remain, and certain patterns of Soviet behavior continue to cause concern.
--The attainment of an honorable settlement in Vietnam was the most satisfying development of this past year. Successful Vietnamization and intensive negotiations culminated in the Agreement signed on January 27, 1973. This was quickly followed by a settlement in neighboring Laos in February. The steady courage and patience of Americans who supported our policy through the years were echoed in the moving salutes of our returning men. But the coals of war still glow in Vietnam and Laos, and a cease-fire remains elusive altogether in Cambodia. Much work remains to consolidate peace in Indochina.
--In Western Europe the inevitable strains of readjustment persisted as we moved from American predominance to balanced partnerships. Generally these were healthy manifestations of the growing strength of countries who share common values and objectives. With less fanfare, but no less dedication, than in our negotiations with adversaries, we consulted closely with our friends. Such a process may not be as susceptible to dramatic advances, but we believe that we have paved the way for substantial progress in Atlantic relations in the coming months. Major political, security and economic negotiations are on the agenda. They will test the wisdom and adaptability of our Alliance.
--There was continued evolution toward a more mature and equitable partnership with Japan. Confidence in our shared purposes, which appeared shaken in 1971, has since been reaffirmed. Nevertheless we have not yet fully defined our new political relationship, and serious economic problems confront us. Our relations with Tokyo will be an area of prime attention during the coming year.
--In the past year we advanced toward major reform of the international economic system. With others we have launched proposals to create a more stable international monetary system, and a more open world trading order through new international trade negotiations. This process of readjustment is not without crises, however, and voices of narrow nationalism are heard on both sides of the ocean. We have a long and difficult way to go.
--The explosive Middle East continued in the twilight zone between peace and open conflict. The cease-fire arranged at our initiative lasted into its third year, but no genuine progress was made toward a permanent settlement. Some foreign military forces were withdrawn from the region, but the mix of local animosities and external power still makes the Middle East a most dangerous threat to world peace. Efforts to find political solutions are menaced by the upward spiral of terrorism and reprisal.
--For the South Asian Subcontinent it was a year of rebuilding and readjustment after the conflict in 1971. India, Pakistan, and the new nation of Bangladesh made tentative moves toward accommodation. But there is still a long road to the stability and reconciliation that are required if the massive human needs of one-fifth of mankind are to be met.
--In the Western Hemisphere the United States followed its deliberate policy of restraint, encouraging others to furnish concepts as well as resources for Hemispheric development. A healthy process of regional initiatives and self-definition is now underway, and the foundations have been established for a more mature partnership with our Latin American friends. The common task of redefining and imparting fresh purpose to our community, however, is far from completed.
--Asia has witnessed a settlement of the Vietnam war and major developments in relations among the principal powers. It is there that the Nixon Doctrine has been most extensively applied. There has been positive growth in self-help and regional cooperation. But these nations are entering a period of delicate re. adjustment and American steadiness will be crucial.
--In Africa our goals remained economic development, racial justice, and a stable peace resting on independent states. We continue to recognize, however, that these are largely the tasks of the African nations themselves--and there were both hopeful and discouraging events this past year. Our policies of political restraint and economic support are designed to help Africa realize its rich potential.
--We moved down the interrelated paths of national security, arms control, and a strong defense. The strategic arms limitation pacts with the Soviet Union were a milestone, but major tasks remain--the extension of limitations on strategic arms and then their reduction; the mutual and balanced reduction of conventional forces in Central Europe. In our defense posture we have maintained a clearly sufficient power, and we reached an all-volunteer army. But we are still searching for doctrines and deployments fully adequate to changing times and surging costs. Our fundamental principle remains keeping America strong enough to preserve our vital interests and promote the prospects of peace.
--We paid increasing attention to global issues that more and more demand international solutions. Progress was encouraging in some areas, such as reducing the flow of drugs. The world community still refused to grapple effectively, however, with other issues such as terrorism. The global dimension of diplomacy has been developing unevenly.
Since last year's Report, there has been historic progress. A changed world has moved closer to a lasting peace. Many events were colorful, but their true drama is that they can herald a new epoch, not fade as fleeting episodes.
As in any year, however, there were disappointments as well as successes. And wherever there is progress, new challenges are added to an always unfinished agenda.
Shaping a peaceful world requires, first of all, an America that stays strong, an America that stays involved.
But the United States alone cannot realize this goal. Our friends and adversaries alike must share in the enterprise of peace.
The President and the Administration alone cannot pursue this goal. We need the cooperation of the Congress and the support of the American people.
It is to these audiences at home and abroad that this Report is addressed.
PART I: BUILDING NEW RELATIONSHIPS
--China
--The Soviet Union
CHINA
In this Administration we have begun a new chapter in American-Chinese relations, and as a result the international landscape has been fundamentally changed.
For two decades our two countries stared at each other icily across a gulf of hostility and suspicion. Misunderstanding was assured. Miscalculation was a constant danger. And constructing a permanent peace was impossible.
This estrangement had global ramifications that went far beyond our bilateral relationship. So long as we were not dealing with the People's Republic of China, our foreign policy could not truly reflect the emerging multipolar world. The isolation of one-fourth of the human race, partly self-imposed and partly the result of the policies of others, distorted the international scene. It also tended to reinforce China's own sense of insecurity. There could be no stable world order if one of the major powers remained outside it and antagonistic toward it.
In the past four years this situation has been transformed. Bilaterally, deep differences in ideology and policy remain; neither we nor the Chinese leaders have illusions that our discussions will convert each other. But extensive and frank dialogue has greatly increased mutual understanding. The risk of confrontation therefore has been sharply reduced, and in any event it should no longer flow from miscalculation. Without either side abandoning its principles, we now have the potential for positive enterprises.
There are concrete manifestations of this new chapter in our relationship.
Before, there was no dialogue at all between our governments, except for desultory meetings in third countries. Now we have held hundreds of hours of direct talks at the highest levels. Liaison Offices are being established in Peking and Washington.
Before, there was virtually no contact between a quarter of the world's population and the American people. Now there is a significant exchange of groups and persons in a wide spectrum of fields. This will increase substantially.
Before, our bilateral trade was miniscule. Now it is reaching very substantial levels. There will be further expansion.
This process in turn has helped to create new possibilities on a global scale. Our own diplomacy has been broadened; we can more effectively promote an inclusive peace. The People's Republic of China has become more fully engaged in the world scene; much more than before, it is making its contributions to shaping the international order.
The turning point came at the summit in February 1972 when the leaders of the People's Republic of China and the United States met and put their personal imprint on a new direction for our two nations, and with it new contours for the world.
THE ROAD TO THE SUMMIT
Three years of meticulous preparation preceded my trip to Peking.
When I took office, I was determined to reestablish contact between the most populous and most powerful countries in the world. The following considerations prompted us and served as policy guidelines:
--We could not build toward a global structure of peace while excluding 800 million people. A more stable international system had to reflect the massive weight and potential of China.
--Changes in the world generally, and in the Communist world particularly, called for a broader American approach. Having recovered from the ravages of World War II, our allies began asserting their autonomy. Independent voices began to be heard in the once solid Socialist community. The international environment had become multipolar; it was time our diplomacy did too.
--The United States has had a traditional interest in a peaceful, independent, and self-reliant China. This remained a more positive prospect than a China that felt isolated or threatened.
--There were many potential areas where bilateral contact could enrich the lives of our two peoples.
--There did not seem to be major clashes of national interest between our two countries over the longer term. Our policies could be less rigid if we and the Chinese did not treat each other as permanent adversaries.
--A new approach was not to be directed against other countries. In. deed it could serve to broaden the horizons of international dialogue and accommodation.
--We believed that the People's Republic of China might be receptive to our approach.
So the times called for a fresh approach to China. But formidable obstacles, technical as well as political, lay in the way. In last year's Report I described the problems and the policies we employed to overcome them. Against a twenty-year backdrop of non-communication and sterile mutual recrimination, our task was twofold: to convey privately our views to the Chinese leadership and to indicate publicly the direction of our policy.
We had to find discreet and reliable means to transmit our views to Peking and get authoritative Chinese responses. We began this effort during the first weeks of my Administration. Up until the summer of 1971, we engaged in a delicate diplomatic minuet during which mutual confidence gradually increased and mutual intentions became more concrete.
Meanwhile we carefully orchestrated a succession of unilateral initiatives and positive statements. From mid-1969 onwards, we took a series of steps to relax trade and travel restrictions. They did not require a response from the Chinese; they were therefore neither dependent on Chinese reciprocity nor vulnerable to Chinese rejection. Individually these were not major steps, but cumulatively they etched the pattern more and more clearly. At the same time in official speeches and statements, such as my annual foreign policy reports, we mapped in increasingly sharp relief the road we were taking.
During the spring of 1971 the tempo accelerated in public and in private, with greater responsiveness from the Chinese. Peking's invitation to an American table tennis team to visit China in April was one among many public signals. Privately during that period we agreed that Dr. Kissinger should visit Peking from July 9 to July 11.
On that trip we opened the door. Dr. Kissinger held intensive discussions with Premier Chou En-lai, and agreement was reached that I would visit the People's Republic of China. In the brief joint announcement that I read on July 15 we stated that "the meeting between the leaders of China and the United States is to seek the normalization of relations between the two countries and also to exchange views on questions of concern to the two sides."
In October, Dr. Kissinger returned to Peking to discuss the broad agenda for my visit and settle on the other major arrangements. The groundwork was thus laid for meetings at the highest levels.
THE JOURNEY TO PEKING
My trip to the People's Republic of China from February e I to February 28, 1972 was the watershed in reestablishing Sino-American relations.
The carefully nurtured preparation held out the promise of a new direction; my meetings with Chairman Mao Tsetung and Premier Chou En-lai firmly set our course. The Joint CommuniquпїЅ at the end of my visit established the framework for progress; developments since then have accelerated the process of normalization.
Seldom have the leaders of two major countries met with such an opportunity to create a totally new relationship. It had taken two and a half years to cross the gulf of isolation and reach the summit. At the same time, the very factors which had made this journey so complicated offered unusual opportunities. The absence of communication, while making initial contact complex to arrange, also gave us a clean slate to write upon. Factors such as geography and China's recent concentration on internal matters meant that we had few bilateral matters of contention, though we lined up often on different sides of third country or multilateral problems.
Accordingly, the agenda for our discussions could be general and our dialogue philosophical to a much greater extent than is normally possible between nations. Indeed, it was this context and these prospects that, in our view, called for a summit meeting. With the Soviet Union a meeting at the highest levels was required to give impetus to, and conclude, a broad range of concrete negotiations. With the People's Republic of China, on the other hand, such a meeting was needed to set an entirely new course. Only through direct discussions at the highest levels could we decisively bridge the gulf that had divided us, conduct discussions on a strategic plane, and launch a new process with authority.
The primary objective, then, of my talks with the Chinese leaders was not the reaching of concrete agreements but a sharing of fundamental perspectives on the world. First, we had to establish a joint perception of the shape of our future relationship and its place in the international order. We needed a mutual assessment of what was involved in the new process we were undertaking and of one another's reliability in carrying the process forward. If we could attain this type of mutual comprehension, agreements could and would flow naturally.
Last February I described our expectations as I set out on my journey:
"Both sides can be expected to state their principles and their views with complete frankness. We will each know clearly where the other stands on the issues that divide us. We will look for ways to begin reducing our differences. We will attempt to find some common ground on which to build a more constructive relationship.
"If we can accomplish these objectives, we will have made a solid beginning."
Our discussions ranged broadly and freely. Both sides set forth their views with candor, neither evading nor downgrading differences. We were able to fulfill the expectations I had set forth earlier.
On February 27, 1972 we issued a Joint CommuniquпїЅ in Shanghai that reflected this solid beginning. This document purposely was very unorthodox. CommuniquпїЅs often use general language, stress agreements, gloss over disputes, and use ambiguous formulas to bridge differences.
The Chinese leaders and we thought that such an approach would be unworthy of our unique encounter and our discussions. To pretend that two nations, with such a long separation and such fundamental differences, suddenly were in harmony would have been neither honest nor credible. The use of general or compromise language to paper over disputes would have been subject to misinterpretation by others; and it ran the risk of subsequent conflicting interpretations by the two sides.
We decided instead to speak plainly. We echoed the frankness of our private talks in our public announcement. Each side forthrightly stated its world and regional views in the communiquпїЅ, and the lines of our ideology and foreign policy were clearly drawn.
Against this candid background, the areas where we could find agreement emerged with more authority. Our conversations made clear that in addition to genuine differences there were also broad principles of international relations to which we both subscribed. There was as well a joint determination to improve our relations both by accommodating our differences and developing concrete ties.
Accordingly, in the communiquпїЅ we agreed that despite differences in social systems and foreign policies, countries should conduct their relations on the basis of respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity, non-aggression against other states, non-interference in the internal affairs of others, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence. International disputes should be settled on this basis without the use or threat of force. We and the People's Republic of China agreed to apply these principles to our mutual relations.
With these international principles in mind we stated that:
"--progress toward the normalization of relations between China and the United States is in the interests of all countries;
"--both wish to reduce the danger of international military conflict;
"--neither should seek hegemony in the Asia-Pacific region and each is opposed to efforts by any other country or group of countries to establish such hegemony; and
"--neither is prepared to negotiate on behalf of any third party or to enter into agreements or understandings with the other directed at other states.
"Both sides are of the view that it would be against the interests of the peoples of the world for any major country to collude with another against other countries, or for major countries to divide up the world into spheres of interest."
These principles were of major significance. They demonstrated that despite our clear disagreements and our long separation we shared some fundamental attitudes toward international relations. They provided both a framework for our future relations and a yardstick by which to measure each other's performance.
With respect to the relationship of Taiwan to the mainland, the United States reaffirmed its interest in a peaceful solution of this question by the Chinese themselves. We based this view on the fact that all Chinese on either side of the Taiwan Strait maintain that there is but one China and that Taiwan is a part of China.
The communiquпїЅ then laid down the foundations for tangible improvements in our relations. These would allow us to move from the elimination of mistrust and the establishment of broad understandings to more concrete accomplishments:
--We agreed to facilitate bilateral exchanges in order to broaden the understanding between our peoples. Specific areas mentioned were science, technology, culture, sports, and journalism.
--We undertook to facilitate the progressive growth of trade between our countries. Both sides viewed economic relations based on equality and mutual benefit as being in the interests of our peoples.
--We decided to maintain contact through various channels, including sending a senior U.S. representative to Peking periodically to exchange views directly. This reflected a mutual desire to expand our communications.
--We also subsequently established a formal channel through our two embassies in Paris. This would institutionalize our contacts and facilitate exchanges, trade, and travel.
MAJOR ADVANCES IN THE PAST YEAR
Since my visit to Peking the momentum of our relations has grown in all the fields covered by the Shanghai CommuniquпїЅ.
As foreseen in the communiquпїЅ, Dr. Kissinger returned to Peking in June to review international issues with the Chinese and to stimulate progress in the various bilateral programs. Our embassies in Paris also facilitated the flow of groups and goods.
The growth of our bilateral trade has exceeded expectations. In 1971, U.S. imports from China totalled $4.9 million, while our exports were negligible. In 1972 we imported $32.3 million worth of goods and exported $60.2 million, an expansion of trade helped by the attendance of more than 150 American businessmen at the spring and fall sessions of the Canton Export Commodities Fair• In 1973, two-way trade is likely to show substantial additional growth, and may well place the United States among China's five largest trading partners. To encourage this expansion of commercial relations, a National Council for U.S.-China Trade was formed in early 1973 by a distinguished group of private business executives. This organization will seek to promote the orderly development of bilateral trade through exchange of information and facilitation of contacts between Chinese and American manufacturers, exporters, and traders.
A substantial beginning was made in the development of exchanges between our two countries. A championship table tennis team from the People's Republic toured the United States in April 1972, in return for the visit of the American team which had played in Peking a year earlier.
Groups of Chinese doctors and scientists visited their counterparts in this country during the fall, under the sponsorship of the Committee on Scholarly Communication with the People's Republic of China. And in December, the Shenyang Acrobatic Troupe performed in four major American cities in a visit facilitated by the National Committee on U.S.-China Relations.
In turn, increasing numbers of Americans visited the People's Republic of China. The Majority and Minority leaders of the Senate were guests of the Chinese People's Institute of Foreign Affairs in April 1972, as were the House leaders in June. A group of doctors from the National Medical Association and a delegation of computer scientists visited their counterparts in China in the summer and fall. Among the journalists who toured the People's Republic during the year was a delegation from the American Society of Newspaper Editors. And in the scholarly areas, groups of distinguished American economists and China specialists
toured the country, as well as substantial numbers of individual scientists and scholars from various fields.
Thus there was a significant resumption of cultural, scientific, and scholarly contacts, and the public media began to inform our peoples about one another. Chinese and Americans were rebuilding historic bonds.
A solid foundation was therefore established before Dr. Kissinger returned to Peking in February of this year in the wake of the Vietnam peace settlement. The joint announcement after that trip pointed to major progress in our relations with the People's Republic of China:
--There were "earnest, frank, and constructive" talks in an "unconstrained atmosphere" with Chairman Mao, Premier Chou, and other Chinese officials.
--The two sides reaffirmed the principles of the Shanghai CommuniquпїЅ and agreed to accelerate the normalization of relations.
--We agreed to broaden contacts in all fields, and establish a concrete program to expand trade and exchanges still further.
--We decided to settle in a comprehensive manner the long-standing issues of private U.S. claims against the Chinese government and blocked Chinese assets in the United States. Secretary of State Rogers and Chinese Foreign Minister Chi Peng-fei reached agreement in principle on this issue a week later in Paris. Final settlement will open the way for further expansion of our bilateral commercial relations.
--Most importantly, we agreed that each country would establish a Liaison Office in the capital of the other. They will be functioning very slowly. Both sides have appointed senior representatives with long diplomatic; experience. This major step both reflects--and will promote the increase in our communications and bilateral programs. Practically, the offices will enable us to deal with each other directly in Washington and Peking. Symbolically, they underline the progress made to date and our joint intention to proceed on the path we have chosen. They represent a milestone in our developing relationship.
--The Chinese agreed to free the two American pilots captured during the Vietnam War. They also promised to review later the already shortened sentence of another American prisoner. The pilots were released on March 15, 1973, while the other American was released early on March 10, 1973.
We thus moved decisively from the conceptual to the concrete. What was theoretically desirable was increasingly being practiced. What was still partly tentative and experimental would now be reinforced and expanded. What was indirect could now be made direct.
Several factors contributed to this major advance in our relationship: --Eighteen months of authoritative and wide-ranging discussions had made clear to each side the other's philosophy and principles. We both decided that our shared interests in bettering relations, outweighed our differences on specific questions. Where differences existed, we had found ways to accommodate them without sacrificing principles.
--Since the initial openings, the two sides had established considerable reliability in our dealings, both bilateral and multilateral.
--Implementation of the Shanghai CommuniquпїЅ had proceeded satisfactorily, and it was agreed that new steps were required to accelerate progress. Both we and the Chinese believed that it was important to institutionalize our new relationship.
--Finally, while most of these factors had been developing for many months, the Vietnam War bad still inhibited our progress. With the achievement of a negotiated settlement, the major obstacle to improved relations was removed.
OUR FUTURE COURSE
In my first term we moved a long way with the People's Republic of China. Together we have revived our historic association, set a new direction, and launched a purposeful process.
We are resolved to continue on this course. We are under no illusions, however, that its development is inexorable. There will be a continuing need for meticulousness and reliability for although we have come a remarkable distance, two decades of blanket hostility cannot be erased completely in two years. In any event, our ideologies and views of history will continue to differ profoundly. These differences, in turn, will be translated into opposing policies on some issues which will continue to require mutual restraint and accommodation. And over the longer term the inevitable changes in the world environment will continually inject new factors that could test our relationship.
We nevertheless remain basically confident that relations between the United States and the People's Republic of China will continue to develop in a positive direction. The driving force behind this process is not personalities, or atmosphere, or a sense of adventure, or transitory tactical benefits. Our two nations undertook this course in full knowledge of our differences. We chose to change our relationship because this served our fundamental national purposes.
America maintains its historic concern for an independent and peaceful China. We see in this prospect nothing inimical to our interests. Indeed, we consider it to be strongly in the interest of regional and world stability. China, in turn, has nothing to fear from America's strength. The broadening of diplomatic horizons has already paid dividends for us both and represents an enduring asset. Or past differences notwithstanding, we have many positive elements to draw upon--the traditional friendship of our two peoples, the cultural and scientific contributions we offer one another, the lack of any directly conflicting interests, and the commonly shared principles of international relations expressed in the Shanghai CommuniquпїЅ.
This Administration will pursue the further improvement of relations with the People's Republic of China with dedication and care. The same considerations that prompted us to begin this process four years ago motivate us now to continue it. And our guidelines remain constant:
--Our objective is to build a broader and steadier structure of peace.
--We seek the tangible dividends of a flourishing relationship between the Chinese and American peoples.
--Our relations will be based on equality and reciprocity.
--This process is not directed against any other country.
--We shall pursue our policy in close consultation with our friends. Within this framework we will work increasingly to realize the perspectives that we and the Chinese envisioned at the close of the Shanghai CommuniquпїЅ:
"The two sides expressed the hope that the gains achieved during this visit would open up new prospects for the relations between the two countries. They believe that the normalization of relations between the two countries is not only in the interest of the Chinese and American peoples but also contributes to the relaxation of tension in Asia and the world."
THE SOVIET UNION
In the week of May 22-29, 1972, the United States and the Soviet Union took a decisive turn away from the confrontations of the past quarter-century. We agreed to limit the growth of strategic weaponry. We established a set of basic principles to govern our relations. And we constructed a framework of agreements leading to more normal bilateral cooperation.
Each of the accords signed in Moscow was a significant achievement in itself. Never before have two adversaries, so deeply divided by conflicting ideologies and political rivalries, been able to agree to limit the armaments on which their survival depends. Nor has there been, at any time in the postwar period, a code of conduct that both sides could accept as the basis for regulating their competition and channeling their efforts toward more constructive endeavors.
But beyond their individual merits, the summit agreements taken together represent a major advance toward a goal set forth at the beginning of this Administration: to effect a basic change in our relations with the Soviet Union in the interest of a stable world peace from which all countries would benefit.
In considering the course of Soviet-American relations during the past year, it is important to understand the nature of the specific agreements, the conditions that have made these achievements possible, and what the future may hold.
THE INITIAL APPROACH: 1969--70
Four years ago, our relations with the Soviet Union and international relations generally were still dominated by the fears, anxieties, and atmosphere of the Cold War. The invasion of Czechoslovakia had recently occurred. While the Soviet Government made overtures for better relations, its motives seemed largely tactical. Yet, beneath the surface, it was apparent that the pattern of world politics was in the process of major transformation. The salient features of this change have been described in my previous Reports. Certain elements had special relevance for our relations with the Soviet Union.
--Divisions within the Communist world had deepened; state and national interests of the major Communist powers were increasingly reflected in their policies toward non-Communist countries.
--The realignment of political forces in the Communist world coincided with the economic revival of Western Europe and Japan, reinforcing the trend toward multipolarity.
--In particular, the more nearly equal strategic balance between the United States and the Soviet Union suggested that conditions might be optimal for reaching agreement to limit strategic competition.
Recognizing these international trends, this Administration began in 1969 to reassess our relations with the Communist countries. Certain aspects of Soviet-American relations were clear: the postwar rivalry with the Soviet Union was not a result simply of misunderstanding, or personal animosities, or a failure to create a good atmosphere for negotiations. The conflict was rooted in deeper differences: irreconcilable ideologies, the inevitable geopolitical competition of great powers conducting global policies and, to a certain degree, bureaucratic momentum and the disillusionment created by decades of fluctuation between hopes and tensions.
To break the pattern of the postwar period required policies that distinguished between the sources of conflict and their external or temporary manifestations. We needed not merely a better climate for our relations, but a new environment in which the United States and the Soviet Union could exercise their special responsibilities for peace. Ultimately we hoped to create mutual interests in maintaining and developing an international structure based on self-restraint in the pursuit of national interests.
The approach we adopted reflected certain general concepts. --It was no longer realistic to allow Soviet-American relations to be predetermined by ideology. We had to recognize, of course, that many basic Soviet values would remain inimical to ours. Both sides had to accept the fact that neither was likely to persuade the other through polemical debates. But ideological elements did not preclude serious consideration of disputed issues.
--Irrespective of ideology, any relationship between two great powers would be highly competitive. Both sides had to recognize, however, that in this continuing competition there would be no permanent victor, and equally important, that to focus one's own policy on attempts to gain advantages at the other's expense, could only aggravate tensions and precipitate counteractions.
--Both sides had to accept the fact that our differences could not be hidden merely by expressions of goodwill; they could only be resolved by precise solutions of major issues.
--Both sides had to understand that issues were interrelated; we could not effectively reduce tensions through marginal agreements or even an isolated agreement of importance. Experience had shown that isolated accomplishments were likely to fall victim to tensions and crises in other aspects of the relationship. Thus, if we were to achieve more than a superficial change, we had to address a broad range of issues.
--Finally, we would judge Soviet actions rather than words. The basic criterion would be a willingness to act with restraint. We would respond constructively to Soviet initiatives; progress in one area would help maintain momentum in other negotiations. We would also make it clear that aggressive behavior could imperil our entire relationship. By linking all aspects of Soviet-American relations, we could hope that progress, if it came, could lead to a broadly based understanding about international conduct.
These general principles were translated into specific proposals during 1969 and 1970.
After a painstaking evaluation of all aspects of limiting strategic arms, we agreed to begin negotiations in November 1969. On other disarmament matters, we revived negotiations on prohibiting nuclear arms from the seabeds and took up the new challenge of limiting biological warfare.
In Europe, we reconfirmed NATO proposals to begin discussing mutual and balanced force reductions in Central Europe where the concentrations of opposing forces were heaviest. We proposed to approach the issue of European security by negotiating, first of all, improvements in the situation in Berlin. The Berlin negotiations would be critical, not only because that divided city had been the scene of tense confrontations in the past, but because it was also the keystone in West Germany's effort to create a more normal relationship with its Eastern neighbors. That normalization would, in turn, influence the new prospects for a wider discussion of European security and cooperation, including a possible conference of European governments, Canada, and the United States.
As for economic relations, I indicated that the United States was prepared to have normal economic exchanges with any country that was equally willing to move toward normal relations in both political and economic fields.
On the Middle East, we agreed to discussions with the United Kingdom, France, and the Soviet Union, and we encouraged the Arab governments and Israel to undertake direct negotiations.
In this initial period, we tried to create circumstances that would offer the Soviet leaders an opportunity to move away from confrontation through carefully prepared negotiations. We hoped that the Soviet Union would acquire a stake in a wide spectrum of negotiations and would become convinced that its interests, like ours, would be best served if this process involved most of our relations. We sought, above all, to create a vested interest in mutual restraint.
Our relations with the Soviet Union passed through several tactical phases. It was apparent that Soviet policy had contradictory tendencies. Some factors pointed toward a more stable relationship with the United States; others suggested a continued probing for tactical gains. In this period, we dealt with these contradictory manifestations by responding to positive efforts and demonstrating firmness in the face of pressures. I opened a direct channel to the Soviet leaders so we could discuss the issues frankly and privately.
The first phase, lasting throughout 1969, was marked by obvious caution, as we made only limited progress in engaging major issues but achieved some improvement in the tone of exchanges. In the spring of 1970 we agreed to negotiate on Berlin, and the Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT) moved from initial explorations to concrete discussions.
A period of tension, however, occurred in 1970 over the Soviet role in Egyptian cease-fire violations in the Middle East, the Syrian attack on Jordan, and Soviet naval activities in Cuba. Similar tension arose from the crisis in the Indian subcontinent for a period in late 1971. Such developments gave us grounds for serious concern, and we reacted vigorously.
At the same time, the Soviet Union pursued a policy of relaxing tensions in Europe, suggesting that its strategy was to differentiate between the United States and our allies. This tactic, however, had limited potential since European issues were inseparable from the strategic framework of U.S.-Soviet relations. Moreover, the Soviet emphasis on certain bilateral relations lacked a general European framework, which could not be developed without the United States or without considering the impact of a controlled relaxation of tensions in East Europe.
THE ROAD TO THE SUMMIT
Thus we passed through a series of episodes that gave the Soviet Union no advantage and achieved no fundamental change. In each phase we sought to demonstrate the wisdom of restraint and the dangers of its absence. At the end of 1970, it appeared that the tensions in U.S.-Soviet relations might lead the Soviet leaders to reconsider their relations with the United States. I felt that an opportune moment had arrived for new initiatives to end tactical maneuvering and to move toward accommodation.
Despite the erratic developments of 1969 and 1970, some positive trends were evident. As I said at the United Nations in the fall of 1970, we shared certain compelling common interests, above all an interest in reducing the dangers of war. That the Soviet Union shared this concern was reflected in the continuation of the negotiations on strategic arms limitations, the mutual willingness to pursue an agreement on Berlin and the insulation of these serious issues from developments in Southeast Asia.
In the winter of 1970-71 Soviet leaders were looking toward their Party Congress, where broad policy guidelines are usually enunciated. It appeared at the time, and even more clearly in retrospect, that the broad changes in the nature of international relations, as well as their experience of the previous two years in relations with us, were having an impact on their preparations. It was thus a promising moment to delineate the progress that could be made if certain decisions were taken.
--SALT negotiations were temporarily deadlocked over whether to negotiate an agreement limiting anti-ballistic missiles (ABMs) alone, as the Soviets insisted, or an agreement embracing both defensive and offensive limits. For the United States, it was essential that an initial SALT agreement should 'begin to break the momentum in the growth of offensive forces. If the buildup continued unchecked, it would almost certainly produce dangerous strategic instabilities--especially if limitations on missile defense created a premium on striking first. This was not a tactical dispute, but a major substantive issue that could only be resolved by high-level political decisions.
--The treaty reached between West Germany and the Soviet Union in August 1970 had changed the character and significance of the Berlin negotiations among the Four Powers. Ratification of this treaty depended on the outcome of the negotiations over Berlin. And it was general Western policy that the prospect for a wider European dialogue on security was similarly conditioned on a Berlin agreement that would safeguard access to the city and its links to the Federal Republic. Thus, progress on Berlin would also involve basic decisions in Moscow.
Through intense and private exchanges with the Soviet leaders, a breakthrough was made, first in SALT, then in the Berlin negotiations.
--A new framework was created for SALT in May 1971 maintaining the link between offensive and defensive limitations, as the United States believed essential. At the same time, we agreed to concentrate our efforts on ABM limitations. Since these systems were not extensively deployed, we envisaged a permanent treaty. We also agreed to work out an interim accord limiting certain offensive weapons. Both agreements would be completed simultaneously.
--The Berlin agreements were blocked by conflicting legal positions on the status of the city and on West Berlin's ties to the Federal Republic of Germany. Progress became possible in July and August 1971 when all concerned agreed to seek an agreement that dealt concretely with the practical question of how to maintain West Berlin's many links to the Federal Republic, including unimpeded access to West Berlin by road and rail.
These breakthroughs on major substantive issues made it possible to look toward a summit meeting.
The SALT discussion resumed in July 1971, building on the political framework agreed upon with the Soviet leaders. Two agreements were signed in September-one to improve the "hot line" between Washington and Moscow, and the other to reduce the likelihood of an accidental nuclear war by exchanging information on certain missile testing activities. The breakthrough on Berlin led to the signing in September of 1971 of the first part of the Four Power Agreement, which in turn opened the way for further negotiations between East and West Germany on the technical questions of access to the city.
My private communications with the Soviet leaders had included the possibility of a meeting at the highest level. My views on this question of a meeting had been stated in the first weeks of my Administration: a meeting at the summit would only be justified if it were carefully prepared and if there were sufficient reasons to believe that it would be the most effective way of proceeding toward solutions of major questions. By the fall of 1971, it appeared we could meet these conditions. Thus, when Foreign Minister Gromyko visited Washington in October 1971, we agreed that a summit meeting would be held, not for its own sake, but as a culmination of concrete progress and as a means of stimulating further advances. It was agreed the meeting should be held in May 1972.
I envisaged this meeting as having four aspects: --As political relations improved, it became possible to initiate discussions on a wide range of projects for bilateral cooperation. In themselves, these projects were not crucial to our relationship. But cumulatively, as cooperation in such fields widened and deepened, they would reinforce the trend toward more constructive political relations. In the pre-summit period we discussed cooperation in science, technology, health, the environment, outer space, and maritime activities. The prospect of a summit meeting gave these discussions a special impetus and high-level attention. At the summit, these discussions could culminate in a series of agreements.
--Advances in political relations had by that time made it possible to address economic relations. The starting point was the removal of long-standing obstacles to closer commercial contacts--such as the unsettled World War II lend-lease debt. Then we could go on to establish long-term arrangements for expanding trade and other types of economic cooperation on a scale appropriate to the size of our two economies.
--The summit could complete the first phase of the SALT negotiations and provide impetus for the next, even more far-reaching phase.
--Finally, on the basis of all of these specific achievements, carefully prepared in the previous months of painstaking negotiations, the summit would afford an opportunity to review the whole range of international issues and to delineate certain fundamental principles to govern U.S.-Soviet relations in the future.
Thus, the summit could redirect the momentum of the past and chart a new direction in our relations with the Soviet Union, creating in the process a vested interest in restraint and in the preservation of peace.
THE MOSCOW SUMMIT
We prepared for and conducted the summit on this basis. We sought to establish not a superficial "spirit of Moscow" but a record of solid progress. The number and scope of the agreements that emerged make it clear we accomplished that goal.
Bilateral Cooperation. The prospect of a meeting at the highest level accelerated the negotiations on bilateral matters. At the summit it was thus possible to conclude agreement on significant cooperative projects.
--Cooperation in the exploration of outer space, including a joint experiment in rendezvous and docking of Apollo and Soyuz space vehicles during 1975.
--Cooperation in solving the most important of the problems of the environment.
--Joint efforts in the field of medical science and public health.
--Expanded cooperation in many areas of science and technology and establishment of a Joint Commission for this purpose.
--Cooperation between the American and Soviet navies to reduce the chances of dangerous incidents between ships and aircraft at sea.
Since the summit, all of the agreements have been carried out as expected. Our space agencies have conducted preliminary tests of models of the spacecraft docking system and crew training will begin this summer. The Joint Committee on Environmental Protection met in Moscow in September 1972 and planned 30 collaborative projects on a variety of subjects, including air and water pollution. Programs for cooperative research on cancer and heart disease were developed by our public health authorities in October and November 1972. The Joint Commission on Science and Technology met in Washington in March 1973 and agreed to carry out some 25 projects in such fields as energy, chemistry, biology, and agricultural research. American and Soviet naval officers will meet this year to review the agreement on reducing incidents between ships and aircraft.
This process of cooperation has begun to engage an ever widening circle of people in various professions and government bureaus in both countries. Direct contact, exchanges of information and experience, and joint participation in specific projects will develop a fabric of relationships supplementing those at the higher levels of political leadership. Both sides have incentives to find additional areas for contact and cooperation, and I anticipate further agreements patterned on those already concluded.
Economic Relations. In the past, many in the United States believed trade could open the way to improved political relations. Others argued that increased economic relations would only strengthen the power of a potential adversary. In fact, trade and other aspects of economic relations could never flourish if political relations remained largely hostile. Occasional business transactions might be worked out on an individual basis. But without some reasonable certainty that political relations would be stable and free from periodic turbulence, both sides would be reluctant to enter into long-term commercial relations. Nor would the Congress support an expanding economic relationship while our basic relations with the Soviet Union were antagonistic. With these considerations in mind, in the earlier years of this Administration I linked the expansion of economic relations with improved political relations.
Since progress was being made in the pre-summit period in removing sources of political tension, I authorized explorations in the economic sphere. I sent the Secretaries of Commerce and Agriculture to the Soviet Union for discussions. The Soviet Ministers of Foreign Trade and Agriculture came to the United States for the same purpose. We began negotiations on a maritime agreement to make concrete arrangements for orderly transport of goods between the two countries.
By the time of the summit, sufficient progress had been made so that in my discussion with the Soviet leaders we were able to agree on a general plan for moving toward a more normal economic relationship. We agreed it was essential to clear away the long-standing Soviet lend-lease debt to the United States. We also decided that a formal trade agreement was needed to provide the basis for resolving the many technical problems resulting from the long absence of economic intercourse. We agreed to act in accord with generally established international practice as regards: arbitration of disputes, establishment of commercial facilities in each country, procedures to prevent market disruption, reciprocal extension of Most Favored Nation (MFN) treatment, reciprocal extension of commercial credits, and determination of the general level of trade. We established a Joint Commercial Commission to maintain contacts, to resolve issues that might arise, and to be responsible for carrying out the general agreement worked out with the Soviet leaders.
Following the summit, intensive negotiations began under the leadership of U.S. Secretary of Commerce Peterson and Soviet Minister of Foreign Trade Patolichev. In July 1972, a three-year agreement for the export of United States agricultural products and for the extension of credits to finance these sales was concluded. By October, the principal agreements were completed: a settlement of the lend-lease question, a formal trade agreement, and a maritime agreement.
--We had tried to work out a lend-lease settlement immediately after World War II, again in 1951 and in 1960, but had failed on each occasion. The main issues were the amount of settlement, whether interest payments should be included, and the length of time for repayment. The settlement reached in October 1972 provides for a total repayment of approximately $722 million, to be paid over a period of about 30 years. This compares favorably with other settlements of wartime obligations.
--The trade agreement anticipates a total exchange over the next three years of goods worth about $1.5 billion; it also provides for expanded business facilities for American firms in the Soviet Union, a large trade center complex in Moscow, provisions for third-party arbitration of disputes, and procedures to prevent market disruptions.
--Each country will reduce tariffs on the other's imports, so that the level of tariff charges is about the same as that charged against the products of any other country (MFN treatment). This had been the practice in Soviet-American relations from 1935 to 1951, when it was terminated during the Korean War. Extension of Most Favored Nation treatment is consistent with the principles of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).
--The October agreement also provides for the reciprocal extension of credit arrangements, customary in financing an expansion of exports. I authorized the Export-Import Bank to engage in credit transactions with the Soviet Union, and the Soviet Foreign Trade Bank and other Soviet organizations will provide credits to American businesses.
--An agreement on maritime relations signed on October 14, 1972, was another essential element to the orderly expansion of commerce. We agreed to ease procedures for access of Soviet and American ships to each other's ports. The agreement also provides that the ships of each side will carry equal and substantial shares of future oceanborne commerce. And it provides for a system of equitable freight rates.
These agreements open the way not only for a prompt invigoration of trade but also for developing these relations into a permanent component of the overall relationship projected at the summit. It is not a question of whether certain elements should be separable, or conditional, but whether we wish the entire process of a broadly based new relationship with the Soviet Union to unfold.
The next step is to end discrimination against imports of Soviet goods into this country so that the Soviet Union can earn the dollars to help it pay for imports from the United States. This step will require action by the Congress to provide the President with authority to negotiate the reciprocal extension of Most Favored Nation treatment. I have submitted legislation to the Congress in this regard, as I am committed to do under the agreements reached with the Soviet Union. Extension of MFN is a logical and natural step in the emerging relationship; it is not a unilateral concession but a means to expand commerce in the context of broadly improved relations.
We are also prepared to consider possible longer-term cooperative ventures. The Soviet Union has vast natural resources, such as natural gas, that can be developed with the help of American capital and technology. These resources would then be available for export to the United States, thus enabling the Soviet Union to repay our credits and pay for imports from the United States. The role of our government should be to establish a framework within which private firms might work out specific contracts. Since the Soviet Union plans its economic program for five-year periods, its willingness to enter into long-term ventures of this kind suggests an expectation of cooperative relations and imports requiring dollar payments well into the future. Such ventures do not create a one-sided dependence by the United States upon Soviet resources; they establish an interdependence between our economies which provides a continuing incentive to maintain a constructive relationship.
The SALT Agreements. Of historic significance were the two agreements which General Secretary Brezhnev and I reached limiting strategic arms: a treaty limiting anti-ballistic missile systems, and an interim agreement limiting certain strategic offensive weapons. These agreements are discussed in detail in the Arms Control section of this Report. Technical aspects of arms control were at the core of the negotiations, but the significance of the agreements transcends specific provisions and goes to the heart of the postwar competition between us.
Some years ago, when the United States was strategically predominant, an agreement freezing the strategic balance was unrealistic. It was highly improbable that the Soviet Union would resign itself to permanent inferiority. Indeed, after the 1962 Cuban missile crisis, the Soviet Union began a major expansion in its strategic weaponry. Had this expansion continued unabated through the 1970's, the United States would have had no choice but to launch a massive new strategic armament program. The present moment thus offered a unique opportunity to strike a reasonable balance in strategic capabilities and to break with the pattern of unlimited competition.
Such an opportunity posed a fundamental question: could both sides accept the risks of restraint explicit in arms limitations? In the defensive field, new programs offered some element of protection but beckoned a new round of competition. Offensive systems were required to guarantee security, but their steady accumulation created a momentum toward capabilities that threatened strategic equilibrium.
Each of us had the power single-handedly to destroy most of mankind. Paradoxically, this very fact, and the global interests of both sides, created a certain common outlook, a kind of interdependence for survival. Although we competed, our conflict did not admit of resolution by victory in the classical sense. We seemed compelled to coexist. We had an inescapable joint obligation to build a structure for peace. Recognition of this reality has been the keystone of United States policy since 1969.
Obviously, no agreement could be reached involving weapons that guaranteed national survival if both sides did not believe their interests were served despite the risks. No decision of this magnitude could have been taken unless it was part of a broader commitment to place relations on a new foundation of restraint, cooperation, and steadily evolving confidence. Even agreements of such overriding importance cannot stand alone, vulnerable to the next crisis. Their tremendous historical and political significance is guaranteed, in part, by the fact that they are woven into the fabric of an emerging new relationship that makes crises less likely.
There is reason to hope that these accords represent a major break in the pattern of suspicion, hostility, and confrontation that has dominated U.S.-Soviet relations for a generation.
Principles of U.S.-Soviet Relations. The fourth area of major progress at the summit was the agreement on twelve Basic Principles signed on May 29, 1972. This far-reaching step placed all our other efforts on a broader foundation. A new relationship would require new attitudes and aspirations. It was appropriate that this change be reflected in a formal statement. These principles codify goals that the United States had long advocated, as I did for example, in my address to the United Nations in October 1970. The main provisions state that both sides will:
--do their utmost to avoid military confrontations and to prevent the outbreak of nuclear war;
--always exercise restraint in their mutual relations and will be prepared to negotiate and settle differences by peaceful means. Discussions and negotiations on outstanding issues will be conducted in a spirit of reciprocity, mutual accommodation, and mutual benefit;
--recognize that efforts to obtain unilateral advantage at the expense of the other, directly or indirectly, are inconsistent with these objectives;
--make no claim for themselves, and not recognize the claims of anyone else, to any special rights or advantages in world affairs.
These are specific obligations. They meet some of our fundamental concerns of the postwar period. They are the elements that made it possible to summarize one general principle governing Soviet-American relations:
"They will proceed from the common determination that in the nuclear age there is no alternative to conducting their mutual relations on the basis of peaceful coexistence. Differences in ideology and in the social systems of the United States and the Soviet Union are not obstacles to the bilateral development of normal relations based on the principles of sovereignty, equality, non-interference in internal affairs, and mutual advantage."
What we have agreed upon is not a vain attempt to bridge ideological differences, or a condominium of the two strongest powers, or a division of spheres of influence. What we have agreed upon are principles that acknowledge differences, but express a code of conduct which, if observed, can only contribute to world peace and to an international system based on mutual respect and self-restraint.
These principles are a guide for future action, not a commentary on the past. In themselves, they will have no meaning if they are not reflected in action. The leaders of the Soviet Union are serious men. Their willingness to commit themselves to certain principles for the future must be taken as a solemn obligation. For our part we are prepared to adhere to these principles, and hope that the Soviet leaders have the same serious intention.
THE ROAD AHEAD
In reporting last year to the Congress on prospects for a summit meeting, I noted that we could not expect to solve the accumulated problems of two decades in one meeting, but that we did have the opportunity to open a new era in international relations. If we were successful, I said, the transformation of Soviet-American relations could become one of the most significant achievements of our time.
I believe we have now taken that essential first step in freeing both of our countries from perpetual confrontation. From confrontation we have moved to negotiation and then to a broadening range of fields. The promise of this beginning obliges us to see it through.
The tasks ahead reflect the successes of this past year as well as the disappointments:
--We are now in the second phase of our effort to limit strategic arms. We can build on what has been achieved. We understand each other's concerns better now than four years ago. We have established a common vocabulary and a technical framework in which to examine issues. And we have developed a measure of respect and confidence in each other's seriousness of purpose.
--But we face a severe challenge: each side is called on to make commitments, limiting its strategic offensive weapons for this decade and beyond. This will require political decisions to respect each other's basic security requirements and a willingness to balance each other's legitimate interests in an equitable and mutually satisfactory settlement.
--In Europe, the progress in Soviet-American relations has been a catalyst for further change. Whereas East-West relations in Europe were confined to bilateral relations in the past few years, we are now entering negotiations that involve fuller participation by our allies. The issues of European security and cooperation or reciprocal and balanced force reductions cannot be settled by the United States and the Soviet Union alone. We and the Soviet Union, however, can each make a significant contribution to progress on these issues--and that progress, in turn, will reinforce the favorable momentum in our bilateral relations by demonstrating that detente is broadly based and serves the interest of all European countries.
--In the Middle East, the United States and the Soviet Union, separately and perhaps together, can also make a contribution to peace. Each of us plays a different role and has different interests and conceptions. But we have a common interest in averting confrontation. Proceeding from this principle, we can both exert our influence in the direction of a peaceful settlement among the parties directly concerned.
--In bilateral relations we can build on the progress already achieved at the summit. Though less dramatic than the larger political issues, harnessing our technological expertise and creativity in the service of both our peoples can produce lasting benefits for all.
--We have an opportunity and obligation to convert the promise of our agreements on economic relations into reality. We are discovering areas where the American and Soviet economies are complementary. The Soviet Union has certain resources that meet our needs, while we can export commodities and products which the Soviet Union wishes to import.
A year ago, I reported that a new momentum had been given to efforts for achieving a more constructive relationship with the Soviet Union. I believe that this momentum has carried us across a new threshold.
We are now in a new period, but we have only witnessed its initial phase. It is only realistic to recognize that there have been periods of relaxed tensions before, and earlier hopes for a permanent end to the hostilities of the Cold War. Present trends of course can be reversed; new factors will appear; attitudes can shift. This may be particularly true in a period of transition.
In the past, changes in our relations with the Soviet Union proved episodic, in part because they reflected 'tactical motives or were limited to changes in climate rather than substance. What we created at the summit last year is more durable. It rests on solid, specific achievements that engage the interests of both sides. But it will take patience, hard work, and perseverance to translate our broad understandings into concrete results. If we can do this, the United States and the Soviet Union can move from coexistence to broad cooperation and make an unparalleled contribution to world peace.
PART II: ENDING CONFLICT
--Laos and Cambodia
VIETNAM
On January 27, 1973, when the United States and the three Vietnamese parties signed "The Agreement on Ending the War and Restoring Peace In Vietnam," we completed one of the most difficult chapters in our history. It was an honorable ending to a long and costly effort.
Peace in Indochina is not yet solid or comprehensive. But four years of intensive negotiations and the steady transfer of responsibilities to our friends achieved the fundamental goals we had set. As a result of the Agreement:
--Our military forces have left South Vietnam with honor.
--Our prisoners have returned to their homes and families. A full accounting for all those missing in action is stipulated.
--There is a cease-fire, though still imperfectly observed, in Vietnam and Laos.
--The South Vietnamese people have the opportunity to determine their own political future.
The settlement is a tribute to the brave people of South Vietnam. It is also a monument to the valor of American fighting men and the steadfastness of the American people who supported an unselfish but extremely difficult mission until that mission was accomplished.
WHAT WE FOUND
From the moment I took office, my highest priority was to bring an honorable end to the war in Vietnam. America had been involved for eight years in a well-motivated but costly and seemingly endless effort. Every year we had sent more men to Vietnam. Our casualties, draft calls, and financial costs had risen steadily. The war dominated our national attention. Abroad it complicated our efforts to adjust to changing conditions. At home it fostered growing dissent.
Clearly we needed to end the war, or at least our involvement in it. But if this was our most urgent task, it was also our most difficult. For the way we went about it would have much to do with the future of American foreign policy and the future of our own society.
The costs and frustrations of our involvement had led an increasing number of Americans to urge extreme solutions--either massive military escalation or immediate retreat. We rejected both options. Trying to win the conflict by all-out military measures would have deepened the divisions in our society, and risked drawing other nations into the war. It would not have addressed the complex nature of the struggle and therefore was likely to be indecisive.
Immediate withdrawal from Vietnam might have brought a sense of temporary relief in this country. But soon this mood would have turned to regret and recrimination. We could not suddenly abandon allies with whom we had stood for so many years. We could not mock the sacrifices of Americans who had given their lives. We could not set out to shape a responsible American foreign policy with a first step of heedless abdication. Reckless withdrawal certainly would have brought neither peace to South Vietnam nor honor to America. It might have led to the collapse of Southeast Asia, and it would have crippled our efforts to build peace in the world.
But neither could we continue on the path we found. Our troop levels had risen steadily for five years and had reached an authorized level of 549,500. Our combat deaths had mounted to an average of 278 weekly during 1968. We were spending an additional See billion each year on the war. Draft calls had risen to a monthly average of 30,000. And despite this investment, there was no decisive outcome on the battlefield.
The picture was similarly bleak at the conference table. As a result of our bombing halt, public negotiations had been launched in Paris, but they had proved sterile. Only procedural matters had been settled. No comprehensive plans for a settlement lay on the table. No prospects for a breakthrough existed.
THE BASIC FOUNDATION: VIETNAMIZATION
Faced with this situation, we chose what we believed to be the only responsible course--to follow the parallel tracks of negotiation and Vietnamization. Our first preference was a negotiated settlement, and we undertook both public and private diplomacy to this end. Our irreducible conditions were that the people of South Vietnam be allowed to determine their own future and that all our prisoners be returned. We also looked toward a cease fire to end the war for all participants.
But one side cannot negotiate a peace, and the North Vietnamese constantly made two unacceptable demands. First, they insisted we withdraw totally from South Vietnam before any other conditions were even discussed. Secondly, they demanded we overthrow the existing government in South Vietnam and replace it with a Communist-dominated structure. This was the only way, they said, to get our prisoners back or obtain an overall settlement. Unless we were prepared to hand South Vietnam over to the enemy, there was no prospect of an early breakthrough at the conference table.
Therefore, even while we sought peace through negotiations, we needed an alternative course of action. We wanted to ensure that:
--Our withdrawal would not depend on the enemy's reasonableness at the conference table. We wanted to reduce our involvement to demonstrate that it was not open-ended.
--The act of our withdrawal would not overthrow the non-Communist forces. We were determined to disengage responsibly.
We thus developed the Vietnamization program in close cooperation with the Government of the Republic of Vietnam (GVN). This policy was designed to strengthen the armed forces and the people of South Vietnam so that they could defend themselves. As their forces increased in numbers, equipment, combat skills, and leadership, they progressively assumed responsibility for their own defense. The process also involved the extension of governmental authority in the countryside through the pacification program, the growth of economic capacities, the development of political institutions-all the elements that would allow South Vietnam to stand on its own.
While negotiations foundered on Communist intransigence, Vietnamization was an honorable and convincing alternative. We had the following considerations in mind:
--Vietnamization allowed us unilaterally to achieve our objective of winding down our involvement.
--We had to ensure that our friends over the longer term could take over their self-defense completely, since we could not stay there indefinitely.
--Our policy reflected our overall approach to friends and allies around the world--we would continue to play a strong supporting role, but we would increasingly look to our partners to assume greater responsibilities for their security and development.
--We needed to demonstrate to Hanoi and its allies that we had an option so long as they blocked progress at the conference table--one that enabled our allies to stand on their own and could gain the support of the American people for a continuing role until our allies were ready.
The tangible progress of Vietnamization was reflected in the statistics. In four years, we progressively reduced our presence from more than half a million men to 27,000, a 95 percent cut, by December 1, 1972. Other allied forces from Korea, Thailand, Australia, New Zealand, and the Philippines were withdrawn or phased down during the period. American casualties in South Vietnam fell from almost 300 a week when we took office to 26 a week in 1971, and to four a week during the final six months of our involvement. Over 60 percent of the casualties under this Administration occurred in 1969 before our policies could take hold. We reduced the cost of the war by billions of dollars each year.
During this period, the South Vietnamese progressively took over the battle. Our ground combat role was steadily reduced and officially ended on June 30, 1972. Our friends also assumed all naval missions and an increasing share of direct air support. The South Vietnamese armed forces and people shouldered the burdens with courage and skill. And all the other crucial indicators of the struggle stayed promising also--the security situation in the countryside, the performance of the economy, and the cohesiveness of the political fabric.
THE NEED FOR DECISIVE ACTION
During this process, firm but measured military actions were also required:
--To protect our men in Vietnam as their numbers declined.
--To assure the continued success of Vietnamization and thus reduce our presence, our casualties, and our costs.
--To demonstrate that the enemy could not wage war on South Vietnam with impunity while using the rest of Indochina as a base area and stalling us at the conference table.
The North Vietnamese stepped up their pressure during the first months of each year, after building up their potential during the dry season. In 1969 shortly after we took office, they increased their attacks in South Vietnam. In 1970, they launched major attacks in Cambodia, attempting to link up their base areas into one continuous band. In 1971 they staged a major buildup in southern Laos.
These operations threatened American and allied forces. Beyond that, they challenged the whole Vietnamization program. The Communists were intent on expanding their base areas bordering South Vietnam, strengthening their logistics network, and linking up conventional and guerrilla forces for future assaults.
Our basic strategy was to blunt the threat to our men, meet the challenge to our program, and buy the time needed to make our ally self-sufficient. Our actions were defensive and limited in both duration and scope. In 1970 there were joint U.S.-South Vietnamese operations against the North Vietnamese base areas in Cambodia. In 1971 the South Vietnamese, with our support, attacked the enemy base areas in Laos.
These actions achieved the objectives we set. In the months following each action, our troop levels and casualties showed a marked decline while South Vietnam's security situation and self-confidence improved.
Each of these phases in turn demonstrated the continuing success of Vietnamization. The 1969 Communist attacks made little headway because the enemy had suffered heavy losses in their Tet Offensive the year before and our own forces were still at a peak level. In the 1970 Cambodia operation, the South Vietnamese conducted large scale military operations of their own alongside U.S. forces. In 1971 in Laos our allies carried on all of the ground combat while our role was limited to air and logistic support. At each stage the South Vietnamese did more and we did less; and after each stage we were able to accelerate the shifting of responsibilities. In 1972, when the most severe test of all came, the South Vietnamese were ready.
By early 1972, South Vietnam had made impressive progress across the board. Militarily, its forces had taken over virtually all of the ground fighting and much of the close air support mission. Over one million civilians had joined the People's Self-Defense Forces. The government had the confidence to supply this local militia with weapons. The pacification program was succeeding. Eighty percent of the population lived in areas under government control. Nearly all of South Vietnam's 2,200 villages had elected their own local leaders. Comprehensive economic reforms had cut the rate of inflation and stabilized South Vietnam's economy. Industrial output, exports, and tax revenues had reached their highest point in many years. A vigorous land reform program had transferred nearly one million acres of farm land to former tenants, and the government had established a widespread system of low interest agricultural loans. The rice harvest promised a bumper crop, thanks in part to high yield grains introduced with our assistance. School attendance and classroom construction had reached new high levels. Nearly one million refugees-most of them displaced by the Communists' Tet Offensive in 1968--had resettled or were being cared for.
In the spring of 1972, faced with South Vietnam's growing military, economic, and political strength, North Vietnam launched its most massive challenge. On March 30, its troops poured through the Demilitarized Zone separating North and South Vietnam which the 1954 Geneva Agreements had established. In so doing, Hanoi abandoned its previous tactics and fundamentally changed the nature of the fighting, for it employed almost its entire army in an all-out frontal assault.
This challenge came just as we were trying to revive private negotiations in Paris to get a response to a comprehensive U.S.-GVN peace proposal that had been tabled on January 27, 1972. While Hanoi was preparing its major military assault-and even after it was underway--we tried every route of restraint. After months of effort, we finally arranged a secret meeting in Paris on May 2 with the North Vietnamese. This proved abortive as they rejected all possibilities for de-escalation or for settlement. They were obviously determined to settle matters through military action.
South Vietnamese valor and America's forceful support blunted the Communist offensive. On May 8, faced with aggression in Vietnam and intransigence in Paris, I announced that we were mining all major North Vietnamese ports and were resuming air and naval attacks in North Vietnam to interdict the flow of troops and supplies into the South. At the same time, I held out the alternative of a peaceful settlement along lines that eventually began to emerge five months later to the day.
I took these actions only after all other options had been exhausted and the imperatives were clear. We could not passively acquiesce in all-out aggression, fueled by the arms of outside powers and conducted in total disregard of international agreements and understandings. Most immediately, the enemy attacks threatened our remaining forces in South Vietnam as well as regional stability. Beyond that, it challenged America's credibility and thus the chances for stability around the world. Finally, it was the eve of my journey to Moscow: how could the President of the United States go to a summit meeting while our ally was being overrun with the help of arms supplied by the country he was visiting?
The South Vietnamese stood up well under the massive attack, which was designed to inflict political, psychological, and economic damage as well as to gain territory. Enemy guns pounded civilian centers, such as Quang Tri City and An Loc, into rubble, but the Communists kept little territory, and they failed to crack the spirit of the South Vietnamese. Buoyed by our actions, our allies rolled back most Communist territorial gains and liberated Quang Tri City, the only provincial capital the Communists had been able to take. More than one million South Vietnamese "voted with their feet" by moving into areas controlled by their government rather than staying with the enemy. Local leaders performed well under pressure. Even opposition groups closed ranks with the government against the common enemy. The inevitable economic dislocations were slight. The land reform program continued and, by March 1973, two and a half million acres had been distributed by the government, virtually eliminating land tenancy in South Vietnam.
Thus, the North Vietnamese offensive had failed. The steady development of Vietnamization and the allied military reactions of 1970 and 1971 had made possible the defense of South Vietnam in 1972. The climactic military phase gradually underlined to all parties the futility of continued conflict and the need for genuine negotiations.
In sum, the military measures we took in Indochina were a difficult but essential aspect of our peace-making efforts. In each case we made clear our limited objectives. Throughout we emphasized the alternative route of a negotiated end to the conflict. Reinforcing the tracks of Vietnamization and negotiations, these decisive actions made an indispensable contribution to the peace that was finally achieved.
NEGOTIATING THE PEACE
The Agreement which was signed in Paris on January 27, 1973, culminated four years of intensive negotiating effort. Throughout this process, our fundamental attitude was as I described it on November 2, 1972:
"We are going to sign the agreement when the agreement is right, not one day before. And when the agreement is right, we are going to sign without one day's delay."
In Vietnamization the guiding principle was to give the South Vietnamese the chance to defend themselves; in negotiations it was to give the South Vietnamese the chance to choose for themselves.
In reviewing the long negotiating record, certain basic elements should be kept in mind.
Our preference was always to solve military questions alone. The best way to ensure that the South Vietnamese could determine their own political future was to leave political questions to them. We believed that we should not negotiate a political settlement for South Vietnam. Furthermore, we knew that military issues would be easier to resolve than political issues that would be extremely difficult given Vietnam's long and bitter history. We were neither qualified, nor justified, in detailing specific political formulas such as governmental bodies or electoral processes for the Vietnamese people. Nor did we wish to be directly involved in---or responsible for--the functioning of the political machinery.
We preferred to concentrate on those aspects of a settlement that directly involved us--the military activity, withdrawals, and prisoners. We felt the political future should be negotiated by the South Vietnamese themselves, hopefully in a calmer atmosphere. We did not seek to impose a political victory, any more than a military victory, but we were not prepared to impose a political defeat.
Until the final stage the North Vietnamese and their allies insisted on a settlement that would effectively guarantee that the future of South Vietnam would be Communist. Public speculation and commentary to the contrary, they never agreed to separate military from political issues until the end of 1972. And when, in light of this position, we presented comprehensive proposals, including political elements, they never wavered from their basic goals.
However they packaged their proposals, the fundamental provisions were a fixed date for our total and unconditional withdrawal; the removal of the leadership of the Government of South Vietnam; and the installation of Communist rule disguised as a so-called coalition government.
This basic philosophic clash, not the failure to find precise formulas, delayed a settlement for four years. So long as the Communists insisted on their basic demands, we were faced at the conference table with one overriding issue. I addressed this question in last year's Report:
"Will we collude with our enemies to overturn our friends? Will we impose a future on the Vietnamese people that the other side has been unable to gain militarily or politically? This we shall never do."
The only solution offered by our domestic critics was to turn our ally over to the Communists, either through accepting their terms in Paris or removing all our support from South Vietnam. And neither course provided any guarantee that we would obtain the release of our prisoners.
Instead--as we pursued fruitless negotiations in Paris--we wound down our presence in South Vietnam responsibly. Vietnamization reassured our allies and spurred their initiative. South Vietnam's steady advance toward self-reliance was certainly a factor in the enemy's ultimate decision to negotiate seriously.
In the end we emerged with a settlement that met our basic principles and gave the South Vietnamese people a chance to determine their own future.
The First Three Years. In last year's Report I detailed our public initiatives and secret diplomacy for peace during the first three years of this Administration. Briefly, the record was as follows:
--At the outset we took unilateral steps to induce negotiations, such as the progressive withdrawal of our troops and reduction in air sorties in Vietnam. Each of our measures was met by fresh and more stringent demands by the enemy.
--We also moved publicly to define the framework for a negotiated settlement, emphasizing the withdrawal of foreign troops and general principles to allow the South Vietnamese to determine their own political future. On May 14, 1969, we proposed a settlement that would remove all outside forces from South Vietnam and establish internationally supervised elections. On July 11, 1969, the Republic of Vietnam offered free elections to be run by a mixed electoral commission, in which all parties could participate. On April 20, 1970, I spelled out the principles of a political solution that would reflect the choice of the South Vietnamese people and the existing relationship of political forces within the country. I pledged that the United States would abide by the outcome of any political process chosen by the South Vietnamese.
--On October 7, 1970, we presented an overall proposal for a settlement that looked to the resolution of military questions and free political choice for the South Vietnamese. We proposed an internationally supervised cease-fire; an Indochina Peace Conference; the withdrawal of all American forces from South Vietnam; a political solution based on the principles of April so; and the immediate unconditional release of all prisoners of war.
--Throughout this period we intensively pursued secret diplomacy in the hopes that a private forum might produce genuine negotiations. Dr. Kissinger went to Paris regularly to meet with the North Vietnamese Special Advisor Le Duc Tho and Minister Xuan Thuy.
--In these secret sessions we spelled out positions that were more detailed and forthcoming than our public stance, as we made maximum efforts to make a breakthrough toward peace. On May 31, 1971, we offered a special settlement of military issues alone-the withdrawal of all U.S. forces in exchange only for an Indochina cease-fire and release of all prisoners. All other questions would be left to the South Vietnamese.
--The North Vietnamese continued to insist that political questions also be included, specifically that a coalition government dominated by their side be installed. During the following months the Communists followed a particularly cynical negotiating procedure designed to mislead public opinion. On June 26, they tabled a secret nine-point proposal; five days later, on July 1, the South Vietnamese Communists made a public seven-point proposal. Our own subsequent secret positions responded to both plans. Meanwhile the North Vietnamese castigated us publicly for not responding to the seven-point proposal even though privately they said we should respond to their nine-point proposal, and we had done so.
--In view of Hanoi's insistence that political issues be addressed, we presented during the summer a series of increasingly generous and comprehensive peace plans which were designed to frame a political process as well as settle the military questions. By August we offered our total withdrawal in nine months; a political process which included elections and our pledge to neutrality and acceptance of the outcome; limitations on military aid to South Vietnam providing there were limits on aid to North Vietnam as well; non-alignment for South Vietnam and all of Indochina; and reunification to be worked out between North and South Vietnam.
--On October 11, in response to North Vietnamese comments, we conveyed still another comprehensive plan to Hanoi and proposed another secret meeting in November to consider it. They agreed to meet on November 20, but abruptly cancelled the session just three days before, on November 17.
--On January 25, 1972, after waiting in vain for more than three months for the North Vietnamese to answer our proposal to meet, we were compelled to explain the situation to the American people and try to elicit Hanoi's reaction to our offers. We revealed the scope of our private diplomacy, and President Thieu and I offered a new comprehensive plan for peace. Once again we sought to make the political process as free and open to all parties as possible while resolving the military conflict.
--Our proposal provided that within six months of a settlement all U.S. and allied forces would withdraw from South Vietnam; all prisoners throughout Indochina would be released; there would be a cease-fire throughout the region; and a new Presidential election would take place in South Vietnam. In addition, President Thieu offered to resign one month before the elections. We spelled out these provisions and others in considerable detail. We also made clear, as we had proposed in May 1971, that we were prepared to settle only the military issues and to leave political matters for later resolution by the South Vietnamese.
January-October 1972. The North Vietnamese response to our comprehensive offer was to continue their massive military buildup in South Vietnam and to launch their Easter invasion. They never replied to our negotiating proposal; they refused to meet us privately; and they repeated their same negotiating demands publicly.
The North Vietnamese finally agreed to meet again in Paris privately on May e. We made every effort to find a way to end or scale down military conflict. We proposed a variety of approaches: mutual de-escalation; a de facto cease-fire; a partial withdrawal of the invading forces; an overall military settlement; or more comprehensive solutions. All of our proposals were rejected.
Accordingly, we had little choice but to respond with the decisive measures of May 8, 1972. At the same time we proposed a fair settlement, one that would prove eventually to be the framework for peace: the cessation of all our military activities and the withdrawal of all our forces within the same period, and a cease-fire. We told Hanoi that we would resume private negotiations at any time.
The North Vietnamese eventually decided to resume talks in Paris on July 19, 1972. As these discussions went on throughout the summer, the enemy continued to insist on a comprehensive political and military solution along familiar lines. While there were marginal changes in their approach, enough to justify continuing the negotiations, there was no real progress toward a solution. In the July, August, and September sessions, their positions, however modified around the edges, contained the unacceptable core--imposition of a coalition government that the Communists would control.
Until October 1972, therefore, the basic stumbling block remained North Vietnam's demand that political victory be handed to them as a pre-condition for settling all military questions. In that case, of course, the latter would become totally irrelevant since the very issue that the struggle was all about would have been settled.
THE OCTOBER BREAKTHROUGH
On October 8, 1972, the North Vietnamese presented a new plan in Paris accepting the basic principles of our position. It was the essential breakthrough toward a negotiated settlement. For the first time, Hanoi agreed, in effect, to separate military questions from the principal political issues. They spelled out specific solutions to the former while the latter were to follow later and were left basically up to the South Vietnamese. Moreover, they dropped their insistent demand for President Thieu's resignation and formation of a coalition government.
To be sure, there were major problems in their plan, and tough negotiations lay ahead. But, in their own words, the North Vietnamese had essentially accepted the approach that I had outlined in my May 8th speech. We could see that, given a constructive attitude on their part, there was, at long last, the genuine prospect of a negotiated peace.
Once this breakthrough was achieved, we moved decisively and quickly toward a final settlement. The North Vietnamese negotiated seriously as well. In areas where there had never been significant movement, there was now rapid progress. Through intensive negotiations from October 8-12 and on October 17, and diplomatic communications, we hammered out a basic draft agreement.
Perhaps to catch the South Vietnamese off balance, perhaps to pin us down to a settlement before our own elections, the North Vietnamese insisted on a very short timetable, with October 31, 1972, the date for final signature. After refusing to negotiate seriously for three years, the enemy 'now demanded that we complete the negotiations within three weeks of their proposal. We promised to make a maximum effort to meet the deadline, subject to discussions with Saigon and a final negotiating round to complete the draft.
To prove our serious intentions and to reflect the progress that was being made, I ordered suspension of all bombing above the 20th parallel in North Vietnam on October 23, 1972. During this period, as a result of several developments since the October 17 meetings in Paris, we told the North Vietnamese privately that, while we stood by the basic draft agreement, we could not meet the October 31 target date.
There were three main reasons we could not do so:
--During the last half of October, we received mounting evidence that the Communists were planning to take advantage of the cease-fire with military offensives. This threw a different light on their eagerness to complete the agreement rapidly. Our South Vietnamese friends would have minimum time to prepare for the new situation. It also made more imperative the need to tighten up certain aspects of the agreement, including the supervisory mechanisms. Failure to settle on international machinery would mean that any violations would occur in an unsupervised context.
--At the very time we were conducting delicate consultations with our ally, Hanoi's leadership made public comments suggesting the possibility of a coalition government, which both sides had firmly agreed was not envisaged in the settlement. These and other ambiguities had to be put to rest.
--We ran into opposition in Saigon. Our South Vietnamese ally wanted many changes in the agreement, and they wanted more time for consultations. We were not prepared to accept all their proposals, but their deep concerns and the other factors made it essential to take a little more time. We believed a country that had suffered so much was entitled to have its views fully considered. We made clear, however, that we would maintain the integrity of the draft settlement.
On October 26, Hanoi publicly revealed the outlines of the agreement we were negotiating and repeated its insistence that we sign by the end of the month. We had agreed to keep the content of the negotiations private so as not to jeopardize their outcome. The North Vietnamese disclosures, however, gave us the choice of either breaking off negotiations or affirming our commitment to the framework of the settlement while describing the types of changes still needed. We chose the latter course and publicly outlined our position in response to North Vietnam's propaganda offensive.
Our primary audiences were Hanoi and Saigon. We believed that peace was very near, and we wanted to underline the message to both capitals. To our adversary, we committed ourselves publicly to the essence of the draft agreement. To our friends, we emphasized that we would take their concerns very seriously into account, but we left no doubt that we considered the basic settlement fair to all parties. We sympathized with Saigon's perspective. The war, after all, was on their soil; they would have to live with any agreement after we departed. But we were determined to conclude a settlement as soon as we were satisfied it was sound.
We emphasized our conviction that the remaining problems could be solved in one more negotiating round of three or four days, as had been foreseen earlier in October, if Hanoi continued to share our serious attitude. We did not wish to release the full text of the draft agreement or to get into specifics. To do so would only give observers a scoreboard on which to register points won by each side in subsequent bargaining. It would hurt the chances for a final settlement by making the outstanding problems matters of prestige for the parties.
Therefore, we indicated the general nature of the issues that still needed resolution in order to solidify the settlement:
--We wished to elaborate the details of the control and supervisory machinery which was established in principle.
--We wanted to speed up cease-fires in neighboring Laos and Cambodia, for the conflict affected all of Indochina.
--We needed clarification of certain ambiguities. For example, the North Vietnamese and we clearly agreed that no coalition government was contemplated in the settlement, but the Vietnamese text of the agreement could be read to suggest a new governmental organ.
--We needed to work out the signing procedure for the four parties.
--We wished to clarify a few other technical problems in the text. These matters were important in order to solidify the agreement, but they were minor compared to the hurdles that had already been surmounted. We would not be stampeded into an agreement by an arbitrary deadline. We would negotiate until it was right. And once we believed it was right, we would not be deflected from signing it. Only the terms of the settlement would determine the date of our signature--not enemy pressures, nor excessive requests from our friends, nor an electoral deadline.
THE FINAL STAGES
In retrospect, peace certainly was near in late October--the ending of a twelve-year conflict was reached twelve weeks later. But the record of those twelve weeks makes it equally clear that peace could have come even sooner if it were not for a cynical North Vietnamese approach at the end of 1972.
On November 20, negotiations resumed and lasted five days. We took up the remaining problems in the agreement and presented draft protocol designed to supplement it. These were technical documents. They introduced no new issues but spelled out in neutral detail the implementation of such aspects as cease-fire supervision and prisoner release. At first the North Vietnamese remained serious. We made significant progress in the agreement itself, although we received no responses on the protocol. A stalemate developed over the few residual issues, however, and both sides agreed to recess until December 4 to reconsider their positions.
Throughout this period we continued our intensive discussions with the Republic of Vietnam. We consulted through our Ambassador in Saigon, with South Vietnamese representatives in Paris, and through high level emissaries to each other's capital. We listened closely to South Vietnam's concerns and presented many of them forcefully in Paris. We did not adopt all of them as our own, however. We determined what we thought would make a fair agreement, and we stayed within the framework of the October draft.
On December 4, when we resumed the talks, the North Vietnamese attitude had changed fundamentally. The final issues could have been resolved in a few days given a serious attitude on both sides. The North Vietnamese began this round, however, by withdrawing all the changes they accepted in November. We spent the next few days working arduously back to where we had been two weeks previously. Then we reached a total impasse. Throughout the last several days of the negotiations in December it became very clear that Hanoi had no intention of settling at that time. We therefore recessed on December 13 after several fruitless and exasperating sessions.
Many of the problems we had pointed to on October 26 had been settled: the prospects for an early cease-fire in Laos at least were firmer, and various technical improvements had been made in the agreement. But other problems remained and, because of the North Vietnamese approach, they were growing, rather than shrinking.
On December 16, we explained the reasons for the stalemate. Although many ambiguities in the provisions had been clarified, a few remained. We still had to work out a signing procedure for the agreement that would accommodate the sensibilities of the various participants. We were still far apart on the concepts of supervisory machinery for the cease-fire, and the North Vietnamese had allowed no serious discussions of any of the protocol.
The impasse was created both by North Vietnamese rigidity on these specific issues and by their whole negotiating approach. They kept a settlement continuously out of reach by injecting new issues whenever current ones neared solution. At technical level meetings, scheduled only to conform the English and Vietnamese texts, they raised fresh substantive problems. Questions already resolved in the agreement were revived by the North Vietnamese in the protocol. Instead of the constructive approach of October, there were now determined, often frivolous, tactics designed to frustrate the negotiations.
In mid-December, therefore, we had little choice. Hanoi obviously was stalling for time, hoping that pressures would force us to make an unsatisfactory agreement. Our South Vietnamese friends, in turn, still had some strong reservations about the settlement. The more difficult Hanoi became, the more rigid Saigon grew. There was a danger that the settlement which was so close might be pulled apart by conflicting pressures. We decided to bring home to both Vietnamese parties that there was a price for continuing the conflict.
On December 18, we moved strongly in both directions. We resumed bombing north of the 20th parallel in North Vietnam, which we had suspended while serious negotiations were underway. We had to make clear that Hanoi could not continue to wage war in the South while its territory was immune, and that we would not tolerate an indefinite delay in the negotiations.
At the same time, we talked sternly with our friends in South Vietnam. In our view they were holding out for terms that were impossible to achieve without several more years of warfare--if then. We therefore reemphasized our determination to conclude the agreement if the North Vietnamese should once again prove reasonable in Paris.
During this time we maintained direct private communications with Hanoi. Once we had been assured that serious talks could again be undertaken, we suspended our bombing of North Vietnam above the 20th parallel on December 31, 1972.
On January 2, 1973, the technical talks on the protocol to the agreement resumed in Paris and serious drafting began. From January 8 to 13, Dr. Kissinger and Le Duc Tho met. The serious approach of October reappeared. There was rapid progress on the remaining issues in the agreement on the protocol. The residual ambiguities in the text were resolved. We agreed on a procedure for signing the agreement that satisfied all parties. Four protocol were elaborated into final, agreed form, detailing such key military provisions as cease-fire supervision and release of prisoners. In short, we had achieved essentially all that we had set out to do on October 26.
Simultaneously, we continued consultations with the South Vietnamese Government, and these moved to a successful conclusion. On many questions we had improved the agreement to our ally's satisfaction; on others, the South Vietnamese changed their positions for the sake of concluding the settlement.
On January 25, 1973, Dr. Kissinger returned to Paris for a final meeting. On that date the United States and North Vietnam, with the concurrence of their allies, initialled the agreement.
That evening in announcing the settlement, I said:
"We must recognize that ending the war is only the first step toward building the peace. All parties must now see to it that this is a peace that lasts, and also a peace that heals, and a peace that not only ends the war in Southeast Asia, but contributes to the prospects of peace in the whole world."
In Paris, on January 27, 1973--the first anniversary of the comprehensive U.S.-GVN peace plan--Secretary of State Rogers signed the agreement for the United States.
THE AGREEMENT
This Agreement met the essential conditions that we had laid down on January 27, and on May 8, 1972; a cease-fire, return of all prisoners, the withdrawal of American forces, and the political future of the South Vietnamese to be determined by the people themselves. The major elements were:
--An internationally-supervised cease-fire throughout Vietnam, effective at 7:00 p.m., Eastern Standard Time, Saturday, January 27, 1973.
--The release within 60 days of all captured Americans held throughout Indochina, and the fullest possible accounting for those missing in action.
--The parallel withdrawal of all United States and allied forces and military personnel from South Vietnam.
--A ban on infiltration of personnel into South Vietnam.
--A ban on the introduction of war material into South Vietnam except one-for-one replacement of military equipment worn out, damaged, destroyed, or used up after the cease-fire.
--The reduction and demobilization of both sides' forces in South Vietnam.
--The withdrawal of all foreign troops from Laos and Cambodia.
--A ban on the use of Laotian or Cambodian base areas to encroach on the sovereignty and security of South Vietnam.
--The determination of the political future of South Vietnam by the South Vietnamese themselves.
--Formation of a non-governmental National Council of National Reconciliation and Concord operating by unanimity, to organize elections as agreed by the parties and to promote conciliation between the parties and implementation of the Agreement.
--Respect for the Demilitarized Zone dividing South and North Vietnam.
--The eventual reunification of North and South Vietnam through peaceful means, step by step, through direct negotiations.
--Respect for the independence, sovereignty, unity, territorial integrity, and neutrality of Laos and Cambodia.
--In accordance with traditional United States policy, U.S. participation in postwar reconstruction efforts throughout Indochina.
--An International Commission of Control and Supervision (ICCS) composed of Canada, Hungary, Indonesia, and Poland to control and supervise the elections and various military provisions of the Agreement.
--Joint Military Commissions of the parties to implement appropriate provisions of the Agreement.
--An International Conference within thirty days to guarantee the Agreement and the ending of the war.
There were also four protocol which spelled out the implementation of the Agreement in the following areas: the cease-fire and the Joint Military Commission; the ICCS; the release of prisoners; and mine clearance in North Vietnam.
These then are the principal provisions of the Agreement and the negotiating history that produced it. The following points emerge.
The Agreement corresponded to our overall approach. We consistently held the view that a settlement should involve specific resolution of military questions alone. This was, we believed, the most feasible and rapid route to peace. The final settlement embodied this principle. The military issues--such as the cease-fire, prisoner release, withdrawals, and supervision--were spelled out in detail in the Agreement and accompanying protocol. On the political side, the provisions were general, leaving those matters to be negotiated between the two South Vietnamese parties.
The Agreement included the basic features of our earlier peace plans. An internationally supervised cease-fire, return of all prisoners, the withdrawal of Americans and allied forces, and an international conference were basic provisions of all our plans since October 1970. Internationally supervised elections were always the centerpiece of the U.S.-GVN political approach. And the National Council corresponded in many respects to the mixed electoral commission of our January 1972 plan.
The settlement represents a compromise by both sides. While our essential principles were met, we and the Communists had to make compromises. Many of these were more significant for our ally than for us. For example, we did not insist on the withdrawal of North Vietnamese forces from South Vietnam. On the other hand, this had not been part of our negotiating position since our October 7, 1970, plan. There were other mutual compromises. But the fact these were made reflected the de facto situation and represented an outcome fair to all parties. Neither side could expect to impose at the conference table what it had not gained on the battlefield. The military outcome was not clear-cut and therefore the political future was yet to be determined. For us the important principle is that the Agreement does not hand over this political future to the Communists. Our friends have every opportunity to demonstrate their inherent strength.
It was not possible to reach this Agreement any sooner than we did. Some observers have asked why we did not negotiate this settlement four years ago. The answer is simply that it was impossible to do so at any time before October 1972. As the record makes clear, the North Vietnamese from the very outset always insisted on linking political and military issues. They always demanded removal of the government in South Vietnam and the installation of a Communist-dominated structure. They never varied from that basic approach until the final months of this Administration's first term. Once we had achieved this breakthrough, we moved as rapidly as possible to complete the settlement.
Peace in Vietnam will depend not only on the provisions GI the Agreement but on the spirit in which it is implemented. It was vital to reach a settlement that would provide a framework for South Vietnamese self-determination and for our honorable disengagement. We have never been under the illusion, however, that any single document would instantly move the people of the region from a generation of war and hatred to peace and reconciliation.
We have laid the best obtainable foundation for the beginning of this process. We hope that the contending factions will now prefer to pursue their objectives through peaceful means and political competition rather than through the brutal and costly methods of the past. This choice is up to them. We shall be vigilant concerning violations of the Agreement. We are always ready to encourage accommodation among the South Vietnamese. But the peace and progress of South Vietnam and its political future depend on the people themselves.
ONGOING EFFORTS TO MAINTAIN THE PEACE
In the period immediately following the signing of the Agreement, we moved on several fronts to promote its implementation. We talked to our adversaries, to our friends, and to other countries principally involved in guaranteeing the peace.
Prisoners of War and Missing in Action. The Four Party Joint Military Commission started immediately to make the arrangements for release of our prisoners of war. The two sides exchanged lists of prisoners of war on January 27, the date of the signing. The list of prisoners captured in Laos was furnished by North Vietnam on February 1. A U.S. team from the State and Defense Departments flew to Hanoi on February 12 to pick up the first group of returnees; another group was freed in South Vietnam the same day, and further releases were due at 15 day intervals. When there appeared to be stalling, we immediately held up U.S. force withdrawals to emphasize the importance we attached to prompt and full compliance with the Agreement and Protocol. Releases then continued on schedule. A final dispute over the release of the U.S. prisoners of war captured in Laos was resolved when the Communist side agreed to release them in Hanoi on March 28. In the meanwhile, the Republic of Vietnam, with our support released the more than 26,000 prisoners of war in its custody.
With the return of our prisoners, our efforts turned to the missing in action. More than 1300 U.S. military personnel and civilians remain in this category. The Vietnam Agreement contained unprecedentedly specific language on this issue-with similar provisions in the Laos cease-fire agreement--and we made clear to the Communist side our determination to secure the fullest possible accounting for each of our men. As stipulated in the protocol, a Four Party Joint Military Team is being maintained to gather information about the missing in action. We also established a Joint Casualty Resolution Center (JCRC) in Thailand--near the Laos and Vietnam borders--to search for the missing. These efforts will continue until we have exhausted all possible means to find information on each of our men.
North Vietnam. Dr. Kissinger visited Hanoi from February 10 to 13, for direct conversations with Prime Minister Pham Van Dong and other North Vietnamese leaders. As stated in the Joint CommuniquпїЅ after the visit, the two sides carefully reviewed implementation of the Agreement, problems in Laos and Cambodia, postwar economic reconstruction, and the International Conference on Vietnam that was held shortly afterwards. They also considered the bilateral relationship between our two countries and concrete steps to normalize our relations.
A significant result of this trip was an agreement to establish a Joint Economic Commission to develop economic relations between the United States and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. This Commission began its work in Paris on March 15, 1973. Its agenda includes not only economic assistance but the whole range of economic matters. And it could become not only a technical group but a forum for a more constructive dialogue between our two nations.
The essential message we have for North Vietnam's leaders, and which was conveyed during this trip, is as follows.
We do not assume Hanoi will give up its long-range goals. We do expect it to pursue those goals without using force. Hanoi has two basic choices. The first is to exploit the Vietnam Agreement and press its objectives in Indochina. In this case it would continue to infiltrate men and materiel into South Vietnam, keep its forces in Laos and Cambodia, and through pressures or outright attack renew its aggression against our friends. Such a course would endanger the hard won gains for peace in Indochina. It would risk revived confrontation with us. It would, of course, destroy the chances for a new and constructive bilateral relationship with the United States, including economic assistance.
The second course is for North Vietnam to pursue its objectives peacefully, allowing the historical trends of the region to assert themselves. This would mean observance of the Vietnam settlement and the removal of foreign forces on both sides from Laos and Cambodia. It would transform years of military conflict in Indochina into political struggle. It would enable the United States and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam to normalize relations. If Hanoi follows this path, the United States will abide by whatever the historical process produces in Indochina.
If North Vietnam chooses the peaceful option, the United States remains committed to better relations. We are convinced, as stated in the Joint CommuniquпїЅ at the conclusion of Dr. Kissinger's visit to Hanoi, that this process would "help to ensure stable peace in Vietnam and contribute to the cause of peace in Indochina and Southeast Asia."
Indochina Reconstruction. Thus the basic challenge in Indochina is to move from two decades of violent struggle to peaceful evolution. It will not be easy to make this transition after a generation of conflict, to discard familiar techniques and join in constructive enterprises, and to rely on political competition and the forces of history for the achievement of goals.
The economic assistance we propose in concert with others, for the reconstruction and development of the entire region would help make this transition a reality. To be effective it must include the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. The rebuilding of war-torn economies of former enemies is a traditional policy of this country and served the goal of reconciliation [in] the period after World War II. This concept was first proposed for Indochina by the previous Administration in 1965. We have reaffirmed it on many occasions during this Administration, including last year's Report. It would be a sound investment in peace, providing avenues and incentives for an insulated and suspicious country to engage in peaceful and cooperative pursuits. It responds to humanitarian needs as well as to political and psychological necessities.
We will pursue this program with determination. The funds required will not be drawn from any domestic programs. As we proceed, however, we will be guided by two fundamental principles:
--We will observe Constitutional requirements both in letter and spirit and consult closely with the Congress at every step of the way.
--We will not provide aid to the Democratic Republic of Vietnam if it violates the Agreement. Hanoi cannot expect to receive our economic assistance while pursuing its goals through military pressure.
We believe that the American people and the Congress will agree to provide the relatively modest amounts to help keep the peace that ended such a long and costly war.
South Vietnam. The Republic of Vietnam and the United States fought and suffered together many years. We supported that government and its people in their valiant efforts against aggression. And we consulted closely with them throughout the long, torturous road of negotiations. We now look forward to working together in peace as we did on the battlefield and at the conference table.
The Republic of Vietnam will find us a steady friend. We will continue to deal with its government as the legitimate representative of the South Vietnamese people, while supporting efforts by the South Vietnamese parties to achieve reconciliation and shape their political future. We will provide replacement military assistance within the terms of the Agreement. We expect our friends to observe the Agreement just as we will not tolerate violations by the North Vietnamese or its allies.
We will also continue to contribute generously to South Vietnam's economic rehabilitation and development. That country is making a major effort to make its economy self-sufficient, but the peace agreement does not lessen its need for substantial outside assistance. South Vietnamese requirements will, in fact, increase in the short term. The government's heavy military Budget will decline only slowly, for it must maintain a vigilant defense and support the total military responsibility created by the withdrawal of the American and allied forces. Simultaneously, South Vietnam will bear the double burden of creating new jobs for demobilized personnel and of meeting massive expenditures for relief of refugees and war victims. Finally, the country faces other heavy financial drains as it reconstructs the many destroyed towns, repairs the country's transportation and irrigation systems, and brings back into production large arable regions abandoned during twenty years of fighting.
None of the country's major economic tasks can be accomplished without substantial economic assistance. With such aid, none of these problems is insuperable. South Vietnam has the natural and human resources to be economically independent and viable. What is needed is time for these resources, diverted or idled by the war, to be put back to productive use.
The Republic of South Vietnam now seeks the economic counterpart to Vietnamization. As we helped them take over their own defense in conflict, we will help them now become economically self-sustaining in peace.
These were the principles I expressed to President Thieu when we met at San Clemente a few weeks ago. His visit to the United States symbolized both our common struggle in past years and our common endeavors in the years to come. As we said in our joint communiquпїЅ:
"... both Presidents agreed that through the harsh experience of a tragic war and the sacrifices of their two peoples a close and constructive relationship between the American and the South Vietnamese people has been developed and strengthened. They affirmed their full confidence that this association would be preserved as the foundation of an honorable and lasting peace in Southeast Asia."
The International Conference. From February 26, 1973, to March 2, 1973, the International Conference on Vietnam met in Paris. Twelve nations--the four parties to the Agreement, the four ICCS countries, and the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council-plus the Secretary General of the United Nations, attended. The Final Act signed on March 3, 1973, endorsed the Vietnam Agreement; called for its strict observance by the four parties; pledged respect for the Accord by members of the Conference; urged all other countries to do so as well; set up procedures for reporting violations of the Agreement and reconvening of the Conference; and called for countries to respect the independence, sovereignty, unity, territorial integrity, and neutrality of Cambodia and Laos, as stipulated in the Agreement.
A single meeting lasting several days cannot guarantee the peace. But the gathering and the statements of the nations involved underlined the reality that all countries, not just those directly concerned, have a stake in peace in Indochina. We expect the nations that signed the Act of the Conference to live up to their obligations. We will take their performance into account in the conduct of our bilateral relations.
FUTURE TASKS
Achieving an end to the war was exceptionally difficult, but keeping the peace will be no less challenging. It involves not just Vietnam but all of Indochina, and not just the Indo-Chinese countries but outside nations as well. The following are the major tasks:
--Strengthening the peace in Vietnam.
--Implementing the agreement on Laos.
--Achieving a cease-fire and beginning negotiations on Cambodia.
--Ensuring restraint toward the region by outside powers.
The peace in Vietnam itself remains fragile. A period of misunderstandings and ambiguities was to be expected in the first months of peace after so many years of war. The process of reconciliation and mutual accommodation is bound to take time. Nevertheless the overall record so far has been less positive than we had hoped.
The United States has scrupulously carried out its obligations, and we have urged all others to do likewise. On those military elements of the agreement directly affecting us the record has been generally good. Our listed prisoners have returned from Indochina. There remains, however, the difficult task of accounting for all those missing in action throughout the region, and we will not rest until this task is completed. All American and allied military forces and advisors have been withdrawn from South Vietnam. We have strictly observed the cease-fire and have given full cooperation and support to the supervisory organization. And we began to clear the mines from all North Vietnamese ports and waterways, a complicated and time-consuming job.
Observance of the cease fire is now, of course, in the hands of the Vietnamese. Compliance has been spotty, and substantial fighting continues. While violations and casualties have diminished from the first weeks, much greater efforts are needed to stop the conflict completely and fully stabilize the situation.
The most ominous aspect of the situation to date has been the continued infiltration of North Vietnamese troops in violation of the Agreement. In blatant disregard of Articles 7, 15, and 20, Hanoi has continued to send troops and military supplies into South Vietnam. It has also continued its military activities in Laos and Cambodia in violation of Article 20. In so doing, it has built up the military potential of the Communist forces in South Vietnam. Whether this is a prelude to another offensive is not clear. What is clear is that it must cease. We have told Hanoi, privately and publicly, that we will not tolerate violations of the Agreement.
On the political front, the two South Vietnamese parties are now negotiating in Paris on such subjects as the functioning of the National Council of National Reconciliation, the elections, the issues of civilian prisoners held by both sides, and the reduction and demobilization of both sides' armed forces. We hope that the South Vietnamese parties make progress on these issues and settle their differences.
Laos and Cambodia will be treated in more detail later in this Report. It is important to point out here that the Vietnam settlement obligates all foreign countries to withdraw their forces from these two countries, cease sending military personnel and equipment into the two countries, and stop using their territories 'to encroach on .other countries. These obligations are clear and unconditional. Here, too, Hanoi has not yet carried out the terms of the Agreement. We expect North Vietnam to withdraw its forces from Laos and Cambodia in the near future, and to comply with the other provisions regarding those countries. As I have stated repeatedly, there cannot be stable peace in Vietnam until its neighbors are also at peace. The conflict has been indivisible. The peace must be too.
Countries outside the region have a strong interest in the maintenance of peace in Indochina. If the flames of conflict flare up again, there will be renewed suffering for the peoples of the area, the danger of another war, and a threat to the improvement of relations among the major world powers.
Accordingly, we look to outside powers to lend a moderating influence to the affairs of Indochina. This means, first of all, that there can be no reasonable justification for sending Hanoi large arms shipments now that there is a negotiated settlement. North Vietnam certainly is not threatened by its neighbors. A military buildup would raise questions not only about its intentions, but also about the motivations of the suppliers. Restraint in the North on this matter will be matched by restraint in the South.
Beyond that, we believe that friends of the Vietnamese belligerents can helpfully underline to them the advantages of maintaining the peace instead of rekindling the war. This will be our approach. For there cannot be a global structure of peace while conflict persists in Indochina.
This is a complex and difficult agenda. Unlike that of the last dozen years, our role will not be dominant. But it will remain substantial and important. And it will require both generosity and firmness, both patience and vigilance.
America has those qualities and will exercise them in the interest of peace in the region.
LAOS AND CAMBODIA
There cannot be lasting peace in Vietnam until its neighbors are at peace.
As of this writing, the situation in both Laos and Cambodia remains fluid. In Laos, the parties reached a cease-fire settlement in February 1973, but the framework is fragile, and the Communists have delayed negotiations which were stipulated in the Agreement to reach a definitive settlement. In Cambodia, the Communists have stepped up their military attacks since the Vietnam and Laos cease-fires, rejecting both the Government's unilateral military restraint and its call for negotiations. In both countries, North Vietnam continues to violate the past international agreements to which it was a party. And in both countries it is now violating the Vietnam Agreement it signed in January 1973.
North Vietnam, as well as the other parties to the Vietnam Agreement, has unambiguous obligations with respect to Laos and Cambodia. Article 20 of that Agreement stipulates that:
--The parties participating in the Paris Conference on Vietnam shall strictly respect the 1954 Geneva Agreements on Cambodia and the 1962 Geneva Agreements on Laos, and shall respect the neutrality of Cambodia and Laos.
--They will undertake to refrain from using the territory of Cambodia and the territory of Laos to encroach on the sovereignty and security of one another and of other countries.
--Foreign countries shall put an end to all military activities in Cambodia and Laos, totally withdraw from and refrain from reintroducing into these two countries troops, military advisers and military personnel, armaments, munitions, and war materiel.
--The internal affairs of Cambodia and Laos shall be settled by the people of each of these countries without foreign interference.
--The problems existing between the Indo-Chinese countries shall be settled by the Indo-Chinese parties on the basis of respect for each other's independence, sovereignty, and territorial integrity, and noninterference in each other's internal affairs.
These provisions are clear. They are not tied to any other conditions. To date they have been ignored by Hanoi. Although fighting has subsided in Laos, attacks there by the North Vietnamese and their allies continue. In Cambodia, Communist forces have increased their attacks in a major effort to isolate Phnom Penh and other population centers. Hanoi has continued to infiltrate men and supplies into and through Laos and Cambodia. It gives no sign of ending this flow or withdrawing its forces from either country.
The U.S. position is clear. We will not tolerate violations of the Vietnam Agreement. We have every interest in seeing peace observed in Laos and peace attained in Cambodia. The legitimate governments of the two countries are working toward this end. In both countries we will honor whatever agreements are worked out by the peoples themselves. We firmly intend to implement all the provisions of the Vietnam Agreement, and we insist that all other parties do so as well.
Hanoi has always exploited Laos and Cambodia in its conduct of the Vietnam War. It has etched a similar, distressing pattern in both of South Vietnam's neighbors in recent years:
--Neither Laos nor Cambodia has ever threatened North Vietnam, nor could they threaten it.
--The neutrality, independence, sovereignty, and territorial integrity of both countries were established by international agreements signed by Hanoi and its allies.
--The North Vietnamese have continually violated all these principles for years by sending tens of thousands of their troops into both countries and organizing insurgent forces.
--Hanoi's primary target has been South Vietnam. It has used Laos and Cambodia for infiltration corridors for its troops and supplies, for base areas for launching attacks on South Vietnam, and for sanctuaries.
--In the process, North Vietnam has also threatened the neutral governments in Vientiane and Phnom Penh.
--The helpless people of both nations, wanting nothing but to be left alone, have been subjected for years to outside aggression and exploitation.
Given the indivisibility of the Indochina conflict, our policy toward Laos and Cambodia has always been closely related to our policy in Vietnam. A fundamental concern has been with the Communist use of Laos and Cambodia in pursuit of their main objectives in South Vietnam. We also have been concerned with Hanoi's breaking of international agreements on these countries, and we have an interest in the independence and neutrality of the states in Southeast Asia.
Diplomatically, all our negotiating proposals on Vietnam have included Laos and Cambodia as well. The basic elements of our plans, such as cease-fire, release of American prisoners, the ban on infiltration and base areas, and the holding of an international conference concerned all of Indochina. Militarily, we have provided air and logistic support to the internationally recognized governments in Vientiane and Phnom Penh. This policy has been essential to protect the independence of South Vietnam and to enforce the Indochina aspect of the Vietnam peace settlement.
In Laos and Cambodia we have never undertaken the primary role but have confined our efforts to supporting those of the indigenous governments. This is true both at the conference table and on the battlefield:
--We have supported the attempts of the Laotian and Cambodian Governments to negotiate peace either on their own or as part of an overall Indochina settlement. In these efforts they have taken the lead and shaped the nature of the settlements they were seeking.
--While negotiations have been blocked by Hanoi's intransigence, the Lao and Cambodians have carried the ground combat responsibility while we provided military and economic assistance and, at their request, air and logistic support. We also supported South Vietnamese defensive strikes into North Vietnamese base areas in these two countries.
--Our role has been, and will continue to be, strictly limited: no U.S. ground combat personnel, a minimum American presence overall, and military support strictly tailored to the pressures of the North Vietnamese, the situation in South Vietnam, and the requests of the threatened governments.
--Our help has nevertheless been crucial for the independence of these countries and the pursuit of our objectives in Vietnam.
LAOS
The United States Government has always favored a stable peace in Laos and the genuine independence and neutrality of that nation. Our objective has been a Laos free of conflict, free of outside forces, and free to determine its own future.
We therefore welcome the Agreement on Laos negotiated and concluded by the Laotian parties themselves on February 21, 1973. We hope that this Agreement, coupled with the related provisions of the Vietnam settlement, will secure a lasting peace in Laos and finally permit that country to devote itself to the tasks of reconstruction and development.
A Fragile Peace. In the negotiations on Vietnam we took the consistent position that there should be an early cease-fire in Laos as well as Vietnam. The shaping of a settlement there was, of course, up to the parties themselves. Our friends needed no encouragement from us to negotiate the end of the conflict, so we pressed in Paris for Hanoi to ensure Pathet Lao readiness to conclude a settlement.
Negotiations between the Laotian parties began on September 18, 1972, and ran parallel to our talks with the North Vietnamese. One of the issues still not resolved to our satisfaction in late October in Paris was the prospect for early peace in Laos. As we moved toward a final settlement for Vietnam, the Laotian parties made progress in their talks. By the time we signed the Vietnam Agreement on January 27, 1973, we were confident that a cease-fire in Laos would be achieved within a matter of weeks, and we knew that our prisoners captured in Laos would be released within sixty days. Final obstacles to a Laos settlement remained, however, when Dr. Kissinger visited Vientiane, Bangkok, Hanoi, and Peking in mid-February and accordingly the Laos situation was a major topic on the agenda for those visits.
During this period, the final issues were settled by the Laotian parties and the Agreement was signed on February 21, 1973. It has the following main provisions:
--Affirmation of respect for the Geneva Accords of 1954 and 1962.
--An immediate in-place cease fire supervised by a Joint Military Commission with the assistance of the current International Control Commission (ICC), composed of India, Canada, and Poland.
--The formation of a new bipartite coalition government (the Provisional Government of National Union) and a consultative political council within 30 days of the cease-fire. The two Laotian parties were to negotiate and agree on the modalities and the exact membership in these bodies during the interim.
--The withdrawal of all foreign forces within 60 days after the installation of the new political bodies.
--The release of all POWs within the same 60-day period, except for Americans captured in Laos who were released within the 60 days provided for prisoner release under the Vietnam Agreement.
--The eventual holding ,of legislative elections to be organized by laws adopted by the new Consultative Council and Provisional Government.
--Pending these elections and the formation of a permanent government of national union, the separate administration by the two sides of the areas under their respective control. Following signature of the Agreement, the Royal Laotian Government made a maximum effort to reach final agreement on the protocol implementing its political and military provisions. The government presented concrete proposals to the Pathet Lao in order to obtain agreements on these matters necessary to form the Provisional Government within the specified 30-day period and thus speed the withdrawal of North Vietnamese and other foreign forces. However, the Laotian Communists adopted obvious delaying tactics in the implementing talks, including keeping their senior negotiator away from the conference table for weeks on end. As a result, the 30-day period for the establishment of a new government and a Consultative Council passed without agreement.
The same pattern persisted on other related questions such as the talks concerning a Joint Military Commission and a revitalized ICC. Meanwhile, in blatant violation of its international obligations, North Vietnam has continued its military activities in Laos and expanded its logistics and base network there, threatening South Vietnam.
U.S. Support. We have consistently maintained the supporting role that the previous Administrations inaugurated. On the diplomatic plane, as already indicated, we have continually backed Prime Minister Souvanna Phouma's efforts to negotiate a peace.
In the face of enemy aggression, and in light of the threats to South Vietnam, we have also responded to the Laotian government's request for military and economic assistance. By Congressional action, our total assistance expenditures in Laos were limited to $375 million in fiscal year 1973. Our economic aid efforts were devoted primarily to programs for the care of refugees and the stabilization of the heavily burdened Laotian economy. Military assistance involved primarily the delivery of supplies and equipment to the Laotian forces. These forces carried the ground combat role and, even in the air war, the Laotian Air Force provided much of the air support.
With the conclusion of a cease-fire in Laos, we look forward toward reductions in U.S. operations and expenditures there. Since the cease-fire, limited U.S. military activities in Laos have been conducted at the request of the government. They were necessitated by and taken in direct response to North Vietnamese and Pathet Lao violations of the Laos cease-fire agreement. Considerable financial assistance will continue to be needed.
--When requested, and within the provisions of the Agreement, we will provide military supplies so that Laotian forces can maintain a high level of readiness in the future.
--We will continue an adequate economic aid program to help the Lao move ahead to better their conditions and their lives.
--We will include Laos in the overall reconstruction effort in Indochina which we consider to be an important investment in peace.
Hanoi will largely determine whether the peaceful people of Laos will at long last gain a respite from conflict and enjoy a period of tranquility and progress. If North Vietnam and its allies observe the cease-fire in Laos, move toward completion of a definitive settlement, and honor the obligations of both the Vietnam and Laos settlements, they will find a forthcoming response from the Royal Laotian Government and its friends. If they choose instead to maintain an aggressive course, the whole fabric of regional peace will be jeopardized.
CAMBODIA
Our objectives and our policies in Cambodia run parallel to those in Laos.
We aim for an independent neutral and stable country. We do not insist on any particular political orientation, but we believe any course should be the free choice of the people themselves, not one imposed by North Vietnamese arms. Nor should Cambodia be used as a sanctuary or staging area for Vietnamese Communist assaults on South Vietnam.
In light of these objectives, we have supported the Cambodian government. That government favors independence, neutrality, and stability. It is willing to deal with its indigenous opponents at the conference table. It is fighting North Vietnamese aggression not only against Cambodia but also against South Vietnam.
The Cambodians, like the Lao, are clearly innocent victims who wish only to live in peace. Like the Lao they are carrying the brunt of the battle for their self-defense, while we supply military and economic assistance and, when specifically requested, air support.
The Past Year. Since last year's Report, there has been little progress in Cambodia. The military picture has remained spotty and at times precarious. The Khmer armed forces have managed to contain most enemy thrusts and maintain control of the major population centers. However, Communist forces have often temporarily interdicted key routes and lines of communication in an attempt to isolate the urban areas. This has on occasion generated short-term needs for airlift or special land and water convoys to bring supplies to the capital and other cities.
The mixed security situation in Cambodia should be kept in perspective. Three years ago many observers thought that it would only be a matter of months, if not weeks, before the Communists would topple the Lon Nol government. Since then the Cambodian people have shown courage and resilience against repeated pressures. The Cambodian army has grown from a largely ceremonial force of 35,000 in 1970 to some 200,000, most of whom are volunteers. It has undertaken an internal reorganization, further training, and important reforms to develop its full potential for future self-defense. Progress in self-defense efforts, however, has been uneven and needs to be accelerated.
The crucial ingredient in Cambodia remains political stability. Since 1970 most of the population and opposition leaders have rallied in opposition to Communist aggression. Politically, there were both positive and negative developments during 1972. In the past year, the Khmer Republic adopted a Constitution, elected a president and a bicameral legislature, and put into operation various organs of government provided by the new Constitution. The government also initiated programs to improve community self-defense and to encourage the return of Khmer who have taken up arms against it. On the other hand, the leading non-Communist groups and personalities have not always worked effectively together and, at times, they have been openly at odds. This only serves to undercut morale, jeopardize the security situation, and prevent the establishment of an effective base from which to negotiate with the enemy if the enemy ever chooses to do so. Greater efforts for a unified front against the Communists are clearly needed. Recently, the Lon Nol government moved to broaden its political base by including more of the non-Communist opposition.
The Continuing Conflict. In the Vietnam negotiations we pressed very hard for an early peace in Cambodia to accompany the cease-fires in Vietnam and Laos. We succeeded in getting the clear-cut provisions for both Laos and Cambodia of Article 20 included in the Vietnam Agreement. In response to our insistence that all American prisoners throughout Indochina be released within sixty days of that Agreement, we were assured that there were no Americans held captive in Cambodia. But while we signed the Agreement with the expectation that there would be an early cessation of hostilities in that country, we did not have the firm confidence in this prospect that we held for Laos.
During the final stage of the Paris negotiations, the other side repeatedly pointed out that the situation in Cambodia was more complex than in Laos because of the many factions involved and the lack of an established framework for negotiations. However, Communist actions in the Khmer Republic since the Vietnam and Laos Agreements raise serious questions about Hanoi's professed desire for early peace in that country.
The signing of the Vietnam Agreement brought a brief ray of hope to Cambodia. On January 28, 1973, the day the Vietnam cease-fire went into effect, President Lon Nol ordered his forces to cease all offensive activities and urged the enemy to follow suit. He repeated his willingness to enter into direct negotiations to turn a de facto cease-fire into a more definitive settlement.
We welcomed these measures, suspended our own combat air operations in support of the Khmer forces, and hoped that the North Vietnamese and the Khmer insurgents would respond favorably. Unfortunately, then--and since--the Communist side rebuffed this gesture and all other efforts by the government to inaugurate contacts with a view to ending the fighting.
Instead, Hanoi to date has chosen to pursue its aggression in Cambodia. Indeed, since the Vietnam and Laos settlements, Communist military operations in Cambodia have reached new levels. Widespread attacks have continued, chiefly against the important lines of communications and the population centers. In light of this situation and at the request of the Khmer Government, the United States resumed the air operations in Cambodia which we had suspended in an effort to promote a cease-fire. The objective of our assistance to Cambodia is the full implementation of the Vietnam Accords and an end to the fighting in Cambodia which threatens the peace in Vietnam.
The Cambodian Government has repeatedly declared its desire for a cease-fire and prompt political negotiations. We are prepared to halt our military activity in Cambodia as soon as there is a cease fire. On the other hand, if Hanoi still pursues aggression in Cambodia, we will continue to provide the Khmer Republic with U.S. air support and appropriate military assistance. We will not introduce U.S. ground forces into Cambodia.
The Cambodian situation is a serious threat to the hard-won peace in Vietnam. The only feasible solution is an end to the conflict and direct negotiations among the Cambodians themselves. We fully support the efforts of the present government to launch this process.
We call on North Vietnam to observe its solemn pledges in the Vietnam Agreement and to give the people of both Laos and Cambodia the chance to live their own lives.
PART III: STRENGTHENING PARTNERSHIPS
--Europe and the Atlantic Alliance
--Japan
--Latin America
EUROPE AND THE ATLANTIC ALLIANCE
The United States has regularly renewed its commitment to the flourishing of trans-Atlantic unity with our oldest and closest allies. I carried this message to Europe immediately after taking office in 1969. It is a central element of this Report to the Congress, for no aspect of U.S. foreign policy commands greater attention and care than our relations with Western Europe.
I have referred to 1973 as the year of Europe, not because we regarded Europe as less important in the past or because we expect to overcome the problems of the Atlantic Community in any single year. This will be a year of Europe because changes in the international environment, and particularly in Europe, pose new problems and new opportunities.
The alliance between the United States and Western Europe has been a fundamental factor in the postwar era. It provided the essential security framework for American engagement in Europe and for Western defense. It created the political confidence that allowed the countries of Europe to recover from the devastation of the war. It helped to reconcile former enemies, a prerequisite for European unity. And it was the principal means of forging the common policies that were the source of Western strength in an era of tension and confrontation.
When the alliance was created, power relations, economic factors, and political conditions were far different than today: traditional power centers in both Europe and Asia were greatly weakened, and the United States and the Soviet Union had emerged with vastly enhanced strength and influence as leaders of hostile coalitions in Europe. Western Europe looked to America for protection and for leadership. The alliance came to rely on American prescriptions and became accustomed to ratifying American solutions to the major military, political, and economic problems.
When this Administration took office, a period of transition had begun; new trends affecting America's relations with Europe were already evident:
--Western Europe's economic and political revival coincided with deepening divisions in the Communist world. The bipolar confrontation of the postwar period no longer dominated international relations. Alliance relationships in Europe coexisted with increasingly fluid international relationships. Both sides of the Atlantic had to recognize that a new balance of power in the world would challenge our unity.
--In Europe, as the military vacuum was filled by the strength of the Atlantic coalition, the danger of war receded. But the altered strategic environment created totally new problems of deterrence and defense.
--The European unity forged by the original six members of the Common Market made Europe a formidable economic power. Expansion of the European Community to include the United Kingdom, Denmark, and Ireland added a new political dimension to economic integration.
In these conditions, America's relations with the new Europe were bound to change. In the three fundamental aspects--economic, military, and political trans-Atlantic relations had come to be based on different principles that led to different modes of action:
--In economics, members of the European Community, individually and collectively, stressed regional autonomy, while the United States remained dedicated to the integrity of an open international system.
--Militarily, unity was the predominant factor: the NATO allies operated on the principle of integrated forces and common strategic planning. But forces designed when the United States enjoyed an unqualified strategic advantage had not been fully adjusted to the reality of a more nearly equal strategic balance with the Soviet Union.
--Politically, the Western Allies shared abstract goals of detente, but we had not developed new principles to reconcile national objectives with demands for a unified Western policy. Now, America and Europe are challenged to forge a more mature and viable partnership in which we cooperate:
--in developing a new and more equitable international economic system that enables the Europeans to reinforce their unity, yet provides equitable terms for the United States to compete in world markets;
--in providing a strong defense with the forces necessary to carry out a realistic strategy in light of the nuclear balance of the 1970'S while meeting our mutual defense commitments with an equitable sharing of the burdens;
--in building a common framework for diplomacy to deal with fundamental security issues--such as mutual and balanced force reductions--in the new international environment, reconciling the requirements of unity with those of national interest.
In the past four years we have progressed toward these goals. The advances have been more pronounced in diplomacy and defense because habits of consultation were long-standing in these areas and common interests were easier to define. Fundamental problems persist in economic relations with the European Community. Though Europeans have begun to pursue a collective economic policy, their lack of a comparable degree of political unity handicaps the resolution of economic issues with the United States.
ATLANTIC PARTNERSHIP AND EUROPEAN UNITY
Throughout the postwar period, the United States has supported the concept of a unified Western Europe. We recognized that such a Europe might be more difficult to deal with, but we foresaw manifold advantages. Unity would replace the devastating nationalist rivalries of the past. It would strengthen Europe's economic recovery and expand Europe's potential contributions to the free world. We believed that ultimately a highly cohesive Western Europe would relieve the United States of many burdens. We expected that unity would not be limited to economic integration, but would include a significant political dimension... We assumed, perhaps too uncritically, that our basic interests would be assured by our long history of cooperation, by our common cultures and our political similarities.
The Economic Dimension. The advance toward the goal we supported for so long has, in fact, created a new dimension in European-American relations. Mutual prosperity developed on the principle of relatively free trade. As the European Community progressed, however, it designed policies to protect its own special interests. Moreover, its growing economic weight stimulated other states to protect their access to that thriving market of more than 250 million persons. The prospect of relatively closed trading systems within Europe, notably in agriculture, and in preferential arrangements with third countries, was proceeding as the United States was suffering an increasingly unfavorable balance of payments.
In the area of monetary policy, the European Community has to a large degree been preoccupied with the search for a reasonable path toward internal monetary unity. At the same time, the growing strengths of some of its national economies--and relative weakness of others--have both impeded that progress and limited the will and ability of Europe to deal effectively and expeditiously with fundamental reform of the international monetary system.
The Europeans have thus been pursuing economic regionalism; but they want to preserve American protection in defense and an undiminished American political commitment. This raises a fundamental question: can the principle of Atlantic unity in defense and security be reconciled with the European Community's increasingly regional economic policies?
We have also faced challenges in redefining our relationships with the other North American member of the Atlantic Alliance--Canada. Our northern neighbor has been reassessing its position in the world just as we have been establishing a new view of our own. Frank reappraisals of our respective interests have brought some new problems to the fore, particularly in economic relations between the two countries. When I visited Ottawa in April 1972, I reaffirmed with Prime Minister Trudeau our common belief that mature partners must have autonomous, independent policies and explored with him how we might work together while respecting Canada's right to ensure its own identity and to chart its own ecooomic course.
A Comprehensive Approach. We thus face a new situation. There are elements of economic conflict, and there has been a lack of direction. Concrete economic issues, not abstract principles, must be addressed. But if economic issues are confronted in isolation, or from purely technical perspectives, each party will try to protect its own narrow commercial interests. The outcome will be a deadlock, with the prospect of constant conflict.
The overriding task is to develop a broader political perspective from which we can address these economic questions, one that encourages reconciliation of differences for the sake of larger goals. Each partner will have to subordinate a degree of individual or regional autonomy to the pursuit of common objectives. Only by appealing to interests that transcend regional economic considerations can inevitable deadlocks be broken.
We have begun to move toward a comprehensive European-American dialogue. An essential first step was the European decision on the nature and scope of the relations with the United States. Last October, the leaders of the European Community met to chart their long-term course. The keynote was sounded by President Pompidou:
"Our links with this great country, the world's foremost economic power, with which eight of our countries are united within the Atlantic Alliance, are so close that it would be absurd to conceive of a Europe constructed in opposition to it. But the very closeness of these links requires that Europe affirm its individual personality with regard to the United States. Western Europe, liberated from armies thanks to the essential contribution of American soldiers, reconstructed with American aid, having looked for its security in alliance with America, having hitherto accepted American currency as the main element of its monetary reserves, must not and cannot sever its links with the United States. But neither must it refrain from affirming its existence as a new reality."
This was an invitation to begin the complex process of redefining our basic partnership, a goal we had set in 1969. Accordingly, on October 27, I strongly endorsed the European Community declaration:
"It is, and has always been my own deeply held view that progress toward a unified Europe enhances world peace, security, and prosperity.
"It is also of the highest importance that the United States and Europe work closely together. For this reason I particularly welcome the Community's declared intent to maintain a constructive, forthcoming dialogue with us . . . I wish to reaffirm our commitment to work with the members of the European Community for reform of the international economic system in a way which will bring about a new freedom of world trade, new equity in international economic conduct and effective solutions to the problems of the developing world.
"These are the objectives with which the United States will approach forthcoming negotiations on monetary and trade reform. We will be prepared to take bold action with our European partners for a more equitable and open world economic order."
The stage is now set for comprehensive negotiations with our European partners. In effect, these negotiations began in my meetings with Prime Minister Heath, NATO Secretary General Luns, Premier Andreotti, and Chancellor Brandt. They will continue when I meet with President Pompidou and when I visit Europe later this year.
The issues we face are not abstract. European unity is not at issue. Nor are the requirements for common internal and external policies which reinforce that unity. Our aim is to examine concrete problems that impinge on the specific interests of the United States and to agree on a comprehensive way to resolve these issues.
Major negotiations will begin next fall on international trade. Our basic objectives are to restore the integrity of a more open trading system that was the underlying principle of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), and to halt the drift toward economic protectionism on both sides of the Atlantic. We believe there should be a gradual reduction in tariffs and other barriers to trade in both industrial and agricultural products. We believe also that the adverse effects of preferential trading arrangements between Europe and less developed countries should be eliminated. Such arrangements should not work against the ability of the United States or others to compete in European markets or those of the countries with which it has special trade arrangements.
These, and many broader problems discussed in the chapter on international economic policy in this Report, require major reforms. The negotiations will be protracted and difficult. If, however, we can confront our economic differences in the same spirit of partnership developed in defense, we can reinforce Atlantic unity.
ALLIANCE DEFENSE
In April 1969 the North Atlantic Alliance completed its twentieth year. For two decades the nations of the Atlantic community had been united in a formidable coalition. No military alliance in modern times has so successfully maintained the peace. Unity had come naturally in military affairs because the threats to Europe were unambiguous, the requirements to meet them were generally agreed upon, and the basic strategy of nuclear retaliation was credible and effective.
By the mid-1960's, however, it was increasingly clear that military conditions had changed and that earlier strategic assumptions were no longer realistic. At the meeting of NATO foreign ministers in April 1969, I stressed the need to reexamine the Alliance's military position in light of the strategic and political environment of the 1970's. Certain factors were of overriding concern:
--The West no longer enjoyed the nuclear predominance it once possessed. The Soviet Union was greatly expanding its strategic forces; the United States had ended its building programs in favor of qualitative improvements. Strategic arms talks, if they succeeded, would almost certainly codify a balance that was roughly equal.
--Anticipating this new strategic balance, the allies had quite correctly developed a new doctrine of flexible response to meet threats with means other than immediate and massive nuclear retaliation.
--In conditions of near strategic parity, the ability to defend Western Europe with conventional forces assumed far greater significance than in the 1950's, when the West could afford temporary weaknesses because of the American nuclear guarantee. In these circumstances, actual alliance performance was inconsistent with the implications of the strategic balance:
--Despite adoption of a new doctrine, the composition, levels, and armaments of NATO forces remained virtually unchanged. Indeed, with U.S. redeployments in 1968, as well as previous reductions, the level of NATO forces had declined.
--Soviet forces in Eastern Europe, on the other hand, were being reequipped and modernized. After the invasion of Czechoslovakia, the forward deployment of Soviet forces increased by several divisions. Meanwhile, the United States had withdrawn one and one-third divisions.
--Spending for defense in the NATO area, measured in real purchasing power, declined steadily from 1964 through 1969.
--The distribution of defense costs had shifted. Manpower absorbed an increasingly larger share of expenditures while equipment purchases declined.
--There was no agreement among the allies on a common level of supplies in critical munitions. Yet, obviously, if certain countries could sustain combat for only a few days, it was irrelevant that others had stocks for much longer periods.
--There was agreement on the importance of conventional defense, but a reluctance, especially in Europe, to give priority to non-nuclear capabilities. Europe feared that doing so might imply a weakening of the credibility of the nuclear deterrent.
In addition, there was concern in the United States about our heavy commitments to the Alliance in manpower and expenditure. Critics persistently asked why the United States could not reduce its forces in Europe. Moreover, there was a growing opinion that our European deployments only further aggravated an already adverse balance of payments.
This environment of 1969-70 led me to insist on a full-scale review, not only of the American commitment but also of the Alliance's policies. It was futile to simply debate whether the United States should cut its forces by this or that number. The real issues were whether those forces were the instruments of an agreed and rational strategy, whether their presence made an essential difference, and whether the burdens of commitment were shared equitably.
Throughout 1969 and 1970 the United States and its allies engaged in a searching reexamination of defense policy. The principal results, announced in December 1970, were significant:
--All agreed it was essential to reverse the trend of declining capabilities and adopt a concerted, long-term program to improve existing conventional forces.
--The European allies agreed to a specific five-year program to improve and modernize their own forces by spending more for equipment.
--The Alliance concluded that a commitment of substantial U.S. forces was indispensable to Western Europe's defense.
--We, in turn, reaffirmed our commitment to maintain and improve our own forces in Europe, given a similar effort by the allies.
Force Improvements. Our European allies increased defense expenditures in both 1971 and 1972. Even allowing for inflation, the net increase was three to four percent. In each year since 1970, they have committed an additional $ 1 billion through the European Defense Improvement Program. Their defense budget increases in 1972 were more than $1 billion, and last December the European Defense Ministers announced that in 1973 their additional contributions would total $1.5 billion. Since 1970, the European allies have increased equipment expenditures by $1.4 billion. During 1971 and 1972 they bought 1,100 main battle tanks, 700 antitank weapons, and 400 modern combat aircraft, as well as other equipment. This has been an impressive response in a period of rising costs and of growing demands of domestic programs. Sharing the Defense Burden. Improvements in European forces are the most important aspect of sharing the defense burden. As almost all European defense expenditures are directly related to NATO, increased European effort means in practice that the U.S. share is less. This is an appropriate solution, since the United States maintains forces to meet global commitments and therefore devotes a much higher share of its economic product to defense than do the Europeans.
There is another aspect of the defense burden, however, that has not been satisfactorily resolved. Our position is unique in that our deployments in Europe add significantly to our general balance of payments deficit. In 1972 the United States spent about $2.1 billion in other NATO countries to support our NATO deployments. Allowing for NATO military spending in the United States, mainly for equipment and training, our net military deficit was about $1.5 billion. This net deficit has risen since 1970 and for a variety of reasons, including the devaluation of the dollar, will continue to rise.
In previous years, the Federal Republic of Germany offset a large part of this deficit, primarily by purchases of military equipment in the United States. In the current agreement for 1972-73, the German government also contributed to the costs of rehabilitating the barracks for U.S. forces in Germany.
Nevertheless, the Alliance as a whole should examine this problem. As a general principle, we should move toward a lasting solution under which balance of payments consequences from stationing U.S. forces in Europe will not be substantially different from those of maintaining the same forces in the United States. It is reasonable to expect the Alliance to examine this problem this year. Eliminating the periodic requirement to renegotiate a temporary arrangement with only one ally would strengthen the solidarity of the Alliance as a whole.
The Role of United States Forces. The efforts undertaken by our allies since 1970 are the basis for my pledge to maintain our NATO commitments. At the NATO Council meeting last December, I reaffirmed my position:
"In light of the present strategic balance and of similar efforts by our allies, we will not only maintain but improve our forces in Europe and will not reduce them unless there is reciprocal action by our adversaries."
This pledge rests on a fundamental view, as valid today as it has been since World War II, that the security of Western Europe is inseparable from our own.
The conditions of this decade require the United States to maintain substantial forces in Europe. In conditions of near strategic parity, a strong capability to defend with non-nuclear forces becomes increasingly important; the United States contributes about one-quarter of NATO's forces in Europe's vital central region, though our allies' proportionate share of forces in the entire European NATO area is far higher.
The balance of conventional forces in the center of Europe would be seriously upset by the unilateral withdrawal of a substantial number of U.S. forces. Unless our reductions were completely replaced by European forces, deterrence would be weakened. In the event of hostilities, a weaker conventional defense could confront the Alliance with the choice of either capitulating or using nuclear weapons immediately.
Defense cooperation within Europe may be a long-term alternative to the American troop contribution. But the prerequisite for such an alternative is a far greater degree of European political unity. Yet even if such unity develops, it is unlikely that the Europeans alone could maintain a strategic balance against the enormous nuclear power of the Soviet Union.
In short, disengaging our forces would risk serious instability in Europe, the consequences of greatly enhanced Soviet influence, and the dangerous implications ,of a greater reliance on nuclear weapons. If, on the other hand, we and our allies maintain our strength, we can contribute to political stability, reduce the likelihood of war, and conduct a credible diplomacy to negotiate a mutual reduction of forces.
We cannot enter serious negotiations if, at the outset, we or our allies allow our positions to weaken. I intend to maintain an effective American military contribution to the alliance and to pursue negotiations for a mutual force reduction that will create a viable balance in which the incentives for attack are effectively eliminated.
Unfinished Tasks. In the past four years the Alliance has diagnosed some fundamental weaknesses and agreed on remedies. In 1971 and 1972 we embarked on a concerted effort to improve our forces. The immediate and, in many ways, the most urgent problem has been faced. We are now in a position to examine more systematically some of the longer-term issues:
--In the later 1970's, all allies will face the enormous expense of maintaining more sophisticated equipment, paying larger costs for personnel, and maintaining a high degree of combat readiness while national conscription may be eliminated or the terms of service reduced.
--In these circumstances, it is essential to define more precisely what we mean by an adequate NATO defense. Specifically, what do we mean by forward defense? Should we plan for maximum effort during some initial period of combat? Should we plan for a sustained effort over a longer period? If so, for what purpose? Can we maintain the logistical support for a sustained defense?
--If we can maintain the high level of conventional defense that is our goal, we still must examine our nuclear doctrines. When, in what way, and for what objective should we use tactical nuclear weapons? How do independent national nuclear forces affect Alliance decisions? Do we require different institutions to examine such overriding issues within the Alliance?
--What is the relationship between existing and planned defense programs and the diplomatic effort to reduce forces?
The answers to these questions are vital to Alliance policy in the 1970's. They require urgent but careful consideration. The United States believes that a strong conventional defense is essential to credible deterrence and that the Alliance must also possess a credible nuclear deterrent. But in the strategic conditions of this decade these issues must be reexamined, and the contribution of each ally determined for the long term.
In particular, the prospect of mutual and balanced force reductions in Central Europe raises some immediate questions for the Alliance. Mutual force reductions are first of all a military problem; specific reductions must be measured against their effect on our defense capabilities. We therefore need a common security concept within which we can contemplate some reductions. If we justify force reductions as part of a political accommodation, or as a means to promote detente, the Alliance will be involved in endless debate over what level of reductions will produce what degree of political relaxation. In such a debate, it would be almost impossible to find an answer that would satisfy everyone and that would not undermine security.
Our objective should be to create a military balance that is more viable because it deals with the concerns of both sides and is seen by all to be in the common interest. We want a greater degree of stability, in which neither side gains an advantage because of lower force levels.
The Alliance should thus proceed on three parallel courses: first, to continue the effort to bring our forces to the level and quality required by the doctrine of flexible response; second, to review the strategic options involved in conducting a nuclear defense if necessary; and third, to prepare within the Alliance a military political framework that integrates defense planning with the diplomacy of negotiating mutual and balanced force reductions.
Alliance Diplomacy. Through most of the 1960'S, the problem of reconciling allied unity with national diplomacy was not critical. East-West relations were virtually frozen. Confrontation required less in the way of creative initiative, but put a premium on allied unity.
This broad cohesion and strength of the Alliance contributed to the changing international conditions that in turn offered a new opportunity for Alliance diplomacy in 1969. But important political problems also emerged.
--International diplomacy is still conducted by nation states. The European members of NATO have regional security interests, which they must accord priority, and each ally has a national stake in European security. Increasingly in recent years, however, individual European states have pursued their bilateral relations with the Soviet Union as well as with other members of the Warsaw Pact.
--The United States has vital interests outside of Europe, and must deal bilaterally with the Soviet Union on strategic matters and on many global issues. Each member of NATO, however, has an interest in, and is affected by, the development of U.S.-Soviet relations; our allies wish to influence our relations with the Soviet Union to strengthen their own security. At times our allies have urged the United States to be more flexible in approaches to the Soviet Union; in other periods, they have criticized us for moving too fast or too far in relations with Moscow.
In 1969, the NATO allies were persuaded that new initiatives were required but, in the wake of the invasion of Czechoslovakia, were uncertain whether to renew contacts with the East. Some allies regarded a European Security Conference as a possible starting point; others urged negotiations on force reductions. The United States was preparing for strategic arms limitation talks. Unless we would agree on a common strategy, no substantial progress could be expected that did not strain our unity. Accordingly, in April 1969, I urged the Alliance to revive the process of close consultations and committed the United States to continuing Alliance review of SALT. Consultations would address certain general tasks.
First, we needed to identify the specific sources of tensions that might be resolved.
Second, we had to agree on how to manage the priorities and interrelationship among major issues: those of primary concern to one country, for example West Germany's Eastern policy; those of regional concern, such as mutual force reductions and a European security conference; and those of international concern, such as SALT.
Third, we had to recognize that issues would be dealt with by different countries in different forums. Such diversity required an essential harmonization of purposes as well as a degree of national autonomy.
Initial Progress. The United States urged that the Alliance take the initiative in proposing negotiations on Berlin as an essential first step. Berlin was a natural starting point for several reasons. It was a source of recurrent confrontations. If the Soviet Union chose, it could continue exploiting the vulnerability of West Berlin's access routes across East Germany to exert pressure against West Germany and the three Western Powers. On the other hand, there was no objective reason why the Soviet Union could not permit practical improvements in travel to Berlin if, as it claimed, it had a serious interest in a relaxation of European tensions. If we could not resolve this one specific issue, there was little prospect of resolving broader security questions.
Thus, the negotiations over Berlin were an initial opportunity to explore whether East-West relations could move away from the rigidities of the Cold War. Moreover, the Federal Republic of Germany had embarked on an Eastern policy to normalize its relations with the Soviet Union. Ultimately, the Federal Republic's ratification of its August 1970 treaty with the Soviet Union became dependent on the success of the Berlin negotiations being conducted by the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and the Soviet Union.
In September 1971, the first part of a Berlin agreement was reached. Unimpeded access between West Germany and West Berlin was guaranteed by the Soviet Union, without affecting the rights and responsibilities of the three Western powers in Berlin. The agreement provided for subsequent negotiations between the Federal Republic, the West Berlin government, and East Germany over the modalities of access to Berlin and travel from West Berlin to East Berlin and East Germany. During my meeting with the Soviet leaders in May 1972, it was agreed that the final Protocol, bringing all parts of the Berlin agreements into effect, would be signed on June 3, 1972. The West German government, following parliamentary approval of the treaties with the Soviet Union and Poland, proceeded to bring them into force, opening the way for it to negotiate a general treaty regulating relations with East Germany.
These past four years have been a period of active European and international diplomacy. In addition to the Berlin agreement and the German treaties, France agreed on a set of principles for political consultations with the Soviet Union. Canada agreed on a somewhat similar arrangement during Premier Kosygin's visit. West Germany and Italy negotiated long-term economic agreements with the Soviet Union. There have been several summit meetings between Soviet and West European leaders. And the United States agreed with the Soviet Union on strategic arms limitations, measures of bilateral cooperation, and some basic principles governing our relations.
In sum, the allies have intensified their national diplomacy within a framework of unity. But the very success of the past four years has created some new problems. Each of the European countries will want to continue the development of its own bilateral economic and political relations with the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. The United States also wishes to pursue the favorable trends that have developed in our relations with the Soviet Union. Each of our allies naturally wants a major voice in negotiations affecting Europe as a whole, and in those aspects of Soviet-American relations that affect international stability.
Two specific issues will test the ability of the Western coalition to reconcile its unity with its diversity: the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe and the negotiations on mutual and balanced force reductions.
The Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe. In March 1969, the Warsaw Pact revived its proposal to convene a European Security Conference. Such a conference would be largely symbolic; its purpose would be to confirm the territorial and political status quo in Europe. There was some feeling in the West that this proposal should be accepted; it was thought that it might be a way to dissipate the tensions over the invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968 and to test Soviet policy. Some viewed it as a way of creating a better atmosphere for subsequent talks, while others saw it as a link to more specific issues, such as force reductions.
We were skeptical about symbolic acts that failed to deal with the substance of East-West tensions. The urgent issues of European security were the tensions over Berlin and Germany and the military confrontation in Central Europe. We could not hand over our responsibilities in Berlin to a European conference. If we could not make progress on a central issue such as Berlin, the results of a broad conference would be illusory. To stimulate an atmosphere of detente through symbolic gestures could only lead to disillusionment and insecurity.
The United States, therefore, took the position that a European conference would only be acceptable if there was progress on specific issues, including the Berlin negotiations. A conference might be appropriate if individual countries succeeded in regulating their relations and resolving some of their territorial and political issues.
This was accomplished by West Germany's treaties with the Soviet Union and Poland, the Quadripartite Agreement on Berlin, and the SALT agreements. At my summit meeting with the Soviet leaders in May 1972, I agreed that we now could begin preparing for a European Conference with the aim of broadening European cooperation.
Preparatory talks began last November to find out whether there was sufficient common ground to justify a conference of Foreign Ministers. A provisional agenda is being developed, which the Foreign Ministers could consider. Progress thus far suggests that the conference can be convened this year and that it may be possible to move forward on several important questions.
--The participants will address certain principles of security and cooperation. If all European countries subscribe to common principles of conduct, and carry them out in practice, there could be a further relaxation of tensions. Certain military security matters designed to improve confidence will also be considered.
--The conference would be an appropriate forum to discuss practical cooperation in economics, cultural exchange, science, and technology, on which there has already been progress in bilateral relations.
--The conference can consider how to facilitate contacts among the peoples of Europe and how to encourage countries to exchange ideas and information.
The Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe thus can set a new tone for European relations and establish new modes of conduct and means of cooperation. These would be practical steps toward normal relations.
Mutual and Balanced Force Reductions. The exchanges leading up to the conference also acted as a bridge to negotiations on a more specific and central security issue--mutual and balanced force reductions in Central Europe. The prospects for arms control in Europe are obviously linked to political improvements between East and West. Throughout the 1950's and 1960's there were proposals for arms control in Europe. But it was unrealistic to expect to negotiate a reduction of forces--for example, in Germany, where there were almost continuous crises over Berlin. Moreover, the reduction of military forces in Central Europe was related to the strategic balance between the United States and Soviet Union and to the political situation within the Warsaw Pact.
For these reasons, the NATO proposals of June 1968 to begin negotiations on force reductions were received coolly by the Warsaw Pact. Not until the Berlin and SALT agreements were concluded in 1972 was it possible to work out a sequence for beginning negotiations in separate forums on a Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe and on mutual and balanced force reductions.
The initial talks on mutual and balanced force reductions, now underway in Vienna, will lay the groundwork for more formal negotiations next fall. The military and arms control aspects of force reductions are treated in other sections of this Report. Certain points that affect Atlantic political unity should be summarized.
Perhaps more than any other single issue, the problem of force reductions crystalizes the basic issue of reconciling Alliance unity and national diversity. We will need an unprecedented degree of unity on fundamental military and political security questions. The outcome of the negotiations will affect the entire Alliance, regardless of who sits at the table or which forces are reduced. Indeed, the very process of negotiating will test our common purposes.
Each member brings to this issue strongly held national viewpoints. We must avoid efforts to protect national interests by procedural devices or tactical solutions. That approach would merely defer or avoid the hard questions. Ultimately it will be disruptive and open the Alliance to exploitation by the other side.
Our goal must be agreement on basic security principles. We must meet individual national concerns within a common concept of security, and forthrightly address the question of how to maintain our security at reduced force levels. The issues are highly sensitive, and Alliance discussions will be painstaking and difficult.
The United States is engaged in the most serious consultations with our allies to prepare for negotiations later this year. Force reductions in Central Europe are, of course, an element of the complex of U.S.-Soviet relations. The U.S. and Soviet forces are comparable in that they are not indigenous to Central Europe and might be candidates for reduction.
The United States will not subordinate the security of the Alliance to Soviet-American relations. We are aware of European concerns in this regard. Repeated American reassurances, however, have not alleviated these concerns. Mutual confidence within the Alliance will develop only through an agreement on the basic security framework for the negotiations.
RELATIONS WITH EASTERN EUROPE
The improvement in our relations with the Soviet Union during 1972 has created a better atmosphere for our relations with the countries of Eastern Europe. But we do not regard our relations with any East European countries as a function of our relations with Moscow. We reject the idea of special rights or advantages for outside powers in the region. We welcomed and responded to opportunities to develop our relations with the East European countries long before the Moscow Summit. And we shall continue to seek ways to expand our economic, scientific, technological, and cultural contacts with them. Mutual benefit and reciprocity are governing principles.
As the postwar rigidity between Eastern and Western Europe eases, peoples in both areas expect to see the benefits of relaxation in their daily lives. These aspirations are fully justified. An era of cooperation in Europe should produce a variety of new relationships not just between governments but between organizations, institutions, business firms, and people in all walks of life. If peace in Europe is to be durable, its foundation must be broad.
My visits to Romania in 1969, Yugoslavia in 1970, and Poland in 1972 were designed to help open the door to these broader relationships.
During my visit to Warsaw last June, I agreed with the Polish leaders to increased U.S.-Polish trade and exchanges in science, technology, culture, tourism, and transportation. A joint American-Polish trade commission has been established. After our governments had reciprocally agreed to export financing arrangements, I determined that Export-Import Bank credits should be made available for transactions with Poland. Other agreements to facilitate trade, increase exchanges in science and technology, and improve consular facilities also have been signed.
Secretary of State Rogers' visit in July to Yugoslavia reaffirmed our long-standing and cordial relationship with that important nonaligned country. Its independence, political stability, and economic well-being are key factors for continuing peace in Europe.
Romania's desire for close and mutually beneficial relations has led during the past three years to practical cooperation and to helpful consultations, including my visit to Bucharest and President Ceausescu's trip to Washington. Last year we approved the extending of guarantees to private investment in Romania, and I continue to hope that the Congress will provide authority to extend Most Favored Nation tariff treatment to that country. In December we signed the most comprehensive cultural and scientific exchange agreement in the history of our relations with Romania.
Last summer Secretary Rogers signed consular conventions with both Romania and Hungary. His visit to Budapest and the subsequent settlement of the long-standing United States claims against Hungary have improved prospects for more normal relations.
We remain ready to establish constructive relationships on a reciprocal basis with all countries in Eastern Europe. Differences in social, economic, and political systems exist, and must be acknowledged frankly. But they will not bar our cooperation with any country that seeks it.
THE OUTLOOK
In 1972, the face of world politics changed dramatically. But one constant factor in this changing pattern has been the close relationship among the Atlantic allies. It has been true, however, that as the relaxation of East-West tensions became more pronounced, some of our allies questioned whether the United States would remain committed to Europe or would instead pursue a new balance of power in which the older alignments would be diluted and distinctions between allies and adversaries would disappear. Apprehensions may be inevitable in a period of great international change after a long period of confrontation. As relations between adversaries are ameliorated, those not directly involved tend to worry that their own interests are somehow subordinate to new relationships.
But the United States will never compromise the security of Europe or the interests of our allies. The best reassurance of our unity, however, lies not in verbal pledges but in the knowledge of agreed purposes and common policies. For almost a decade the Alliance has debated questions of defense and detente--some urging one course, others a different priority. Now the debates should end. We must close ranks and chart our course together for the decade ahead. There is an obvious agenda for Alliance action.
--The United States supports European unity, as we always have. But now we need to define together the basis of cooperative economic relations between the United States and the European Community in this decade. To do this, we need a new affirmation of our common goals, to give political direction to our economic negotiations and promote cooperative solutions.
--The United States will maintain its forces in Europe. We will not withdraw unilaterally. But together we need to agree on our common defense requirements and on the contributions each ally and the Alliance collectively must make to preserve our security in new conditions.
--We need a concerted strategy for dealing with security and diplomatic issues of common concern, in whatever forum these are pursued.
--In the 1970's we face new common issues, such as ensuring the supply of energy resources for industrialized nations. This must be a new area of our cooperation.
1973 is the year of Europe because of the historic opportunities we face together. The United States, Canada, and Western Europe have a decisive contribution to make to a healthy world economy and to a new peaceful international order. These are new creative tasks for our partnership.
JAPAN
Today we see a new Japan. Her emergence is one of the most striking new features of the international landscape of the 1970's and one of the most dramatic transformations since the period following the Second World War. To speak of Japan's phenomenal economic performance has long been commonplace. Less noted, more recent--and of fundamental importance-is the impact of this power on the international political order. This is a challenge for Japanese policy, for American policy, and for the alliance that binds us together.
--In the economic dimension, Japan is a superpower. By 1968 she was the world's third greatest industrial nation, and she may become the second greatest within a decade's time. Her rate of real growth annually in the 1960's was 11.3 percent, the fastest of any industrial nation. She impacts upon the world as a trading power of enormous strength: over the period 1968-1971 her exports grew faster than 20 percent per year. In 1971, she ran an extraordinary trade surplus of $4.1 billion with the United States, $1 billion with the European Community, and $9 billion with the world as a whole. A chronic imbalance of such a scale could not fail to have implications for the stability and equity of the international economic system.
--In her foreign economic policy, while not in her diplomacy and security policy, Japan began as early as the mid-1950's to move out independently. Her economic assistance to the developing world is second only to that of the United States, and more than a third of it is in the form of credits tied to Japanese exports. Japan has long had trade relations with the major Communist powers. Unofficial Japanese trading relationships existed with the People's Republic of China as early as 1952, and Japan had an unofficial trade office in Peking by 1964; by 1971, when American trade with the People's Republic was still negligible, Sino-Japanese trade was $900 million. Japan signed a Treaty of Commerce and Navigation with the Soviet Union in 1957, which has been the basis for a series of subsequent trade agreements; in recent years they have begun cooperation in the development of Siberian resources--an economic relationship of great potential. While the United States held back from East-West trade, Japan staked out for herself a role in bridging the gap between East and West with her economic ties.
--It was inevitable that these economic relations would develop into political ties, particularly in the new atmosphere of detente. Japan has moved actively in this direction in the past two years. Prime Minister Tanaka's historic visit to Peking in September 1972 led to the establishment of full diplomatic relations, again putting formal Sino-Japanese ties at a more advanced stage than Sino-American relations, while she still maintains her extensive economic ties with Taiwan. Japan and the Soviet Union reopened discussions in 1972 of a possible final peace treaty and territorial settlement, in the interest of normalization of their political relations. Prime Minister Tanaka will shortly match his visit to Peking with a visit to Moscow. Japan has now moved out in many directions into the arena of complex geopolitical relationships among the major powers.
--Japan has accelerated and broadened her political involvement in Asia in particular. She extended recognition • to Mongolia and Bangladesh in advance of the United States, as did a number of other nations. She has taken a special interest in the security and diplomacy of the Korean peninsula, and in postwar reconstruction in Indochina, opening in the process a dialogue with North Vietnam. She takes a greater part today in regional institutions. Asia is the focus of her economic assistance to the developing world. It is an active diplomacy of Asian involvement, after a generation.
--Japan has now come into increasing interchange with the world beyond Asia and the Pacific, both as a participant and as a competitor. The CommuniquпїЅs of my summit meetings with Prime Ministers Sato and Tanaka reflected our review of global problems, including arms control and East-West diplomacy. Japan's economic expansion has brought her increasingly into the markets of Europe and Latin America. Her political contacts with Europe are steadily expanding; in September, for example, Prime Minister Heath became the first British Prime Minister to visit Japan, and Prime Minister Tanaka plans a return visit this fall. Japan's dependence on Middle East oil has given her a special interest in the energy problem. Her participation in United Nations diplomacy has grown more active, and she has shown interest in claiming a permanent seat on the Security Council as a major power.
--In the security field, Japan has for years relied on her Treaty with the United States and on the American nuclear deterrent, which freed resources and energies that would otherwise have been required for defense. But she has steadily improved her own conventional defenses, emphasizing modernization rather than size, upgrading her forces in firepower, mobility, and anti-submarine warfare and air defense capability. Her Fourth Defense Plan, f, or 1972-1976, doubles the expenditure of her Third Plan. This still represents less than one percent annually of her Gross National Product, while this Gross National Product has been growing at over ten percent a year. With the reversion of Okinawa, Japanese forces have now moved southward to take over its defense. These are important steps toward self-reliance and improved capacity for conventional defense of all Japanese territory. This was an inevitable evolution.
There was no way that Japan and Japan's role in the world could go unaffected by the profound transformation of the international order over the last 25 years. All our alliances have been affected. The recovery and rejuvenation of allies has eroded the rigid bipolar system and given all our allies greater room for independent action. The easing of the Cold War military confrontation has brought other aspects of power--economic, in' particular--to the forefront of the international political stage. U.S. military protection no longer suffices as the principal rationale for close partnership and cooperation. In every allied country, leadership has begun to pass to a new generation eager to assert a new national identity at home and abroad.
Japan's emergence is a political fact of enormous importance. Japan is now a major factor in the international system, and her conduct is a major determinant of its stability.
As I have indicated in each ,of my previous Foreign Policy Reports, I have been concerned since the beginning of this Administration that our alliance relations with Japan had to keep in step with these new conditions. We are faced with new responsibilities toward each other and toward the world. We are challenged to respond to this evolution creatively and together, to keep our alliance on a firm basis in a new era.
For the U.S.-Japanese alliance remains central to the foreign policies of both countries. We are two major powers of the free world, interdependent to an extraordinary degree for our prosperity and our security. The United States therefore places the highest possible value upon this partnership, as it has for more than two decades.
In this year of new commitment to strengthening our ties with Western Europe, I am determined no less to strengthen our alliance with Japan.
OUR ALLIANCE AND ITS EVOLUTION
In 1969, when I came into office, the challenge of new conditions presented itself concretely in the issue of Okinawa. For 25 years since the war, the United States had retained the administrative rights to Okinawa to protect military installations there which were, and still are, vitally important to the defense of East and Southeast Asia. By the mid-1960's, however, the Japanese had come to feel strongly that our continued administration of Okinawa was inconsistent with Japan's national dignity and sovereignty. We risked a crisis in our relations if we did not respond.
Therefore, I made the basic choice: our long-term relationship with Japan was clearly our fundamental interest. Accordingly, at my summit meeting with Prime Minister Sato in November 1969, we announced our agreement on the reversion of Okinawa to Japanese administration by 1972. The United States could continue to use such facilities there as the two countries agreed were required for mutual security, but subject to the same terms as facilities elsewhere in Japan. At the same time, in the communiquпїЅ of that summit meeting, Japan and the United States declared more explicitly than ever before our joint commitment to active cooperation in diplomacy and security in the Far East, and in economic relations bilaterally and worldwide.
Thus in 1969 the United States acknowledged the new Japan. Our two governments addressed an outstanding problem, treated it as a common problem, and solved it. We reaffirmed our essential unity of purpose. In 1970, when the Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security became technically subject to review, neither government raised any doubt about its continuing validity and importance.
But the adjustment we made in 1969 proved to be only the beginning of a complex process of transition in our relations.
For twenty years we had achieved common policies in the areas of East-West diplomacy, economics, and mutual security with relative ease. It is clear today that this was in part the product of unique conditions in the postwar period that are no longer with us. An adjustment in all our alliance relationships was inevitable. Today, the harmony of our policies is far from automatic. We and all our allies have a heavy responsibility to proceed from an understanding of both the positive and the negative possibilities of our independent action.
It was also inevitable that this transition into a new political environment would pose a particular challenge for Japan.
The character of our alliance had been shaped in the period of Japanese dependence. Defeat in war had shattered her economy, political system, and national confidence. Occupation, the Cold War, and Japan's own renunciation of offensive military capability put her in the position of almost total reliance on our military protection. Japan accepted American leadership and only gradually came to take part in international diplomacy.
This was not an uncomfortable arrangement then for either the United States or Japan. The United States in the postwar period assumed the role and bore the responsibilities which our preponderant power gave us. We acted as the protector and champion of a network of' alliances locked in rigid confrontation with the Communist world--as the leader, senior partner, and chief actor. Japan found this arrangement consistent with her own objectives--not only in the conditions of her postwar weakness but even for a time as she recovered her political and economic vitality. By geography and history, unlike most of our European allies, Japan was a late-comer to global multilateral diplomacy. Even in the twentieth century, her focus has been in the Pacific. The conditions she faced after World War II inevitably caused her to gear her policy and policy making structure to the needs of economic recovery and expansion.
By the time I came into office, an alliance relationship of this character-which was suited to postwar conditions and had served us both well--needed adjustment.
Japan's resurgence from a recipient of American aid into a major economic power and competitor was bound to affect the external political framework which had helped make it possible. In her dealings with the United States, in particular, Japan no longer needed or could afford an almost exclusive concentration on her economic advancement or a habit of acting as a junior partner. She still enjoyed the special advantage that her reliance on the United States for her security freed resources for her economic expansion. The political relationships which continued to safeguard her would require greater reciprocity in her economic relations.
Moreover, Japan was no longer just a regional Pacific power dependent on the United States in the broader diplomatic field. Europe, Asia, North and South America, and Africa were now part of one vast arena of multilateral diplomacy in which Japan was a major factor. Japan was already acting autonomously in an expanding sphere. Her power now brought her new responsibilities. The weight of her economic involvement in the world--her stake in the free world's economic system, her extensive aid programs, and her growing economic ties with Communist powers--would require that she make her decisions on broader policy grounds than economic calculations. We and Japan, as allies, would have to face up to the problem of keeping our independent policies directed at common objectives.
These are the fundamental developments I have sought to address over the last four years. I have sought to adapt our partnership to these transformed conditions of greater equality and multipolar diplomacy. My three meetings with Japanese Prime Ministers, my decision on Okinawa, our discussions of new cooperation in the Far East and in bilateral and multilateral economic areas, and our policies toward China--were all part of this.
The intimacy of the postwar U.S.-Japanese alliance, however, inevitably gave Japan a special sensitivity to the evolution of United States foreign policy. We thus found the paradox that Japan seemed to feel that her reliance on us should limit change or initiatives in American policy, even while she was actively seeking new directions in many dimensions of her own policy. But our abandoning our paternalistic style of alliance leadership meant not that we were casting Japan or any ally adrift, but that we took our allies more seriously, as full partners. Our recognizing the new multipolarity of the world meant not a loss of interest in our alliances, but the contrary--an acknowledgement of the new importance of our allies. American initiatives, such as in China policy or economic policy, were not directed against Japan, but were taken in a common interest or in a much broader context--and in some cases in response to Japanese policies.
The underlying basis of our unity endured. The very centrality of the alliance in Japanese policy was at the heart of the problem. But Japan had to face the implications of her new independence and strength just as the United States was seeking to do. And until this psychological adjustment was fully made by both sides, anomalies in our relations were bound to persist.
This is the background to the events of the past two years and the current public issues facing the U.S.-Japanese alliance.
THE ISSUES ON OUR COMMON AGENDA
The Economic Dimension. The most urgent issue in U.S.-Japanese relations today is economic--the enormous imbalance in our bilateral trade. We must reduce this imbalance to manageable size in the earliest possible time frame.
As Prime Minister Tanaka has recognized, this is not merely an American problem; it is also a Japanese problem. This is not only because persistent disputes over these economic issues threaten to disrupt the political relations that hold our alliance together; the imbalance is a threat to a stable international system in which Japan herself has a major stake. In 1972, Japan's trade was in surplus with all the major industrial nations of the world. As long as the United States remains the largest single factor in international trade and the dollar is still the principal factor in the monetary structure, the disequilibrium of the American position, in particular, is a chronic problem of the world system. The United States therefore seeks cooperative solutions, bilaterally and multilaterally, to build a new stable and open system of world monetary and trade relations.
The responsibility that falls on Japan as the free world nation with the strongest trading position is necessarily heavy.
The challenge to leadership on all sides is to give firm political direction to our economic relations because of the broader objectives that are at stake. Organizationally, on all sides, there is a tendency for actions to be taken or policies to be established from the viewpoint of a purely economic national interest or under pressure from particular domestic economic interests. This has only resulted in destabilizing both our economic and our political relations, and we can no longer afford it.
The U.S.-Japanese bilateral economic relationship is at the heart of the issue. It is extraordinary in its scale, importance, and interdependence. The Gross National Product of the United States and Japan together is 40 percent of the total Gross National Product of the world. Trade between us totalled $12.5 billion in 1972. Japan is our most important trading partner in the world aside from Canada. Our economic policies, internal and global, necessarily affect each other bilaterally to a profound degree.
On August 15, 1971, the United States took a number of unilateral economic steps which inevitably had a particular impact on Japan. They were emergency measures, forced upon us by a monetary crisis; their focus was on putting our own house in order and in setting the stage for international reform. The measures which applied to our external relations were nondiscriminatory, affecting all our trading partners. The resolution of the crisis could only be achieved multilaterally, by cooperation among all the major economic nations, as was accomplished at the Smithsonian in December 1971. Coming a month after the China announcement, however, these measures intensified the fears of many on both sides of the Pacific that our relations with Japan were in danger. Unlike the case of China policy, where the divergence of interest between the United States and Japan was largely illusory, the strain in our economic relations was clearly real. It was a deep-seated and growing difficulty to which the United States had long been calling attention. The economic events of August 1971 had the salutary effect of finally bringing attention to this problem and bringing political urgency to its solution.
Japan's trade surplus with the United States reflects to a certain extent the competitiveness and productivity of the Japanese economy, as well as the slowness of American exporters to exploit potential markets in Japan. But to a significant degree it has been promoted by anachronistic exchange rates and an elaborate Japanese system of government assistance, complex pricing policies, and restrictions on imports and foreign investment in Japan--vestiges of an earlier period when Japan was still struggling to become competitive with the West. Japan's interest in protecting weaker sectors in her home market is now no different from that of every other nation. The requirement today is a fair system of mutual access to expand trade in a balanced way in both directions. Continued cooperation in dealing with this problem positively is crucial to the ability to fend off growing protectionist pressures and to ensure that the United States is able to address the issues of international trade positively as well. This is a political imperative for both sides.
We believe we have made some progress in the past year.
In January 1972 we concluded an agreement moderating the growth of Japanese synthetic textiles sales in the U.S. market, mitigating what had become a major irritant. Voluntary quota arrangements have been reached governing steel. Last July, in preparation for my summit meeting with Prime Minister Tanaka, high-level bilateral negotiations at Hakone, Japan, produced important measures of liberalization of access to the Japanese market and commitments to increase Japanese purchases of agricultural products, civil aircraft, uranium enrichment services, and military items from the United States. At our meeting in Hawaii, Prime Minister Tanaka committed his government to promote imports from the United States and to reduce the imbalance to a more manageable size. The Japanese Government has publicly pledged to reduce Japan's global surplus in foreign trade and other current transactions to one percent of Japan's Gross National Product in two or three years. A further step was taken at the end of April 1973 to liberalize restrictions on foreign investment in Japan.
Two major currency revaluations have raised the value of the yen by over 35 percent with respect to the dollar, and there are indications that these are beginning to have an effect on our trade. For the future there is interest on both sides of the Pacific in creating regular mechanisms of monitoring and adjustment, to anticipate trade imbalances in particular sectors and head them off before they generate protectionist pressures and political crises. This is a constructive approach, and we should pursue it.
The United States can only place the highest importance on the carrying out of these policies.
The problem, of course, is an international one. The multilateral realignments of currencies in December 1971 and February 1973 were important steps toward a solution, and Japan's participation in these was constructive and crucial. But the basic problem is structural, and the solution is a thoroughgoing multilateral reform of the system. Japan's active contribution to this process is indispensable, because no system is achievable or workable unless the most powerful economic nations are engaged in it and help actively to make it work.
It is no accident that the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty commits our two nations to "seek to eliminate conflict in their international economic policies and . . . encourage economic collaboration between them." Without conscious effort of political will, our economic disputes could tear the fabric of our alliance.
Japan's New Diplomacy. As Japan today moves out in many directions over the terrain of multipolar diplomacy, it will be another test of statesmanship on both sides to ensure that our policies are not divergent. Japan's foreign policy will continue to be shaped by her unique perspectives, purposes, and style. Japan has interests of her own, of which she herself will be the ultimate judge. Our foreign policies will not be identical or inevitably in step. What will preserve our alliance in the new era is not rigidity of policy but a continuing consciousness of the basic interest in stability which we have in common. We must work to maintain a consensus in our policies.
Our respective approaches toward China in 1972 reflected the opportunities and complexities we face, as allies, in the common endeavor of reducing tensions with adversaries.
Japan had for many years been developing economic and cultural contacts with the People's Republic of China when the United States had virtually none. Geography, culture, history, and trade potential have always made China a powerful natural attraction for Japan. Some Japanese criticized the United States for the mutual isolation between the United States and the People's Republic of China, and offered Japan as a natural bridge between the two countries. Today, Japan has full diplomatic relations with the People's Republic, while the United States has not, and Japan's trade with China continues to exceed our own by a wide margin.
I have never believed, however, that American and Japanese interests in our China policies were in conflict.
On July 15, 1971, when I announced my forthcoming visit to Peking, Japan-because of her special closeness to the United States--feared that our independent action foreshadowed a divergence or conflict with Japan's interest, or a loss of American interest in the U.S.-Japanese alliance. It is obvious now that our China policy involved no inconsistency with our Japan policy. As I explained in last year's Report, I made a conscious decision to preserve the secrecy of Dr. Kissinger's exploratory trip to Peking until its outcome was clear. It was then announced immediately, and the announcement was followed up by a process of intensive substantive consultation with Japan, culminating in my meeting with Prime Minister Sato in San Clemente in January 1972, in advance of my Peking trip. Prime Minister Sato and I found that we were in substantial agreement on the major issues of peace in the Far East; the lessening of tensions in Asia was the goal both allies sought. There was no diminution of our overriding commitment to our alliance.
In Peking a month later, when the People's Republic of China expressed its reservations about the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty and its fears of so-called Japanese "militarism," the United States declared categorically in the Shanghai CommuniquпїЅ itself that "the United States places the highest value on its friendly relations with Japan" and "will continue to develop the existing close bonds."
At my summit meeting in Hawaii with Japan's new Prime Minister, Kakuei Tanaka, we addressed our common diplomacy as well as our economic problems. We discussed global issues, Asian issues, and bilateral issues, and strongly reaffirmed the commitment of both countries to our political alliance. It was quickly evident that our China policies, while not identical, were still in basic harmony. Prime Minister Tanaka's own historic journey to Peking was proof of this. Overcoming a legacy of bitterness and mistrust far deeper than that between the United States and the People's Republic of China, these two great Asian nations pledged themselves to the same goals as the Shanghai CommuniquпїЅ, and went beyond it to the establishment of full diplomatic relations.
Thus, there is no inconsistency in principle between our alliance and the new hopeful prospects of relaxation of tension multilaterally. No third country need fear our alliance. Neither Japan nor the United States need fear that our unity precludes a broader community of normalized relations, or independent approaches.
In the years ahead, the kind of close consultation between the United States and Japan which accompanied our respective Peking Summits in 1972 will be critically important to all our diplomatic endeavors. More than our alliance is at stake. Japan has always been conscious of the external global framework within which she was pursuing her own objectives. What is new in the 1970's is her sharing in increased responsibility for it. This responsibility is now implied inescapably in her economic power and her engagement in many directions in global diplomacy.
The complexity of today's geopolitical environment, even in the Asian context alone, is a challenge to a nation of Japan's energy and national spirit undertaking a more active political role. Japan now has the obligations of a major power-restraint, reciprocity, reliability, and sensitivity to her overriding interest in a stable pattern of global relationships.
Today's multilateralism does not diminish the importance of the U.S.-Japanese alliance. On the contrary, our alliance, which has ensured stability in Asia for 20 years, still does, and serves an essential mutual interest in the new conditions. Secured by her alliance with the United States, Japan can engage herself economically and diplomatically in many directions independently, without fearing for her security or being feared by others. It provides a stable framework for the evolution of Japanese policy. This is a general interest.
The U.S.-Japanese alliance in the new era is thus presented with the same challenge as the Atlantic Alliance. We cannot conduct our individual policies on the basis of self-interest alone, taking our alliance for granted. We have an obligation not to allow our short-term policies to jeopardize our long-term unity, or to allow competitive objectives to threaten the common goals of our political association.
CHALLENGES FOR THE FUTURE
Mature countries do not expect to avoid disputes or conflicts of interest. A mature alliance relationship, however, means facing up to them on the basis of mutuality. It means seriously addressing the underlying causes, not the superficial public events. We are now moving in this direction. We must carry it forward.
This means certain obligations on both sides.
In the economic area, the most urgent and divisive area, we both have an obligation to address and solve the common problem of our trade imbalance. We have a responsibility to the international system to normalize the bilateral economic relationship that bulks so large in the international economy. We have an obligation to keep the specific commitments made to each other. We have an opportunity to explore positive approaches to averting clashes in the future. We have a responsibility to provide positive leadership in the urgent efforts at multilateral reform.
In both the political and the economic dimensions, we have an obligation as allies to pursue our individual objectives in ways that serve also our common purposes. Whether the issue be the worldwide energy problem, or economic or political relations with Communist countries, or the provision of resources to developing countries, there are competitive interests necessarily involved, but also an overriding collective interest in a stable global environment. It will require a conscious effort of political will not to make the key decisions according to short-term economic or political advantage. This is more than a problem of bureaucratic management; it is a test of statesmanship.
The United States will be sensitive to Japan's unique perspective on the world and Japan's special relationship with the United States. To this end, we have redoubled our efforts at consultation. This consultation is institutionalized at several levels and in several channels--through our able Ambassadors; through high-level political consultations such as Dr. Kissinger's three visits to Tokyo in 1972 and 1973; through meetings at the Foreign Minister level such as Mr. Ohira's discussions with Secretary Rogers in Washington in October; through regular Cabinet-level meetings of the Japan-U.S. Committee on Trade and Economic Affairs; and through the three meetings I have had with Japanese Prime Ministers since taking office and the fourth I expect to have this year.
This interchange has a symbolic value in reaffirming a political commitment and also a tangible value in giving it substance.
The same dedication to mutual confidence and close consultation on the part of Japan will be essential as she marks out her independent paths. The complexity of the new diplomacy puts a premium on our steadiness and reliability in all our relationships, particularly with each other.
Japan's foreign policy is for Japan to decide. Both her security and her economic interests, however, link her destiny firmly to that of the free world. I am confident that the political leaders on both sides of the Pacific are deeply conscious of the common interest that our alliance has served, and deeply committed to preserving it.
ASIA AND THE PACIFIC
Since V-E Day in 1945, nearly every American killed in war has died in Asia. That fact alone compels our attention and our concern. But there are other vital facts as well which dictate that the vast, changing, throbbing world of Asia will figure importantly in our thoughts and policy calculations as far ahead as any of us can see. Asia is where half of mankind lives and works and dies. What happens to that half of the human race will have a profound impact on the other half. Asia is also that part of the world where developed and developing nations alike have achieved the greatest levels of economic growth in the past decade. That growing economic power is having a profound influence on the lives of the people involved, their neighbors, and the rest of the world.
The United States has been part of the Asian world since we became involved in the China trade in the early 19th Century, and especially after the Spanish-American War made the Philippines an American responsibility. But after the Pacific phase of World War II, our involvement in Asia deepened enormously. Through bilateral and multilateral arrangements, we became the guarantor of the security of many Asian nations--from Japan and Korea around the rim of Asia to Thailand and on southward to Australia and New Zealand. We also became the principal source of economic and military assistance for many countries in the region. It is against the background of this deep and broad involvement that Asia today has special meaning for most Americans.
But beyond this elaborate record, there are other overriding reasons for our present day concerns about Asia and its future. We continue to have treaty obligations to many Asian allies--promises to help as much as we can to preserve their independence and their right to live their own lives in peace.
That network of alliances takes on special meaning in 'light of Asia's special significance on the world scene today. Asia, and particularly Northeast Asia, is the locus of interaction among four of the five great power centers in our world. China is the heartland of this vast region. Siberia and the Far Eastern territories of the Soviet Union spread across the north of Asia from China to the Arctic, from Europe to the Bering Strait. The islands of Japan form a 2,000-mile crescent just off the mainland, running from the frigid waters of the North Pacific to semi-tropical Okinawa. The fourth major power of the Pacific area is, of course, the United States. The ways in which these powers act and interact will, to a significant degree, shape the future and determine the stability of Asia. At the same time, issues and developments within Asia will play an important part in shaping overall relationships among the major powers.
Failure to achieve the kind of reconciliation toward which we have moved so far in the past year could prove a mortal blow to the structure of peace. That stark reality is what makes the political evolution of Asia critically important to us and to the world.
ASIA: AREA OF CHANGE
Last year I went to Peking, the first American President to visit the People's Republic of China. That visit began the process of overcoming long years of antagonism, suspicion, and open rivalry. Only a few weeks ago, American prisoners of war and the last American troops returned from Vietnam, marking an end to our direct involvement in our longest and most misunderstood war. These developments remind us that change is the immutable law of international life.
Nowhere has the fact of change been more dramatically evident than in Asia over the past generation. Only 25 years ago, Japan was an occupied country and its people were only beginning to dig themselves out of the rubble of war and to rebuild a shattered society. Korea, too, was occupied but also divided at the 38th parallel where a new war was about to explode. China, the most populous nation on earth, was torn by a bloody civil war that would soon turn it into a Communist state. In the Philippines, the United States had carried out its pledge to grant full independence to a proud people. But elsewhere in Asia, colonialism had not yet run its course. The French were trying to restore their control over Indochina. The Dutch were contending with the forces of Indonesian revolution. Malaya was not yet fully independent, and British control over Burma had only just ended.
The scars and trauma of war were everywhere evident. Economies had been badly shattered. Hunger and hopelessness were widespread. A mood of revolution was palpable in the atmosphere of most Asian capitals.
Asia today is a very different region. Former colonial territories have long since achieved independence. Japan has revived to become the third industrial power in the world. Other countries have also enjoyed economic "miracles" of their own, smaller quantitatively than Japan's to be sure. but hardly less impressive in terms of rates of growth. The Republic of Korea is a good example. After the Korean War, many forecasters were predicting that South Korea could survive for decades to come only as a beneficiary of the international dole. But South Korea has proved the prophets wrong, achieving annual rates of economic growth of as much as ten percent, and becoming an important exporter of manufactured goods.
Despite international political fluctuations, the skill and energy of the people of Taiwan have produced remarkable increases in per capita income (more than 13 percent last year) and made Taiwan a leading trading nation. While simultaneously moving toward the goal of normal relations with Peking, the United States has maintained a policy of friendship for the 15 million people of Taiwan. We retain diplomatic ties, commitments under the Mutual Defense Treaty of 1954, and close economic contacts with them.
Thailand, despite the pressures of externally supported insurgency, has continued to make steady economic progress. It has also made an important contribution to regional economic development as well as to the security of the area. Malaysia and Singapore, _with imagination and hard work, have raised living standards and maintained stable political systems. The Philippines have had a worldwide impact through their innovative role in introducing high-yield rice strains as part of the Green Revolution. Indonesia, Southeast Asia's most populous country, is forging ahead under able national leadership. Overall, the non-Communist nations of Asia have achieved a remarkable rate of economic growth averaging close to seven percent a year.
Change in Asia has not been confined to achieving independence and making economic progress. South and North Korea, for example, have begun a dialogue to explore the possibility of settling major differences and have agreed that the ultimate unification of their country must be reached by peaceful means. Only a decade ago, Malaysia and Indonesia were virtually at war; today they are cooperative partners in regional organizations.
Japan has also been engaged in difficult adjustments. A generation ago, there was deep suspicion and bitterness between Japan and Korea. Today, though past scars of a painful history have not entirely healed, the two countries have moved toward a closer and mutually beneficial relationship. Japan and the People's Republic of China had for some time been engaged in commercial and cultural exchanges. Last year they agreed to resume full diplomatic relations. Despite the lack of a formal peace treaty, Japan and the Soviet Union are discussing projects for cooperative development of Siberian natural resources and increasing trade. If successful, these steps could help promote better political and economic relations between them.
The most obvious area of unresolved antagonism in Asia is in Indochina-between North Vietnam and its local followers on the one hand, and the legal governments of South Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia on the other. Cease-fire agreements were reached in January in Vietnam and in February in Laos. These were important and hopeful steps toward ending the conflict in Indochina. At this writing, some fighting continues. It is our deepest hope that this continuing violence will soon end and that lasting peace will be achieved.
THE U.S. RESPONSE TO ASIA
When this Administration took office, we determined that a reordering of our relationships with Asia and with other parts of the world was needed. It seemed to many Americans, as it did to me, that our role was too dominant, our presence too pervasive in the changed circumstances of the 1970's. It was time for others--especially those who had achieved new strength and prosperity--to do more for themselves and for others. The sacrifices of Vietnam and the internal strains it had created played an important part in shaping this outlook. Another determinant was the continuing deficit in our balance of payments and the pressures this put on the dollar and our economic health. These and other factors were even pushing some Americans into a mood of growing isolationism.
We recognized this as the gravest kind of threat. Heedless American abdication of its responsibilities to the world would destroy the global balance and the fabric of peace we had worked so hard and long to develop. Those who relied on us to help assure their security would be gravely concerned. Adversaries who had shown a willingness to reconcile long-standing differences would promptly revise their calculations and alter their actions. It was a prescription for chaos.
And so we charted our course between over-extension and withdrawal. We would continue to play a major and active role in world affairs, but we would ask our allies to draw increasingly on their new strength and on their own determination to be more self-reliant. The immediate context for this definition of policy was the defense of Asia. In July 1969, I outlined at Guam the main elements of this new United States approach.
First, the United States will keep all of its treaty commitments. We will adjust the manner of our support for our allies to new conditions, and we will base our actions on a realistic assessment of our interests. But as a matter of principle, and as a matter of preserving the stability of Asia, we made it clear that the United States would never repudiate its pledged word nor betray an ally.
Second, we shall provide a shield if a nuclear power threatens the freedom of a nation allied with us or of a nation whose survival we consider vital to our security. Maintaining a balance of deterrence among the major powers is the most critical responsibility we bear. We have a special obligation to protect non-nuclear countries against nuclear blackmail and to minimize their incentive to develop nuclear weapons of their own. Only the United States can provide this shield in Asia.
Third, in cases involving other types of aggression we shall furnish military and economic assistance when requested in accordance with our treaty commitments. But we shall look to the nation directly threatened to assume the primary responsibility for providing the manpower for its defense. No nation, large or small, can have any reasonable security unless it is able to mobilize its people and resources for its own defense. Without that kind of national effort, external help cannot fill the vacuum of local indifference against any significant and prolonged threat. Moreover, without a determined local effort, it would be impossible to achieve the kind of broad political support needed in the United States to back another country in any sustained way.
The most important and most obvious application of this new approach to security cooperation was the Vietnamization program which enabled the South Vietnamese to assume the full burden of their own defense. But the Nixon Doctrine has been applied in other countries as well. Japan is gradually expanding its capability for conventional defense of its own territory within its constitutional prohibition against developing offensive forces. There has been expanded joint use of military base areas in Japan, and we are in the process of consolidating many of our base areas, particularly in and around metropolitan Tokyo.
In 1971, we reached an agreement with the Republic of Korea to assist in modernizing its armed forces. At the same time, we reduced U.S. forces stationed in Korea by one-third, bringing home more than 20,000 men. Reduced Congressional appropriations for military assistance in the past two years have forced a slowdown in this program.
The Philippines have become increasingly self-reliant. We have reduced the number of facilities we maintain there and reduced our forces by almost 13,000 men.
In all, in addition to the 550,000 men who have returned from Vietnam, nearly 100,000 American military personnel and dependents have come home from other parts of Asia during this Administration.
The economic dimension of the Nixon Doctrine recognizes that growing self-reliance and confidence must rest on a secure base of economic stability and growth. We are providing technical and financial resources to help friendly nations cope with problems of security and economic development without putting undue strain on their fragile economic base. Other industrial countries are increasing their share of such help. Multilateral participation has increased through cooperation among international developmental institutions, the Asian Development Bank, and the developed countries. The authority to extend generalized tariff preferences which I have requested in my new Trade Reform Bill, would help the developing countries of the region by increasing the potential for their exports and thus expanding their capacity to increase imports and speed their development.
This evolving process has brought us close to our goals--a more balanced American role in security arrangements in Asia, an increase in the capacity and willingness of our alliance partners to carry heavier burdens of responsibility for their own protection, and a more equitable sharing of the material and personal costs of security.
Translation of this doctrine into deeds has made it unmistakably clear to all that we are, and will remain, a Pacific power, maintaining balanced forces in the region. It has also made clear that, while adjusting our role in defensive alliances, we are supporting a compensating increase in the ability of Asians to defend themselves.
These decisions and actions had important consequences. I have no doubt that they influenced Hanoi's decision at long last to negotiate seriously and reach an agreement to end the fighting and return our prisoners. I am convinced that never would have happened if we had decided to end our involvement unilaterally, or if we had not helped South Vietnam to strengthen and improve its own military forces.
Our firmness in Southeast Asia and the maintenance of durable partnerships with our other Asian allies made it possible for us to reach out to other adversaries. And recognizing our determination to remain a power in the Pacific encouraged them to respond positively. The most dramatic example was, of course, my visit to Peking in February 1972 and my meetings there with the leaders of the People's Republic of China.
LOOKING AHEAD
The rapidly changing face of Asia presents those who live there, and others who are deeply involved, with vast opportunities and challenges. The transition from war to peace, the movement from rigid confrontation to gradual accommodation, are heartening signs of what may lie ahead. But nothing is assured in this world, and the promise of progress will be fulfilled only by determination and positive actions on the part of all concerned.
If peace is to be made secure, if men and nations are to be able to continue to advance in reasonable safety, the largest responsibility must be borne by the major powers. It is of critical importance that they continue to move down the path of reconciliation, working together to overcome old bitterness, to settle differences amicably, and to broaden and deepen their efforts to develop new forms of cooperation. Similarly, they must act with the greatest restraint in dealing with each other and with smaller nations. The alternative is renewed confrontation which carries with it the threat of disaster--for those directly involved and for the world.
The smaller nations of Asia will also have to carry heavy responsibilities. The key ingredient of sustained economic progress will continue to be what they do for themselves. The key ingredient of their safety will continue to be the manpower and resources they are willing and able to invest. And their peace will depend heavily on their ability and readiness to overcome historic rivalries, old territorial disputes, and religious and political differences with their neighbors.
A new spirit of cooperation has developed among many of the countries of Asia in recent years. Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and the Philippines are joined in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) to grapple with common concerns of many kinds. The Asian Development Bank and the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (ECAFE) have proved successful instruments for promoting economic progress, and have become outstanding examples of what developed and developing nations can accomplish by working together.
Economic progress and heightened cooperation among Asian nations cannot obscure the many problems facing those nations, or the several dangers shared by them and their friends, including the United States. We have noted many of the promising developments in present day Asia. But it is not foreordained that all or any of them will finally succeed. There are huge obstacles to be overcome--distrust, deep differences of ideology and social systems, political and economic rivalries. Improvements in atmosphere could easily prove ephemeral, especially if many outstanding issues prove too difficult to settle in a reasonable period of time.
Moreover, some long-standing rivalries may prove intractable and dangers will doubtless continue. North Vietnam's ambition to dominate all of Indochina has not diminished, though it may resort to different tactics or alter the time frame for attaining that goal. There is continuing fighting in South Vietnam and a residue of hatred that will persist for a long time. South and North Korea have been talking to each other, but no one who knows the recent history of that troubled peninsula believes that reconciliation will be easy or will come early. There are other disputes and differences between other Asian nations, and none of them will be resolved quickly.
There is promise, however, in the evolving pattern of efforts by most of those concerned with Asia to limit the dangers of military conflicts flowing from political differences. We can hope that all concerned will come to recognize the high stake they have in the process of normalizing relations. Stable balances, local and multilateral, may ultimately turn into a stable system of peace.
The United States has a deep interest in that outcome and responsibilities to help achieve it. One of those responsibilities is to make sure that our strength and will are not undermined to the point where our presence in Asia has lost most of its relevance. For if our friends conclude that they can no longer depend on the United States for at least the critical margin of assistance in protecting themselves, they may feel compelled to compromise with those who threaten them, including the forces of subversion and revolution in their midst. Equally important, if adversaries conclude that we no longer intend to maintain a significant presence, or that our willingness to take stern measures when pushed too far has disappeared, then the importance of reaching balanced agreements with us will have largely evaporated.
The end result could be an abrupt and deeply dangerous upsetting of the balance that has been created--and a disintegration of the bridges to reconciliation whose construction has been so effectively begun.
We shall continue to work closely with the governments and peoples of Asia in their efforts to improve the quality of their lives and raise their standards of living. Obviously, what we do in this area can only supplement the central efforts that they make themselves. But that supplement can be of great importance--both to their progress and to the quality of the political relations we enjoy with those concerned.
The United States will continue to be a major power in Asia and to make its essential contribution to the creation of a stable framework of peace. To that end, we give our pledge:
--to be steadfast and dependable in support of our friends;
--to continue to bear our fair share of the responsibility for the security of our allies;
--to develop, with realism and imagination, new and mutually beneficial relations with former adversaries in Asia;
--to help, within our limitations, the continued impressive economic progress of one of the world's most vital regions; and
--above all, to take every step within our power to prevent the recurrence of conflict in an area that has known so much suffering and sacrifice for so many centuries.
We can do no more. We would not be true to ourselves or to our deepest interests if we did less.
LATIN AMERICA
Over the past four years, our interest has been focused on, and our energies dedicated to, a number of supremely important tasks in the world arena: ending a war in an honorable way; putting our relations with long-standing antagonists on a more rational and workable basis; correcting major imbalances in our trade and monetary relationships; and, above all, creating the foundations for a durable structure of peace.
The time and concentration that have gone into these complicated but absolutely crucial efforts have produced allegations that we were neglecting other problems, other areas, and especially other friendly nations. In Latin America this feeling has been particularly widespread, and it is quite understandable. Most Latin Americans, their governments and institutions have become accustomed to dealing with us on the most intimate basis. The flow of people, information, ideas, capital, and goods between the United States and Latin America has increased greatly, particularly since World War II. In some ways, this created a sense of psychological and economic dependence on the United States.
Meanwhile, U.S. attention to Latin America has seemed to wax and wane. At times we appeared to take Latin America for granted. At other times, our zeal and our sense of "mission" led us to take a tutelary role with our neighbors. When we raised the banner of reform, as in the Alliance for Progress, we sometimes tried to tell our neighbors what they really needed and wanted. While all this was done with good intentions and humanitarian concern, and while our efforts had many positive results, they raised expectations to a level that simply was not realizable. Moreover, our approach tended to increase dependence on the United States--for ideas, for direction, and for money.
At the outset of this Administration, we surveyed the world problems that confronted us, and we made several deliberate decisions regarding our posture toward Latin America. First, we resolved to avoid what we saw as the two basic flaws of past performance: taking our Latin neighbors for granted, assuming that they were irrevocably linked to us by commerce and friendship; and launching a crusade in which we would promise to lead the peoples of the hemisphere to prosperity and happiness under our guidance and our formulas.
Our second decision was that, if we were to have a strong and prospering community of nations in this part of the world, we would have to help develop a new, more healthy relationship among the United States and its neighbors in Latin America and the Caribbean. The kind of mature partnership we envisaged was one in which Latin America would assume increasing responsibility for ideas, for initiatives, and for actions. While the United States would continue to be an active partner, there would be a lessening of the dominant role the United States had previously played.
Thus, we deliberately reduced our visibility on the hemispheric stage, hoping that our neighbors would play more active roles. And they have--not always in perfect harmony, it is true, and sometimes looking more to short-range national advantage than to the possibly greater long-range rewards of cooperation. Still, an open dialogue has begun in the family of the Americas and a more balanced and healthy relationship may be taking shape.
We knew that this course would be criticized by some old friends. There would be those who had become accustomed to old forms and old ways of conducting our common business and who might, therefore, feel we were abandoning them. Others would continue to say "If the Americans aren't in the lead, it won't work" or "If Washington doesn't finance this project, nothing will happen." Others would complain that the United States was concerned mainly with Europe and Asia and was losing interest in Latin America.
These voices have indeed been heard. On the other hand, many leaders and governments have used these years to take a more searching look at their own problems and to develop their own solutions. Some have moved imaginatively to increase their industrial production and foreign trade. A few have taken courageous actions, sometimes putting themselves in political peril, to correct their worst internal economic and social problems. Some have taken effective steps to eliminate terrorism. Of course, not all countries have been willing or able to do these things, and some have failed to provide real benefits for their peoples.
THE POLITICAL CLIMATE
All the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean share the need for economic and social progress. Most have to deal with high rates of unemployment among the unskilled and even the educated youth and severe inequities in the distribution of the wealth produced.
These problems place heavy burdens on the political apparatus of these countries. In addition, many have other strictly political problems. Some nations have only the most fragile tradition of democratic ways. Often, local conditions provide opportunities for political extremists and revolutionaries. Political violence and terrorism continue in some capitals. In others, military forces provide the most stable and disciplined group.
Most governments in the hemisphere recognize these problems and are trying to find solutions--with varying degrees of success. There is an eager striving for both economic progress and social justice. Yet that striving is taking place against heavy odds, and setbacks and discouragement are common.
The upsurge of national efforts to meet pressing internal problems is in part a direct result of rising nationalism. An increasing sense of national identity characterizes every one of the American states. But it is only part of the explanation for their strong desire to overcome internal weakness.
Another component is the fact that pressures for economic development have become so urgent that governments cannot long survive if they ignore the plight of their people. Modern communications have brought the outside world into the most remote areas and made apparent to millions the vast gulf that separates their way of life from that of even an average family in industrially advanced countries. Those millions are no longer content to accept hunger and poverty and injustice as their preordained lot. They are increasingly less patient with governments that fail to produce results quickly. Any government that ignores this broadening demand for progress does so at its own jeopardy.
As a result, new governments have arrived on the scene in many countries with leaders promising to do more for their people. Some have achieved power through the electoral process; others have seized power. Many members of these governments are from the military services. Styles of operation vary from capital to capital. In some cases, there is a tendency to seek support by appealing to xenophobic attitudes and adopting anti-American themes. In the long run, however, performance will count the most in shaping the judgments of the people.
THE U.S. RESPONSE
It would be an error to ignore the role the United States has played in helping to encourage Latin America's move toward greater self-reliance. For from the Rio Grande to Tierra del Fuego, governments and peoples have come to recognize that the days of relying principally on North America to solve their problems have ended. We and others can help, of course. Indeed, some problems can only be solved with the understanding cooperation of others. But the solutions will require each country's own initiative and imagination and energy. I am convinced that the low-keyed course we have followed over the past four years--the avoidance of slogans and gimmickry, the emphasis on Latin initiatives--has helped in an important way to provide the basis for a stronger, healthier, and more realistic relationship among the members of our hemispheric community.
Accommodation to the diversity of the world community is the keystone of our current policy. That does not diminish our clearly stated preference for free and democratic processes and for governments based thereon. Nor does it weaken our firmly-held conviction that an open economic system and the operation of the market economy are the engines that best generate economic advance. But it does mean that we must be prepared to deal realistically with governments as they are, provided, of course, that they do not endanger security or the general peace of the area.
In Latin America, as in other parts of the world, most of the day-to-day relations of the United States are handled through the bilateral channels of traditional diplomacy. Most of us cannot know how extensive this effort is, how varied, and how time consuming. Cables flow in and out around the clock. A Congressional delegation is visiting here; an American student has been thrown in jail there; a fishing boat has been seized; an investment contract has been signed; an earthquake has leveled half a city. Many of these events never come to the attention of the American public. But our bilateral relations--and the continuing, intensive contacts, consultations and communications they require--provide the foundation and the framework of our foreign relations.
Because of the important role they play in so many countries of Latin America, a special word should be devoted to our relations with the military forces of the hemisphere. Those forces represent a key element in almost all Latin American societies, and in many they have assumed national leadership. Because we have recognized their various roles and because of our mutual security interests, we have developed over the years close ties of cooperation and friendship with many of the military leaders of Latin America. We work cooperatively with them in a variety of ways--combined exercises, conferences, joint mapping ventures. Many of these leaders have attended our advanced training and technical schools. Because of the nature of military organizations, these ties have largely been handled through professional channels.
At one time, the United States was by far the principal source of military equipment for Latin American governments. After World War II, and again after the Korean War, surplus military supplies enabled us to fill most of the hemisphere's needs. But that picture has changed remarkably. We estimate that the governments of Latin America have ordered in the last four years more than $1.2 billion worth of military equipment from third countries, principally from Britain, France, West Germany, Canada, Italy, and the Netherlands. That is about six times more than they bought from the United States.
There are several possible reasons for this dramatic shift. In some cases, European sellers have provided highly attractive terms of sale. In other cases, the precise equipment wanted was not immediately available from the United States but was from Europe. Some countries may have wished to reduce their dependence on the United States and to develop other sources of military supplies. But one important reason for Europe's ascendancy in this field has been the limitations we have imposed on ourselves-for example, by fixing annual ceilings on sales of military equipment worldwide and in this hemisphere, and by restricting credit for such sales.
What is involved is the requisition by Latin American countries of relatively modest amounts of equipment for replacement of materiel and for modernization. Our hopes that by unilaterally restricting sales we could discourage our Latin neighbors from diverting money to military equipment and away from development needs have proved unrealistic. And the cost to us has been considerable: in friction with Latin American governments because of our paternalism, and in valuable military relationships which, in turn, provide an important channel for communication across a wide spectrum and influence our total relationships. The domestic costs are also high: in lost employment for our workers, lost profits for business, and loss of balance of payments advantages for our nation.
THE INTER-AMERICAN SYSTEM
Beyond our purely bilateral relations, there are important institutions and forums in which several or all of the states of the Americas are associated. And for some of these institutions, a moment of truth has arrived.
In 1822, the United States established diplomatic relations with Colombia. We thus became the first nation outside Latin America to recognize the independence and sovereignty of a Latin American state. Over the ensuing 150 years, formal and informal bonds linking the nations of the Western Hemisphere have expanded and grown strong. Gradually, machinery was developed to provide for increasing cooperation and consultation in this family of nations. It makes up what is called the inter-American system. It has been said that if this machinery had not existed, we would have been forced to invent it. But it does exist--in the Rio Treaty; in the Inter-American Development Bank; in the Organization of American States and its associated bodies, including the Economic and Social Council, the Council for Science, Education and Culture; and in the many other groups and organizations through which we work together.
The question now facing us is not whether these organizations have served useful purposes in the past, but whether they are organized to best serve the current interests of the Americas.
In a thoughtful discussion I had not long ago with Dr. Carlos Sanz de Santamaria, the distinguished Latin American diplomat and economist, he argued that, "The time is ripe to begin developing new forms of hemispheric cooperation." He suggested: "We should identify the many areas in which the best interests of Latin America and the United States converge. Our joint interests in improving the quality of life everywhere in this hemisphere are overriding. They far surpass the issues that have brought about confrontation in recent years or have led many to focus on the divergent interests of Latin America and the United States."
I agree. There has been an unfortunate tendency among some governments, in some organizations, to make forums for cooperation into arenas of confrontation. This phenomenon was evident at the recent meeting of the UN Security Council in Panama. There has also been a tendency to develop Latin American positions-often on a lowest-common-denominator basis--which fail to take realistic account of viewpoints strongly held by the United States. These efforts tend to provoke reactions contrary to those sought. We must recognize the dangers inherent in such an approach.
We should not deal with important questions in an emotional mood or react out of pique or frustration. The kind of mature partnership we all seek calls for calm reflection and a reasonable exchange of views. In my message to the recent OAS General Assembly, I noted: "That kind of partnership implies that there are common goals to which we aspire. It implies a trust and confidence in one another. It implies that we can attain our goals more effectively by pursuing them more cooperatively. Above all, it implies that we consider interdependence an essential ingredient in the life of our hemisphere."
For our part, we shall actively support and participate in the review of ways in which we can most effectively achieve political cooperation and economic and social development in this hemisphere. This process has begun--at the meeting of the Inter-American Economic and Social Council in Bogota in February 1973 and, most importantly, at the General Assembly of the OAS in April. It is our hope that this process of careful review will produce stronger and more effective ways to identify and advance our common interests in the final quarter of the 20th Century.
Any discussion of the inter-American system raises the question of Cuba. We are asked: if it is desirable to seek reconciliation with countries like the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union, why do we not seek the same with Cuba? In fact, the situations are quite different. I have dealt with our relations with Peking and Moscow elsewhere in this Report. As for Cuba, our policy strongly supports decisions taken after careful study by the overwhelming majority of members of the Organization of American States. Those decisions were based on the conclusion that Cuba's active encouragement and support for the subversion of legitimate governments in the hemisphere represented a threat to peace and security in this part of the world.
Havana's rhetoric in support of violent revolution has diminished somewhat, and it is selecting its targets for subversion with greater care. But extremists and revolutionaries from many Latin American countries are still being trained in Cuba today in the techniques of guerrilla war, in sabotage, and subversion. Those trained agents and saboteurs are then returned to their home countries, or to neighboring countries, to carry out violence against established governments. Money and arms flow from Cuba to underground groups in some countries. This activity continues to threaten the stability of our hemisphere.
A second reason for concern is that Cuba became the first member of the American family to welcome into the hemisphere the armed power of a non-American state. That action created, among other things, the Cuban missile crisis of 1962. And there is no evidence that Havana's military ties with Moscow have markedly changed.
One final consideration: one obvious way to undercut the prestige and effectiveness of any international body is for individual members to act alone contrary to joint decisions. We have assured fellow members of the OAS that the United States will not act unilaterally in this matter. We will consider a change in policy toward Cuba when Cuba changes its policy toward the other countries of the hemisphere. But in considering any change, we shall act in concert with our fellow members of the OAS.
THE ECONOMIC CLIMATE
Wc have considered some of the political forces at work in the hemisphere. It is equally important to look at economic developments. These underscore both the progress that has been made as well as the profound problems that beg for early solution.
Economic growth in Latin America as a whole continued at a healthy pace last year, possibly exceeding the 6.3 percent rate achieved in 1971. On the other side of the ledger, the area's high rate of population increase--nearly three percent overall-added millions of new mouths to feed and cut per capita income growth to less than four percent. Nevertheless, this was still well above the 2.5 percent set as a goal for the hemisphere in the early 1960's.
The most impressive economic growth was achieved in the largest country of the area, Brazil, where the GNP is estimated to be more than 10 percent above the 1971 level. Mexico's economy advanced substantially, with exports reaching $1.8 billion last year, up almost 23 percent over 1971. Argentina's trade also grew after a disastrous trade deficit in 1971. Colombia cut its trade deficit in half and exports were at record high levels. Venezuela enjoyed its usual healthy trade surplus.
In most of the countries of the hemisphere, however, inflation continued to eat away at the fruits of economic growth. Some governments were willing to take the stern financial and economic measures needed to bring it under control. Those that did not---or that were guided by political rather than economic motives-watched prices and wages spiral upward and living standards decline. Once-prosperous Chile saw its inflation rate reach an estimated 180 percent, accompanied by shortages of food and consumer goods.
Foreign trade, an essential ingredient of economic development, enjoyed a healthy expansion in Latin America as a whole. In 1972, Latin American exports to the United States rose to $6.2 billion, 18 percent more than in 1971. Trade with Europe and Asia also expanded. Over the past two years, Latin America's foreign exchange reserves have increased by more than $2 billion, to $8.9 billion by the end of 1972.
The United States remains determined to improve our own trading relations with Latin America because we recognize that growing trade is good for all concerned. As Latin American economies develop, they become an increasingly important market for U.S. goods--for everything from wheat to tractors to computers. And a steadily expanding U.S. economy can absorb a growing volume of Latin America's products, not only of raw materials but increasingly of component parts, semi-processed goods, and finished manufactured products. To encourage this trade, we have introduced legislation to provide preferential access to the U.S. market for products of developing countries. Surely this most prosperous of all nations should do no less in extending the hand of cooperation to our neighbors in this hemisphere and to others in the developing world.
Meanwhile, approaching worldwide trade negotiations place our bilateral and regional trading problems in the Western Hemisphere in a larger context. Our initiatives in pressing for these new negotiations received welcome support from most of our Latin American trading partners. Members of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, at their meetings in Geneva in late 1972, paid considerable attention to the concerns of developing countries. To deal with these and other matters, the members organized a Preparatory Committee to develop procedures for the coming negotiations. Membership in that committee is open, not only to GATT Contracting Parties, but to all developing countries who want to take part.
Major steps are also being taken in the monetary and financial areas that will alter greatly the international economic system. The annual meetings of the World Bank and International Monetary Fund last September were landmark events in the world of international finance. The Committee of Twenty has been established under the IMF, with three of its members from Latin America, to develop new and more workable mechanisms for the world's monetary relationships.
While production, trade, and foreign exchange reserves have increased substantially, serious economic and social problems continue to beset many of the nearly 300 million inhabitants of Central and South America and the Caribbean. The gross national product of the region averaged close to $600 per person over the last two years. But about one-half of the people have a per capita income of less than $250, and for one-fifth of the people the figure is less than $150. In most countries there is only one doctor for every 2,000 or 3,000 people and life expectancy is 50 years or less in half a dozen countries. High rates of illiteracy in much of Latin America represent a huge social deficit, virtually eliminating all hope for progress among millions of people.
THE U.S. RESPONSE
The United States cannot solve these great social and economic problems, nor can the world community. The initiative must come from the peoples and governments concerned. But we are helping, and we will continue to do so. In fiscal year 1972, United States bilateral assistance to Latin America and the Caribbean amounted to $338 million. We provided an additional $103 million under the Food for Peace program. Our Export-Import Bank extended long-term loans of more than $500 million to help fund important development programs.
This direct assistance is designed to meet specific needs that can best be handled on a bilateral basis. Nevertheless, we have long realized that bilateral aid is often a cause of friction between governments and the target of local criticism, however biased and unfair. Extreme leftist critics regularly attack their governments for accepting U.S. aid and thereby becoming "puppets." Obviously, no country is obliged to accept aid. But in an atmosphere of increasing nationalism, we recognize that such allegations, however unfounded, have political and emotional impact.
To meet this problem, we have deliberately worked to balance our economic assistance efforts between bilateral programs and cooperative efforts through multinational organizations. In the mid-1960's, roughly two-thirds of our aid to Latin America was bilateral. Today, the proportion has been reversed and two-thirds of our aid flows through multinational organizations such as the Inter-American Development Bank, the World Bank, and the United Nations Development Program.
These multinational programs have several advantages. It is politically easier for a country to accept assistance from an international bank or other organization than from one country. And international organizations can impose strict conditions for loans on economic grounds without opening the door to charges of political "meddling."
It is regrettable that U.S. contributions to the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) have lagged in the past year. The Administration will make a strong effort to persuade the Congress to correct this deficiency and provide the necessary appropriations to meet our pledge. The continued effective functioning of the IDB will hinge in large part on the full cooperation of the United States.
Our firm support for economic development in the Western Hemisphere is good politics and good economics. We live with other nations of the hemisphere in one neighborhood. And no neighborhood is a very healthy place if many of its people are living daily with poverty, disease, and frustration. People forced to live at the fringe of survival cannot produce the goods the human family needs, master the technology that makes progress achievable, or buy the products of other people's labor. They cannot become full partners in the 20th Century.
Economic development is a product of many forces. The most critical factor is the most obvious--what a people and their government are prepared and able to do for themselves. Trade is another essential element for healthy growth. Beyond that, direct bilateral assistance and multilateral funding can provide the capital and technological expertise for success. But there is a fourth element in successful development, often underestimated and more often misunderstood, and that is private investment.
Foreign investment can provide a highly efficient and effective channel for the flow of modern technology, which is so sorely needed by developing countries.
It can broaden production and employment. More than that, inflows of foreign capital help to stimulate the mobilization of local capital for development tasks. As one looks at the record of economic growth among developed and developing countries alike over the past two or three decades, it is not accidental that the most rapid growth has occurred in countries that provided a healthy climate for private investment.
There is, of course, a legitimate concern about specific forms of foreign investment and the terms under which foreign businesses operate. Every country, whether underdeveloped or advanced, imposes restrictions on types and levels of external involvement in its economy. These restrictions can and should be worked out in ways that protect the legitimate interests of both investors and recipients.
The evident economic advantages of sound foreign investment responsibly adapted to the needs of developing countries have not been effectively explained to most local public. Increasingly, foreign investment has become the special target of extreme nationalists and leftist politicians. In some cases, governments have tried to use foreign companies as political lightning rods or as scapegoats for their own shortcomings.
These factors--nationalism, ideological hostility, and the search for scapegoats-have led some governments to seize foreign assets and to cancel the contracts under which foreign companies were operating. Under international law, any sovereign government has a right to expropriate property for public purposes. But that same international law requires adequate and prompt compensation for the investors or owners.
Moreover, one can fairly question, on economic grounds alone, the wisdom of many such seizures. It is not uncommon for a foreign company, although it is providing considerable local employment and paying sizable taxes, to be seized, only to have the successor enterprise run by the government, provide less production and smaller income for the state. Financial resources often required to subsidize the operation of seized properties and to maintain inflated payrolls could be used much more beneficially for other, badly needed local investment.
Expropriations, even when there is fair compensation, can create deep concern among those whose resources developing countries wish to attract---commercial banks, international lending institutions, private investors. Such actions tend to dry up sources of investment for other purposes.
All these factors--the legitimate protection of American businesses abroad, the requirements of international law, the preservation of a reasonable and mutually beneficial atmosphere for foreign investment-led us in early 1972 to define our policy toward expropriations. We have made it clear that if an American firm were seized without reasonable efforts to make effective payment, we would provide no new bilateral economic assistance to the expropriating country. We would consider exceptions only if there were overriding humanitarian concerns or other major factors involving our larger interests. Nor would we support applications for loans by such countries in international development institutions.
The book value of U.S. investments in Latin America has risen to more than $16 billion. But our Latin American friends point out that the rate of growth of U.S. investment has been less in their countries than in Europe and Asia. The difference is accounted for in part, perhaps decisively, by the judgment investors make regarding the relative welcome their investments will receive.
Changes in attitudes toward investment will take time. But we believe these changes are underway in most parts of the hemisphere, in the private as well as the public sector. We are moving toward a better understanding that private investments, properly managed, operating under reasonable conditions, and sensitive to the needs and aspirations of the societies in which they function, can be mutually advantageous to investors and recipients.
CURRENT PROBLEMS
In October 1969, I said that our policy toward Latin America would be based on five principles:
--firm commitment to the inter-American system;
--respect for national identity and national dignity;
--continued U.S. assistance to economic development;
--belief that this assistance should take the form of U.S. support for Latin American initiatives and should be extended primarily on a multilateral basis;
--dedication to improving the quality of life in the New World. Those principles remain as valid today as when I first stated them. In candor, however, we must admit that our performance has not always been fully what we and our friends may have wished. I believe we can do better in our second term. I am determined that we shall do better. We owe it to those who created and passed along the unique inter-American system. We should leave to those who will inherit our works a structure of peaceful cooperation more effective than the one we found.
A number of bilateral and multilateral problems call for urgent attention. If we can solve them, or at least move toward their solution, we can create a new and positive atmosphere in our hemisphere.
The single most important irritant in relations with our nearest Latin neighbor, Mexico, is the high salinity of the waters of the Colorado River diverted to Mexico under our 1944 Water Treaty. I discussed this matter with President Echeverria last June. My personal representative, former Attorney General Herbert Brownell, has been working intensively on this problem and has made his recommendations to me. We shall soon be presenting our Mexican neighbors with what I hope will be a permanent, definitive, and just solution. With mutual understanding and common efforts, I believe this problem can be removed from the agenda of outstanding issues.
Another serious problem, of deep concern to every responsible government, is the illegal flow of narcotics across national boundaries. Some of these drugs are produced in the Western Hemisphere. And some Latin American countries have been used by international drug traffickers as a channel for drugs from Europe, the Middle East, and Asia into this hemisphere and on to the United States.
Over the past year, we and many Latin American governments have made intensive efforts to restrict this dangerous flow. Our common effort has taken a variety of forms: special training for customs and immigration agents; improved equipment ranging from two-way radios to helicopters; exchanges of intelligence data; tightened anti-drug laws; extradition treaties, and others. It is vitally important that we press forward with the campaign to destroy this dangerous traffic which menaces us all, especially our young.
Another international issue that confronts the Americas, as well as the rest of the world community, concerns the law of the sea. Every country, whether or not it touches on an international body of water, is affected. The problems include: the extent to which any nation can claim adjoining waters as its territorial sea; the proper limit on each nation's control over the resources in and under the sea; guarantees of the rights of free passage through international straits and other navigational freedoms; the preservation of the marine environment; and the status of traditional high seas freedoms. Resolution of these and many related questions are of profound importance to all nations. Political, economic, and security interests of the highest sensitivity will have to be considered.
An international conference on the law of the sea will soon be convened to consider and solve these complicated problems. We know it will not be easy. But we know, too, that an effective agreement that deals equitably with the vital concerns of all nations would be a landmark in international affairs.
In the Americas, maritime disputes have centered on the question of fishing rights in waters that we consider to be beyond the limits of national jurisdiction which a state may claim under international law, but that some of our neighbors claim as their territorial seas or exclusive resource zones. These differences have sometimes led to confrontations, including the seizure of U.S. fishing boats and the imposition of heavy fines. Neither party to this kind of dispute enjoys any real benefit. Indeed, both suffer because of the resulting exacerbation of political, economic, and security relations.
The real point is not fishing rights or retaliation. Rather it is: what rules shall govern the use of the oceans? If countries make unilateral claims over ocean space without international agreement, conflict over uses of the area and its resources are inevitable. We believe that the Law of the Sea Conference provides the appropriate forum for resolving outstanding law of the sea problems. We intend to work with the Latin Americans and all other nations toward achieving a timely and successful conference.
Another important unresolved problem concerns the Panama Canal and the surrounding Zone. U.S. operation of the Canal and our presence in Panama are governed by the terms of a treaty drafted in 1903. The world has changed radically during the 70 years this treaty has been in effect. Latin America has changed. Panama has changed. And the terms of our relationship should reflect those changes in a reasonable way.
For the past nine years, efforts to work out a new treaty acceptable to both parties have failed. That failure has put considerable strain on our relations with Panama. It is time for both parties to take a fresh look at this problem and to develop a new relationship between us--one that will guarantee continued effective operation of the Canal while meeting Panama's legitimate aspirations.
LOOKING TO THE FUTURE
I intend to underscore our deep interest in Latin America through expanded personal involvement. Last year, I emphasized my concern by sending two personal representatives, former Secretary of the Treasury Connally and Federal Reserve Chairman Burns, to a number of countries in Latin America. The detailed and perceptive reports I received from these special envoys helped to keep me abreast of current problems and developments. This year, I will be consulting with my fellow presidents in the hemisphere and with other knowledgeable Latin Americans on our future course. I have asked Secretary of State Rogers to visit Latin America to convey our intention to continue to work closely with our neighbors. And I plan to make at least one visit to Latin America this year.
At the same time, I hope Members of the Congress will travel to the area and see what is happening in this part of the world. Such visits could produce new insights into the complex problems we and our neighbors confront. They would provide an awareness of what able and dedicated Americans are doing in those countries. And it would create a base of knowledge from which understanding legislative action might come.
I urge the Congress to take a new and thorough look at existing legislation that affects our relations with Latin America. We need to study, for example, whether various legislative restrictions serve the purposes for which they were designed. Do they deter other governments from various actions, such as seizing fishing boats? Or do they merely make the solution of such problems more difficult? I believe some current restrictions are entirely too rigid and deprive us of the flexibility we need to work out mutually beneficial solutions.
Similarly, we should inquire whether current limitations on military equipment sales serve our interests and whether they promote or weaken our cooperation with Latin America. I believe our unilateral efforts to restrict arms sales have helped contribute to the rise of nationalist feelings and to the growing resentment against remnants of U.S. paternalism. The irritation thus aroused helps explain at least some of our problems in other matters. I urge the Congress to take a hard look at this problem and to take steps to rectify past errors. For I think we have been hurting ourselves more than anyone else by insisting on such limitations, and harming our relations with Latin America in the process.
I noted earlier the problem .of modernizing the machinery of cooperation and consultation in the inter-American system. This process has now begun. We look forward to working with Latin America to make the inter-American system more responsive to modern needs. This will require imagination and initiative from all concerned. It also calls for a hardheaded assessment of existing institutions. Are they effective? Are they doing what is most needed? Are they accurately defining the most urgent needs? In prescribing actions, do they take into full account the material, political, and psychological limitations under which all governments must function? I have instructed my advisors to give this matter close attention in the months ahead, and I feel confident that other heads of government will do the same. By focusing on the many areas in which the best interests of Latin America and the United States converge, we can begin a new and promising phase of hemispheric cooperation.
Over the next four years, the United States will be heavily engaged in giving substance to the new world order that now is taking shape. High on the agenda will be problems of world trade and of strengthening the international monetary system. These matters will be of special concern to Latin America as it continues to expand its exports outside the hemisphere. Because we recognized this interest, we strongly supported the inclusion of three Latin American governments in the Committee of Twenty that is considering monetary reform. As we move into this period of intensive trade and monetary negotiations, it will be to our mutual advantage if the United States and neighboring governments work closely together on these issues. We have many shared interests in assuring an expansion of world trade and in preventing the rise of restrictive trading blocs which would inhibit the growth of U.S. and Latin American commerce. We therefore plan to undertake intensive consultation with Latin American governments and representatives-in the OAS and its organs, the Inter-American Development Bank, the International Monetary Fund, GATT, and other appropriate bodies. The process of hemispheric cooperation can be strengthened as we confront these difficult issues together.
Over the next four years, we will also continue our assistance efforts--through bilateral and multilateral channels--to help improve the quality of life of all the people of this hemisphere.
As we move toward the end of our first 200 years as a nation--and toward the end of a troubled century--we face many exciting challenges. They will require the best that is in us. But we now have a framework for peaceful cooperation on which to build. And as we build, the lives and health and happiness of the hundreds of millions of people living in Latin America will be in the forefront of our concern.
PART IV: REGIONS OF TENSION AND OPPORTUNITY
--Middle East
--Africa
THE MIDDLE EAST
Peace in the Middle East is central to the global structure of peace. Strategically, the Middle East is a point where interests of the major powers converge. It is a reservoir of energy resources on which much of the world depends. Politically, it is a region of diversity, dynamism, and turmoil, rent by national, social, and ideological division--and of course by the Arab-Israeli conflict. Two world wars and the rising tide of nationalism have broken down the pre-1914 order, but new patterns of stability have not yet been established. Modern quarrels have compounded long-standing ones. Because of the area's strategic importance, outside powers have continued to involve themselves, often competitively. Several times since World War II, the Middle East has been an arena of major crisis.
The irony is that the Middle East also has such great potential for progress and peaceful development. Of all the regions of the developing world, the Middle East, because of its wealth, is uniquely not dependent on the heavy infusion of capital resources from outside. Its wealthier nations have been willing and able to provide the capital for their own development and have begun to assist their neighbors' development. Mechanisms of regional self-reliance and cooperation are already functioning. The yearning for unity is strong within the Arab world; it has deep historical and cultural roots and its positive thrust has found new expression in these cooperative enterprises.
The region's drive for self-reliance matches the philosophy of United States foreign policy in a new era. Technical assistance and the provision of skills, now the most relevant forms of external aid in much of the Middle East, are forms of aid which the United States is uniquely capable of providing and can sustain over a long term. The United States has long been a champion of the region's independence from colonial or other external domination. In conditions of peace, there is a natural community of interest between the United States and all the nations of the Middle East--an interest in the region's progress, stability, and independence.
The requirements of peace in the Middle East are not hard to define in principle. It requires basic decisions by the countries of the Middle East to pursue political solutions and coexist with one another. Outside powers with interests in the area must accept their responsibility for restraint and for helping to mitigate tensions rather than exploiting them for their own advantage.
These are principles which the United States has sought to engage the other great powers in observing. Coexistence, negotiated solutions, avoiding the use or threat of force, great power restraint, noninterference, respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of states, renunciation of hegemony or unilateral advantage these are the principles of the Shanghai CommuniquпїЅ of February 1972 and the Basic Principles of U.S.-Soviet Relations of May 1972. They are not new principles; every member state of the United Nations has subscribed to their essential elements. The UN Security Council in passing Resolution 242 on November 22, 1967, envisioned a settlement of the Arab-Israeli dispute that would be consistent with them--a settlement which would include "withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from territories occupied in the recent conflict; termination of all claims or states of belligerency and respect for and acknowledgement of the sovereignty, territorial integrity and political independence of every state in the area and their right to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries free from threats or acts of force."
A commitment to such principles by the outside powers is itself a contribution to the framework for peace in the Middle East. A similar commitment by the principal countries directly involved, concretely expressed in processes of negotiation, is essential.
THE ARAB-ISRAELI CONFLICT
The focus of attention in the Middle East has been the prolonged crisis of the Arab-Israeli conflict and the persistent efforts to resolve it.
In my first Foreign Policy Report three years ago, I pointed out the serious elements of intractability that marked this conflict. It was a dispute in which each side saw vital interests at stake that could not be compromised. To Israel, the issue was survival. The physical security provided by the territories it occupied in 1967 seemed a better safeguard than Arab commitments to live in peace in exchange for return of all those territories commitments whose reliability could be fully tested only after Israel had withdrawn.
To the Arabs, negotiating new borders directly with Israel, as the latter wished, while Israel occupied Arab lands and while Palestinian aspirations went unfulfilled, seemed incompatible with justice and with the sovereignty of Arab nations. A powerful legacy of mutual fear and mistrust had to be overcome. Until that was done no compromise formula for settlement was acceptable to either side. To the major powers outside, important interests and relationships were at stake which drew them into positions of confrontation.
The problem remains. For this very reason, I have said that no other crisis area of the world has greater importance or higher priority for the United States in the second term of my Administration. At the beginning of this year I met personally with Jordan's King Hussein, Egyptian Presidential Adviser Hafiz Ismail, and Israeli Prime Minister Meir to renew explorations for a solution.
The United States has no illusions. Instant peace in the Middle East is a dream--yet the absence of progress toward a settlement means an ever-present risk of wider war, and a steady deterioration of the prospects for regional stability and for constructive relations between the countries of the area and the world outside. Arab-Israeli reconciliation may seem impossible--but in many areas of the world, accommodations not fully satisfactory to either side have eased the intensity of conflict and provided an additional measure of security to both sides. Peace cannot be imposed from outside--but I am convinced that a settlement in the Middle East is in the national interest of the United States and that for us to abandon the quest for a settlement would be inconsistent with our responsibility as a great power.
The issue for the United States, therefore, is not the desirability of an Arab-Israeli settlement, but how it can be achieved. The issue is not whether the United States will be involved in the effort to achieve it, but how the United States can be involved usefully and effectively.
The Last Four Years. Over the last four years, the United States has taken a series of initiatives and explored a variety of approaches to promoting a negotiating process. The effort has resulted in restoration of the cease-fire along the Suez Canal. It has also provided sharp definition of the issues and basic negotiating positions of the parties and a measure of realism on all sides. However, we have not succeeded in establishing a negotiating process between the parties or in achieving any substantive agreement concrete enough to break the impasse.
In 1969, starting from Resolution 242, four permanent members of the Security Council, and the United States and Soviet Union in particular, began to discuss a framework for an Arab-Israeli settlement in order to explore how the outside powers might usefully relate to the process of settlement. Their approaches differed, but the discussions illuminated the issues that divided them. By late 1969 and early 1970, significant further progress seemed unlikely for the time being.
In the summer of 1970, with the Four Power discussions stalemated and the military conflict along the Suez Canal escalating sharply with the active participation of Soviet air and air defense units, the United States launched a major initiative to reestablish the cease fire and to start negotiations. The firing stopped on August 7, but the start of negotiations was delayed by the violation in Egypt of a related military standstill agreement. A month later the authority of the Government of Jordan was challenged by the Palestinian guerrillas and an invasion from Syria. The challenge was put down, and the return of stability enhanced the ability of the Jordanian government to address the question of peace.
Early in 1971, Ambassador Jarring, the special representative of the UN Secretary General, began discussions with Israel and Egypt to try to promote agreement between the parties in accordance with his mandate under Resolution 242. When this effort lost momentum by the end of February 1971, attention shifted to the possibility of a step-by-step approach to peace, beginning with a limited pullback of Israeli troops from the Suez Canal and the opening of the Canal. At the request of Egypt and Israel, Secretary Rogers explored this approach. Talks to this end, which occupied most of the summer and fall, tried to grapple with these basic issues: the relationship of such an interim agreement to an overall peace agreement; the distance of the limited Israeli withdrawal; the nature of the Egyptian presence in the evacuated territory; the timing of Israel's use of the Canal; and the duration of the cease fire. In late 1971 and early 1972, the United States sought, again without success, to initiate indirect negotiations under its aegis between Egypt and Israel on an interim agreement.
In 1972, attention again focused on the relationship of the United States and the Soviet Union to the Middle East problem. At the Moscow Summit in May both sides reviewed their positions and reaffirmed their readiness to play a part in bringing about a settlement based on Resolution 242. The United States emphasized that a genuine negotiating process between the nations in the area was essential. The danger of inadvertent great power confrontation over the Middle East was reduced by the Moscow Summit, and also by a decision by the Government of Egypt in July to request the withdrawal of most Soviet military personnel from Egypt.
American policy has sought in other ways to promote stability in the Middle East and to preserve the possibility of solution by negotiation rather than by force of arms. During the September 1970 crisis in Jordan, the United States acted firmly to deter a wider war and dampen a dangerous situation. Throughout the period, this Administration continued its established policy of maintaining a military balance in the Middle East. I have said many times that an arms balance is essential to stability in that area--but that it alone cannot bring peace. The search for a negotiated settlement must continue.
The cease-fire reestablished in 1970 at American initiative continues to this day, and remains essential to any hope for a peaceful settlement of the Arab-Israeli conflict. The cessation of organized fighting has not only saved hundreds and perhaps thousands of lives; it has also preserved a climate that would permit negotiation. But the cease-fire will necessarily remain uneasy unless the hope for peace can be sustained by active negotiations.
A serious threat to the cease-fire and to the prospects for any political solution is the bitterness engendered by the mounting spiral of terrorism and reprisal. Terrorist acts took on a new and horrible dimension last year with the shootings at Israel's Lod Airport in the spring, where a number of Americans lost their lives, and the murder of Israeli athletes at the Munich Olympics in September. This was followed during the fall by a series of Israeli attacks on Lebanese and Syrian military installations as well as on Palestinian guerrilla bases in Lebanon and Syria. A Libyan civilian airliner was downed by Israeli aircraft while straying over the Sinai in February 1973. The following month, terrorists murdered two American diplomats and a Belgian diplomat held hostage in Khartoum. In April 1973, terrorists attacked Israeli targets in Cyprus, and Israel attacked headquarters and installations of fedayeen organizations in and around Beirut, killing three prominent Palestinian militants.
International terrorism is not exclusively an Arab-Israeli problem; it is an international problem, which the United States has made a major international effort to combat. But a generation of frustration among displaced Palestinians has made the Middle East a particular focal point for such violence.
The Situation Today. America's objective in the Middle East is still to help move the Arab-Israeli dispute from confrontation to negotiation and then toward conditions of peace as envisioned in UN Security Council Resolution 242.
But a solution cannot be imposed by the outside powers on unwilling governments. If we tried, the parties would feel no stake in observing its terms, and the outside powers would be engaged indefinitely in enforcing them. A solution can last only if the parties commit themselves to it directly. Serious negotiation will be possible, however, only if a decision is made on each side that the issues must be finally resolved by a negotiated settlement rather than by the weight or threat of force. This is more than a decision on the mechanics of negotiation; it is a decision that peace is worth compromise. It should be possible to enter such negotiations without expecting to settle all differences at once, without preconditions, and without conceding principles of honor or justice.
Two negotiating tracks have been discussed. One is Ambassador Jarring's effort to help the parties reach agreement on an overall peace settlement. The second is the offer of the United States to help get talks started on an interim agreement as a first step to facilitate negotiations on an overall settlement.
A persistent impasse, which is substantive as well as procedural, has blocked both of these approaches. It is rooted primarily in the opposing positions of the two sides on the issue of the territories. Israel has insisted that its borders should be the subject of negotiations and that substantial changes in the pre-1967 lines are necessary. Egypt, while stating its readiness to enter into a peace agreement with Israel, has insisted that before it could enter negotiations, even on an interim agreement, Israel must commit itself to withdraw to the pre-1967 lines. Jordan has also made clear its commitment to a peaceful settlement with Israel, but insists on the return of the occupied West Bank without substantial border changes and on restoration of a sovereign position in the Arab part of Jerusalem.
Recognizing the difficulty of breaking the impasse in one negotiating step--of reconciling Arab concern for sovereignty with Israeli concern for security--the United States has favored trying to achieve agreement first on an interim step. Since both Egypt and Israel asked us in 1971 to help them negotiate such an interim agreement, we proposed indirect talks between representatives of the two sides brought together at the same location. In February 1972, Israel agreed to enter talks on this basis; Egypt has expressed reservations about any negotiations in the absence of prior Israeli commitment to total withdrawal from Sinai in an overall settlement.
The dilemmas are evident. Egypt's willingness to take new steps, for example, is inhibited by the fear that further concessions could erode the principle of sovereignty without assuring that Israel is interested in reaching agreement or will make appropriate concessions in return. Israel's incentive to be forthcoming depends on a difficult basic judgment whether its giving up the physical buffer of territory would be compensated by less tangible assurances of its security--such as Arab peace commitments, demilitarization and other security arrangements, external guarantees, and a transformed and hopefully more secure political environment in the Middle East. Urging flexibility on both parties in the abstract seems futile. Neither appears willing, without assurance of a satisfactory quid pro quo, to offer specific modifications of basic positions sufficient to get a concrete negotiating process started.
A step-by-step approach still seems most practical, but we fully recognize that one step by itself cannot bring peace. First, there is a relationship between any initial step toward peace and steps which are to follow toward a broader settlement. We are open-minded on how that relationship might be established in a negotiating process, and on what role the United States might play. But the relationship cannot be ignored. Second, all important aspects of the Arab-Israeli conflict must be addressed at some stage, including the legitimate interests of the Palestinians. Implementation can occur in stages, and it should not be precluded that some issues and disputes could be resolved on a priority basis. But a comprehensive settlement must cover all the parties and all the major issues.
The issues are formidable, interlinked, and laden with emotion. The solutions cannot be found in general principles alone, but must be embodied in concrete negotiated arrangements. The parties will not be tricked into compromise positions by artful procedures. But there is room for accommodation and an overwhelming necessity to seek it.
THE INTERESTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE MAJOR POWERS
Too often in recent history, Middle East turbulence has been compounded by the involvement of outside powers. This is an ever-present danger. Our efforts with other major powers to move from an era of confrontation to an era of negotiation have addressed this problem directly.
The nations of the Middle East have the right to determine their own relationships with the major powers. They will do so according to their own judgment of their own requirements. The United States has no desire to block or interfere with political ties freely developed between Middle East countries and other major nations in the world. We have our close ties with Israel, which we value, and we also have a strong interest in preserving and developing our ties with the Arab world. Other powers have the same right. But attempts at exclusion or predominance are an invitation to conflict, either local or global.
The first dimension of the problem is, of course, the direct involvement of the great powers in the Arab-Israeli conflict. A significant Soviet presence and substantial Soviet military aid continue in the area. The Soviet Union signed a friendship treaty with Iraq in April 1972. New shipments of Soviet military equipment have now been concentrated in Syria, Iraq, and the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen. The significant factor is whether the Soviet presence is paralleled by a Soviet interest in promoting peaceful solutions. The major powers have a continuing obligation to refrain from steps which will raise again the danger of their direct engagement in military conflict.
The danger of immediate U.S.-Soviet confrontation, a source of grave concern in 1970 and 1971, is at the moment reduced. The Moscow Summit and the agreement on the Basic Principles of our relations contributed to this, not only for ,the present but also for the longer term. Neither side at the summit had any illusions that we could resolve the Arab-Israeli conflict, but there was agreement that we could keep it from becoming a source of conflict between us. The United States has no interest in excluding the Soviet Union from contributing to a Middle East settlement or from playing a significant role there. In fact, at the summit we agreed that we each had an obligation to help promote a settlement in accordance with Resolution 242.
The responsibilities and interests of the major powers in the Middle East go beyond the Arab-Israeli dispute. There are extensive political and economic ties between the countries of the region and the outside world. Here, too, there is a world interest in not allowing competitive interests to interfere with a stable evolution.
The United States considers it a principal objective to rebuild its political relations with those Arab states with whom we enjoyed good relations for most of the postwar period but which broke relations with us in 1967. We were able to restore diplomatic relations with the Yemen Arab Republic at the time of Secretary of State Rogers' visit there in July 1972; reestablishment of ties with Sudan followed shortly thereafter. We assigned two American diplomats to the interests section in Baghdad, Iraq, in 1972. We have just concluded an agreement with Algeria on a major project for the import of Algerian liquified natural gas. The United States is prepared for normal bilateral relations with all the nations of the Middle East.
The European Community is also expanding and consolidating direct ties with many nations of the Middle East and North Africa. This is a natural development; it builds on historical relationships and the economic advantages of geography. It gives these nations a greater stake in relations with the West. It gives the Western European countries an important role in maintaining the structure of peace beyond Europe. We are concerned, however, that as these relations evolve they not embody discriminatory arrangements which adversely affect our trade and that of other countries.
Economic competition in the Middle East between the United States and other free world nations could be particularly damaging in the critical area of energy. The traditional relationship between suppliers and consumers of energy has radically, and probably irrevocably, changed. In the Persian Gulf, where about two-thirds of the world's known oil reserves are located, Arab oil-producing countries have joined to reorder their relations with the international oil industry and the consumer countries. Iran has taken over operation of the companies working there. Our own requirements for Persian Gulf oil have been small--about ten percent of our total oil imports--but they will rise as U.S. energy demand expands. Assurance of the continuing flow of Middle East energy resources is increasingly important for the United States, Western Europe, and Japan. This should be addressed as a common interest.
As for the relations between producer and consumer nations, here too we believe there is a shared interest. We both stand to gain from a stable and reliable economic relationship, ensuring revenues for them and energy resources for us. Oil revenues paid to Persian Gulf states have trebled in the last five years, financing their economic development and providing an expanding market for us. Their rapidly growing foreign exchange reserves give them increasing weight--and an increasing stake--in the international monetary system. We share these countries' desire to find arrangements which enhance the region's prosperity while assuring an effective means for meeting the world's demand for energy.
THE REGIONAL FRAMEWORK
Stability in the Middle East does not depend only on Arab-Israeli peace and stable relationships with and among the great powers. Personal rivalries, ideological conflict, territorial disputes, economic competition, religious and ethnic divisions are indigenous sources of turmoil which exacerbate and are in turn exacerbated by--these other tensions. Stability therefore depends also on strengthening regional forces for cooperation and collaboration.
At the end of 1971, the nations of the Persian Gulf passed through a critical transition, with the termination of the century-old protectorate relationship between Great Britain and the nine Arab Emirates of the lower Gulf. Considering the number of states involved and the diversity of political and economic conditions, the transition of this area to independence has been remarkably smooth. The Emirates have developed new political ties among themselves and assumed responsibility for their own security and destiny. Some territorial disputes and rivalries remain, but these have not been allowed to undermine their perceived common interest in unity and stability. Two of the largest Gulf states, Iran and Saudi Arabia, have undertaken greater responsibility for helping to enhance the area's stability and for ensuring that the destiny of the Gulf will be determined by the nations of the Gulf without interference from outside.
Mutual assistance among Middle East nations has an important economic dimension. The wealthier nations of the area have--in their own interest and in the general interest--taken on the responsibility of assisting economic and social development. On the occasion of my visit to Tehran last May, I joined with His Imperial Majesty the Shah of Iran in affirming that "the economic development and welfare of the bordering states of the Persian Gulf are of importance to the stability of the region." The Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development has worked effectively in this area for some time. The Government of Saudi Arabia is providing significant support to its neighbors. Iran and other Middle East nations are adding to the flow of financial and technical help within the region.
These are positive developments. They strengthen the forces of moderation. There is reason for hope that these trends of collaboration will survive, gather strength over time, and contribute in turn to a favorable political evolution.
AGENDA FOR THE FUTURE
Looking ahead several years, what does the United States hope to see in the Middle East? We hope to see, first of all, a region at peace--with a number of strong, healthy, and independent political units cooperating among themselves, free of external interference, and welcoming the constructive participation of outside powers. I have no doubt that this is also the objective of the peoples and governments of all the countries in the Middle East.
The United States will therefore address itself to these specific tasks:
--First is the settlement of the Arab-Israeli conflict through a process of negotiation. There must be realism on all sides about what is achievable. Neither side will attain its maximum demands, but an accommodation is possible that preserves the honor and security of both sides. The absence of peace is a threat to both sides, which will increase, not diminish, over time.
--Second, the world and the region have an interest in turning great power relationships with the Middle East into a force for stability. This means that the principles of restraint, peaceful settlement, and avoidance of confrontation that are set forth in the Basic Principles of U.S.-Soviet Relations must become enduring realities. It will require outward looking economic relations among the Middle East, North Africa, the European Community, and the United States. It will require stable and dependable relations between suppliers and consumers of energy.
--Third, the United States will seek to strengthen its ties with all its traditional friends in the Middle East and restore bilateral relations where they have been severed. In conditions of security and peace, there are prospects for new forms of cooperation, in the interest of enhancing the independence of the area's nations.
--In the economic dimension particularly, the United States can make a unique contribution to progress and stability. Where capital assistance is not the greatest need, American technical and managerial skills can be a major spur to modernization. Where promising new development programs are being undertaken, the United States can contribute resources productively. If the peoples of the area are to realize their aspirations for a better future in conditions of peace, economic rehabilitation and development will be essential, and the United States will do its share. The United States is committed to helping achieve these objectives.
SOUTH ASIA
The American interest in South Asia is clear-cut: we want the region to be a contributor to global peace, not a threat to it. We want the region to be an example to the world of peaceful progress.
Last year in South Asia was a year of rebuilding. Societies torn by political upheaval, war, and natural disaster took up the tasks of reconstruction. The nations of the subcontinent began reshaping the relations among themselves. They began rebuilding their relations with the world outside. This is an arduous process, but the United States has an important stake in its success.
I have always believed that the United States, uniquely among the major powers, shared a common interest with the nations of the subcontinent in their peace, independence, and stability. Today this is more true than ever. The United States has no economic or strategic interest in a privileged position, nor in forming ties directed against any country inside the region or outside the region, nor in altering the basic political framework on the subcontinent. We have an interest in seeing that no other great power attempts this either--and we believe the best insurance against this is a stable regional system founded on the secure independence of each nation in it. The destiny of each nation of South Asia should be for it to determine. The United States serves its own interest by respecting that right and helping them preserve it.
As I wrote last October to my Advisory Panel on South Asian Relief Assistance after it reported to me on its visit to Bangladesh, "The United States could not and cannot ignore the needs and the aspirations of the more than 700 million South Asians. Our effort to join other nations in meeting the most urgent needs of those who live in this area has reflected not only our compassion for them in their distress but also our recognition that an orderly society depends on the capacity of governments to 'promote the general welfare.'"
We therefore want to see Pakistan consolidate its integrity as a nation, restore its economic vitality, and take its place among the proud democratic nations of the world. We want to see the new People's Republic of Bangladesh flourish as a non-aligned and economically viable democratic state. We want to join with India in a mature relationship founded on equality, reciprocity, and mutual interests, reflecting India's stature as a great free nation. We want to see all the small countries of South Asia live in stability and secure in their independence.
THE STRUCTURE OF PEACE IN SOUTH ASIA
In 1971 the breakdown of peace in South Asia not only brought war and suffering to the millions of people directly affected. It raised concern about stability for the whole region from the Persian Gulf to Southeast Asia. It involved the great powers in a potentially dangerous confrontation whose significance went far beyond the immediate South Asian conflict.
Today we can hope that the subcontinent has found a new foundation for stability.
This will depend first and foremost on the normalization of relations between India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. This means, to begin with, resolving the issues left by the events of 1971: repatriation of prisoners of war and other personnel detained; recognition and establishment of diplomatic relations; and resumption of trade and equitable division of assets and liabilities between Pakistan and Bangladesh. Beyond this, it means consolidating a new stability on the subcontinent: an end to the arms race; an end to territorial disputes; expanded economic cooperation; and creation of a climate of security and, ultimately, reconciliation.
The primary responsibility for this process rests necessarily on the region's nations. The Simla Conference in June-July 1972 between President Bhutto and Prime Minister Gandhi, which produced agreement on the outline of a settlement between Pakistan and India, was a dramatic and promising step. Progress since then has been slow, as the relationship between India and Pakistan has become intertwined with the resolution of the unsettled issues between Pakistan and Bangladesh. President Bhutto has been understandably insistent on the return of the 90,000 Pakistani prisoners of war detained in India. India has been unwilling to release them without Bangladesh's concurrence. Prime Minister Mujib, until recently, insisted that Pakistani recognition of Bangladesh must precede any other steps toward reconciliation, and he has sought the return of Bengalees detained in Pakistan. Just this past month, however, new efforts have been made to break the impasse.
The United States, from its Vietnam experience, has a natural sympathy for Pakistan's desire for the return of its prisoners of war, and for the repatriation of all detainees. It is a basic humanitarian concern and also a way of liquidating one of the vestiges of the war and beginning a process of reconciliation. At the same time, recognition of Bangladesh as a new reality in the subcontinent is a key step toward stabilization of relations in South Asia.
As a general matter, reconciliation on the subcontinent is not a process the United States can directly affect, except to give encouragement and support to constructive actions. We have sought, on the other hand, through our bilateral relations with the nations of the area, to address the fundamental problems of recovery and stability.
Pakistan. As I stated in my Report last year, "Our concern for the well-being and security of the people of Pakistan does not end with the end of a crisis." The United States has always had a close and warm relationship with Pakistan, and we have a strong interest today in seeing it build a new future.
Pakistan entered 1972 a deeply troubled and demoralized nation. Crisis and defeat in 1971 had torn apart its political structure, halved its population, and shattered the established patterns of its economy. Yet the events of 1971 also brought to power the first civilian administration Pakistan has had since 1958 and produced a new and determined effort to develop institutions of representative government. The National Assembly in April 1973 has just adopted a new democratic federal constitution. President Bhutto has taken many courageous steps of political, economic, and social reform. He has restored much of the self-confidence of his countrymen.
The cohesion and stability of Pakistan are of critical importance to the structure of peace in South Asia. Encouragement of turmoil within nations on the subcontinent can bring not only the devastation of civil and international war, but the involvement of outside powers. This is the basis of America's interest in helping Pakistan now consolidate its integrity as a nation.
To this end, since January 1972 we have provided over $300 million to assist Pakistan's program of economic recovery. Our assistance in the form of new loans to facilitate imports essential to Pakistan's industrial and agricultural growth totaled $120 million. We worked with Pakistani and United Nations authorities to channel $14 million in food and commodity emergency relief to the roughly 1.2 million Pakistanis displaced from their homes by the 1971 war. We have committed $124 million in Title I PL-480 food:stuffs (including 1.3 million tons of wheat) to meet shortages resulting from inadequate rainfall and the dislocations of the war. We provided $5 million in technical assistance. We made about $45 million in aid available to support the multilateral Indus Basin development program. In addition, we joined with other members of the Pakistan Consortium, led by the World Bank, to provide emergency debt relief, the U.S. share totaling $50 million over 1979 and 1973.
As Pakistan now turns its efforts again to long term economic and social development, the United States once again stands ready to assist in collaboration with the Consortium and the World Bank. The prospects are encouraging, particularly because of the success Pakistan has had through its own efforts in the past year to reorient its economy after the loss %f the eastern wing. Pakistan has already managed to expand its international markets for its cotton and rice to more than offset the loss of the east as a market and as an exporter. Its export earnings this year may even surpass the combined export earnings of East and West Pakistan in 1970, the last pre-war year.
The United States believes that Pakistan, like any other nation, has a right to its independence and security. Peace and stability on the subcontinent cannot be founded on any other basis. I made a.. decision in March 1973 to fulfill outstanding contractual obligations to Pakistan and India for limited quantities of military equipment whose delivery had been suspended in 1971. Our policy now, as before 1971, is to permit the export of nonlethal equipment and of spare parts for equipment previously supplied by the United States. There is no change in our purpose. We are not participating in an arms race in the subcontinent.
Bangladesh. Bangladesh emerged from the 1971 crisis with a surge of enthusiasm, an unpredictable political situation, and a shattered economy. Its leaders faced the formidable tasks of restoring civil peace and harnessing national energies for building the political and administrative organization for a new state, while meeting ,he emergency and long-term human and development needs of what is now one of the world's most populous--and poorest-nations.
While the United States deplored the fact that military solutions were resorted to in 1971, we did not dispute the aspirations of the people of East Bengal for autonomy. My Foreign Policy Report last year described our efforts in 1971 to promote a peaceful political resolution of the crisis. We opposed not independence, but the outbreak of international war. Throughout the crisis year of 1971, the United States provided two-thirds of the world's relief to East Bengal, and supported the administration of that relief effort by international authorities. Once the issue was settled by the fact of independence, our principal interest was in the rehabilitation and stability of the new state. Our relief effort continued even in the absence of diplomatic relations. The United States formally recognized Bangladesh in April 1972, and established diplomatic relations in May.
Since January 1972, first under United Nations auspices and since May also bilaterally, the United States has contributed over a third of a billion dollars to relief and rehabilitation in Bangladesh. The mobilized efforts and resources of the world forestalled a major famine, and the United States provided more than any other nation. We provided $144 million in PL-480 food and grants for food distribution; $21 million in grants to American voluntary agencies to aid in the resettlement of thousands of Bengalee families; a $35 million grant to the UN Relief Operation Dacca, mainly for food distribution; and $145 million in bilateral grants to the Bangladesh Government for essential commodities and to restore transportation services, power stations, hospitals, and schools, for the rehabilitation of the economy.
The political and economic progress of the new nation is an enormous challenge to its leaders. Unemployment, inflation, and commodity shortages remained serious in 1972. Civil disorders continued. The Bangladesh Government in 1972 was able to begin effective rehabilitation programs and to begin considering its pressing longer term development needs in cooperation with friendly nations and international lending institutions. We are particularly encouraged by its achievement of a new constitution, a new parliament, and a strong electoral mandate for the leadership of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. Our interest in Bangladesh is in its stability-lest turmoil there affect other nations-and in its genuine non-alignment and peaceful policies. Instability anywhere in the subcontinent is an invitation to interference from outside.
Bangladesh's success in meeting this challenge will be a most important determinant of the future of peace in South Asia in the years to come.
India. India emerged from the 1971 crisis with new confidence, power, and responsibilities. This fact in itself was a new political reality for the subcontinent and for all nations concerned with South Asia's future. For the nations of that region, the question was how India would use its power. For the nations outside the region, the question was what the relationship of this power would be to that of other powers in the world.
Last year I explained that the United States was prepared for a serious dialogue with India on the future of our relations. We have taken steps in that direction in 1972. The United States respects India as a major country. We are prepared to treat India in accordance with its new stature and responsibilities, on the basis of reciprocity.
Because India is a major country, her actions on the world stage necessarily affect us and our interests.
--India's relationships with the major powers are for it to decide, and we have no interest in inhibiting their growth. However, we have a natural concern that India not be locked into exclusive ties with major countries directed against us or against other countries with whom we have relationships which we value.
--There have been serious differences over U.S. policy in Indochina. With the ending of the war, that problem is reduced, and we feel that India, as a chairman of the International Control Commission for Laos and Cambodia and a country with a stake in Asian peace, has an opportunity to play an important positive role in consolidating a just peace in Indochina.
--India's policy toward its neighbors on the subcontinent and other countries in nearby parts of Asia is now an important determinant of regional stability, which is of interest to us.
--Other aspects of Indian policy affect us, and we have had our natural concerns. We have expressed unhappiness when Indian leaders have used the United States as a scapegoat in domestic disputes, which does not serve our common objective of improved relations.
Fundamentally, I believe that the United States and a non-aligned India have no significant conflicting interests. The United States has an interest in India's independence, and a natural preference. to see democratic institutions flourish. We share an interest in the success and stability of Bangladesh. And as India and Pakistan move toward more normal relations, external military supply loses its relevance to the politics of the subcontinent. In short, the United States wants to see a subcontinent that is independent, progressive, and peaceful. We believe India shares these objectives-and this can be the firm basis of a constructive relationship.
--The United States will not join in any groupings or pursue any policies directed against India. Our normalization of relations with the People's Republic of China is not directed against India or inconsistent with our desire to enjoy good relations with India. The United States and China declared in the Shanghai CommuniquпїЅ that we both saw attempts at collusion, hegemony, or spheres of interest as inconsistent with peace in Asia. I believe that on this principle a constructive pattern of relations is possible among all the major countries of Asia, and this is the objective of United States policy.
--Both the United States and India are interested in defining a new basis for a mature economic relationship between us over the longer term. In October 1972, the United States joined in a program to reschedule the Indian debt under the aegis of the World Bank, and in March 1973 we lifted the suspension imposed in December 1971 on the flow of $87.6 million in past development loans. For the future, both sides are now interested in how to move toward Indian self-reliance. This raises the issues of the role of U.S. development assistance, our trade relations, our consultation on world trade and monetary issues that affect Indian interests, and our common interest in promoting economic development on the subcontinent and elsewhere in Asia. A new framework for this economic relationship is a fruitful topic for our dialogue.
Our dialogue has now begun. Secretary Connally, on his visit to New Delhi, Dacca, and Islamabad last July, had frank and important talks on my behalf with Prime Minister Gandhi and her government's leaders. Indian Finance Minister Chavan consulted with Secretary Shultz in Washington in March 1973 on trade and monetary issues. Ambassador Moynihan's cordial reception in India was a sign that the passage of time and constructive attitudes on both sides have laid a foundation for a serious improvement in our relations. The recent discussions which Deputy Secretary of State Rush had in New Delhi on his trip to South Asia confirmed this.
We both understand, of course, that the issue is not one of communication or atmosphere. Our differences in 1971 injected a healthy realism and maturity into the U.S.-Indian relationship. We can deal with each other now without sentimentality and without the illusion that because we are both great democracies our foreign policies must be the same. Nor do great nations decide their policies on the ephemeral criterion of popularity. We have our interests and responsibilities; India's policy choices are for India to make. Good relations will come not from an identity of policies, but from respect for each other's concerns and a consciousness of the basic interest we share in global peace.
The Smaller Nations of South Asia. The smaller nations of South Asia are part of the regional system, and their well-being and independence are important to it. We do not view them as part of any country's sphere of influence. They have a right to their independence and non-alignment and a right to remain neutral with respect to the problems of their larger neighbors. Each has its own character, aspirations, and problems, and we seek relationships with each one on the basis of mutual respect.
We welcome the improvement in our relations with Sri Lanka in the past few years. Sri Lanka has strengthened its internal stability, and we hope to maintain and expand our cooperation and to assist Sri Lanka's progress. The United States joined with many other nations to assist Afghanistan in its recovery from a two-year drought and we will continue our cooperation in its economic development. We have assisted Nepal in its efforts to modernize its agriculture and transport, and we will welcome the opportunity to continue this relationship as our help is wanted. We value our contacts with all the small countries of the region--from Bhutan to the Maldives.
Every country on the subcontinent has a basic right to determine its own destiny without interference or dominance by any other. The United States places a high value on this right, out of conviction and out of our interest in a peaceful regional system. Every major power--now including India, with its new power in the region--has a basic responsibility toward the international system to exercise its power with restraint, so that these smaller nations may look to the future confident of their security and independence.
AGENDA FOR THE FUTURE
When I visited South Asia in 1969, I said, "I wish to communicate my government's conviction that Asian hands must shape the Asian future." This was not a statement of lack of interest in South Asia; it was, on the contrary, a recognition that America's relationship with Asia would change and that our involvement would require the increasing assumption of responsibility for the Asian future by the people of Asia. The United States role would be one of assistance; we would cooperate, but would not prescribe.
That was a time of significant progress and hope in South Asia. In conditions of peace, the gains from major economic policy decisions and reforms during the 1960's in both India and Pakistan were being consolidated. The full potential of the Green Revolution was beginning to be recognized and in some areas realized. The concepts and practices of economic development and population planning were maturing.
Along with this progress, enormous problems remained on the agenda, and we discussed these at length in both India and Pakistan during my visits: the need for peace and normalization of relations between India and Pakistan; the future direction of Asia, of South Asian nations in relation to the rest of Asia, and of the United States, the Soviet Union, and the People's Republic of China in relation to them; the need for a new relationship between aid donor and aid recipient; and the continuing efforts of governments to meet the demands and aspirations of their people for economic and social development.
The crisis of 1971 interrupted and enormously complicated these tasks--and underlined their urgency. For the United States the crisis of 1971 illustrated again that we did not control the destiny of South Asia--but that we had an important stake in it. The agenda for the future is both the natural outgrowth of the agenda we faced in 1969 and the legacy of the upheaval of 1971.
The first responsibility for building the future of South Asia rests on the leaders and peoples of South Asian nations themselves.
--To a unique degree, the political future of the subcontinent depends on the ability of institutions to meet basic human needs--the needs of the victims of drought, cyclone, flood, war, disease, hunger, and unemployment. No particular political form guarantees that these needs will be met. What is important is the determination to build institutions that can respond to human needs and give diverse elements a stake in a larger community.
--A precondition for the fulfillment of these aspirations is a sense of security and a lessening of tensions between nations on the subcontinent. Each nation must respect the integrity of the other, and each must have the confidence that it can maintain its integrity and choose its future without fear of pressure or dominance from outside.
--The relations between the countries of South Asia and countries outside the region must be consistent with the peace and independence of the subcontinent and the peace of the world. If any outside power acquires an exclusive position in an area of this mass and potential, others will be forced to respond. The major powers all have important relationships there. No South Asian interest is served if those relationships are embroiled in local tensions.
The United States will support, as we can, South Asian efforts to address this agenda.
First, the United States will contribute, where asked and where possible, to meeting human needs and to the process of development. We do this out of the traditional humanitarian concern of the American people, and out of a common interest in supporting the effectiveness and stability of institutions. Where our economic assistance does not serve mutual interests, it should not be provided. Where it does, ways must be found to assure that the form of aid is consistent with the dignity of both the donor and the recipient. The donor must not expect special influence in return; the recipient must acknowledge a mutuality of interest, for only in a relationship of acknowledged common purpose are assistance programs sustainable.
Second, United States policies globally and regionally will support the independence of South Asian nations. Within the region, we shall encourage accommodation and help to promote conditions of security and stability. We see no reason why we cannot have bilateral ties with each country in South Asia consistent with its own aspirations and ours, and not directed against any other nation. We shall gear our relations with other major powers outside the region to encourage policies of restraint and noninterference. This is our responsibility as a great power, and should be theirs.
Third, we shall seek to assure that the concerns of all South Asians are heard in world councils on the issues of global peace and on all issues that affect them. This is not only for their benefit; it is for the general interest in building economic and political relations globally that all have a stake in preserving. As I wrote in my Foreign Policy Report in 1971: "More than ever before in the period since World War II, foreign policy must become the concern of many rather than few. There cannot be a structure of peace unless other nations help to fashion it." It is in the world interest that South Asia make a positive contribution.
I hope to see South Asia become a region of peace instead of crisis, and a force for peace in the world.
AFRICA
The birth of Africa's new nations was one of the dramatic features of the postwar period. The assertion of black nationhood in Africa coincided with a new affirmation of Black dignity in America/, creating a special bond of sympathy between the United States and the new Africa. But in the conditions of the time, the United States was preoccupied with African crises. We assumed we would be drawn into assertive involvement on the continent economically and politically, both because of endemic instability and poverty and the threat of aggressive competition from Communist powers. In an exuberant phase of our own foreign policy, the Uniued States exaggerated its ability to help solve many of Africa's problems.
Conditions had changed by the time I came into office. The United States clearly needed a more coherent philosophy for a long-term, positive role in Africa's future. There was no question about America's continuing commitment to the goals of regional peace, economic development, self-determination, and racial justice in Africa. The issue was to focus seriously on effective ways America could contribute to them in new conditions.
--The stark, long-term problems which Africa faced had not disappeared. But in many countries a new generation of leaders had come into power who knew that rhetoric was no substitute for determined effort to govern effectively and mobilize their peoples to meet the tasks ahead. Given underdevelopment, ethnic rivalries, and the arbitrary boundaries left by the colonial powers, the political cohesion and stability achieved by Africa's 41 nations was a testimony to African statesmanship. Moreover, African nations had proven to be the best guarantors of their own sovereignty. The continent was not divided into great power spheres of influence nor did it become an arena of great power confrontation.
--In the economic sphere, while the United States was able to maintain the level of its governmental assistance, the most promising sources of capital to finance African development were now trade and private investment. The means of American support for African development would thus necessarily be more diverse, and the first responsibility for mobilizing energies and resources would clearly rest on the Africans themselves.
--The yearning for racial justice in the southern half of the continent continued unfulfilled after more than a decade of violence and excessive rhetoric. The task now was to devise new and practical steps toward beneficial change.
Our policy goals in Africa are unchanged: political stability, freedom from great power intervention, and peaceful economic and social development. We seek positive bilateral relations with African nations founded on their self-reliance and independence, and on forms of support which we can sustain over the long term.
ECONOMIC PROGRESS IN AFRICA
The principal role America can play in the continent's future is that of support for economic development--one of the primary objectives of all African countries. This is what Africa's leaders have told me they need--and this is the field in which the United States can contribute most effectively.
Our common objective is Africa's self-reliance. African efforts, national and regional, are the key to this accomplishment.
We are encouraged by the growth and success of African institutions of regional cooperation. The recent creation of the African Development Fund is a promising example of such African initiatives.
Our interests in supporting Africa's development efforts rests on many bases. A central motive is our humanitarian concern. We also believe that as the quality of life improves on the continent, so will the prospects for regional peace. In addition a developing African economy will mean expanding potential markets for American goods. Moreover, Africa is becoming a major source of energy for the United States and Western Europe. Libya is one of the world's important producers of oil; Nigeria's oil production is increasing; Algerian natural gas is a rapidly growing source of world energy. One fourth of the world's known uranium ore reserves are in Africa. As the West seeks new and alternative sources of energy, African development becomes increasingly important.
There should be no illusions about the barriers to economic progress in Africa. The average per capita Gross National Product of most African nations ranges between $100 and $200 a year. Subsistence agriculture is the principal means of livelihood for much of their population. Malnutrition and disease are widespread. Africa still needs to build its social infrastructure-education and technical skills, public health, new methods of agricultural production, and improved transport links within nations and on a regional scale-
The United States can be proud of its record of direct development assistance to Africa. We have assisted Africa both through bilateral aid and by contributing over 30 percent of the funds provided to Africa by international agencies. In this Administration, in spite of limited resources available for our total foreign aid program, we have increased our assistance to Africa in each of the last three years. In 1972 our bilateral and multilateral aid was $600 million--up from $550 million in 1971 and $450 million in 1970. Our programs have reflected an increasing emphasis on areas of technical assistance that are relevant to broad regional needs, such as food and livestock production and regional transportation systems. Two thousand four hundred Peace Corps volunteers are currently serving in Africa, bringing needed skills and demonstrating America's commitment to helping others.
American direct private investment in Africa has almost doubled in the last four years, reaching a total of $4 billion, and 75 percent of that total is in Africa's developing countries. We have promoted trade and development in Africa through our Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC), which promotes the flow of American capital to the developing world, and through the guarantee and other facilities of the Export-Import Bank, whose long-term loans for African trade reached a record total of $113 million in 1972•
American firms can be a conduit for the transfer of skills, resources, and technology. The productive impact of these enterprises may be the most direct as well as the most reliable outside stimulus to the raising of living standards in developing Africa.
Obviously such private activity must be undertaken in ways consistent with the sovereignty and policies of African governments. We accept the basic principle of the Charter of the Organization of African Unity that the natural and human resources of Africa must be harnessed for the total advancement of African peoples. The specific conditions for private outside investment, and the degree of local participation in control and in profits, should be determined on a fair basis reflecting the interdependence of the relationship. American companies seek no special privileges, and the United States seeks no special advantage. Where investment has been allowed to take root and flourish, economic performance has been impressive. This is the clearest demonstration of a shared interest.
Trade expansion is important to both Africa and the United States. Our two-way trade has grown 30 percent in the last three years, but it is still modest in scale-only about $3.1 billion in 1972. The U.S. sponsored African Trade and Development Conference in Washington last October brought together representatives of African Governments, our Government, and the American business community to promote trade with developing Africa. We have an interest in seeing U.S.-African trade expand in a balanced way. Such trade reflects a healthy interdependence which serves the needs both of African progress and of the American economy. Our imports from Africa in 1972 rose to $1.6 billion, a 33 percent increase over the previous year. U.S. exports to Africa, however, declined slightly in 1972.
The future of our trade with Africa and our hopes for its expansion will be affected by still-unresolved problems concerning the international terms of trade. One issue is that of commodity agreements. Understandably, African nations heavily dependent on a single crop like cocoa or coffee are interested in agreements stabilizing the prices of these commodities. The United States as a consuming nation, on the other hand, seeking to control inflation at home, tends to favor free-market determination of price. This is a difficult problem involving divergent interests, and we recognize its vital importance to many African countries. We are committed to addressing the problem cooperatively and are prepared for regular consultation and exchanges of information on market conditions.
Another important issue for the United States is the evolving economic relationship between African nations and the European Community. The growth of preferential arrangements discriminating against competing American products in both European and African markets is naturally of concern to the United States. In this year of important multilateral trade negotiations, the United States will work for solutions that serve the long-term general interest in an open global system of expanding trade.
The United States has continued to respond to many of Africa's needs with humanitarian assistance. This is a reflection of the traditional concern of the American people. For decades, dedicated Americans have worked--through private and voluntary agencies and public programs--to help Africans combat illiteracy, starvation, disease, and the effects of natural disasters. We can take particular pride in our contribution to a major seven-year campaign to control smallpox throughout Central and West Africa. Working with the World Health Organization and twenty African Governments, we helped virtually to eliminate the disease from the area. We are continuing efforts to reduce the prevalence of measles in the area. In the semi-arid states south of the Sahara, where another year of inadequate rainfall threatened large-scale starvation, the United States provided emergency grain above and beyond the quantities already being provided.
Where civil strife has occurred, the United States has responded with generosity and impartiality to the basic human needs of the victims of conflict. In the last year, even before the resumption of diplomatic ties with Sudan, we provided humanitarian aid to the Sudanese Government for the resettlement of refugees in the southern part of that country. The United States contributed to international programs to relieve the suffering of refugees who had fled from Burundi to neighboring countries. When Asians were expelled from Uganda, this country opened its doors to. 1,500 of their number.
STABILITY IN AFRICA
There is no area of the world where states are more assertive of their national independence and sovereignty than in Africa. This is understandable because of still fresh memories of colonial experiences and because so many of these states continue to feel vulnerable to outside intervention and internal subversion. In each of my Foreign Policy Reports to Congress I have affirmed that non-interference in African internal affairs is a cardinal principle of United States policy. I reaffirm that principle, and pledge that we shall respect it. The same obligation rests on other outside powers. We believe that restraint should characterize great power conduct. This is in the interest of Africa's secure place in the international system, and in the interest of Africa's stability.
Africa's nations themselves have proven to be the best champions of their right to determine their own future. African leadership has accomplished impressive examples of nation-building.
--Ethiopia, under the Emperor's leadership, has for decades been a symbol of African independence and a leader of institutions of African unity.
--Nigeria has not only survived a bitter civil war; it has gone far toward national reconciliation. Today it is a united, confident nation.
--Strife-torn Congo (Kinshasa) has transformed itself into the new and stable Zaire, with promising prospects for development.
--In Sudan, years of warfare between north and south were ended in 1972 and the nation embarked on a new era of unity and reconstruction.
These achievements by four of Africa's largest and most important states are grounds for confidence in Africa's future.
African nations have also shown their determination to safeguard the peace of their own continent. Out of their great diversity, they have fashioned institutions which have dampened political conflicts and provided mutual support for common purposes. The Organization of African Unity, celebrating its tenth anniversary this year, deserves special note. African states also have worked out bilateral solutions to serious problems. The accord reached in 1972 between Sudan and Ethiopia, which helped settle Sudan's internal conflict, and the understanding reached last year between Morocco and Algeria over their border dispute were two noteworthy achievements.
There also were serious disappointments in 1972. It would be less than candid not to mention them, for I am sure they were disappointments, too, to Africans who are working for peace and justice on the continent.
The situation in Burundi posed a genuine dilemma for us and for African countries. Non-interference in the internal political affairs of other countries is a paramount and indispensable principle of international relations. But countries have a right to take positions of conscience. We would have expected that the first responsibility for taking such positions rested upon the African nations, either individually or collectively. The United States urged African leaders to address the problem of the killings in Burundi. We provided humanitarian assistance, impartially, to those who needed it in Burundi or who fled. All of the African leaders we spoke to voiced their concern to us; some raised it with Burundi's leaders. But ultimately none spoke out when these diplomatic efforts failed.
In Uganda, the attacks on that country's intellectual class, as well as the expulsion of Asians, were deplorable tragedies. The United States has provided refuge for some of the Asians, whose expulsion, whatever the rationale, had racial implications which do no credit or service to Africa.
While events in these two countries were tragic in comparison with the continent's other achievements, the ability of African leaders to maintain independence and territorial integrity while welding ethnic diversity into nationhood remains an undeniable source of real hope for the future.
SOUTHERN AFRICA
The denial of basic rights to southern Africa's black majorities continues to be a concern for the American people because of our belief in self-determination and racial equality.
Our views about South Africa's dehumanizing system of apartheid have been expressed repeatedly by this Administration in the United Nations, in other international forums, and in public statements. As I said in my Foreign Policy Report two years ago, however, "just as we will not condone the violence to human dignity implicit in apartheid, we cannot associate ourselves with those who call for a violent solution to these problems."
We should also recognize that South Africa is a dynamic society with an advanced economy, whose continued growth requires raising the skills and participation of its non-white majority. It is particularly gratifying that some American companies have taken the lead in encouraging this. They recognized that they were in a unique position to upgrade conditions and opportunities for all their employees regardless of race, to the fullest extent possible under South African laws.
In addition, we have sought to maintain contact with all segments of South African society. We do not endorse the racial policies of South Africa's leaders. But we do not believe that isolating them from the influence of the rest of the world is an effective way of encouraging them to follow a course of moderation and to accommodate change.
In the Portuguese territories, we favor self-determination. We have clearly expressed this position in the United Nations, and we shall continue to do so.
The United States continues to enforce--more strictly than many other countries--an embargo on sales of arms to all sides in South Africa and in the Portuguese territories. While we favor change, we do not regard violence as an acceptable formula for human progress.
We do not recognize the regime in power in Rhodesia; as far as permitted by domestic legislation exempting strategic materials, the United States adheres strictly to the United Nations program of economic sanctions. In Namibia, we recognize United Nations jurisdiction and discourage United States private investment.
No one who understands the complex human problems of Southern Africa believes that solutions will come soon or easily. Nor should there be any illusion that the United States can transform the situation, or indeed, that the United States should take upon itself that responsibility. This is the responsibility of the people who live there, not of any outside power.
It is important that all who seek a resolution of these problems address them with seriousness, honesty, and compassion.
THE FUTURE OF U.S.-AFRICAN RELATIONS
It is important to us that we have been able to preserve our political ties with this important sector of the Third World 'in this new period. My fourteen personal meetings with African leaders during my first term in office were an opportunity to further this process, as were the extensive visits to Africa by the Vice President and the Secretary of State--the first visit by an American Secretary of State to black Africa. A very special event occurred in January 1972--an official trip to Africa by Mrs. Nixon. Her warm reception in Ghana, the Ivory Coast, and Liberia was a symbol of the friendship of Africans toward Americans and was particularly gratifying for that reason. I will have further meetings with African leaders this year. I traveled to Africa four times before becoming President, and I hope to become the first American President to visit black Africa while in office. I intend as President to demonstrate my concern for Africa--as a matter both of personal conviction and of national policy.
American policy toward Africa in the 1970's will reflect not only our friendship but a mature political relationship. The United States and African nations can deal with each other with frankness and mutual understanding. There will be differences of view, and there should be no illusions about this on either side. But the United States will seek bilateral relations with African countries on the basis of sovereign equality and mutual respect.
We have an interest in the independence and nonalignment of African countries. We ask only that they take truly nonaligned positions on world issues and on the roles of the major powers.
Our most tangible contribution to Africa's future is our support for its economic progress. We will continue to emphasize our aid, trade, and investment efforts.
We will continue to encourage evolutionary change in Southern Africa through communication with the peoples of the area and through encouragement of economic progress.
These are practical measures of support. They reflect our conviction that .. Africa needs concrete measures that have a real impact on its problems. Our approach represents a positive and constructive role for America to play over the long term. It sets goals we can meet. In a new period, this philosophy suits the new maturity of American policy, of African policy, and of our relationship.
PART V: DESIGNING A NEW ECONOMIC SYSTEM
INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC POLICY
International economic forces have a direct bearing on the lives of people in all countries. The monetary, trade, and investment policies of any government strongly affect the jobs, prices, and incomes of its people. They influence conditions in many other countries as well. Inevitably, they have a major impact on international relations.
We have moved far toward resolving political differences through negotiation in recent years. But the peace and stability we seek could be jeopardized by economic conflicts. Such conflicts breed political tensions, weaken security ties, undermine confidence in currencies, disrupt trade, and otherwise rend the fabric of cooperation on which world order depends.
It is imperative therefore that our efforts in the international economic arena be no less energetic, no less imaginative, and no less determined than our efforts to settle other complicated and vitally important problems.
In the past two years we have begun a major effort to reform the international monetary system, improve the mechanisms of world trade, and normalize our commercial relations with the People's Republic of China, the Soviet Union, and the nations of Eastern Europe. We have moved closer to new agreements that will provide greater prosperity for us and for other nations while ensuring that economic relations reinforce traditional ties and contribute to the development of new ones. We have the chance to make economic relations a strong force for strengthening the structure of peace.
THE INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC SYSTEM
The economic arrangements and institutions created following World War II served well until recent years. But as nations gained strength, points of economic contact between them multiplied and relative positions shifted, their policies had a deeper and broader effect on one another. International institutions and arrangements proved incapable of coping with the major problems that arose. Conflicts, imbalances, divisions, and protectionist tendencies threatened political, security, and economic cooperation. Nations were forced to meet repeated crises but did not get at their causes. In August 1971 we decided to take strong action toward fundamental reform of the world economic system. Our initiatives and proposals in 1972 moved the international community further towards that needed reform.
Our goal is to work with other nations to build a new economic order to meet the world's needs in the last quarter of this century. We believe these new arrangements should achieve six major objectives:
--continued economic progress from which all nations benefit;
--a broader sharing of responsibility commensurate with new economic power relationships and the potential benefits to be gained;
--rules that reflect an equitable balance among the interests of all nations;
--the widest possible consensus for principles of open economic intercourse, orderly economic behavior, and effective economic adjustment;
--improved methods for assuring that those principles are adhered to; and
--sufficient flexibility to allow each nation to operate within agreed standards in ways best suited to its political character, its stage of development, and its economic structure.
The achievement of these objectives can create a new balance between diverse national economic needs and a greater international unity of purpose. Economic relations can become a source of strength and harmony among countries rather than a source of friction.
But these objectives can be achieved only if nations make a strong commitment to them. Close and constructive cooperation among the European Community, Japan, and the United States--the three pillars of the Free World economy--will be essential. Other nations, including the developing countries, Canada, and Australia must play a major role. All have an important stake in an improved economic system. Our country, for example, will import increasing amounts of energy fuels and raw materials and therefore will have to sell more abroad to pay for them. But the stakes go beyond the problems of individual nations. Nations must be determined to channel potential conflict into constructive competition to strengthen their mutual prosperity and the prospects for a more peaceful world order.
INTERNATIONAL MONETARY POLICY
In the late 1960's, the monetary system created at Bretton Woods a quarter of a century before was beset by crisis. By mid-1971 it had given rise to serious imbalance and instability which placed intolerable pressures on the United States. My decision of August 15--10 suspend dollar convertibility and to impose a ten percent surcharge on imports--set the stage for thoroughgoing reform.
The Smithsonian Agreement of December 1971 moved toward more realistic exchange rates. By making both surplus and deficit nations responsible for balance of payments adjustment, it had important implications for the future. But its greatest significance was as the essential prologue to full reappraisal and reform of the system.
The Agreement was not designed to resolve all the problems. Heavy speculative pressures developed periodically; the substantial deficit continued in America's balance of payments, and many countries reinforced exchange controls.
Proposals for Reform. Early in 1972 we sought to establish a new forum to examine the problem. The members of the International Monetary Fund established the Committee of Twenty with representatives of both developed and developing nations for this purpose.
After consultations with other governments we took advantage of the annual meeting of the International Monetary Fund/World Bank in September 1972 to put forward our views on needed reform in specific and comprehensive terms.
Of the proposals we put forward at the September meeting, one in particular-improvement of the balance of payments adjustment process--has important foreign policy implications. Because it deals with trade, investment, and monetary flows affecting the lives of people in all nations, balance of payments adjustment is an extremely sensitive issue. Relative competitive positions are particularly vital to the economic well-being of those living in nations that depend substantially on foreign trade. Exchange rates have a major impact on the international competitiveness of nations and thus affect the jobs and incomes of their people. When exchange rates are seriously out of line, the prospect of abrupt change in currency markets creates uncertainty, disrupts trade, and adversely affects the domestic economies of all nations. When one nation believes that another's adjustment or failure to adjust damages its interests, serious international friction can result.
Too little attention was paid to adjustment under the Bretton Woods System. Nations put a high premium on holding their exchange rates fixed. Remembering the dollar shortage of the early postwar period, many countries came to feel more secure with substantial surpluses and were reluctant to undertake adjustments to reduce them. Even after they had achieved large payments surpluses and growing reserves, some governments continued to help certain export industries and inefficient domestic industries. Yet precisely because of their large surpluses and reserves, balance of payments adjustments should have been made. Once the psychology of building surpluses and emphasizing exports had taken firm root, countries were concerned with the domestic repercussions of changing course.
There were other deficiencies in the system:
--there was no agreed way to determine when an imbalance should be corrected;
--there were too few means to induce surplus nations to reduce imbalances;
--there were too few methods used to adjust imbalances. In the industrialized countries, domestic fiscal and monetary policies were considered the most appropriate methods, but we and others have learned that such measures are not always adequate or feasible.
Eventually these deficiencies produced intolerable pressures. For a time after World War II the world benefited from American deficits. Others needed our dollars to restore their liquidity, to buy our goods, and to finance expanding trade. When our deficits grew large, other countries urged us to bring our balance of payments into equilibrium and to stop using what they saw as the "special privilege" of having our trading partners hold dollars indefinitely. But our ability to adjust unilaterally was severely limited. Moreover, the effects of doing so by a change in exchange rates, when most transactions were valued in dollars and most reserves were held in dollars, were almost certain to be disruptive. Ironically, countries accumulating dollars they did not want were reluctant to revalue their own currencies for fear of losing their competitive advantage.
By August 1971 dollars held abroad far exceeded U.S. reserve assets. Some countries with large dollar reserves continued to maintain substantial balance of payments surpluses. The world became increasingly skeptical of the ability of the United States to convert outstanding dollars into other reserve assets and doubted the ability of other countries to maintain the exchange value of the dollar at its then current rate. As confidence waned, the rush to sell dollars and buy other currencies accelerated. The stability of the world's economic system was at stake and the need for reform was clear.
The history of the adjustment problem demonstrates the need for more effective and balanced adjustment machinery. Obviously no nation can fully control its balance of payments. The action or inaction of one country affects the domestic and international economic situations of others. Nations naturally want as much control as possible over their economic policy to meet the social and economic needs of their citizens. But failure to accommodate the interests of others weakens the world economy, to the disadvantage of all. Our proposals would give each nation maximum discretion in choosing ways to adjust its payments imbalance, but would give the international community the means to ensure effective adjustment.
We believe governments should employ a variety of methods to achieve balance of payments adjustment. They should continue to use fiscal and monetary policy that fits their circumstances. Beyond this, they should have more latitude to adjust the international price of their currency when they face a payments imbalance. For countries choosing to maintain set par values for their currencies, greater flexibility could be achieved by allowing a "band" of permissible exchange rate fluctuation around parity wider than that under Bretton Woods. Under agreed conditions, countries might sometimes seek adjustment by a transitional float to a new par value, by a float on an indefinite basis, or by a move directly to a new set rate. All three techniques have been used in recent realignments.
Countries in surplus should also use trade and investment liberalization to contribute to adjustment. In exceptional circumstances, temporary trade restrictions may be an appropriate supplementary adjustment action for deficit countries. If imports are to be restrained for this purpose, it should be by barriers such as a surcharge rather than by quotas. Surplus countries also can contribute importantly to adjustment by increasing the amount of foreign aid which they give without requiring purchases from them.
We believe that criteria should be established which will identify when an adjustment is needed. The need should be demonstrated before an imbalance becomes so great that the adjustment to correct it would pose serious difficulties either domestically or internationally for the nation involved. These criteria should apply even-handedly to surplus and deficit nations alike. In our view the disproportionate gain or loss in a country's reserves should be the primary indicator that balance of payments adjustment is needed. If in a particular case a country believed the reserve indicator to be misleading and the adjustment inappropriate, a multilateral review could help determine the proper action. But if that review did not override the indicator and if the country did not take action, the international community should apply pressures and inducements to bring it about.
Recent Events. Repeated crises over recent years have clearly demonstrated the need for closer international cooperation to speed progress toward monetary reform and improved payments equilibrium. In February and March of 1973, the United States and several other countries jointly acted to deal with the latest in a series of major crises. The high degree of international cooperation that marked the handling of these critical monetary issues can produce the fundamental reforms the system requires. We hope the outlines of a new approach can be agreed upon at the International Monetary Fund meeting in Nairobi this September, and we will work closely with others to attain that objective.
FOREIGN TRADE
In determining their trade policies, governments must balance the desires of all their people. Some workers, farmers, and businessmen want greater access to foreign markets; others want to limit imports; and consumers want the widest variety of goods at the lowest possible prices.
Recent problems in the international trading system reflect in part the high priority some countries place on promoting certain exports and protecting favored producers. Over-emphasis by some countries on promoting certain exports has forced their own consumers to pay more for these products by reducing their availability at home and has sometimes led to disruptive increases in imports in the markets of other nations. Over-emphasis by countries on protection has penalized their domestic consumers and limited exports of other nations.
When such excesses by one nation occur, adversely affected groups in other countries demand retaliation or protection. These demands are particularly hard for governments to deal with in the present climate. International rules adopted in the 1940's to prevent or solve these and other problems have often been ignored. In some cases they do not meet contemporary needs. Nations on occasion have felt they had no choice but to accommodate particular domestic interests in ways that not only further complicate the international problem but also damage other domestic interests. The result has been an erosion of confidence in the trading system, and economic and political friction.
The U.S. Response. Balancing domestic and foreign interests in this environment has been one of the most difficult problems faced by the United States. Early in 1972 the United States secured agreement from Japan to reduce trade barriers on a variety of industrial and farm products. At our meeting in Honolulu later that year and in subsequent talks as well, Japan agreed to take additional steps to boost imports of American products and to liberalize its internal distribution system. Although these actions have benefited American exporters, they have not been adequate and we are seeking further progress in these areas. In talks with our trading partners and in the forum provided under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade we are pressing for solutions to other problems including compensation for the impairment of our trade interests as a result of enlargement of the European Community and its new arrangements with other European countries.
Special problems caused by rapidly rising steel and textile imports into the United States have been eased by export restraint agreements reached with major foreign producers. Enforcement of antidumping and countervailing duty laws, which protect American workers and industry from injury due to unfair import competition, has improved markedly.
We have also taken steps to cut inflation and to benefit American consumers. We suspended import quotas on meats and relaxed them on certain dairy products. The entire oil import program was recently restructured to help ensure adequate supplies for the domestic market. These measures also have helped foreign exporters. Moreover, we have eliminated export subsidies on farm products, contributing to a sounder balance between exports and home supplies and to a better world agricultural trading order.
But despite the actions we and other nations have taken to meet domestic needs and to help establish more sustainable trade arrangements, problems and grievances remain. Although farmers, workers, businessmen, and consumers together benefit overwhelmingly from foreign trade, trade issues continue to be the subject of intense debate. In some cases, pressures such issues generate prevent nations from reducing trade barriers even though to do so would be in their overall interest. In other cases, they produce pressures for new barriers that adversely affect both their own domestic consumers and other nations.
In the United States, these pressures-magnified by a period of high unemployment and a large payments deficit--have created demands for erecting high barriers against foreign competition. For both domestic and international reasons I do not favor this course. This approach might ease a few problems, but it would cause many more of a serious and permanent nature. Our consumers would have to pay higher prices. The many American industries that depend on imported materials and components would be seriously hurt and their products would become less competitive. This course could also trigger an escalation of international trade barriers which would cut American industrial and agricultural exports and strike at the roots of international cooperation and prosperity. The collective result would be highly damaging to our domestic well-being and to our foreign policy interests. We have agreed with our trading partners to pursue a wiser and better alternative.
The Need for a Multilateral Response. The solution to the problems we face lies in a major international effort to develop an improved world trading system. We must build a system which allows nations to satisfy their domestic needs while participating fully in mutual gains from trade. Such a system should expand export opportunities and give consumers the benefit of less expensive and more varied goods. It should establish a set of rules under which a country could limit imports temporarily where necessary to give workers and industries time to adjust smoothly to sudden disruptive increases in foreign competition. And it should bring about an improvement in international trading rules and arrangements. Together these will enable us to better meet the needs of American agriculture, labor, business, and consumers.
The international commitment to multilateral trade negotiations provides the opportunity to achieve these goals. In February 1972, the United States, the European Community, and Japan agreed to "initiate and actively support multilateral and comprehensive negotiations in the framework of GATT beginning in 1973 • • • with a view to the expansion and greater liberalization of world trade . . . on the basis of mutual advantage and mutual commitment with overall reciprocity." At Honolulu, Prime Minister Tanaka and I reaffirmed that commitment. In October leaders of the enlarged European Community reemphasized their pledge to work toward a reduction of tariff and non-tariff barriers, expressing the hope that the negotiations could be concluded in 1975. Responding to these expressions, I sent new trade legislation to the Congress and announced my intention to work toward the timetable suggested by the European leaders.
The Task of Negotiations. We now have the chance to move from confrontation to negotiation in the field of trade. The negotiating process holds the greatest hope for reducing barriers to our exports, for resolving trade differences with friends, and for developing the improved trading system the world needs.
The impending negotiations can substantially lower world tariff barriers. But we do not look upon this effort merely as another round of tariff reductions--an area in which much progress has already been made. They also provide a major opportunity to settle a variety of other trade issues. Most nations employ a variety of non-tariff trade barriers. A number of these are erected for social, political, and security reasons. Others exist because of government procurement, health, and safety standards. It will be hard to eliminate these barriers or reduce their trade distorting effects without affecting the domestic interests that fostered them. But minimizing their adverse trade effects will open broad new areas for international commerce.
The majority of the world's people, in all nations, will benefit from more open agricultural trade and the resulting lower cost and increased availability of farm products. It is particularly important to the United States to remove the barriers which stand in the way of expanded agricultural trade. We are efficient producers of many farm commodities, and our farm policies are predicated on a more open, more market-oriented agricultural trading system.
Preferential trading arrangements, which discriminate against the trade of those who do not participate in them, cannot be reconciled with the Most Favored Nation principle, the basic tenet of world trade. In certain cases we have actively encouraged closer regional political and economic relations. But close relations, where the objective is not a fuller economic and political union, need not include discriminatory trade arrangements. Where they do, we believe steps should be taken to reduce or eliminate their adverse trade effects. Regional arrangements that are part of a broader economic or political unity must be distinguished from preferential arrangements that primarily divert trade from other countries.
We also need a multilateral agreement on safeguards that nations can apply for a limited time to permit smooth adjustment to rapid increases in imports. As we pursue a more open trading world for the benefit of all, it is self-defeating to ignore the fact that adjustment to more open competition may be difficult for some. Effective procedures to ease this process are the most realistic way to ensure that open trade will bring the benefits we expect.
We also need better means to avoid trade conflicts and to settle them in an orderly way when they develop. One nation's efforts to promote some segment of its economy or to protect it against external competition can significantly damage other countries. One way to avoid the resulting frictions is to agree_on more effective rules for trade. Another is frequent consultations so that nations consider the views of their trading partners before making decisions and assure that problems are faced promptly and candidly. At a time when we are moving from confrontation to negotiation in other areas, we need new trading arrangements and rules to solve trade problems in the same spirit.
Principles for Success. The coming trade negotiations will have the best chance of achieving their major objectives if they are based on sound political and economic principles:
--Negotiations should seek maximum feasible reliance on market forces as a means of guiding trade. Such arrangements will allow us to sell the goods we produce most competitively and to buy goods others produce most competitively, increasing the earnings of workers and farmers and giving the consumer more for his money. This is the most efficient way of using each nation's resources; it avoids the vicious circle of protection and counter protection. The temptation to dwell on the "cost" of particular concessions must be avoided in favor of the overall objective of lessening trade barriers and improving the world trading system. The benefits that will accrue to all nations--not only economically but also in their broader relationships--should be the guiding objective.
--Negotiations should significantly reduce barriers in all trade sectors. Only all-inclusive negotiations permit a full weighing of broader national interests of participating countries. From our point of view, it is especially important that the negotiations reduce barriers in certain areas of agricultural trade. Other nations have areas in which they want similar results. To pay less attention to one nation's priorities will make that nation less inclined to meet the priority needs of others.
Prospects for the Future. Over the past year this Administration has stressed the importance of creating a more open and equitable trading order. We have worked to get other nations to pledge full cooperation in this effort. We do not expect the coming negotiations to solve all trade problems, but they can successfully launch us toward that goal. Last October's declaration by leaders of the European Community and similar statements by Japanese leaders demonstrated their dedication to this effort. Other nations are similarly committed. But we must seize the moment, or the momentum that has developed could be lost.
I recently sent the Congress my proposed Trade Reform Act of 1973. This legislation would give the President authority to negotiate a system that will increase world trade, give the United States an opportunity to share fairly in that increase, and insure that trade becomes a source of stability and cooperation among nations. Meanwhile we are dealing with individual trade problems using, where available, the procedures of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. Effective action on such matters could clear up some existing differences and improve the climate for broader negotiations. We look to other nations to work with us in forthcoming negotiations in a test of joint statesmanship to bring about a world trading order which serves the needs of all.
THE DEVELOPING NATIONS
Despite a record of significant accomplishment-including an average annual increase in economic growth of more than 5.5 percent in the last decade, the success of the Green Revolution, and rapid advances in health and education--hundreds of millions of people in the developing countries still exist in conditions of extreme hunger, poverty, and disease. Basic humanitarian considerations call on us to assist these countries in improving the lives of their people. But we also have a major economic and political interest in the growth and stability of these countries and in their active cooperation.
Many of these countries have energy resources and raw materials that we will need in significantly increasing amounts. Some of them have become fast-growing markets for our exports. Almost one-third of U.S. exports went to developing countries in 1972 and the future growth of these countries will expand our markets.
But an increased pace of development is essential. Unless substantial progress occurs--through efforts by developed and developing nations alike--the stability of many countries and regions can be jeopardized as essential needs of people go unsatisfied.
There has been a growing tendency to question our commitment to help developing nations. Attracted to rapid solutions and under-estimating the time and effort needed to stimulate development, Americans are frustrated by the slow pace of visible progress. But, our future economic and political needs will be far better served by actively cooperating with the developing countries for our mutual benefit than by neglecting their needs. We must pursue a realistic policy of development assistance and find better ways of dealing with the trade and monetary interests of developing nations.
Foreign Assistance. I have long been convinced that we needed major improvements in our foreign assistance program. Numerous statements in committees responsible for aid legislation and by individual Congressmen suggest that broad support exists for a modified approach to aid.
We have already improved our aid system in several ways. Bilateral aid is now focused on a few key areas--such as population planning, agriculture, health, and education--in which the Agency for International Development (AID) has a high degree of experience and expertise. Development assistance has been separated organizationally from assistance given for security reasons. A new International Narcotics Control Assistance Program is helping developing countries improve their ability to control the production and flow of illicit narcotics. And we have strengthened our capacity to provide urgently needed emergency assistance to countries that have suffered disasters.
Effective coordination of aid has increased its efficiency and benefits for recipients. AID is increasingly coordinating its programs with those of other nations and international bodies. In cooperation with other nations, we have provided short-term relief to countries whose debt burden was so overwhelming that it threatened their growth and stability.
We deal with recipient countries as partners recognizing their growing expertise and their ability to determine their own development needs. While we help in the planning, funding, and monitoring of development programs, we no longer take the lead in setting priorities or in detailed execution.
We have made substantial contributions to development assistance through international institutions such as the World Bank, the Inter-American Development Bank, the Asian Development Bank, and the United Nations Development Program. Because of their multilateral and non-political character, these institutions frequently can be more rigorous and frank on issues of development policy with recipient states. They have done an outstanding job in providing the framework for coordinating donor contributions and in assuming their appropriate role of leadership in the development assistance effort. The funds I have requested for these institutions and for our bilateral programs are essential to the peoples of the developing countries and to the structure of our relationship with the developing world.
Development Through Trade. While foreign assistance is important, developing nations have to earn by far the largest part of their foreign exchange through trade. Traditionally, they have exported mainly raw materials, though manufactured goods have increasing potential for expansion. They must export these goods in increasing amounts in order to buy the machinery and other products necessary for their future development. Recognizing this fact, we have included in our proposed trade legislation a provision for generalized tariff preferences which would allow many products of the developing countries to enter the U.S., as they already enter Europe and Japan, without duty.
In the 19th and early 20th Centuries there was considerable friction among developed nations as a result of their discriminatory commercial arrangements with the poorer areas of the world. Today's special preferential arrangements are also a source of such friction. And they run counter to the interests of many developing countries. We seek a system that improves developing country access to the markets of the developed countries without discrimination and without restricted preferential arrangements. Our legislation reflects this approach.
In the forthcoming trade negotiations, developing countries have an opportunity to help create a general improvement of trade conditions. Most of them want greater freedom in agricultural trade and increased exports to developed countries of their manufactured and semi-manufactured goods. We and the developing countries which share these objectives have an interest in working together to achieve them. And, reductions in the import barriers of developing countries could benefit their economies and help make the system work more effectively.
Monetary Policy and the Developing Nations. The developing countries have a major interest in the reform of the world's monetary system. Their trade, exchange reserves, and debt positions are directly affected by monetary events. Yet in the past they have had little voice in monetary negotiations. The inclusion of nine representatives of the developing nations on the Committee of Twenty on international monetary reform is a significant and positive step. We are working closely with these nations to achieve reforms that serve our mutual interests.
FUTURE ISSUES
1972 began an era of negotiation and reform in international economic policy. We laid the groundwork for a thorough restructuring of the international economy and opened doors to new commercial relations with the Communist world. The critical task facing us now is to carry forward the work of reordering the world economy to make it more responsive to the needs and realities of our time. We must develop new rules for international economic activity that reflect changing circumstances, Nations must share the responsibility for making the system work so that all can benefit from a more open and equitable world economy. All nations must work together cooperatively so that we can move into a new era of broadly shared prosperity.
Our goals will be to:
--carry forward negotiations in the Committee of Twenty to devise a monetary system that meets the needs of all nations;
--begin multilateral negotiations aimed at substantial reduction of barriers to open trade and improvement of the trading system;
--widen public understanding of our international economic goals and obtain necessary legislative authority for our active participation in building a stronger world economy;
--expand cooperation with the lower income countries to help their development efforts through improved aid policies and by opening the international system to their more effective participation;
--continue to broaden economic exchanges with the Soviet Union, the People's Republic of China, and the nations of Eastern Europe. We must take advantage of the foundation laid in 1972 to build an international economic structure that will promote healthy competition, enhance prosperity for us and other countries, and contribute to a peaceful world order in the decades to come.
PART VI: MAINTAINING
--Arms Control
DEFENSE POLICY
Of all the changes in the international situation over the postwar period discussed in this Report, one of the most fundamental has been the shift in our strategic position.
THE CHALLENGE WE FACED
When I entered office we faced a situation unique in American postwar experience. An era was behind us. In the immediate aftermath of World War II challenges to our security could be met with the assurance that our strategic nuclear position was overwhelmingly superior. By January 1969, the United States no longer enjoyed this strategic preponderance.
The Soviet Union had embarked on a formidable expansion of its nuclear arsenal. We could chart with some certainty when the Soviet Union would surpass us in numbers of intercontinental and submarine launched ballistic missiles; we could also project when they could close the technological gap in strategic weapons. Our own offensive building program had virtually ceased, as we had shifted our effort to qualitative improvements. We had developed a concept for ballistic missile defense of our territory, but had no active deployment. We faced a negotiation on strategic arms controls, but had only begun to analyze the relationship to strategic weapons decisions.
At the same time, our spending for defense had grown substantially. Almost all the increases, however, had been absorbed by the war in Vietnam. The costs of new weapons were escalating, as were the expenses of maintaining the men of our armed forces. In addition, we were bearing burdens abroad for the common defense that seemed out of proportion to those borne by our allies. More than a million Americans were stationed overseas, and our reserves at home were minimal.
Yet, I found that our strategic doctrine called for an American capability to fight in two major theaters simultaneously. The confrontation atmosphere of the Cold War persisted in both Europe and Asia. But the international environment after 25 years suggested new opportunities for diplomacy and, accordingly, for adjustments in military planning. The rigidity of the confrontation between East and West was easing, and the conduct of nations could no longer be viewed in the simple bipolar context of military blocs.
The need for an urgent reexamination of our national security policy and programs was obvious. There were four overriding questions:
--What doctrine was appropriate for our strategic forces in an era when the threat of massive retaliation alone was no longer credible in all circumstances and decisive nuclear superiority was probably unattainable?
--What should the interrelationship be between the programs required for maintaining our strength and our proposals for limiting strategic arms through negotiations?
--How could we simultaneously satisfy pressing domestic needs, meet our responsibilities in Vietnam, and maintain the capabilities of our other forces in a period when non-nuclear challenges were an important dimension of the security problem?
--How could we, in coordination with our allies, strengthen our mutual defense in a manner that retained their confidence in our reliability but permitted them to play a more prominent role?
Early in my first term, I made a series of decisions that resulted in a new concept of national security, reflected in the Nixon Doctrine.
In strategic nuclear policy, we adopted the doctrine of sufficiency. We could no longer be complacent about the strategic status quo merely because we could cause a certain level of destruction in response to an attack. We therefore began to develop a sounder and more flexible doctrine for our forces that would provide other retaliatory options besides a direct attack on millions of people.
Concurrently, in order to reduce our vulnerability and to compensate for the Soviet buildup, we launched a program to modernize our strategic forces. We continued to convert our land and sea-based missiles to multiple independently targetable warheads (MIRVs). Thus, our missiles which would survive an attack would be able in retaliation to strike their targets with greater assurance of eluding defenses. We laid plans for a new long-range missile and submarine that would reduce vulnerability by allowing operation in a larger ocean area while still in range of targets. In addition, to increase the survivability of our retaliatory forces, we began planning a new strategic bomber to replace the aging B-52 force. We also initiated the Safeguard anti-ballistic missile (ABM) program to protect our land-based retaliatory forces.
Each of these decisions was taken, however, with the full understanding that, as an integral part of our national security policy, we also would seriously pursue negotiations for arms limitations. We would offer the Soviet Union the opportunity to reach agreement on measures that would enhance the security of both sides.
Finally, we began to assess our security obligations to determine how our alliance defense posture might be strengthened through mutual effort. We examined whether U.S. forces in some forward areas might be reduced; in those regions where security required a strong and continuing American presence, as in Europe, we and our allies initiated new programs for sharing the defense burden.
In the past four years we have laid a solid foundation for safeguarding American security for the remainder of this decade. We are now entering a period of promising prospects for increasing international stability. But the outcome is by no means guaranteed. We are still in a challenging period of transition. We still face difficult decisions.
There have been a number of positive developments since 1969. Unprecedented progress has been made in strategic arms controls. For the first time in two decades there is a genuine possibility of mutual and balanced force reductions in Europe. Our allies in Western Europe and Asia have become stronger, both economically and militarily, and are contributing more to mutual defense. Tensions in these two regions have been casing. A Vietnam Peace Agreement has been signed and our force of a half million men has returned home.
On the other hand, we cannot ignore the negative trends that persist. Even though Vietnam is entering a new phase, conflict remains in Indochina and ferment persists in other key areas of the world such as the Middle East where the interests of major powers are involved. Modern weapons are still being delivered to areas of great instability. The Soviet Union is strengthening its armed forces in every major category, including those in which the United States traditionally has had a substantial margin of superiority. A Soviet military presence now has been established in many strategic areas of the world.
As we determine the requirements for our defense in these circumstances and approach ongoing arms control negotiations, five factors of the current situation are of particular importance:
--There is approximate parity between the strategic forces of the United States and the Soviet Union. Soviet numerical advantages are offset by superior American technology.
--In such an era greater reliance must be placed on non-nuclear forces.
--Technological change while creating new opportunities also poses a potential threat to existing strategic stability.
--Manpower costs have increased substantially. They now absorb more than 56 percent of our entire defense budget, compared with 42 percent a decade ago. Now that we have chosen to rely on all-volunteer forces, the proportion devoted to manpower is not likely to decrease.
--The costs of increasingly complex modern weapons are also spiraling, further constraining our ability to maintain conventional force levels.
At the same time, the political climate at home has changed. In spite of the adjustments we have already made to new conditions, we face intensified pressures for further withdrawals of our deployed forces and for greater reductions. In the post-Vietnam environment, some Americans seem eager to return to the prevalent philosophy of the 1930's, and resist U.S. involvement in world affairs. The consensus which sustained our national commitment to a strong American military posture over the postwar period is no longer unchallenged.
The emerging global order, however, has neither exact historical parallels nor a predestined outcome. American actions will be a decisive determinant of its shape. In a period of developing detente, it is easy to be lulled into a false sense of security. Threats are less blatant; the temptation is greater to make unilateral reductions and neglect the realities of existing forces of potential adversaries.
In such a fluid period we have no responsible choice but to remain alert to the possibility that the current trend toward detente with the Soviet Union and China may not prove durable. We have only begun an area of negotiations. We must not now ignore fundamental changes in the balance of forces or in the potential strength of our adversaries in an era of rapid change. To do so would only tempt challenges to our security interests and jeopardize chances for achieving greater stability through further agreements.
Military adequacy is never permanently guaranteed. To maintain security requires a continuing effort. But faced with escalating costs of manpower and weapons and competing domestic demands, we must insure that defense spending is based on a realistic assessment of our security requirements, and we must endeavor to reduce expenditures through more effective management.
There is, however, an irreducible minimum below which we cannot go without jeopardizing the very foundations of our diplomacy, our interests, and our national security. This Nation cannot afford the cost of weakness. Our strength is an essential stabilizing element in a world of turmoil and change. Our friends rely on it; our adversaries respect it. It is the essential underpinning for our diplomacy, designed to increase international understanding and to lessen the risks of war.
While taking the necessary steps to maintain the sufficiency of our strength, we are seeking a sound basis for limiting arms competition. Both elements are fundamental to a national defense that insures a more stable structure of peace.
STRATEGIC POLICY
Deterrence of war is the primary goal of our strategic policy and the principal function of our nuclear forces. Thus, our objectives continue to be:
--to deter all-out attack on the United States or its allies;
--to face any potential aggressor contemplating less than all-out attack with unacceptable risks; and
--to maintain a stable political environment within which the threat of aggression or coercion against the United States or its allies is minimized.
Strategic forces are the central component of our military posture. It is on them that our security and that of our allies is most heavily dependent.
While our goals are unchanged, there have been fundamental changes in the strategic military environment. Approximate nuclear parity between the United States and the Soviet Union is now a strategic reality and has been confirmed in strategic arms control agreements. Certain technological advances, however, could become destabilizing. So it is, therefore, imperative that we continue to assess the adequacy of our strategic policy and programs in light of advances made by potential adversaries.
The task is greatly complicated by the long lead time required to make significant changes in these forces. Because of the extended development phase for new systems, a lengthy period could pass before a nation perceived that it was falling dangerously behind. From that point, it would require another considerable period before the imbalance could be corrected.
We must plan now to have a strategic force that will be adequate to meet potential threats of the next decade. We must develop our programs in the context of an uncertain world situation and accelerating technological possibilities.
During the 1960's missiles were relatively inaccurate and single warheads were the rule. Today, accuracies have improved significantly and missiles carry multiple warheads that can be independently targeted. In the present environment it would be misleading to measure sufficiency only by calculating destructive power in megatonnage. The quality of weapons systems, and their survivability, are vital determinants of sufficiency.
The SALT Agreement of May 1972 halted the rapid numerical growth of Soviet strategic offensive systems. Within the limits of the current SALT Agreement, however, strategic modernization programs may continue. We must, therefore, carefully assess the efforts the Soviets are making to improve their capabilities and must pace our programs accordingly.
--At least three new Soviet Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) are being developed: a new, very large missile which could have greater capability than the SS-9, which is now the largest operational Soviet missile; a smaller ICBM, possibly intended as a follow-on to the SS-II missile; and a solid propellant ICBM, probably designed to replace the SS-13 or possibly to provide a mobile capability.
--These new missiles may well carry MIRVs with accuracies which would increase the vulnerability of our landbased missiles, thus jeopardizing the current strategic stability.
--The Soviet Union has begun deployment of a new submarine capable of submerged launch of a 4,000-mile-range missile.
--The Soviet ABM research and. development program continues unabated.
If present trends continue and we do not take remedial steps, the forces which we currently rely upon to survive an attack and to retaliate could be more vulnerable. At some time in the future we could face a situation in which during a crisis there could be a premium to the side that initiated nuclear war. This would be an unstable and dangerous strategic relationship. Such a strategic environment is unacceptable.
In the late 1960's the effectiveness of American strategic nuclear forces was measured by a criterion known as "assured destruction." This concept assumed that deterrence could be maintained if it were clear that following a large-scale nuclear strike the United States could retaliate and inflict an unacceptable level of damage on the population and industry of the attacker.
In the 1970's strategic doctrine must meet different criteria. While the specter of an unacceptable response is fundamental to deterrence, the ability to kill tens of millions of people is not the only or necessarily the most effective deterrent to every challenge. Such a drastic course can be creditably reserved only for the most overwhelming threats to national survival. Moreover, the measurement of the effectiveness of our strategic forces in terms of numbers of dead is inconsistent with American values.
A different strategic doctrine is required in this decade when potential adversaries possess large and more flexible nuclear forces. The threat of an all-out nuclear response involving the cities of both sides might not be as credible a deterrent as it was in the 1960's. An aggressor, in the unlikely event of nuclear war, might choose to employ nuclear weapons selectively and in limited numbers for limited objectives. No President should ever be in the position where his only option in meeting such aggression is an all-out nuclear response. To deal with a wide range of possible hostile actions, the President must maintain a broad choice of options.
Credible deterrence in the 1970's requires greater flexibility:
--Lack of flexibility on our part could tempt an aggressor to use nuclear weapons in a limited way in a crisis. If the United States has the ability to use its forces in a controlled way, the likelihood of nuclear response would be more credible, thereby making deterrence more effective and the initial use of nuclear weapons by an opponent less likely.
--Therefore, to extend deterrence over a wider spectrum of possible contingencies we should ensure that our forces are capable of executing a range of options.
--If war occurs--and there is no way we can absolutely guarantee that it will not--we should have means of preventing escalation while convincing an opponent of the futility of continued aggression.
Greater flexibility in the employment of our forces does not necessitate any drastic change in our nuclear programs. The fundamental objective of military forces remains deterrence. Potential aggressors must be aware that the United States will continue to have both the resolve and the capacity to act in the face of aggression in all circumstances.
STRATEGIC PROGRAMS
Our weapons programs are planned within the framework of this strategic policy. We must also consider Soviet strategic developments, arms limitations, and the potential for technological change. In light of the current strategic situation, I have determined that the U.S. must continue its modernization programs to ensure the future sufficiency of our nuclear forces.
--We are therefore improving our ICBM force. Silos for Minuteman missiles are being hardened, and 550 Minuteman III missiles with multiple independently targeted warheads will be deployed by the mid- 1970's.
--Development of a new strategic submarine, the Trident, has been undertaken to provide a highly survivable replacement for our current ballistic missile submarines.
--We are developing a generation of submarine launched missiles with substantially greater range. With these new missiles our Trident and Poseidon submarines will be able to operate in a much larger ocean area while still within range of targets, and thus will be less vulnerable.
--The survivability of B-52 bombers has been increased by decreasing the time required for take-off on warning of an attack and by developing new basing concepts. This will reduce the threat from the growing force of Soviet ballistic missile submarines.
--We have also begun engineering development of the B-I bomber as a potential replacement for the aging B-52s. The B-I would maintain our bomber force as an important element in our mix of retaliatory forces, providing assurance against technological breakthroughs, complicating an enemy's offensive and defensive planning, and ensuring flexibility of response.
--The ABM facility at Grand Forks, North Dakota, is being completed. This installation will give us operational ABM experience while directly enhancing the survivability of Minuteman ICBMs. We will also continue our planning for the Washington, D.C. ABM site in order to provide additional security for the major control center of our forces.
--Similarly, we are improving facilities for command and communications to control our responses in crisis situations.
We cannot prudently ignore the long-term strategic requirements of our security. But at the same time we are conscious of a serious responsibility--to preserve an environment which enhances stability and encourages further efforts to limit nuclear arms. Our forces, therefore, are not designed to provide a capability for a disarming first strike. Moreover, our programs are not so substantial that our objectives could be misunderstood, conceivably spurring a Soviet building cycle. There is not necessarily a direct relationship between every change in the strategic forces of the two sides. Some changes reflect an action-reaction cycle in the strategic arms programs of the two nations. In other cases, the similarity between American and Soviet forces results simply from the fact that roughly the same technologies are employed.
This year we will continue to assess how to deal more effectively with the implications of parity and to guard against unanticipated technological breakthroughs. At the same time, our efforts will reflect the essential defensive and deterrent purposes of our doctrine and forces.
GENERAL PURPOSE FORCES
In a strategic environment of approximate parity, nuclear weapons alone are less likely to deter the fuji range of possible conflicts. Our success in negotiating strategic limitations has thus increased the importance of maintaining other deterrent forces capable of coping with a variety of challenges.
In recent years conventional forces have played a critical role in numerous conflicts involving great power interests, including Arab-Israeli and Jordanian-Syrian fighting in the Middle East; the India-Pakistan war; and the North Vietnamese invasion of Laos, Cambodia, and South Vietnam.
The United States cannot protect its national interests, or support those of its allies, or meet its responsibilities for helping safeguard international peace, without the ability to deploy forces abroad. In the Jordan crisis of 1970, for example, our forces helped stabilize an explosive situation. When warnings went unheeded and the North Vietnamese launched an all-out invasion of the South in the spring of 1972, our determination to act decisively with conventional forces was tested. The bombing and mining of North Vietnam complemented the defensive action of our South Vietnamese allies on the battlefield and provided a convincing incentive for serious negotiations. In both instances the combination of local superiority and a strong U.S. defense posture decreased the likelihood of challenge to these forces.
When I came into office, I ordered a reassessment of the rationale upon which our conventional force planning was based. Our analysis concluded that a coordinated attack by the major Communist powers simultaneously in both Europe and Asia was unlikely. We determined, however, that our forces should still be adequate to meet a major threat in either Europe or Asia and to cope simultaneously with a lesser contingency elsewhere.
The specific potential threats we face in Asia or Europe continue to be the primary determinants of the size, composition, and disposition of our general purpose forces. Our principal forward deployments are in these areas where, supplementing the forces of our allies, they help counterbalance the strong forces of potential adversaries. The strength of the defenses of Western Europe remains the cornerstone of our own security posture. The American presence in Europe and Asia is essential to the sense of security and confidence of our friends which underpins all our common endeavors--including our joint efforts in the common defense. Our forces are deployed to provide a responsive and efficient posture against likely threats.
But planning based on the threats in these two areas alone is not sufficient. We also need forces to deal with lesser contingencies that pose a threat to our interests--a capability not necessarily provided by units positioned for a major conflict overseas.
Moreover, even in a period of developing detente, we cannot ignore the reality of a modern Soviet navy operating increasingly in the Caribbean, Indian Ocean, the Mediterranean and along the coasts of Africa; newly established Soviet security commitments, support, facilities, and communications networks in key areas of the Third World; or increasing Soviet arms programs in these areas.
The credibility of our force posture has two basic determinants; overall size and the level of forward deployments. Our general purpose forces are now substantially below the peak levels of the Vietnam buildup and well below even the levels maintained prior to the Vietnam war. This is the result of changing assessments of security requirements, our success in developing allied capabilities, and the increasing costs of replacing obsolescent systems and maintaining existing forces.
Our ground, naval, and air forces have now reached the absolute minimum necessary to meet our commitments and provide a credible conventional deterrent in an age of strategic parity. Compared to levels in June 1964, we have a third fewer combat ships, 37 fewer aircraft squadrons and 3 1/3 fewer ground. divisions.
Manpower has been cut to a comparable degree. In the last four years we have reduced our forces by more than a million men. They are now one-third smaller. They are at the lowest level since the Korean War, and are nearly half a million below levels prior to the Vietnam War.
About one-third of our general purpose forces are necessarily deployed abroad to provide a capability for responding rapidly to threats to American and allied interests, for guaranteeing the credibility of our joint defense, and for underpinning our diplomacy. The forces remaining in the United States serve as a ready reserve for reinforcing our forward deployments, and for protecting our interests in other parts of the world. The largest portion of our overseas forces is stationed in Western Europe; a smaller increment is stationed in the Mediterranean and Asia.
PRE AND POST VIETNAM FORCE LEVELS
Pre-Vietnam Peak Vietnam Current
June 1964 June 1968 June 1973
Ships:
Attack carriers 15 15 14
Anti-submarine, including attack submarines 381 379 252
Fleet air defense 53 75 73
Amphibious assault 134 148 65
............................................................................................... 583 617 404
Attack and Fighter Aircraft Squadrons:
Air Force 90 103 71
Navy 85 80 70
............................................................................................... 19 1/3 22 1/3 *16
*1 division not shown consists of armored, air cavalry, and airmobile units.
--Our NATO force in Europe consists of 4 1/3 Army Divisions, 21 Air Force attack and fighter squadrons, and naval units in the North Atlantic.
--In the Mediterranean we maintain two attack carrier task forces and a Marine amphibious group which help protect NATO's southern flank as well as meet non-NATO challenges in this volatile area.
--United States forces in Asia consist of those still supporting operations in Indochina and normal forward deployments not directly related to Vietnam needs. The basic forces include: one Army division stationed in Korea and two-thirds of a Marine division located in Okinawa; ten Air Force and five Marine fighter/attack squadrons distributed in Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Thailand, Okinawa, and the Philippines; and three attack carrier forces and two Marine amphibious groups operating in the Western Pacific.
Although NATO deployments have been relatively constant in recent years, Asian force levels are now substantially below those maintained prior to the Vietnam War.
Given our broad requirements, the uncertainty of the current international situation, and the post-Vietnam contraction of our armed forces, it would be unwise to make further unilateral cuts in deployments or significant reductions in overall force levels in the foreseeable future. To do so would raise questions about the adequacy of our force posture to safeguard our interests. The limitations of our current force levels were illustrated by the strain placed on our forces as a whole by our effort last year to help counter the invasion of South Vietnam by a small nation with practically no navy or air force.
Obviously, American forces alone cannot balance the strong capabilities of potential adversaries. For this reason our planning under the Nixon Doctrine has emphasized the strengthening of mutual defense by bolstering allied capabilities.
In NATO, it is often forgotten that our allies provide nearly 90 percent of ground forces and the majority of alliance air and naval craft. American ground forces are concentrated in Germany where they constitute over one-fourth of the forces in this vital area. Along with our allies we are taking additional measures to strengthen NATO forces. Expenditures by individual members for force modernization have increased for the third consecutive year, and under the billion dollar five-year European Defense Improvement Program, NATO communications, anti-armor and air defense capabilities continue to improve. United States capabilities are also being improved, and our ground forces are being strengthened by selectively transferring men from support to combat units.
Programs in Asia too have achieved remarkable success in strengthening allied capabilities. In Southeast Asia, progress in Vietnamization was demonstrated by the effective Vietnamese defense on the ground against all-out invasion. In Northeast Asia, South Korean forces are growing in effectiveness as a result of our joint program for modernization, and the Korean economy is now able to support more of the recurring costs of maintaining these forces without hampering normal economic growth.
Our Asian allies are also becoming more self-sufficient in dealing with subversion and guerrilla warfare, which remain a potent threat. As our friends develop greater local and regional military sufficiency under the Nixon Doctrine the need for our direct involvement diminishes. In the meantime, the stabilizing presence of our forces in the area enhances the wider framework of security and gives encouragement to further allied efforts to develop their capacity for self-defense.
In the current delicate international balance of forces, I believe our general purposes forces are now at the minimum level consistent with our safety and our interests. However, as we assess our requirements for the late 1970's and beyond, we will not let the perceptions and experiences of the past drive our planning for deterrence of wars of the future. We will ensure that our planning and doctrine are attuned to the evolving international situation and to our strategic needs in a new era.
SECURITY ASSISTANCE
Many nations in the world whose security we consider important to our own face military challenges, often instigated or supplied by third countries. A stable international system requires that small countries be secure and independent, and that they be able to protect their security and independence mainly by their own efforts.
For this reason, American support of other nations' defense efforts has always been a vital component of our security policy and an essential element in maintaining international stability. In today's multipolar world, and as the United States adjusts its role from one of preponderance to one of sharing responsibilities more widely, this supportive role becomes all the more central to our policy. As great as our resources are, it is neither possible nor desirable for the United States to pay most of the costs, provide most of the manpower, or make most of the decisions concerning the defense of our allies. Nor, is it necessary. Our allies are determined to meet the threats they face as effectively as possible within the limits of their resources. Under the Nixon Doctrine, our role in our Security Assistance programs is to share our experience, counsel, and technical resources to help them develop adequate strength of their own.
We provide this support through various programs of Security Assistance: grant military assistance to friendly countries unable to afford equipment which is essential to their self-defense; foreign military sales for cash or credit; and supporting assistance, which provides budgetary support to a few key countries to enable them to sustain their economies in spite of unusually heavy defense requirements.
These programs have been a part of our policy for more than 25 years. They have met specific needs in a wide variety of cases. Our programs and means have reflected a careful and continuing assessment of our interests and needs in changing conditions.
The success of these programs is strikingly evidenced by the changes over time in the composition of the program. The growing self-sufficiency and self-reliance of our friends--which our assistance is designed to promote--are reflected in the declining necessity for grant aid and the dramatic increase in their ability to take financial responsibility for their defense needs. Our grant military assistance has dropped from over $4 billion twenty years ago to less than $1 billion today, exclusive of South Vietnam. Where once our program was almost entirely on a grant basis, today sales make up by far the major portion of the program.
In 1966 the largest military assistance grants went to the Republic of Korea, Turkey, the Republic of Vietnam, the Republic of China, Greece, and Iran. In 1974, in contrast, Iran will purchase all military equipment, paying fully for everything received. Greece and the Republic of China will receive no grant materiel, and both are turning increasingly to cash and credit sales. The security requirements of South Korea and Turkey continue to require grant assistance, but both are moving toward increased use of credits as their economies continue to expand. The success of our programs in helping South Vietnam and South Korea build capable forces of their own has permitted us to withdraw all our forces from South Vietnam and 20,000 men from South Korea. These are two of the most significant demonstrations of how Security Assistance is precisely what enables allies to take up more of the responsibility for their own defense.
The assistance of the United States cannot be effective unless an ally is willing and able to mobilize its own people and resources for its national defense. No country can escape responsibility for its own future. None of our friends would wish to do so. The encouragement, counsel, and assistance we provide can make a crucial difference to their success.
RESOURCES FOR NATIONAL DEFENSE
Managing Modernization. In today's conditions, maintaining modern forces at adequate levels is a major challenge. General purpose forces now take three times as much of the defense budget as strategic forces. Yet the Soviet Union has made significant qualitative improvements in conventional forces, while many of our essential programs have been deferred because of more pressing Vietnam requirements.
A major modernization effort is underway to provide our forces with adequate weapons for the decade ahead. Our national technological base is one of the foundations of our national security. But the continual escalation of weapons costs and complexity limits our ability to exploit all the latest technical advances. Even with adjustments for inflation, weapons today cost, on 'the average, two to three times more than those ones they replace. Sophisticated equipment is often more difficult to repair. Complexity frequently results in higher operating costs and lower reliability. These trends make it difficult to replace older weapons on a one-for-one basis. But the higher performance of new systems does not always compensate for the severe reduction of flexibility caused by fewer numbers.
This cost problem is most acute with respect to tactical aircraft. New first-line aircraft are four to five times more costly than the older planes being replaced, primarily because of their sophisticated electronics and fire control systems. The same problem arises in modern ship and ground force systems.
The long lead time for new weapons development has far-reaching implications. It is therefore imperative that proposed programs provide sufficient improvements to justify their expense, and that once adopted they do not exceed planned costs or fall to perform as intended. Unless we improve management performance in this area, we simply will not be able to maintain the minimum force levels necessary to meet the needs of our security without drawing increasingly on funds required for such essential intangibles as force manning, training, and readiness.
We are taking a number of innovative steps to grapple with this problem. In evaluating proposals for increased technical sophistication, .more weight is now being given to cost, and greater care is being devoted to assessing the real gain in terms of mission relevance and military effectiveness. In addition, combinations of high and low cost weapons are being developed for major missions. For example, a less costly lightweight fighter is being developed at the same time as the highly sophisticated F-15 fighter. This approach also has been used in meeting diverse ship requirements. Low-cost patrol frigates are being purchased for convoy duties while more expensive nuclear-powered guided missile frigates are being constructed to escort nuclear carriers as part of a rapid reaction task force.
We also are improving techniques for closer monitoring of the development process. Benchmarks have been established for more frequent checking of compliance with cost and performance standards. Operational testing is being emphasized to ensure that new equipment is reliable and effective under combat conditions.
Manpower. Rising manpower costs are one of the most significant factors limiting overall force levels and the resources available for modernization. Even after the large personnel reductions we have made, manpower today takes more than half the defense budget. These rising costs result principally from the effort to make military pay competitive with that of other professions. While the program to attract volunteers and correct past financial inequities is expensive, it is also essential to manning our armed forces at adequate levels.
Our success in attracting volunteers into the services gives us confidence that manpower constraints will not seriously limit the manning of our forces in peacetime. We are now able to support our military strategy without a draft. When I first announced my intention to end the draft, many feared we would not be able to maintain the force levels, readiness, and morale needed to support defense needs in an increasingly technical environment. But initial experience under this program suggests these fears were unwarranted. The quality of volunteers has fully met the service needs and compares favorably with the quality in the past.
Current projections indicate that the portion of the defense budget devoted to manpower should stabilize, but the expense of personnel programs will require continuing attention,
Defense Spending. Allocation of resources between security needs and domestic requirements is one of the most difficult tasks of the budgetary process. Though the upward pressures of manpower and weapons costs have complicated the problem, defense spending has leveled off in real terms. As a result, we have been able to shift Federal budgetary priorities markedly from security toward domestic needs. Defense today takes only six percent of our total national output, compared to eight to nine percent in the 1960's. National security once took nearly half of every budget dollar; now it requires less than one-third.
Nevertheless, unless we aggressively meet the management challenge of spiraling weapons and manpower costs, it will be nearly impossible to maintain modern forces at the levels necessary for national security. I have directed the Secretary of Defense to give these matters the most urgent attention.
In the next four years, we will continue to be faced with important choices concerning national priorities. But I am determined that our military power will remain second to none. The experiences of the past four years have confirmed the wisdom and absolute necessity of a strong and committed America in the world. It is the only sound foundation on which peace can be built.
ARMS CONTROL
The progress recorded in arms control over the past four years has been unprecedented. Four major agreements have been achieved:
--In February 1971, an international treaty was signed that bans the emplacement of nuclear weapons on the seabed or ocean floor.
--In September 1971, the United States and the Soviet Union agreed on a series of measures to reduce the danger of accidental war.
--In April 1972, an international treaty was signed that bans the development, production, and stockpiling of biological weapons and toxins.
--On May 26, 1972, I signed for the United States two agreements with the Soviet Union limiting strategic offensive and defensive armaments. These accomplishments represent the initial fulfillment of my .commitment to limit the most dangerous forms of weaponry as part of our broader objective of moving from confrontation to negotiation. Each of these agreements is important. But their cumulative impact is even greater than their specific merits. They reflect a new political attitude toward arms limitation by the United States and the Soviet Union and within the international community generally.
Arms control has taken on new significance in the nuclear age and represents an important component of national security policy. When this Administration took office there were several factors that suggested an agreement to limit strategic weapons might be attainable:
--In the classical balance of power system, most national leaders were concerned with accumulating geopolitical and military power that could be translated into immediate advantage. In the nuclear era, both the United States and the Soviet Union have found that an increment of military power does not necessarily represent an increment of usable political strength, because of the excessive destructiveness of nuclear weapons in relation to the objective.
--The accumulation of strategic power offered no guarantee of achieving a decisive military advantage, since neither the United States nor the Soviet Union would passively accept a change in the overall balance. Moreover, with modern weapons, a potentially decisive advantage requires a change of such magnitude that the mere effort to obtain it could produce a disaster.
--Modern technology, however, offered an apparently endless opportunity for the further sophistication of both offensive and defensive weaponry. In particular, a nation might be able simultaneously to develop offensive weapons that could destroy a substantial number of an opponent's retaliatory forces and a defense that could blunt a retaliatory strike. In such circumstances a high premium would be placed on striking first.
--Neither side could afford to concede an advantage in strategic defense. The gap between the rapid advances in offensive technology and the embryonic state of defensive systems was growing. For a considerable period, therefore, both the United States and the Soviet Union would be vulnerable to devastating attacks. Yet, inherent in new technology is the prospect of enhanced first strike capabilities.
These were the strategic circumstances facing the United States in 1969. They suggested certain principles for our approach to arms control negotiations as an instrument of national security.
--As President, my overriding responsibility is to protect the security of the United States. We had to maintain our strategic weapons programs and develop new ones as appropriate. Unilateral restraint in anticipation of the negotiations would not advance the chances for an agreement; weakness has been the incentive for aggression much more frequently than the arms race.
--Our objective in negotiations would be to reduce the gap between the capability for a first strike and the capability to retaliate. An agreement should help ensure that a first strike could not disarm either side.
--We would seek to gain some control over military technology so that the basic political relationships with the Soviet Union would not be dominated by competition in this area.
--Our objective would be to break the momentum and moderate the process of strategic competition. The basic decisions of war and peace would then remain in the hands of the political leaders and not be dictated by the balance of weapons.
--Finally, we recognized that any agreement would have to provide equal security to both sides. No agreement was even conceivable if its purpose was to ratify a clear advantage for one side.
These were the principles that evolved in the course of our preparation for negotiation in 1969. They were our basic criteria throughout the talks.
The advances in other areas of arms control have reflected a similar approach. We concentrated on those specific issues where it was possible to make immediate progress so that agreements would contribute to a broader improvement of relations. We looked for areas where we could strengthen the principle of mutual restraint. We decided that progress should not be tied solely to the state of technical or procedural discussions but should take into account the political relationships, especially with the Soviet Union, that would ultimately determine the success or failure of the agreements.
--In 1969-70 we concentrated on banning nuclear weapons from the seabeds, because this was an area where the nuclear powers and the nonnuclear countries had clear common interests and where the political, environmental, and strategic policies offered a chance for early progress. Moreover, by separating nuclear weapons from all other military activities affecting the seabeds, we could crystallize agreement on the aspect most important to control.
--The questions of control over biological weapons and chemical weapons had been linked, although there was no objective reason to do so. We first took a unilateral step by renouncing the use and possession of biological weapons. Then we moved to eliminate procedural questions by proposing the separation of biological and chemical issues, with priority for biological controls. This course ultimately produced a treaty prohibiting biological weaponry.
--The progress in arms control from 1969 to 1972 added to the general improvement in Soviet-American relations and helped to break the deadlock over opening negotiations on the reduction of military forces in Central Europe. Preliminary talks began in Vienna in January 1973 to prepare for formal negotiations this fall. In preparing for the negotiations on mutual and balanced force reductions in Central Europe we are following much the same pattern as in SALT. We have concentrated initially on a complex technical analysis to illuminate all the individual issues and on that basis to develop basic concepts of reductions.
We can be proud of the accomplishments of the past four years: --In an area of overriding importance, we have limited the strategic arsenals of the United States and the Soviet Union and created the conditions for further progress.
--There is now momentum on a broad international front that enhances the prospects for additional agreements.
--In the region of major confrontation in Central Europe the foundations have been laid for serious negotiations to begin this year.
STRATEGIC ARMS LIMITATION (SALT)
On November 17, 1969, representatives of the United States and the Soviet Union met in Helsinki to begin the first discussions on the limitation of strategic armaments. At that time, I characterized the meetings as the "most momentous negotiations ever entrusted to an American delegation." I repeated my pledge, made at the United Nations in September 1969, that the United States would deal with the issues "seriously, carefully, and purposefully" to achieve the goal of "equitable accommodation." We were embarked on a "sustained effort not only to limit the build-up of strategic forces but to reverse it."
The agreements I signed on May 26, 1972, in St. Catherine's Hall in the Kremlin were a major step toward fulfilling this commitment. We had not only succeeded in resolving extraordinarily complex technical issues, but had also raised Soviet-American relations to a new level of mutual understanding. The political commitment reflected in these agreements was a vital element in the broader effort we were engaged in, one that culminated in the Basic Principles of U.S.-Soviet relations agreed upon in Moscow.
Since last May, Government officials have testified before the Congress at length on all aspects of these agreements, and I have discussed them with Congressional leaders. We have fully described What we believe they accomplished and their significance for Soviet-American relations and international security. In this Report certain points are emphasized so that future prospects can be related to the perspective of these past four years.
The Negotiating History. In 1969 there was no dearth of ideas, suggestions, and proposals on how to limit strategic arms and conduct the talks. There was never any question that we would agree to negotiate. The task was to be sure that we had a well-defined position for a negotiation of this magnitude. We had to analyze all conceivable limitations for each of the major weapons systems to understand how they would affect our own and Soviet programs. We also had to determine whether we could verify compliance with the limitations and by what means. These building blocks enabled us to examine the strategic interrelationship caused by various combinations of limitations. Then we could go on to identify realistic alternatives and compare them with likely developments should no agreements be reached.
Our aim was to be in a position to sustain momentum in the negotiations. Meticulous preparations for the negotiations gave us the best chance of moving from general principles through specific proposals to concrete agreements. The fact that the agreements on such complex and vital issues were signed only two years after the first specific proposals were introduced by the United States testifies to the value of that approach.
We recognized that there would be deadlocks and that, with national security at stake, frequent high level political decisions would be required. But we wanted to ensure that when deadlocks did occur, they would not be over technical issues, and carefully analyzed alternatives would be ready for my immediate decision.
Certain fundamental strategic factors influenced our preparations and our initial approach to the talks:
--By 1969 the United States had stopped building major new offensive systems in favor of making qualitative improvements in existing systems. We had no current plan to deploy additional Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs), Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs), or heavy bombers. The Soviet Union, on the other hand, was engaged in a dynamic buildup of both ICBMs and SLBMs.
--At the same time, both sides were only in the initial stages of Anti-Ballistic Missile ( ABM ) deployment. The Soviet Union had already deployed a small system to protect its capital, while most of the U.S. program was designed to protect our retaliatory forces.
--The United States had aircraft deployed at bases abroad and on carriers, while the Soviet Union had medium and intermediate range missiles and bombers capable of attacking our bases and the territory of our allies.
--There was a vast difference in the composition of the forces on each side. The Soviet Union had several types of ICBMs and was developing two classes of ballistic missile launching submarines. The United States had one basic class of ICBMs, a modern and more effective submarine force, and a substantial advantage in heavy bombers.
These asymmetries meant that defining strategic equivalence in individual categories or in a general sense would be technically complicated and involve significant political judgments.
The initial exploratory phase in November-December 1969 produced a general work program. Full negotiations began in the spring of 1970, and both sides outlined comprehensive programs to control a wide spectrum of armaments.
This parallel effort, however, gradually became deadlocked over two major issues. First, should both offensive and defensive limitations be included from the outset? The Soviet Union proposed that the deadlock be resolved by limiting ABM systems only. The United States thought it essential to maintain a link between offensive and defensive limits; we believed that an initial agreement that permitted unrestrained growth in offensive forces would defeat the basic purpose of SALT.
Second, what offensive forces should be defined as "strategic"? The Soviet Union wanted to include all nuclear delivery systems capable of reaching Soviet territory. The United States maintained that major intercontinental systems should have priority in negotiating limitations.
By late 1970 these two issues had blocked further progress. I decided to take the initiative in direct contacts with the Soviet leaders to find a solution. The result of our exchanges was an agreement on May 20, 1971, that we would concentrate the negotiations on a permanent treaty limiting ABM systems, while working out an Interim Agreement freezing only certain strategic offensive systems and leaving aside other systems for consideration in a further agreement.
This left for resolution the precise level of ABMs and the scope of those offensive weapons to be included in an initial agreement. Progress was made during the next year on these matters and on technical questions so that by the time of the summit meeting in Moscow only a few key issues remained.
The ABM solution was to limit both sides to two sites. The United States would continue construction of an ABM site in Grand Forks, North Dakota, for the protection of an ICBM field, while the Soviet Union would have the fight to deploy a similar site. The Soviet Union would retain the ABM site already deployed around Moscow, and we would have the right to build a similar site around Washington. Both sides would have essentially the same systems and would be limited to an ABM level low enough to preclude a heavy defense of national territory--the mode of ABM deployment that could be most strategically destabilizing.
Defining which offensive systems would be frozen in an interim agreement proved more difficult. The Soviet Union wished to include ICBMs only. We pressed for the inclusion of both ICBM s and SLBMs. These were active Soviet programs; the purpose of SALT, in our view, was to break the momentum of unconstrained growth in strategic systems. Furthermore, since we had no active building programs in these categories, the numerical gap would widen without an agreement.
A freeze on ICBM and sea-based ballistic missile systems was clearly in the United States interest. I used my direct channel to the Soviet leaders to urge the inclusion of SLBMs in the Interim Agreement. We finally reached agreement in late April 1972 when the Soviet leaders accepted a proposal to place a ceiling on their SLBM force. The final details were negotiated at the summit the following month.
The Provisions of the Agreements. The highlights of the two agreements are as follows:
The ABM treaty allows each side to have too ABM interceptors at each of its two sites. The two sites must be at least 800 miles apart in order to prevent the development of a territorial defense. The treaty contains additional provisions which effectively prohibit the establishment of a radar base for the defense of populated areas as well as the attainment of capabilities to intercept ballistic missiles by conversion of air defense missiles to anti-ballistic missiles.
The Interim Agreement on offensive arms is to run for five years, unless replaced earlier by a permanent agreement which is the subject of the current negotiations. This agreement froze the number of strategic offensive missiles on both sides at approximately the levels operational and under construction at the time of signing. For ICBMs, this is 1,054 for the United States and 1,618 for the Soviet Union. Within this overall ceiling, there is a freeze on the Soviet Union's heavy ICBM launchers, the weapons most threatening to our strategic forces. There is also a prohibition on conversion of light ICBMs into heavy missiles. These provisions are buttressed by verifiable provisions and agreed criteria; of particular importance is the prohibition against any significant enlargement of missile silos.
The submarine limitations are more complicated. The Soviet Union is restricted to a level of 740 submarine ballistic missile launchers, some of them on an old type of nuclear submarine. However, they are permitted to build as many as 62 modern nuclear submarines and 950 SLBM launchers if--and only if--they dismantle an equal number of older ICBMs or older submarine-launched ballistic missiles to offset the new construction. This would mean dismantling 210 older ICBM launchers if the Soviet Union chooses to build up to the SLBM ceiling. The United States gave up no active offensive program.
The Significance of the Agreements. Two questions have been asked concerning these accords.
Do the agreements perpetuate a U.S. strategic disadvantage? Clearly they do not. The present situation is, on balance, advantageous to the United States. The Interim Agreement perpetuates nothing that did not already exist and that could only have grown worse without an agreement. Considering the momentum of the Soviet ICBM and SLBM programs, the ceilings in the Interim Agreement will make major contributions to our national security, while we proceed with negotiations for a permanent agreement.
Our present strategic military situation is sound. The United States is not prohibited from continuing current and planned strategic modernization and replacement programs for offensive systems. The imbalance in the number of missiles between the United States and the Soviet Union is only one aspect. There are other relevant factors such as deployment characteristics and qualitative differences between their system and ours. For example, the Soviet Union requires three submarines for every two of ours in order to keep an equal number on station, though they are testing longer range missiles that would ultimately change this ratio.
The quality of the weapons must also be weighed. We have a major advantage in nuclear weapons technology and in warhead accuracy. And with our Multiple Independently Targetted Reentry Vehicles (MIRVs) we have a 2 to 1 lead in numbers of warheads. Because of our continuing programs we will maintain this lead during the period of the agreement, even if the Soviets develop and deploy MIRVs of their own.
Moreover, to assess the overall balance it is also necessary to consider those forces not in the agreement; our bomber force, for instance, is substantially larger and more effective than the Soviet bomber force.
Thus, when the total picture is viewed, our strategic forces are seen to be completely sufficient.
Will the agreements jeopardize our security in the future? The Soviet Union has proved that it can best compete in sheer numbers. This is the area limited by the agreements. The agreements thus confine competition with the Soviets to the area of technology where, heretofore, we have had a significant advantage.
Clearly, the agreements enhance the security of both sides. No agreement that failed to do so could have been signed or would have stood any chance of lasting. As I told the Congressional leaders last June, I am convinced that these agreements fully protect our national security and our vital interests. The Congress accepted this judgment and gave the agreements overwhelming approval.
I am determined that our security and vital interests shall remain fully protected. We are therefore pursuing two parallel courses:
--We have entered the current phase of the strategic arms limitations talks with the same energy and conviction that produced the initial agreements. Until these negotiations succeed we must take care not to anticipate their outcome through unilateral decisions.
--We shall continue our research and developmental programs and establish the production capacity to sustain a sufficient strategic posture should new agreements prove unattainable. This effort also dissuades the other side from breaking the agreements.
These agreements are not isolated events. They are embedded in the fabric of an emerging new relationship, and can be of great political and historical significance. For the first time, two great powers, deeply divided by their values, philosophies, and social systems, have agreed to restrain the very armaments on which their national survival depends. A decision of this magnitude could only have been taken by two countries which had chosen to place their relations on a new foundation of restraint, cooperation, and steadily growing confidence.
The possibility always exists that the agreements will not be respected. We concluded them not on the basis of trust, but rather on the enlightened self-interest of both sides. They contain extensive and carefully negotiated provisions for verification. Beyond the legal obligations, both sides have a stake in all of the agreements that have been signed and the broad process of improvement in relations that has begun.
We are confident that the Soviet leaders will not lightly abandon the course that led to the summit meeting and the initial agreements. For our own part, we will not change direction without major provocation, because we believe our present course is in the interest of this country and of mankind. We will remain fully protected as long as we maintain our research and development effort and the strategic programs for modernization and replacement that I have recommended to the Congress.
Future Prospects. In November 1972 the second stage of SALT began. In this new phase we are dealing with those new issues inherent in working out permanent, rather than temporary, arrangements and with some of the problems set aside in SALT I.
There is mutual agreement that permanent limitations must meet the basic security interests of 'both sides equitably if they are to endure in an era of great technological change and in a fluid international environment. There obviously can be no agreement that creates or preserves strategic advantages. But each side perceives the strategic balance differently and therefore holds differing concepts of an equitable framework for a permanent agreement.
The problem of defining a balance that establishes and preserves an essential equivalency in strategic forces is no less complicated than it was four years ago. It involves the numerical levels of major systems, the capabilities of individual systems, and the overall potential of the entire strategic arsenal that each side can develop.
The impact of unconstrained technological developments in particular must be considered. On the one hand, both sides will want to ensure that their forces can be modernized. They will want confidence in the reliability of their forces and their survivability in foreseeable strategic circumstances. On the other hand, if competition in technology proceeds without restraint, forces capable of destroying the retaliatory forces of the other side could be developed; or the thrust of technology could produce such a result without deliberate decisions. Competition could inexorably intensify to the point that there could be a high premium on striking first. Thus a major challenge is to determine where a balance of capabilities enhances stability and where it could generate severe competition for advantage in first strike capabilities.
Given the different roads we and the Soviet Union have followed in developing our respective forces, perfect symmetry is not possible. To the extent that one side retains certain technological capacities, the other side must be conceded similar rights or some form of compensation in other areas of technology.
The Soviet Union has deployed a very large and heavy ICBM. The weight this missile can deliver to its target is several times greater than that of our Minuteman ICBM. The entire Soviet ICBM force, therefore, has a "throw weight" approximately four times greater than ours.
On the other hand, the United States is deploying MIRVs on our Minuteman ICBM and Poseidon while the Soviet Union thus far has not begun such a deployment.
Once MIRVs are developed and tested, however, the greater throw weight capacity of Soviet ICBMs will allow the Soviet Union to deploy a larger number of MIRVs than the United States.
These are the types of extremely complicated issues that arise in defining an essential equivalency. Moreover, verification of limitations on technological capabilities will be extraordinarily more difficult than monitoring limitations on the numbers of weapons.
Nevertheless, there are a number of factors which give us reason to hope for continuing progress:
--The initial agreement provides a foundation of confidence.
--For the past four years both sides have engaged in a dialogue on strategic matters that was inconceivable in 1969. We now understand each other's concerns better than we did then. We have a common language for discussion.
--The limits of ABM systems should provide an incentive for limiting further growth in offensive capabilities.
--At the present levels of strategic forces, small differences in numbers assume less importance. A further question is the impact of future agreements on other states. We will not make agreements that reduce the security of other countries. Nor can we permit threats to our allies to develop unchecked because of SALT agreements. Such factors do not limit the prospects for further U.S.-Soviet limitation on offensive systems, but they do delimit the area for negotiation.
In sum, a future agreement should:
--establish an essential equivalence in strategic capabilities among systems common to both sides;
--maintain the survivability of strategic forces in light of known and potential technological capabilities;
--provide for the replacement and modernization of older systems without upsetting the strategic balance; ---be subject to adequate verification;
--leave the security of third parties undiminished.
MUTUAL AND BALANCED FORCE REDUCTIONS (MBFR)
Preparations. In June 1968, before this Administration took office, the North Atlantic Alliance made a proposal to begin discussions with the Warsaw Pact on a mutual reduction of forces in Central Europe. Although this overture had met with no positive response, we reaffirmed the Alliance proposal in April 1969. Troop reduction was a concrete security issue, rather than an exercise in atmospherics, and was thus consistent with the general effort to move from confrontation toward negotiations.
At the same time, we found that the idea of mutual reductions had not been systematically analyzed before 1969. The general theories were that it would be possible to maintain security at lower force levels and that force reductions in themselves would enhance the relaxation of political tension.
We decided to follow an analytical approach similar to the one we used for SALT. We investigated the feasible reductions of all the forces that might be involved, analyzed the effect of reductions on the capabilities of each side, and examined the changing balance of forces should the agreements be violated and both sides begin reinforcing. We also studied the verification requirements and how they might affect the possible kinds of reductions.
The following considerations illustrate the complexities of the MBFR process:
--Reductions provide an inherent advantage for the side that has postured its forces along offensive lines: offensive forces would retain the initiative to concentrate and attack, while the defense must continue to defend the same geographical front with fewer forces.
--Major deployments of equipment, especially those with offensive capabilities, are therefore an important element in the reduction process.
--How can equivalence be established between different categories of equipment? What ratios would be equitable?
--Manpower, of course, is a common denominator to all the forces in Central Europe. In large forces however, reducing manpower may not necessarily be the only important aspect. If manpower is reduced, what becomes of the equipment? Should it be destroyed or reassembled in depots for continuing surveillance?
--Small reductions of manpower cannot be verified except under well-defined and stringent circumstances; demobilization of national forces on their own territory is particularly difficult to monitor except in very large numbers.
--The forces in Central Europe are both indigenous and "foreign" but this is a political as well as a military distinction. Should all forces be treated equally? If so, what compensation is necessary for the fact that the United States would withdraw its forces across the Atlantic, while the Soviet Union would withdraw only several hundred miles?
--Following actual reductions, control on the reintroduction of forces into the area for maneuvers or for replacements needs to be considered along with related verification requirements.
--How quickly each side could restore its forces to a pre-reduction level through mobilization and reinforcement becomes a significant factor. Compensation for advantages that one side may have should be considered.
As in SALT, the analysis of such questions provides us with the building blocks which can be put together in different ways to help us understand the implications of different reduction processes:
--Proportionately equal reductions. Each side would apply a common percentage to reduce its forces. This appears to be a simple but equitable approach. If applied to all forces, however, it could create an imbalance because it would favor the offense and because of the geographical advantages of the Warsaw Pact.
--Reductions to equal levels. This would in effect produce a common ceiling for Central Europe. There would be some unequal cuts in absolute numbers, but the residual capabilities would be more balanced and offensive potential would thereby be reduced.
--Mixed, asymmetrical reductions. This means reductions would be made by different amounts in various categories of weapons or manpower. It could prove extremely complex to define equivalence between different weapons systems.
We have now completed our technical evaluation. We understand the major issues related to actual reductions and which approaches are realistic. We have shared the results of our studies with our NATO allies and have contributed to studies within the Alliance.
Allied Consultations. We now enter the final and most important stage in building an Alliance position. In addition to the completion of technical studies and diplomatic plans, we face one basic question: what security concept will the Alliance follow in developing its position for the negotiations next fall?
The Alliance is committed to "undiminished security" in the MBFR process, but we must agree on what this means in concrete terms. Different political viewpoints shape the attitudes of each ally, especially if its forces or territory may be involved. Issues of this magnitude could become divisive if there were no common concept. The Alliance must approach force reductions from the standpoint of their effect on military security in a period that may be marked by a further amelioration of tensions. Some of the key questions are:
--How do we reconcile reductions in roughly balanced conventional forces with the fact that the strategic balance is no longer clearly favorable to the Alliance?
--What are the capabilities to sustain a conventional defense of NATO territory with reduced forces?
--Could a substantial reduction in conventional defense lead to a greater or earlier reliance on nuclear weapons?
--Can reduced forces be maintained and improved in the present political environment?
--What would be the net effect of a new balance in Central Europe on the flanks of NATO?
-How would reductions affect the relative burdens of American and European forces?
To deal with these kinds of issues effectively, the Alliance must first set its security goals and relate them to technical MBFR analysis. Then, however the negotiations may unfold, the Alliance position throughout will be determined by a common concept of security rather than by negotiating tactics or abstract political formulas. We can then rationally address the questions of which forces and equipment should be reduced and by what amounts. We can translate our technical analysis into detailed proposals that both protect our interests and offer the other side a proposal for reductions that will enhance military stability in the heart of Europe.
Our security and that of the Alliance is inextricably linked. We will pursue these negotiations in full agreement with our allies. We will negotiate with the same dedication we displayed in SALT. We will also observe a fundamental principle of those talks; we will not enter into agreements that undermine international equilibrium or create threats to other countries.
OTHER ARMS CONTROL ISSUES
During the past year we have pursued arms control on several multilateral fronts.
Biological Arms Control. On April 10, 1972, the United States, the Soviet Union, and over 70 other nations signed an international treaty banning the development, production, and stockpiling of biological and toxic weapons and requiring destruction of existing stocks. The treaty has now been signed by more than 100 nations. I submitted it to the Senate on August 10, 1972, for advice and consent. Meanwhile, we are taking steps to implement some provisions.
The facilities that once produced these weapons are now doing research for peaceful purposes. The former biological warfare facility at Pine Bluff Arsenal in Arkansas has become a center for research on the adverse effects of chemical substances in man's environment. The former military biological research facility at Fort Detrick, Maryland, now houses a national center for cancer research. Scientists from all nations are being invited to share in the humanitarian work of these centers.
Chemical Arms Control. This Administration remains firmly committed to achieving effective international restraints on chemical weapons.
During the past year the United States played a leading role in the discussion of chemical weapons controls at the Conference of the Committee on Disarmament in Geneva. We presented a comprehensive work program on the prohibition of chemical weapons and several technical studies of this subject.
The basic problem is that several nations may have these weapons and the capacity to produce them is widespread. It is exceedingly difficult to verify existing stocks, let alone their reduction, or to distinguish between civilian and military production. Furthermore, however remote the threat may be that any nation would use chemical weapons offensively, that threat must be countered with certain defensive capabilities.
The major issue is whether competition will continue or whether, as in SALT, some partial measures can be adopted to facilitate more comprehensive measures.
Comprehensive Test Ban. The United States has continued to support the objective of an adequately verified agreement to ban all nuclear weapons testing.
Some countries maintain that national means of verification would be sufficient to monitor such a ban with confidence. We disagree. Despite substantial progress in detecting and identifying seismic events, including underground nuclear tests, we believe that national means of verification still should be supplemented by some On-site inspection.
The United States shares the view of many other nations that an adequately verified comprehensive test ban would be a positive contribution to moderating the arms race. For this reason we are giving high priority to the problem of verification. We will continue to cooperate with other nations in working toward eventual agreement on this important issue.
The responsibility for controlling arms does not rest with the great powers alone. As the United States and the Soviet Union seek to curb the nuclear arms race, and the nations with forces in Central Europe seek to reduce conventional forces, other countries should develop regional arms control arrangements which will enhance mutual security and reduce the danger of local conflicts. External powers should respect such arrangements by restricting the flow of weapons into such areas. The United States is prepared to do so.
PART VII: NEW INTERNATIONAL
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Bamako is the capital of which country ? | Bamako - Wikitravel
Bamako
Understand[ edit ]
Bamako bridge crossing the Niger River
Bamako has been continuously inhabited by humans since prehistoric times. In 1883 it was conquered by French troops, and in 1908 became the capital of French Sudan.
The city has only a few paved main roads (goudrons), the rest of the city's roads are unpaved, and get dusty during the dry season (November to May) and muddy during the rainy season, offering breeding grounds to malaria-carrying mosquitoes.
The city can be hard to navigate through due to the lack of road signs, the complicated layout of the streets and the one way system in the city. The roads are very crowded both with motor vehicles and motorcycles who appear to fill every available space possible. Traffic police are particularly vigilant and will sometimes appear to enforce very arbitrary traffic rules. They are usually on motorcycles as well so it is unwise to try and out run them in your vehicle as they will easily catch up.
Often the best way to navigate around the city is to hire a taxi-motorcycle to lead you to your destination. These are relatively cheap and depending on the distance can be as low as 100 cfa. There is no meter and price is negotiated upfront.
Unemployment rates are high.
By plane[ edit ]
Bamako-Sénou Airport is roughly 15km (30–40 minutes) from the city center, with flights from Paris on Air France. Flights to Europe are also offered by Royal Air Maroc, via Casablanca -- the main drawback to this option is that the flight from BKO to Casablanca leaves at 3:35am. Taxi rides should cost about 7000 CFA from the city.
Passengers flying Air France should consider pré-enregistrement, or early check-in. This can be done at the Air France office on the day of the flight, between 10AM and 5PM. The office is located at Square Lumumba. Luggage is dropped off and boarding passes issued right then and there, as would happen at the airport - minus the crowds and the hassle!
The airport has been undergoing massive renovations in 2009-10. On the plus side, the underwhelming and cramped upstairs waiting area is gone, replaced by a much larger and more modern room. On the downside, many parts remain incomplete. Expect to make your way through worksites. People with difficulty getting around will still find Bamako-Senou challenging, as there are less stairs than before, but a lot more corridors and construction to contend with.
By train[ edit ]
Bamako is at the end of the railway line from Dakar in Senegal which used to transport passengers across western Africa. However since a few years back all cross-border traffic have stopped and the only remaing service is a thrice-weekly train from the western city of Kayes and a short commuter service from Koulikoro . There have been several announcements recently of a renewed service between Bamako and Dakar but no trains have yet materialsed.
By bus[ edit ]
At the Sogoniko bus station you can find busses to other cities such as Segou , Mopti (taking about 10 hours).
Buy[ edit ][ add listing ]
Prices are not fixed, and for many goods bargaining is expected. Beware, sometimes for common items (like food) the first price mentioned is just right. On the market it might be a good idea to first ask a couple of times at different stands before actually buying something.
Near the area of Bamako-Coura is the lively artisan market where traders from all over Bamako come to sell silver jewelry, leather, musical instruments and wood carvings. Prices are reasonable but the vendors expect their customers to bargain and enjoy it when they do. Once inside the market the atmosphere is relaxed and pleasant but be careful in the busy streets directly surrounding - it's easy to lose a bag to a thief.
Euros are widely accepted.
ATM's were difficult to find in Bamako, but their presence is growing. BDM banks have ATM's for VISA cards in several branches, and Banque Atlantique used to have ATM's for Maestro/Mastercard, but their license has lapsed, so VISA and possibly VISA electron are now the only options for all Malian ATMs.
Eat[ edit ][ add listing ]
Pizzeria de Guido, Rue 250, off Blvd Nelson Mandela. Decent Italian restaurant - just don't expect taxi drivers to know where it is... edit
Love them or hate them, the French have left one decent legacy in West Africa: bread. Fresh delicious baguettes are ubiquitous, and travelers should not be worried about becoming sick because of the bread.
Vegetarians will have a hard time in Bamako. Asking for a meal without meat will usually be met with the kind of look reserved for children and elderly relatives one does not wish to upset. In a country where poverty is common and food is often scarce, turning down meat is an oddity.
That said, mornings beans, fries, and fried plaintains can be found streetside throughout the city. Morning, noon, and night you can find small streetside "cafes" where you can get a VERY fried egg sandwich and some nescafe. Several varieties of fried dough are also easy to stumble upon. Lunch- Rice and sauce is most easy to find, in local restaurants a plate with meat shouldn't cost more than 500, but can range up to 1,500. Evenings you can find attcheke (cassava dish), spaghetti, beans, boiled eggs, and fries relatively easily.
Meat eaters will be pleased to learn beef and fish are exceptionally good. Beef kebabs and grilled Capitaine, a freshwater fish from the Niger river, are always a good choice. Chicken are usually left to fend for themselves, and tend to be on the scrawny side, especially compared to North-American chicken. Although the situation is improving, you might want to avoid disappointment and just give chicken a miss while in Bamako. To avoid food borne illness, stay away as much as possible from fresh vegetables, and make sure your food is piping hot before eating it.
Hotel Badala, Badalabougou (Second road right after German Emabassy), ☎ +223 2023 2314. Very well run, little known restaurant/brasserie. Excellent food (the Pave du boeuf is yummy). Excellent service. Small pool, outside tables. Near the river. Prices are relatively high for Mali but in Bamako you need a treat sometimes! edit
Grocery shopping[ edit ]
You can eat like the locals for a few hundred CFA a day, or shop in one of the western-style supermarkets.
There is one main market, in the centre of town, and several smaller markets in Bamako.
Supermarket-style stores are generally run by Lebanese businessmen.
La Fourmi A two story grocery store, the second floor contains house hold supplies. The butchers will cut the meat to order. The store is open from 7:30 am -1:00 pm and from 3:30 pm - 8:00pm, Monday - Saturday. Sundays 8:30 am -12:30 pm.
Azar The store is open from 7:30 am -1:00 pm and from 3:30 pm - 8:00pm, Monday - Saturday. Sundays 8:30 am -12:30 pm.
Supermarket Le Miniprix It is actually the best one with the best service and with the lowest prices. They have a very clean store and are open from 7:30am to 10:30pm. They also accept US/Canadian Dollars and Euro.
These stores will carry Western or Middle-Eastern goods, including cold cuts, fruit and vegetable, and dairy products including fresh milk and yogurt. Prices are generally higher than in Europe or the US, and choice more limited in a way reminiscent of a North-American convenience store.
Budget[ edit ]
There are many restaurants where you can get nice omelette sandwiches for about 250 CFA.
Many street vendors sell bread, rice, fries, salad, grilled meat; however, use precautions while eating on the street.
Le Bafing, Quartier du Fleuve opposite the Service d'Hygiène, ☎ 6672 0781. Bistrot/Restaurant/Bar in a small street. Eating in a courtyard. Very good and friendly service. Daily special includes local dishes, à la carte steak, fish or spaghetti. Well stocked bar. Recommended. around $5 for main dishes. edit
Assalam - ACI 2000 between the obelisk round point and Place Can. Lebanese- good shawarmas, hummus, brochettes- varied menu. Pleasant staff.
Mid-range[ edit ]
African Grill, Place de l'OVMS. Restaurant serving good authentic African cuisine, on a square just off a main road. Not luxurious but good. Beer and wine are available but, because of the proximity to a mosque, don't be surprised if on Fridays they ask you to keep the bottles out of sight on the floor. They have a second location at the Musée National. around 3000CFA for main dishes. edit
Appaloosa, Quartier du Fleuve. Restaurant and Bar. One of the strangest sights on earth. Malians in velour cowboy hats and vests serve Tex-Mex dishes in the restaurant while blond Russian professional women work the bar. Must be seen to be believed. The food isn't bad either. edit
Poularco. Another Lebanese joint with slightly higher class food than the rest. Nice shawarmas, pizzas, and good mixed salads are on the menu here edit
Bamako has many Lebanese and Chinese restaurants.
Hippodrome[ edit ]
Bla Bla is where Bamako's uppercrust go to relax and have a (expensive) cocktail or bottle of champagne. With a small but delicious African menu, a wide range of cocktails, and cold draft beer - it is one of the most popular restaurants to see and be seen. An entree here is around $15 US. Also this place frequently has art exhibitions for local artists.
Le Terrace next door to the Bla Bla is a very large bar/lounge on top of a night club. Very good atmosphere and salsa music, dancing. Good pizzas and other fare.
Le Relax is a popular Lebanese hangout in Hippodrome with quick food and free wi-fi access. Pizzas, shawarmas, and hummus are the stars in this menu.
Broadway is a Western style restaurant which is pretty much the only place you can find a "real" hamburger with "real" cheese. Also on the menu are breakfast burittos, chicken wings, and shakes. Great if you are missing the comforts of home. Burgers only run $4 without fries but expect to pay up to $12 for a full entree.
San Toro is a restaurant serving traditional Malian food and drink - no alcohol, but many ginger, tamrind and seasonal fruit based drinks. There is always live acoustic music there and the ambiance is very relaxed.
Da Guido just after the Bla Bla Road becomes dirt, is a real Italian restaurant run by real Italians. Their oven fired pizzas are the best in Bamako and they also serve up hefty portions of delicious pasta. Expensive wine flows freely here. Walking into this place you will think you just walked into an Italian restaurant in Brookly with the Roman wall murals and brick floors. A good pizza will run you about $15 US.
Drink[ edit ][ add listing ]
The Evasion Jazz Club can be pretty cool on Fridays and Saturdays. The Hippo d'Or (close to Hippodrome) is also a nice place for enjoying non-stop live music on Fridays and, even more, on Saturdays. There is a big Casino near the Hotel L'Amitie. Ibiza, Blyblos (under renovation as of August 2010) and Terrace are still the hippest places to dance and drink. For some less seedy drinking establishments, try No Stress & Jet Set (formerly Privledge), which both have pool tables as well. Bla Bla and its twin in Badalabougou are known to get pumping on weekends.
Crazy Horse has some good food and is well priced.
Ibiza, Rud Princess. Around the hour 00:00 on weekends the Malians come alive; this is a nice nightclub that opens up at 00:00 and plays a variety of dance music. edit
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With which sport would you associate the Eastbourne Eagles ? | Mali
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Mali
Official Name: Republic of Mali
Last Updated: April 14, 2015
Alerts & Warnings
Must be valid at time of entry
BLANK PASSPORT PAGES:
One page required for entry stamp
TOURIST VISA REQUIRED:
Emergency After-Hours Telephone: +(223) 2070-2300
Fax: (223) 2070-2340
[email protected]
Destination Description
Mali is a developing country in western Africa which continues to experience political instability and insecurity following the coup d’etat in March 2012. Facilities for tourism are limited. The capital is Bamako. French is the official language with Bambara widely spoken. U.S. citizens are strongly cautioned against traveling to Mali’s three northern regions (Timbuktu, Gao, and Kidal) and in remote areas along the Mauritanian border due to the serious threat of terrorist activity and continuing political and civil unrest. There is ongoing conflict due to rebellion and terrorist occupation of the north. Attacks still remain a threat throughout the country, including in Bamako. The ability of the U.S. embassy to provide consular services may be extremely limited in remote and rural areas.
Read the Department of State’s Fact Sheet on Mali for additional information on U.S. - Mali relations
Entry, Exit & Visa Requirements
Visitors must present a valid passport with at least one blank page, a visa, and evidence of yellow fever vaccination. While airport visas are available, visitors are strongly encouraged to obtain their visas in advance of travel to avoid excessive fees and unexpected potential travel restrictions imposed at the port-of-entry. Visit the Embassy of Mali website for the most current visa information. Inquiries from outside the United States should be made at the nearest Malian embassy or consulate.
The U.S. Department of State is unaware of any HIV/AIDS entry restrictions for visitors to or foreign residents of Mali.
Information about dual nationality or the prevention of international child abduction can be found on our website. For further information about customs regulations, please read our Customs Information page .
Safety and Security
See the Department of State's Travel Warning for Mali and Worldwide Caution for the current security situation. Violent extremist elements including but not limited to al-Qaida in the Lands of Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), Ansar al-Dine, the Movement for Oneness and Jihad (MUJAO), and extremists tied to al-Murabitun remain active in the region. Terrorists elements have been mostly dislodged from the major population centers, but do still occasionally operate in cities, including Gao and Timbuktu. AQIM has declared its intention to attack Western targets throughout the Sahel (including Mali, Mauritania, and Niger). This group has claimed responsibility for numerous recent kidnappings/attempted kidnappings and other violent events in the region. On March 7, 2015 al-Murabitun claimed responsibility for an armed attack on La Terrasse, a popular nightclub in the Hippodrome area of Bamako. Automatic rifle fire and explosives killed and injured several people.
Travel to the northern and western parts of the country is to be avoided because of continuing security and military operations. The situation in the north remains unstable and dangerous. The United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA) along with French troops in collaboration with Malian security forces are deployed in the country and are conducting counterterrorism operations that target extremist elements.
There has been a recent uptick in police harassment and violent crime in Bamako, including several armed carjacking incidents, one with a fatality of a French citizen. While the government of Mali has increased security in the capital, the potential for additional attacks remains throughout the country, including in Bamako.
Large and small periodic street demonstrations occur regularly throughout Mali. U.S. citizens should avoid street demonstrations and maintain security awareness at all times. Although demonstrations can occur spontaneously and the majority are contained by security forces, some have quickly turned violent, particularly in northern regions and at university locations in the south, and have resulted in deaths.
For hundreds of years, the Sahel has been used by traffickers of arms, drugs, and persons because of its remoteness and centralized location between Europe and Sub-Saharan Africa. While these elements usually attempt to avoid contact with outsiders, even an accidental encounter could generate a violent response due to the illicit nature of their activities.
The U.S. embassy permits overnight travel outside of the city of Bamako for official U.S. government employees only on a case-by-case basis, depending on the reason for travel except during times of heightened security risk. Though this restriction does not apply to private U.S. citizens, it should be taken into account when traveling to and within Mali.
To stay connected:
Enroll in the Smart Traveler Enrollment Program so we can keep you up to date with important safety and security announcements.
Follow the Bureau of Consular Affairs on Twitter and Facebook .
Bookmark the Bureau of Consular Affairs website , which contains the current Travel Warnings and Travel Alerts as well as the Worldwide Caution .
Follow the U.S. Embassy in Mali on Twitter and the Embassy’s website .
In the event of an emergency, contact us at 1-888-407-4747 toll-free within the United States and Canada, or via a regular toll line, 1-202-501-4444, from other countries.
Take some time before traveling to consider your personal security and checking for useful tips for traveling safely abroad .
CRIME: Violent crime against foreigners is infrequent, although there has been a recent uptick in armed carjackings in Bamako, as well as an armed attack with fatalities in Bamako on March 7 (see Safety and Security section). There are sporadic reports of night time robberies occurring on the roads outside of the capital; tourists should not drive outside of Bamako at night (See Travel & Transportation section).
Criminals will not hesitate to use violence if they encounter resistance from their victims. Petty crimes, such as pickpocketing and simple theft, are common in urban areas. Closely guard your passports and wallets when in crowded outdoor areas and open-air markets. You should be vigilant for pickpockets, especially at night. There have also been recent reports of possible police harassment. When asked to stop by police, stop only in well-lit areas, or places where several officers are posted.
VICTIMS OF CRIME: If you or someone you know becomes the victim of a crime abroad you should contact the local police and the nearest U.S. embassy or consulate. Response from local authorities and recourse for victims of crime is extremely limited, if not non-existent. When you do interact with local police always request a copy of the police report.
Due to the vigilantism which often occurs when criminals are apprehended in Mali, it is best to avoid the large crowds that may gather at the scene of a crime, a vehicle accident, or any altercation.
If you become the victim of a crime the U.S. embassy can:
Assist you in seeking medical assistance and provide a list of doctors.
Put you in contact with the appropriate police authorities, explain legal processes in general terms, and provide a list of lawyers.
Help you understand the local criminal justice process and direct you to local attorneys. Remember, however, that local authorities, not the U.S. government, are responsible for investigating and prosecuting crimes.
Contact relatives or friends at your request and with your written consent.
Replace a stolen passport.
The local equivalent to the “911” emergency line in Mali is 8000-1115; connection and response, however, is not always reliable.
Please see our information for victims of crime , including possible victim compensation programs in the United States.
Local Laws & Special Circumstances
CRIMINAL PENALTIES: Travelers are subject to local laws. Persons violating local laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested, or imprisoned. Penalties for possessing, using, or trafficking in illegal drugs are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Travelers may be taken in for questioning if stopped by the police and unable to produce their passport or for taking pictures of certain buildings. Driving under the influence of drugs or alcohol may lead to arrest. If you break local laws, your U.S. passport will not help you avoid arrest or prosecution. The U.S. government cannot get you out of jail.
While some countries will automatically notify the nearest U.S. embassy or consulate if a U.S. citizen is detained or arrested in that country, others may not. In the event of an arrest or detention, ask the police and prison officials to notify the nearest U.S. embassy or consulate as soon as possible.
There are also some things that might be legal in the country you visit, but still illegal in the United States. You can be prosecuted in the United States for engaging in sexual conduct with children or for using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country regardless of the legality of these activities under that country’s laws. It is also illegal to knowingly take a girl younger than 18 years old outside of the United States for the purpose of performing female genital mutilation/cutting (so-called FGM “vacation cutting. Counterfeit and pirated goods are illegal in the United States and if you purchase them in a foreign country, you may be breaking local law as well.
SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES:
Cultural Property: Mali is a signatory to the Treaty on Cultural Property, which restricts exportation of Malian archeological objects, in particular those from the Niger River Valley. Visitors seeking to export any such property are required by Malian law to obtain an export authorization from the National Museum in Bamako. Contact the Embassy of Mali in Washington D.C. or the nearest Malian consulate for specific information regarding customs requirements. U.S. Customs and Border Protection may impose corresponding import restrictions in accordance with the Convention on Cultural Property Implementation Act.
Currency/Access to Funds: Currency exchange facilities are slow and often use out-of-date exchange rates. The U.S. Embassy is unable to provide exchange facilities for private U.S. citizens. There are several ATMs in Bamako that accept U.S. citizens’ credit/debit cards, though they do not function reliably. Maximum withdrawals are generally limited to $400, and local banks charge up to $20 per transaction for use of their ATMs. There are some ATMs outside of Bamako in Segou, Sikasso, Koutiala, Gao, and Mopti, though they are sporadic and occasionally inoperable. Credit cards are accepted only at the largest hotels, Banque Atlantique, a few travel agencies (for an extra fee), and very few select restaurants. Cash advances from credit cards are available in Mali only via Western Union.
Photography: Exercise caution when taking photographs in Mali. Photographing any official object, entity, or person is restricted. These restrictions include infrastructure, facilities, government buildings, as well as individuals. You should obtain explicit permission from the Malian government before photographing transportation facilities and government buildings. Taking a photograph without permission in any public area or around any of the above listed facilities often provokes a prompt response from security personnel or offends the people being photographed. Taking photos of the U.S. Embassy in Bamako is prohibited.
Telephone Calls: International telephone calls are expensive, and collect calls cannot be made from outside of Bamako.
WOMEN TRAVELER INFORMATION: If you are a woman traveling abroad, please review our tips for Women Travelers .
LGBT RIGHTS: There are no legal restrictions on same-sex sexual relations or the organization of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) events in Mali. Societal discrimination, however, is widespread. LGBT individuals have experienced physical, psychological, and sexual violence, which society views as corrective punishment and police frequently refuse to intervene. Most LGBT individuals isolate themselves and keep their sexual identity hidden.
See the State Department’s annual Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for more details. For further information on LGBT travel, please read our LGBT Travel Information page.
ACCESSIBILITY: There is no specific law protecting the rights of persons with physical, sensory, intellectual, or mental disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, or in the provision of other state services. There is no law mandating access to transportation, communication and public buildings for persons with disabilities. No special accommodations are made or officially reduced fares or rates are available to persons with disabilities in public transportation or taxis, communications, lodging, medical facilities, restaurants, cafés, bars or other tourist spots. Foot paths and pedestrian-friendly road crossings are rare and generally are inaccessible to persons with disabilities
Health
Consult the CDC website prior to travel for the most up to date health information. Travelers should consult with their healthcare provider before traveling for applicable vaccinations and malaria prophylaxis. Make sure health insurance provides coverage while overseas. Consider supplemental insurance that includes medical evacuation. The U.S. government cannot pay travelers’ medical bills.
On January 6, 2015 the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) removed the Travel Notice for Mali regarding Ebola. Consult the CDC site for more information.
Medical facilities are extremely limited, especially outside of Bamako. U.S.-standard care does not exist. Most U.S. medicines are unavailable; European medications are more easily found, and can be obtained at pharmacies throughout Bamako, and are usually less expensive than those in the United States. Be careful to avoid purchasing potentially dangerous counterfeit medications when buying on the local market, as well as those with a short shelf life that may no longer be effective. Travelers should carry with them an adequate supply of needed medication and prescription drugs, along with copies of the prescriptions, including the generic names for the drugs.
Malaria is highly prevalent throughout sub-Saharan Mali in all seasons and sporadically in some areas in northern Mali. Travelers should carry and use CDC recommended insect repellents containing either 20% DEET, picaridin, and oil of lemon eucalyptus or IR3535. Treating clothing and tents with permethrin and sleeping in screened or air conditioned rooms under insecticide-impregnated mosquito nets will help diminish bites from mosquitoes as well ticks, fleas, chiggers, etc, some of which may also carry infections.
All routinely recommended immunizations for the US should be up to date. Measles, mumps, rubella , tetanus, pertussis and chickenpox are much more common than in the US, especially among children. Additionally, hepatitis A and typhoid immunization is recommended for all travelers. Hepatitis B vaccine is recommended for all those who may have sexual contacts, tattoos or require medical treatment.
Yellow Fever immunization is recommended for those over nine months old who are traveling in the southern areas of Mali.
Rabies immunization is recommended for all travelers staying for more than four weeks or who will have remote, rural travel or expect animal exposure. Even in urban areas dogs may have rabies and bites and scratches from dogs, bats or other mammals should be immediately cleaned with soap and water and medical evaluation sought to determine if additional rabies immunization is warranted.
Meningococcal meningitis immunization with the quadrivalent meningococcal vaccine should be given to all children and health care workers, especially during the dry season (December through June). Meningococcal vaccine should be considered for all adults. Epidemic meningococcal disease occurs frequently in the southern regions.
Diarrheal diseases are prevalent throughout the country even in large cities and luxury accommodations. Follow scrupulous hygiene and safe food preparation. Wash hands thoroughly before eating, preparing food, and after using sanitation facilities. Avoid cooked food served at room temperature. Avoid raw food, including raw vegetables unless they can be washed thoroughly. Drink only beverages from sealed bottles or cans. Water is safe if it has been boiled or chemically treated. Avoid ice unless made from bottled/disinfected water.
For further health information go to:
U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Travel & Transportation
TRAFFIC SAFETY AND ROAD CONDITIONS: We recommend you exercise extreme caution when traveling by road. Travelers after dark on roads outside of urban centers are subject to attack by kidnappers and terrorists, and more commonly regular banditry, as roads are poorly lit or traveled. Road travel between Gao Kidal, and Menaka, and outside Timbuktu should be avoided as they are common sites for improvised explosive devices (bombs) and ambushes by armed assailants.
Remain alert and vigilant while driving. Do not make any unplanned stops, avoid driving alone at night, keep doors locked and windows up, even if the need arises to speak to someone outside of the vehicle; and be aware of your surrounding. If you are forced to stop do not resist the demands of would-be assailants, as they may be armed.
Due to safety concerns, avoid the use of motorbikes, van taxis, and public transportation. Excessive speeds, poorly maintained vehicles, lack of street lighting, and roving livestock pose serious road hazards. Many vehicles are not well-maintained, and headlights are either extremely dim or not used at all, while rear lights or reflectors are often missing or broken. Driving conditions in the capital of Bamako can be particularly dangerous due to limited street lighting, the absence of sidewalks for pedestrians, and the number of motorcycles, mopeds, and bicycles.
Mali has paved roads leading from Bamako to most major cities in the south and east. During the rainy season from mid-June to mid-September, some unpaved roads may be impassable. On many roads outside of the capital, deep sand and ditches are common. Four-wheel drive vehicles with spare tires and emergency equipment are recommended. Professional roadside service is not available. It is imperative to carry sufficient quantities of drinking water and food. Drivers should ensure that their gas tanks are at least half-full at all times, as gas stations are not widely available.
Drivers travel on the right-hand side of the road in Mali. Speed limits range from 40-60 km per hour (25-40 miles per hour) within towns, to 100 km per hour (60 miles per hour) between cities. Road conditions often require much lower speeds.
For safety reasons, do not travel on the Bamako-Dakar railroad, which transports passengers only as far as Kayes.
Some international flights have occasionally been canceled due to low travel volume, but in those situations travelers have usually been notified in advance. Travelers wishing to depart the country should check with commercial airlines for the airport's operational status before traveling to the airport.
Please refer to our Road Safety page for more information.
AVIATION SAFETY OVERSIGHT: As there is no direct commercial air service to the United States by carriers registered in Mali, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed the government of Mali’s Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards. Further information may be found on the FAA’s safety assessment page .
Emergency After-Hours Telephone +(223) 2070-2300
Fax +(223) 223-2070-2340
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"The 1956 film ""Lust for Life"", starring Kirk Douglas, centred on the life of who ?" | Lust for Life (1956) - IMDb
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The life of brilliant but tortured artist Vincent van Gogh.
Directors:
Norman Corwin (screen play), Irving Stone (based on the novel by)
Stars:
From $2.00 (SD) on Amazon Video
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Title: Lust for Life (1956)
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Won 1 Oscar. Another 3 wins & 6 nominations. See more awards »
Photos
An unscrupulous movie producer uses an actress, a director and a writer to achieve success.
Director: Vincente Minnelli
Boxer Midge Kelly rises to fame...mainly by stepping on other people.
Director: Mark Robson
A slave and a Viking prince fight for the love of a captive princess.
Director: Richard Fleischer
A fiercely independent cowboy arranges to have himself locked up in jail in order to then escape with an old friend who has been sentenced to the penitentiary.
Director: David Miller
A movie adaptation of Homer's second epic, that talks about Ulysses' efforts to return to his home after the end of ten years of war.
Director: Mario Camerini
On one day in the 21st Precinct squad room, assorted characters form a backdrop for the troubles of hard-nosed Detective Jim McLeod.
Director: William Wyler
A frustrated former big-city journalist now stuck working for an Albuquerque newspaper exploits a story about a man trapped in a cave to re-jump start his career, but the situation quickly escalates into an out-of-control circus.
Director: Billy Wilder
The slave Spartacus leads a violent revolt against the decadent Roman Republic.
Director: Stanley Kubrick
Edit
Storyline
Vincent Van Gogh is the archetypical tortured artistic genius. His obsession with painting, combined with mental illness, propels him through an unhappy life full of failures and unrewarding relationships. He fails at being a preacher to coal miners. He fails in his relationships with women. He earns some respect among his fellow painters, especially Paul Gauguin, but he does not get along with them. He only manages to sell one painting in his lifetime. The one constant good in his life is his brother Theo, who is unwavering in his moral and financial support. Written by John Oswalt <[email protected]>
Magnificent in CinemaScope and Color See more »
Genres:
15 September 1956 (USA) See more »
Also Known As:
La vie passionnée de Vincent van Gogh See more »
Filming Locations:
122 min
Sound Mix:
Mono (Perspecta Sound® encoding) (35 mm optical prints) (Westrex Recording System)| 4-Track Stereo (35 mm magnetic prints) (Westrex Recording System)
Color:
Average Shot Length (ASL) = 15 seconds See more »
Goofs
Camera shadow falls across Ducrucq as Van Gogh finds him dead. See more »
Quotes
Vincent Van Gogh : If I'm to be anything as a painter I've got to break through that iron wall between what I feel and what I express. my best chance of doing it is here, where my roots are... the people I know, the earth I know.
(Denmark) – See all my reviews
When I hear the name Vincente Minnelli certain scenes pop up on my inner screeningroom: A tracking shot at the fair (Some came running), the low tracking zoom towards Douglas and Turner at the pool (Bad and the Beautiful), snowmen (Meet me in St Louis) and the agony in Douglas's face in "Lust for life"; in fact as soon as his redbearded agonized face pops up, all the other movies fade away and "Lust for life" takes over my inner screening room.
But apart from being my favorite Minnelli movie, its a movie that more than any other shows his genius in use of colors; every scene is composed in breathtaking technicolor with the deepest respect for Van Gogh's own use of color, and Douglas's acting is filled with the same agony and passion as the strokes of Van Gogh's brush. As the other great movies who uses color to its fullest (Wizard of Oz, Black Narcissus, Ten Commandments), the simularities between the director and the painter is obvious. Hence, Minnelli's struggle for "painting" the scenes with the richness of technicolor becomes an echo of Van Gogh. It also reads as a textbook in composition from Steinberg's Dead Space to Eisenstein's juxtapositions. In all, Minnelli is of great skill and uses it to the fullest.
The story, which focuses on the struggle for a new way of expression, is tame at times and the acting (apart from Douglas) seems static most of the times, but the tortured face and body of Douglas and the use of color makes this one of the greatest achievements in MGM's history and one of the best movies Minnelli ever made.
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| Vincent van Gogh |
Adelaide is the capital of which Australian state ? | Lust For Life
Lust for Life
Wednesday February, 15 2017 at 01:30 AM
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For many years, it was common wisdom in Hollywood that an artist's life was not a successful subject for film (and, truth be told, many potentially fascinating biographies have made dreadful movies). So, although MGM owned the rights since 1946 of Irving Stone's hugely popular 1934 novel about the tortured painter Vincent Van Gogh, a film version was repeatedly shelved as too risky. But after a very successful international Van Gogh exhibit in the 1950s introduced his work to hundreds of thousands of people and John Huston's film about painter Toulouse-Lautrec, Moulin Rouge (1952), proved to be a money-maker, the studio approved the project with John Houseman producing and Vincente Minnelli directing.
Minnelli was the ideal choice to bring the story to the screen. A former stage designer known for his visual style that mirrored and amplified the dramatic story of each of his films, he was the right match for a movie about a painter. But he had to fight several battles to get the look he wanted; some he won, some he didn't. Minnelli didn't want to use CinemaScope for Lust for Life, reasoning that, as he said in his autobiography, "the dimensions of the wider screen [bore] little relation to the conventional shape of painting," but the then-popular process was a must for MGM, which like every other studio was looking for cinematic gimmicks to overcome the threat of television. Minnelli did win a technical battle, however, concerning the film stock. The studio was using the Eastman color process which, contrary to the soft, subtle tones he wanted to depict Van Gogh's world and his art, produced colors "straight from the candy box, a brilliant mixture of blues, reds, and yellows that resembled neither life nor art," the director said. He preferred the defunct Ansco process, and he and Houseman hounded MGM executives until they bought up the remaining 300,000 feet of Ansco stock. The company then opened a lab especially to process Minnelli's footage.
Another problem concerned filming Van Gogh's actual paintings. The masterpieces could have been ruined by the intense light required for motion picture cameras, so Minnelli sent crews into museums and private collectors' homes to capture about 200 of Van Gogh's paintings with special portrait cameras that made time exposures without excessive light. Enlarged transparencies were then made of each shot, which were backlit and refilmed with special lenses.
Most of the picture was shot where Van Gogh lived and worked, including The Hague in the Netherlands and Arles in southern France. The production team even found two older citizens of Arles who had known Van Gogh 60 years earlier; one of them had sat for the painting "The Baby Roulin." Even on location, however, there were problems to be solved. Because Van Gogh's work was so well known, the film couldn't get away with showing scenes or landscapes that had been altered since the master painted them. In one case, they had to put a tree in the ground that had been removed since the original's depiction in a famous painting.
One other obstacle had to be overcome during principal photography, and it was a major one. The ten-year film rights to Stone's book were set to expire at the end of 1955 and Stone adamantly refused to grant an extension, so when the project got the green light, Houseman and Minnelli were told they had nine months to complete the picture. They were still shooting when December 31 came around, but Stone had finally relented (to the tune of $30,000 a week), and shooting was completed two weeks into the new year.
Kirk Douglas wanted to play Van Gogh ever since director Jean Negulesco told him he resembled the artist. He threw himself into the role, to the point of taking on so many of the artist's stormy, unstable traits he frightened his wife in his off-hours at home. He was rewarded for his efforts with an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor but lost to Yul Brynner in The King and I (1956). An Oscar did go home, however, with Anthony Quinn, who in his brief screen time as Van Gogh's contentious friend, painter Paul Gauguin, made an impression that earned him Best Supporting Actor. Lust for Life was also nominated for Best Color Art Direction and Best Adapted Screenplay.
Director: Vincente Minnelli
Screenplay: Norman Corwin, based on the novel by Irving Stone
Cinematography: Freddie Young, Russell Harlan
Editing: Adrienne Fazan
Art Direction: Cedric Gibbons, Hans Peters, Preston Ames
Original Music: Miklos Rozsa
Cast: Kirk Douglas (Vincent Van Gogh), Anthony Quinn (Paul Gauguin), James Donald (Theo Van Gogh), Pamela Brown (Christine), Everett Sloane (Dr. Gachet), Niall MacGinnis (Roulin), Noel Purcell (Anton Mauve), Henry Daniell (Theodorus Van Gogh), Jill Bennett (Willemien), Lionel Jeffries (Dr. Peyron), Laurence Naismith (Dr. Bosman), Eric Pohlmann (Colbert).
C-123m. Letterboxed. Closed captioning. Descriptive video.
by Rob Nixon
| i don't know |
The largest lake in the Lake District is Windemere, but which is the next largest lake ? | The Lakes of the English Lake District, travel information
Bassenthwaite Lake
The most northerly of the major lakes, Bassenthwaite lies between Keswick and Cockermouth. The best views of Bassenthwaite lake, indeed, one of the best views in the Lake District, can be had by taking the minor road from Braithwaite village that leads up to the Whinlatter Pass. A pull-by part way up the climb provides wonderful views over the lake. On the eastern shore is Mirehouse, a quiet Georgian house with connections to Lord Tennyson and other Victorian literary figures. Close to Bassenthwaite village is a RSPB bird sanctuary.
One of the most secluded and smallest lakes, Brothers Water lies between Ullswater and Ambleside at the foot of Kirkstone Pass. The water is shallow and lily pads cover the shallows, creating a green carpet on the blue waters.
Buttermere
Buttermere
One of most spectacular of the lakes, Buttermere is set in a lovely basin below Grasmoor, a high Lakeland peaks. There are picnic areas overlooking the lake and trails leading into the nearby hills. Head south of Buttermere and you find yourself climbing Honister Pass; the views from the top are absolutely spectacular.
Coniston Water
Lying roughly parallel to Lake Windermere, Coniston Water is famous as the site of Donald Campbell's successful attempts to break the world speed record. Campbell's final record attempt led to his untimely death, and the story of Campbell's Bluebird is just one of the fascinating bits of local history you will learn about if you take one of the steam gondola trips that leave from Coniston pier. Across the lake from Coniston village is Brantwood, the home of Victorian author John Ruskin. The Brantwood estate is full of opportunities to walk and enjoy the outdoors. Coniston itself caters to those wishing to enjoy outdoor activities as well, and offers a good range of accommodation.
Crummock Water
Just north of the smaller Buttermere, Crummock Water lies at the foot of Grasmoor peak. The road along the shores of the lake provides wonderful views of the waters and surrounding steep sided hills. To the west of Crummock Water is Scale Force, one of the most attractive waterfalls in the region.
Derwentwater
One of the most 'developed' of the lakes, Derwentwater offers some of the best boating and water sport opportunities, with numerous marinas and boat hire companies serving visitors. The major destination on Derwentwater is Keswick , at the north end of the lake. On the eastern shore is the Bowder Stone, a fascinating natural site, where a huge boulder is tipped up on one corner in a seemingly precarious state of balance. Take the Watendlath road to reach a viewpoint giving superb views over the lake and surrounding hills. To the south, follow the River Derwent into Borrowdale, a narrow valley with access to some of the best hill walking routes in the region.
Ennerdale Water
Located at the extreme western edge of the Lake District National Park, Ennerdale is one of the most remote lakes but also one of the prettiest. Take the minor road that leads along the northern shore of Ennerdale to Ennerdale Head, a good jumping off place for some of the region's finest walks.
Grasmere
Grasmere
A small lake just west of Rydal Water. Grasmere village is the location of Town End, the 17th century house where Beatrix Potter wrote many of her children's stories. A parking lot at the eastern end of the lake provides access to a lovely walk along the shore.
Rydal Water
One of the smaller lakes, Rydal Water is located just outside Grasmere at the foot of Loughrigg Fell. At the eastern end is Rydal Mount, family home of poet William Wordsworth for 37 years.
Ullswater
The major lake in the north east of the National park, Ullswater is a gateway to the region for visitors departing the A70(M) at Penrith. Turn left at Rheged and you find yourself on a twisting, winding road that leads past the gates of Dalemain, a lovely Georgian stately home. In a few miles you catch your first glimpse of water, and for the next 10 miles the road hugs the northwestern shore of Ullswater.
There are several parking places with small beaches, but if you carry on to the southern end of the lake you reach Glenridding. This pretty village is home to the biggest visitor attraction; the Ullswater Steamer. This steam driven boat plies the waters of Ullswater in summer, but if you don't fancy a trip by steam there are plenty of hire boats available for day of short term rental.
| Ullswater |
What is the real name of the Chaser known as The Darl Destroyer on the ITV game show 'The Chase' ? | The Lakes of the English Lake District, travel information
Bassenthwaite Lake
The most northerly of the major lakes, Bassenthwaite lies between Keswick and Cockermouth. The best views of Bassenthwaite lake, indeed, one of the best views in the Lake District, can be had by taking the minor road from Braithwaite village that leads up to the Whinlatter Pass. A pull-by part way up the climb provides wonderful views over the lake. On the eastern shore is Mirehouse, a quiet Georgian house with connections to Lord Tennyson and other Victorian literary figures. Close to Bassenthwaite village is a RSPB bird sanctuary.
One of the most secluded and smallest lakes, Brothers Water lies between Ullswater and Ambleside at the foot of Kirkstone Pass. The water is shallow and lily pads cover the shallows, creating a green carpet on the blue waters.
Buttermere
Buttermere
One of most spectacular of the lakes, Buttermere is set in a lovely basin below Grasmoor, a high Lakeland peaks. There are picnic areas overlooking the lake and trails leading into the nearby hills. Head south of Buttermere and you find yourself climbing Honister Pass; the views from the top are absolutely spectacular.
Coniston Water
Lying roughly parallel to Lake Windermere, Coniston Water is famous as the site of Donald Campbell's successful attempts to break the world speed record. Campbell's final record attempt led to his untimely death, and the story of Campbell's Bluebird is just one of the fascinating bits of local history you will learn about if you take one of the steam gondola trips that leave from Coniston pier. Across the lake from Coniston village is Brantwood, the home of Victorian author John Ruskin. The Brantwood estate is full of opportunities to walk and enjoy the outdoors. Coniston itself caters to those wishing to enjoy outdoor activities as well, and offers a good range of accommodation.
Crummock Water
Just north of the smaller Buttermere, Crummock Water lies at the foot of Grasmoor peak. The road along the shores of the lake provides wonderful views of the waters and surrounding steep sided hills. To the west of Crummock Water is Scale Force, one of the most attractive waterfalls in the region.
Derwentwater
One of the most 'developed' of the lakes, Derwentwater offers some of the best boating and water sport opportunities, with numerous marinas and boat hire companies serving visitors. The major destination on Derwentwater is Keswick , at the north end of the lake. On the eastern shore is the Bowder Stone, a fascinating natural site, where a huge boulder is tipped up on one corner in a seemingly precarious state of balance. Take the Watendlath road to reach a viewpoint giving superb views over the lake and surrounding hills. To the south, follow the River Derwent into Borrowdale, a narrow valley with access to some of the best hill walking routes in the region.
Ennerdale Water
Located at the extreme western edge of the Lake District National Park, Ennerdale is one of the most remote lakes but also one of the prettiest. Take the minor road that leads along the northern shore of Ennerdale to Ennerdale Head, a good jumping off place for some of the region's finest walks.
Grasmere
Grasmere
A small lake just west of Rydal Water. Grasmere village is the location of Town End, the 17th century house where Beatrix Potter wrote many of her children's stories. A parking lot at the eastern end of the lake provides access to a lovely walk along the shore.
Rydal Water
One of the smaller lakes, Rydal Water is located just outside Grasmere at the foot of Loughrigg Fell. At the eastern end is Rydal Mount, family home of poet William Wordsworth for 37 years.
Ullswater
The major lake in the north east of the National park, Ullswater is a gateway to the region for visitors departing the A70(M) at Penrith. Turn left at Rheged and you find yourself on a twisting, winding road that leads past the gates of Dalemain, a lovely Georgian stately home. In a few miles you catch your first glimpse of water, and for the next 10 miles the road hugs the northwestern shore of Ullswater.
There are several parking places with small beaches, but if you carry on to the southern end of the lake you reach Glenridding. This pretty village is home to the biggest visitor attraction; the Ullswater Steamer. This steam driven boat plies the waters of Ullswater in summer, but if you don't fancy a trip by steam there are plenty of hire boats available for day of short term rental.
| i don't know |
Which motorway links the cities of Leicester and Coventry ? | Coventry vs Leicester: 6.000 excited foxes!
Coventry vs Leicester: 6.000 excited foxes!
Football | Coventry vs Leicester: 6.000 excited foxes! betting tips by Neuro
Match date: Aug 06 2011 | Posted: 06/08/2011 | Viewed 455 times.
Coventry – Leicester
Local derby of the Midlands, called ‘M69 derby’ (the M69 is the motorway that links the two cities).
Leicester got 3.000 tickets for this match, already gone and got another 3.000 which also dissapeared in hours!
The fans are crazy for this derby, 6000 fans will be in Coventry.
Coventry
Entering the season With a very low profile. The summer was not particularly quiet, some players left (Westwoond,King etc.), a lot of problems in the team bosses and management.
Last match Coventry lost from Norwich (0-3), where the strikers Freddy Eastwood and Lukas Jutkiewicz were injured and also Carl Baker (Midfielder). Ben Turner (Defender) is long time injured from last year.
The only new player in the team today will be Joe Murphy (Goalkeeper) who is the one from the two only trasfers of Coventry this year.
Leicester
Leicester have spend already about 10 Million pounds on transfers and still spending for new players. Got the international Swiss midfielder Gelson Fernandes from AS Saint Etienne (Loan deal) and seeking in a deal with Norwich for the striker Grant Holt, a 2 million pounds transfer!
No absents for Leicester, the formation was mainly 4-3-3 in the friendlies and perfomed well from the new players.
Conclusion
The predictions today are mostly for Leicester. But you can’t be sure on a local derby in an English premier with a lot of crowd. Everyone can bet his own personal predict. For a risky bet, i will take Leicester on 2.15 odds which seem nice to me.
Pick: Leicester City to win
Odds: 2.15
| M69 |
In which city was singer Gene Pitney found dead by his tour manager on April 5th, 2006 ? | Houses for sale in Coventry, West Midlands, CV2 2AB - Shilton Place
Houses for sale in Coventry
Shilton Place
Shilton Lane, Coventry, West Midlands, CV2 2AB
52°26′34″N 1°27′15″W
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Enjoy edge-of-city living with great commuter links
Shilton Place is an exciting new collection of two, three and four bedroom homes in Coventry, perfectly situated on the northern reaches of the city.
6 house types of 2, 3 and 4 bedroom homes
Excellent access to motorway and rail links
Ideally situated for Coventry and Birmingham
Close to the Oxford Canal and open spaces
In the catchment of Ofsted ‘good’ local schooling
Located near junction 2 of the M6 and the M69, Shilton Place is perfect for commuters, providing residents with easy connections to Coventry, Birmingham and beyond. Coventry Arena train station is just a short distance away, providing links to many towns and cities nationwide.
Shop ‘til you drop at Shilton Place
Shilton Place enjoys a range of attractions on the doorstep in Coventry, with the Arena Park shopping centre offering a range of facilities cafés and restaurants plus popular high street retail shops. There are also several other indoor shopping centres offering a good choice of national retail brands together with an IKEA store.
Also close to the development is the Ricoh Arena, an award winning multi-purpose complex which offers state-of-the-art conference, banqueting, exhibition, hotel and sports facilities. A little further afield, the city of Birmingham offers fantastic shopping facilities, including The Bullring shopping centre and The Mailbox.
Green open space within easy reach
For those who have a love of the outdoors, Shilton Place is only a short distance from Longford Park and the Miners’ Welfare Park in Bedworth. Here outdoor adventurers can enjoy acres of green space including children’s play areas, football and cricket pitches, a skate park, walking trails and wildlife areas. The Oxford canal is also close-by with its miles of peaceful waterways to explore.
Ideally located within easy reach of all of the amenities of Coventry, combined with excellent commuter links and a high standard of local schooling, makes Shilton Place a fantastic place to call home.
Arrange an appointment to find out more information about this much-anticipated new development.
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What was the name of the building that was unveiled in 2005 that was designed by Thomas Heatherwick. Now dismantled, it stood 56 metres tall and had 180 hollow tapered steel columns or spikes radiating from a central core ? It was located next to the City of Manchester Stadium. | b of the bang : definition of b of the bang and synonyms of b of the bang (English)
Beswick , Manchester , England
B of the Bang was a sculpture designed by Thomas Heatherwick , in Manchester , England, located next to the City of Manchester Stadium at Sportcity . It was dismantled in 2009 because of structural problems.
Commissioned to mark the 2002 Commonwealth Games , it was one of the tallest structures in the City of Manchester and was the tallest sculpture in the UK until the completion of Aspire in 2008. It was taller and leaned at a greater angle than the Leaning Tower of Pisa . The sculpture took its name from a quotation of British sprinter Linford Christie , in which he said that he started his races not merely at the "bang" of the starting pistol , but at "the B of the Bang".
The sculpture was commissioned in 2003; construction overran and the official unveiling was delayed until 12 January 2005. Six days before the launch, the sculpture suffered the first of three visible structural problems as the tip of one of the spikes detached and fell to the ground. Legal action started a year later, resulting in an out-of-court settlement totalling £1.7 million.
In February 2009, Manchester City Council announced that the sculpture would be dismantled and placed in storage, as the "only practical alternative". [1] The council expressed its commitment to working closely with the design team in order to "determine whether there is a robust and affordable strategy for the re-construction of the structure on the site". [1] Despite the promise of storage and potential reassembly, the core and legs of the sculpture were cut apart during removal and the core sold for scrap in July of 2012 while legs remain in secret storage location. [2] [3] [4]
Contents
Design and statistics
B of the Bang
B of the Bang originally stood 56 metres (184 ft) tall [5] with 180 hollow tapered steel columns or spikes radiating from a central core. It was angled at 30 degrees [6] and supported by five 25 m (82 ft) long, tapered steel legs [7] [8] which connected to the spikes 22 m (72 ft) above the ground. The sculpture weighed 165 tonnes, [9] with the concrete in the foundations weighing over 1,000 tonnes, [10] including a 400 m2 (4,300 sq ft) reinforced concrete slab. [11] The foundations are 20 m (66 ft) deep. [10]
The sculpture was made from the same weathering steel (also known as Cor-Ten) as the Angel of the North sculpture, which gradually develops a tightly adhering oxide layer as it is exposed to the elements. This layer inhibits further corrosion by reducing its permeability to water. As part of the design, the spikes swayed slightly in the wind [12] in order to withstand gusts in excess of 100 mph (160 km/h). [10] At the time of construction a time capsule was placed in one of the spikes of the sculpture, containing children's poems and paintings, due to be opened circa 2300. [13] The location of the time capsule after dismantling is currently unknown.
B of the Bang was located next to the City of Manchester Stadium at Sportcity , in Beswick , at the corner of Alan Turing Way and Ashton New Road; [14] [15] coordinates 53°28′55″N 2°11′46″W / 53.48194°N 2.19611°W / 53.48194; -2.19611 Coordinates : 53°28′55″N 2°11′46″W / 53.48194°N 2.19611°W / 53.48194; -2.19611 . It took its name from a quotation of British sprinter Linford Christie in which he said that he started his races not merely at the 'bang' of the starting pistol , but at 'The B of the Bang'. [7] The artwork had been nicknamed KerPlunk by the locals after the popular children's game from the 1970s. [5]
Prior to the construction of Aspire at the University of Nottingham , B of the Bang was Britain's tallest sculpture at well over twice the height of the Angel of the North , [15] which stands at 66 feet (20 m). It was designed to look like an exploding firework [5] and was taller and leaned at a greater angle than the Leaning Tower of Pisa . [7] It was commissioned by New East Manchester Limited to commemorate the 2002 Commonwealth Games . [6] The design was selected by a panel consisting of both local residents and art experts via a competition in 2002 [12] and was designed by Thomas Heatherwick . [14]
Construction and funding
The sculpture was constructed in Sheffield [6] by Thomas Heatherwick Studio, Packman Lucas, Flint and Neill and Westbury Structures. [16] It was approved at the start of 2003, [14] with the central core arriving in Manchester on the 13 June 2004. [6] This was the largest load that could be transferred via road from the factory, and required a police escort. [10] This central core was lifted into place in August 2004, after which the 180 spikes could begin being attached. Early estimates had given an optimistic completion date of July 2003, which contributed to the sculpture gaining the nickname G of the Bang. [15]
The official unveiling by Linford Christie took place on 12 January 2005. [5]
In total the sculpture cost £1.42 million to design and construct [11] — twice the original estimate, [15] as the initial costing had neglected to include installation costs. [17] Funding was sourced from a European Regional Development Fund contribution of £700,000, the North West Development Agency , contributing £500,000, and Manchester City Council providing £120,000. [18]
Structural problems and legal action
The tip of one of the 2.1 m (6.9 ft) spikes detached and fell from the sculpture on the 6 January 2005, only six days before the official unveiling. [19] After inspection, the event went ahead as planned.
Four months later, in May 2005, a second spike had to be cut off by firefighters after it was discovered hanging loose. [20] At that time the sculpture was closed off to the public, and the junction and pathway near the sculpture were temporarily closed. As a result some of the joints were re-welded, with equipment put in place to prevent excessive movement. [21] This consisted of retrofitting tip weights to 170 of the spikes. [22]
Despite these modifications, B of the Bang remained fenced off, prompting a local newspaper campaign to 'Get It Sorted'. [22] In May 2006 a total of nine spikes were removed from the sculpture and taken away for metallurgical analysis, to discover the stresses being placed on the steel. [23]
It was announced in October 2007 that Manchester City Council were taking legal action against the makers of the sculpture, with the aim of completing the necessary repairs to the sculpture. [16] In November 2008 this culminated in an out-of-court settlement being reached between Manchester City Council, the project's designers Thomas Heatherwick Studio Ltd, and the engineering and construction subcontractors Packman Lucas Ltd, Flint and Neill Partnership and Westbury Structures Ltd. The agreement was to pay the council £1.7m in damages for breach of contract and negligence. [24]
Dismantling
The core of B of the Bang is visible again during deconstruction in July 2009
Acting on a report in January 2009, [25] the city council recommended that B of the Bang should be dismantled and placed in storage until funds could be raised for its safe reinstatement. [26] [27] The report recognised the sculpture's aesthetic value for Manchester and Manchester City Council committed itself to working with the artist to reach a long-term solution. One possibility involved the replacement of the steel spikes with alternatives made from carbon fibre , although the report underlined the necessity for extensive testing. [28]
In January 2009, Antony Gormley , creator of the Angel of the North —to which B of the Bang is often compared—spoke out in support of the sculpture, stating that, "It is a great tribute to Manchester that this ground-breaking work was commissioned. To allow it to disappear would be a loss not just of an inspirational artwork but also of the council's nerve." [29]
Despite Gormley's plea, removal of B of the Bang began in April 2009. [30] More substantial hoarding was erected around the site and demolition firm Connell Brothers Limited began removing the spikes with oxyacetylene cutting equipment. [31]
Although the council had promised to store the complex central core and legs, [27] these too were cut apart during removal, [3] casting doubt on future prospects for the landmark sculpture's return, and in early July 2012 the core was sold as scrap for £17,000. [4]
References
| B of the Bang |
What was the name of the horse that was first past the post in the 1993 Grand National ? It was a win that never stood due to the race being a false start. | B of the Bang - WOW.com
B of the Bang
56 m (184 ft) [1]
Location
53°28′55″N 2°11′46″W / 53.48194°N 2.19611°W / 53.48194; -2.19611 Coordinates : 53°28′55″N 2°11′46″W / 53.48194°N 2.19611°W / 53.48194; -2.19611
B of the Bang was a sculpture by Thomas Heatherwick next to the City of Manchester Stadium in Manchester , England, which was commissioned to mark the 2002 Commonwealth Games ; it was one of the tallest structures in Manchester and the tallest sculpture in the UK until the completion of Aspire in 2008. It was taller and leaned at a greater angle than the Leaning Tower of Pisa . The sculpture took its name from a quotation of British sprinter Linford Christie , in which he said that he started his races not merely at the "bang" of the starting pistol , but at "the B of the Bang".
The sculpture was commissioned in 2003; construction overran and the official unveiling was delayed until 12 January 2005. Six days before the launch, the sculpture suffered the first of three visible structural problems as the tip of one of the spikes detached and fell to the ground. Legal action started a year later, resulting in an out-of-court settlement totalling £1.7 million.
In February 2009, Manchester City Council announced that the sculpture would be dismantled and placed in storage. [2] [2] Despite the promise of storage and potential reassembly, the core and legs of the sculpture were cut apart during removal. The core was sold for scrap in July 2012, while the 180 spikes remain in storage. [3] [4] [5]
Contents
Design and statistics
The completed B of the Bang.
B of the Bang originally stood 56 metres (184 ft) tall [1] with 180 hollow tapered steel columns or spikes radiating from a central core. It was angled at 30 degrees [6] and supported by five 25 m (82 ft) long, tapered steel legs [7] [8] which connected to the spikes 22 m (72 ft) above the ground. The sculpture weighed 165 tonnes, [9] with the concrete in the foundations weighing over 1,000 tonnes, [10] including a 400 m2 (4,300 sq ft) reinforced concrete slab. [11] The foundations are 20 m (66 ft) deep. [10]
The sculpture was made from the same weathering steel (also known as Cor-Ten) as the Angel of the North sculpture, which gradually develops a tightly adhering oxide layer as it is exposed to the elements. This layer inhibits further corrosion by reducing its permeability to water. As part of the design, the spikes swayed slightly in the wind [12] in order to withstand gusts in excess of 100 mph (160 km/h). [10] At the time of construction a time capsule was placed in one of the spikes of the sculpture, containing children's poems and paintings, due to be opened circa 2300. [13] The location of the time capsule after dismantling is currently unknown.
B of the Bang was located next to the City of Manchester Stadium at Sportcity , in Beswick , at the corner of Alan Turing Way and Ashton New Road;. [14] [15] It took its name from a quotation of British sprinter Linford Christie in which he said that he started his races not merely at the 'bang' of the starting pistol , but at 'The B of the Bang'. [7] The artwork had been nicknamed KerPlunk by the locals after the popular children's game from the 1970s. [1]
Prior to the construction of Aspire at the University of Nottingham , B of the Bang was Britain's tallest sculpture at well over twice the height of the Angel of the North , [15] which stands at 66 feet (20 m). It was designed to look like an exploding firework [1] and was taller and leaned at a greater angle than the Leaning Tower of Pisa . [7] It was commissioned by New East Manchester Limited to commemorate the 2002 Commonwealth Games . [6] The design was selected by a panel consisting of both local residents and art experts via a competition in 2002 [12] and was designed by Thomas Heatherwick . [14]
Construction and funding
B of the Bang under construction.
The sculpture was constructed in Sheffield [6] by Thomas Heatherwick Studio, Packman Lucas, Flint and Neill and Westbury Structures. [16] It was approved at the start of 2003, [14] with the central core arriving in Manchester on 13 June 2004. [6] This was the largest load that could be transferred via road from the factory, and required a police escort. [10] This central core was lifted into place in August 2004, after which the 180 spikes could begin being attached. Early estimates had given an optimistic completion date of July 2003, which contributed to the sculpture gaining the nickname G of the Bang. [15]
The official unveiling by Linford Christie took place on 12 January 2005. [1]
In total the sculpture cost £1.42 million to design and construct [11] — twice the original estimate, [15] as the initial costing had neglected to include installation costs. [17] Funding was sourced from a European Regional Development Fund contribution of £700,000, the North West Development Agency , contributing £500,000, and Manchester City Council providing £120,000. [18]
Structural problems and legal action
Dismantling the B of the Bang.
The tip of one of the 2.1 m (6.9 ft) spikes detached and fell from the sculpture on 6 January 2005, only six days before the official unveiling. [19] After inspection, the event went ahead as planned.
Four months later, in May 2005, a second spike had to be cut off by firefighters after it was discovered hanging loose. [20] At that time the sculpture was closed off to the public, and the junction and pathway near the sculpture were temporarily closed. As a result, some of the joints were re-welded, with equipment put in place to prevent excessive movement. [21] This consisted of retrofitting tip weights to 70% of the spikes' weights. [22]
Despite these modifications, B of the Bang remained fenced off, prompting a local newspaper campaign to 'Get It Sorted'. [22] In May 2006 a total of nine spikes were removed from the sculpture and taken away for metallurgical analysis, to discover the stresses being placed on the steel. [23]
It was announced in October 2007 that Manchester City Council were taking legal action against the makers of the sculpture, with the aim of completing the necessary repairs to the sculpture. [16] In November 2008 this culminated in an out-of-court settlement being reached between Manchester City Council, the project's designers Thomas Heatherwick Studio Ltd, and the engineering and construction subcontractors Packman Lucas Ltd, Flint and Neill Partnership and Westbury Structures Ltd. The agreement was to pay the council £1.7m in damages for breach of contract and negligence. [24]
Dismantling
The core of B of the Bang is visible again during deconstruction in July 2009
Acting on a report in January 2009, [25] the city council recommended that B of the Bang should be dismantled and placed in storage until funds could be raised for its safe reinstatement. [26] [27] The report recognised the sculpture's aesthetic value for Manchester and Manchester City Council committed itself to working with the artist to reach a long-term solution. One possibility involved the replacement of the steel spikes with alternatives made from carbon fibre , although the report underlined the necessity for extensive testing. [28]
In January 2009, Antony Gormley , creator of the Angel of the North —to which B of the Bang is often compared—spoke out in support of the sculpture, stating that, "It is a great tribute to Manchester that this ground-breaking work was commissioned. To allow it to disappear would be a loss not just of an inspirational artwork but also of the council's nerve." [29]
Despite Gormley's plea, removal of B of the Bang began in April 2009. [30] More substantial hoarding was erected around the site and demolition firm Connell Brothers Limited began removing the spikes with oxyacetylene cutting equipment. [31]
Although the council had promised to store the complex central core and legs, [27] these too were cut apart during removal, [4] casting doubt on future prospects for the landmark sculpture's return, and in early July 2012 the core was sold as scrap for £17,000. [5]
References
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Give any year in the life of poet William Blake. | William Blake - Biography and Works. Search Texts, Read Online. Discuss.
William Blake
Biography of William Blake
William Blake (1757-1827), English artist, mystic and poet wrote Songs of Innocence (1789): a poetry collection written from the child�s point of view, of innocent wonderment and spontaneity in natural settings which includes �Little Boy Lost�, �Little Boy Found� and �The Lamb�;
Little lamb, who made thee?
Dost thou know who made thee?
Gave thee life, and bid thee feed
By the stream and o'er the mead;
Gave thee clothing of delight,
Softest clothing, woolly, bright;
Gave thee such a tender voice,
Making all the vales rejoice?
Little lamb, who made thee?
Dost thou know who made thee?
Songs of Experience (1794) contains many poems in response to ones from Innocence, suggesting ironic contrasts as the child matures and learns of such concepts as fear and envy. For example, to �The Lamb� comes the predatory �The Tyger�;
And what shoulder, and what art,
Could twist the sinews of thy heart?
And when thy heart began to beat,
What dread hand? and what dread feet?
What the hammer? what the chain?
In what furnace was thy brain?
What the anvil? what dread grasp
Dare its deadly terrors clasp?
When the stars threw down their spears,
And watered heaven with their tears,
Did he smile his work to see?
Did he who made the Lamb make thee?
Later editions would see Innocence and Experience contained in one volume. As a friend of Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley , Percy Bysshe Shelley and Thomas Paine, Blake was among the literati of London�s intellectual circle though he was often labeled an eccentric or worse, insane or demented. His works did not gain much acclaim or commercial success until long after his death. Although he had several patrons over the course of his life and produced voluminous works, he often lived in abject poverty. Though it is hard to classify Blake�s body of work in one genre, he heavily influenced the Romantic poets with recurring themes of good and evil, heaven and hell, knowledge and innocence, and external reality versus inner. Going against common conventions of the time, Blake believed in sexual and racial equality and justice for all, rejected the Old Testament�s teachings in favour of the New, and abhorred oppression in all its forms. He focused his creative efforts beyond the five senses, for, If the doors of perception were cleansed every thing would appear to man as it is, infinite. For man has closed himself up, till he sees all things thro� narrow chinks of his cavern.�from The Marriage of Heaven and Hell written between 1790-93, which inspired the title of Aldous Huxley �s essay �The Doors of Perception� (1954).
As an artist Blake admired and studied the works of Raphael, Heemskerk, D�rer, and Michelangelo, who would become important influences to the fantastic and at times apocalyptic illustrations he created for his own writings and others�. From his c.1803 poem �The Mental Traveler��I traveld thro� a Land of Men, A Land of Men & Women too, And heard & saw such dreadful things, As cold Earth wanderers never knew. He developed mythic creatures inspired by Greek and Roman mythology including Los, who represents the poetic imagination; Albion, who represents England; and Orc, who embodies youthful rebelliousness. His illustrations for the Bible�s �Book of Revelations� include �The Great Red Dragon� (Satan) made famous most recently in Thomas Harris� novel Red Dragon (1981). While Blake lived the majority of his life in London, he exerted a profound impact on future poets, artists, writers, and musicians the world over.
William Blake was born on 28 November, 1757, in London, England, the third son of Catherine n�e Wright (1723�1792) and James Blake (c.1723�1784) a hosier and haberdasher on Broad Street in Golden Square, Soho. Young William was prone to fantastic visions, including seeing God, and angels in a tree. He would later claim that he had regular conversations with his deceased brother Robert. It was soon apparent that Blake�s internal world of imagination would be a prime motivator throughout his life. Noting something special in their son the Blakes were highly supportive of and encouraged his artistic creativity and thus began his education and development as an artist.
He had early shown an interest in and aptitude for drawing, so, at the age of ten Blake entered Henry Pars� drawing school. Then, at the age of fourteen Blake started a seven year apprenticeship with engraver James Basire, the official engraver to the Society of Antiquaries. From his bustling shop on Queen Street, Blake learned all the tools of the trade that would become his main source of income. He was often sent out on assignments to create sketches and drawings of statues, paintings, and monuments including those found in churches like Westminster Abbey. The intense study of Gothic art and architecture appealed to Blake�s aesthetic sensibility and brought out his penchant for the medieval. He also met numerous figures from London�s intellectual circle during this period. After attending the Royal Academy under Sir Joshua Reynolds for a time Blake left because he found the intellectual atmosphere there too restrictive to his burgeoning artistic side. In 1780 he obtained employment as an engraver with publisher Joseph Johnson.
In 1782 Blake married Catherine Sophia Boucher (1762-1831). Although they had no children it was mostly a happy marriage and Blake taught Catharine to read and write. They were a devoted couple and worked together on many of Blake�s publications. He had been writing poetry for quite some time and his first collection, Poetical Sketches, appeared in 1783. While Blake was busy with commissions he also undertook the task of creating the engravings that would illustrate his own poetry, and he also printed them himself. He experimented with an early method of creating images and text on the same plate. His highly detailed illustrations often focus on parts of the human anatomy or fantastically imaginative creatures surrounded by various natural forms. Often tackling difficult metaphorical themes, his characters embodying inspiration and creativity do battle with oppressive forces like law and religion. He employed techniques for decorative margins and hand-coloured the printed images, or printed with the colour already on the wood or copper plate, the paint of which he mixed himself. This attention to the craft and details of each volume make no two of his works alike. He also illustrated works for other writers and poets including Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley �s Original Stories from Real Life (1788).
The Book of Thel (1789), one of Blake�s first long narrative poems, was followed by the first of his prophetical works, The Marriage of Heaven and Hell (c.1793). Other works finished around this time were America: A Prophesy (1793), Europe: A Prophesy (1794), Visions of the Daughters of Albion (1793), and The Book of Urizen (1794).
In 1800, the Blakes moved to Felpham in Sussex where William was commissioned to illustrate works by his then patron, poet William Hayley. In 1803 Blake was charged with sedition after a violent confrontation with soldier John Scolfield in which Blake uttered treasonable remarks against the King. He was later acquitted. In 1805 he started his series of illustrations for the Book of Revelations and various other publications including Geoffrey Chaucer �s 14th Century Canterbury Tales, Robert John Thornton�s Virgil and John Milton �s Paradise Lost. Milton: A Poem was published around 1811. Jerusalem: The Emanation of the Giant Albion (c.1820) is Blake�s longest illuminated work.
In 1821 the Blakes moved to lodgings in Fountain Court, Strand. There he finished his work on the Book of Job in 1825, commissioned by his last patron John Linnell. The following year he started a series of watercolours for Dante Alighieri �s Divine Comedy, which he worked on up to the day of his death. William Blake died at home on 12 August, 1827. Unable to pay for a funeral, Linnell loaned the money to Catherine. Blake was buried in an unmarked grave in the Non-Conformist Bunhill Fields in London where Catherine was buried four years later among other notable figures of dissent like Daniel Defoe and John Bunyan. A grave marker now stands near to where they were buried. In 1957 a memorial to Blake and his wife was erected in Poet�s Corner of Westminster Abbey, London.
I must create a system, or be enslav�d by another man�s. I will not reason and compare: my business is to create�Jerusalem
Biography written by C.D. Merriman for Jalic Inc. Copyright Jalic Inc. 2006. All Rights Reserved.
The above biography is copyrighted. Do not republish it without permission.
Forum Discussions on William Blake
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In which city was ex Countdown host Richard Whiteley found dead on June 26th 2005 ? | William Blake - William Blake Poems - Poem Hunter
William Blake - William Blake Poems - Poem Hunter
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William Blake Poems
A Poison Tree I was angry with my friend: I told my wrath, ...
The Tyger Tyger! Tyger! burning bright, In the forests of ...
Auguries Of Innocence To see a World in a Grain of Sand And ...
A Divine Image Cruelty has a human heart, And Jealousy a ...
Love's Secret Never seek to tell thy love, Love that never...
The Angel I dreamt a dream! What can it mean? And that I ...
A Cradle Song Sweet dreams form a shade, O'er my lovely ...
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an English poet, painter, and printmaker. Largely unrecognised during his lifetime, Blake is now considered a seminal figure in the history of both the poetry and visual arts of the Romantic Age. His prophetic poetry has been said to form "what is in proportion to its merits the least read body of poetry in the English language". His visual artistry has led one contemporary art critic to proclaim him "far and away the greatest artist Britain has ever produced". Although he lived in London his entire life except for three years spent in Felpham he produced a diverse and symbolically rich corpus, which embraced the imagination as "the body of God", or "Human ... more »
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Quotations
''Truly, My Satan, thou art but a Dunce,
And dost not know the Garment from the Man.
Every Harlot was a Virgin once,
Nor can'st thou ever change Kate into Nan.''
William Blake (1757-1827), British poet, painter, mystic. For the Sexes: The Gates of Paradise (Epilogue, l. 1-4). . . The Complete Poems [William...
I see every thing I paint in this world, but everybody does not see alike. To the eyes of a miser a guinea is more beautiful than the sun, and a bag worn with the use of money has more beautiful propo...
William Blake (1757-1827), British poet, painter, engraver. letter, Aug. 23, 1799. The Letters of William Blake (1956).
''For where'er the sun does shine,
And where'er the rain does fall,
Babe can never hunger there,
Nor poverty the mind appall.''
William Blake (1757-1827), British poet, painter, mystic. Holy Thursday (l. 13-16). . . The Complete Poems [William Blake]. Alicia Ostriker, ed. (...
Want of money and the distress of a thief can never be alleged as the cause of his thieving, for many honest people endure greater hardships with fortitude. We must therefore seek the cause elsewhere ...
William Blake (1757-1827), British poet, painter, engraver. letter, Aug. 23, 1799. The Letters of William Blake (1956).
''Is this a holy thing to see
In a rich and fruitful land,
Babes reduced to misery,
Fed with cold and usurous hand?''
William Blake (1757-1827), British poet, painter, mystic. Holy Thursday (l. 1-4). . . The Complete Poems [William Blake]. Alicia Ostriker, ed. (19...
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Which Scottish loch is the third largest in Scotland after Loch Lomond and Loch Ness ? | The Five Largest Freshwater Lochs in Scotland - Holiday Parks
The Five Largest Freshwater Lochs in Scotland
The Five Largest Freshwater Lochs in Scotland
January 22, 2013 at 2:44 pm
The Five Largest Freshwater Lochs in Scotland: Lochs by Volume, Area, Length and Depth
Loch Ness might get almost all the press when it comes to the Scottish Lochs, but it’s by no means the largest or longest. There are at least 31,460 lochs in Scotland, and out of these, there are lochs that are deeper, longer and larger in area than Loch Ness. Loch is simply the Scottish Gaelic and Irish word for a lake or sea inlet, and there is only one natural body of water called a ‘lake’ in Scotland: Lake Menteith. This article is a guide to the five largest lochs by volume, area, length and depth.
Holiday Parks offer breaks at Lomond Woods at Loch Lomond – the largest loch in Scotland by surface area.
5 Largest Scottish Lochs by Volume
Loch Ness is by far the largest loch in Scotland by volume, and it contains more water than all of the lakes in England and Wales combined. Of course, it’s apparently the home of the fabled Loch Ness monster, and this huge volume of water has given Nessy plenty of space to hide over since her modern ‘sighting’ in 1933.
5 Largest Scottish Lochs by Area
Loch Ness wins for volume for its consistent depth for its area, but Loch Lomond actually has a considerably larger surface area. Most originated from glacial over deepening of the valleys they now occupy, and are subsequently long and thin in shape. Loch Lomond has a bulbous southern expanse of water, which gives it a greater surface area than the other lochs.
5 Longest Scottish Lochs
Loch Awe is the longest loch – just beating Loch Ness by 2km. It is located to the West of Loch Lomond in Argylle and Bute. While it has a length of 41km, it has an average width of 1km. It is particularly well renowned for trout and salmon – so if you’re a keen fisher, then Loch Awe is a good spot.
5 Deepest Scottish Lochs by Depth
Loch Morar is the deepest freshwater body in the British Isles, at a depth of 310m. Much like Loch Ness, it’s home to a legendary monster – dubbed morag by the locals. Loch Morar would be able to fit the newly opened London building The Shard, which is also 310m in height, exactly in its depth.
| Loch Awe |
Which famous Manhattan attraction has been iconified as 'The Crossroads of the World' ? | Scotline - 3 Day Tour - The West Highlands, Loch Ness & Skye
3 Day Tour - The West Highlands, Loch Ness & Skye
3 Day Tour - The West Highlands, Loch Ness & Skye
This tour runs Easter to October only (From 16th April 2014 - 29th October 2014)
Take time to visit not just the West Highlands and the Isle of Skye but Loch Ness, Inverness and Loch Lomond. Add Castles, Glens, magnificent mountains and scenery and you are promised an unforgettable experience.
The price includes transportation and a fully guided tour. Your accommodation will be booked for you but is not included in the price of the tour.
Day 1
HIGHLIGHTS:
RANNOCH MOOR, GLEN COE, CALEDONIAN CANAL, LOCH NESS, URQUHART CASTLE, INVERNESS
Leaving Edinburgh, we travel to Callander, then on to the Highlands and across the lonely Rannoch Moor, at 50 square miles, one of the largest boggy moorlands in Britain. As we descend through the dark brooding pass of Glen Coe, we stop to take in the atmosphere of an area that witnessed the massacre of the MacDonalds in 1692.
After crossing Loch Leven at Ballachulish we stop for lunch in the Fort William area, and then follow the course of the Caledonian Canal up the Great Glen to Fort Augustus. Here you will have the opportunity to take a cruise equipped with hi-tech sonar under water imaging system that provides you with the best chance to see what really lies at the bottom of Loch Ness.
Afterwards we drive the entire length of the loch, stopping at Urquhart Castle for photos and ending Day ONE in Inverness, the Capital of the Highlands. Here you can enjoy an evening at your leisure in this pleasant city.
Day 2
HIGHLIGHTS:
EILEAN DONAN CASTLE, ISLE OF SKYE, FERRY CROSSING, GLENFINNAN, FORT WILLIAM
After a good night's sleep, we head west and follow the famous railway route to Kyle of Lochalsh. Off the main tourist routes, this is a very scenic drive. After visiting the famous Eilean Donan Castle, we cross the bridge to the mystical Isle of Skye, where Vikings, MacDonalds and McLeods battled for centuries.
After lunch, we take the lovely ferry crossing from Armadale to Mallaig^, and pass the lovely Silver Sands of Morar, also having a glimpse of the UK's deepest lake, Loch Morar.
Next is a stop at gorgeous Glenfinnan, with its lovely viaduct, famously featured in the Harry Potter films. Passing Neptune's Staircase we get our final and most spectacular view of the Caledonian Canal.
On the shores of lovely Loch Linnhe and in the shadow of Britain's highest mountain, Ben Nevis, we will spend our second night at leisure in Fort William.
Day 3
HIGHLIGHTS:
OBAN, LOCH AWE, KILCHURN CASTLE, INVERARAY, LOCH FYNE, LOCH LOMOND, GLASGOW
Our final day starts with a scenic drive down Loch Linnhe to Oban, a lively town and the main terminal for the ferries to the Hebridean Islands. We then pass along a section of Loch Awe, Scotland's longest loch, and stop for an iconic photo of the ruins of Kilchurn Castle, the former seat of the Clan Campbell.
Our next stop is Inveraray, a pretty town on Loch Fyne, famous for its salmon, where you can see the chateau-like Inveraray Castle. Next, we drive over to another Scottish icon, Loch Lomond, the largest lake on the British mainland. We drive south along its Bonnie Banks before relaxing for the journey back to Edinburgh.
Having enjoyed a Scotland most people can only dream of, we arrive in Edinburgh around 1700hrs, allowing you time to enjoy this vibrant City or continue on your travels.
Take this tour and you are promised an unforgettable 3 days!
Accommodation is not included in the price:
With regards to the accommodation the tour company will arrange it for you beforehand and the charges will be (to be paid directly by yourself when you get there):
Youth Hostel (shared dormitory) -£16-£25 approx per person/per night
Bed & Breakfast/ Guest House (Standard or en suite) - £35-£55 per person/per night 3 star
Hotel from £50 + per person/per night 3 star +
Please let us know which one you would like and whether you require twin beds or a double bed, standard or en-suite. If you chose hostel please let us know if you want a male/female/mixed dorm. We also require your mobile telephone number in case we need to contact you or the place where you will be staying in Edinburgh.
This tour is in conjuction with Grayline Tours.This company's booking terms and conditions apply.
^ferry runs from 5 May to 22 September only.
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Which Carry On film was set in an establishment called Maudlin Street ? | Carry on Teacher (1959) - IMDb
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Pupils run amok at Maudlin Street School in an attempt to hang on to their headmaster. He has applied for a new job, but the students like him and don't want to lose him. They concoct a ... See full summary »
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Title: Carry on Teacher (1959)
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With a flu epidemic running rife, three new bumbling recruits are assigned to Inspector Mills police station. With help from Special Constable Gorse, they manage to totally wreck the ... See full summary »
Director: Gerald Thomas
Set in Haven Hospital where a certain men's ward is causing more havoc than the whole hospital put together. The formidable Matron's debut gives the patients a chill every time she walks ... See full summary »
Director: Gerald Thomas
Sergeant Grimshaw wants to retire in the flush of success by winning the Star Squad prize with his very last platoon of newly called-up National Servicemen. But what a motley bunch they ... See full summary »
Director: Gerald Thomas
The Helping Hands agency employs some very strange people to perform some very strange jobs! Even the simplest of tasks get bungled by the incompetent but lovable staff, as they get given ... See full summary »
Directors: Gerald Thomas, Ralph Thomas
Stars: Kenneth Connor, Sidney James, Charles Hawtrey
Speedee Taxis is a great success, which means its workaholic owner Charlie starts neglecting Peggy, his wife. Suddenly a fleet of rival taxis appears from nowhere and start pinching all the... See full summary »
Director: Gerald Thomas
A top secret chemical formula has been stolen by STENCH (the Society for the Total Extinction of Non-Conforming Humans), and so Agent Simpkins and his three trainees are hot on the trail, ... See full summary »
Director: Gerald Thomas
Captain Crowther's lot is not a happy one! Five of his crew have to be replaced and at such short notice before the voyage begins there isn't much to choose from. Not only does he get the ... See full summary »
Directors: Gerald Thomas, Ralph Thomas
Stars: Kenneth Williams, Sidney James, Kenneth Connor
This is the tale of Albert Poop-Decker, a newly commissioned Midshipman (although he took 8 1/2 years to qualify). He joins the frigate Venus, and adventures through Spanish waters, mutinee... See full summary »
Director: Gerald Thomas
The Wedded Bliss computer dating agency aims to bring together the lonely hearts of Much-Snoggin-in-the-Green. Its owner, Sidney Bliss, has enough complications in his own love life, but ... See full summary »
Director: Gerald Thomas
Dick Turpin is terrorising the countryside around Upper Dencher. Captain Fancey and Sergeant Jock Strapp plan to put an end to his escapades, and enlist the help of the Reverend Flasher. ... See full summary »
Director: Gerald Thomas
The time of the French revolution, and Citizen Robespierre is beheading the French aristocracy. When word gets to England, two noblemen, Sir Rodney Ffing and Lord Darcy take it upon ... See full summary »
Director: Gerald Thomas
A bogus legionnaire proves his mettle during an Arab attack.
Director: Gerald Thomas
Edit
Storyline
Pupils run amok at Maudlin Street School in an attempt to hang on to their headmaster. He has applied for a new job, but the students like him and don't want to lose him. They concoct a plan - blacken his record in front of the Ministry Inspector and then he won't ever be able to get another job! Written by Simon N. McIntosh-Smith <[email protected]>
The newest of those "CARRY-ON" howl-makers and the most hilarious! See more »
Genres:
October 1962 (USA) See more »
Also Known As:
Com Jeito Vai Mestre See more »
Filming Locations:
Dora Bryan was considered for the part of Miss Alcock. See more »
Goofs
Although several Internet sources refer to Mr. Wakefield as the school's headmaster, he is specifically stated at the start of the film to be the DEPUTY headmaster - the equivalent of a vice principal here in Canada - who is running the school due to the actual headmaster's illness. See more »
Quotes
Felicity Wheeler : Are you satisfied with your equipment, Miss Allcock?
Sarah Allcock : Well, I've had no complaints so far!
An evaluation that will be remembered forever
27 December 2014 | by bkoganbing
(Buffalo, New York) – See all my reviews
This particular entry in the Carry On series was a bit more sentimental than most. The British educational system gets a good going over in this film however.
At first glance this looks like the British version of The Blackboard Jungle, but at Maudlin Street school headmaster Ted Ray is actually a beloved figure and the kids don't want to see him leave. When they find out that Leslie Phillips is over from the Ministry of Education to make an evaluation this will make sure that Ray does not get the promotion he's looking for.
Out come the practical jokes played on the entire faculty. When your faculty consists of Carry On regulars like Kenneth Williams, Kenneth Connor, Hattie Jacques, Joan Sims, and Charles Hawtrey you're guaranteed of some great reactions.
Hawtrey looks truly ridiculous in that gown that went out with Mr. Chips.
That itching powder at the teacher conference was classic as was a never to be forgotten version of Romeo&Juliet.
Lots of laughs in this Carry On film.
4 of 4 people found this review helpful. Was this review helpful to you?
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| Teacher |
Which of the Carry On films was set in an establishment called Paradise ? | FilmNav – The website highway for British film-makers | FilmNav
Starring: Kenneth Williams, Leslie Phillips and Kenneth Connor
Screenwriters: Norman Hudis (original screenplay)
Running Time: 86 min
Summary
A decent, cheerful and harmless early Carry On film, more suited to the humour of the era it belonged. This is also probably funnier than its predecessors, but with a plot that is not particularly engaging.
Carry On Teacher is the third Carry On film, released in 1959. It features Ted Ray in his only Carry On role, alongside series regulars; Kenneth Connor, Charles Hawtrey, Kenneth Williams and Hattie Jacques. Leslie Phillips and Joan Sims make their second appearances in the series here, having made their debuts in the previous entry, Carry On Nurse. A young Richard O’Sullivan and a young Larry Dann – making the first of his four Carry On appearances – turn up as pupils.
Plot
During the current term at Maudlin Street Secondary Modern School, William Wakefield (Ted Ray) – who has been at the school for 20 years – is acting headmaster. He spots an advertisement for a headmaster of a brand new school near where he was born and decides to apply for the post.
Because of an coinciding visit by a Ministry of Education Inspector (Miss Wheeler, played by Rosalind Knight) and the noted child psychiatrist Alistair Grigg (Leslie Phillips), he decides to enlist the help of his staff to ensure that the school routine runs smoothly during their visit.
While in conference with his teaching staff (including Gregory Adams (Kenneth Connor), science master; Edwin Milton (Kenneth Williams), English master; Michael Bean (Charles Hawtrey), music teacher; Sarah Allcock (Joan Sims), gym mistress and Grace Short (Hattie Jacques), maths teacher); a senior pupil (Robin Stevens, played by Richard O’Sullivan) overhears that Wakefield is planning to leave at the end of term. The pupils are fond of the venerable teacher and Stevens immediately rushes this information to his schoolmates. They plan to sabotage every endeavour that might earn Wakefield praise, which would set him on the road to his new post.
On arrival, Grigg and Miss Wheeler are escorted by Wakefield on a tour of inspection and the pupils go out of their way to misbehave in each class they visit. However Griggs’ tour has not been in vain: he has taken a shine to Sarah Allcock, the gym mistress and it is obvious the feeling is mutual.
Miss Wheeler is disgusted at the behaviour of the children towards the teachers, but is softened when she visits the science master’s class, where she feels an instinctive maternal affection for the charm of the nervous science master, Adams.
Wakefield realises his position as headmaster of the new school is in jeopardy and, on seeing Miss Wheeler’s interest in Adams, enlists his help. He asks Adams to make advances to Miss Wheeler to win her over. Adams is aghast at the thought, but eventually agrees to do his best. After many unsuccessful attempts to tell Miss Wheeler of his love, Adams finds an untruth has become truth and finally finds enough courage to declare his love.
The pupils meanwhile, have been doing everything in their power to make things go wrong, and on the last day of term are caught trying to sabotage the prizegiving. They are told to report to Wakefield’s study and after much cross-examination he learns the reason for the week’s events – the pupils simply did not want to see him leave. Wakefield – deeply moved – tells the children he won’t leave and will see them all next term.
Miss Wheeler, softened by her newfound love, announces that she intends to tell the Ministry that staff-pupil relationships at the school are excellent.
Production
During the filming, Charles Hawtrey’s mother would often visit the set. While enjoying a cigarette, she accidentally dropped lit ash from the cigarette into her handbag. Joan Sims, who was the first to spot the incident, yelled, “Charlie, Charlie, your mother’s bag is on fire!”. Charles Hawtrey poured his cup of tea into the bag, snapped it shut, and carried on chatting.
Ted Ray as William Wakefield
Kenneth Connor as Gregory Adams
Kenneth Williams as Edwin Milton
Joan Sims as Sarah Allcock
Charles Hawtrey as Michael Bean
Leslie Phillips as Alistair Grigg
Hattie Jacques as Grace Short
Richard O’Sullivan as Robin Stevens
Cyril Chamberlain as Alf
Starring: Kenneth Williams, Charles Hawtrey and William Hartnell
Screenwriters: R.F. Delderfield, Norman Hudis
Running Time: 84 min
Summary
This first ever Carry On proves to be a more gentle, inoffensive way to kick-start the series, with a more innocent tone of humour (surprising now, considering the direction many of the later films would take, Carry On Emmanuelle in particular). A subtle beginning, and not particularly laugh-out funny either.
Carry on Sergeant had not been conceived as the start of a movie series; only after the film’s surprising success did the producer Peter Rogers and director Gerald Thomas set about planning a further project. After reusing the Carry On prefix and some cast members in their next project Carry On Nurse (1959) and having success with that film, the Carry On series of films evolved.[1]
Plot
For six years Sergeant Grimshaw (William Hartnell) has been a training sergeant, but never the leader of a champion platoon. He accepts a bet from another sergeant that in the next intake, his last before retirement, his squad will pass out top.
The next day Sergeant Grimshaw and his corporal, Corporal Copping(Bill Owen), keenly survey the new arrivals. Among them are Charlie Sage (Bob Monkhouse), who was married the same morning to Mary and received his notification to report at once to the army during his wedding reception; Horace Strong (Kenneth Connor) – a weak-willed hypochondriac who imagines himself to be suffering from every disease known to medical science and many that aren’t; Miles Heywood (Terence Longdon) – a popsy chasing layabout; Andy Galloway (Gerald Campion) – a rock and roller; Pete Golightly (Charles Hawtrey) – the clumsiest of clumsy types; and James Baily (Kenneth Williams) – an out-and-out individualist who considers the Army old fashioned. Unfortunately for Sergeant Grimshaw, all these have been assigned to his squad.
Grimshaw tells Corporal Copping that he’s been lumbered with a right shower and has no chance of winning the bet. The Corporal says they will have to chase the living daylights out of the new recruits, but Grimshawe overrules him, deciding to try kid glove tactics instead of his normal raging manner.
That night the new boys visit the NAAFI along with Herbert Brown who has been on one training course after another and never qualified. Charlie, much to his delight, finds that Mary, his newly wedded wife, has followed him to the camp and wangled a temporary job in the NAAFI. She is befriended there by Nora who falls for Charlie’s mate Horace. He is petrified when Nora starts making advances towards him.
Mary tells Charlie that Nora has fixed a spare bedroom for their wedding night. This fails to work out quite as planned, as both end up talking words of love to Sergeant Grimshaw!
The following morning Horace reports sick with a long list of imaginary ailment and is shocked to see a female medical officer – Captain Clark (Hattie Jacques). This is the first of many visits to the M.O.
As days of training pass by, Sergeant Grimshaw and Corporal Copping are becoming more and more gloomy. The squad is the most awkward and difficult they have ever handled and there seems no chance at all of their winning the coveted Star Squad prize. They have an uncanny aptitude for making the worst possible mess of everything they tackle.
The M.O. is fed up with Horace’s visits. So she takes him to six specialists who confirm that there is nothing whatsoever wrong with him. What’s more, they manage to convince him of the fact and he emerges a new man. Nora is delighted, but more than a little frightened when the new Horace gives her the caveman treatment.
In the hut the night before passing out parade (Sergeant Grimshawe’s last day in the army) the shower decide that he has, after all, treated them pretty decently. With the new Horace in fine form they decide to give him an end of service present – and win the Star Squad award.
The passing out parade is watched by Captain Potts (Eric Barker) who is amazed to see what the Grimshawe squad can do. As they perform task after task with fantastic efficiency Grimshawe watches with tears in his eyes.
The squad have made it and with the Sergeant at their head, they march past the Inspecting General as the Star Squad. Grimshawe’s ambition has been fulfilled.
Carry On series
Carry on Sergeant had not been conceived as the start of a movie series; only after the film’s surprising success did the producer Peter Rogers and director Gerald Thomas set about planning a further project. After reusing the Carry On prefix and some cast members in their next project Carry On Nurse (1959) and having success with that film, the Carry On series of films evolved.
William Hartnell as Sergeant Grimshawe
Bob Monkhouse as Charlie Sage
Shirley Eaton as Mary Sage
Eric Barker as Captain Potts
Dora Bryan as Nora
Bill Owen as Corporal Copping
Charles Hawtrey as Peter Golightly
Kenneth Connor as Horace Strong
Kenneth Williams as James Bailey
Terence Longdon as Miles Heywood
Norman Rossington as Herbert Brown
Gerald Campion as Andy Galloway
Hattie Jacques as Captain Clark
Cyril Chamberlain as Gun Sergeant
Terry Scott as Sergeant O’Brien
Title
“Carry on, Sergeant” is a normal expression for an Army officer to use; the American equivalent is, “As you were.” The title was used to cash in on the popularity of the 1957 film Carry On Admiral, which was written by Val Guest. At the time, the success of Carry On Sergeant prompted applause and audience laughter in serious settings where the phrase was used, including amongst audiences of the film The Devil’s Disciple (1959).
Released: 16 June 1958 (UK)
Director: Terence Fisher
Starring: Peter Cushing, Christopher Lee and Michael Gough
Screenwriters: Jimmy Sangster (screenplay), Bram Stoker (novel)
Running Time: 82 min
Summary
The grand-daddy of them all, this is the ultimate Hammer Dracula film, with stalwarts Lee and Cushing in fine form. Fisher’s competent direction keeps this at a swift pace, with some brilliant set-pieces and predictably stirring score by James Bernard. This is the peak of the franchise, the Carry On Khyber of the Hammer films.
Dracula is a 1958 British horror film, and the first of a series of Hammer Horror films inspired by the Bram Stoker novel Dracula. It was directed by Terence Fisher, and stars Peter Cushing, Michael Gough, Carol Marsh, Melissa Stribling and Christopher Lee. In the United States, the film was retitled Horror of Dracula to avoid confusion with the Tod Browning-directed Dracula (1931) starring Bela Lugosi.
Production began at Bray Studios on the 17 November 1957 with an investment of £81,000.[1]
Plot
May 1885. Jonathan Harker arrives at the castle of Count Dracula near Klausenberg, posing as a librarian. He is startled inside the castle by a young woman begging for help, claiming to be a prisoner. Dracula then greets Harker and guides him to his room, where he locks him in. Jonathan starts to write in his diary, and his true intentions are revealed: he has come to kill Dracula.
John Van Eyssen as Jonathan Harker.
Freed sometime later, Harker again is confronted by the desperate woman. She begs him for help but then bites his neck. Just as she does, Dracula – fangs bared and lips bloody – arrives and yanks her away. When he awakens in daylight, Harker finds the bite mark. He hides his journal in a Virgin Marygrotto outside the castle and descends into the crypts, where he finds Dracula and the unnamed vampire woman resting in their coffins. Armed with a stake, he impales the woman. But when he turns to kill Dracula, the Count has already awakened and is waiting for him…
Dr. Van Helsing then arrives in Klausenberg, looking for Harker. The frightened townsfolk give him Harker’s journal. When he arrives at the castle, it is deserted; a hearse carriage speeds by with a coffin in it. In the crypt, Van Helsing is horrified to discover Harker lying in a coffin as a vampire. Staking Harker, he leaves to deliver the veiled news of Harker’s death in person to a wary Arthur Holmwood and his wife Mina, brother and sister-in-law of Harker’s fiancée Lucy Holmwood. Lucy is ill, so the news is kept from her. But, when night falls, Lucy opens the doors to her terrace and lays bare her neck — already, it bears the mark of a vampire bite. And soon Dracula arrives and bites her again.
Mina seeks out Van Helsing’s aid in treating Lucy’s worsening health, but Lucy defeats his anti-vampire prescription and dies. Van Helsing turns over Harker’s journal and reveals the truth. Vampire Lucy lures away a young niece, but the girl is saved by Van Helsing and Arthur. Arthur refuses to use Lucy as a means to find Dracula, so Van Helsing stakes Lucy in her coffin.
Christopher Lee as Count Dracula.
Van Helsing and Arthur travel to the customs house in Ingstadt to track down the destination of Dracula’s coffin (which Van Helsing saw carried away when he arrived at Dracula’s castle). Meanwhile, Mina is called away from home by a message telling her to meet Arthur at an address in Karlstadt — the same address Arthur and Van Helsing are told the coffin was bound for — and Dracula is indeed waiting for her…
The next morning, Arthur and Van Helsing find Mina in a strange state. They leave for the address they were given, an undertaker’s, but find the coffin missing. When they decide to set off again, Arthur tries to give Mina a cross to wear, but it burns her.
During the night, Van Helsing and Arthur guard Mina’s windows outside against a return of Dracula, but Dracula nonetheless appears inside the house and bites her. A remark by the maid leads Van Helsing to the coffin’s location: the cellar of the Holmwoods’ own house. But Dracula is not in the coffin and instead escapes into the night with Mina.
A chase then begins as Dracula rushes to return to his castle near Klausenberg before sunrise. He attempts to bury Mina alive outside the crypts but is caught by Van Helsing and Arthur. Inside the castle, Van Helsing and Dracula struggle. Van Helsing tears open the curtain to let in the sunlight and, forming a cross of candlesticks, he forces Dracula into it. Dracula crumbles into dust as Van Helsing looks on. Mina recovers, the cross-shaped scar fading from her hand as Dracula’s ashes blow away and leave only a ring behind.
Peter Cushing as Doctor Van Helsing
Christopher Lee as Count Dracula
Michael Gough as Arthur
DVD release
The film made its first appearance on DVD in 2002 in the U.S. and was later re-released on 6 November 2007, the movie was released in a film pack along with Dracula Has Risen from the Grave, Taste the Blood of Dracula, and Dracula AD 1972.
Screenplay and its differences from the novel
This film adaptation made several deviations from the original novel. The location of the Count’s castle, near Klausenberg, is only a short distance (and customs checkpoint) from the city inhabited by the Holmwood family, which appears to be German-speaking. The sea voyage from Transylvania to England does not appear in the film and consequently Dracula never takes up residence in his English home, Carfax Abbey neighboring an insane asylum.
Jonathan Harker is a librarian and vampire hunter, having come to Dracula’s castle to destroy him, rather than an unwitting solicitor. He also becomes a vampire and is dispatched by his friend Van Helsing.
Mina is Arthur Holmwood’s wife, while Lucy is his sister and Jonathan’s fiancée.
The characters of R. M. Renfield and Quincey Morris are omitted.
Doctor John Seward only appears twice, in two brief scenes as the family doctor, and is completely unaware of the supernatural goings-on.
Count Dracula has only one Bride (there are three in the novel), and she is destroyed by Jonathan Harker, not Van Helsing. She ages upon her true “death”.
Only one coffin is transported to the city.
Count Dracula does not grow younger, nor is he seen shapeshifting (although this ability is alluded to by Van Helsing, and vampire are seen to be able to shapeshift in The Brides of Dracula).
The Count uses only two magic powers and those are the ability to hypnotise women with his eyes and travel through fog.
Count Dracula is destroyed by sunlight, whereas his powers are merely limited by daylight in the novel.
Special effects
The filming of Dracula’s destruction included a shot in which Dracula appears to peel away his decaying skin. This was accomplished by putting a layer of red makeup on Christopher Lee’s face, and then covering his entire face with a thin coating of mortician’s wax, which was then made up to conform to his normal skin tone. When he raked his fingers across the wax, it revealed the “raw” marks underneath. Still photos of this startling shot exist, but it was cut out of the disintegration sequence in the film.
Zodiac wheel in final scene
At the end of the movie, Dracula is destroyed on an inlaid Zodiac wheel on the floor, which has several quotes in Latin and Greek. The inner circle in Greek, has a quote from Homer’s OdysseyBook 18.136-7: “τοῖος γὰρ νόος ἐστὶν ἐπιχθονίων ἀνθρώπων οἷον ἐπ᾽ ἦμαρ ἄγησι πατὴρ ἀνδρῶν τε θεῶν τε” (“The mind of men who live on the earth is such as the day the father of gods and men [Zeus] brings upon them.”) The outer wheel is written in Latin, and is a quote from Hesiod via Bartolomeo Anglico (De proprietatibus rerum, Book 8, Chapter 2): “Tellus vero primum siquidem genuit parem sibi coelum stellis ornatum, ut ipsam totam obtegat, utque esset beatis Diis sedes tuta semper.” (“And Earth first bare starry Heaven, equal to herself, to cover her on every side, and to be an ever-sure abiding-place for the blessed gods.”) Dracula’s ring is left on the water sign on the Zodiac wheel, which perhaps symbolizes his final rebirth.
UK Re-Release Controversy
When the film was originally released in the UK, the BBFC gave it an X rating, being cut, while the 2007 uncut re-release was given a 12A.
*Rigby, Jonathan, (2000). English Gothic: A Century of Horror Cinema. Reynolds & Hearn Ltd. ISBN 1-903111-01-3.
Starring: William Holden, Alec Guinness, Jack Hawkins, Sessue Hayakawa
Screenwriters: Michael Wilson, Carl Foreman
Running Time: 161 mins
Summary
Lean and Guinness are at the very top of their game here, in this outstanding British war masterpiece. An expertly crafted, gripping drama epic.
The Bridge on the River Kwai is a 1957 British World War II film by David Lean based on “The Bridge over the River Kwai” by French writer Pierre Boulle. The film is a work of fiction but borrows the construction of the Burma Railway in 1942–43 for its historical setting. It stars William Holden, Alec Guinness, Jack Hawkins, and Sessue Hayakawa. The film was shot in Sri Lanka (credited as Ceylon, as it was known at the time). The bridge itself was shot in the Kitulgala.
In 1997, this film was deemed “culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant” and selected for preservation in the United States Library of Congress National Film Registry.
Plot
After the surrender of Singapore in World War II, a unit of British soldiers are marched to a Japanese prison camp in western Thailand. They are paraded before the camp commandant, Colonel Saito (Sessue Hayakawa), who informs them of his rules; all prisoners, regardless of rank, are to work on the construction of a bridge over the River Kwai to carry a new railway line.
Their commander, Colonel Nicholson (Alec Guinness), reminds Saito that the Geneva Conventions exempt officers from manual labour, but Saito furiously orders everyone to work. At the following morning’s parade, Saito threatens to have the officers shot, and Nicholson refuses to back down. When Major Clipton (James Donald), the British medical officer, intervenes, Saito leaves the officers standing all day in the intense tropical heat. That evening, the officers are placed in a punishment hut, while Nicholson is locked into ‘the oven’, an iron box, to suffer without food or water.
Clipton attempts to negotiate with Saito for Nicholson’s release, but Nicholson refuses to compromise. Meanwhile, the soldiers are working as little as possible and sabotaging whenever they can. Saito is concerned that should he fail to meet his deadline, he would be obliged to commit seppuku (ritual suicide). Using the anniversary of Japan’s great victory in the 1905 Russo-Japanese War as an excuse to save face, he gives in, and Nicholson and his officers are released to command their men.
Nicholson conducts an inspection and is shocked by what he finds. Against the protests of some of his officers, he orders Captain Reeves (Peter Williams) and Major Hughes (John Boxer) to design and build a proper bridge, despite its military value to the Japanese, for the sake of his men’s morale. The Japanese engineers had chosen a poor site, so the original construction is abandoned and a new bridge is begun 400 yards downstream, using better materials. His officers are concerned that this can be seen as collaboration, but Nicholson is determined that the job will be done as well as it can be done, in order to keep up the morale of his men.
Meanwhile, three prisoners attempt to escape. Two are shot dead, but United States Navy Commander Shears (William Holden), gets away, although badly wounded. After many days, Shears eventually stumbles into a village, whose people help him to escape by a boat. He reaches the Mount Lavinia Hospital at Ceylon.
Shears is enjoying his recovery in Ceylon with a British nurse, and about to leave for the United States, but Major Warden (Jack Hawkins) asks him to volunteer for a commando mission to destroy the bridge. Shears is horrified at the idea and reveals that he is not an officer at all. He was an enlisted man, “a swab jockey” on the cruiser USS Houston. He switched uniforms on an island with the dead Commander Shears after the sinking of the Houston, to get better treatment. Warden already knows this, he has “Shears” US Navy record from CinCPac. “Shears” has been reassigned to British duty. Shears has no choice but to join Warden’s unit, with the “simulated rank of Major”.
Meanwhile, Nicholson drives his men to complete the bridge on time. He even volunteers his junior officers for physical labour, and asks that their Japanese counterparts join in as well. Saito replies that he has already given the order.
The commandos parachute in, although one is killed in a bad landing. The other three—Warden, Shears, and the Canadian Lieutenant Joyce (Geoffrey Horne)—reach the river with the assistance of Siamese women porters and their village chief, Khun Yai. Warden is wounded in an encounter with a Japanese patrol, and has to be carried on a litter. The trio reach the bridge, and under cover of darkness, plant explosives underwater.
A Japanese train carrying soldiers and important officials is scheduled to be the first to use the bridge the following morning and Warden plans to destroy both the bridge and the train. But the following morning, the river level has dropped, exposing the wires to the detonator. Making a final inspection, Nicholson spots the wire and brings it to Saito’s attention. As the train is heard approaching, the two colonels hurry down to the riverbank to stop the potential destruction. Joyce breaks cover and stabs Saito to death; Nicholson yells for help, while attempting to stop Joyce from reaching the detonator. Shears swims across the river but he and Joyce are shot by Japanese soldiers, just before he reaches Nicholson. While attempting to provide covering fire for Shears, Yai is also killed.
Recognising the dying Shears, Nicholson exclaims, “What have I done?”, and attempts to run towards the detonator. Warden fires his mortar, mortally wounding Nicholson. The colonel stumbles towards the detonator and falls on it as he dies, just in time to blow up the bridge and send the train hurtling into the river below. After exclaiming to the Siamese women that he had no choice but to kill the two commandos, because they otherwise might have been taken prisoner, Warden throws his mortar off the cliff and, with the women, begins the process of trying to get away.
As he witnesses the carnage, Clipton can only shake his head incredulously and utter, “Madness! … Madness!”
William Holden as US Navy Commander/Seaman Shears
Alec Guinness as Lieutenant Colonel Nicholson
Jack Hawkins as Major Warden
Sessue Hayakawa as Colonel Saito
James Donald as Major Clipton
Geoffrey Horne as Lieutenant Joyce
André Morell as Colonel Green
Peter Williams as Captain Reeves
John Boxer as Major Hughes
Percy Herbert as Private Grogan
Harold Goodwin as Private Baker
Ann Sears as Nurse
Historical accuracy
The bridge over the River Kwai in June 2004. The round truss spans are the originals; the angular replacements were supplied by the Japanese as war reparations.
The largely fictitious film plot is loosely based on the building in 1943 of one of the railway bridges over the Mae Klong—renamed Khwae Yai in the 1960s—at a place called Tha Ma Kham, five kilometres from the Thai town of Kanchanaburi.
According to the Commonwealth War Graves Commission:
“The notorious Burma-Siam railway, built by Commonwealth, Dutch and American prisoners of war, was a Japanese project driven by the need for improved communications to support the large Japanese army in Burma. During its construction, approximately 13,000 prisoners of war died and were buried along the railway. An estimated 80,000 to 100,000 civilians also died in the course of the project, chiefly forced labour brought from Malaya and the Dutch East Indies, or conscripted in Siam (Thailand) and Burma. Two labour forces, one based in Siam and the other in Burma worked from opposite ends of the line towards the centre.”[1]
The incidents portrayed in the film are mostly fictional, and though it depicts bad conditions and suffering caused by the building of the Burma Railway and its bridges, to depict the reality would have been too appalling for filmgoers. Historically the conditions were much worse than depicted.[2] The real senior Allied officer at the bridge was British Lieutenant Colonel Philip Toosey. Some consider the film to be an insulting parody of Toosey.[3] On a BBC Timewatch programme, a former prisoner at the camp states that it is unlikely that a man like the fictional Nicholson could have risen to the rank of lieutenant colonel; and if he had, due to his collaboration he would have been “quietly eliminated” by the other prisoners. Julie Summers, in her book The Colonel of Tamarkan, writes that Pierre Boulle, who had been a prisoner of war in Thailand, created the fictional Nicholson character as an amalgam of his memories of collaborating French officers.[3] He strongly denied the claim that the book was anti-British, though many involved in the film itself (including Alec Guinness) felt otherwise.[4]
Toosey was very different from Nicholson and was certainly not a collaborator who felt obliged to work with the Japanese. Toosey in fact did as much to delay the building of the bridge as possible. Whereas Nicholson disapproves of acts of sabotage and other deliberate attempts to delay progress, Toosey encouraged this: Termites were collected in large numbers to eat the wooden structures, and the concrete was badly mixed.[3][5]
Some of the characters in the film have the names of real people who were involved in the Burma Railway. Neither their roles nor their characters appear to be portrayed accurately. For example, historically a Sergeant-Major Risaburo Saito was second in command at the camp. In the film a Colonel Saito is camp commandant. In reality, Risaburo Saito was respected by his prisoners for being comparatively merciful and fair towards them; Toosey later defended him in his war crimes trial after the war, and the two became friends.
The destruction of the bridge as depicted in the film is entirely fictional. In fact, two bridges were built: a temporary wooden bridge and a permanent steel/concrete bridge a few months later. Both bridges were used for two years, until they were destroyed by Allied aerial bombing. The steel bridge was repaired and is still in use today.
Screenplay
The screenwriters, Carl Foreman and Michael Wilson, were on the Hollywood blacklist and could only work on the film in secret. The two did not collaborate on the script; Wilson took over after Lean was dissatisfied with Foreman’s work. The official credit was given to Pierre Boulle (who did not speak English), and the resulting Oscar for Best Screenplay (Adaptation) was awarded to him. Only in 1984 did the Academy rectify the situation by retroactively awarding the Oscar to Foreman and Wilson, posthumously in both cases. Subsequent releases of the film finally gave them proper screen credit.
The film was relatively faithful to the novel, with two major exceptions. Shears, who is a British commando officer like Warden in the novel, became an American sailor who escapes from the POW camp. Also, in the novel, the bridge is not destroyed: the train plummets into the river from a secondary charge placed by Warden, but Nicholson (never realizing “what have I done?”) does not fall onto the plunger, and the bridge suffers only minor damage. Boulle nonetheless enjoyed the film version though he disagreed with its climax.
A scene in the film, bridge at Kitulgala in Sri Lanka, before the explosion
A photo of Kitulgala in Sri Lanka (photo taken 2004), where the bridge was made for the film.
Many directors were considered for the project, among them John Ford, William Wyler, Howard Hawks, Fred Zinnemann and Orson Welles.
Lean clashed with his cast members on multiple occasions, particularly Alec Guinness and James Donald, who thought the novel was anti-British. Lean had a lengthy row with Guinness over how to play the role of Nicholson; Guinness wanted to play the part with a sense of humour and sympathy, while Lean thought Nicholson should be “a bore”. On another occasion, Lean and Guinness argued over the scene where Nicholson reflects on his career in the army. Lean filmed the scene from behind Guinness, and exploded in anger when Guinness asked him why he was doing this. After Guinness was done with the scene, Lean said “Now you can all fuck off and go home, you English actors. Thank God that I’m starting work tomorrow with an American actor (William Holden)”.[6]
Alec Guinness later said that he subconsciously based his walk while emerging from “the Oven” on that of his son Matthew when he was recovering from polio. He called his walk from the Oven to Saito’s hut while being saluted by his men the “finest work I’d ever done”.
Lean nearly drowned when he was swept away by a river current during a break from filming; Geoffrey Horne saved his life.
The film was an international co-production between companies in the Britain and the United States. It is set in Thailand, but was filmed mostly near Kitulgala, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), with a few scenes shot in England.
The filming of the bridge explosion was to be done on March 10, 1957, in the presence of S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike, then Prime Minister of Ceylon, and a team of government dignitaries. However, cameraman Freddy Ford was unable to get out of the way of the explosion in time, and Lean had to stop filming. The train crashed into a generator on the other side of the bridge and was wrecked. It was repaired in time to be blown up the next morning, with Bandaranaike and his entourage present.
According to the supplemental material in the Blu-ray Digipak, a thousand tons of explosives were used to blow up the bridge. This is highly unlikely, as the film shows roughly 100 pounds of plastique being used simply to knock down the bridge’s supports.
According to Turner Classic Movies, the producers nearly suffered a catastrophe following the filming of the bridge explosion. To ensure they captured the one-time event, multiple cameras from several angles were used. Ordinarily, the film would have been taken by boat to London, but due to the Suez crisis this was impossible; therefore the film was taken by air freight. When the shipment failed to arrive in London, a worldwide search was undertaken. To the producers’ horror the film containers were found a week later on an airport tarmac in Cairo, sitting in the broiling Egyptian sun. Though it was not exposed to sunlight, the heat-sensitive color film stock should have been hopelessly ruined. However, when processed the shots were perfect and appeared in the film.
Music
A memorable feature of the film is the tune that is whistled by the POWs—the “Colonel Bogey March”—when they enter the camp.[7] The piece was originally written in 1914 by Kenneth Alford. It was accompanied by a counter-melody (known as “The River Kwai March”) written by the film’s composer, Malcolm Arnold, and played by the off-screen orchestra taking over from the whistlers. Mitch Miller had a hit with a recording of both marches.
Besides serving as an example of British fortitude and dignity in the face of privation, the “Colonel Bogey March” suggested a specific symbol of defiance to British film-goers, as its melody was used for the song Hitler Has Only Got One Ball. Lean wanted to introduce Nicholson and his soldiers into the camp singing this song, but Sam Spiegel thought it too vulgar, and so whistling was substituted. However, the lyrics were (and remain to be) so well known to the British public that they didn’t need to be belabored.
The soundtrack of the film is largely diegetic; background music is not widely used. In many tense, dramatic scenes, only the sounds of nature are used. An example of this is when commandos Warden and Joyce hunt a fleeing Japanese soldier through the jungle, desperate to prevent him from alerting other troops.
Arnold won an Academy Award for the movie’s score.
Lean would later use another Allford march, “The Voice of the Guns”, in Lawrence of Arabia.
The Bridge on the River Kwai won seven Oscars:
Best Picture — Sam Spiegel
Best Actor in a Supporting Role — Sessue Hayakawa
Winner of 3 BAFTA Awards
Best British Film — David Lean, Sam Spiegel
Best Film from any Source — David Lean, Sam Spiegel
Best British Actor — Alec Guinness
Winner of 3 Golden Globes
Best Motion Picture — Drama — David Lean, Sam Spiegel
Best Director — David Lean
Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama — Alec Guinness
Recipient of one nomination
Best Supporting Actor — Sessue Hayakawa
Other awards
New York Film Critics Circle Awards for Best Film
Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures (David Lean, Assistants: Gus Agosti & Ted Sturgis)
New York Film Critics Circle Awards for Best Director (David Lean)
New York Film Critics Circle Awards for Best Actor (Alec Guinness)
Grammy Award for Best Soundtrack Album, Dramatic Picture Score or Original Cast (Malcolm Arnold)
Recognition
The film has been selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.
British TV channel Channel 4 held a poll to find the 100 Greatest War Movies in 2005. The Bridge on the River Kwai came in at #10, behind Black Hawk Down and in front of The Dam Busters.
The British Film Institute placed The Bridge on the River Kwai as the eleventh greatest British film.
1998 — AFI’s 100 Years… 100 Movies — #13
2001 — AFI’s 100 Years… 100 Thrills — #58
2006 — AFI’s 100 Years… 100 Cheers — #14
2007 — AFI’s 100 Years… 100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) — #36
First telecast
The film was first telecast complete by ABC-TV in color on the evening of September 25, 1966, as a three hours-plus special on The ABC Sunday Night Movie. The telecast of the film lasted more than three hours because of the commercial breaks. It was still highly unusual at that time for a television network to show such a long film in one evening; most films of that length were still generally split into two parts and shown over two evenings. But the unusual move paid off for ABC—the telecast drew huge ratings.[8] On the evenings of January 28 and 29, 1973, ABC telecast another David Lean color spectacular, Lawrence of Arabia, but that telecast was split into two parts over two evenings.[9]
Box office performance
Variety reported that this film was the #1 moneymaker of 1958, with a US take of $18,000,000.[10] The second highest moneymaker of 1958 was Peyton Place at $12,000,000; in third place was Sayonara at $10,500,000.[10]
Restorations
On November 2, 2010, Columbia Pictures released a newly restored The Bridge on the River Kwai for the first time on Blu-ray. According to Columbia Pictures, they followed an all-new 4K digital restoration from the original negative with newly restored 5.1 audio.[11] The Original Negative for the feature was scanned at 4k (roughly four times the amount of resolution in High Definition), and the color correction and digital restoration were also completed at 4k. The negative itself manifested many of the kinds of issues one would expect from a film of this vintage: torn frames, imbedded emulsion dirt, scratches through every reel, color fading. Unique to this film, in some ways, were other issues related to poorly made optical dissolves, the original camera lens and a malfunctioning camera. These problems resulted in a number of anomalies that were very difficult to correct, like a ghosting effect in many scenes that resembles color mis-registration, and a tick-like effect with the image jumping or jerking side-to-side. These issues, running throughout the film, were addressed to a lesser extent on various previous DVD releases of the film and might not have been so obvious in standard definition.[12]
Mistakes
There are some prints of the film in which Alec Guinness’s name is misspelled “Guiness” in the credits. In all the early prints Guinness’s name was misspelled in the opening credits but correctly spelled in the closing credits. This was finally corrected when Columbia issued an anniversary video of the film with the blacklisted writers (Michael Wilson and Carl Foreman) credited in place of novelist Pierre Boulle for the screenplay.
Parodies
In 1962 Spike Milligan and Peter Sellers, with Peter Cook and Jonathan Miller released the LP record Bridge On The River Wye (Parlophone LP PMC 1190,PCS 3036 (November 1962)). This spoof of the film was based on the script for the 1957 Goon Show episode “An African Incident”. Shortly before its release, for legal reasons, producer George Martin edited out the ‘K’ every time the word ‘Kwai’ was spoken.[13]
The comedy team of Wayne and Shuster performed a sketch titled “Kwai Me a River” on their March 27, 1967 TV show, in which an officer in the British Dental Corps is captured by the Japanese and forced to build the commander of the POW camp a (dental) ‘bridge on the river Kwai’.[14]
The movie Volunteers (1985), featuring Tom Hanks and John Candy, was a spoof of this movie.
Producers: Benjamin Fisz, Earl St. John
Starring: Stanley Baker, Herbert Lom, Peggy Cummins, Patrick McGoohan, David McCallum, Sean Connery
Screenwriters: Cy Endfield, John Kruse
Running Time: 108 mins
Summary
A no-nonsense thriller, with the truck crew reading like a who’s who of male British actors – Baker, Connery, Sid James, Lom, Gordon Jackson, etc. all under the menacing reigns of Patrick McGoohan.
This is a hard-hitting, tautly directed 1950’s B movie at its best.
Hell Drivers is a 1957 British film directed by Cy Endfield starring Stanley Baker, Herbert Lom, Peggy Cummins, Patrick McGoohan and Sean Connery.
Plot
The plot of Hell Drivers circles around Joe ‘Tom’ Yateley (Baker) who is an ex-convict. Trying to leave his past behind, he decides to start working for Hawlett’s Trucking Company, which transports gravel. Trouble begins when he tries to expose his boss’s rackets. Baker’s character, Yateley, comes from Blaenllechau in the Rhondda, very close to Baker’s own birthplace of Ferndale.
Stanley Baker as Tom Yately
Herbert Lom as Gino Rossi
Peggy Cummins as Lucy, Hawlett’s Trucking secretary
Patrick McGoohan as C. ‘Red’ Redman, foreman (truck 1)
William Hartnell as Cartley, Hawlett’s manager
Wilfrid Lawson as Ed, Hawlett’s mechanic
Sid James as Dusty, truck driver
Jill Ireland as
Alfie Bass as Tinker, truck driver
Gordon Jackson as Scottie
David McCallum as Jimmy Yately, Tom’s brother
Sean Connery as Johnny Kates
Wensley Pithey as Pop, truck 4 driver
George Murcell as Tub, truck driver
Marjorie Rhodes as Ma West, landlady
Vera Day as Blonde at dance
Beatrice Varley as Mrs. Yately, Tom’s mother
Robin Bailey as Hawlett’s Assistant Manager
Jerry Stovin as Chick Keithley
John Horsley as Doctor Attending Gino
Marianne Stone as Nurse Attending Gino
Ronald Clarke as Barber Joe
Production note
Footage of a Hawlett’s lorry going over the edge of a quarry are reused in an episode of the Rank Organisation tv series Interpol Calling in the episode “The Heiress”
DVD release
The film was released on DVD in 2007 with many extras on the film including documentaries.
Producer: Michael Anderson
Starring: Richard Todd, Michael Redgrave and Ursula Jeans
Screenwriters: Paul Brickhill (book), Guy Gibson (based on Wing Comdr. Gibson’s account in “Enemy Coast Ahead”)
Running Time: 124 min
Summary
The definitive British war classic, with terrific performances, memorable score and exciting aerial combat sequences, prove this to be nothing short of an iconic classic. The film hasn’t stood the test of time particularly well, and does look dated when viewed today, but as a historical document and comment on Britain in the immediate post war era, it stands tall as one of the most important films of its time.
The Dam Busters is a 1955 British Second World War war film starring Michael Redgrave and Richard Todd and directed by Michael Anderson. The film recreates the true story of Operation Chastise when in 1943 the RAF’s 617 Squadron attacked the Möhne, Eder and Sorpe dams in Germany with Wallis’s “bouncing bomb”. The film was based on the books The Dam Busters by Paul Brickhill and Enemy Coast Ahead by Guy Gibson.
Plot
The film falls into two parts. The first part involves Wallis struggling to develop a means of attacking Germany’s dams in the hope of crippling German heavy industry. Working for the Ministry of Aircraft Production, as well as doing his own job at Vickers, he works feverishly to make practical his theory of a bouncing bomb which would skip over the water to avoid protective torpedo nets. When it came into contact with the dam, it would sink before exploding, making it much more destructive. Wallis calculates that the aircraft will have to fly extremely low (150 feet) to enable the bombs to skip over the water correctly, but when he takes his conclusions to the Ministry he is told that lack of production capacity means they cannot go ahead with his proposals.
Angry and frustrated, Wallis secures an interview with Sir Arthur “Bomber” Harris (played by Basil Sydney), the head of RAF Bomber Command, who at first is reluctant to take the idea seriously. But he is eventually convinced and takes the idea to the Prime Minister, who authorises the project.
The second part of the film involves Bomber Command forming a special squadron of Lancaster bombers, 617 Squadron, to be commanded by Wing Commander Guy Gibson. He recruits experienced crews, especially those with low-altitude flight experience. While they train for the mission, Wallis continues his development of the bomb but has problems, such as the bomb breaking apart upon hitting the water. This requires the drop altitude to be reduced to 60 feet. With only a few weeks to go, he succeeds in fixing the problems and the mission can go ahead.
The bombers attack the dams. Several Lancasters and their crews are lost, but the overall mission succeeds and two dams are breached. The film’s reflective last minutes convey the poignant mix of emotions felt by the characters – triumph over striking a successful blow against the enemy’s industrial base is greatly tempered by the sobering knowledge that many died in the process of delivering it.
Michael Redgrave as Barnes Wallis in The Dam Busters (1954)
Richard Todd as Wing Commander Guy Gibson
Michael Redgrave as Dr. Barnes Wallis
Ursula Jeans as Mrs. Molly Wallis
Basil Sydney as Sir Arthur Harris
Patrick Barr as Captain Joseph “Mutt” Summers
Ernest Clark as Honorable Ralph Cochrane
Peter Arne (uncredited) as Staff Officer (Flt/Lt) to Air-Vice Marshal Cochrane
Derek Farr as Group Captain J.N.H. Whitworth
Charles Carson as Doctor
Stanley Van Beers as David Pye
Colin Tapley as Dr. W.H. Glanville
Raymond Huntley as National Physical Laboratory Official
Hugh Manning as Ministry of Aircraft Production Official
Laurence Naismith as Farmer
Harold Siddons as Group Signals Officer
Harold Goodwin as Wing Comdr. Gibson’s Batman
Brewster Mason as Flight Lieutenant R.D. Trevor-Roper
Tony Doonan as Flight Lieutenant R.E.G. Hutchison
Nigel Stock as Flying Officer F.M. Spafford
Brian Nissen as Flight Lieutenant A.T. Taerum
Robert Shaw as Flight Sergeant J. Pulford
Peter Assinder as Pilot Officer G.A. Deering
Richard Leech as Squadron Leader H.M. Young
Richard Thorp as Squadron Leader H.E. Maudslay
John Fraser as Flight Lieutenant J.V. Hopgood
David Morrell as Flight Lieutenant W. Astell
Bill Kerr as Flight Lieutenant H.B. “Micky” Martin
George Baker as Flight Lieutenant D.J.H. Maltby
Ronald Wilson as Flight Lieutenant D.J. Shannon
Denys Graham as Flying Officer L.G. Knight
Basil Appleby as Flight Lieutenant R.C. Hay
Tim Turner as Flight Lieutenant J.F. Leggo
Ewen Solon as Flight Sergeant G.E. Powell
Cast notes:
Richard Todd, who plays Guy Penrose Gibson, took part in the airborne assault on Pegasus Bridge on D-Day.
This was Patrick McGoohan’s feature film debut, playing a guard posted outside a briefing room where the crews are being told of their mission. His only lines are spoken to Gibson’s dog.
This was also one of Robert Shaw’s first films. He plays Flight Sergeant J. Pulford, DFM, a member of Gibson’s crew.
Production
The flight sequences of the film were shot using real Avro Lancaster bombers supplied by the RAF. The aircraft, four of the final production B.VIIs, had to be taken out of storage and specially modified by removing the mid-upper gun turrets to mimic 617 Squadron’s special aircraft, and cost £130 per hour to run, which amounted to a tenth of the film’s costs. A number of Avro Lincoln bombers were also used as “set dressing.”[1] (An American cut was made more dramatic by depicting an aircraft flying into a hill and exploding. This version used stock footage from Warner Brothers of a B-17 Flying Fortress, not a Lancaster.)
The Upper Derwent Valley in Derbyshire (the test area for the real raids) doubled as the Ruhr valley for the film. The scene where the Dutch coast is crossed was filmed between Boston, Lincolnshire and King’s Lynn, and other coastal scenes near Skegness. Additional aerial footage was shot above Windermere, in the Lake District.
An Avro Lancaster B.VII modified for the film with cut-out bomb bay and mock bouncing bomb demonstrating to a crowd at Coventry Airport in 1954
While RAF Scampton, where the real raid launched, was used for some scenes, the principal airfield used for ground location shooting was RAF Hemswell, a few miles north and still an operational RAF station at the time of filming. Guy Gibson had been based at Hemswell in his final posting and the airfield had been an operational Avro Lancaster base during the war. At the time filming took place it was then home to No. 109 Squadron and No. 139 Squadron RAF, who were both operating English Electric Canberras on electronic counter measures and nuclear air sampling missions over hydrogen bomb test sites in the Pacific and Australia. However, part of the RAF’s fleet of ageing Avro Lincolns had been mothballed at Hemswell prior to being broken up and several of these static aircraft appeared in background shots during filming, doubling for additional No 617 Squadron Lancasters. The station headquarters building still stands on what is now an industrial estate and is named Gibson House. The four wartime hangars also still stand, little changed in external appearance since the war.
Serving RAF pilots from both squadrons based at Hemswell took turns flying the Lancasters during filming and found the close formation and low level flying around Derwentwater and Windermere exhilarating and a welcome change from their normal high level solo Canberra sorties.
Three of the four Lancaster bombers used in the film had also appeared in the Dirk Bogarde film Appointment in London two years earlier.[2]
Historical inaccuracies
A bomb aimer prepares to drop his bouncing bomb using an improvised device to determine the correct distance from the dam.
The film is accurate historically with only a few minor exceptions, mostly derived from Paul Brickhill’s book, which itself was written when much detail about the raid was not yet in the public domain:
Barnes Wallis said that he never encountered any opposition from bureaucracy. In the film, when a reticent official asks what he can possibly say to the RAF to persuade them to lend a Vickers Wellington bomber for flight testing the bomb, Wallis suggests: “Well, if you told them that I designed it, do you think that might help?” Barnes Wallis was heavily involved with the design of the Wellington, as it used his geodesic construction method, but he was not the chief designer.
Instead of all of Gibson’s tour-expired crew at 106 Squadron volunteering to follow him to his new command, only his wireless operator, Hutchinson, went with him to 617 Squadron.
Crews for the operation were not all highly decorated and personally selected by Gibson; some crews were simply posted straight in.
Rather than the purpose as well as the method of the raid being Wallis’ sole idea, the dams had already been identified as an important target by the Air Ministry before the war.
Gibson did not devise the “spotlights altimeter” after visiting a theatre; it was suggested by Benjamin Lockspeiser of the Ministry of Aircraft Production after Gibson requested they solve the problem. It was a proven method used by RAF Coastal Command aircraft for some time.[3]
The wooden “coat hanger” bomb sight intended to enable crews to release the weapon at the right distance from the target was not wholly successful; some crews used it, but others came up with their solutions, such as pieces of string in the bomb-aimer’s position and/or markings on the blister.
No bomber flew into a hillside near a target on the actual raid. This scene, which is not in the original version, was included in the copy released on the North American market (see above). (One bomber did crash near a target after being hit by the blast, and two or more may have crashed due to hitting power lines in the valleys.)
Some of the sequences showing the testing of Upkeep in the film are of Mosquito fighter-bombers dropping the naval version of the bouncing bomb, code-named “Highball”, intended to be used against ships. This version of the weapon was never used operationally.
At the time the film was made, certain aspects of Upkeep were still held classified, so the actual test footage was censored to hide any details of the test bombs, and the dummy bombs carried by the Lancasters were spherical rather than the true cylindrical shape.
Continuity errors
Around 38 minutes into the film during footage of initial low-flying training, aircraft are clearly carrying the bombs, which were not yet available.
The Dambusters March
The main theme music, the Dambusters March by Eric Coates, is for many synonymous with the film, as well as with the exploit itself. As a reminder of British success, it remains a favourite military band item at flypasts and can be heard at football games during England matches. One version released featured dialogue extracts from the film’s (the bombing run).
Remake
Work on a remake of The Dam Busters, produced by Peter Jackson and directed by first time director Christian Rivers, began production in 2008. Jackson said in the mid-1990s that he became interested in remaking the 1954 film, but found that the rights had been bought by Mel Gibson. In 2004, Jackson was contacted by his agent, who said Gibson had dropped the rights. The rights were purchased by Sir David Frost from the Brickhill family in 2005.[4] Stephen Fry is writing the script of the film.[5] It will be distributed by Universal Pictures and StudioCanal.[6]Filming was planned to commence in early 2009, on a budget of USD 40 million,[7] although no project-specific filming had begun as of May 2009.[8]
Weta Workshop is making the models and special effects for the film and have made 10 life size Lancaster bombers.[9]
The last living pilot of the strike team, Les Munro, joined the production crew in Masterton as technical adviser. Jackson will also use newly declassified War Office documents to ensure the authenticity of the film.[10]
Influence
The attack on the Death Star in the climax of the film Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope is heavily influenced by the climactic sequence of The Dam Busters. In the former film rebel pilots have to fly through a trench while evading enemy fire and fire a proton torpedo at a precise distance from the target in order to destroy the entire base with a single explosion; if one run fails another run must be made by a different pilot. In addition to the similarity of the scenes, some of the dialogue is nearly identical in the two films. Star Wars also ends with an Elgarian-style march, like The Dam Busters.[11]
In the 1982 film Pink Floyd The Wall, scenes from The Dam Busters can be seen and heard playing on a television set several times during the film.
Two television advertisements were made for a brand of beer, Carling Black Label, which played on the theme of The Dam Busters. Both were made before the English football team broke a 35-year losing streak against Germany. The first showed a German guard on top of a dam catching a bouncing bomb as if he were a goalkeeper. The second showed a British tourist throwing a Union Flag towel which skipped off the water like a bouncing bomb to reserve a pool-side seat before the German tourists could reserve them with their towels. Both actions were followed by the comment “I bet he drinks Carling Black Label”.[12]
In 1999, British television network ITV broadcast a censored version of the film, removing all utterances of “Nigger” (the real name of the unit’s mascot, a black labrador). ITV blamed regional broadcaster London Weekend Television, which in turn alleged that a junior staff member had been responsible for the unauthorised cuts. When ITV again showed a censored version in June 2001, it was condemned by Index on Censorship as “unnecessary and ridiculous” and because the edits introduced continuity errors.[13]
In 2004, the magazine Total Film named The Dam Busters the 43rd greatest British film of all time. Although it has been praised as one of the greatest war films of all time it focuses on the technicalities of destroying the enemy’s dams, rather than the enemy himself. The film does not attempt to gloss over the losses sustained amongst the airmen nor the devastation caused by the flooding of the enemy countryside.
The British Channel 4 screened the censored American version in July 2007, in which the dialogue was dubbed so as to call the dog Trigger, this screening taking place just after the planned remake was announced. For the remake, Peter Jackson has said no decision has been made on the dog’s name, but is in a “no-win, damned-if-you-do-and-damned-if-you-don’t scenario”, as changing the name could be seen as too much political correctness, while not changing the name could offend people.[14] Further, executive producer Sir David Frost was quoted in The Independent as stating: “Guy sometimes used to call his dog Nigsy, so I think that’s what we will call it. Stephen has been coming up with other names, but this is the one I want.”[15] In June 2011, Stephen Fry mentioned in an interview that the dog would be called Digger in the remake to avoid offending modern audiences. [N 1] In September 2007, as part of the BBC Summer of British Film series, The Dam Busters was shown at selected cinemas across the UK in its uncut format.
On 16 May 2008, a commemoration of the 65th anniversary was held at Derwent Reservoir, including a flypast by a Lancaster, Spitfire and Hurricane. The event was attended by Richard Todd and Les Munro, the only pilot from the original raid still living, as well as Mary Stopes-Roe, the elder daughter of Sir Barnes Wallis.
Notes
Stephen Fry, the screenwriter, said there was “no question in America that you could ever have a dog called the N-word”. In the remake, the dog will be called “Digger”. [16]
Summary
A powerful, atmospheric piece of film noir cinema that is both haunting and captivating in equal measure. With Anton Kara’s eerie, memorable zither score, a cleverly constructed script, Reed’s towering direction, and Welles show-stealing performance, this remains a classic thriller masterpiece.
The Third Man is a 1949 British film noir directed by Carol Reed and starring Joseph Cotten, Alida Valli, Orson Welles, and Trevor Howard. Many critics rank it as a masterpiece, particularly remembered for its atmospheric cinematography, performances, and unique musical score.[1] The screenplay was written by novelist Graham Greene, later becoming his novella of the same name.[2] Anton Karas wrote the score, which used only the zither; its title cut topped the international music charts in 1950.[3]
Plot
Vienna, devastated by and recovering from World War II, is divided into four separate zones, each governed by one of the victorious Allies, and a jointly-administered international zone. American pulp Western writer Holly Martins (Joseph Cotten) arrives seeking an old friend, Harry Lime (Orson Welles), who has offered him the opportunity to work with him there.
Arriving at Lime’s apartment, Martins discovers that Lime was recently hit and killed by a lorry while crossing the street. Shocked, Martins heads to the cemetery to attend his friend’s funeral, where he meets two British Army Royal Military Policemen: Sergeant Paine (Bernard Lee), a fan of Martins’s books, and his superior, Major Calloway (Trevor Howard). After the services, Martins accepts an invitation to speak to the members of a local book club, delaying his departure to do so. He is contacted by a friend of Lime’s, Baron Kurtz (Ernst Deutsch), who wants to talk about Lime’s death. Kurtz relates that he and Popescu (Siegfried Breuer), another friend of Lime’s, had picked Lime up after the accident and brought him over to the side of the street, where before dying he had asked them to take care of Martins and Anna, Lime’s actress girlfriend. Kurtz mentions the theatre where Anna (Alida Valli) works, but advises that the case is pointless to pursue and best left.
Martins meets Anna after the show. During their conversation, he becomes suspicious and wonders if Lime’s death had really been an accident. The porter at Lime’s apartment house (Paul Hörbiger) tells Martins that Lime could not possibly have been alive after being hit by the lorry, “not with the way his head was”, and adds that he saw a third man helping to carry the body across the street, not just two as Kurtz and Popescu had described. Martins pressures the porter to tell his story to the police, but the man refuses, becoming agitated, and asks Martins to leave.
Martins walks Anna back to her apartment, where they find the police searching her room. The police find a forged passport used to escape the city’s Russian sector, and take Anna with them as they leave. Martins then visits Dr. Winkel (Erich Ponto), a friend of Kurtz and Popescu and Lime’s personal physician, who was present when Lime was killed. Martins questions the evasive Winkel about the circumstances surrounding Lime’s death, and Winkel reassures Martins that there were only two men present at Lime’s accident. Martins is not convinced.
The next day, the porter offers to give Martins more information about the death, but the man has been murdered just as Martins arrives to talk to him. Escaping from the hostile and suspicious crowd outside the porter’s house, Martins is suddenly whisked away on a wild, careening ride — only to arrive at the book club meeting, where he is unable to collect his thoughts and makes a poor speech. His sole coherent response is to an inquiry from Popescu, who asks about Martins’s next book; Martins pointedly replies that his upcoming novel is called The Third Man and will be “a murder story” inspired by actual facts. Popescu menacingly suggests Martins stick to fiction, and when he spies two suspicious-looking men advancing from the back of the hall, the writer flees.
The policeman Calloway advises Martins to leave Vienna. When Martins refuses and demands an investigation into Lime’s suspicious death, Calloway finally reveals the truth about Lime’sracket. Calloway shows him a dossier and photographs proving that Lime stole penicillin — at the time a new and scarce life-saving antibiotic — from military hospitals and sold it on the black market. To maximise his profits, Lime diluted the penicillin, with devastating effects on his many victims. Martins, convinced, agrees to leave Vienna.
As he departs the police station, a Russian officer comes in and asks Calloway for Anna’s forged passport in order to take her back to the Russian sector. Martins heads back to Anna’s apartment to say goodbye and discovers that she too had been told by Calloway about Lime’s activities. He also realises that he has feelings towards her. Leaving her apartment, Martins discerns a man watching from a dark doorway across the darkened square. A lighted window briefly illuminates the man’s face, revealing him to be Harry Lime, alive and well. Unable to catch up with Lime when he flees, Martins summons Calloway, who determines that Lime has escaped into the sewer system through a kiosk. Calloway realises that Lime has been using the sewer tunnels to move about the city. Finally convinced that the wanted man is indeed alive, the British police exhume Lime’s coffin and find another man, Joseph Harbin, an orderly in a military hospital, buried in his place.
The next day, Martins meets with Harry Lime in the Russian sector in the east of the city. They talk while riding in Vienna’s famous Ferris wheel, the Wiener Riesenrad in Prater Park. Lime dismisses the suffering his crimes have caused as the cost of doing business, and offers to bring Martins in on his racket, implying that Martins will be disposed of if he causes further problems. Martins rejects the suggestion and hints that he will not be easy to dispose of. Lime compares the people moving on the ground far below to dots, asking whether Martins would really feel pity if “one of those dots stopped moving forever” and whether he would really decline money — or would he calculate how many dots he could afford to spare.
Calloway asks Martins to help capture Lime. Martins agrees, negotiating Anna’s safe conduct out of Vienna in return; but when she realises her freedom was the payoff in the deal to ensnare Lime, she leaves the train, refusing to play a role in his capture. Martins reconsiders his involvement, but when Calloway takes him to a hospital and shows him children crippled by meningitisafter receiving Lime’s diluted penicillin, he agrees to assist in drawing Lime out for them.
When Lime arrives at the rendezvous cafe, Anna calls out a warning. Lime evades capture and reaches the sewers, but police reinforcements have arrived and begin a mass search of the underground tunnels. He is eventually cornered and fires at Sergeant Paine, killing him, then is shot himself by Major Calloway in return. Lime, badly injured, drags himself up a staircase to a grating, but is unable to push it open. Martins, using Paine’s gun, climbs the steps and shoots his old friend. In the aftermath, Martins attends Lime’s second funeral. He waits by the roadside to speak with Anna, but she walks past without looking at him.
Joseph Cotten as Holly Martins
Alida Valli as Anna Schmidt
Orson Welles as Harry Lime
Trevor Howard as Major Calloway
Bernard Lee as Sgt. Paine
Wilfrid Hyde-White as Crabbin
Erich Ponto as Dr. Winkel
Ernst Deutsch as ‘Baron’ Kurtz
Siegfried Breuer as Popescu
Paul Hörbiger as Karl, Harry’s Porter
Hedwig Bleibtreu as Anna’s Landlady
Robert Brown as British Military Policeman in Sewer Chase
Alexis Chesnakov as Brodsky
Paul Hardtmuth as the Hall Porter at Sacher’s
Geoffrey Keen as British Military Policeman
Eric Pohlmann as Waiter at Smolka’s
Annie Rosar as the Porter’s Wife
Joseph Cotten as the Narrator (pre-1999 US version)
Carol Reed as the Narrator (pre-1999 UK, and all post-’99 versions)
Style
The atmospheric use of black-and-white expressionist cinematography by Robert Krasker, with harsh lighting and distorted camera angles, is a key feature of The Third Man. Combined with the unique theme music, seedy locations, and acclaimed performances from the cast, the style evokes the atmosphere of an exhausted, cynical post-war Vienna at the start of the Cold War. The film’s unusual camera angles, however, were not appreciated by all critics at the time. C. A. Lejeune in The Observer described Reed’s “habit of printing his scenes askew, with floors sloping at a diagonal and close-ups deliriously tilted” as “most distracting”. American director William Wyler, a close friend of Reed’s, sent him a spirit level, with a note saying, “Carol, next time you make a picture, just put it on top of the camera, will you?”[4]
Through the years there was occasional speculation that Welles, rather than Reed, was the de facto director of The Third Man. Film scholar Jonathan Rosenbaum, in his 2007 book,Discovering Orson Welles, calls it a “popular misconception”,[5] although Rosenbaum did note that the film “began to echo the Wellesian theme of betrayed male friendship and certain related ideas from Citizen Kane.”[6] In the final analysis, Rosenbaum writes, Welles “didn’t direct anything in the picture; the basics of his shooting and editing style, its music and meaning, are plainly absent. Yet old myths die hard, and some viewers persist in believing otherwise.”[6] Welles himself fuelled this theory with an interview he gave in 1958, in which he said that he had had an important role in making The Third Man, but that it was a “delicate matter, because [he] wasn’t the producer”.[7] However, he later admitted in a 1967 interview with Peter Bogdanovich that his involvement was minimal: “It was Carol’s picture”, he said.[8] However, Welles did contribute some of the film’s best-known dialogue. Bogdanovich also stated in the introduction to the DVD:
However, I think it’s important to note that the look of The Third Man—and, in fact, the whole film—would be unthinkable without Citizen Kane, The Stranger, and The Lady from Shanghai, all of which Orson made in the ’40s, and all of which preceded The Third Man. Carol Reed, I think, was definitely influenced by Orson Welles, the director, from the films he had made.[9]
Differences between releases
As the original British release begins, the voice of director Carol Reed, unnamed, is heard describing post-war Vienna from the point of view of a racketeer. The version shown in American theatres replaced this with narration by Joseph Cotten as Holly Martins. This change was instituted by David O. Selznick, who did not think American audiences would relate to the seedy tone of the original.[10] In addition, eleven minutes of footage were cut.[11] Today, Reed’s original version appears on American DVDs, in showings on Turner Classic Movies, and in U.S. theatrical releases, with the eleven minutes of footage restored. Both the Criterion Collection and Studio Canal DVD releases include a comparison of the two opening monologues.
Development
Before writing the screenplay, Graham Greene worked out the atmosphere, characterisation, and mood of the story by writing a novella. This was written purely to be used as a source text for the screenplay and was never intended to be read by the general public, although it was later published, together with The Fallen Idol.
The narrator in the novella is Major Calloway, which gives the book a slightly different emphasis from that of the screenplay. A small portion of his narration is retained in a modified form at the very beginning of the film, the part in which (Reed’s) voice-over declaims: “I never knew the old Vienna…”
Other differences include the nationality of both Holly and Harry; they are English in the book. Martins’ first name is Rollo rather than Holly. Popescu’s character is an American called Cooler. Crabbin was a single character in the novella. In the original draft of the screenplay, he was to be replaced by two characters, played by Basil Radford and Naunton Wayne, but ultimately in the film, as in the novella, Crabbin is a single character.
There is also a difference of ending. In the novella, it is implied that Anna and Rollo (Holly) are about to begin a new life together, in stark contrast to the unmistakable snub by Anna that marks the end of the movie. Anna does walk away from Harry’s grave in the book, but the text continues:
I watched him striding off on his overgrown legs after the girl. He caught her up and they walked side by side. I don’t think he said a word to her: it was like the end of a story except that before they turned out of my sight her hand was through his arm — which is how a story usually begins. He was a very bad shot and a very bad judge of character, but he had a way with Westerns (a trick of tension) and with girls (I wouldn’t know what).
(During the shooting of the film, the final scene was the subject of a dispute between Greene, who wanted the happy ending of the novella, and Selznick and Reed, who stubbornly refused to end the film on what they felt was an artificially happy note.)
Principal photography
Six weeks of principal photography was shot on location in Vienna,[12] ending on 11 December 1948. Production then moved to the Worton Hall Studios in Isleworth[13] and Sheppertonstudios near London, and was completed in March 1949.[14]
The scenes of Harry Lime in the sewer were shot on location or on sets built at Shepperton, with most of the location shots using doubles for Welles.[15] Reed, however, claimed that despite initial reluctance, Welles quickly became enthusiastic, and stayed in Vienna to finish the film.[16] Water was sprayed on the cobbled streets to make them reflect the light at night.
Reception
In Austria, “local critics were underwhelmed”[17] and the film ran for only a few weeks; William Cook, after his 2006 visit to an eight-room museum in Vienna dedicated to the film, wrote “In Britain it’s a thriller about friendship and betrayal. In Vienna it’s a tragedy about Austria’s troubled relationship with its past.”[17]
Upon its release in Britain and America, the film received overwhelmingly positive reviews.[18] Time magazine called the film “crammed with cinematic plums that would do the early Hitchcock proud—ingenious twists and turns of plot, subtle detail, full-bodied bit characters, atmospheric backgrounds that become an intrinsic part of the story, a deft commingling of the sinister with the ludicrous, the casual with the bizarre.”[19] Bosley Crowther, after a prefatory qualification that the film was “designed [only] to excite and entertain”, wrote that Reed “brilliantly packaged the whole bag of his cinematic tricks, his whole range of inventive genius for making the camera expound. His eminent gifts for compressing a wealth of suggestion in single shots, for building up agonized tension and popping surprises are fully exercised. His devilishly mischievous humor (sic) also runs lightly through the film, touching the darker depressions with little glints of the gay or macabre.”[20] One of the very rare exceptions was the British communist paper The Daily Worker of 3 September 1949 which complained that “no effort is spared to make the Soviet authorities as sinister and unsympathetic as possible.”[21]
Critics today have hailed the film as a masterpiece. Roger Ebert added the film to his “Great Movies” list and wrote, “Of all the movies that I have seen, this one most completely embodies the romance of going to the movies.”[22] Gene Siskel remarked it as “exemplary piece of moviemaking, highlighting the ruins of WWII and juxtaposing it with the characters’s own damaged histories”. James Berardinelli has also praised the film, calling the film a “must-see” for lovers of film noirs. Currently, the film has a 100% Certified Fresh Rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 57 reviews.
Score
“
What sort of music it is, whether jaunty or sad, fierce or provoking, it would be hard to reckon; but under its enthrallment, the camera comes into play… The unseen zither-player… is made to employ his instrument much as the Homeric bard did his lyre.
”
—Critic William Whitebait, writing in the New Statesman and Nation (1949).[23]
The musical score was composed by Anton Karas and played by him on the zither. Before the production came to Vienna, Karas was an unknown wine bar performer. According to a November 1949 Time magazine article:[23]
The picture demanded music appropriate to post-World War II Vienna, but director Reed had made up his mind to avoid schmalzy, heavily orchestrated waltzes. In Vienna one night Reed listened to a wine-garden zitherist named Anton Karas, [and] was fascinated by the jangling melancholy of his music.
Reed later brought Karas to London, where the musician spent six weeks working with Reed on the score.[23] Decades later, film critic Roger Ebert wrote, “Has there ever been a film where the music more perfectly suited the action than in Carol Reed’s The Third Man?”[24]
“The Third Man Theme” was released as a single in 1949/50 (Decca in the UK, London Records in the US). It became a best-seller—by November 1949, 300,000 records had been sold in Britain, with the teen-aged Princess Margaret a reported fan.[23] The exposure made Karas an international star,[25] and the trailer for the film stated that “the famous musical score by Anton Karas” would have the audience “in a dither with his zither”.[26]
The comedian Victor Borge covered the theme on piano for his 1955 album Caught in the Act, and a version with a faster tempo and without the zither was featured on the 1965 album Going Places by Herb Alpert & the Tijuana Brass. The music is also used in a bar scene in the 2002 Vin Diesel action movie xXx. Andy Samberg and Akiva Schaffer’s comedy troupe The Lonely Island used a sample of the theme song on the song “Stork Patrol”.[27] The theme also is used for the title sequence of “Ebert Presents At the Movies.”
The Goon Show parodied the score several times when referring to spy, Vienna or war themes and featured by warping recognisable portions of the score using then new FX methods.
The “Swiss cuckoo clock” speech
In a famous scene, Lime meets with Martins on the Wiener Riesenrad, the large Ferris wheel in the Prater amusement park. Looking down on the people below from his vantage point, Lime compares them to dots. Back on the ground, he notes:
You know what the fellow said – in Italy, for thirty years under the Borgias, they had warfare, terror, murder and bloodshed, but they produced Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinciand the Renaissance. In Switzerland, they had brotherly love, they had five hundred years of democracy and peace – and what did that produce? The cuckoo clock.
This remark was added by Welles – in the published script, it is in a footnote. Greene wrote in a letter[28] ”What happened was that during the shooting of The Third Man it was found necessary for the timing to insert another sentence.” Welles apparently said the lines came from “an old Hungarian play”; the painter Whistler, in a lecture on art from 1885 (published in Mr Whistler’s ‘Ten O’Clock’ [1888]), had said, “The Swiss in their mountains… What more worthy people!… yet, the perverse and scornful [goddess, Art] will have none of it, and the sons of patriots are left with the clock that turns the mill, and the sudden cuckoo, with difficulty restrained in its box! For this was Tell a hero! For this did Gessler die!” In This is Orson Welles (1993), Welles is quoted as saying “When the picture came out, the Swiss very nicely pointed out to me that they’ve never made any cuckoo clocks.”[29] Writer John McPhee also points out that during the period of time the Borgia flourished in Italy, Switzerland was “the most powerful and feared military force in Europe”, and not the peacefully neutral country it is currently.[30]
Awards and honours
The Third Man won the 1949 Grand Prix at the Cannes Film Festival,[31] the British Academy Award for Best Film, and an Academy Award for Best Black and White Cinematography in 1950.
American Film Institute recognition
10 Top 10
#5 (mystery film)
In 1999 the British Film Institute selected The Third Man as the best British film of the 20th century; five years later, the magazine Total Film ranked it fourth. The film also placed 57th on the American Film Institute’s list of top American films in 1998, though the film’s only American connection was its executive co-producer, David O. Selznick. (The other two, Sir Alexander Korda and Carol Reed, were of Hungarian and British origin respectively.) In June 2008, the AFI revealed its “10 Top 10″—the best ten films in ten “classic” American film genres—after polling over 1,500 people from the creative community. The Third Man was acknowledged as the fifth best film in the mystery genre.[32] In 2005, viewers of BBC Television’s Newsnight Review voted the film their fourth favourite of all time; it was the only film in the top five made prior to 1970.
The Third Man was also nominated in the following AFI lists:
AFI’s 100 Years…100 Movie Quotes:
“In Switzerland, they had brotherly love, and they had 500 years of democracy and peace. And what did that produce? The cuckoo clock.”
AFI’s 100 Years of Film Scores
AFI’s 100 Years…100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition)
In Vienna there is a Third Man Museum dedicated to the film. [33]
Copyright status
This film lapsed into public domain in the United States when the copyright was not renewed after David Selznick’s death. In 1996, the film’s U.S. copyright protection was restored by theUruguay Round Agreements Act,[34] and the Criterion Collection released a digitally restored DVD of the original British print of the film. In 2008 Criterion released a Blu-ray edition,[35] now out of print, and in September 2010 Lions Gate reissued the film on Blu-ray.[26]
Adaptations
The Third Man was adapted as a one-hour radio play on two broadcasts of Lux Radio Theater, first on 9 April 1951 with Joseph Cotten, then on 8 February 1954 with Ray Milland.
A British radio drama series called The Adventures of Harry Lime, which was broadcast in the U.S. as The Lives of Harry Lime, centred on Lime’s adventures, voiced by Welles, prior to his “death in Vienna”. Fifty-two episodes were aired in 1951 and 1952, several of which Welles wrote, including “Ticket to Tangiers”, which is included on the Criterion Collection and Studio Canal releases of the film. In addition, recordings of the 1952 episodes “Man of Mystery”, “Murder on the Riviera” and “Blackmail is a Nasty Word” are included on the Criterion Collection DVD The Complete Mr. Arkadin.
A television series later used the film’s title, theme music and the character name “Harry Lime”, in which Lime was played by Michael Rennie. However, the Lime character here was a wealthy art dealer who behaved like Robin Hood, and had an associate, Bradford Webster, played by Jonathan Harris. The series was produced by the BBC and ran for 77 episodes between 1959 and 1965. It was syndicated in the United States.[36]
Impact and influence
Tobacco-Stained Mountain Goat, a 2011 science fiction/noir novel by Australian author Andrez Bergen, heavily references The Third Man, and the entire first page of the novel paraphrases the opening narration to the movie.
Notes
Halliwell, Leslie and John Walker, ed. (1994). Halliwell’s Film Guide. New York: Harper Perennial. ISBN 0-06-273-241-2 . p 1192.
Greene, Graham and Henry J. Donaghy (1992). Conversations With Graham Greene. Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 0-87805-549-5 . p 76.
Summary
With magnificent staged ballet sequences, strong performances throughout, and impeccable direction, this is a definitive old school British classic.
The Red Shoes (1948) is a British feature film about a ballet dancer, written, directed and produced by the team of Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger, known collectively as The Archers. The movie employs the story within a story device, being about a young ballerina who joins an established ballet company and becomes the lead dancer in a new ballet called The Red Shoes, itself based on the fairy tale “The Red Shoes” by Hans Christian Andersen. The film stars Moira Shearer, Anton Walbrook and Marius Goring and features Robert Helpmann, Léonide Massine and Ludmilla Tchérina, renowned dancers from the ballet world, as well as Esmond Knight and Albert Basserman. It has original music by Brian Easdale and cinematography by Jack Cardiff, and is well regarded for its creative use of Technicolor. Filmmakers such as Brian De Palma and Martin Scorsese have named it one of their all time favorite films.
Although loosely based on the Andersen story, it was also said to have been inspired by the real-life meeting of Sergei Diaghilev with the British ballerina Diana Gould. Diaghilev asked her to join his company, but he died before she could do so. Diana Gould later became the second wife of Yehudi Menuhin.[1]
Plot
Victoria ‘Vicky’ Page (Moira Shearer) is a young, unknown dancer from an aristocratic background. At an after-ballet party, arranged by her aunt as a surreptitious audition, she meets Boris Lermontov (Anton Walbrook), the ruthless but charismatic impresario of the Ballet Lermontov, who questions her:
Lermontov: Why do you want to dance?
Vicky: Why do you want to live?
Lermontov: Well, I don’t know exactly why, but… I must.
Vicky: That’s my answer too.
Lermontov takes her on as a student, where she is taught by, among others, Grisha Ljubov (Léonide Massine), the company’s chief choreographer.
After seeing her dance in a matinee performance of Swan Lake,[2] Lermontov realises her potential and invites Vicky to go with the company to Paris and Monte Carlo. When he loses his prima ballerina (Ludmilla Tchérina) to marriage, Lermontov begins to see Vicky as a possible successor. Backstage, as Vicky is waiting to make an entrance with the corps de ballet, he pronounces that:
A dancer who relies upon the doubtful comforts of human love will never be a great dancer. Never.
When Ljubov objects that you cannot change human nature, Lermontov responds “I think you can do even better than that — you can ignore it.” He decides to create a starring role for Vicky in a new ballet, The Red Shoes, the music for which is to be written by Julian Craster (Marius Goring) a brilliant young composer engaged as orchestral coach the same day that Vicky was brought into the company.
As the premiere of the ballet approaches, Vicky and Julian lock horns artistically, and then fall in love. The ballet is a great success, and Lermontov talks with Vicky about her future:
Lermontov: When we first met … you asked me a question to which I gave a stupid answer, you asked me whether I wanted to live and I said “Yes”. Actually, Miss Page, I want more, much more. I want to create, to make something big out of something little – to make a great dancer out of you. But first, I must ask you the same question, what do you want from life? To live?
Vicky: To dance.
Lermontov revitalizes the company’s repertoire with Vicky in the lead roles, but when he learns of the affair between the two young lovers, he is furious at Julian for distracting Vicky from her dancing.
Julian refuses to end the affair, so he is fired, and Vicky decides to leave the company with him. They marry and live in London where Julian works on composing a new opera. Lermontov relents his decision to enforce Vicky’s contract, and permits her to dance where and when she pleases. The one exception is The Red Shoes: Lermontov retains the rights to the ballet and ownership of Julian’s music, and refuses to mount it again or allow anyone else to produce the ballet.
Some time later, while joining her aunt for a holiday in Monte Carlo, Vicky is visited on the train by Lermontov, who convinces her to return to the company to dance in a revival of The Red Shoes. On opening night, as she is preparing to perform, Julian appears in her dressing room; he has left the premiere of his opera at Covent Garden to take her back with him. Lermontov arrives, and he and Julian contend for Vicky’s soul:
Julian: You’re jealous of her.
Lermontov: Yes! I am. But in a way you’ll never understand.
Torn between her love for Julian and her need to dance, she cannot decide what to do. Julian, realising that he has lost her, leaves for the railway station, and Lermontov consoles her:
Sorrow will pass, believe me. Life is so unimportant. And from now onwards, you will dance like nobody ever before.
While being escorted to the stage by her dresser, and wearing the red shoes, Vicky is suddenly seized by an irresistible impulse and runs out of the theatre. Julian, on the platform of the train station, sees her and runs helplessly towards her. Vicky jumps from a balcony and falls in front of an approaching train. While lying on a stretcher, bloody and battered, she asks Julian to remove the red shoes, just as in the end of The Red Shoes ballet.
Shaken by Vicky’s death and broken in spirit, Lermontov appears before the audience to announce that “Miss Page is unable to dance tonight, nor indeed any other night.” Nevertheless, the company performs The Red Shoes with a spotlight on the empty space where Vicky would have been.
Plot inconsistency
The film contains a possible inconsistency in the story: At the end of the film, when she jumps off the balcony and is killed, Vicky is wearing the same red shoes she wears in the ballet. We see her wearing them as she is preparing in her dressing room for the opening of the revival of The Red Shoes, before the confrontation between Julian and Lermontov, despite the fact that in the performance her character does not put them on until part way through the ballet. This problem was discussed by Powell and Pressburger themselves[3] and has been much discussed since.[4] Powell decided that it was artistically right for Vicky to be wearing the red shoes at that point because if she is not wearing them, it takes away the ambiguity over why she died: did the shoes drive her to it, did she fall or did she jump?[3]
The inconsistency can also be explained by Vicky’s desire to check the red shoes before the performance, intending to remove them before the ballet begins. Indeed her dresser can be seen holding the correct shoes for the start of the ballet as Vicky “checks” the red ones. She is prevented from changing her shoes by the encounter between Lermontov and Julian. Whatever the explanation, the dramatic necessity for her to be wearing the red shoes at the end is clear.
“The Red Shoes” ballet
The ballet roughly follows the Hans Christian Andersen story upon which it is based. A young woman sees a pair of red shoes in a shop window, which are offered to her by the demonic shoemaker. She puts them on and begins to dance with her boyfriend. They go to a carnival, where she seemingly forgets about the boyfriend as she dances with every man she comes across. Her boyfriend is carried away and nothing is left of him but his image on a piece of cellophane, which she tramples.
She attempts to return home to her mother, but the red shoes, controlled by the shoemaker, keep her dancing. She falls into a netherworld, where she dances with a piece of newspaper which turns briefly into her boyfriend. She is then beset by grotesque creatures, including the shoemaker, who converge upon her in a manner reminiscent of The Rite of Spring. They abruptly disappear, leaving her alone. No matter where she flees, the shoes refuse to stop dancing.
Near death from exhaustion, clothed in rags, she finds herself in front of a church where a funeral is in progress. The priest offers to help her. She motions to him to remove the shoes, and as he does so, she dies. He carries her into the church, and the shoemaker retrieves the shoes, to be offered to his next victim.
The ballet was choreographed by Robert Helpmann, who plays the role of the lead dancer of the Ballet Lemontov and danced the part of the boyfriend, with Léonide Massine creating his own choreography for his role as the shoemaker. (Both Helpmann and Massine were major stars of the ballet world.) The music for the whole film, including for the ballet, is an original score by Brian Easdale, who conducted most of the music in the film, but not the Ballet of the Red Shoes; the ballet itself was conducted by Sir Thomas Beecham, who received prominent screen credit.
Moira Shearer as Vicky Page
Marius Goring as Julian Craster
Anton Walbrook as Boris Lermontov
Léonide Massine as Grischa Ljubov
Robert Helpmann as Ivan Boleslawsky
Albert Bassermann as Sergei Ratov
Ludmilla Tchérina as Irina Boronskaja
Esmond Knight as Livingstone ‘Livy’ Montagne
Cast notes:
The role of Boris Lermontov, played by Anton Walbrook, was inspired in part by Sergei Diaghilev, the impresario who founded the Ballets Russes,[5] although there are also aspects about him drawn from the personalities of producer J. Arthur Rank and even director Michael Powell himself.[3]
Production
Pressburger originally wrote the screenplay for Alexander Korda as a vehicle for Korda’s future wife Merle Oberon. After some years had passed without the film being made, Powell and Pressburger rewrote the screenplay, including more emphasis on dancing, and produced it themselves.
Powell and Pressburger decided early on that they had to use dancers who could act rather than actors who could dance a bit. To create a realistic feeling of a ballet company at work, and to be able to include a fifteen minute ballet as the high point of the film, they created their own ballet company using many dancers from The Royal Ballet. The principal dancers were Robert Helpmann (who also choreographed the main ballet), Léonide Massine (who also choreographed the role of The Shoemaker), Ludmilla Tchérina and Moira Shearer.
Subsequent history
The Red Shoes received positive reviews,[6] but did not make much money at first in the UK, because the Rank Organisation could not afford to spend much on promotion due to severe financial problems exacerbated by the expense of Caesar and Cleopatra (1945).[7] Also, the financial backers did not understand the artistic merits of the film.[7]
At first, the film received only a limited release in the U.S., in a 110-week run. However, the success of this run showed Universal Studios that The Red Shoes was a worthwhile film. Universal took over the U.S. distribution in 1951 and it became one of the highest earning British films of all time.[8]
When it was first previewed, many ballet critics in the UK and in the US wrote positively, pleased to see ballet portrayed so well on screen,[9] but when they realised that it was universally popular, their reviews suddenly became quite dismissive of the film.[10]
Brian Easdale’s score won an Oscar for “Best Music Score of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture” in 1948. The film also won an Oscar for “Best Art Direction-Set Decoration” for Hein Heckrothand Arthur Lawson. It was also nominated in the categories “Best Picture” (Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger), “Best Writing, Motion Picture Story” (Emeric Pressburger) and “Best Film Editing” (Reginald Mills).[11]
The Red Shoes led to a few other films that treated ballet seriously. It was only after he made the studio executives watch The Red Shoes a few times that Gene Kelly was able to include ballet in An American in Paris.[7] After the film became a huge success in the U.S., MGM began plans to make a film actually titled Red Shoes Run Faster with red-haired dancer Lucille Bremer, but quickly scrapped the idea.[12]
The Red Shoes is also arguably the most famous work done by Powell and Pressburger and is considered one of their great works as well as a classic of British cinema. The film is particularly known for its cinematography, particularly its use of colour. In the introduction for The Criterion Collection DVD of Jean Renoir’s The River, Martin Scorsese, who has long championed Powell and Pressburger’s works, considers The Red Shoes, along with the Renoir film to be the two most beautiful colour films.
The Red Shoes underwent a complete restoration as the result of a seven-year effort. With fundraising spearheaded by Scorsese and his longtime editor, Thelma Schoonmaker, the restoration work was completed by Robert Gitt (assisted by Barbara Whitehead) at the UCLA Film and Television Archive.[13] This restored version made its debut at the 2009 Cannes Film Festival,[14] followed soon after by a DVD and Blu-ray release in the UK by ITV DVD[15] as well as screenings at festivals around the world.[16] The digitally restored print has also subsequently been released in America by Criterion on DVD[17] & Blu-ray[18]
Photography
One of the stills photographers working on the film was renowned British photographer Cornel Lucas whose work can be seen at The Cornel Lucas Collection
Video and DVD
The film has been released many times in many countries on video, laserdisc and DVD. The restored version was released on DVD and Blu-ray in June 2009.[19]
Musical theatre adaptation
The film was adapted by Jule Styne (music) and Marsha Norman (book and lyrics) into a Broadway musical, which was directed by Stanley Donen. The Red Shoes opened on December 16, 1993 at the Gershwin Theatre, with Steve Barton playing Boris Lermontov, Margaret Illmann playing Victoria Page, and Hugh Panaro playing Julian Craster. The choreography by Lar Lubovitchreceived the TDF’s Astaire Award, but the musical closed after 51 previews and only five performances.
“The Red Shoes” is also referenced in A Chorus Line as having inspired several of the characters to become dancers.
Works inspired by the film
Kate Bush’s song and album The Red Shoes was inspired by the film. The music was subsequently used in a film The Line, the Cross and the Curve (1993) made by Kate Bush, starringMiranda Richardson and Lindsay Kemp, which references the original film.
In 2005 Ballet Ireland produced Diaghilev And The Red Shoes, a tribute to the ballet impresario who founded Ballet Russe, consisting of excerpts from works made famous by that seminal company. An excerpt from The Red Shoes ballet was included, since the film was inspired by Diaghilev.[20][21]
The 2010 film Black Swan has been frequently compared to The Red Shoes, due to some similarities in plot, theme and atmosphere.
Summary
Olivier’s performance is predictably brilliant, and his direction for the movie competently sufficient, although the film suffers for being overly drawn out. Surrounded by a highly talented cast, this is one of the best transitions of Shakespeare to the big screen.
Hamlet is a 1948 British film adaptation of William Shakespeare’s play Hamlet, adapted and directed by and starring Sir Laurence Olivier. Hamlet was Olivier’s second film as director, and also the second of the three Shakespeare films that he directed (the 1936 As You Like It had starred Olivier, but had been directed by Paul Czinner). Hamlet is the only one of Olivier’s directorial efforts to be filmed in black and white, and was the first British film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture.[1] It is also the first sound film of the play in English. A 1935 sound film adaptation, Khoon Ka Khoon, had been made in India and filmed in the Urdu language. [2]
Olivier’s Hamlet is the Shakespeare film that has received the most prestigious accolades, winning the Academy Awards for Best Picture and Best Actor and the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival. However, it proved controversial among Shakespearean purists, who felt that Olivier had made too many alterations and excisions to the four-hour play by cutting nearly two hours worth of content. Milton Shulman wrote in The Evening Standard “To some it will be one of the greatest films ever made, to others a deep disappointment. Laurence Olivier leaves no doubt that he is one of our greatest living actors…his liberties with the text, however, are sure to disturb many.”[3]
Plot
The film follows the overall story of the play, but cuts nearly half the dialogue, leaves out two major characters, and includes an opening voice-over that represents Hamlet’s fundamental problem as indecision.
The film begins with a narrator (actually Olivier himself) quoting some of Hamlet’s lines from Act I Scene IV:
So oft it chances in particular men,
That through some vicious mole of nature in them,
By the o’ergrowth of some complexion,
Oft breaking down the pales and forts of reason,
Or by some habit grown too much [this line is changed; Shakespeare's original line is or by some habit that too much o'erleavens the form of plausive manners[4]] ; that these men -
Carrying, I say, the stamp of one defect,
Their virtues else – be they as pure as grace,
Shall in the general censure take corruption,
From that particular fault…
Olivier then breaks from Shakespeare’s words to inform us “This is the tragedy of a man who could not make up his mind.”
The action begins on the battlements of Elsinore where a sentry, Francisco, (John Laurie) is relieved of his watch (and questioned if he has seen anything) by another sentry, Bernardo (Esmond Knight), who, with yet another sentry, Marcellus (Anthony Quayle), has twice previously seen the Ghost of King Hamlet. Marcellus then arrives with the skeptical Horatio (Norman Wooland), Prince Hamlet’s friend. Suddenly, all three see the Ghost, and Horatio demands that the ghost speak. The ghost vanishes then, without a word.
Inside the Great Hall of the castle, the court is celebrating the marriage of Gertrude (Eileen Herlie) and King Claudius (Basil Sydney); old King Hamlet has died apparently of an accidental snakebite, and his wife, Gertrude, has, within a month of the tragedy, married the late King’s brother. Prince Hamlet (Laurence Olivier) sits alone, refusing to join in the celebration, despite the protests of the new King. When the court has left the Great Hall, Hamlet fumes over the hasty marriage, muttering to himself the words “and yet, within a month!” Soon, Horatio and the sentries enter telling Hamlet of the ghostly apparition of his father. Hamlet proceeds to investigate, and upon arriving on the battlements, sees the ghost. Noting that the ghost beckons him forward, Hamlet follows it up onto a tower, wherein it reveals its identity as the Ghost of Hamlet’s father. He tells Hamlet that he was murdered, who did it, and how it was done. The audience then sees the murder re-enacted in a flashback as the ghost describes the deed – Claudius is seen pouring poison into the late King Hamlet’s ear, thereby killing him. Hamlet does not at first accept this as the truth, and then prepares to feign madness, so as to test Claudius’ conscience, without jumping to conclusions.
This feigned insanity attracts the attention of Polonius (Felix Aylmer) who is completely convinced that Hamlet has gone mad. Polonius pushes this point with the King, claiming that it is derived from Hamlet’s love for his daughter Ophelia (Jean Simmons). Claudius, however, is not fully convinced, and has Polonius set up a meeting between the two. Hamlet’s “madness” is constant even in this exchange, and Claudius is convinced.
Hamlet then hires a group of wandering stage performers, requesting that they enact the play The Murder of Gonzago for the king. However, Hamlet makes a few alterations to the play, so as to make it mirror the circumstances of the late King’s murder. Claudius, unable to endure the play, calls out for light, and retires to his room. Hamlet is now convinced of Claudius’ treachery. He finds Claudius alone, and has ample opportunity to kill the villain. However, at this time, Claudius is praying, and Hamlet does not seek to send him to heaven, so, he waits, and bides his time.
He instead confronts Gertrude about the matter of his father’s death and Claudius’ treachery. During this confrontation, he hears a voice from the arras, and, believing that it was Claudius eavesdropping, plunges his dagger into the curtains. On discovering that he has in fact, killed the eavesdropping Polonius instead, Hamlet is only mildly upset, and he continues to confront his mother. He then sees the ghostly apparition of his father, and proceeds to converse with it (the Ghost is uncredited in the film, but is apparently voiced by Olivier himself). Gertrude, who cannot see the ghost, is now also convinced that Hamlet is mad.
Hamlet is deported to England by Claudius, who has given orders for him to be killed once he reaches there. Fortunately, Hamlet’s ship is attacked by pirates, and he is returned to Denmark. In his absence, however, Ophelia, goes mad over Hamlet’s rejection and the idea that her own sweetheart has killed her father, and drowns, supposedly committing suicide. Laertes (Terence Morgan), Ophelia’s brother, is driven to avenge her death, as well as his father’s. Claudius and Laertes learn of Hamlet’s return, and prepare to have him killed. However, they plan to make it look like an accident. Claudius orders Laertes to challenge Hamlet to a duel, wherein Laertes will be given a poisoned blade that will kill with a bare touch. In case Laertes is unable to hit Hamlet, Claudius also prepares a poisoned drink.
Hamlet meets Laertes’ challenge, and engages him in a duel. Hamlet wins the first two rounds, and Gertrude drinks from the cup, suspecting that it is poisoned. Whilst in-between bouts, Laertes rushes Hamlet, and strikes him on the arm, fatally poisoning him. Hamlet, not knowing this, continues to duel. Hamlet eventually disarms Laertes, and switches blades with him. Hamlet then strikes Laertes in the wrist, fatally wounding him. Gerturde then submits to the poison, and dies, warning Hamlet not to drink from the cup. (Olivier thus makes Gertrude’s death a virtual suicide to protect her son, while Shakespeare writes it as if it were purely accidental, with Gertrude having no idea that the cup is poisoned.) Laertes, dying, confesses the whole plot to Hamlet, who flies at Claudius in a fit of rage, killing him, before finally expiring himself. Horatio, horrified by all this, orders that Hamlet be given a decent funeral, and the young prince’s body is taken away, while the Danish court kneels and the cannons of Elsinore fire off a peal of ordinance in respect. (A few women can be seen weeping quietly in the background.)
Cast
Basil Sydney as King Claudius. Claudius is the brother, and murderer of the late King Hamlet, and marries his widow only two months after the King’s death. Sydney was a British actor who made many screen appearances, including a supporting role in Walt Disney’s 1950 version of Treasure Island.
Eileen Herlie as Queen Gertrude. Gertrude, now married to Claudius, does not suspect foul play, and fears for the health of her son. Herlie was a Scottish-American actress, who went on to a play a recurring role in the TV series All My Children. Herlie’s role in Hamlet was secured by arrangement with Sir Alexander Korda, and she would repeat it in the 1964 Broadway production starring Richard Burton.
Laurence Olivier as Hamlet, Prince of Denmark and the voice of Hamlet’s father’s ghost. Hamlet is the conflicted son of the late King, who is now suspicious of his father’s death. Olivier, considered by many to be the greatest actor of the 20th century, had played this role twice on stage in 1937, at the Old Vic Theatre and later at Elsinore Castle, the actual setting of the play. This performance was the only one of his to win him an Academy Award for Best Actor, despite three prior nominations, and five subsequent ones. Olivier, however, did receive several Honorary Oscars.
Norman Wooland as Horatio. Horatio is Hamlet’s level-headed friend. Wooland was a German born British actor, who later played another companion to Olivier’s character in Richard III.
Felix Aylmer as Polonius, the Lord Chamberlain. Polonius is suspicious of Hamlet, and is convinced his insanity stems from the young prince’s love for his daughter, Ophelia. Aylmer had worked with Olivier on his Henry V, also alongside him in As You Like It.
Terence Morgan as Laertes, Polonius’ son. Laertes arrives in Denmark to discover his father killed by Hamlet and Ophelia, his sister, first driven mad and then to her own death. He vows vengeance against Hamlet. Morgan was a British actor, who joined the Old Vic company in 1948.
Jean Simmons as Ophelia. Ophelia is the daughter of Polonius, and is driven mad by his death, as well as by Hamlet’s rejection. Simmons’ performance in this film won her a nomination for Best Supporting Actress at that year’s Oscars. She went on to become a major Hollywood star, appearing in such hits as The Robe and Spartacus. Until her death she was the last surviving principal cast member (excluding extras).
Soldiers
John Laurie as Francisco. Francisco is a weary sentry, who is relieved by Bernardo at the beginning of the film and never reappears. John Laurie was a Scottish actor who appeared in all three of Olivier’s Shakespeare films. Laurie would go on to earn fame as the undertaker in the popular sitcom Dad’s Army.
Esmond Knight as Bernardo, or, as it is sometimes spelled, Barnardo. Bernardo is a sentry who is sent to relieve Francisco, however, in the process he sees the apparition of King Hamlet. He and Marcellus have seen it twice before, but have found it difficult to convince Horatio, until Horatio sees it himself. Esmond Knight was a British character actor who appeared in four of Olivier’s Shakespeare films, as well as his The Prince and the Showgirl. He also portrayed the orchestra conductor in the film The Red Shoes.
Anthony Quayle as Marcellus. Marcellus is a soldier stationed at Elsinore. He and Bernardo have already seen the ghost. Anthony Quayle was an English actor who would go onto a highly successful film career, appearing in such classics as The Guns of Navarone and Lawrence of Arabia.
Niall MacGinnis as ‘Sea Captain’. The Sea Captain (a character invented for the film) is the captain of the ship that Hamlet sets out on for England. The captain’s lines, though, are from the original play, where they are spoken by a sailor. MacGinnis was an Irish actor who made many screen appearances. He played Zeus in the 1963 film Jason and the Argonauts opposite Honor Blackman as Hera, and one of the four murderers in the film Becket.
Christopher Lee, who would go on to become a celebrated horror film actor in the series of Frankenstein and Dracula films made by Hammer Studios, has an uncredited role as a spear carrier. He has no spoken lines, and is known to today’s audiences as Saruman in Peter Jackson’s Lord of the Rings film trilogy and in the upcoming The Hobbit.
The play within the play
Harcourt Williams as the First Player. The First Player is enlisted by Hamlet to alter their play to mirror his suspicions about Claudius. Harcourt Williams had appeared in Olivier’s film ofHenry V prior to this.
Patrick Troughton as the Player King. The Player King enacts a mimed play that echoes Claudius’ treachery. Patrick Troughton was a British actor, who would go on to earn fame as theSecond Doctor in the popular series Doctor Who.
Tony Tarver as the Player Queen. The Player Queen plays the King’s wife onstage; in Olivier’s film she is a satire of Gertrude, intended to catch the conscience of Claudius. This was Tarver’s only screen appearance.
Servants to the court
Peter Cushing as Osric. Osric is a foppish courtier who referees the duel between Hamlet and Laertes. In later film versions of the play, such as the 1969 one with Nicol Williamson, Osric would be made more openly “swishy”. This was Cushing’s first major role. He would go on to become a prolific actor for Hammer Films, often alongside Christopher Lee, and earn mainstream fame for his performance as Grand Moff Tarkin in Star Wars. He would also play Sherlock Holmes in several films, notably the 1959 Hammer Films remake of The Hound of the Baskervilles.
Stanley Holloway as Gravedigger. (The second Gravedigger of the play is omitted.) The Gravedigger is digging Ophelia’s grave when Hamlet and Horatio come across him. Stanley Holloway was a British entertainer, who would later be most recognised for his role as Alfred P. Doolittle in both the original stage and 1964 film versions of My Fair Lady. Holloway’s portrayal is considered to be one of the best portrayals of the character to date and made him a very sought after Shakesperean actor. He was the paternal grandfather of Sophie Dahl.
Russell Thorndike as the Priest. The Priest leads the funeral ceremony for Ophelia. Russell Thorndike was the brother of Dame Sybil Thorndike.
Casting and filming
Eileen Herlie, who plays Hamlet’s mother, was 28 years old when the movie was filmed. Olivier, who plays her son, was 40.
Olivier played the voice of the Ghost himself by recording the dialogue and playing it back at a reduced speed, giving it a haunted, other-worldly quality. However, for many years it was assumed, even in film reference books, that John Gielgud had played the voice of the Ghost. Gielgud would go on to play this role in two later productions – the Richard Burton Hamlet and the 1970 telecast of the Richard Chamberlain one.
The film marked the only screen appearance of Jean Simmons in a Shakespearean role.
Cinematography
The cinematography, by Desmond Dickinson, makes use of the deep focus photography previously popularized in films directed by William Wyler and Orson Welles.
Music
The music was composed by William Walton and, next to his score for Olivier’s 1944 film Henry V, has become his most celebrated film score.
The movie was edited by Helga Cranston.
Critical reception
The film’s opening with Olivier’s voiceover of his own interpretation of the play, was criticised as reductive: “This is the tragedy of a man who could not make up his mind.”[6]
Olivier excised the “political” elements of the play (entirely cutting Fortinbras, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern) in favour of an intensely psychological performance, partly to save time. Olivier himself stated that “one great whacking cut had to be made”, and the cut he chose to make was the omission of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern.[7] This was not much criticized at first, but later critics did take more notice of it, especially after shorter productions of Hamlet that did not leave out these characters were presented on television. John Gielgud took much the same approach years later by also leaving out Rosencrantz, Guildenstern, and Fortinbras out of his 1951 radio production of the play, broadcast on the program Theatre Guild on the Air. Gielgud also followed the lead of Olivier’s film version by giving the final lines of the play to Horatio instead of to Fortinbras. [8]
Olivier also played up the Oedipal overtones of the play by having Hamlet kiss his mother lovingly on the lips several times during the film. Film scholar Jack Jorgens has commented that “Hamlet’s scenes with the Queen in her low-cut gowns are virtually love scenes.”[9] In contrast, Jean Simmons’ Ophelia is destroyed by Hamlet’s treatment of her in the nunnery scene.
According to J. Lawrence Guntner, the style of the film owes much to German Expressionism and to film noir: the cavernous sets featuring narrow winding stairwells correspond to the labyrinths of Hamlet’s psyche.[10]
Awards and honors
The 1948 Hamlet was the only film in which the leading actor has directed himself to an Oscar-winning performance, until 1998, when Roberto Benigni directed himself to an Oscar in Life Is Beautiful. Olivier is also the only actor to win an Oscar for a Shakespearean role. Hamlet is the only film to have won both the Golden Lion and the Academy Award for Best Picture. It is also the first foreign film to win the Best Picture Academy Award, the second being Slumdog Millionaire. (Technically however, there is no Best Foreign Film Oscar, but rather a Best Foreign Language Film one.)
1948 - Venice Film Festival - Great International Prize of Venice (winner)
1949 - BAFTA Award - Best Film From Any Source (winner)
1949 - BAFTA Award - Best British Film (nominee)
1949 - Bodil Awards - Best European Film (winner)
1949 - Golden Globe Award - Best Motion Picture – Foreign (winner)
1949 - Golden Globe Award - Best Actor (Laurence Olivier) (winner)
Influence
In the past, the 1948 film was often considered the definitive cinematic rendition of Hamlet. Over the years, however, it has lost some of its status, especially in comparison to Olivier’s versions of Henry V and Richard III.[12] This is primarily because Olivier, according to some critics,[13] overemphasized Hamlet’s Oedipal fixation on his mother, and because Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, two of the most important supporting characters in the play, were completely omitted from this film version, robbing the film of what could have been some of its best comedic moments. (The fact that Rosencrantz and Guildernstern had been included in the 1969 Nicol Williamson - Tony Richardson Hamlet and the 1990 Mel Gibson - Franco Zeffirelli version, both of which are shorter than Olivier’s, did not help Olivier’s rationale[14] that the play needed such drastic cuts to work on screen). In contrast, Kenneth Branagh’s 1996 film version of the completeHamlet included everything that Olivier had omitted.
Pauline Kael has asserted that
“even if you feel that certain scenes should be done differently, when has the rest of the play been done so well? Whatever the omissions, the mutilations, the mistakes, this is very likely the most exciting and most alive production of Hamlet you will ever see on the screen. It’s never dull, and if characters such as Fortinbras and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern have been sacrificed, it’s remarkable how little they are missed.”[15]
In fact Time magazine wrote in 1948:-
“A man who can do what Laurence Olivier is doing for Shakespeare is certainly among the more valuable men of his time.”[16] This opinion, of course, was expressed at a time when Olivier was the only actor-director continually making Shakespearean films. Other directors would generally avoid making them.
Television debut
Hamlet was the second of Olivier’s Shakespeare films to be telecast on American commercial network television – the first was Richard III, which was given an afternoon rather than a prime-time showing on NBC the same day that it premiered in movie theatres in the U.S. The American Broadcasting Company gave the Olivier Hamlet a prime time showing in December 1956 but, like many theatrical films shown on television during that era, it was split into two 90-minute halves and telecast over a period of two weeks, rather than being shown complete on one evening. Only a month previously, MGM’s 1939 film The Wizard of Oz had had its first television showing – on CBS – and, unlike Hamlet, had been shown complete in one evening.
Home media
In North America, Olivier’s Hamlet has been released on DVD as part of the Criterion Collection, which has also released his film versions of Henry V and Richard III on DVD. In Region 2 territories, the film has been released on Blu-Ray Disc, however this release is region-locked, meaning it will not play in players outside of Region B, unless you have a region free player, modified by a hardware kit or load a new firmware. OPPO’s BDP-83 has that potential capability, but is no longer manufactured.
Notes
Robertson, Patrick. The Guinness Book of Almost Everything You Didn’t Need to Know About the Movies. Great Britain: Guinness Superlatives Ltd., Enfield, Middlesex, 1986. ISBN 0-85112-481-X , p. 40
Summary
The master of suspense is at the top of his game here, in this vintage Hitchcock thriller. A flawless British classic.
The Lady Vanishes is a 1938 British thriller film directed by Alfred Hitchcock and adapted by Sidney Gilliat and Frank Launder from the 1936 novel The Wheel Spins by Ethel Lina White.[1] It stars Margaret Lockwood, Michael Redgrave, Paul Lukas and Dame May Whitty, and features Cecil Parker, Linden Travers, Naunton Wayne, Basil Radford, Mary Clare, Googie Withers, Catherine Lacey and Sally Stewart.
The Lady Vanishes is Hitchcock’s penultimate film made in the UK before his move to Hollywood–1939′s Jamaica Inn followed it.[2][3] It was the great success of The Lady Vanishes, after a slump of three films that were not hits,[4] that made it possible for Hitchcock to negotiate a very good deal to work in the States.[5] A remake, also entitled The Lady Vanishes, was made in 1979.
Plot
In Bandrika, a fictional country in an “uncivilised” region of immediately pre-World War II Central Europe,[6] a motley group of travellers eager to return to England is delayed by an avalanche that has blocked the railway tracks. Among the train’s passengers are Gilbert (Michael Redgrave), a young musicologist who has been studying the folk songs of the region, Iris (Margaret Lockwood), a young woman of independent means who has spent a holiday with some friends, but is now returning home to get married, and Miss Froy (May Whitty), an elderly lady who has worked some years abroad as a governess.
When the train resumes its journey, Iris and Miss Froy become acquainted, while the remaining passengers in the compartment appear not to understand a word of English. Iris lapses into unconsciousness, the result of an earlier encounter with a falling flowerpot meant for Miss Froy. When Iris reawakens, the governess has vanished, and she is shocked to learn that the other passengers claim Miss Froy never existed. The other English travellers deny ever seeing her, for their own reasons.
Fellow passenger Doctor Egon Hartz (Paul Lukas) convinces everyone that Iris must have hallucinated the scene with the old lady because of the blow to her head. Undaunted, Iris starts to investigate, joined only by a skeptical Gilbert, with whom she eventually falls in love. They discover that Miss Froy is being held prisoner in a sealed-off compartment supposedly occupied by a seriously ill patient being transported to an operation. They manage to free her, but the train is diverted to a side track, where a shootout ensues. Miss Froy intimates to Gilbert and Iris that she is in fact a British spy assigned to deliver some vital information (the famous Hitchcock MacGuffin) to the Foreign Office in London; after entrusting her message, encoded in a folk song—sung earlier by a balladeer, who is strangled in the first violence of the film[7] – to Gilbert, she flees under cover of the shootout.
After managing to restart the train and escape, Gilbert and Iris return to London. At the Foreign Office, Gilbert, driven to joyful distraction when Iris accepts his marriage proposal, forgets the tune. Just as it appears the message has been lost, the coded folk song is heard in the background. Fortunately, Miss Froy had been able to escape, and is revealed playing the song on a piano.
Adaptation
The plot of Hitchcock’s film differs considerably from White’s novel. In The Wheel Spins, Miss Froy really is an innocent old lady looking forward to seeing her octogenarian parents; she is abducted because she knows something (without realising its significance) that would cause trouble for the local authorities if it came out. Iris’ mental confusion is due to sunstroke, not a blow to the head. In White’s novel, the wheel keeps spinning: the train never stops, and there is no final shootout. Additionally, the supporting cast of English people differs somewhat between the novel and the film; for instance, in the novel, the Gilbert character is Max Hare, a young English engineer (described as “untidy and with a rebellious tuft of hair”, and in a similarly chirpy vein to Gilbert) building a dam in the hills who knows the local language, and there is also a modern-languages professor character who acts as Iris’s and Max’s interpreter who does not appear in the film. The characters Charters and Caldicott were created for the film, and do not appear in the novel.
The story was used again in the series Alfred Hitchcock Presents, in the episode “Into Thin Air”. Several themes of the movie (person vanishing from a moving vehicle, dizzy woman as only witness, writing on the window as proof, etc.) reappear in the 2005 thriller Flightplan starring Jodie Foster.
Margaret Lockwood as Iris Henderson
Michael Redgrave as Gilbert
Paul Lukas as Dr Hartz
May Whitty as Miss Froy
Cecil Parker as Mr Todhunter
Linden Travers as Mrs Todhunter
Naunton Wayne as Caldicott
Cast notes
Alfred Hitchcock can be seen at Victoria Station, wearing a black coat and smoking a cigarette, near the end of the film.[8]
he film is the first appearance of the comedy double-act Charters and Caldicott (played by Naunton Wayne and Basil Radford). The first of these characters’ many recurrences is in Night Train to Munich.
Production
The Lady Vanishes was originally called The Lost Lady, and young American director Roy William Neill was assigned by producer Edward Black to make it. A crew was dispatched toYugoslavia to do background shots, but when the Yugoslav police accidentally discovered that they were not well-portrayed in the script, they kicked the crew out of the country, and Black scrapped the project. A year later, Hitchcock could not come up with a property to direct to fulfill his contract with Black, so he accepted when Black offered The Lost Lady to him. Hitchcock worked with the writers to make some changes to tighten up the opening and ending of the story, but otherwise the script did not change much.[5]
At first, Hitchcock considered Lilli Palmer for the female lead, but went instead with Margaret Lockwood, who was at the time relatively unknown. Lockwood was attracted to the heroines ofEthel Lina White’s stories, and accepted the role. Michael Redgrave was also unknown to the cinema audience, but was a rising stage star at the time. He was reluctant to leave the stage to do the film, but was convinced by John Gielgud to do so. As it happened, the film, Redgrave’s first leading role, made him an international star.[5]
The film, which was shot at studios in Islington[9] and Shepherd’s Bush, and on location in Hampshire, including at Longmoor Military Camp,[10] was the first to be made under an agreement between Gaumont-British and MGM, in which Gaumont provided MGM with some of their Gainsborough films for release in the UK, for which MGM would pay half the production costs if MGM decided to release the film in the US. In the case of The Lady Vanishes, however, 20th Century-Fox did the American release.[11]
Response
When The Lady Vanishes opened in the UK it was an immediate hit, becoming the most successful British film to that date. It was also very successful when it opened in New York.[5]
Awards and honours
The film was named “Best Picture of 1938″ by the New York Times,[5] and Alfred Hitchcock received the 1939 New York Film Critics Circle Award for “Best Director”.[5][12][13]
Notes
This novel was serialised in six weekly 15 minute parts, read by Brenda Blethyn , from 7 March 2008 on BBC Radio 2 .
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Raila Odinga, aged 68, is the current Prime Minister of which country ? | Raila Odinga News | Quotes | Wiki - UPI.com
Raila Odinga News
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Wiki
Raila Amollo Odinga (born January 7, 1945), also popularly known to Kenyans as Agwambo, is a Kenyan politician, currently serving as the Prime Minister of Kenya in a coalition government. He has served as a Member of Parliament for Langata since 1992, was Minister of Energy from 2001 to 2002, and was Minister of Roads, Public Works and Housing from 2003 to 2005. He was the main opposition candidate in the disputed 2007 presidential election. Following a post-electoral crisis that resulted in the deaths of 1,500 people and the displacement of 600,000 more, Odinga took office as Prime Minister and served as a supervisor of a national unity coalition government, in April 2008.
Odinga is the son of the first Vice President of Kenya, Jaramogi Oginga Odinga; Raila's brother, Oburu Odinga, is also currently a Member of Parliament (MP). Raila is commonly known by his first name due to coincidence: he was an MP at the same time as his father between 1992 and 1994, and is currently in the House with Oburu. Raila was a presidential contender in the 1997 elections, coming third after President Daniel arap Moi of KANU and Mwai Kibaki, the current president of Kenya and then a member of the Democratic Party. Odinga campaigned to run for president in the December 2007 elections on an Orange Democratic Movement (ODM) ticket.
On September 1, 2007, Raila Odinga was elected as the presidential candidate of the ODM. He garnered significant support in the 2007 General Election, with majority of the votes in Rift Valley, Western, his native Nyanza, Coast, Nairobi (Capital) and North Eastern provinces. Kibaki led in his native Central province and beat Raila in Eastern province. Out of the 2007 elections, his party, ODM, got 99 out of 210 seats in the parliament, making the ODM the single largest party in parliament.
This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License .
It uses material from the Wikipedia article " Raila Odinga ."
Quotes
| Kenya |
In the Harry Potter books, what is the name of the character described as a slim, blond haired pale boy who is arrogant about his skill at Quidditch ? He was played by actor Tom Felton in all the Harry Potter films. | Raila Odinga writes to Uhuru Kenyatta ▷ Tuko.co.ke
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- Raila Odinga has written to Uhuru Kenyatta seeking a dialogue on the way forward regarding the opposition's calls to have the IEBC disbanded
- He said he and the opposition have a number of issues they want discussed before the country heads into the next General Election
- The opposition has been claiming the electoral body has a pan with Uhuru's government to rig the presidential elections in 2017
Raila Odinga has written to Uhuru Kenyatta requesting for a meeting in which he wants the opposition to discuss issues around the Independent Elections and Bounderies Commission (IEBC).
READ ALSO: Raila’s statement on ‘nusu mkate’ claims and anti-IEBC demos
The opposition leader said on Tuesday, May 10, that they have a series of issues they want resolved before the next General Election.
This comes a day after opposition politicians and their supporters engaged police in running battles in Nairobi and Kisumu town.
READ ALSO: Youngest Senator admits to lying about his age
This was part of the countrywide protests aimed at compelling the IEBC officials out of office.
READ ALSO: Read Raila’s statement on why he is leading a march to the IEBC offices again
In previous statements, Uhuru Kenyatta has accused the opposition of trying to use illegal means of removing IEBC commissioners.
He asked them to follow the law, which is going through parliament, to have the commission disbanded but Raila Odinga will hear non of that.
At the press conference, Raila Odinga displayed bullet cartridges that were apparently used on Monday, May 9, during the demonstration in Nairobi against the IEBC.
Raila urged his supporters not to give up until the current IEBC commissioners are out of office.
READ ALSO: ODM governor takes off from funeral ceremony following Namwamba lecture
The former prime minister reiterated that CORD would continue with the nationwide anti-IEBC demonstrations until their demands are met.
On the legality of the anti-IEBC demonstrations, Raila maintained that the coalition was within the law to hold such protests.
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Which snooler player recently won the Welsh Open held in Newport ? | Welsh Open snooker tournament to leave Newport Centre - BBC News
BBC News
Welsh Open snooker tournament to leave Newport Centre
17 January 2014
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Image copyright VT Freeze Frame
Image caption The contest has taken place in Newport several times in the last 10 years
Next month's Welsh Open will be the last to be held in Newport, says Barry Hearn, chairman of World Snooker,
He said he wanted to drive the tournament forward and look at new venues, potentially in Cardiff, to give spectators a better experience.
Mr Hearn said he was not criticising Newport, but it was time to upgrade the tournament into a major event.
The council said it recognised that a larger venue may be needed as the tournament had grown over the years.
Mr Hearn said the contest has been held there for several years, but this would be the last year.
'Better treatment'
It's time to upgrade the Welsh Open into the major event, I believe, it can be
Barry Hearn, Chairman, Welsh Snooker
"I want to take a fresh look at all of our venues and I want to make sure I am dealing with the right people, and that I can offer customers who buy a ticket a better experience for their hard earned cash," he said.
"And I can give the players better treatment and I can create better events.
"I would love to see it in Cardiff and I have instructed our people to have discussions with various venues in Cardiff.
"I am not criticising Newport. Please don't misunderstand that, we have been there for many years.
"It's time to upgrade the Welsh Open into the major event, I believe, it can be."
'Great champions'
We are pleased to hear that World Snooker is looking to develop and grow the Wales Open further and acknowledge that this may require a larger venue.
Statement, Newport council
Former World Champion and snooker coach Terry Griffiths told BBC Radio Wales the tournament had enjoyed many good years in Newport.
"It's slightly disappointing as we have got so many good memories from the Newport Centre," he said.
"All of the great champions have been there."
Next month's tournament which begins on 19 February will play host to 128 players from around the world.
It will give up-and-coming players the chance to take on established stars like Ronnie O'Sullivan and defending champion Stephen Maguire, in the opening round.
'Fantastic atmosphere'
Newport council said it looked forward to welcoming an increased number of players to this year's competition.
It said: "We are pleased to hear that World Snooker is looking to develop and grow the Wales Open further and acknowledge that this may require a larger venue.
"Players and spectators have praised the fantastic atmosphere at the Newport Centre.
"We have enjoyed our partnership with the organisation and would be happy to work with them again in the future."
| Stephen Maguire |
Which snooker player recently won the Haiko World Open in China ? | Snooker: Welsh Open move is 'a step forward' - Terry Griffiths - BBC Sport
Snooker: Welsh Open move is 'a step forward' - Terry Griffiths
27 Jun 2014
From the section Wales
The Welsh Open will be held in Cardiff for the first time in a decade
Former world champion Terry Griffiths said shifting the Welsh Open from Newport to Cardiff is "a move forward."
World Snooker chairman Barry Hearn announced on Thursday that the event will move from the Newport Centre to the Motorpoint Arena , starting in 2015.
Griffiths said: "I feel the capital city is a more attractive venue for some people, especially if you're travelling and staying in hotels.
"So I think it's a move forward by Barry Hearn."
Griffiths, who won the world championship in 1979, said Newport has been "very good to snooker" over the years, but no competition stays at the same venue forever.
Terry Griffiths
Born in Llanelli on 16 October 1946, Griffiths turned professional in 1978 and won the World Championship in 1979.
Griffiths retired in 1997 after losing to Mark Williams in the first round at the Crucible.
Received an OBE in 2009.
Griffiths has coached world champions including Stephen Hendry and Mark Williams and has also worked with Stephen Maguire, Ali Carter, Mark Allen and Marco Fu, Barry Hawkins and Mark Davis.
"You've had the Crucible, there's talk about moving away from there and that's been a great event. The Masters moved from Wembley up to Alexandra Palace, so it's not the first time and I don't think it's anything to do with Newport."
The Welsh Open was last played in Cardiff in 2004 and Griffiths told BBC Radio Wales Sport he expects the crowds to grow with the move.
He said the new home means there are better train links and a better choice of restaurants and hotels for fans and players alike.
"Cardiff has got more facilities closer to the venue than Newport has, but there's been a lot of good times in Newport, irrespective of what Ronnie O'Sullivan [who said he likes playing in Newport] thinks, Barry Hearn makes the decisions now," added Griffiths.
"He bought-in to the game and he makes all the major decisions, so wherever he says they go, they go."
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Jean Valjean is the central character of which famous novel published in 1862 ? | Jean Valjean | fictional character | Britannica.com
Jean Valjean
fictional character
THIS ARTICLE IS A STUB. You can learn more about this topic in the related articles below.
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Jean Valjean, fictional character, the fugitive protagonist of Victor Hugo ’s sweeping novel Les Misérables (1862).
Learn More in these related articles:
Victor Hugo (French writer)
February 26, 1802 Besançon, France May 22, 1885 Paris poet, novelist, and dramatist who was the most important of the French Romantic writers. Though regarded in France as one of that country’s greatest poets, he is better known abroad for such novels as Notre-Dame de Paris (1831) and...
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Date Published: February 15, 2011
URL: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jean-Valjean
Access Date: January 19, 2017
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| Les Misérables |
What two word term is used to describe the music craze of the 1970s that contained many different acts that included amongst others T Rex, The Sweet, David Bowie abd Roxy Music ? | Hugo vs. Valjean
"Sitting on the ground like the rest, he seemed to comprehend nothing of his position, except its horror: probably there was mingled with the vague ideas of a poor ignorant man a notion that there was something excessive in the penalty."
--Les Miserables, Fantine, Book 2
"Nineteen years" is a common theme of Les Miserables. It is interesting to note what this time period means for the main character of the novel, Jean Valjean, and also for the novel's author, Victor Hugo. Jean Valjean was imprisoned for nineteen years for stealing a loaf of bread and then subsequently attempting to escape from prison. Victor Hugo was exiled from Paris for nineteen years for involvement in a revolution after the coup d'etat of 1851.
Thus the question is raised? How much of Victor Hugo is in Jean Valjean? As far as the issue of imprisonment goes, it is not unreasonable to say that Jean Valjean's experience is congruent to the exile Hugo endured: "For Paris is a sum total. Paris is the ceiling of the human race." (Les Miserables, Marius, Book 1) Thus, exile to Hugo was like prison, and the cruelties bestowed on Valjean are possibly his personal outrage regarding his exile; venting his feelings towards the political system that forced him from his beloved Paris.
An image Jean Valjean from Les Mis�rables on-line text edition ; first published in 1862; by Thomas Y. Cromwell & Co.
Photograph of Victor Hugo from Hugoweb .
There are physical similarities between the character of Jean Valjean (shown right) and Hugo (left). Both have a rather puritanical style of dress, though these dark garbs might also be seen as very bourgeois. Besides that, they are both about the same age, have nearly the same hairstyle and the features of their faces are similar: note the shape of the nose, the length of the forehead, the shape of his mouth. Is it possible that the artist based his model of Valjean on the author himself? It seems likely, and perhaps this helps to serve the correlation between the two mentioned above, as it shows others saw a strong resemblance between author and creation.
This page was created by M. Childs
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Which part of the human body is affected by Menier's Disease ? | Ménière disease: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia
Ringing or roaring in the affected ear, called tinnitus
Vertigo, or dizziness
Severe vertigo is the symptom that causes the most problems. With vertigo, you feel as though you are spinning or moving, or that the world is spinning around you.
Nausea, vomiting, and sweating often occur.
Symptoms get worse with sudden movement.
Often, you will need to lie down.
You may feel dizzy and off-balance for anywhere from 20 minutes to 24 hours.
Hearing loss is often only in one ear, but it may affect both ears.
Hearing tends to improve between attacks, but gets worse over time.
Low frequency hearing is lost first.
You also may have roaring or ringing in the ear (tinnitus), along with a sense of pressure in your ear
Other symptoms include:
Exams and Tests
A brain and nervous system exam may show problems with hearing, balance, or eye movement.
A hearing test will show the hearing loss that occurs with Ménière disease. Hearing may be near normal after an attack.
A caloric stimulation test checks your eye reflexes by warming and cooling the inner ear with water. Test results that are not in the normal range can be a sign of Ménière disease.
These tests may also be done to check for other causes of vertigo:
Electrocochleography (ECOG)
Head MRI scan
Treatment
There is no known cure for Ménière disease. However, lifestyle changes and some treatments can help relieve symptoms.
Your health care provider may suggest ways to reduce the amount of fluid in your body. This can often help control symptoms.
Water pills (diuretics) may help relieve fluid pressure in the inner ear
A low-salt diet may also help
To help ease symptoms and stay safe:
Avoid sudden movements, which may worsen symptoms. You may need help walking during attacks.
Avoid bright lights, TV, and reading during attacks. They can make symptoms worse.
Do not drive, operate heavy machinery, or climb until 1 week after your symptoms disappear. A sudden dizzy spell during these activities can be dangerous.
Remain still and rest when you have symptoms.
Gradually increase your activity after attacks.
Symptoms of Ménière disease can cause stress. Make healthy lifestyle choices to help you cope:
Eat a well-balanced, healthy diet. Don't overeat.
Exercise regularly, if possible.
Your provider may prescribe:
Antinausea medicines to relieve nausea and vomiting
Diazepam (Valium) or motion sickness medicines, such as meclizine (Antivert, Bonine, Dramamine) to relieve dizziness and vertigo
You may need ear surgery if your symptoms are severe and do not respond to other treatments.
Surgery to cut the vestibular nerve helps control vertigo. It does not damage hearing.
Injecting steroids or an antibiotic called gentamicin directly into the middle ear can help control vertigo.
Removing part of the inner ear (labyrinthectomy) helps treat vertigo. This causes complete hearing loss.
Hearing aids may be needed for severe hearing loss.
Outlook (Prognosis)
Ménière disease can often be controlled with treatment. Or, the condition may get better on its own. In some cases, Ménière disease can be (long-term) chronic or disabling.
When to Contact a Medical Professional
Call your provider if you have symptoms of Ménière disease, or if symptoms get worse. These include hearing loss, ringing in the ears, or dizziness.
Prevention
You can't prevent Ménière disease. Treating early symptoms right away may help prevent the condition from getting worse. Treating an ear infection and other related disorders may be helpful.
Alternative Names
Hydrops; Hearing loss; Endolymphatic hydrops; Dizziness - Ménière disease; Vertigo - Ménière disease; Hearing loss - Ménière disease; Dizziness - Ménière disease
Images
Tympanic membrane
References
Chang AK, Olshaker JS. Dizziness and vertigo. In: Marx JA, Hockberger RS, Walls RM, et al, eds. Rosen's Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice. 8th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Mosby; 2014:chap 19.
Crane BT, Minor LB. Peripheral vestibular disorders. In: Flint PW, Haughey BH, Lund V, et al, eds. Cummings Otolaryngology: Head & Neck Surgery. 6th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Mosby; 2015:chap 165.
Ruckenstein MJ, ed. Ménière's Disease; Evidence and Outcomes. San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing; 2010.
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What six letter word is used to describe a fish's tail fin located at the end of its body and used for propulsion ? | Meniere's Disease | American Hearing Research Foundation
Figure 1. Normal inner ear.
What is Meniere’s Disease ?
In 1861, the French physician Prosper Meniere described a condition which now bears his name. Meniere’s disease is a disorder of the inner ear that causes episodes of vertigo, ringing in the ears (tinnitus), a feeling of fullness or pressure in the ear, and fluctuating hearing loss. In Figure 1, the area of the ear affected is the entire labyrinth, which includes both the semicircular canals and the cochlea.
What are the Symptoms of Meniere’s Disease?
A typical attack of Meniere’s disease is preceded by fullness in one ear. Hearing fluctuation or changes in tinnitus may also precede an attack. A Meniere’s episode generally involves severe vertigo (spinning), imbalance, nausea and vomiting. The average attack lasts two to four hours. Following a severe attack, most people find that they are exhausted and must sleep for several hours. There is a large amount of variability in the duration of symptoms. Some people experience brief “shocks,” and others have constant unsteadiness. The majority of people with Meniere’s disease are over 40 years of age, with equal distribution between males and females.
A particularly disabling symptom is a sudden fall that may occur without warning. These are called otolithic crisis of Tumarkin, from the original description of Tumarkin (1936). These are attributed to sudden mechanical deformation of the otolith organs (utricle and saccule), causing a sudden activation of vestibular reflexes. Patients suddenly feel that they are tilted or falling (although they may be straight), and bring about much of the rapid repositioning themselves. This is a very disabling symptom as it occurs without warning and can result in severe injury. Often destructive treatment (for example labyrinthectomy or vestibular nerve section) is the only way to manage this problem. See here for more information about drop attacks.
Meniere’s episodes may occur in clusters; that is, several attacks may occur within a short period of time. However, years may pass between episodes. Between the acute attacks, most people are free of symptoms or note mild imbalance and tinnitus .
Meniere’s disease usually starts confined to one ear but it often extends to involve both ears over time so that after 30 years, 50% of patients with Meniere’s have bilateral disease (Stahle et al, 1991). There is some controversy about this statistic however; some authors suggest that the prevalence of bilaterality is as low as 17% (Silverstein, 1992). We suspect that this lower statistic is due to a lower duration of follow-up and that the 50% figure is more likely to be correct. Other possibilities, however, are selection bias and different patterns of the disease in different countries. Silverstein suggested that 75% of persons destined to become bilateral do so within five years.
In most cases, a progressive hearing loss occurs in the affected ear(s). A low-frequency sensorineural pattern is commonly found initially, but as time goes on, it usually changes into either a flat loss or a peaked pattern (click here for more information about hearing testing ). Although an acute attack can be incapacitating, the disease itself is not fatal.
Migraines occur more frequently in patients with Meniere’s disease (Ibekwe, 2008). Meniere’s patients who have associated migraines are reported to have an earlier age of disease onset and a higher rate of family history, suggesting a genetic component (Cha, 2007).
How Common is Meniere’s Disease?
Meniere’s disease affects roughly 0.2% of the population. Interestingly, the Framingham study found that 2% of the population of the United States believe they have Meniere’s disease, suggesting that there is considerable chance of misdiagnosis.
What Causes Meniere’s Disease?
Figure 2a: Normal membranous labyrinth
2b. Dilated membranous labyrinth in Meniere’s disease (Hydrops)
An acute attack of Meniere’s disease is generally believed to result from fluctuating pressure of the fluid within the inner ear. This is called “hydrops”. A system of membranes, called the membranous labyrinth, contains a fluid called endolymph. The membranes can become dilated like a balloon when pressure increases. One way for this to happen is when the drainage system, called the endolymphatic duct or sac is blocked. In some cases, the endolymphatic duct may be obstructed by scar tissue, or may be narrow from birth. In some cases there may be too much fluid secreted by the stria vascularis. Recently, some have pointed out that this “central hypothesis” of Meniere’s is questionable, as many normal people without Meniere’s have evidence of increased pressure in the inner ear too.
Abnormally enlarged fluid pathways into the ear, such as the vestibular aqueduct or cochlear aqueduct, may also be associated with Meniere’s-like symptoms, but recent evidence is against a relationship between the cochlear aqueduct and Meniere’s disease. In a review of literature, Ciuman (2009) stated that the endolymphatic sac in those with enlarged vestibular aqueduct was thin, whereas it was fibrous in those with Meniere’s.
Recently, attention has been mainly focused on the immunologic function of the endolymphatic sac; thus, immune disease may contribute to a substantial percentage of Meniere’s disease.
Reports of Meniere’s disease associated with thyroid autoimmune disease (Greco et al., 2012; Fattori, 2008), allergies (Banks et al., 2012; Derebery and Berliner, 2010; Derebery, 2007) and elevated levels of immune complexes and activated lymphocytes (Gazquez et al., 2011; Dereberry, 2007; Savastano, 2007) suggest an aberrant immune response may be to blame. Other authors have studied the association of viral infection with the development of Meniere’s, but results have been conflicting (Gartner, 2008; Guyot, 2008; Pyykko, 2008).
Genetics appear to play a role in some patients. Several authors have reported linkage of Meniere’s disease to specific genes in some families, but this remains to be proven (Vrabec, 2008; Klockars, 2007; Lopez-Escarrez, 2007). Recently, the the HLA-Cw allele was found to much higher in Meniere’s patients than controls (Khorsandi et al., 2011).
Franz (2007) suggested a link between Meniere’s disease and joint disease of the jaw (temporomandibular joint), the cervical spine, Eustachian tube dysfunction, and autonomic nervous system dysfunction.
For the most part, the underlying cause of Meniere’s disease is unknown. It is most often attributed to viral infections of the inner ear, head injury, a hereditary predisposition, and allergy.
Meniere’s disease can cause hair cell death, as well as mechanical changes to the ear.
Hair Cell Death
The periodic admixture of perilymph and endolymph often kills hair cells in the inner ear. This is a gradual process over years, but frequently resulting in unilateral functional deafness. Cochlear (hearing) hair cells are the most sensitive. Vestibular (motion sensing) hair cells seem more resilient but there is also a slow decline in the caloric response in the diseased ear over roughly 15 years (Stahle et al, 1991).
Mechanical Changes
Mechanical disruption of the inner ear is also likely, with dilation of the utricle and saccule of the ear being a well-known pathological finding. The saccule may dilate so that, in later stages, it is adherent to the underside of the stapes footplate. This mechanical disruption and distortion of normal inner ear structures may result in the gradual onset of a chronic unsteadiness, even when patients are not having attacks. The periodic dilation and shrinkage of the utricle is also a reasonable explanation for periodic attacks of another inner ear disorder, BPPV. Finally, it also seems likely that there may be a rupture of the suspensory system for the membranous labyrinth. This might create some mechanical instability of the utricle and saccule and consequently some chronic unsteadiness.
There is presently no evidence that Meniere’s disease kills the cochleovestibular nerve (Kitamura et al, 1997). Although a recent study showed significant neural deterioration in a guinea pig model of endolymphatic hydrops, a hallmark of Meniere’s (Megerian, 2005).
How is Meniere’s Disease Diagnosed?
Diagnosis is based on a combination of the right set of symptoms (usually episodic dizziness and hearing disturbance); hearing tests, which document that hearing is reduced after an attack, and then gets better; and exclusion of alternative causes. The differential diagnosis is broad and includes perilymph fistula , recurrent labyrinthitis , migraine , congenital ear malformations of many kinds , syphilis, tumors, Multiple Sclerosis, etc. The process of diagnosis usually includes hearing testing ( audiometry ), an ENG test , several blood tests (ANA, FTA), and an MRI scan of the head. Electrocochleography (ECOG) is helpful in difficult cases.
Hearing tests often begin with showing a fluctuating low-frequency sensorineural hearing loss. Over years, this gradually progresses to a “peaked” pattern with both low- and high-tone reduction, and finally a “flat” pattern, typically 50 db loss (110 db would be completely deaf). While some people have hearing that fluctuates like this without any further symptoms of dizziness or tinnitus, in most cases, this does not progress to Meniere’s disease (Schaaf et al, 2001). A recent study examined the relationship between hearing fluctuation and vertigo attacks (Neill et al., 2010). The studies concluded that hearing fluctuation often occurs indepentantly of vertiginous episodes.
How is Meniere’s Disease Treated?
At the present time there is no cure for Meniere’s disease, but there are ways to manage the condition and help you control symptoms. Treatment for Meniere’s disease falls into the following categories:
Medication
Homeopathic treatments, such as VertigoHeel
Antiviral therapy (such as Acyclovir)
intratympanic dexamethasone
How Do I Manage an Attack of Meniere’s disease?
During an acute attack, lay down on a firm surface. Stay as motionless as possible, with your eyes open and fixed on a stationary object. Do not try to drink or sip water, as you would be very likely to vomit. Stay like this until the severe vertigo (spinning) passes, then get up SLOWLY. After the attack subsides, you will probably feel very tired and need to sleep for several hours.
If vomiting persists and you are unable to take fluids for longer than 24 hours (12 hours for children), contact your doctor. He or she can prescribe nausea medication, and/or vestibular suppressant medication. Your doctor may wish to see you. Antivert and Ativan are commonly used vestibular suppressant medications and Compazine or Phenergan are commonly used medications for nausea.
What Can be Done to Reduce the Symptoms of Meniere’s disease?
Between attacks, medication may be prescribed to help regulate the fluid pressure in your inner ear, thereby reducing the severity and frequency of the Meniere’s episodes. Dyazide is the most common medication for this purpose. Neptazine can be used when response to Dyazide isn’t good enough. Verapamil (typical dose: 120 SR) sometimes reduces the frequency of attacks. Some physicians prescribe Histamine injections. Prednisone or other steroids (for example Decadron) are occasionally helpful in short bursts. Vestibular suppressants such as Antivert (meclizine) or Klonazepam are used on an as-needed basis.
There are a number of new medications that do not have much of a track record that can be tried under the supervision of your doctor. There also some unusual medications which are either considered “alternative” or which are available only outside the United States which might be worth considering.
The hydrops diet regimen will probably be recommended (see following). This is an important part of treatment for virtually all patients with Meniere’s disease. Experience has show that STRICT adherence to this dietary regimen will result in significant improvement in most patients.
The purpose of treatment between attacks is to prevent or reduce the number of episodes, and to decrease the chances of further hearing loss. A permanent tinnitus (ringing in the ears) or a progressive hearing loss may be the consequence of long-term Meniere’s disease. Hearing aids may be necessary.
Noninvasive Pressure Pulse Generator (Meniett Device)
The Meniett device, manufactured by Medtronic (R), is a noninvasive treatment option that works by sending small pulses of pressure into the ear canal. It is thought that this reduces symptoms of Meniere’s disease by eliminating excess endolymphatic fluid within the ear. The Meniett device is used at home, typically three times per day, five minutes at a time. Authors have reported that the majority of patients (about 70 percent) report significant improvement in symptoms with the use of the Meniett device (Shojaku et al., 2011; Watanabe et al., 2011; Mattox, 2008; Barbara, 2007; Gates, 2006).
Surgery and Destructive Treatments of Meniere’s Disease
In extremely severe cases, treatments that deaden the inner ear such as gentamicin injections or surgery may be considered. This is a last resort for persons who have severe attacks which are disabling. At present, we favor gentamicin for most instances where destructive treatments are being considered. Injections of gentamicin are given through the ear drum, through a small hole or through a small tube. This procedure allows the doctor to treat one side alone, without affecting the other. Typically, about four injections are given over a period of one month. Some authors have reported improvements in 60 to 90 percent of patients with gentamicin (Driscoll et al., 2009; Bodmer, 2007; Boleas-Aguirre, 2007; Chung, 2007), and Chung reported equally effective results with a single injection compared to multiple injections (Chung, 2007). Dizziness may reoccur one year later, requiring another series. Gentamicin injection can also result in hearing loss (Silvertein 2009; Colletti, 2007).
Although intratympanic steroids injections have also been recently used to treat Meniere’s disease by Shea, the present consensus is that treatment has not yet been clearly proven to be effective or to have a reasonable scientific basis. Some studies suggest that it is no better than placebo (Silverstein et al, 1998).
Alternatively, a surgical treatment is used in which the vestibular nerve is clipped. This operation, called a vestibular neurectomy or vestibular nerve section is very effective in eliminating vertigo (Li, 2008). While very effective, this procedure, especially the hearing-sparing variant, is presently generally felt to be of much higher risk than gentamicin injection. We presently do not recommend vestibular nerve section for Meniere’s disease, except in situations where gentamicin injection has failed.
Another operation, called a labyrinthectomy, is recommended in persons who have lost all usable hearing or in whom vestibular nerve section is considered too dangerous. Again, this procedure seems most applicable to situations where gentamicin has failed.
A third operation, the endolymphatic shunt procedure, is used by some doctors to relieve pressure in the inner ear (Derebery et al., 2010; Brinson, 2007). Unfortunately, while the shunt would seem to be a logical thing to do, in most studies, the shunt procedure does not appear to be better than doing nothing (Silverstein and Rosenberg, 1992). This may be because the shunt can easily get plugged up. One recent study did conclude a higher success rate than gentamicin injection (Derebery et al., 2010). We do not presently recommend this procedure for our patients except in unusual situations. A recent trend is to make an attempt to damage the sac, in addition to improving its drainage. As the sac is the immune organ of the ear, this idea makes sense if one is attempting to immunosuppress the ear.
For bilateral Meniere’s disease, when the patient is incapacitated and it cannot be determined which ear is causing the dizziness, intramuscular streptomycin (1 gm twice a day) can be given on an outpatient basis until the first sign of ototoxicity develops. This treatment can generally reduce or eliminate vertigo spells without affecting hearing. This treatment however damages the inner ear and causes bilateral vestibular paresis, which has its own set of symptoms and disability.
Surgical treatments have not been shown to preserve hearing to any greater extent than medical treatments (Sismanis, 2010). A review of surgical treatment has recently been published by Pullens et al., 2010.
Hydrops Diet
The fluid-filled hearing and balance structures of the inner ear normally function independent of the body’s overall fluid/blood system. In a normal inner ear, the fluid is maintained at a constant volume and contains specific concentrations of sodium, potassium, chloride and other electrolytes. This fluid bathes the sensory cells of the inner ear and allows them to function normally.
With injury or degeneration of the inner ear structures, independent control is lost, and the volume and concentration of the inner ear fluid fluctuates with changes in the body’s fluid/blood. This fluctuation causes the symptoms of hydrops (pressure or fullness in the ears), tinnitus (ringing in the ears), hearing loss, dizziness and imbalance.
How Does What I Eat Affect Meniere’s Disease?
Your inner ear fluid is influenced by certain substances in your blood and other body fluids. For instance, when you eat foods that are high in salt or sugar, your blood level concentration of salt or sugar increases, and this, in turn, will affect the concentration of substances in your inner ear.
People with certain balance disorders must control the amount of salt and sugar that is added to food. You must also become aware of the hidden salts and sugars that foods contain. Limiting or eliminating your use of caffeine and alcohol will also help to reduce symptoms of dizziness and ringing in the ears.
Dietary Goals
The goal of treatment is to provide stable body fluid/blood levels so that secondary fluctuations in the inner ear fluid can be avoided.
Distribute your food and fluid intake evenly throughout the day and from day to day. Eat approximately the same amount of food at each meal and do not skip meals. If you eat snacks, have them at regular times.
Avoid eating foods or fluids that have a high salt content. High salt intake results in fluctuations in the inner ear fluid pressure and may increase your symptoms. Aim for a diet high in fresh fruits, vegetables and whole grains, and low in canned, frozen or processed foods. A 1,000 mg sodium intake diet is usually what we recommend.
Drink adequate amounts of fluid daily. This should include water, milk and low-sugar fruit juices (for example, cranberry or cranberry-apple). Try to anticipate fluid loss which will occur with exercise or heat, and replace these fluids before they are lost. Be cautious about the milk intake — some individuals have food allergy and get symptoms from milk products.
Avoid caffeine-containing fluids and foods (such as coffee, tea and chocolate). Caffeine has stimulant properties that may make your symptoms worse. Caffeine also may make tinnitus louder. Large amounts of caffeine may trigger migraine ( migraine can be difficult diagnostically to separate from Meniere’s disease ). Chocolate is also a migraine trigger.
Limit your alcohol intake to one glass of beer or wine each day. Alcohol may trigger migraine associated vertigo.
Avoid foods containing MSG (monosodium glutamate). This is often present in prepackaged food products and in Chinese food. It may increase symptoms in some patients, possibly because of the link to migraine associated vertigo , and also because it contains sodium.
Where Can I Get Additional Help in Modifying My Diet?
Dietitians can help you work out a nutritional program which meets your special needs. They can also suggest ways to prepare your favorite foods for a restricted-salt or low-sugar diet. With their assistance, you’ll find that modifying your eating habits can help you control the symptoms of your balance disorder.
There are several excellent books that can help in determining which foods are high in salt. Barbara Kraus’s “Complete Guide to Sodium” (Signet, 1987) is a paperback book which lists most foods.
Drug Considerations
Avoid aspirin and medications that contain aspirin. Aspirin can cause tinnitus (ringing in the ear). Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents such as ibuprofen or naproxen should also be avoided when practical.
Avoid caffeine-containing medications. Caffeine can increase tinnitus as well as have the problems mentioned above under foods.
Pay attention to the content of all over-the-counter medications as well as drugs prescribed by other doctors. Some medications may increase your symptoms.
Avoid cigarettes. The nicotine present in cigarettes constricts blood vessels and can decrease the blood supply to the inner ear, making your symptoms worse.
How Might Meniere’s Disease Affect My Life?
Since the acute symptoms of Meniere’s disease are episodic, it is important to explain to your family and friends what might happen when you have an attack. Then, if the symptoms occur when they are present, they will understand and not be overly frightened.
You may be able to protect yourself from injury if you feel that an attack is about to begin. Some attacks may occur during the night, so be sure you have a night light on; you will be relying more on vision to help maintain your balance. You will want to make sure that the path to the bathroom is free of throw rugs, furniture or other obstructions.
Many studies have documented that patients with Meniere’s disease tend to have more psychological disability than the normal population, possibly including depression and/or anxiety, in reaction to their disease. It may be necessary to take antidepressants or anti-anxiety drugs, under the supervision of an appropriate health care professional.
Research Studies on Meniere’s Disease
In September 2012, a visit to the National Library of Medicine’s search engine, Pubmed, revealed more than 6800 research articles concerning Meniere’s disease published since 1883. In spite of this concentration of effort by the medical community, Meniere’s disease remains a chronic, incurable disorder that causes progressive disability to both hearing and balance. At the American Hearing Research Foundation (AHRF) , we have funded basic research on Meniere’s disease in the past , and are very interested in funding additional research on Meniere’s disease in the future. We are particularly interested in projects that might lead to method of stopping progression of hearing loss and the disabling attacks of dizziness. Click here if you would you would like more information about contributing to the AHRF’s efforts to cure Meniere’s disease.
Acknowledgments
Figures are courtesy of Northwestern University.
References and Resources
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Savastano M, Maron MB, Mangialaio M, Longhi P, Rizzardo R. Illness behavior, personality traits, anxiety and depression in patients with Meniere’s disease. J Otolaryngol 1996 Oct;25(5):329-333.
SCHAAF H, Seling B, Rienhoff NK, Laubert A, Nelting M, Hesse G. [Is recurrent loss of low frequency tone perception–without vertigo–a precursor of Meniere disease?] HNO 2001; 49: 543-7.
Shojaku H, Watanabe Y, Mineta H, Aoki M, Tsubota M, et al. 2011. Long-term effects of the Meniett device in Japanese patients with Meniere’s disease and delayed endolymphatic hydrops reported by the Middle Ear Pressure Treatment Research Group of Japan. Acta oto-laryngologica 131: 277-83
Silverstein H, Rosenberg SI. Surgical techniques of the temporal bone and skull base. Philadelphia; Lea and Febinger, 1992
Silverstein H and others. Dexamethasone inner ear perfusion for the treatment of Meniere’s disease: A prospective, randomized double-blind crossover trial. Am J. Otol. 19:196-201, 1998
Silverstein H WJea. 2009. Intratympani gentamicin treatment of patients with Meniere’s disease with normal hearing. Otolaryngology – head and neck surgery 142: 570
Stahle J, Friberg U, Svedberg A. Long-term progression of Meniere’s disease. Acta Otolaryngol (Stockh) 1991:Suppl 485:75-83
Tumarkin A. The otolithic catastrophe: a new syndrome. Br. Med J. 1936:1:175-177
Vrabec JT, Liu L, Li B, Leal SM. Sequence variants in host cell factor C1 are associated with Meniere’s disease. Oto & Neurotol, 2008;29(4):561-6
Watanabe Y, Shojaku H, Junicho M, Asai M, Fujisaka M, et al. 2011. Intermittent pressure therapy of intractable Meniere’s disease and delayed endolymphatic hydrops using the transtympanic membrane massage device: a preliminary report. Acta oto-laryngologica 131: 1178-86
Books on Meniere’s Disease
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Robert Langdon is the main character of which famous novel published in 2003 ? | Essay on Angel and Demons Book Report - 360 Words
Black Angels Book Report Essay
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Angels & Demons from Book to Film Essay
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Where in the human body can you find the Trapezium bone ? | The Lost Symbol By Dan Brown English Literature Essay
The Lost Symbol By Dan Brown English Literature Essay
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To begin with, Da Vinci Code - is a novel written by American author and journalist Dan Brown and published in 2003 by publishing house "Random House". It should be noted that Da Vinci Code was a continuation of another Dan Brown's popular novel "Angels and Demons" (2000). As a fact, the book has become an international bestseller: it is translated into 44 languages and there are published a total circulation of more than 81 million copies. The Da Vinci Code has top position in the New York Times list of best-selling magazines. Many experts consider the novel as the best book of the decade. Novel is written in the genre of intellectual detective thriller and has arisen widespread interest to the legend of the Holy Grail and Mary Magdalene's place in the history of Christianity, as described in The Da Vinci Code - An Independent Book Review.
It can be said that on a plot of the book its main character, Dr. Robert Langdon, a professor of religious symbology at Harvard University, should unravel the murder of Jacques Sauniere, curator of the Louvre. As a fact, Sauniere's body was found inside the Louvre naked and placed in the same way as in the famous drawing by Leonardo Da Vinci's "Vitruvian Man", with an encrypted inscription on his torso. This inscription indicates that the key to the mystery of the murder is hidden inside the famous works of Leonardo Da Vinci. As a result, analysis of such works of Leonardo as "Mona Lisa" and "The Last Supper" greatly helps in solving this puzzle. In the meantime, Robert meets the granddaughter of Jacques Sauniere - Sophie Neveu. All her family (mother, father, brother, grandmother) had died in a car accident. Now, Sophie and Robert will unravel many secrets and mysteries. However, Captain Fache is from police, and believes that Langdon had killed Jacques Sauniere. It can be said that Robert and Sophie will have to prove his innocence. The protagonist of the novel will address two main puzzles: what a mystery was defended by Sauniere and why he was killed? Who killed Sauniere and who had planned this murder?Â
According to Book Review - The Lost Symbol by Dan Brown (Author of The Da Vinci Code), it should be noted that unraveling the mystery requires the solution of a series of puzzles. The secret of the Holy Grail location is known to a secret society, the so-called Priory of Sion and the Order of the Knights Templar. The Catholic Church organization Opus Dei also plays an important role in the plot. The novel has several parallel plot lines involving the various characters. At the end of the book all the story lines come together and are resolved in the Rosslyn chapel.
It should be noted that the novel could be unnoticed by various Christian religious figures, if it had not had such success, and if on the first page of the book was not asserted the truth of the events that were described in the novel. As a fact, the criticisms draw attention to the large number of inaccuracies in the presentation of history, the interpretation of historical facts, and use all sorts of unsubstantiated legends. Consequently, Archbishop Angelo Amato, who is the second man in the Vatican after the Pope called on all Catholics to boycott the film "Da Vinci Code". Archbishop Amato called Brown's book: "stridently anti-Christian, full of calumnies, offenses and historical and theological errors regarding Jesus, the Gospels and hostile Church", and called its success by "extreme cultural poverty of a large number of Christian believers". Amato urged Christians with great zeal "to reject the lies and cheap slander". He also said that if "such lies and slanders were directed at the Quran or the Holocaust, they rightly would have caused a world uprising", while the "lies and slander against the Church and Christians, remain unpunished", as described in Book Review: Exploring The Da Vinci Code: Investigating The Issues Raised by The Book and Move.
As a fact, Amato suggested that Catholics around the world should begin organized protests against the book and the film "Da Vinci Code" exactly the same as there were protests against Martin Scorsese "The Last Temptation of Christ" in 1988. However, it can be said that opposing Da Vinci Code by representatives of Christian church not only fuels the hype of the novel, and raises its rating, but it is consistent with the content of the novel, in which the Church seeks to hide some kind of truth, which is presented in the novel, as stated in Book Review: Exploring The Da Vinci Code: Investigating The Issues Raised by The Book and Move.
In my opinion this is a great novel and I like it very much. To be more precise, the novel has dynamic plot, which is based on one of the most interesting historical mystery. It has vivid characters, a detailed narrative that fully immerses the reader in the atmosphere of the novel. As a fact, for the Dan Brown's "Da Vinci Code" these terms were enough to become one of the most famous bestsellers in recent years.
Moreover, in America, "Da Vinci Code" has literally revived the genre of historical detective, giving it such popularity, that this genre works have not previously received. It can be said that for high-performance sales, and many laudatory reviews of hiding bad, there is a nice detective, which in an accessible form tells the reader about some mystery hidden in the works of Leonardo Da Vinci. Revealing the mystery, the protagonist of the book with his head is dipped into historical investigation, the results and details of which both look shocking and realistic.Â
In my opinion, this realism, combined with the availability of exposition and narrative detail, is one of the main virtues of the book. Valiantly twirled plot complements the cocktail, condemning the novel to succeed. On the other hand, the novel has weak sides, among them is a pretty weak syllable of the author - many critics consider that the author has a rustic style of presentation. On the other hand, the audience of the novel is so broad that a simple style of presentation has not spoiled the novel much- rather on the contrary; thanks to this, "Da Vinci Code" is a book that is understandable and accessible to everybody without exception.Â
To sum it up, "Da Vinci Code" by Dan Brown can be characterized as one of the most urgent "must have" books of the recent decade. And everybody should read this book not only because it still remains one of the most fashionable pieces - "Da Vinci Code" is a really interesting, exciting and at the same time sufficiently intelligent, revealing the multiple storylines prose.
Work cited
Book Review: Exploring The Da Vinci Code: Investigating The Issues Raised by The Book and Move. 15 February 2011. <http://relijournal.com/christianity/book-review-exploring-the-da-vinci-code-investigating-the-issues-raised-by-the-book-and-move/>
Julian Price. 2009. The Da Vinci Code - An Independent Book Review. 15 February 2011. <http://searchwarp.com/swa551973-The-Da-Vinci-Code-An-Independent-Book-Review.htm>
Pascasio Felisilda. 2009. Book Review - The Lost Symbol by Dan Brown (Author of The DaVinci Code). 15 February 2011. <http://ezinearticles.com/?Book-Review---The-Lost-Symbol-by-Dan-Brown-(Author-of-The-DaVinci-Code)&id=5526644>
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Who wrote the 1955 play 'Cat on a Hot Tin Roof' ? | Cat on a Hot Tin Roof opens - Mar 24, 1955 - HISTORY.com
Cat on a Hot Tin Roof opens
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Tennessee Williams’ play Cat on a Hot Tin Roof opens in New York, two days before his 44th birthday. The play would win Williams his second Pulitzer Prize.
Williams had been an award-winning playwright since 1945, when his first hit play, The Glass Menagerie, opened, winning the Drama Critics Circle Award. Two years later, he won his first Pulitzer Prize, for A Streetcar Named Desire.
Williams led a colorful and tragic life. Born in 1911 in Columbia, Mississippi, he was a sickly child terrorized by his violent traveling-salesman father. When he was seven, the family moved to St. Louis, where his father became manager of a shoe company. Persecuted and taunted by his father, he took refuge in reading and writing and in a close relationship with his beloved sister Rose. At 14, he won a prize in a national writing competition and three years later sold a short story to Weird Tales magazine.
Williams studied at the University of Missouri at Columbia but left to work in his father’s shoe warehouse for three years. He later attended Washington University in St. Louis and finally graduated from the University of Iowa at age 27. Sadly, his sister Rose, who suffered severe mental disturbances that Williams blamed on his father’s violence, was lobotomized during this time.
Williams started writing plays during college and continued when he moved to New Orleans in the 1930s, where he changed his name from Thomas to Tennessee. In 1939, he won an award for a small production of his one-act collection American Blues. He worked briefly in Hollywood as a screenwriter and later turned a failed screenplay into The Glass Menagerie. The play launched Williams to critical success, which he maintained until the 1960s, when the critics turned on him. However, he continued writing until his death in 1983, when he choked on a medicine-bottle cap.
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In which city are the headquarters of Greenpeace International ? | Movie Review - - The Fur Flies in 'Cat on a Hot Tin Roof'; Talent Galore Found in Music Hall Film Acting Does Justice to Williams Play - NYTimes.com
Movie Review
September 19, 1958
The Fur Flies in 'Cat on a Hot Tin Roof'; Talent Galore Found in Music Hall Film Acting Does Justice to Williams Play
By BOSLEY CROWTHER
Published: September 19, 1958
AN all-fired lot of high-powered acting is done in "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof," film version of the Tennessee Williams stage play, which came to the Music Hall yesterday. Burl Ives, Paul Newman, Elizabeth Taylor, Judith Anderson, Jack Carson and two or three more almost work and yell themselves to pieces making this drama of strife within a new-rich Southern family a ferocious and fascinating show.
And what a pack of trashy people these accomplished actors perform! Such a lot of gross and greedy characters haven't gone past since Lillian Hellman's "The Little Foxes" went that way. The whole time is spent by them in wrangling over a dying man's anticipated estate or telling one another quite frankly what sort of so-and-so's they think the others are.
As a straight exercise in spewing venom and flinging dirty linen on a line, this fine Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer production in color would be hard to beat. It is done by superior talents, under the driving direction of Richard Brooks, making even the driest scenes drip poison with that strong, juicy Williams dialogue. And before the tubs full of pent-up fury, suspicion and hatred are drained, every major performer in the company has had a chance to play at least one bang-up scene.
The fattest and juiciest opportunities go to Mr. Newman, Miss Taylor and Mr. Ives as the son, his wife and the former's father (the Big Daddy of the lot), respectively. In their frequent and assorted encounters, they have chances, together and in pairs, to discourse and lash each other's feelings over the several problems of the family.
First there is the private problem of why this son and his wife do not have any children—and, indeed, why the young man shuns his wife. Why does he spend his time boozing, hobbling around his bedroom on a crutch and reviling his wife, who quite obviously has the proclivities of that cat on the roof?
And, secondly, why does this young fellow resent and resist his old man, who as obviously wants to be pals with him and leave him his estate if he will only have kids?
Let it be said, quite frankly, that the ways in which these problems are solved do not represent supreme achievements of ingenuity or logic in dramatic art. Mr. Williams' original stage play has been altered considerably, especially in offering explanation of why the son is as he is. Now, a complicated business of hero-worship has been put by Mr. Brooks and James Poe in place of a strong suggestion of homosexuality in the play.
No wonder the baffled father, in trying to find out what gives, roars with indignation: "Something's missing here!"
It is, indeed. And something is missing in the dramatists' glib account of how the son gets together with his father in one easy discourse on love. But what is lacking in logical conflict is made up in visual and verbal displays of vulgar and violent emotions by everybody concerned.
Mr. Newman is perhaps the most resourceful and dramatically restrained of the lot. He gives an ingratiating picture of a tortured and tested young man. Miss Taylor is next. She is terrific as a panting, impatient wife, wanting the love of her husband as sincerely as she wants an inheritance. Mr. Ives snorts and roars with gusto, Miss Anderson claws the air as his wife, and Mr. Carson squirms and howls atrocious English as their greedy, deceitful older son.
Madeleine Sherwood does a fine job as the latter's cheap, child-heavy wife and a quartet of unidentified youngsters insult the human race as their brats.
Lawrence Weingarten's production is lush with extravagance, which is thoroughly appropriate to the nature of "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof."
The stage show at the Music Hall, entitled "Autumn Gallery," features Jeanette Scovotti, coloratura; Jack Beaber and Françoise Martinet, soloists; the Two Martys, novelty performers, and the Corps de Ballet and Rockettes.
The Cast
CAT ON A HOT TIN ROOF, screen play by Richard Brooks and James Poe; based on the play by Tennessee Williams; produced by Lawrence Weingarten for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. At the Music Hall, Rockefeller Center. Running time: 108 minutes.
Maggie . . . . . Elizabeth Taylor
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The shape of the chocolate bar Toblerone is supposedly modelled on which famous mountain ? | SGS Journal - Vol. 1
SGS JOURNAL - VOL. 1
Toblerone
"peak of pleasure"
The Toblerone story started in 1868 in Berne, Switzerland, when the Tobler family decided to move into chocolate production having been producing confectionery products like sweets and other sugar confectionery for many years. Following this decision, a purpose built factory was established in 1899 in the up-andcoming “Länggassquartier” district of the city. Jean Tobler named the company, Fabrique de Chocolat Berne, Tobler & Cie, and it soon became an internationally-known company, much talked about by lovers of quality chocolate.
In 1900, the management of the chocolate business was handed over to Jean’s son, Theodor. 24-year old Theodor was a true entrepreneur, innovative and dynamic. He was also prepared to take a risk, and from the beginning was eager to find new methods of rationalising production and also experimenting with new distribution and marketing methods. He was convinced that these were essential factors for success in a competitive industry.
Eight years later, together with his cousin Emil Baumann, Theodor Tobler was able to invent a one of a kind chocolate bar that combined chocolate with honey and almond nougat. They named this new product Toblerone and soon after it was introduced to the market, it became an instant success. People were attracted to its unique recipe, its recognizable logo and its triangular shape.
Theodor Tobler’s next step was to patent the unique recipe and register the special shape of Toblerone - the first chocolate to achieve this distinction. In naming his new product, Theodor combined his last name and the word “Torrone,” which is Italian for nougat and honey. The brand Toblerone was trademarked at the Bern Federal Institute for Intellectual Property in the year 1909.
There are different stories about how Toblerone received its special shape, but the likeliest reason is that Toblerone was modelled on the famous Swiss mountains, to make it a natural symbol of Swiss quality. In fact, though, the famous Matterhorn mountain itself was neither used on the packaging nor in advertising campaigns when Toblerone was first brought to the market in 1908. The original packaging featured an eagle with a Swiss and a Bernoise flag in its claws, next to the Toblerone brand logo.
This was long before brand advertising sealed the link between Toblerone and the Matterhorn in the 1920s. The visual association with the distinctive Swiss mountain peak helped to differentiate Toblerone from foreign imitations, which were widespread at the time. The new advertising approach made it instantly recognisable as real, Swiss-produced chocolate.
It wasn’t until 1970 that the Matterhorn actually appeared on the packaging for the first time – at first only on the side panels. From 1987 a stylised “rock” appeared on the packaging, symbolising the “peak of pleasure”. The Matterhorn became a dominant force in the 1990s. The potential of the famous mountain was by now more fully appreciated and used in a structured manner on a global basis. In 2000, the Matterhorn finally became part of the official logo of Toblerone and, from then on, was prominent on every Toblerone pack.
Toblerone didn’t remain a Swiss secret for long once it was brought to the market in 1908. By the 1920s, Toblerone was taking to the world stage as a unique chocolate novelty, which combined a memorable taste and eating sensation with an eye-catching shape. A Toblerone-branded delivery truck was even operating in the remotest parts of New Zealand during the 1920s.
Theodor Tobler was very aware of the importance of advertising and he steadily increased his marketing efforts in the pushfor extra sales. Many of the advertisements were telling a story and the product itself often remained quite modestly in the background of the posters. For instance, one poster shows a mother and child scene in a living room, with the clear message that a good mother buys Toblerone for her children.
This increasing commercialisation was the foundation stone for the Toblerone success story, which continues until today. For many years, Tobler’s company was independently owned until it entered into a merger with Suchard in 1970. Suchard and Tobler then merged with the Jacobs Coffee Co. in 1982. In 1990, Jacobs and Suchard was bought by Mondelez (Kraft Foods at that time), and the acquisition included Toblerone.
Today, the Toblerone brand and Toblerone chocolates can be found in a number of retail and specialty shops all over the world. These chocolates are one of the most popular confectionery products in duty-free shops. Today, the Toblerone product range includes Toblerone Milk, and Toblerone Tobelle, aside from the existing varieties like the Honeycomb Crisp, Dark, White and Fruit and Nut.
Toblerone remains the most famous international chocolate product and is a global icon. About 96% of the Toblerone produced in Berne is shipped to other countries and it accounts for 40% of Switzerland’s total chocolate export figure. It is available in more than 110 countries, yet every single bar and pack of Toblerone is produced in its only factory - in the Swiss capital of Berne.
| Matterhorn |
In which city are the headquarters of the International Monetary Fund ? | Illuminati Announces Record Sales Of Their Famous Chocolate Product,Toblerone | The Daily Trends
Illuminati Announces Record Sales Of Their Famous Chocolate Product,Toblerone
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http://www.thedailytrends.net/2013/04/illuminati-announces-record-sales-of.html
THE secret society running the world has announced a 43% increase in Christmas sales of its popular Toblerone bar. Toblerone is the main revenue stream for the Illuminati, a shadowy organisation that manipulates governments for its own nefarious ends.
The distinctive ‘pyramid’ shape of the chocolate bar’s segments is a direct reference to the Illuminati’s logo. Toblerone packaging also carries an image of the Matterhorn, the hollowed-out mountain that houses the organisation’s main base.
A spokesman for the Illuminati said: “Thank God for Toblerone, because we aren’t making much out of controlling the world’s banking system right now. “Also, the overheads involved with running the world are pretty massive. For example, we have a whole team of designers whose job it is to subtly incorporate the word ‘obey’ into cereal packet designs.
“That doesn’t even bring in money directly, it’s just about subtly influencing the masses.”
Tom Booker, who got a Toblerone for Christmas, said: “I’d never really thought about it before, but why else would it be that shape?
“The actual chocolate is delicious but you’ve got a mass of angles trying to punch through your jaw.”
Chocolate fan Nikki Hollis said: “Part of the reason I buy Toblerones is to support the Illuminati. I actually think they do a really good job for very little credit.
“They’re like the Lyon’s Club but with more emphasis on mind control.”
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Name the year - Prince Edward leaves the Marines just three months after joining, the book Spycatcher is released, race riots break out in the Chapeltown area of Leeds and the Pet Shop Boys reach number 1 in the UK charts with the record 'It's a Sin' ? | Edwina Currie - Who is talking about Edwina Currie on FLICKR
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I’M A CELEBRITY…GET ME OUT OF HERE 2015..PICTURE SHOWS: JORGIE PORTER ..I’m A Celebrity…Get Me Out Of Here! is back which can mean only one thing… the time has come for a brand new cast of celebrities to head down under and battle it out in TV’s toughest challenge.. .Leaving their plush pads and luxuries far behind, our celebrity campers will spend up to three weeks taking on the harsh surroundings of the Australian jungle, with a whole host of brand new nasty surprises created just for them.. .This year, the I’m a Celebrity team have pulled out all the stops to ensure this is the most talked about series yet.. .Last year’s highlights included Michael Buerk rapping with Tinchy Stryder, Kendra Wilkinson and Edwina Currie falling out in spectacular style and Gemma Collins going jungle AWOL after only a few days in camp.. .Whoever does end up in the terrifying and legendary jungle camp will find themselves cut off from the outside world and praying the public doesn’t send them straight into a dreaded Bushtucker Trial..It’s a brand new cast with a brand new set of challenges. As always, our BAFTA award-winning hosts Ant and Dec, are back to present all the big stories live from the jungle every night. ..Who will be crowned this year’s King or Queen of the jungle? Find out this Autumn on ITV.. .And remember - I’m A Celebrity...Get Me Out Of Here Now! is back every night on ITV2 after the ITV show. .An ITV Studios production....
Recent Updated: 1 year ago - Created by Big Blagger - View
Copyright and permission to use should be sought to the author - Big Blagger
I’M A CELEBRITY…GET ME OUT OF HERE 2015
PICTURE SHOWS: SUSANNAH CONSTANTINE
I’m A Celebrity…Get Me Out Of Here! is back which can mean only one thing… the time has come for a brand new cast of celebrities to head down under and battle it out in TV’s toughest challenge.
Leaving their plush pads and luxuries far behind, our celebrity campers will spend up to three weeks taking on the harsh surroundings of the Australian jungle, with a whole host of brand new nasty surprises created just for them.
This year, the I’m a Celebrity team have pulled out all the stops to ensure this is the most talked about series yet.
Last year’s highlights included Michael Buerk rapping with Tinchy Stryder, Kendra Wilkinson and Edwina Currie falling out in spectacular style and Gemma Collins going jungle AWOL after only a few days in camp.
Whoever does end up in the terrifying and legendary jungle camp will find themselves cut off from the outside world and praying the public doesn’t send them straight into a dreaded Bushtucker Trial.
It’s a brand new cast with a brand new set of challenges. As always, our BAFTA award-winning hosts Ant and Dec, are back to present all the big stories live from the jungle every night.
Who will be crowned this year’s King or Queen of the jungle? Find out this Autumn on ITV.
And remember - I’m A Celebrity...Get Me Out Of Here Now! is back every night on ITV2 after the ITV show.
An ITV Studios production.
Recent Updated: 1 year ago - Created by Big Blagger - View
Copyright and permission to use should be sought to the author - Big Blagger
Tags: thatwastheyearthatwas1992
1992 In Technology The first Nicotine patch is introduced to help stop smoking and DNA Fingerprinting is Invented. The continuing Balkan War for the next 3 years between Muslims, Serbs and Croats prompting UN intervention. In The UK Rioting breaks out in Cities including Bristol and in France Euro Disney opens. In the US Bill Clinton becomes president and the largest Mall in America Minnesota's Mall of America is constructed spanning 78 acres.
The Conservative Party are re-elected for a fourth successive term
9 April - General Election: The Conservative Party are re-elected for a fourth successive term, in their first election under John Major's leadership. With the government's victory in the election confirmed, John Major assures the public that he will lead the country out of recession that has blighted it for nearly two years. 11 April - Publication of The Sun newspaper's iconic front page headline 'It's The Sun Wot Won It', as the tabloid newspaper claims it won the general election for the Conservatives with its anti-Kinnock front page headline on election day. 13 April - Neil Kinnock resigns as leader of the Labour Party following the defeat of his party in the General Election. he had led the party for eight-and-a-half years since October 1983, and was the longest serving opposition leader in British political history.
Diana: Her True Story
7 June - A controversial new biography of Diana, Princess of Wales, Diana: Her True Story, written by Andrew Morton, is published, revealing that she has made five suicide attempts following her discovery that The Prince of Wales had resumed an affair with his previous girlfriend Mrs Parker-Bowles shortly after Prince William's birth in 1982.
The late Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother, reacted with "utter abhorrence" to Diana, Princess of Wales's decision to "wash the dirty linen in public" by disclosing details of the breakdown of her marriage.
An official biography published today describes how Queen Elizabeth was "deeply shocked" when it emerged that Princess Diana had collaborated with Andrew Morton on the book Diana: Her True Story, which caused a sensation when it was published in 1992. She was also dismayed by the Prince of Wales's decision to discuss his private life with the broadcaster Jonathan Dimbleby for a TV programme in which he admitted he had been unfaithful. Queen Elizabeth revealed her thoughts about her grandson's divorce in a series of previously unpublished interviews with Sir Eric Anderson, the former Provost of Eton College, which were made available to the biographer William Shawcross.
"It is always a mistake to talk about your marriage," she told Mr Anderson, who spent a total of 20 hours interviewing her. Details of Queen Elizabeth's thoughts on the Royal divorce are contained in Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother: The Official Biography, which was commissioned by the Queen.
In 1992, Andrew Morton's book disclosed that the Princess of Wales had attempted suicide on at least five occasions in the 1980s, suffered from bulimia and felt rejected both by Prince Charles and other members of the Royal family, including the Queen.
At the time of its publication, it was rumoured that the Princess herself had helped Mr Morton with the book, and after her death in 1997 Mr Morton confirmed that the Princess had indeed been the main source, and had even checked the proofs of the book for accuracy.
In 1995 the Princess recorded a Panorama interview in which she talked about the Prince of Wales's affair with the then Camilla Parker Bowles, saying: "There were three of us in this marriage, so it was a bit crowded."
Punch ends 150 years of satire
The editors of Punch, Britain's oldest satirical magazine, announce that it will be discontinued due to massive losses. It has been in circulation since 1841.
After Years of reports of the imminent demise of Punch had their moment of truth when United Newspapers, owner of the magazine, said it would close on April 8 1992 after 151 years. Staff were told that United had had enough of low sales, disappointing advertising revenue, and losses running at up to £2 million a year. Unless a buyer can be found, what was once Britain's leading humorous magazine but which became the butt of the lampooners will publish only two more issues.
The old joke, "Punch is not as funny as it used to be - but then again it never was", drew little laughs as it folded.
Four years later the Egyptian businessman Mohamed al Fayed brought it back to life. He funded new exposés on the likes of Peter Mandelson, the architect of New Labour, and the media mogul Rupert Murdoch. But eventually it was costing £40,000 per issue to produce with subscriptions at only 6,000 and Mr Al Fayed closed the title again in 2002. A website still exists for the magazine, reported to have at one time refused articles by Charles Dickens, with many hoping it could make a comeback and regain its cutting-edge image.
Bring back Eldorado
The soap, which cost British taxpayers £10m - with £2m alone being blown on the huge set in the town of Coín in Malaga - only ran for one year before being axed by incoming director general Alan Yentob in 1993. The 'sunshine soap', which aired three times-a-week and was based around the lives of ex-pats living in the Costa Del Sol, only ran for 156 episodes from July 6 1992 until July 9 1993. It had been blasted by critics for it 'amateurish acting' and 'very unconvincing storylines' and is now a byword for a TV show which flops. But BBC staff have urged the new director general George Entwistle to 'consider' bringing the soap back to our screens - saying it will help brink a 'chink of sunlight' into recession-hit Britain.
The show started with an audience of 8m, dipping to 3.5m, but stabilising at 5m by the time it was axed - which is 'not bad' in today's viewing figures.
The set in Spain once used by the BBC's soap opera flop Eldorado is now a ghost town. The collection of deserted whitewashed buildings has been preserved by the heat and the dry mountain air in a pine forest 10 miles north-east of Marbella. The purpose-built site provided the backdrop to the doomed 1992 serial, which lasted just 156 episodes before being axed despite costing licence payers more than £10 million. Much of the money was spent on creating the set, which was supposed to replicate the sunshine and simplicity of life in Australian soaps such as Home and Away and Neighbours.
Fifteen years after it was created, the set lies empty except for the former dressing rooms which are rented out to holidaymakers. The 18 apartments and three villas are empty and the once-alluring crystal blue swimming pool has turned green and is used by ducks. Apart from graffiti and beer cans left by local teenagers who hang around the area, the set looks the same as it did when new BBC1 controller Alan Yentob axed it in July 1993. Facades, including the front of what is supposed to be a traditional Spanish church, appear just as new as they did in 1992.
The site was briefly used as a holiday camp but that suffered the same fate as the programme, which was based on the lives of British ex-pats in Spain. Eldorado remains the biggest British television flop and became a byword for failure following its year on the airwaves. It was designed to replace Terry Wogan's chat show, Wogan, and producers hoped its sex-and-Sangria cheeriness would appeal to viewers fed up with the drab grittiness of EastEnders and the early-1990s recession.
However, the use of mostly untrained actors, the mixture of Spanish and English dialogue, persistent sound problems and appalling reviews sank the programme for good.
It ended as implausibly as it began, with one of the main characters, Marcus Tandy, played by Jesse Birdsall, escaping an attempt on his life with his car being blown up, and sailing off into the distance on a boat, with his girlfriend Pilar.
It has emerged that the set of another abandoned soap, Brookside, is also lying abandoned. The Merseyside cul-de-sac, known to millions of viewers as Brookside Close, was refurbished by developers after the programme ended in 2003 but has failed to attract interest from buyers who are now offering the entire site for £2 million.
Whatever happened to Antonia de Sancha - the kiss-and-tell lover who brought down David Mellor?
No one could blame Antonia de Sancha for being a little peeved. There she is, sitting outside her favourite restaurant in west London, when a passing photographer captures a not particularly flattering image of her. Said image is then published and compared unfavourably with those of the past, in an apparent indictment of the human ageing process.
In fact, de Sancha takes her sudden and random re-emergence into the spotlight with bemused good grace. “What is this all about?” she asks, managing a wry smile. “What am I supposed to have done?”
Nothing, really. The picture has merely made people curious about what has happened in the 20 years since she made a brief, memorable foray on to the public stage, sowing an image in the mind that time cannot wither: David Mellor, the Secretary of State for National Heritage, cavorting with her in a Chelsea FC strip. Behind his wife’s back, obviously.
No matter that the actress’s description of her affair with Mellor was flawed from a factual point of view, it was enough to hole his career below the waterline. A sometimes abrasive and arrogant character, he was the first in a long line of Tory politicians to fall victim to weakness for the flesh during the John Major era. Tim Yeo, Hartley Booth, the Earl of Caithness, Piers Merchant… the tabloid scalps multiplied as the 1990s progressed, undoing Major’s “Back to Basics” morality drive and undermining his government.
For a few weeks in 1992, de Sancha was hot property, managed to perfection by Max Clifford, then king of kiss-and-tell PR. She earned £35,000 from her disclosures, but there was a cost to her theatrical career. Now, she spends much of her time with friends in a small Spanish restaurant on the Portobello Road, apparently underemployed.
1992 Timeline
January - Statistics show that economic growth returned during the final quarter of 1991 after five successive quarters of contraction.
9 January - Liberal Democrat leader Paddy Ashdown proposes a £3billion package which would create 400,000 jobs in 12 months.
Alison Halford, Britain's most senior policewoman, is suspended from duty for a second time following a police authority meeting.
10 January - The first full week of 1992 sees some 4,000 jobs lost across Britain, as the nation's recession continues. Almost 20% of those job cuts have been by GEC, Britain's leading telecommunications manufacturer, where 750 redundancies are announced today.
14 January - The Bank of Credit and Commerce International goes into liquidation.
17 January - In a Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) bomb attack near Omagh, seven construction workers are killed and seven others injured. This is the highest number of casualties in an IRA attack since 1988.
The first MORI poll of 1992 shows the Conservatives three points ahead of Labour on 42%, while the Liberal Democrats have their best showing yet with 16% of the vote.
18 January - John Major announces that the general election will be held on 9 April.
29 January - The Department of Health reveals that AIDS cases among heterosexuals increased by 50% between 1990 and 1991.
30 January - John Major agrees a weapons control deal with new Russian premier Boris Yeltsin at 10 Downing Street.
2 February - Neil Kinnock, Labour leader, denies reports that he had a "Kremlin connection" during the 1980s.
6 February - The Queen celebrates her Ruby Jubilee.
7 February - Signature of the Maastricht Treaty.
8 February–23 February - Great Britain and Northern Ireland compete at the Winter Olympics in Albertville, France, but do not win any medals.
9 February - Prime Minister John Major speaks of his hopes that the recession will soon be over as the economy is now showing signs of recovery.
15 February - Neil Kinnock, Labour Party leader, speaks of his belief that the Conservative government's failure to halt the current recession will win his party the forthcoming general election.
18 February - David Stevens, head of community relations, blames the recession for the recent rise in crime across Britain - most of all in deprived areas.
20 February - Hopes of an end to the recession are dashed by government figures which reveal that GDP fell by 0.3% in the final quarter of 1991.
23 February - The London Business School predicts an economic growth rate of 1.2% for this year, sparking hopes that the recession is nearing its
March - Toyota launches the TMUK-built Carina E at the Geneva Motor Show.
6 March - Parliament passes the Further and Higher Education Act, allowing polytechnics to become new universities.
11 March - John Major announces that the election will be held on 9 April.
Shadow Chancellor John Smith condemns the recent Budget as a "missed opportunity" by the Conservatives, saying that they did "nothing" for jobs, training, skills, construction or economic recovery.
13 March - The first ecumenical church in Britain, the Christ the Cornerstone Church in Milton Keynes is opened.
17 March - Shadow Chancellor John Smith announces that there will be no tax reductions this year if Labour win the election.
19 March - Buckingham Palace announces that Duke and Duchess of York are to separate after six years of marriage.
Unemployment has reached 2,647,300 - 9.4% of the British workforce, the highest level since late 1987.
24 March - Election campaigning becomes dominated by the "War of Jennifer's Ear".
The editors of Punch, Britain's oldest satirical magazine, announce that it will be discontinued due to massive losses. It has been in circulation since 1841.
26 March - Television entertainer Roy Castle (59), who currently presents Record Breakers, announces that he is suffering from lung cancer.
27 March – During the 1992 General Election campaign, Conservative MP Edwina Currie famously pours a glass of orange juice over Labour's Peter Snape shortly after an edition of the Midlands based debate show Central Weekend has finished airing. Speaking about the incident later, Currie said "I just looked at my orange juice, and looked at this man from which this stream of abuse was emanating, and thought 'I know how to shut you up.' ".
28 March – Amanda Normansell wins the third series of Stars in Their Eyes, performing as Patsy Cline.
29 March - John Spencer, 8th Earl Spencer and father of Princess Diana, dies suddenly from pneumonia at the age of 68.
April – Statistics show that the first quarter of this year saw the economy grow for the second quarter running, the sequel to five successive quarters of detraction, though the growth was still too narrow for the recession to be declared over.
Launch of the music video channel The Box.
1 April - The latest opinion polls show a narrow lead for Labour, which would force a hung parliament in the election next week.
4 April - Party Politics becomes the tallest horse to win the Grand National.
5 April - At his pre-election speech, Neil Kinnock promises a strong economic recovery if he leads the Labour party to election victory on Thursday.
6 April - Women's Royal Army Corps disbanded, its members being fully absorbed into the regular British Army.
7 April - The final MORI poll before the general election shows Labour one point ahead of the Conservatives on 39%, while the Liberal Democrats continue to enjoy a surge in popularity with 20% of the vote. Most opinion polls show a similar situation, hinting at either a narrow Labour majority or a hung parliament.
9 April - General Election: The Conservative Party are re-elected for a fourth successive term, in their first election under John Major's leadership. Their majority is reduced to 21 seats but they have attracted more than 14,000,000 votes - the highest number of votes ever attracted in a general election. Notable retirements from parliament at this election include Margaret Thatcher (Conservative prime minister for over eleven years until her resignation seventeen months ago) and the former Labour Party leader Michael Foot.
10 April - Provisional Irish Republican Army detonates two bombs at the Baltic Exchange in central London, killing three.
With the government's victory in the election confirmed, John Major assures the public that he will lead the country out of recession that has blighted it for nearly two years.
11 April - Publication of The Sun newspaper's iconic front page headline 'It's The Sun Wot Won It', as the tabloid newspaper claims it won the general election for the Conservatives with its anti-Kinnock front page headline on election day.
13 April - Neil Kinnock resigns as leader of the Labour Party following the defeat of his party in the General Election. he had led the party for eight-and-a-half years since October 1983, and was the longest serving opposition leader in British political history.
The Princess Royal announces her divorce from Capt Mark Phillips after 18 years of marriage, having separated in 1989.
14 April - 10 April – ITV airs the first episode of Heartbeat, a long running police drama set in North Yorkshire during the 1960s.
16 April - Unemployment has now risen 23 months in succession, but the March rise in unemployment was the smallest monthly rise so far.
17–20 April - Lost Gardens of Heligan in Cornwall first opened to the public.
27 April - Betty Boothroyd, 62-year-old Labour MP for West Bromwich West in the West Midlands, is elected as Speaker of the House of Commons, the first woman to hold the position.
5 May - UEFA awards the 1996 European Football Championships to England.
6 May - John Major promises British voters improved services and more money to spend.
12 May - Plans are unveiled for a fifth terminal at Heathrow Airport, which is now the busiest airport in the world.
May - Twenty-two "Maastricht Rebels" vote against the government on the second reading of the European Communities (Amendment) Bill.
17 May - Nigel Mansell gains the 26th Grand Prix win of his racing career at Imola, San Marino. He is now the most successful British driver in Grand Prix races, and the fourth worldwide.
June - Cones Hotline introduced enabling members of the public to complain about traffic cones being deployed on a road for no apparent reason.
7 June - A controversial new biography of Diana, Princess of Wales, Diana: Her True Story, written by Andrew Morton, is published, revealing that she has made five suicide attempts following her discovery that The Prince of Wales had resumed an affair with his previous girlfriend Mrs Parker-Bowles shortly after Prince William's birth in 1982.
9–10 June – Episodes 1450–1454 of Australian soap Neighbours are heavily censored by the BBC because they contain an incest storyline between the characters Glen Donnelly and Lucy Robinson, who had not realised they were half-siblings when they began a relationship. Scenes involving the story are cut from Episode 1450, aired on 9 June, while Episodes 1451–1454 are edited together into one episode, which is transmitted the following day. The scenes were shown uncut in repeats aired by another channel some years later.
17 June - Almost 2,700,000 people are now out of work as unemployment continues to rise.
25 June - GDP is reported to have fallen by 0.5% in the first quarter of this year as the recession continues.
30 June - Margaret Thatcher takes her place in the House of Lords as Baroness Thatcher, nineteen months after resigning as Prime Minister.
July - Statistics show that the economy contracted during the second quarter of this year.
2 July - The IRA admits to murdering three men whose bodies were found by the army at various locations around Armagh last night. The men are believed to have been informers employed by MI5.
6 July – BBC1 launches the ill fated Eldorado, a soap about a group of ex-pats living in Spain. The series is axed the following year.
10 July - One of the first major signs of economic recovery is shown as inflation falls from 4.3% to 3.9%.
17 July - John Smith is elected leader of the Labour Party.
Official opening of Manchester Metrolink, the first new-generation light rail system with street running in the British Isles.
21 July - British Airways announces a takeover of USAir.
23 July - Three months after losing the general election, Labour finish four points ahead of the Conservatives in a MORI poll, with 43% of the vote.
25 July–9 August - Great Britain and Northern Ireland compete at the Olympics in Barcelona and win 5 gold, 3 silver and 12 bronze medals.
27 July - Alan Shearer becomes Britain's most expensive footballer in a £3.6 million transfer from Southampton to Blackburn Rovers. Shearer, who turns 22 next month, was a member of England's Euro 92 national squad, having scored on his debut in a friendly international against France earlier this year.
6 August - Lord Hope, the Lord President of the Court of Session, Scotland's most senior judge, permits the televising of appeals in both criminal and civil cases, the first time that cameras have been allowed into courts in the United Kingdom.
20 August - Intimate photographs of the Duchess of York and a Texan businessman, John Bryan, are published in the Daily Mirror.
27 August - Hugh McKiben (aged 19) becomes the 3,000th victim of the sectarian violence in Northern Ireland which began in 1969.
September - The former polytechnics re-open as universities.
5 September - Italian supercar manufacturer Ferrari announces that its Formula One division will be designing and manufacturing cars in Britain.
13 September - Nigel Mansell announces his retirement from Formula One racing.
16 September - "Black Wednesday" sees the government suspending Britain's membership of the European Exchange Rate Mechanism following a wave of speculation against the Pound.
17 September - There is more bad news for the economy as unemployment is at a five-year high of 2,845,508, and experts warn that it will soon hit 3,000,000 for the first time since early 1987.
18 September - The latest MORI poll shows the Labour Party four points ahead of the Conservatives at 43%, following the events of Black Wednesday two days earlier.
24 September - David Mellor resigns as Heritage Minister amid tabloid press speculation that he had been conducting an adulterous affair with actress Antonia de Sancha.
30 September - The Royal Mint introduces a new 10-pence coin which is lighter and smaller than the previous coin.
October - First Cochrane Centre opens.
Statistics show a return to economic growth for the third quarter of this year.
3 October – Comedian and television presenter Leslie Crowther sustains serious head injuries after his Rolls Royce veers out of control and crashes on the M5 near Cheltenham. He subsequently undergoes surgery to remove a blood clot on his brain.
9 October - Two suspected IRA bombs explode in London, but there are no injuries.
13 October - The government announces the closure of a third of Britain's deep coal mines, with the loss of 31,000 jobs.
14 October - The England football team begins its qualification campaign for the 1994 FIFA World Cup with a 1-1 draw against Norway at Wembley Stadium.
15 October - The value of the pound sterling is reported to have dipped further as the recession deepens.
16 October - The government attempts to tackle the recession by cutting the base interest rate to 8% - the lowest since June 1988.
19 October - John Major announces that only ten deep coal mines will be closed.
25 October - Around 100,000 people protest in London against the government's pit closure plans.
26 October - British Steel announces a 20% production cut as a result in falling demand from its worldwide customer base.
30 October - IRA terrorists force a taxi driver to drive to Downing Street at gunpoint and once there they detonate a bomb, but there are no injuries.
11 November - The Church of England votes to allow women to become priests.
12 November - British Telecom reports a £1.03 billion profit for the half year ending 30 September - a fall of 36.2% on the previous half year figure, as a result of the thousands of redundancies it has made this year due to the recession.
Unemployment has continued to climb and is now approaching 2,900,000. It has risen every month since June 1990, when it was below 1,700,000. The current level has not been seen since mid-1987.
16 November - Hoxne Hoard discovered by metal detectorist Eric Lawes in Suffolk.
19 November - The High Court rules that doctors can disconnect feeding tubes from Tony Bland, a 21-year-old man who has been in a coma since the Hillsborough disaster on 15 April 1989. Mr Bland, of Liverpool, suffered massive brain damage in the disaster which claimed the lives of 95 people and doctors treating him say that there is no reasonable possibility that he could recover consciousness and in his current condition would be unlikely to survive more than five years.
20 November - Fire breaks out in Windsor Castle, badly damaging the castle and causing over £50 million worth of damage.
24 November - The Queen describes this year as an Annus Horribilis (horrible year) due to various scandals damaging the image of the Royal Family, as well as the Windsor Castle fire.
26 November - The Queen is to be taxed from next year, marking the end of almost 60 tax-free years for the British monarchy.
Pepper v Hart, a landmark case, is decided in the House of Lords on the use of legislative history in statutory interpretation, establishing the principle that when primary legislation is ambiguous then, under certain circumstances, the courts may refer to statements made during its passage through Parliament in an attempt to interpret its intended meaning, an action previously regarded as a breach of parliamentary privilege.
29 November - Ethnic minorities now account for more than 3,000,000 (over 5%) of the British population.
1 December - The first episode of the children's series The Animals of Farthing Wood.
3 December - 1992 Manchester bombing: 65 people are injured by an IRA bomb in Manchester city centre but there are no fatalities.
9 December - The separation of Charles, Prince of Wales and Diana, Princess of Wales is announced following months of speculation about their marriage, but there are no plans for a divorce and prime minister John Major announces that Diana could still become Queen.
11 December - The last MORI poll of 1992 shows Labour thirteen points ahead of the Conservatives on 47%, just three months after several polls had shown the latter in the lead. Black Wednesday, which has damaged much of the government's reputation for monetary excellence, is largely blamed for the fall in Conservative support.
12 December - Marriage of Anne, Princess Royal, and Timothy Laurence.
16 December - Four people are injured by IRA bombs in Oxford Street, London.
Japanese carmaker Toyota opens a factory at Burnaston, near Derby, which produces the Carina family saloon.
17 December - The national unemployment level has risen to more than 2,900,000, with the unemployment rate in the south-east of England now above 10% for the first time.
Jonathan Zito is stabbed to death by Christopher Clunis, a partially treated schizophrenic patient.
23 December - The Queen's Royal Christmas Message is leaked in The Sun newspaper, 48 hours ahead of its traditional Christmas Day broadcast on television.
31 December - The ORACLE teletext service is discontinued on ITV and Channel 4 to be replaced by a new service operated by the Teletext Ltd. consortium. It had been launched on ITV in 1974 and used by Channel 4 since its inception in 1982.
The economy has grown in the final quarter of this year - the second successive quarter of economic growth - but the recovery is still too weak for the end of the recession to be declared.
Television
6 January – Goodbye Cruel World (1992)
7 January – Joshua Jones (1992)
8 January – Fiddley Foodle Bird (1992)
10 January – Grace & Favour (1992–1993)
12 January – As Time Goes By (1992–2005)
27 February – Us Girls (1992–1993)
25 June - 999 (1992–2003)
6 July – Eldorado (1992–1993)
17 September – Noddy's Toyland Adventures (1992–1999)
29 September – Funnybones (1992)
12 October – Good Morning with Anne and Nick (1992–1996)
BBC2
12 November – Absolutely Fabulous (1992–1996, 2001–2004, 2011–present)
ITV
3 January – The Good Guys (1992–1993)
25 January – The Cloning of Joanna May (1992)
18 February – Men Behaving Badly (1992–1998)
9 March – Junglies (1992–1993)
9 April - White Bear's Secret (1992)
10 April – Heartbeat (1992–2010)
26 July – TV Squash (1992)
30 July – Me, You and Him (1992)
5 September – What's Up Doc? (1992–1995)
10 October – Gladiators (1992–2000, 2008–2009)
20 November – In Bed with Medinner (1992–1999)
6 December – A Touch of Frost (1992–2010)
24-25 December - Merry Christmas, Mr. Bean (1992)
Channel 4
7 January - Games Master (1992–1998)
8 February – TV Heaven
11 September – Terry and Julian
28 September – The Big Breakfast (1992–2002)
Charts Number-one singles
"These Are the Days of Our Lives" - Queen
"Goodnight Girl" - Wet Wet Wet
"Stay" - Shakespear's Sister
"Deeply Dippy" - Right Said Fred
"Please Don't Go" - K.W.S.
"Ain't No Doubt" - Jimmy Nail
"Rhythm Is a Dancer" - Snap!
"Ebeneezer Goode" - The Shamen
"End of the Road" - Boyz II Men
"Would I Lie to You?" - Charles and Eddie
"I Will Always Love You" - Whitney Houston
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Tags: thatwastheyearthatwas1988
1988 The Hubble Space Telescope Goes into operation to explore deep space and is still in full use today mapping our universe. A bomb is exploded on Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie in Scotland on December 21st . Also Prozac is sold for the first time as an anti-depressant, some of the great movies that year included Rain Man, Die Hard and A Fish Called Wanda.
In the early 1980s, Britain had just begun to slough off its reliance on packet mash and tinned pineapple. With Delia, we discovered kiwi and cranberries; trend-setting restaurants proliferated and "seasonality" started to mean something again. The British tend to mainline on nostalgia, but who hankers for the traditional British culinary experience? Prawn cocktail, steaks that should have been sent to a burns unit, serviettes, frozen food, fondue, gateau festering on pudding trolleys, sliced bread…
In 1988, these were just some of our favourites. "Foreign" meant French. "Vegetarian" meant omelette. "Modern British" meant Garfunkel's. Food wasn't invented in Britain until 1987, the year the River Café opened in West London. In the provinces, it was later still. Nostalgia is a dish best served never.
Culinary innovations aside, 1988 boasts no seismic cultural shift – unlike, say, 1966 or 1977. It might have witnessed acid house's Second Summer of Love, but for most people it was the year Bros stole hearts, Neighbours became must-see after-school viewing and England crashed out of the European Championships in the first round.
Before the deregulating 1990 Broadcasting Act, there was no satellite television in this country. In 1988, British film was in good shape, thanks to the artistically stimulating output of the still-new FilmFour. Spitting Image still mattered, thanks to unbeatable material from the Thatcher government, which was also being wound up by ITV's documentary Death on the Rock. It was a time before the insane pressures of the global market, when films and TV programmes were made for their own sake, not pitched at demographics.
In 1988 the City of London was coming out of the Big Bang. The deregulation and competition that ensued has transformed London into the biggest international capital market, with banks such as HSBC and the Royal Bank of Scotland taking their place among the world's best.
1988: when Kylie, Cliff and Ghostbusters ruled
Best-selling single
Kevin Bacon and Kyra Sedgwick
Patsy Kensit and Dan Donavan
Michael J Fox and Tracy Pollan
Mike Tyson and Robin Givens
1988: Jumbo jet crashes onto Lockerbie
A Pan Am jumbo jet with 258 passengers on board has crashed on to the town of Lockerbie near the Scottish borders. Initial reports indicate it crashed into a petrol station in the centre of the town, between Carlisle and Dumfries, and burst into a 300-foot fireball. Hundreds are feared dead as airline officials said flight 103 was about two-thirds full with 255 adults and three children on board. Rescue teams have confirmed there are many casualties at the scene including townspeople who were on the ground. The Boeing 747 left London Heathrow at 1800 GMT bound for New York's JFK airport. Shortly after 1900 the flight disappeared from radar screens at Prestwick Air Traffic Control Centre.
At 1908-hrs there were reports by the Civil Air Traffic Control Authorities of an explosion on the ground 15 miles north of the Scottish border. Details of the accident are still unclear but there are unconfirmed reports the plane has ploughed into cars and houses. An eyewitness said the aircraft has hit a central part of the town in a residential area. "There was just a terrible explosion, you just couldn't describe it," he told the BBC. "It is just impossible to approach the town but at the time it went up there was a terrible explosion and the whole sky lit up. "It was virtually raining fire - it was just liquid fire."
Parts of the town are being evacuated and a hall has been converted into a refuge centre. Dumfries and Galloway Hospital, about 20 miles away, is on emergency alert.
Ambulances from southern Scotland and Cumbria have been sent to the scene. The RAF has sent personnel and helicopters from Scotland and Northern England, along with mountain rescue teams to help police. The A74 has been cordoned off after police reported several parked cars on fire. It is thought the plane would have been flying at about 31,000 ft over Lockerbie when it exploded.
In total 259 people aboard the flight and 11 on the ground died in the crash which took place 38 minutes after take-off. The debris from the aircraft was scattered across 845 square miles and the impact reached 1.6 on the Richter scale. The subsequent police investigation was the biggest ever mounted in Scotland and became a murder inquiry when evidence of a bomb was found.
Two men accused of being Libyan intelligence agents were eventually charged with planting the bomb. Abdelbaset ali Mohmed al-Megrahi was jailed for life in January 2001 following an 84-day trial under Scottish law, at Camp Zeist in Holland. His alleged accomplice, Al Amin Khalifa Fhimah, was found not guilty. In 2002 Al Megrahi's appeal against conviction was rejected.
1988: IRA gang shot dead in Gibraltar
The IRA has confirmed the three people shot dead by security forces in Gibraltar yesterday were members of an active service unit. They are reported to have planted a 500lb car bomb near the British Governor's residence. It was primed to go off tomorrow during a changing of the guard ceremony, which is popular with tourists.
The three - two men and a woman - were shot as they walked towards the border with Spain. Security officers say they were acting suspiciously and the officers who carried out the shootings believed their lives were in danger. The three dead have been named as Daniel McCann, 30 and Sean Savage, 24, both known IRA activists and Mairead Farrell, 31, the most senior member of the gang who had served 10 years for her part in the bombing of a hotel outside Belfast in 1976.
The Ministry of Defence confirmed last night military personnel had opened fire on three terrorist suspects. It said no weapons had been found at the scene. The shooting happened in mid-afternoon. One eyewitness said he had seen a man in jeans holding a pistol in both hands. He said the man was only four feet from one of those he killed. Police sealed off the area for several hours after the shooting. A robot was brought in to defuse the car bomb and troops patrolled the streets. Local residents were warned to stay indoors. The terrorists' target was the band and guard of the 1st Battalion Royal Anglian Regiment, which arrived in Gibraltar recently after a tour of duty in Northern Ireland.
Army intelligence officers have been expecting an IRA attack on a military target for some months after a series of setbacks for the Provisionals. Reports say 20 members of the IRA have been killed in the past 15 months. The Independent's Ireland correspondent, David McKittrick, said 1987 was "a bad year" for the IRA. They lost eight active service members in an SAS ambush in Country Antrim. He has raised speculation yesterday's killings in Gibraltar may also have been the work of the SAS.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=x7MBqTw2vl0
1988: Three shot dead at Milltown Cemetery
A gunman has killed three mourners and injured at least 50 people attending a funeral for IRA members shot dead in Gibraltar. It is understood he also threw four grenades into the crowd of 10,000 people gathered around the Republican plot at Milltown Cemetery in Roman Catholic west Belfast. The casualties have been taken to the Royal Victoria Hospital in Belfast in a fleet of private vehicles and 10 ambulances. Eyewitness reports describe mourners gripped with panic, screaming and shouting while others collapsed to the floor.
The initial shot was mistaken for an IRA salute as the dead, Mairead Farrell, 31, Daniel McCann, 30, and Sean Savage, 23, were buried. But shortly after 1300 GMT as the last of the three coffins was lowered into the joint grave, another shot was fired. Another shot was quickly followed by two blasts 50 yards away which is said to have sent black smoke and earth into the air. Several more shots were fired amid a burst of what is thought to be grenades.
Funeral stewards made repeated appeals for calm as the course of reconciliation in Northern Ireland faced another setback. There are some reports the man was then pursued by hundreds of youths oblivious to the danger.
The Northern Ireland Secretary Tom King, has condemned the attacks and appealed for calm, echoing calls from other political quarters including Sinn Fein president Gerry Adams. But Mr Adams accused the RUC of collusion in the attack. The RUC had agreed to stay away from the funeral after representations from the Roman Catholic church and political leaders. The Ulster Defence Association, the largest of the Protestant paramilitary organisations, denied any part in the attack. It added the outlawed Ulster Freedom Fighters had no part in today's events either.
The funerals were for three IRA members shot dead by British special forces in Gibraltar, where they were planning an attack on the British garrison. A lone loyalist gunman, Michael Stone, was chased by mourners at the cemetery but was arrested by police. The east Belfast man had been active on the fringes of loyalist para-militarism before the Milltown killings and was ultimately sentenced for a total of six murders when he eventually came to trial. The Ulster Freedom Fighters member was sentenced to a minimum of 30 years imprisonment by the trial judge.
But he was released in 2000, despite massive outrage, after serving 12 years under the terms of the Good Friday Agreement. In November 2006 he had his release licence suspended after he was arrested for bursting into Stormont claiming to have a bomb. He was charged with attempting to murder Sinn Fein's Gerry Adams and Martin McGuinness and with possessing an imitation firearm.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=yFfhkdHIVgA
Corporals Wood and Howes killed by IRA 1988
When two corporals in the British Army inadvertently drove into the midst of a republican funeral, their car was set upon by the crowd. They were dragged out and beaten before being shot dead by members of the IRA. These brutal killings marked the conclusion of a period of 14 days that was to prove one the darkest of Northern Ireland's Troubles. The incident was filmed by television cameras and the images have been described as some of the "most dramatic and harrowing" of the conflict in Northern Ireland.
1988 Timeline
January – Elizabeth Butler-Sloss becomes the first woman to be appointed a Lord Justice of Appeal.
3 January – Margaret Thatcher becomes the longest serving British prime minister this century, having been in power for eight years and 244 days.
4 January – Sir Robin Butler replaces Sir Robert Armstrong as Cabinet Secretary, on the same day that Margaret Thatcher makes her first state visit to Africa when she arrives in Kenya.
5 January – Actor Rowan Atkinson launches the new Comic Relief charity appeal.
7 January – Labour Party leader Neil Kinnock calls for a further £1.3 billion to made available for the National Health Service.
9 January – One of the worst incidents of football hooliganism this season sees 41 suspected hooligans arrested at the FA Cup third round tie between Arsenal and Millwall at Highbury.
11 January – The government announces that inflammable foam furniture will be banned from March next year.
14 January – Unemployment figures are released for the end of 1987, showing the 18th successive monthly fall. Just over 2,600,000 people are now jobless in the United Kingdom – the lowest total for seven years. More than 500,000 of the unemployed found jobs during 1987.
22 January – Colin Pitchfork is sentenced to life imprisonment after admitting the rape and murder of two girls in Leicestershire in 1983 and 1986, the first conviction for murder in the UK based on DNA fingerprinting evidence.
22 January – Peugeot's 405 saloon, winner of the European Car of the Year award, goes on sale in Britain.
23 January – David Steel announces that he will not stand for the leadership of the new Social and Liberal Democratic Party.
24 January – Arthur Scargill is re-elected as leader of the National Union of Mineworkers by a narrow majority.
28 January – The Birmingham Six lose an appeal against their convictions.
1 February – Victor Miller, a 33-year-old warehouse worker from Wolverhampton, confesses to the murder of 14-year-old Stuart Gough, who was found dead in Worcestershire last month.
3 February – Nurses throughout the UK strike for higher pay and more cash for the National Health Service.
4 February – Nearly 7,000 ferry workers go on strike in Britain, paralysing the nation's seaports.
5 February – The first BBC Red Nose Day raises £15 million for charity.
7 February – It is reported that more than 50% of men and 80% of women working full-time in London are earning less than the lowest sum needed to buy the cheapest houses in the capital.
13 – 28 February – Great Britain and Northern Ireland compete at the Winter Olympics in Calgary, Canada, but do not win any medals.
15 February – Norman Fowler, Secretary of State for Employment, announces plans for a new training scheme which the government hopes will give jobs to up to 600,000 people who are currently unemployed.
16 February – Thousands of nurses and co-workers form picket lines outside British hospitals as they go on strike in protest against what they see as inadequate NHS funding.
26 February – Multiple rapist and murderer John Duffy is sentenced to life imprisonment with a recommendation that he should never be released.
1 March – British Aerospace launches a takeover bid for the government-owned Rover Group, the largest British-owned carmaker.
3 March – The SDP merges with the Liberal Party to create the Social and Liberal Democratic Party. Its interim leaders are David Steel and Robert Maclennan. The merger means that the Liberal Party has ceased to exist after 129 years.
4 March – Halifax Building Society reveals that year-on-year house prices rose by 16.9% last month.
6 March – Operation Flavius: A Special Air Service team of the British Army shoots dead three unarmed members of a Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) Active Service Unit in Gibraltar.
7 March – Margaret Thatcher announces a £3 billion regeneration scheme to improve a series of inner city areas by the year 2000.
9 March – It is revealed that the average price of a house in Britain reached £60,000 at the end of last year, compared to £47,000 in December 1986.
10 March – The Prince of Wales narrowly avoids death in an avalanche while on a skiing holiday in Switzerland. Major Hugh Lindsay, former equerry to the Queen, is killed.
15 March – Chancellor Nigel Lawson announces that the standard rate of income tax will be cut to 25p in the pound, while the maximum rate of income tax will be cut to 40p from 60p in the pound.
16 March – Milltown Cemetery attack: Three men are killed and 70 are wounded in a gun and grenade attack by loyalist paramilitary Michael Stone on mourners at Milltown Cemetery in Belfast during the funerals of the three IRA members killed in Gibraltar.
17 March – The fall in unemployment continues with just over 2,500,000 people now registered as unemployed in the UK. However, there is a blow for the city of Dundee, when Ford Motor Company scraps plans to build a new electronics plant in the city – a move which ends hopes of 1,000 new jobs being created for this city which has high unemployment.
19 March – Corporals killings in Belfast: British Army corporals Woods and Howes are abducted, beaten and shot dead by Irish republicans after driving into the funeral cortege of IRA members killed in the Milltown Cemetery attack.
29 March – Plans are unveiled for Europe's tallest skyscraper to be built at Canary Wharf. The office complex will cost around £3 billion to build and is set to open in 1992.
9 April – The house price boom is reported to have boosted wealth in London and the south-east by £39 billion over the last four years, compared with an £18 billion slump in Scotland and north-west England.
10 April – Golfer Sandy Lyle becomes the first British winner of the US Masters.
21 April – The government announces that nurses will receive a 15% pay rise, at a cost of £794 million which will be funded by the Treasury.
24 April - Luton Town FC beat Arsenal in the Littlewoods Cup final at Wembley 3-2. The match was won in the 92nd minute with a goal by Brian Stein after Luton had come back from being 2-1 down and goalkeeper Andy Dibble saving a penalty in the 79th minute. Luton scorers Brian Stein and Danny Wilson. Attendance 96,000
May – The first 16-year-olds sit General Certificate of Secondary Education examinations, replacing both the O-level and CSE. The new qualifications are marked against objective standards rather than relatively.
2 May – Three off-duty British servicemen are killed in The Netherlands by the IRA.
6 May – Graeme Hick makes English cricket history by scoring 405 runs in a county championship match.
7 May – The proposed Poll tax, which is expected to come into force next year, will see the average house rise in value by around 20%, according to a study.
14 May – Wimbledon F.C., who have been Football League members for just 11 seasons and First Division members for two, win the FA Cup with a 1–0 win over league champions Liverpool at Wembley. Lawrie Sanchez scored the winning goal in the first half, while Liverpool's John Aldridge missed a penalty in the second half. In Scotland, Celtic beat Dundee United 2-1 in the Scottish Cup final with two late goals from Frank McAvennie to complete the Scottish double.
19 May - Unemployment is now below 2,500,000 for the first time since early 1981.
House prices in Norwich, one of the key beneficiaries of the current economic boom, have risen by 50% in the last year.
24 May - Local Government Act becomes law. The controversial Section 28 prevents local authorities from "promoting homosexuality". Local authorities are also obliged to outsource more services, and dog licences are abolished (except in Northern Ireland).
Albert Dock in Liverpool reopened by Prince Charles as a leisure and business centre including the Tate Liverpool art museum.
31 May – the BBC controversial film, Tumbledown is broadcast despite Ministry of Defence concern.
2 June – U.S. President Ronald Reagan makes a visit to Britain.
11 June – Some 80,000 people attend a concert at Wembley Stadium in honour of Nelson Mandela, the South African anti-apartheid campaigner who turned 70 on that day and has been in prison since 1964.
15 June – Five British soldiers are killed by the IRA in Lisburn.
16 June – More than 100 English football fans are arrested in West Germany in connection with incidents of football hooliganism during the European Championships.
18 June – England's participation in the European Football Champions ended when they finished bottom of their group having lost all three games.
23 June – Three gay rights activists invade the BBC television studios during the six o'clock bulletin of the BBC News.
July – The Freeze art exhibition is held at Surrey Docks in London Docklands, it is organised by Damien Hirst and is considered significant in the development of the Young British Artists.
5 July – The Church of England announces that it will allow the ordination of women priests from 1992.
6 July - Piper Alpha disaster oil rig in the North Sea explodes and results in the death of 167 workers.
A contractor's relief driver pours 20 tonnes of aluminium sulphate into the wrong tank at a water treatment plant near Camelford in Cornwall, causing extensive pollution to the local water supply.
18 July – Paul Gascoigne, 21-year-old midfielder, becomes the first £2 million footballer signed by a British club when he leaves Newcastle United and joins Tottenham Hotspur.
28 July – Paddy Ashdown, MP for Yeovil in Somerset, is elected as the first leader of the Social and Liberal Democratic Party.
28 July - Paddy Ashdown an ex-Royal Marine commando is elected leader of the Social Democrats and Liberal Democrats.
29 July – Most provisions of the Education Reform Act come into effect in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. The Act introduces Grant-maintained schools and Local Management of Schools, allowing schools to be taken out of the direct control of local government; a National Curriculum with Key Stages; an element of parental preference in the choice of schools; published league tables of school examination results; controls on the use of the word 'degree' by UK institutions; and abolition of tenure for new academics.
31 July – Economists warn that the house price boom is likely to end next year.
1 August – A British Army soldier is killed by IRA terrorists at Inglis Barracks in North London.
2 August – Everton F.C. pay £2.3 million for West Ham United striker Tony Cottee, 22, breaking the national record set six weeks ago by Paul Gascoigne's transfer.
8 August – The first child (a girl) of TRH The Duke and Duchess of York is born at Portland Hospital in London. She was fifth in line to the throne until the birth of Prince George of Cambridge on the 22 July 2013. She is currently sixth in line.
14 August – Scunthorpe United F.C.'s Glanford Park is opened; the first new stadium to be built by a Football League club since the 1950s. Their last game at their original ground, Old Showground, was on 18 May.
18 August – Ian Rush becomes the most expensive player to join a British club when he returns to Liverpool F.C. for £2.7 million after a year at Juventus in Italy.
20 August – Six British soldiers are killed by an IRA bomb near Belfast. 27 other people are injured.
22 August - New licensing laws allow pubs to stay open all day in England and Wales.
The Duke and Duchess of York's 14-day-old daughter is named Beatrice Elizabeth Mary.
29 August – 14-year-old Matthew Sadler becomes Britain's youngest international chess master.
31 August – Postal workers walk out on strike over a dispute concerning bonuses paid to recruit new workers in London and the South East.
3 September – Economic experts warn that the recent economic upswing for most of the developed world is almost over, and that these countries – including Britain – face a recession in the near future.
9 September – The England cricket team's tour to India is cancelled after Captain Graham Gooch and seven other players are refused visas because of involvement in South African cricket during the apartheid boycott.
13 September – Royal Mail managers and Union of Communication Workers representatives agree a settlement to end the postal workers strike.
17 September – 2 October – Great Britain and Northern Ireland compete at the Olympics in Seoul, South Korea, and win 5 gold, 10 silver and 9 bronze medals.
24 September – The house price boom is reported to be slowing as a result of increased mortgage rates.
30 September – A Gibraltar jury decides that the 3 IRA members killed on 6 March were killed "lawfully".
October – Vauxhall launches the third generation of its popular Cavalier family saloon.
9 October – Labour MP and Shadow Chancellor John Smith, 50, is hospitalised with a heart attack in Edinburgh.
12 October – As Pope John Paul II addresses the European Parliament, Ian Paisley heckles and denounces him as the Antichrist.
13 October – The House of Lords rules that extracts of the banned book Spycatcher can be published in the media.
18 October – Jaguar unveils its new Jaguar XJ220 supercar at the Motor Show. It is set go into production in 1990, costing £350,000 and being the world's fastest production car with a top speed of 220 mph.
27 October – Three IRA supporters are found guilty of conspiracy to murder in connection with a plot to kill Secretary of State for Northern Ireland Tom King.
28 October – British Rail announces a 21% rise in the cost of long distance season tickets.
2 November – Victor Miller is sentenced to life imprisonment for the murder of Stuart Gough.
4 November – Margaret Thatcher presses for freedom for the people of Poland on her visit to Gdańsk.
9 November – The government unveils plans for a new identity card scheme in an attempt to clamp down on football hooliganism.
15 November - The Education Secretary, Kenneth Baker, says that the national testing will place great emphasis on grammar.
30 November – A government report reveals that up to 50,000 people in Britain may be HIV positive, and that by the end of 1992 up to 17,000 people may have died from AIDS.
A bronze statue of former prime minister Clement Attlee, who died in 1967, is unveiled outside Limehouse Library in London by fellow former prime minister Harold Wilson.
3 December – Health minister Edwina Currie provokes outrage by stating that most of Britain's egg production is infected with the salmonella bacteria, causing an immediate nationwide fall in egg sales.
6 December – The last shipbuilding facilities on Wearside, once the largest shipbuilding area in the world, are to close with the loss of 2,400 jobs.
10 December – James W. Black wins the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine jointly with Gertrude B. Elion and George H. Hitchings "for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment".
12 December – 35 people are killed in a collision between three trains at Clapham in London.
15 December – Unemployment is now only just over 2,100,000 – the lowest level for almost eight years.
16 December – Edwina Currie resigns as Health minister.
19 December - The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors publishes its house price survey, revealing a deep recession in the housing market.
PC Gavin Carlton, 29, is shot dead in Coventry in a siege by two armed bank robbers. His colleague DC Leonard Jakeman is also shot but survives. One of the gunmen gives himself up to police, while the other shoots himself dead.
20 December – The three-month-old daughter of the Duke and Duchess of York is christened Beatrice Elizabeth Mary.
21 December – Pan Am Flight 103 explodes over the Scottish town of Lockerbie, Dumfries and Galloway killing a total of 270 people – 11 on the ground and all 259 who were on board. It is believed that the cause of the explosion was a terrorist bomb.
Inflation remains low for the seventh year running, now standing at 4.9%.
1988 in British television
4 January – BBC1 moves the repeat episode of Neighbours to a 5:35pm evening slot, the decision to do this having been made by controller Michael Grade on the advice of his daughter.
6 January – All ITV regions network Emmerdale Farm in the Wednesday and Thursday 6.30pm slot.
11 January – The first episode of the game show Fifteen to One airs on Channel 4.
25–29 January – TV-am airs a week of live broadcasts from Sydney to celebrate Australia's bicentenary.
5 February – Comic Relief airs its Red Nose Day fundraiser on BBC1.
13–28 February – The 1988 Winter Olympics are held in Calgary, Alberta and broadcast to television audiences around the world.
15 February – Red Dwarf makes its debut on BBC2.
20 February – London's Burning makes its debut as a regular series on ITV, having been developed from Jack Rosenthal's original 1986 film.
19 March – Two off-duty British soldiers are killed after stumbling into an IRA funeral procession in Belfast. Footage of the incident is captured by journalists and widely broadcast.
22 March – Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher tells the House of Commons that journalists have a "bounden duty" to assist the police investigation into the corporals killings by handing over their footage. Many have refused to do so fearing it could place them in danger.
23 March – Film of the corporals killings is seized from the BBC and ITN under the Prevention of Terrorism and Emergency Provisions Acts.
4 April – The original series of Crossroads airs for the last time on ITV. It returns in 2001 before being axed again in 2003.
6 April – ITV's chart show The Roxy airs for the last time.
15 April – The Pogues perform their controversial hit Streets of Sorrow/Birmingham Six – a song expressing support for those convicted over the Guildford and Birmingham pub bombings – on the Ben Elton Channel 4 show Friday Night Live. The song is cut short, however, by a commercial break.
28 April – ITV broadcasts Death on the Rock, a hugely controversial episode of Thames Television's This Week current affairs strand, investigating Operation Flavius, which resulted in the SAS killing three members of the IRA in Gibraltar on 6 March.
16 May – The youth strand DEF II is launched on BBC2.
30 May – Debut of Charles Wood's screenplay Tumbledown about the experiences of Scots Guard Robert Lawrence, who was left paralysed after being shot in the head by a sniper at the Battle of Mount Tumbledown during the Falklands War.
8 June – Television presenter Russell Harty dies aged 53.
Media mogul Rupert Murdoch announces to the British Academy of Film and Television Arts his intention to launch a new news service. Sky News is launched at 6.00pm on 5 February 1989.
11 June – The Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute concert is staged at Wembley Stadium, London, and broadcast to 67 countries and an audience of 600 million. It was broadcast on BBC 2.
23 June – Three gay rights activists invade the BBC studios during a six o'clock bulletin of the BBC News.
19 July – The Bill broadcasts the first episode of its fourth season and switches to a year-round serial format.
3 August – Brookside is moved from Tuesdays to Wednesdays which means the soap can now be seen on Mondays and Wednesdays.
31 August – ITV airs a version of The Hound of the Baskervilles starring Jeremy Brett and Edward Hardwicke.
8 September – Channel 4 drops plans to invite Sinn Féin leader Gerry Adams to appear on an edition of its late night discussion programme After Dark following
objections from other contributors.
17 September–2 October – The 1988 Summer Olympics are held in Seoul, South Korea and broadcast to television audiences around the world.
30 September – Television presenters Mike Smith and Sarah Greene are seriously injured in a helicopter crash in Gloucestershire.
3 October – The magazine programme This Morning makes its debut. It is presented by Richard Madeley and Judy Finnigan until 2001.
19 October – Home Secretary Douglas Hurd issues a notice under clause 13 of the BBC Licence and Agreement to the BBC and under section 29 of the Broadcasting Act 1981 to the Independent Broadcasting Authority prohibiting the broadcast of direct statements by representatives or supporters of 11 Irish political and military organisations. The ban lasts until 1994, and denies the UK news media the right to broadcast the voices, though not the words, of all Irish republican and Loyalist paramilitaries. The restrictions – targeted primarily at Sinn Féin – means that actors are used to speak the words of any representative interviewed for radio and television.
25 October – As the 25th anniversary of the assassination of John F. Kennedy approaches ITV airs the two part documentary The Men Who Killed Kennedy, a film which explores discrepancies and inconsistencies in the US Government's official version of events.
2 November – In the House of Commons, an amendment introduced by the opposition Labour Party condemning the government's decision over the broadcasting ban as "incompatible with a free society" is rejected, despite some Conservative MPs voting with Labour.
Evacuation, an episode of ITV's The Bill features one of the series early prominent events - an explosion at Sun Hill police station.
8 November – BBC1 airs Episode 523 of Neighbours featuring the wedding of Scott Robinson and Charlene Mitchell, which is watched by 20 million viewers.
13 November–18 December – The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, one of C.S. Lewis's Chronicles of Narnia, is aired as a six-part TV serial by the BBC, featuring actors including Ronald Pickup, Barbara Kellerman and Michael Aldridge.
23 November – The BBC science fiction series Doctor Who celebrates its 25th anniversary and begins the three part serial Silver Nemesis.
24 November – Frank Ruse, a left-wing Labour councillor for Liverpool City Council accompanies Liverpool's Pagoda Chinese Youth Orchestra to London for an appearance on Blue Peter. He is given a Blue Peter badge, but later receives a BBC headed letter requesting its return. The letter (later discovered to be a forgery) claims the programme had been approached by the office of Labour leader Neil Kinnock expressing concern that a councillor with hard-left views had been given a Blue Peter badge. Upon receiving the returned badge, the BBC writes back to Ruse stating that it had not sent the letter. The incident prompts Ruse to start an enquiry to find out who sent the hoax letter.
26 November – Tugs a children's model animated series made by Clearwater Features (the company behind the first two seasons of Thomas the Tank Enigne & Friends) debuts on ITV.
1 December – ITV's ORACLE Teletext service launches Park Avenue, a teletext based soap opera. It is written by Robert Burns and runs until ORACLE loses its franchise at the end of 1992.
3 December – Comedian Steve Tandy wins New Faces of '88.
11 December – Launch date of the Astra Satellite. The satellite will provide television coverage to Western Europe and is revolutionary as one of the first medium-powered satellites, allowing reception with smaller dishes than has previously been possible.
13 December – Central airs the final episode of Sons and Daughters making it the first ITV region to complete the series.
22 December – BBC1 airs Civvy Street, a spin-off episode of EastEnders set during World War II.
25 December – The final edition of It's a Knockout to air on BBC1 is another celebrity special, It's a Charity Knockout From Walt Disney World, featuring teams of celebrities from the United Kingdom, United States and Australia. The series returns to S4C in 1991.
26–30 December – As part of a Christmas special, Channel 4 soap Brookside airs five episodes over five consecutive days.
Ulster Television in Northern Ireland is the last in the ITV network to begin 24-hour transmission.
BBC1
3 January – First of the Summer Wine (1988–1989)
3 May – 4 Square (1988–1991)
30 May – Tumbledown
3 September – Noel's Saturday Roadshow (1988–1990)
12 September – Stoppit and Tidyup (1988)
18 September – On the Record (1988–2002)
17 October – Playdays (1988–1997)
20 October – Charlie Chalk (1988–1989)
29 December – You Rang, M'Lord? (1988–1993)
BBC2
15 February – Red Dwarf (1988–1999, 2012–present)
9 May – DEF II (1988–1994)
18 October – Colin's Sandwich (1988–1990)
ITV
4 January – After Henry (1988–1992)
20 February – You Bet! (1988–1997)
London's Burning (1988–2002)
16 April – All Clued Up (1988–1991)
19 July - Wheel of Fortune (1988–2001)
26 July – I Can Do That (1988–1991)
3 September – The Hit Man and Her (1988–1992)
6 September – Count Duckula (1988–1993)
3 October – This Morning (1988—present)
24 November – Children's Ward (1988–2000)
26 November - TUGS (1988–1989)
1 December – Park Avenue on ORACLE (1988–1992)
3 December – How to Be Cool (1988)[14]
Channel 4
11 January – Fifteen to One (1988–2003, 2013–present)
23 September – Whose Line Is It Anyway? (1988–1998)
Charts Number-one singles
"Always on My Mind" - Pet Shop Boys
"Heaven Is a Place on Earth" - Belinda Carlisle
"I Think We're Alone Now" - Tiffany
"I Should Be So Lucky" - Kylie Minogue
"Don't Turn Around" - Aswad
"With a Little Help from My Friends" - Wet Wet Wet / Billy Bragg
"Doctorin' the Tardis" - The Timelords
"I Owe You Nothing" - Bros
"Nothing's Gonna Change My Love For You" - Glenn Medeiros
"The Only Way Is Up" - Yazz and the Plastic Population
"A Groovy Kind of Love" - Phil Collins
"He Ain't Heavy, He's My Brother" - The Hollies
"Desire" - U2
"One Moment in Time" - Whitney Houston
"Orinoco Flow (Sail Away)" - Enya
"First Time" - Robin Beck
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Tags: thatwastheyearthatwas1987
1987 After many years of research a new drug AZT is used for the treatment of AIDS. After a long period of growth the US stockmarket drops 22.6% in one day on October 19th and throughout the rest of the world major falls are recorded by the end of October with Hong Kong dropping by 45.8%. In the UK 2 major transport disasters happen when A cross-channel ferry capsizes and an underground fire in Kings Cross Tube Station. England also suffers one of the worst storms in history when Hurricane force winds hit much of the South of England.
Events from the year 1987 in the United Kingdom. At the beginning of the year, the Archbishop of Canterbury's envoy Terry Waite was kidnapped in Lebanon and remained a hostage until 1991. The major political event of this year was the re-election of Margaret Thatcher in June, making her the longest continuously serving Prime Minister since Lord Liverpool in the early 19th century. The year was also marked by a number of disasters — the sinking of the ferry MS Herald of Free Enterprise, the Hungerford massacre, the "Great Storm", the Remembrance Day Bombing in Northern Ireland and the King's Cross fire.
In 1987 three million people were out of work; the "big bang" had just revolutionised the City and there was wide concern that exorbitant salaries would distort pay scales; as heavy industry collapsed, what became known as the underclass was swelling; there had been riots in Tottenham; the gap between state and private education was becoming a chasm; beggars were back in the underpasses and the doorways of London's West End; the NHS was, as ever, a political minefield.
Margaret Thatcher secures her third term in office
11 June – The 1987 General Election sees Margaret Thatcher secure her third term in office. However, her majority is reduced to 102 compared to the 144 seat majority gained at the election four years ago. High profile casualties of the election include the SDP's former leader Roy Jenkins (once a Labour Home Secretary) and the Ulster Unionist Party's 75-year-old Enoch Powell (a former Conservative MP). Four ethnic minority candidates are successful: Diane Abbott, Paul Boateng, Bernie Grant and Keith Vaz. Among the MP's retiring from parliament is 75-year-old James Callaghan, the former prime minister.
DNA profiling
In 1987, in the first ever mass DNA screen, the police and forensic scientists screened blood and saliva samples from 4,000 men aged between 17 and 34 who lived in the villages of Enderby, Narborough and nearby Littlethorpe and did not have an alibi for murders. The turn out rate was 98%, but the screen did not find any matches to the semen samples. The police and scientists expanded the screen to men with an alibi, but still did not find a match.
In August 1987, a woman overheard a colleague, Ian Kelly, boasting that he had given a sample posing as a friend of his, Colin Pitchfork. Pitchfork had persuaded Kelly to take the test as he claimed he had already given a sample for a friend who had a flashing conviction. The police arrested Colin Pitchfork in September 1987, and scientists found that his DNA profile matched that of the murderer.
Colin Pitchfork had previous convictions for flashing, and claimed that the murders had begun as flashings, but the girls had run away, which had excited him. In January 1988, Colin Pitchfork was sentenced to life imprisonment for the murders, and was told he had to serve a minimum of 30 years.
A British scientist, Sir Alec Jeffreys, developed DNA profiling in the 1980s. DNA for profiling can be extracted from samples of human cells found at a Crime Scene, including blood, semen, skin, saliva, mucus, perspiration and the roots of hair, and Profiling can even be carried out on old and dried out samples.
The case of Colin Pitchfork was the first murder conviction based on DNA profiling evidence (there was a previous rape conviction based on this type of evidence).
1987: Gunman kills 14 in Hungerford rampage
A man has shot 14 people dead in the Berkshire town of Hungerford. Police identified the gunman as Michael Ryan, 27. Local people described him as a "loner" and a "gun fanatic". Ryan was armed with an automatic rifle, a pistol and at least one hand grenade when he went on the rampage early on Wednesday afternoon. His victims included his mother and a police officer who tried to tackle him in Hungerford which lies about 60 miles (96km) west of London. At least 16 people are known to have been injured.
Ryan's first victim was a woman he shot dead as she picnicked with her two children in Savernake Forest about 10 miles (16km) from Hungerford. Soon afterwards at 1245, an armed man - identified by witnesses as Ryan - fired at a woman cashier in a nearby petrol station but missed. Less than 10 minutes later firefighters were called to a house fire in Hungerford where they found the body of a woman believed to be the gunman's mother.
'Fired without warning'
By 1300 Ryan had moved on to Hungerford's main shopping area where he fired indiscriminately killing at least 12 people. Witnesses spoke of a heavily armed man in combat gear who opened fire without warning. As police realised the seriousness of the incident armed officers and helicopters were rushed to the area. But for much of the afternoon Ryan managed to evade the huge manhunt and was only later tracked down to a school on the outskirts of town. The building is now surrounded by armed police and negotiators have been brought in to persuade the gunman to give himself up.
Michael Ryan later turned his gun on himself and was found dead inside the school by police. The death toll eventually reached 16. At the time the incident was the worst mass killing of recent times in Britain. It led to tighter restrictions on gun ownership with the introduction of the Firearms (Amendment) Act of 1988. Critics said the legislation did not go far enough to prevent other massacres occurring.
In March 1996 Thomas Hamilton shot dead 16 school children and their teacher in the Scottish town of Dunblane.
1987: Hurricane winds batter southern England
15 October – During a weather forecast, BBC meteorologist Michael Fish reports "Earlier on today, apparently, a woman rang the BBC and said she heard there was a hurricane on the way; well, if you're watching, don't worry, there isn't, but having said that, actually, the weather will become very windy, but most of the strong winds, incidentally, will be down over Spain and across into France.". Hours later, Britain is hit by the worst storm for 284 years. Fish later drew criticism for the comments, but has since claimed that they referred to Florida, USA, and were linked to a news story immediately preceding the weather bulletin, but had been so widely repeated out of context that the British public remains convinced that he was referring to the approaching storm.
Southern Britain has begun a massive clear-up operation after the worst night of storms in living memory. At least 13 people are known to have died and many dozens have been injured, mostly by falling trees and buildings. Rescue workers faced an unprecedented number of call-outs as winds hit 94 mph (151 km/h) in the capital and over 110 mph (177 km/h) in the Channel Islands.
Weather forecasters have faced criticism for failing to predict the severity of the weather.
The worst affected areas were along the south coast - in Kent five people died including two seamen in Dover Harbour, and in Dorset two firemen were killed as they answered an emergency call. The stormy weather was first predicted at the beginning of the week when the Meteorological Office identified a depression strengthening over the Atlantic.
Last night BBC weatherman Michael Fish reassured viewers the system would track along the English Channel, but instead it cut a swathe right across the south of the country.
Commuters were today advised to stay at home as hundreds of roads and railway lines remain blocked by fallen trees. Some houses and apartments had their roofs blown off. On the Isle of Wight the famous Shanklin Pier, nearly a century old, was reduced to driftwood and in Jaywick, Essex, a caravan park was flattened.
Along the south coast damage to yachts and boat yards was extensive. In Folkestone a Sea Link ferry was blown aground and its crew had to be rescued. The insurance industry is bracing itself for huge payouts. Most household policies cover storm damage, and thousands of homeowners have already started claims. In the London of Borough of Ealing alone, 600 calls came from people whose homes and cars had been struck by falling trees and debris.
Len Turner of Ealing Council said central funding from the government might be needed to deal with the exceptional clean-up costs local councils are facing. "It's going to take an enormous amount of effort and money; I hope we can look to the Government to support us because the burden on local rate payers is going to be enormous."
1987: Lester Piggott jailed for three years
Former champion jockey, Lester Piggott, has been sentenced to three years imprsionment after being found guilty of an alleged tax fraud of over £3m. The 51-year-old remained stony-faced as he was sentenced by Mr Justice Farquharson at Ipswich Crown Court. But his wife, Susan, collapsed in tears as he was taken to Norwich prison.
Piggott was jailed after failing to declare income to the Inland Revenue of £3.25m. The biggest sum on the charge sheet relates to an alleged omission of £1,359,726 from additional riding income. Another alleged that for 14 years, from 1971, he omitted income of £1,031,697 from bloodstock operations.
False declarations
Piggott, whose personal fortune is estimated at £20m, is said to have used different names to channel his earnings in secret bank accounts in Switzerland, the Bahamas, Singapore and the Cayman Islands. The nine times Derby winner has been prosecuted in the biggest individual income tax-dodging case ever brought in Britain and the sentence is the highest to be passed for a personal tax fraud. Piggott was charged after a joint Customs and Inland Revenue investigation, codenamed Centaur after the halfman, half-horse beast of mythology, into his affairs. The jockey was said to have signed false declarations to the Inland Revenue during three successive inquiries into his tax affairs between 1970 and 1985.
The judge remarked that Piggott even misled his own accountants "until the matter was forced out of you" last year. Other leading jockeys and racing figures were also questioned during the inquiry but the Inland Revenue said it was "too early to say" whether more prosecutions will follow. Top racing figures have been left stunned by the punishment imposed on Piggott, who has become a household name throughout the world. The champion jockey, Pat Eddery said: "I am shocked and very sad. I did not think he would get three years, but the law is the law."
The sentence was condemned as a "terrible injustice" by the Newmarket trainer, David Thom, who said Piggott had put "more money in the taxman's coffers than any 100 people could have done." But appeals for leniency by Mr John Mathew, QC, Piggott's counsel, had been rejected by the judge, who said he could not "pass over" the scale of Piggott's VAT and income tax evasion without an invitation to others tempted to cheat. He will be eligible for parole after one year or if early release is refused, could earn remission of one year for good behaviour.
1987 Timeline
January - Most of Britain is affected by heavy snow and sub zero temperatures.
1 January – Personal Equity Plans permitting tax-free investments in shares are introduced.
2 January – Golliwogs are banned from Enid Blyton books by their publisher and replaced by politically correct gnomes following complaints that golliwogs were offensive to black people.
4 January – Economists predict that unemployment will fall below 3,000,000 by the end of this year.
5 January – Harold Macmillan, Lord Stockton, former prime minister, is buried in the village of Horsted Keynes, having died on 29 December at the age of 92.
7 January – Telford, the new town created in Shropshire some 20 years ago, is reported to have the highest unemployment rate in the West Midlands region, even eclipsing the unemployment levels seen in the city of Birmingham and nearby towns including Wolverhampton, Brierley Hill, Wednesbury and Bilston, which have lost a large percentage of traditional heavy industry since the late 1970s, although Brierley Hill's unemployment crisis is beginning to ease with the ongoing development of the Merry Hill Shopping Centre, which already includes two retail parks and a large shopping mall and is set to expand even further by the end of the decade.
13 January – Prince Edward leaves the Royal Marines just three months after joining.
14 January – Heavy snow falls across Britain leaving houses, towns, roads, railways and motor vehicles stranded and blocked.
15 January – Unemployment is reported to have fallen in December 1986 for the fifth month in succession.
20 January - Terry Waite, the special envoy of the Archbishop of Canterbury in Lebanon, disappears in Beirut while negotiating for the release of hostages.
Police arrest 26 suspected football hooligans across Britain after a mass operation.
30 January – The flotation of British Airways begins.
11 February - British Airways is privatised and listed on the London Stock Exchange.
Cynthia Payne is acquitted of controlling prostitutes in her London home.
12 February – Edwina Currie sparks controversy by stating that "good Christians won't get AIDS".
24 February – It is alleged that six Nazi war criminals are living in Britain.
26 February - Church of England's General Synod votes to allow the ordination of women.
Rosie Barnes wins the Greenwich seat for the SDP from Labour in a by-election.
3 March – National Health Service prescription charges rise from £2.20 to £2.40.
6 March - British ferry MS Herald of Free Enterprise capsizes while leaving the harbour of Zeebrugge, Belgium, killing 193 on board.
The value of the pound is at a five-year high.
13 March – 25-year-old Matthew Taylor wins Truro for the Liberals in the by-election caused by the death of David Penhaligon three months ago.
19 March – Winston Silcott, a 28-year-old black man, is sentenced to life imprisonment for the murder of PC Keith Blakelock in the Tottenham riots 17 months ago.
23 March – 31 people are injured when a suspected IRA bomb explodes at a British army barracks in Rheindahlen, West Germany.
27 March – Neil Kinnock meets Ronald Reagan in Washington DC.
29 March – Margaret Thatcher visits Moscow.
30 March – Christie's auction house in London sells one of Vincent van Gogh's iconic Sunflowers paintings for £24,750,000.
1 April – MP's vote against the restoration of the death penalty by 342–230.
3 April – The jewellery of the late Duchess of Windsor is sold at auction for £31 million, six times the expected value.
5 April - Arsenal win the Football League Cup for the first time in their history with a 2-1 win over Liverpool, earning them their first major trophy since 1979. Charlie Nicholas scores both of Arsenal's goals.
16 April – Conservative MP Harvey Proctor appears in Court charged with gross indecency.
22 April – The former prime minister Jim Callaghan is appointed to the Order of the Garter. He will be retiring from parliament after the general election.
29 April – Chancellor Nigel Lawson promises that the United Kingdom will soon have an income tax rate of 25p in the pound.
30 April – The House of Lords approve the sterilisation of a "mentally subnormal" 17-year-old female.
4 May - Everton win the Football League First Division title for the ninth time in their history.
8 May – Soldiers of the SAS kill eight members of the Provisional Irish Republican Army at Loughgal, County Antrim.
11 May - Margaret Thatcher calls a general election for 11 June, with most of the opinion polls pointing towards her securing a third successive election victory for the Conservatives, with the Labour opposition expected to increase its share of votes and seats in its first general election under the leadership of Neil Kinnock.
British Rail renames Second class as Standard class.
14 May – Unemployment has fallen to 3,107,128.
15 May – Family Law Reform Act removes remaining legal distinctions between children born to married and unmarried parents.
16 May – Coventry City F.C. win the FA Cup for the first time in their history with a 3–2 win in the final over Tottenham Hotspur, who had won all of their previous seven FA Cup finals.
25 May - Aldershot F.C. become the first team to win promotion through the new Football League playoffs, winning promotion from the Fourth Division with a 3-0 aggregate win over their illustrious opponents Wolverhampton Wanderers (who have a total of eight major trophies to their name, the most recent just seven years ago). The Hampshire club have already condemned another illustrious side, Bolton Wanderers (four times FA Cup winners) to relegation to the Fourth Division for the first time in their history.
3 June – The last MORI poll before the general election shows the Conservatives 11 points ahead of Labour with 43% of the vote, while the Liberal/SDP Alliance's support stands at 24% and their hopes of building on their result at the last election look exceedingly slim.
11 June – The 1987 General Election sees Margaret Thatcher secure her third term in office. However, her majority is reduced to 102 compared to the 144 seat majority gained at the election four years ago. High profile casualties of the election include the SDP's former leader Roy Jenkins (once a Labour Home Secretary) and the Ulster Unionist Party's 75-year-old Enoch Powell (a former Conservative MP). Four ethnic minority candidates are successful: Diane Abbott, Paul Boateng, Bernie Grant and Keith Vaz. Among the MP's retiring from parliament is 75-year-old James Callaghan, the former prime minister.
18 June – Unemployment has fallen below 3 million for the first time since 1981 after the biggest monthly fall in unemployment since records began in 1948 seeing more than 100,000 of the unemployed find jobs in May.
19 June - Howard Kendall, managers of Football League champions Everton, resigns to take over of Atletico Bilbao in Spain. His successor at Everton is the club's assistant manager Colin Harvey.
22 June – Race riots break out in the Chapeltown area of Leeds.
25 June – A MORI poll shows support for the Conservative Party stands at almost 50% – the highest during Mrs Thatcher's time as leader.
29 June – 25 years after the first James Bond film was released, the 15th Bond film is released – with the spy now being played by Timothy Dalton.
30 June – Peter Beardsley, the 26-year-old England striker, becomes the most expensive player transferred between British clubs when he completes a £1.9 million move from Newcastle United to Liverpool.
12 July – £60 million is stolen during the Knightsbridge Security Deposit robbery.
16 July - British Airways and British Caledonian agree a £237 million merger.
Unemployment is reported to be down to just over 2,900,000.
22 July – Palestinian cartoonist Naji al-Ali is shot in London; his condition is described as "critical".
24 July – Novelist and former Conservative MP Jeffrey Archer wins a libel case against Daily Star over allegations that he was involved in a vice ring.
29 July – The Channel Tunnel is given the go-ahead after Margaret Thatcher and François Mitterrand ratify the Treaty of Canterbury. It is expected to be open within six years.
31 July - The Attorney General institutes legal proceedings against The Daily Telegraph to prevent it publishing details from the book Spycatcher.
The Queen opens the Docklands Light Railway in London, the first driver-less railway in Great Britain.
August – Rick Astley’s Never Gonna Give You Up is released, the first of eight singles to reach the Top 10 in the UK.
4 August – Just months after confessing to a further two murders, the Moors Murderer Ian Brady claims that he committed a further five murders.
6 August – Dr David Owen resigns as leader of the Social Democratic Party after its members vote to merge with the Liberal Party.
10 August – One person a day in Britain is now reported to be dying of AIDS.
13 August - First building of post-war design to be Listed: Bracken House in the City of London, designed by Sir Albert Richardson as the Financial Times headquarters (1955–9).
Unemployment continues to fall, with the 12th successive monthly fall bringing the national total to less than 2.9 million.
19 August - Michael Ryan shoots dead 14 people in the Berkshire town of Hungerford before taking his own life with a rifle. 16 people are injured, some of them seriously.
Order of the Garter is opened to women.
21 August – The Hungerford massacre death toll rises to 16 with the deaths of two more victims in hospital from their injuries.
27 August – Robert Maclennan replaces David Owen as leader of the Social Democratic Party.
29 August – Naji Salim al-Ali dies in hospital more than five weeks after being shot.
30 August – David Owen forms a breakaway SDP.
7 September – Ford completes its takeover of the luxury sports car company Aston Martin.
9 September – 25 Liverpool football fans are extradited to Belgium to face charges of manslaughter in connection with the Heysel Stadium disaster more than two years ago.
11 September – The government unveils plans to abolish the Inner London Education Authority.
22 September – The government bans automatic weapons of the type used by Hungerford killer Michael Ryan.
23 September – An Australian court lifts the ban on the publication of Spycatcher.
October - Construction work begins on the extension to the M40 motorway between Oxford and Birmingham. It is hoped that the motorway, providing an alternative route to the M6 and M1 from the midlands to London as well as improving road links with the midlands and the South Coast ports, will be fully operational by 1990.
1 October – Swedish home product retailer IKEA opens its first British store at Warrington in Cheshire.
9 October – Margaret Thatcher tells the Conservative Party Conference in Blackpool that she wants to continue as prime minister until 1994 and the age of 69, which would make her Britain's oldest prime minister since Harold Macmillan in 1963.
11 October – £1 million pound Operation Deepscan in Loch Ness fails to locate the legendary Loch Ness Monster.
15 – 16 October – Great Storm: Hurricane force winds batter much of south-east England, killing 23 people and causing extensive damage to property.
18 October – Two days after the end of the storm in south-east England, some 250,000 homes in the region are still without electricity.
19 October – Black Monday: Wall Street crash leads to £50 billion being wiped of the value of shares on the London stock exchange.
23 October – Retired English jockey Lester Piggott is jailed for 3 years after being convicted of tax evasion.
25 October – Peugeot begins production of its second car – the 405 four-door saloon – at the Ryton plant near Coventry. The first customers are set to take delivery of their cars after Christmas. A French-built estate version will be launched next year.
1 November – British Rail establishes a world speed record for diesel traction, 238.9 km/h (148.4 mph) with a test InterCity 125 formation between Darlington and York.
2 November – Peter Brooke succeeds Norman Tebbit as chairman of the Conservative Party.
3 November – It is announced that unemployment in Britain fell quicker during October than in any other European country.
5 November – London City Airport opens.
8 November – Enniskillen bombing: Eleven people are killed by a Provisional Irish Republican Army bomb at a Remembrance Day service at Enniskillen.
11 November – Customs officers in Southampton seize more than £50 million worth of cocaine – the most expensive haul of the drug ever found in Britain.
12 November – Unemployment has fallen to 2.7 million (just under 10% of the workforce), the lowest level of unemployment in Britain for over six years.
17 November – The government announces that the Poll tax (community charge) will be introduced in April 1990.
18 November – A fire at Kings Cross on the London Underground kills 31 people.
19 November – Conservative support has reached 50% in a MORI poll for the first time.
24 November - The government announces that free eye tests are to be abolished.
Late November – The first Acid House raves are reported in the United Kingdom, many of them being in derelict buildings.
December - The British-built Peugeot 405 is European Car of the Year, and Peugeot's first winner of the award for nearly 20 years. British sales begin in the new year, several months after it was launched in France.
9 December – The England cricket team's tour of Pakistan is nearly brought to a premature end when captain Mike Gatting and umpire Shakoor Rana row during a Test Match.
15 December – Channel Tunnel construction is initiated, and it is expected to open in 1993 or early 1994.
17 December – A year that has seen an excellent performance for the British economy ends with unemployment at less than 2.7 million.
25 December – ITV enjoys a record breaking audience when more than 26 million viewers tune in for the Christmas Day episode of Coronation Street, in which Hilda Ogden (Jean Alexander) makes her last appearance in the show after 23 years.
29 December – PWL release the Kylie Minogue single I Should Be So Lucky. Australian Minogue, 19, has already earned a cult following in Britain with her part in the hugely popular TV soap Neighbours.
31 December – 31 British and Belgian people are recognised in the New Year Honours for heroism shown in the rescue operation at the Zebrugge tragedy earlier in the year.
Inflation remains low for the sixth year running, standing at 4.2% for 1987.
Largest ever deficit to date on UK balance of payments.
With overall unemployment falling below 3,000,000, youth unemployment is now below 1,000,000.
Overall economy growth for the year reaches 5.5% - the highest since 1963.
Television
16 January – The Zircon affair becomes public knowledge when The Guardian reports that the government ordered the BBC to shelve a documentary in the Secret Society series about the Zircon satellite. Two days later documentary maker Duncan Campbell is subject to an injunction preventing him from discussing or writing about the programme's content, but subsequently writes an article about the episode for the New Statesman.
29 January – Alasdair Milne is sacked by the newly appointed Chairman of the BBC Board of Governors, Marmaduke Hussey. He is replaced by a senior BBC accountant, Michael Checkland.
5 February - Princess Anne appears on sports quiz A Question of Sport, a matter of weeks after team captain Emlyn Hughes famously mistook a picture of her on a horse for jockey John Reid. The episode gains a record audience of 19 million viewers.
21 February – An apparently inebriated Oliver Reed appears on the ITV chat show Aspel & Company, where he stumbles and lurches around the set.
24 February – The sitcom Hardwicke House makes its debut on ITV. The series is badly received by critics and viewers and is cancelled after just two episodes (the second broadcast the following evening). The remaining five episodes of the series have never been transmitted.
26 February – Michael Checkland succeeds Alasdair Milne as Director-General of the BBC.
9 March – Debut of Central Television's Intimate Contact, a drama dealing with the issue of AIDS.
25 April – The Australian soap opera Prisoner: Cell Block H makes its debut on Central Television in the Midlands. This is believed by many viewers to be the series debut on British television, but in fact it had been running in the Yorkshire region since 1984. Central were the first region to conclude the series, however, in December 1991.
26 April – Channel 4's The Tube airs for the last time after five series.
22 May–20 June – Television coverage of the first Rugby World Cup from Australia and New Zealand.
9 June – Debut of the Tyne Tees produced chart show The Roxy, presented by David Jensen and Kevin Sharkey. The programme is intended as a stablemate for the Independent radio hit parade The Network Chart Show, following a similar format to the BBC's Top of the Pops, but its Newcastle-upon-Tyne location impinges on its ability to secure live performances. The show also suffers from poor ratings because it does not have a regular slot on the ITV network, and is cancelled in April 1988.
11 June–12 June – Coverage of the results of the 1987 general election is broadcast both on BBC1 and ITV.
19 June – Television debut of The Grand Knockout Tournament, an It's a Knockout special featuring members of the British Royal Family alongside sporting and other celebrities. Also known as It's a Royal Knockout, the event attracts much media derision and is deemed to have been a failure, although it raised £1 million for charity.
20 August – In the wake of the previous day's Hungerford massacre in which 16 people were shot dead by gun enthusiast Michael Ryan, the BBC, ITV and Channel 4 pull several forthcoming films and programmes containing violence from their schedules. Among them are the 1966 western Nevada Smith, an episode of The Professionals and the 1982 post-apocalyptic film Battletruck. A showing of First Blood is also cancelled.
7 September – Sylvester McCoy becomes the seventh actor to play the Doctor in BBC One's long-running Doctor Who.
14 September – After 30 years on ITV, the schools service ITV Schools moves to Channel 4, allowing ITV to concentrate on building a fully commercial daytime schedule.
15 October – During a weather forecast, BBC meteorologist Michael Fish reports "Earlier on today, apparently, a woman rang the BBC and said she heard there was a hurricane on the way; well, if you're watching, don't worry, there isn't, but having said that, actually, the weather will become very windy, but most of the strong winds, incidentally, will be down over Spain and across into France.". Hours later, Britain is hit by the worst storm for 284 years. Fish later drew criticism for the comments, but has since claimed that they referred to Florida, USA, and were linked to a news story immediately preceding the weather bulletin, but had been so widely repeated out of context that the British public remains convinced that he was referring to the approaching storm.
16 October – As a result of the Great Storm of 1987, electrical power to TV-am's studios is lost and an emergency programme has to be transmitted from facilities at Thames Television's Euston Road centre using reports from TV-am's own crews and those of ITN, TSW and TVS. The BBC's Breakfast Time, which would usually come from Lime Grove and was able to broadcast as the studios were without power, as was most of BBC Television Centre at Wood Lane. The early part of the programme was broadcast from the continuity suite at TV Centre usually used for Children's BBC presentation as this area had generator support, before a larger studio was able to be brought into use.
4 November–18 November – Damon and Debbie becomes the first 'soap bubble'. It was a miniseries which took two characters from Brookside into new locations and their own story.
17 November – The BBC sees the first appearance of The 999 Programme from S4C Fireman Sam first voiced by John Alderton in the early years.
23 November – The TV-am strike begins after members of the technicians' union the ACTT walk out in a dispute over the station's ‘Caring Christmas Campaign’. What is meant to be a 24-hour stoppage continues for several months when staff are locked out by Managing Director Bruce Gyngell. TV-am is unable to broadcast Good Morning Britain, the regular format is replaced with shows such as Flipper, Batman and Happy Days. By December a skeleton service that sees non-technical staff operating cameras and Gyngell himself directing proceedings, begin to allow Good Morning Britain to start broadcasting again. The strikers are eventually sacked and replaced with non union staff. Viewing figures remain high throughout the disruption, which continues well into 1988, although normal programming gradually resumes. Other ITV stations later follow Gyngell's example.
28 November – Ventriloquist Jimmy Tamley wins New Faces of '87, coming just ahead of comedian Joe Pasquale, who is second.
December – Thamesside TV, a pirate TV station set up by Thameside Radio, goes on air in the same city. There were only two known broadcasts in December 1987.
25 December - ITV enjoys a record-breaking audience when more than 26 million viewers tune in for the Christmas Day episode of Coronation Street, in which Hilda Ogden (Jean Alexander) makes her last appearance in the show after 23 years.
31 December – In an unusual move, the Chimes of Big Ben are integrated into an episode of EastEnders on BBC 1. Character Den Watts brought a television into the bar of the Queen Vic, 'watched' the chimes in their entirety, and the episode resumed.
Network 21, a Pirate television station in London, broadcasts for around 30 minutes on Friday evenings.
BBC1
9 January – Rockliffe's Babies (1987–1988)
15 September – Bad Boyes (1987–1988)
26 September – ChuckleVision (1987—2009)
Going Live! (1987–1993)
12 October – Going for Gold (BBC 1987–1996, Channel 5 2008 – 2009)
17 November – Fireman Sam (BBC 1987–1994, 2005–2008, Channel 5 & CITV 2008–present)
BBC2
7 January - Filthy, Rich & Catflap (1987)
9 March – French and Saunders (1987–2007)
ITV
6 January – Inspector Morse (1987–2000)
7 January – Allsorts (1987–1995)
9 March – Intimate Contact (1987)
1 May – Matlock (1987–1997)
9 June – The Roxy (1987–1988)
5 July – Watching (1987–1993)
2 August – The Ruth Rendell Mysteries (1987–2002)
7 September – Knightmare (1987–1994)
The Time, The Place (1987–1998)
Chain Letters (1987–1997)
13 September – The New Statesman (1987–1994)
18 October – The Charmer (1987)
Unknown – Playbox (1987-1992)
1 May – After Dark (1987–1997, BBC 2003)
3 May – Network 7 (1987–1988)
4 November – Damon and Debbie (1987)
Music
"Jack Your Body" - Steve "Silk" Hurley
"I Knew You Were Waiting (For Me)" - Aretha Franklin and George Michael
"Stand By Me" - Ben E. King
"Everything I Own" - Boy George
"Respectable" - Mel and Kim
"Let It Be" - Ferry Aid
"La Isla Bonita" - Madonna
"Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now" - Starship
"I Wanna Dance With Somebody (Who Loves Me)" - Whitney Houston
"Star Trekkin'" - The Firm
"It's a Sin" - Pet Shop Boys
"Who's That Girl" - Madonna
"I Just Can't Stop Loving You" - Michael Jackson and Siedah Garrett
"Never Gonna Give You Up" - Rick Astley
"Pump Up the Volume" - MARRS
"You Win Again" - Bee Gees
"China in Your Hand" - T'Pau
"Always on My Mind" - Pet Shop Boys
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Tags: england london unitedkingdom award celebrities gbr
LONDON, ENGLAND - JANUARY 21: (L-R) Edwina Currie, Vicki Michelle, Anthony McPartlin, Melanie Sykes, Declan Donnelly, Nadia Forde, Michael Buerk, Jimmy Bullard and Jake Quickenden pose in the winners room with the award for Best Entertainment Programme for 'I'm a Celebrity Get Me Out of Here!' at the National Television Awards at 02 Arena on January 21, 2015 in London, England. (Photo by Anthony Harvey/Getty Images)
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Tags: christmas england manchester nikon unitedkingdom edwinacurrie nikon2470mmf28 nikond610
Spotted Edwina Currie doing some Christmas shopping.
Edwina Jones, born Edwina Cohen and commonly known by her first married name, Edwina Currie, is a former British Member of Parliament.
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Tags: christmas england manchester nikon unitedkingdom edwinacurrie nikon2470mmf28 nikond610
Spotted Edwina Currie doing some Christmas shopping.
Edwina Jones, born Edwina Cohen and commonly known by her first married name, Edwina Currie, is a former British Member of Parliament.
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Local fundraiser with Edwina Currie
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Tags: nhsconfederation
Panel session on health and politics past, present and future: L-R Edwina Currie, Alan Milburn, Anita Anand, Stephen Dorrell and Frank Dobson
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Huddersfield Women’s Luncheon Club 90th Anniversary
Jason was honoured to be the guest speaker at the Huddersfield Women’s Luncheon Club 90th anniversary. Formed at Springwood Hall on 5th February 1924, the club have hosted many famous and influential people to speak including Anne Widdecombe, Bernard Ingham and Edwina Currie.
Over 70 members were in attendance, with Jason speaking about his role as an MP before hosting a Q&A session.
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Tags: london thatcher edwinacurrie amjamjazzthatcherportfolio baronessknightofcollingtree
Excited guests rush to the party. Right. Edwina 'Dear John' Currie. Centre. Baroness Knight of Collingtree, formerly Dame Jill Knight. Infamous in south east London for her inflammatory remarks about Afro-Caribbean parties which were perceived as endorsing direct vigilante action. Not long after, fire at a party in New Cross killed 13 people. The exact causes are still contested.
Her name was Immortalised in the chant taken up on the march which followed.
'Dame Jill Knight set the fire alight.'
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"HE MAY HAVE BEEN GREY TO THE WORLD BUT HE WAS A VERY EXCITING LOVER
Edwina's astonishing
verdict on John Major
TORY John Major, derided as Britain's most dull and boring politician, turned into an astonishing superstud when he took lover Edwina Curry to bed.
For four years he treated her to marathon sex sessions at their lovenest—her flat in London.
And she breathlessly scribbled in her diary: "He may have been grey to the world, but he was a very exciting lover."
Mother never warned us, says Currie's daughter
By Catherine Milner
12:00AM BST 13 Oct 2002
Edwina Currie's daughter only learnt of her mother's affair with John Major when a newspaper dropped through her door, she revealed yesterday. "
Tory true blue underpants ....irony is though - she sued the Guardian when a journalist hinted / implied she'd done extra curricular research for her novel " A Parliamentary Affair "
" During her 14 years in the House of Commons, Mrs Currie was no stranger to controversy.
As Junior Health Minister, her comment in 1988 that 'most of the egg production in this country, sadly, is now affected with salmonella' caused sales to plummet and led to her resignation from the post.
She had previously upset Northerners when she claimed they were dying of 'ignorance and chips' and was branded patronising for advising the elderly to wear long johns during the winter.
But it was her revelation in 2002 that she had a four-year affair with former Prime Minister John Major that rocked even her most ardent supporters. She gave lurid details of the fling in her book Diaries 1987-1992, discussing her lover's blue underwear and bathtime conversations.
The affair was while she was a backbencher and Major was a whip in Margaret Thatcher's Government.
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Edwina Jones (formerly Edwina Currie MP) took this using my X100, returning the favour when I took one of John and her - nicely framed in my opinion.
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blackburne house
situated on Hope Street, Liverpool. Blackburne House was originally built between 1785 -1790 it was the countryside home of John Blackburne the Mayor of Liverpool in 1788.
In 1844 ship owner George Holt purchased the property. in that year the building was opened as the first girls school in Liverpool, in 1874 the original house was rebuilt and enlarged and became the Liverpool Institute high school for Girls. it was awarded grade II listed status in 1975 it sadly closed its doors as a school in 1986, one famous ex pupil was Edwina Currie.
the building lay unused until 1992 when it was decided it would be an ideal location for the Womens Technology and Education Centre and so in 1994 it opened its doors once again.
My gas ring will be pining
Without you
For sure, will be insolvent,
As its best client,
Now will go to pass.
My dearest fowl
You got a life in prison
With all your sisters, without rhyme or reason,
All jam packed cheek by jowl.
In batteries you are now a statistic,
Industrial gulag, which puts to shame
A number rather more characteristic
Of Soviet era, at its grimmest game.
My dearest Supermarket, I’m addicted
To buy for ever all your tasteless junk,
As my dependency is now to be predicted
A boring number of a faceless skunk.
Your sheer manipulation, so disgusting,
Is flying in the face of common sense.
Blindfolded crowds are being hold to ransom,
Automatons with limbs, but without brains..
In my despair I’ll try to be more vocal
But am afraid, as being middle-class,
I will be deemed to fart above my station
And turn my reputation to an ass.
Post Script:
This being said, I praise Edwina Currie,
The Minister of salmonella fame,
Who caused the British Egg to go and hurry
To clean its act, in spite of all its gain.
Copyright © Constantin Roman
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Off for the day. More Fashion Week photos to follow. ALL these girls like me. tata.
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Winter wardrobe 2010-11. Not unlike 2006-07. Central heating is for wimps
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Thought it was Edwina Currie, but I was corrected.
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Tags: art museum george big gallery stokeontrent strike currie edwina debate miners potteries galloway a bigadebateedwinacurriegeorgegallowayminers
Edwina Currie at the Big A debate in Stoke-on-Trent, March 3rd 2010
The debate was on the 25th anniversary of the end of miners strike, and looked in detail at the situation afterwards. It was a lively, explosive affair, and a fantastic event to be at.
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Central heating is for wimps. Say what you like - I'm still better-looking than Edwina Currie.
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i think it may snow today. this cock robin has a plan.
Bitterly cold overnight but the temp. is higher now and it's almost dark at 11am. Rant:
It seems the oil companies have drawn in their horns if the current filling-station prices are any indicator. But will the energy companies follow suit? I say starve them out. Do an Edwina Currie and buy extra clothes and don't burn your heating. At all. Obviously if you have an under-12 or an over-70 in your house it's not that simple or easy, but maybe heat one room and live in it? If you use your oven, live in your kitchen. You don't need to heat your bedroom - use two duvets, and get that dressing gown you didn't really need out of the wardrobe.
I'm being serious. They think they know you will pay, just like the oil companies, but unlike the oil companies they don't have the tradition of helping governments make political capital. Teach them a lesson. You can't afford not to or they'll be back screwing you into the ground next year with their "unavoidable" increases. Remember that a "cheaper" energy supplier is a relative term - they are all at it. My Q1-2008 bill was three times the Q3 bill. This year I'm NOT BLOODY HAVING IT.
We are told the consumer boom is over and, sure enough, leisure and luxury providers are now cutting off their noses to spite their competitors' faces, yet we hear too that inflation is at its highest since whenever, led by energy prices (and bank charges!) So reclaim your spending power by giving them a third to a half of what they've budgeted, and when they start paying bank charges, maybe your bank will take the hint too.
If you are over 60 and you get that £100 - a patronising insult in itself - I suggest you take the money to Matalan and buy two hoodies. One to wear in bed, and one for the robberies you'll need to commit to pay your gas or electric bill. You'll have about £70 left so spend the rest on a good night out, but be sure to keep enough back to be able to send that nice Mr. Darling a thank you note for the lovely treat.
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I did this one when it came out that Edwina Currie had been having it off with John Major.
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Tags: signs reflections islands scotland arran edwinacurrie johnandgill arranaromatics
Stu reflects on the sign proudly displayed outside the Arran Aromatics factory shop, boasting that the facility was opened by none other than a political no-mark, whose only major achievements were convincing people that eggs could kill them and humping John Major.
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For all those people whom I may or may not know who bought a camper van last week, look, you're just like Edwina Currie.
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Findern, on 8 June 2008. Tower mill, built before 1797, house conversion and extension c.1900. Formerly the home of Edwina Currie when she was MP for South Derbyshire.
Digital photo.
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Edwina Currie, who joined us for the last 15 miles to Mizen Head
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Tags: edwinacurrie
Shh....I quite like Edwina Currie. I've met her a couple of times, I've had e-mail on a couple of subjects, she adores cycling, she organises charity rides for Marie Curie, I live in Currie (the place stoopid!) and I think she's very charasmatic.
Does that make me a bad person?
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| one thousand nine hundred and eighty seven |
Name the year - Anna Ford becomes the first female news reader on ITV, the charity Motability is founded, Bulgarian dissident Geogi Markov is killed with a poison tipped umbrella and Althea and Donna reach number 1 in the UK charts with 'Uptown Ranking' ? | Edwina Currie - Who is talking about Edwina Currie on FLICKR
Tags: forallhighdefinitiongrabsduringtransmissionpleasecontact
I’M A CELEBRITY…GET ME OUT OF HERE 2015..PICTURE SHOWS: JORGIE PORTER ..I’m A Celebrity…Get Me Out Of Here! is back which can mean only one thing… the time has come for a brand new cast of celebrities to head down under and battle it out in TV’s toughest challenge.. .Leaving their plush pads and luxuries far behind, our celebrity campers will spend up to three weeks taking on the harsh surroundings of the Australian jungle, with a whole host of brand new nasty surprises created just for them.. .This year, the I’m a Celebrity team have pulled out all the stops to ensure this is the most talked about series yet.. .Last year’s highlights included Michael Buerk rapping with Tinchy Stryder, Kendra Wilkinson and Edwina Currie falling out in spectacular style and Gemma Collins going jungle AWOL after only a few days in camp.. .Whoever does end up in the terrifying and legendary jungle camp will find themselves cut off from the outside world and praying the public doesn’t send them straight into a dreaded Bushtucker Trial..It’s a brand new cast with a brand new set of challenges. As always, our BAFTA award-winning hosts Ant and Dec, are back to present all the big stories live from the jungle every night. ..Who will be crowned this year’s King or Queen of the jungle? Find out this Autumn on ITV.. .And remember - I’m A Celebrity...Get Me Out Of Here Now! is back every night on ITV2 after the ITV show. .An ITV Studios production....
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I’M A CELEBRITY…GET ME OUT OF HERE 2015
PICTURE SHOWS: SUSANNAH CONSTANTINE
I’m A Celebrity…Get Me Out Of Here! is back which can mean only one thing… the time has come for a brand new cast of celebrities to head down under and battle it out in TV’s toughest challenge.
Leaving their plush pads and luxuries far behind, our celebrity campers will spend up to three weeks taking on the harsh surroundings of the Australian jungle, with a whole host of brand new nasty surprises created just for them.
This year, the I’m a Celebrity team have pulled out all the stops to ensure this is the most talked about series yet.
Last year’s highlights included Michael Buerk rapping with Tinchy Stryder, Kendra Wilkinson and Edwina Currie falling out in spectacular style and Gemma Collins going jungle AWOL after only a few days in camp.
Whoever does end up in the terrifying and legendary jungle camp will find themselves cut off from the outside world and praying the public doesn’t send them straight into a dreaded Bushtucker Trial.
It’s a brand new cast with a brand new set of challenges. As always, our BAFTA award-winning hosts Ant and Dec, are back to present all the big stories live from the jungle every night.
Who will be crowned this year’s King or Queen of the jungle? Find out this Autumn on ITV.
And remember - I’m A Celebrity...Get Me Out Of Here Now! is back every night on ITV2 after the ITV show.
An ITV Studios production.
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Tags: thatwastheyearthatwas1992
1992 In Technology The first Nicotine patch is introduced to help stop smoking and DNA Fingerprinting is Invented. The continuing Balkan War for the next 3 years between Muslims, Serbs and Croats prompting UN intervention. In The UK Rioting breaks out in Cities including Bristol and in France Euro Disney opens. In the US Bill Clinton becomes president and the largest Mall in America Minnesota's Mall of America is constructed spanning 78 acres.
The Conservative Party are re-elected for a fourth successive term
9 April - General Election: The Conservative Party are re-elected for a fourth successive term, in their first election under John Major's leadership. With the government's victory in the election confirmed, John Major assures the public that he will lead the country out of recession that has blighted it for nearly two years. 11 April - Publication of The Sun newspaper's iconic front page headline 'It's The Sun Wot Won It', as the tabloid newspaper claims it won the general election for the Conservatives with its anti-Kinnock front page headline on election day. 13 April - Neil Kinnock resigns as leader of the Labour Party following the defeat of his party in the General Election. he had led the party for eight-and-a-half years since October 1983, and was the longest serving opposition leader in British political history.
Diana: Her True Story
7 June - A controversial new biography of Diana, Princess of Wales, Diana: Her True Story, written by Andrew Morton, is published, revealing that she has made five suicide attempts following her discovery that The Prince of Wales had resumed an affair with his previous girlfriend Mrs Parker-Bowles shortly after Prince William's birth in 1982.
The late Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother, reacted with "utter abhorrence" to Diana, Princess of Wales's decision to "wash the dirty linen in public" by disclosing details of the breakdown of her marriage.
An official biography published today describes how Queen Elizabeth was "deeply shocked" when it emerged that Princess Diana had collaborated with Andrew Morton on the book Diana: Her True Story, which caused a sensation when it was published in 1992. She was also dismayed by the Prince of Wales's decision to discuss his private life with the broadcaster Jonathan Dimbleby for a TV programme in which he admitted he had been unfaithful. Queen Elizabeth revealed her thoughts about her grandson's divorce in a series of previously unpublished interviews with Sir Eric Anderson, the former Provost of Eton College, which were made available to the biographer William Shawcross.
"It is always a mistake to talk about your marriage," she told Mr Anderson, who spent a total of 20 hours interviewing her. Details of Queen Elizabeth's thoughts on the Royal divorce are contained in Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother: The Official Biography, which was commissioned by the Queen.
In 1992, Andrew Morton's book disclosed that the Princess of Wales had attempted suicide on at least five occasions in the 1980s, suffered from bulimia and felt rejected both by Prince Charles and other members of the Royal family, including the Queen.
At the time of its publication, it was rumoured that the Princess herself had helped Mr Morton with the book, and after her death in 1997 Mr Morton confirmed that the Princess had indeed been the main source, and had even checked the proofs of the book for accuracy.
In 1995 the Princess recorded a Panorama interview in which she talked about the Prince of Wales's affair with the then Camilla Parker Bowles, saying: "There were three of us in this marriage, so it was a bit crowded."
Punch ends 150 years of satire
The editors of Punch, Britain's oldest satirical magazine, announce that it will be discontinued due to massive losses. It has been in circulation since 1841.
After Years of reports of the imminent demise of Punch had their moment of truth when United Newspapers, owner of the magazine, said it would close on April 8 1992 after 151 years. Staff were told that United had had enough of low sales, disappointing advertising revenue, and losses running at up to £2 million a year. Unless a buyer can be found, what was once Britain's leading humorous magazine but which became the butt of the lampooners will publish only two more issues.
The old joke, "Punch is not as funny as it used to be - but then again it never was", drew little laughs as it folded.
Four years later the Egyptian businessman Mohamed al Fayed brought it back to life. He funded new exposés on the likes of Peter Mandelson, the architect of New Labour, and the media mogul Rupert Murdoch. But eventually it was costing £40,000 per issue to produce with subscriptions at only 6,000 and Mr Al Fayed closed the title again in 2002. A website still exists for the magazine, reported to have at one time refused articles by Charles Dickens, with many hoping it could make a comeback and regain its cutting-edge image.
Bring back Eldorado
The soap, which cost British taxpayers £10m - with £2m alone being blown on the huge set in the town of Coín in Malaga - only ran for one year before being axed by incoming director general Alan Yentob in 1993. The 'sunshine soap', which aired three times-a-week and was based around the lives of ex-pats living in the Costa Del Sol, only ran for 156 episodes from July 6 1992 until July 9 1993. It had been blasted by critics for it 'amateurish acting' and 'very unconvincing storylines' and is now a byword for a TV show which flops. But BBC staff have urged the new director general George Entwistle to 'consider' bringing the soap back to our screens - saying it will help brink a 'chink of sunlight' into recession-hit Britain.
The show started with an audience of 8m, dipping to 3.5m, but stabilising at 5m by the time it was axed - which is 'not bad' in today's viewing figures.
The set in Spain once used by the BBC's soap opera flop Eldorado is now a ghost town. The collection of deserted whitewashed buildings has been preserved by the heat and the dry mountain air in a pine forest 10 miles north-east of Marbella. The purpose-built site provided the backdrop to the doomed 1992 serial, which lasted just 156 episodes before being axed despite costing licence payers more than £10 million. Much of the money was spent on creating the set, which was supposed to replicate the sunshine and simplicity of life in Australian soaps such as Home and Away and Neighbours.
Fifteen years after it was created, the set lies empty except for the former dressing rooms which are rented out to holidaymakers. The 18 apartments and three villas are empty and the once-alluring crystal blue swimming pool has turned green and is used by ducks. Apart from graffiti and beer cans left by local teenagers who hang around the area, the set looks the same as it did when new BBC1 controller Alan Yentob axed it in July 1993. Facades, including the front of what is supposed to be a traditional Spanish church, appear just as new as they did in 1992.
The site was briefly used as a holiday camp but that suffered the same fate as the programme, which was based on the lives of British ex-pats in Spain. Eldorado remains the biggest British television flop and became a byword for failure following its year on the airwaves. It was designed to replace Terry Wogan's chat show, Wogan, and producers hoped its sex-and-Sangria cheeriness would appeal to viewers fed up with the drab grittiness of EastEnders and the early-1990s recession.
However, the use of mostly untrained actors, the mixture of Spanish and English dialogue, persistent sound problems and appalling reviews sank the programme for good.
It ended as implausibly as it began, with one of the main characters, Marcus Tandy, played by Jesse Birdsall, escaping an attempt on his life with his car being blown up, and sailing off into the distance on a boat, with his girlfriend Pilar.
It has emerged that the set of another abandoned soap, Brookside, is also lying abandoned. The Merseyside cul-de-sac, known to millions of viewers as Brookside Close, was refurbished by developers after the programme ended in 2003 but has failed to attract interest from buyers who are now offering the entire site for £2 million.
Whatever happened to Antonia de Sancha - the kiss-and-tell lover who brought down David Mellor?
No one could blame Antonia de Sancha for being a little peeved. There she is, sitting outside her favourite restaurant in west London, when a passing photographer captures a not particularly flattering image of her. Said image is then published and compared unfavourably with those of the past, in an apparent indictment of the human ageing process.
In fact, de Sancha takes her sudden and random re-emergence into the spotlight with bemused good grace. “What is this all about?” she asks, managing a wry smile. “What am I supposed to have done?”
Nothing, really. The picture has merely made people curious about what has happened in the 20 years since she made a brief, memorable foray on to the public stage, sowing an image in the mind that time cannot wither: David Mellor, the Secretary of State for National Heritage, cavorting with her in a Chelsea FC strip. Behind his wife’s back, obviously.
No matter that the actress’s description of her affair with Mellor was flawed from a factual point of view, it was enough to hole his career below the waterline. A sometimes abrasive and arrogant character, he was the first in a long line of Tory politicians to fall victim to weakness for the flesh during the John Major era. Tim Yeo, Hartley Booth, the Earl of Caithness, Piers Merchant… the tabloid scalps multiplied as the 1990s progressed, undoing Major’s “Back to Basics” morality drive and undermining his government.
For a few weeks in 1992, de Sancha was hot property, managed to perfection by Max Clifford, then king of kiss-and-tell PR. She earned £35,000 from her disclosures, but there was a cost to her theatrical career. Now, she spends much of her time with friends in a small Spanish restaurant on the Portobello Road, apparently underemployed.
1992 Timeline
January - Statistics show that economic growth returned during the final quarter of 1991 after five successive quarters of contraction.
9 January - Liberal Democrat leader Paddy Ashdown proposes a £3billion package which would create 400,000 jobs in 12 months.
Alison Halford, Britain's most senior policewoman, is suspended from duty for a second time following a police authority meeting.
10 January - The first full week of 1992 sees some 4,000 jobs lost across Britain, as the nation's recession continues. Almost 20% of those job cuts have been by GEC, Britain's leading telecommunications manufacturer, where 750 redundancies are announced today.
14 January - The Bank of Credit and Commerce International goes into liquidation.
17 January - In a Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) bomb attack near Omagh, seven construction workers are killed and seven others injured. This is the highest number of casualties in an IRA attack since 1988.
The first MORI poll of 1992 shows the Conservatives three points ahead of Labour on 42%, while the Liberal Democrats have their best showing yet with 16% of the vote.
18 January - John Major announces that the general election will be held on 9 April.
29 January - The Department of Health reveals that AIDS cases among heterosexuals increased by 50% between 1990 and 1991.
30 January - John Major agrees a weapons control deal with new Russian premier Boris Yeltsin at 10 Downing Street.
2 February - Neil Kinnock, Labour leader, denies reports that he had a "Kremlin connection" during the 1980s.
6 February - The Queen celebrates her Ruby Jubilee.
7 February - Signature of the Maastricht Treaty.
8 February–23 February - Great Britain and Northern Ireland compete at the Winter Olympics in Albertville, France, but do not win any medals.
9 February - Prime Minister John Major speaks of his hopes that the recession will soon be over as the economy is now showing signs of recovery.
15 February - Neil Kinnock, Labour Party leader, speaks of his belief that the Conservative government's failure to halt the current recession will win his party the forthcoming general election.
18 February - David Stevens, head of community relations, blames the recession for the recent rise in crime across Britain - most of all in deprived areas.
20 February - Hopes of an end to the recession are dashed by government figures which reveal that GDP fell by 0.3% in the final quarter of 1991.
23 February - The London Business School predicts an economic growth rate of 1.2% for this year, sparking hopes that the recession is nearing its
March - Toyota launches the TMUK-built Carina E at the Geneva Motor Show.
6 March - Parliament passes the Further and Higher Education Act, allowing polytechnics to become new universities.
11 March - John Major announces that the election will be held on 9 April.
Shadow Chancellor John Smith condemns the recent Budget as a "missed opportunity" by the Conservatives, saying that they did "nothing" for jobs, training, skills, construction or economic recovery.
13 March - The first ecumenical church in Britain, the Christ the Cornerstone Church in Milton Keynes is opened.
17 March - Shadow Chancellor John Smith announces that there will be no tax reductions this year if Labour win the election.
19 March - Buckingham Palace announces that Duke and Duchess of York are to separate after six years of marriage.
Unemployment has reached 2,647,300 - 9.4% of the British workforce, the highest level since late 1987.
24 March - Election campaigning becomes dominated by the "War of Jennifer's Ear".
The editors of Punch, Britain's oldest satirical magazine, announce that it will be discontinued due to massive losses. It has been in circulation since 1841.
26 March - Television entertainer Roy Castle (59), who currently presents Record Breakers, announces that he is suffering from lung cancer.
27 March – During the 1992 General Election campaign, Conservative MP Edwina Currie famously pours a glass of orange juice over Labour's Peter Snape shortly after an edition of the Midlands based debate show Central Weekend has finished airing. Speaking about the incident later, Currie said "I just looked at my orange juice, and looked at this man from which this stream of abuse was emanating, and thought 'I know how to shut you up.' ".
28 March – Amanda Normansell wins the third series of Stars in Their Eyes, performing as Patsy Cline.
29 March - John Spencer, 8th Earl Spencer and father of Princess Diana, dies suddenly from pneumonia at the age of 68.
April – Statistics show that the first quarter of this year saw the economy grow for the second quarter running, the sequel to five successive quarters of detraction, though the growth was still too narrow for the recession to be declared over.
Launch of the music video channel The Box.
1 April - The latest opinion polls show a narrow lead for Labour, which would force a hung parliament in the election next week.
4 April - Party Politics becomes the tallest horse to win the Grand National.
5 April - At his pre-election speech, Neil Kinnock promises a strong economic recovery if he leads the Labour party to election victory on Thursday.
6 April - Women's Royal Army Corps disbanded, its members being fully absorbed into the regular British Army.
7 April - The final MORI poll before the general election shows Labour one point ahead of the Conservatives on 39%, while the Liberal Democrats continue to enjoy a surge in popularity with 20% of the vote. Most opinion polls show a similar situation, hinting at either a narrow Labour majority or a hung parliament.
9 April - General Election: The Conservative Party are re-elected for a fourth successive term, in their first election under John Major's leadership. Their majority is reduced to 21 seats but they have attracted more than 14,000,000 votes - the highest number of votes ever attracted in a general election. Notable retirements from parliament at this election include Margaret Thatcher (Conservative prime minister for over eleven years until her resignation seventeen months ago) and the former Labour Party leader Michael Foot.
10 April - Provisional Irish Republican Army detonates two bombs at the Baltic Exchange in central London, killing three.
With the government's victory in the election confirmed, John Major assures the public that he will lead the country out of recession that has blighted it for nearly two years.
11 April - Publication of The Sun newspaper's iconic front page headline 'It's The Sun Wot Won It', as the tabloid newspaper claims it won the general election for the Conservatives with its anti-Kinnock front page headline on election day.
13 April - Neil Kinnock resigns as leader of the Labour Party following the defeat of his party in the General Election. he had led the party for eight-and-a-half years since October 1983, and was the longest serving opposition leader in British political history.
The Princess Royal announces her divorce from Capt Mark Phillips after 18 years of marriage, having separated in 1989.
14 April - 10 April – ITV airs the first episode of Heartbeat, a long running police drama set in North Yorkshire during the 1960s.
16 April - Unemployment has now risen 23 months in succession, but the March rise in unemployment was the smallest monthly rise so far.
17–20 April - Lost Gardens of Heligan in Cornwall first opened to the public.
27 April - Betty Boothroyd, 62-year-old Labour MP for West Bromwich West in the West Midlands, is elected as Speaker of the House of Commons, the first woman to hold the position.
5 May - UEFA awards the 1996 European Football Championships to England.
6 May - John Major promises British voters improved services and more money to spend.
12 May - Plans are unveiled for a fifth terminal at Heathrow Airport, which is now the busiest airport in the world.
May - Twenty-two "Maastricht Rebels" vote against the government on the second reading of the European Communities (Amendment) Bill.
17 May - Nigel Mansell gains the 26th Grand Prix win of his racing career at Imola, San Marino. He is now the most successful British driver in Grand Prix races, and the fourth worldwide.
June - Cones Hotline introduced enabling members of the public to complain about traffic cones being deployed on a road for no apparent reason.
7 June - A controversial new biography of Diana, Princess of Wales, Diana: Her True Story, written by Andrew Morton, is published, revealing that she has made five suicide attempts following her discovery that The Prince of Wales had resumed an affair with his previous girlfriend Mrs Parker-Bowles shortly after Prince William's birth in 1982.
9–10 June – Episodes 1450–1454 of Australian soap Neighbours are heavily censored by the BBC because they contain an incest storyline between the characters Glen Donnelly and Lucy Robinson, who had not realised they were half-siblings when they began a relationship. Scenes involving the story are cut from Episode 1450, aired on 9 June, while Episodes 1451–1454 are edited together into one episode, which is transmitted the following day. The scenes were shown uncut in repeats aired by another channel some years later.
17 June - Almost 2,700,000 people are now out of work as unemployment continues to rise.
25 June - GDP is reported to have fallen by 0.5% in the first quarter of this year as the recession continues.
30 June - Margaret Thatcher takes her place in the House of Lords as Baroness Thatcher, nineteen months after resigning as Prime Minister.
July - Statistics show that the economy contracted during the second quarter of this year.
2 July - The IRA admits to murdering three men whose bodies were found by the army at various locations around Armagh last night. The men are believed to have been informers employed by MI5.
6 July – BBC1 launches the ill fated Eldorado, a soap about a group of ex-pats living in Spain. The series is axed the following year.
10 July - One of the first major signs of economic recovery is shown as inflation falls from 4.3% to 3.9%.
17 July - John Smith is elected leader of the Labour Party.
Official opening of Manchester Metrolink, the first new-generation light rail system with street running in the British Isles.
21 July - British Airways announces a takeover of USAir.
23 July - Three months after losing the general election, Labour finish four points ahead of the Conservatives in a MORI poll, with 43% of the vote.
25 July–9 August - Great Britain and Northern Ireland compete at the Olympics in Barcelona and win 5 gold, 3 silver and 12 bronze medals.
27 July - Alan Shearer becomes Britain's most expensive footballer in a £3.6 million transfer from Southampton to Blackburn Rovers. Shearer, who turns 22 next month, was a member of England's Euro 92 national squad, having scored on his debut in a friendly international against France earlier this year.
6 August - Lord Hope, the Lord President of the Court of Session, Scotland's most senior judge, permits the televising of appeals in both criminal and civil cases, the first time that cameras have been allowed into courts in the United Kingdom.
20 August - Intimate photographs of the Duchess of York and a Texan businessman, John Bryan, are published in the Daily Mirror.
27 August - Hugh McKiben (aged 19) becomes the 3,000th victim of the sectarian violence in Northern Ireland which began in 1969.
September - The former polytechnics re-open as universities.
5 September - Italian supercar manufacturer Ferrari announces that its Formula One division will be designing and manufacturing cars in Britain.
13 September - Nigel Mansell announces his retirement from Formula One racing.
16 September - "Black Wednesday" sees the government suspending Britain's membership of the European Exchange Rate Mechanism following a wave of speculation against the Pound.
17 September - There is more bad news for the economy as unemployment is at a five-year high of 2,845,508, and experts warn that it will soon hit 3,000,000 for the first time since early 1987.
18 September - The latest MORI poll shows the Labour Party four points ahead of the Conservatives at 43%, following the events of Black Wednesday two days earlier.
24 September - David Mellor resigns as Heritage Minister amid tabloid press speculation that he had been conducting an adulterous affair with actress Antonia de Sancha.
30 September - The Royal Mint introduces a new 10-pence coin which is lighter and smaller than the previous coin.
October - First Cochrane Centre opens.
Statistics show a return to economic growth for the third quarter of this year.
3 October – Comedian and television presenter Leslie Crowther sustains serious head injuries after his Rolls Royce veers out of control and crashes on the M5 near Cheltenham. He subsequently undergoes surgery to remove a blood clot on his brain.
9 October - Two suspected IRA bombs explode in London, but there are no injuries.
13 October - The government announces the closure of a third of Britain's deep coal mines, with the loss of 31,000 jobs.
14 October - The England football team begins its qualification campaign for the 1994 FIFA World Cup with a 1-1 draw against Norway at Wembley Stadium.
15 October - The value of the pound sterling is reported to have dipped further as the recession deepens.
16 October - The government attempts to tackle the recession by cutting the base interest rate to 8% - the lowest since June 1988.
19 October - John Major announces that only ten deep coal mines will be closed.
25 October - Around 100,000 people protest in London against the government's pit closure plans.
26 October - British Steel announces a 20% production cut as a result in falling demand from its worldwide customer base.
30 October - IRA terrorists force a taxi driver to drive to Downing Street at gunpoint and once there they detonate a bomb, but there are no injuries.
11 November - The Church of England votes to allow women to become priests.
12 November - British Telecom reports a £1.03 billion profit for the half year ending 30 September - a fall of 36.2% on the previous half year figure, as a result of the thousands of redundancies it has made this year due to the recession.
Unemployment has continued to climb and is now approaching 2,900,000. It has risen every month since June 1990, when it was below 1,700,000. The current level has not been seen since mid-1987.
16 November - Hoxne Hoard discovered by metal detectorist Eric Lawes in Suffolk.
19 November - The High Court rules that doctors can disconnect feeding tubes from Tony Bland, a 21-year-old man who has been in a coma since the Hillsborough disaster on 15 April 1989. Mr Bland, of Liverpool, suffered massive brain damage in the disaster which claimed the lives of 95 people and doctors treating him say that there is no reasonable possibility that he could recover consciousness and in his current condition would be unlikely to survive more than five years.
20 November - Fire breaks out in Windsor Castle, badly damaging the castle and causing over £50 million worth of damage.
24 November - The Queen describes this year as an Annus Horribilis (horrible year) due to various scandals damaging the image of the Royal Family, as well as the Windsor Castle fire.
26 November - The Queen is to be taxed from next year, marking the end of almost 60 tax-free years for the British monarchy.
Pepper v Hart, a landmark case, is decided in the House of Lords on the use of legislative history in statutory interpretation, establishing the principle that when primary legislation is ambiguous then, under certain circumstances, the courts may refer to statements made during its passage through Parliament in an attempt to interpret its intended meaning, an action previously regarded as a breach of parliamentary privilege.
29 November - Ethnic minorities now account for more than 3,000,000 (over 5%) of the British population.
1 December - The first episode of the children's series The Animals of Farthing Wood.
3 December - 1992 Manchester bombing: 65 people are injured by an IRA bomb in Manchester city centre but there are no fatalities.
9 December - The separation of Charles, Prince of Wales and Diana, Princess of Wales is announced following months of speculation about their marriage, but there are no plans for a divorce and prime minister John Major announces that Diana could still become Queen.
11 December - The last MORI poll of 1992 shows Labour thirteen points ahead of the Conservatives on 47%, just three months after several polls had shown the latter in the lead. Black Wednesday, which has damaged much of the government's reputation for monetary excellence, is largely blamed for the fall in Conservative support.
12 December - Marriage of Anne, Princess Royal, and Timothy Laurence.
16 December - Four people are injured by IRA bombs in Oxford Street, London.
Japanese carmaker Toyota opens a factory at Burnaston, near Derby, which produces the Carina family saloon.
17 December - The national unemployment level has risen to more than 2,900,000, with the unemployment rate in the south-east of England now above 10% for the first time.
Jonathan Zito is stabbed to death by Christopher Clunis, a partially treated schizophrenic patient.
23 December - The Queen's Royal Christmas Message is leaked in The Sun newspaper, 48 hours ahead of its traditional Christmas Day broadcast on television.
31 December - The ORACLE teletext service is discontinued on ITV and Channel 4 to be replaced by a new service operated by the Teletext Ltd. consortium. It had been launched on ITV in 1974 and used by Channel 4 since its inception in 1982.
The economy has grown in the final quarter of this year - the second successive quarter of economic growth - but the recovery is still too weak for the end of the recession to be declared.
Television
6 January – Goodbye Cruel World (1992)
7 January – Joshua Jones (1992)
8 January – Fiddley Foodle Bird (1992)
10 January – Grace & Favour (1992–1993)
12 January – As Time Goes By (1992–2005)
27 February – Us Girls (1992–1993)
25 June - 999 (1992–2003)
6 July – Eldorado (1992–1993)
17 September – Noddy's Toyland Adventures (1992–1999)
29 September – Funnybones (1992)
12 October – Good Morning with Anne and Nick (1992–1996)
BBC2
12 November – Absolutely Fabulous (1992–1996, 2001–2004, 2011–present)
ITV
3 January – The Good Guys (1992–1993)
25 January – The Cloning of Joanna May (1992)
18 February – Men Behaving Badly (1992–1998)
9 March – Junglies (1992–1993)
9 April - White Bear's Secret (1992)
10 April – Heartbeat (1992–2010)
26 July – TV Squash (1992)
30 July – Me, You and Him (1992)
5 September – What's Up Doc? (1992–1995)
10 October – Gladiators (1992–2000, 2008–2009)
20 November – In Bed with Medinner (1992–1999)
6 December – A Touch of Frost (1992–2010)
24-25 December - Merry Christmas, Mr. Bean (1992)
Channel 4
7 January - Games Master (1992–1998)
8 February – TV Heaven
11 September – Terry and Julian
28 September – The Big Breakfast (1992–2002)
Charts Number-one singles
"These Are the Days of Our Lives" - Queen
"Goodnight Girl" - Wet Wet Wet
"Stay" - Shakespear's Sister
"Deeply Dippy" - Right Said Fred
"Please Don't Go" - K.W.S.
"Ain't No Doubt" - Jimmy Nail
"Rhythm Is a Dancer" - Snap!
"Ebeneezer Goode" - The Shamen
"End of the Road" - Boyz II Men
"Would I Lie to You?" - Charles and Eddie
"I Will Always Love You" - Whitney Houston
Recent Updated: 1 year ago - Created by brizzle born and bred - View
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Tags: thatwastheyearthatwas1988
1988 The Hubble Space Telescope Goes into operation to explore deep space and is still in full use today mapping our universe. A bomb is exploded on Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie in Scotland on December 21st . Also Prozac is sold for the first time as an anti-depressant, some of the great movies that year included Rain Man, Die Hard and A Fish Called Wanda.
In the early 1980s, Britain had just begun to slough off its reliance on packet mash and tinned pineapple. With Delia, we discovered kiwi and cranberries; trend-setting restaurants proliferated and "seasonality" started to mean something again. The British tend to mainline on nostalgia, but who hankers for the traditional British culinary experience? Prawn cocktail, steaks that should have been sent to a burns unit, serviettes, frozen food, fondue, gateau festering on pudding trolleys, sliced bread…
In 1988, these were just some of our favourites. "Foreign" meant French. "Vegetarian" meant omelette. "Modern British" meant Garfunkel's. Food wasn't invented in Britain until 1987, the year the River Café opened in West London. In the provinces, it was later still. Nostalgia is a dish best served never.
Culinary innovations aside, 1988 boasts no seismic cultural shift – unlike, say, 1966 or 1977. It might have witnessed acid house's Second Summer of Love, but for most people it was the year Bros stole hearts, Neighbours became must-see after-school viewing and England crashed out of the European Championships in the first round.
Before the deregulating 1990 Broadcasting Act, there was no satellite television in this country. In 1988, British film was in good shape, thanks to the artistically stimulating output of the still-new FilmFour. Spitting Image still mattered, thanks to unbeatable material from the Thatcher government, which was also being wound up by ITV's documentary Death on the Rock. It was a time before the insane pressures of the global market, when films and TV programmes were made for their own sake, not pitched at demographics.
In 1988 the City of London was coming out of the Big Bang. The deregulation and competition that ensued has transformed London into the biggest international capital market, with banks such as HSBC and the Royal Bank of Scotland taking their place among the world's best.
1988: when Kylie, Cliff and Ghostbusters ruled
Best-selling single
Kevin Bacon and Kyra Sedgwick
Patsy Kensit and Dan Donavan
Michael J Fox and Tracy Pollan
Mike Tyson and Robin Givens
1988: Jumbo jet crashes onto Lockerbie
A Pan Am jumbo jet with 258 passengers on board has crashed on to the town of Lockerbie near the Scottish borders. Initial reports indicate it crashed into a petrol station in the centre of the town, between Carlisle and Dumfries, and burst into a 300-foot fireball. Hundreds are feared dead as airline officials said flight 103 was about two-thirds full with 255 adults and three children on board. Rescue teams have confirmed there are many casualties at the scene including townspeople who were on the ground. The Boeing 747 left London Heathrow at 1800 GMT bound for New York's JFK airport. Shortly after 1900 the flight disappeared from radar screens at Prestwick Air Traffic Control Centre.
At 1908-hrs there were reports by the Civil Air Traffic Control Authorities of an explosion on the ground 15 miles north of the Scottish border. Details of the accident are still unclear but there are unconfirmed reports the plane has ploughed into cars and houses. An eyewitness said the aircraft has hit a central part of the town in a residential area. "There was just a terrible explosion, you just couldn't describe it," he told the BBC. "It is just impossible to approach the town but at the time it went up there was a terrible explosion and the whole sky lit up. "It was virtually raining fire - it was just liquid fire."
Parts of the town are being evacuated and a hall has been converted into a refuge centre. Dumfries and Galloway Hospital, about 20 miles away, is on emergency alert.
Ambulances from southern Scotland and Cumbria have been sent to the scene. The RAF has sent personnel and helicopters from Scotland and Northern England, along with mountain rescue teams to help police. The A74 has been cordoned off after police reported several parked cars on fire. It is thought the plane would have been flying at about 31,000 ft over Lockerbie when it exploded.
In total 259 people aboard the flight and 11 on the ground died in the crash which took place 38 minutes after take-off. The debris from the aircraft was scattered across 845 square miles and the impact reached 1.6 on the Richter scale. The subsequent police investigation was the biggest ever mounted in Scotland and became a murder inquiry when evidence of a bomb was found.
Two men accused of being Libyan intelligence agents were eventually charged with planting the bomb. Abdelbaset ali Mohmed al-Megrahi was jailed for life in January 2001 following an 84-day trial under Scottish law, at Camp Zeist in Holland. His alleged accomplice, Al Amin Khalifa Fhimah, was found not guilty. In 2002 Al Megrahi's appeal against conviction was rejected.
1988: IRA gang shot dead in Gibraltar
The IRA has confirmed the three people shot dead by security forces in Gibraltar yesterday were members of an active service unit. They are reported to have planted a 500lb car bomb near the British Governor's residence. It was primed to go off tomorrow during a changing of the guard ceremony, which is popular with tourists.
The three - two men and a woman - were shot as they walked towards the border with Spain. Security officers say they were acting suspiciously and the officers who carried out the shootings believed their lives were in danger. The three dead have been named as Daniel McCann, 30 and Sean Savage, 24, both known IRA activists and Mairead Farrell, 31, the most senior member of the gang who had served 10 years for her part in the bombing of a hotel outside Belfast in 1976.
The Ministry of Defence confirmed last night military personnel had opened fire on three terrorist suspects. It said no weapons had been found at the scene. The shooting happened in mid-afternoon. One eyewitness said he had seen a man in jeans holding a pistol in both hands. He said the man was only four feet from one of those he killed. Police sealed off the area for several hours after the shooting. A robot was brought in to defuse the car bomb and troops patrolled the streets. Local residents were warned to stay indoors. The terrorists' target was the band and guard of the 1st Battalion Royal Anglian Regiment, which arrived in Gibraltar recently after a tour of duty in Northern Ireland.
Army intelligence officers have been expecting an IRA attack on a military target for some months after a series of setbacks for the Provisionals. Reports say 20 members of the IRA have been killed in the past 15 months. The Independent's Ireland correspondent, David McKittrick, said 1987 was "a bad year" for the IRA. They lost eight active service members in an SAS ambush in Country Antrim. He has raised speculation yesterday's killings in Gibraltar may also have been the work of the SAS.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=x7MBqTw2vl0
1988: Three shot dead at Milltown Cemetery
A gunman has killed three mourners and injured at least 50 people attending a funeral for IRA members shot dead in Gibraltar. It is understood he also threw four grenades into the crowd of 10,000 people gathered around the Republican plot at Milltown Cemetery in Roman Catholic west Belfast. The casualties have been taken to the Royal Victoria Hospital in Belfast in a fleet of private vehicles and 10 ambulances. Eyewitness reports describe mourners gripped with panic, screaming and shouting while others collapsed to the floor.
The initial shot was mistaken for an IRA salute as the dead, Mairead Farrell, 31, Daniel McCann, 30, and Sean Savage, 23, were buried. But shortly after 1300 GMT as the last of the three coffins was lowered into the joint grave, another shot was fired. Another shot was quickly followed by two blasts 50 yards away which is said to have sent black smoke and earth into the air. Several more shots were fired amid a burst of what is thought to be grenades.
Funeral stewards made repeated appeals for calm as the course of reconciliation in Northern Ireland faced another setback. There are some reports the man was then pursued by hundreds of youths oblivious to the danger.
The Northern Ireland Secretary Tom King, has condemned the attacks and appealed for calm, echoing calls from other political quarters including Sinn Fein president Gerry Adams. But Mr Adams accused the RUC of collusion in the attack. The RUC had agreed to stay away from the funeral after representations from the Roman Catholic church and political leaders. The Ulster Defence Association, the largest of the Protestant paramilitary organisations, denied any part in the attack. It added the outlawed Ulster Freedom Fighters had no part in today's events either.
The funerals were for three IRA members shot dead by British special forces in Gibraltar, where they were planning an attack on the British garrison. A lone loyalist gunman, Michael Stone, was chased by mourners at the cemetery but was arrested by police. The east Belfast man had been active on the fringes of loyalist para-militarism before the Milltown killings and was ultimately sentenced for a total of six murders when he eventually came to trial. The Ulster Freedom Fighters member was sentenced to a minimum of 30 years imprisonment by the trial judge.
But he was released in 2000, despite massive outrage, after serving 12 years under the terms of the Good Friday Agreement. In November 2006 he had his release licence suspended after he was arrested for bursting into Stormont claiming to have a bomb. He was charged with attempting to murder Sinn Fein's Gerry Adams and Martin McGuinness and with possessing an imitation firearm.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=yFfhkdHIVgA
Corporals Wood and Howes killed by IRA 1988
When two corporals in the British Army inadvertently drove into the midst of a republican funeral, their car was set upon by the crowd. They were dragged out and beaten before being shot dead by members of the IRA. These brutal killings marked the conclusion of a period of 14 days that was to prove one the darkest of Northern Ireland's Troubles. The incident was filmed by television cameras and the images have been described as some of the "most dramatic and harrowing" of the conflict in Northern Ireland.
1988 Timeline
January – Elizabeth Butler-Sloss becomes the first woman to be appointed a Lord Justice of Appeal.
3 January – Margaret Thatcher becomes the longest serving British prime minister this century, having been in power for eight years and 244 days.
4 January – Sir Robin Butler replaces Sir Robert Armstrong as Cabinet Secretary, on the same day that Margaret Thatcher makes her first state visit to Africa when she arrives in Kenya.
5 January – Actor Rowan Atkinson launches the new Comic Relief charity appeal.
7 January – Labour Party leader Neil Kinnock calls for a further £1.3 billion to made available for the National Health Service.
9 January – One of the worst incidents of football hooliganism this season sees 41 suspected hooligans arrested at the FA Cup third round tie between Arsenal and Millwall at Highbury.
11 January – The government announces that inflammable foam furniture will be banned from March next year.
14 January – Unemployment figures are released for the end of 1987, showing the 18th successive monthly fall. Just over 2,600,000 people are now jobless in the United Kingdom – the lowest total for seven years. More than 500,000 of the unemployed found jobs during 1987.
22 January – Colin Pitchfork is sentenced to life imprisonment after admitting the rape and murder of two girls in Leicestershire in 1983 and 1986, the first conviction for murder in the UK based on DNA fingerprinting evidence.
22 January – Peugeot's 405 saloon, winner of the European Car of the Year award, goes on sale in Britain.
23 January – David Steel announces that he will not stand for the leadership of the new Social and Liberal Democratic Party.
24 January – Arthur Scargill is re-elected as leader of the National Union of Mineworkers by a narrow majority.
28 January – The Birmingham Six lose an appeal against their convictions.
1 February – Victor Miller, a 33-year-old warehouse worker from Wolverhampton, confesses to the murder of 14-year-old Stuart Gough, who was found dead in Worcestershire last month.
3 February – Nurses throughout the UK strike for higher pay and more cash for the National Health Service.
4 February – Nearly 7,000 ferry workers go on strike in Britain, paralysing the nation's seaports.
5 February – The first BBC Red Nose Day raises £15 million for charity.
7 February – It is reported that more than 50% of men and 80% of women working full-time in London are earning less than the lowest sum needed to buy the cheapest houses in the capital.
13 – 28 February – Great Britain and Northern Ireland compete at the Winter Olympics in Calgary, Canada, but do not win any medals.
15 February – Norman Fowler, Secretary of State for Employment, announces plans for a new training scheme which the government hopes will give jobs to up to 600,000 people who are currently unemployed.
16 February – Thousands of nurses and co-workers form picket lines outside British hospitals as they go on strike in protest against what they see as inadequate NHS funding.
26 February – Multiple rapist and murderer John Duffy is sentenced to life imprisonment with a recommendation that he should never be released.
1 March – British Aerospace launches a takeover bid for the government-owned Rover Group, the largest British-owned carmaker.
3 March – The SDP merges with the Liberal Party to create the Social and Liberal Democratic Party. Its interim leaders are David Steel and Robert Maclennan. The merger means that the Liberal Party has ceased to exist after 129 years.
4 March – Halifax Building Society reveals that year-on-year house prices rose by 16.9% last month.
6 March – Operation Flavius: A Special Air Service team of the British Army shoots dead three unarmed members of a Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) Active Service Unit in Gibraltar.
7 March – Margaret Thatcher announces a £3 billion regeneration scheme to improve a series of inner city areas by the year 2000.
9 March – It is revealed that the average price of a house in Britain reached £60,000 at the end of last year, compared to £47,000 in December 1986.
10 March – The Prince of Wales narrowly avoids death in an avalanche while on a skiing holiday in Switzerland. Major Hugh Lindsay, former equerry to the Queen, is killed.
15 March – Chancellor Nigel Lawson announces that the standard rate of income tax will be cut to 25p in the pound, while the maximum rate of income tax will be cut to 40p from 60p in the pound.
16 March – Milltown Cemetery attack: Three men are killed and 70 are wounded in a gun and grenade attack by loyalist paramilitary Michael Stone on mourners at Milltown Cemetery in Belfast during the funerals of the three IRA members killed in Gibraltar.
17 March – The fall in unemployment continues with just over 2,500,000 people now registered as unemployed in the UK. However, there is a blow for the city of Dundee, when Ford Motor Company scraps plans to build a new electronics plant in the city – a move which ends hopes of 1,000 new jobs being created for this city which has high unemployment.
19 March – Corporals killings in Belfast: British Army corporals Woods and Howes are abducted, beaten and shot dead by Irish republicans after driving into the funeral cortege of IRA members killed in the Milltown Cemetery attack.
29 March – Plans are unveiled for Europe's tallest skyscraper to be built at Canary Wharf. The office complex will cost around £3 billion to build and is set to open in 1992.
9 April – The house price boom is reported to have boosted wealth in London and the south-east by £39 billion over the last four years, compared with an £18 billion slump in Scotland and north-west England.
10 April – Golfer Sandy Lyle becomes the first British winner of the US Masters.
21 April – The government announces that nurses will receive a 15% pay rise, at a cost of £794 million which will be funded by the Treasury.
24 April - Luton Town FC beat Arsenal in the Littlewoods Cup final at Wembley 3-2. The match was won in the 92nd minute with a goal by Brian Stein after Luton had come back from being 2-1 down and goalkeeper Andy Dibble saving a penalty in the 79th minute. Luton scorers Brian Stein and Danny Wilson. Attendance 96,000
May – The first 16-year-olds sit General Certificate of Secondary Education examinations, replacing both the O-level and CSE. The new qualifications are marked against objective standards rather than relatively.
2 May – Three off-duty British servicemen are killed in The Netherlands by the IRA.
6 May – Graeme Hick makes English cricket history by scoring 405 runs in a county championship match.
7 May – The proposed Poll tax, which is expected to come into force next year, will see the average house rise in value by around 20%, according to a study.
14 May – Wimbledon F.C., who have been Football League members for just 11 seasons and First Division members for two, win the FA Cup with a 1–0 win over league champions Liverpool at Wembley. Lawrie Sanchez scored the winning goal in the first half, while Liverpool's John Aldridge missed a penalty in the second half. In Scotland, Celtic beat Dundee United 2-1 in the Scottish Cup final with two late goals from Frank McAvennie to complete the Scottish double.
19 May - Unemployment is now below 2,500,000 for the first time since early 1981.
House prices in Norwich, one of the key beneficiaries of the current economic boom, have risen by 50% in the last year.
24 May - Local Government Act becomes law. The controversial Section 28 prevents local authorities from "promoting homosexuality". Local authorities are also obliged to outsource more services, and dog licences are abolished (except in Northern Ireland).
Albert Dock in Liverpool reopened by Prince Charles as a leisure and business centre including the Tate Liverpool art museum.
31 May – the BBC controversial film, Tumbledown is broadcast despite Ministry of Defence concern.
2 June – U.S. President Ronald Reagan makes a visit to Britain.
11 June – Some 80,000 people attend a concert at Wembley Stadium in honour of Nelson Mandela, the South African anti-apartheid campaigner who turned 70 on that day and has been in prison since 1964.
15 June – Five British soldiers are killed by the IRA in Lisburn.
16 June – More than 100 English football fans are arrested in West Germany in connection with incidents of football hooliganism during the European Championships.
18 June – England's participation in the European Football Champions ended when they finished bottom of their group having lost all three games.
23 June – Three gay rights activists invade the BBC television studios during the six o'clock bulletin of the BBC News.
July – The Freeze art exhibition is held at Surrey Docks in London Docklands, it is organised by Damien Hirst and is considered significant in the development of the Young British Artists.
5 July – The Church of England announces that it will allow the ordination of women priests from 1992.
6 July - Piper Alpha disaster oil rig in the North Sea explodes and results in the death of 167 workers.
A contractor's relief driver pours 20 tonnes of aluminium sulphate into the wrong tank at a water treatment plant near Camelford in Cornwall, causing extensive pollution to the local water supply.
18 July – Paul Gascoigne, 21-year-old midfielder, becomes the first £2 million footballer signed by a British club when he leaves Newcastle United and joins Tottenham Hotspur.
28 July – Paddy Ashdown, MP for Yeovil in Somerset, is elected as the first leader of the Social and Liberal Democratic Party.
28 July - Paddy Ashdown an ex-Royal Marine commando is elected leader of the Social Democrats and Liberal Democrats.
29 July – Most provisions of the Education Reform Act come into effect in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. The Act introduces Grant-maintained schools and Local Management of Schools, allowing schools to be taken out of the direct control of local government; a National Curriculum with Key Stages; an element of parental preference in the choice of schools; published league tables of school examination results; controls on the use of the word 'degree' by UK institutions; and abolition of tenure for new academics.
31 July – Economists warn that the house price boom is likely to end next year.
1 August – A British Army soldier is killed by IRA terrorists at Inglis Barracks in North London.
2 August – Everton F.C. pay £2.3 million for West Ham United striker Tony Cottee, 22, breaking the national record set six weeks ago by Paul Gascoigne's transfer.
8 August – The first child (a girl) of TRH The Duke and Duchess of York is born at Portland Hospital in London. She was fifth in line to the throne until the birth of Prince George of Cambridge on the 22 July 2013. She is currently sixth in line.
14 August – Scunthorpe United F.C.'s Glanford Park is opened; the first new stadium to be built by a Football League club since the 1950s. Their last game at their original ground, Old Showground, was on 18 May.
18 August – Ian Rush becomes the most expensive player to join a British club when he returns to Liverpool F.C. for £2.7 million after a year at Juventus in Italy.
20 August – Six British soldiers are killed by an IRA bomb near Belfast. 27 other people are injured.
22 August - New licensing laws allow pubs to stay open all day in England and Wales.
The Duke and Duchess of York's 14-day-old daughter is named Beatrice Elizabeth Mary.
29 August – 14-year-old Matthew Sadler becomes Britain's youngest international chess master.
31 August – Postal workers walk out on strike over a dispute concerning bonuses paid to recruit new workers in London and the South East.
3 September – Economic experts warn that the recent economic upswing for most of the developed world is almost over, and that these countries – including Britain – face a recession in the near future.
9 September – The England cricket team's tour to India is cancelled after Captain Graham Gooch and seven other players are refused visas because of involvement in South African cricket during the apartheid boycott.
13 September – Royal Mail managers and Union of Communication Workers representatives agree a settlement to end the postal workers strike.
17 September – 2 October – Great Britain and Northern Ireland compete at the Olympics in Seoul, South Korea, and win 5 gold, 10 silver and 9 bronze medals.
24 September – The house price boom is reported to be slowing as a result of increased mortgage rates.
30 September – A Gibraltar jury decides that the 3 IRA members killed on 6 March were killed "lawfully".
October – Vauxhall launches the third generation of its popular Cavalier family saloon.
9 October – Labour MP and Shadow Chancellor John Smith, 50, is hospitalised with a heart attack in Edinburgh.
12 October – As Pope John Paul II addresses the European Parliament, Ian Paisley heckles and denounces him as the Antichrist.
13 October – The House of Lords rules that extracts of the banned book Spycatcher can be published in the media.
18 October – Jaguar unveils its new Jaguar XJ220 supercar at the Motor Show. It is set go into production in 1990, costing £350,000 and being the world's fastest production car with a top speed of 220 mph.
27 October – Three IRA supporters are found guilty of conspiracy to murder in connection with a plot to kill Secretary of State for Northern Ireland Tom King.
28 October – British Rail announces a 21% rise in the cost of long distance season tickets.
2 November – Victor Miller is sentenced to life imprisonment for the murder of Stuart Gough.
4 November – Margaret Thatcher presses for freedom for the people of Poland on her visit to Gdańsk.
9 November – The government unveils plans for a new identity card scheme in an attempt to clamp down on football hooliganism.
15 November - The Education Secretary, Kenneth Baker, says that the national testing will place great emphasis on grammar.
30 November – A government report reveals that up to 50,000 people in Britain may be HIV positive, and that by the end of 1992 up to 17,000 people may have died from AIDS.
A bronze statue of former prime minister Clement Attlee, who died in 1967, is unveiled outside Limehouse Library in London by fellow former prime minister Harold Wilson.
3 December – Health minister Edwina Currie provokes outrage by stating that most of Britain's egg production is infected with the salmonella bacteria, causing an immediate nationwide fall in egg sales.
6 December – The last shipbuilding facilities on Wearside, once the largest shipbuilding area in the world, are to close with the loss of 2,400 jobs.
10 December – James W. Black wins the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine jointly with Gertrude B. Elion and George H. Hitchings "for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment".
12 December – 35 people are killed in a collision between three trains at Clapham in London.
15 December – Unemployment is now only just over 2,100,000 – the lowest level for almost eight years.
16 December – Edwina Currie resigns as Health minister.
19 December - The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors publishes its house price survey, revealing a deep recession in the housing market.
PC Gavin Carlton, 29, is shot dead in Coventry in a siege by two armed bank robbers. His colleague DC Leonard Jakeman is also shot but survives. One of the gunmen gives himself up to police, while the other shoots himself dead.
20 December – The three-month-old daughter of the Duke and Duchess of York is christened Beatrice Elizabeth Mary.
21 December – Pan Am Flight 103 explodes over the Scottish town of Lockerbie, Dumfries and Galloway killing a total of 270 people – 11 on the ground and all 259 who were on board. It is believed that the cause of the explosion was a terrorist bomb.
Inflation remains low for the seventh year running, now standing at 4.9%.
1988 in British television
4 January – BBC1 moves the repeat episode of Neighbours to a 5:35pm evening slot, the decision to do this having been made by controller Michael Grade on the advice of his daughter.
6 January – All ITV regions network Emmerdale Farm in the Wednesday and Thursday 6.30pm slot.
11 January – The first episode of the game show Fifteen to One airs on Channel 4.
25–29 January – TV-am airs a week of live broadcasts from Sydney to celebrate Australia's bicentenary.
5 February – Comic Relief airs its Red Nose Day fundraiser on BBC1.
13–28 February – The 1988 Winter Olympics are held in Calgary, Alberta and broadcast to television audiences around the world.
15 February – Red Dwarf makes its debut on BBC2.
20 February – London's Burning makes its debut as a regular series on ITV, having been developed from Jack Rosenthal's original 1986 film.
19 March – Two off-duty British soldiers are killed after stumbling into an IRA funeral procession in Belfast. Footage of the incident is captured by journalists and widely broadcast.
22 March – Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher tells the House of Commons that journalists have a "bounden duty" to assist the police investigation into the corporals killings by handing over their footage. Many have refused to do so fearing it could place them in danger.
23 March – Film of the corporals killings is seized from the BBC and ITN under the Prevention of Terrorism and Emergency Provisions Acts.
4 April – The original series of Crossroads airs for the last time on ITV. It returns in 2001 before being axed again in 2003.
6 April – ITV's chart show The Roxy airs for the last time.
15 April – The Pogues perform their controversial hit Streets of Sorrow/Birmingham Six – a song expressing support for those convicted over the Guildford and Birmingham pub bombings – on the Ben Elton Channel 4 show Friday Night Live. The song is cut short, however, by a commercial break.
28 April – ITV broadcasts Death on the Rock, a hugely controversial episode of Thames Television's This Week current affairs strand, investigating Operation Flavius, which resulted in the SAS killing three members of the IRA in Gibraltar on 6 March.
16 May – The youth strand DEF II is launched on BBC2.
30 May – Debut of Charles Wood's screenplay Tumbledown about the experiences of Scots Guard Robert Lawrence, who was left paralysed after being shot in the head by a sniper at the Battle of Mount Tumbledown during the Falklands War.
8 June – Television presenter Russell Harty dies aged 53.
Media mogul Rupert Murdoch announces to the British Academy of Film and Television Arts his intention to launch a new news service. Sky News is launched at 6.00pm on 5 February 1989.
11 June – The Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute concert is staged at Wembley Stadium, London, and broadcast to 67 countries and an audience of 600 million. It was broadcast on BBC 2.
23 June – Three gay rights activists invade the BBC studios during a six o'clock bulletin of the BBC News.
19 July – The Bill broadcasts the first episode of its fourth season and switches to a year-round serial format.
3 August – Brookside is moved from Tuesdays to Wednesdays which means the soap can now be seen on Mondays and Wednesdays.
31 August – ITV airs a version of The Hound of the Baskervilles starring Jeremy Brett and Edward Hardwicke.
8 September – Channel 4 drops plans to invite Sinn Féin leader Gerry Adams to appear on an edition of its late night discussion programme After Dark following
objections from other contributors.
17 September–2 October – The 1988 Summer Olympics are held in Seoul, South Korea and broadcast to television audiences around the world.
30 September – Television presenters Mike Smith and Sarah Greene are seriously injured in a helicopter crash in Gloucestershire.
3 October – The magazine programme This Morning makes its debut. It is presented by Richard Madeley and Judy Finnigan until 2001.
19 October – Home Secretary Douglas Hurd issues a notice under clause 13 of the BBC Licence and Agreement to the BBC and under section 29 of the Broadcasting Act 1981 to the Independent Broadcasting Authority prohibiting the broadcast of direct statements by representatives or supporters of 11 Irish political and military organisations. The ban lasts until 1994, and denies the UK news media the right to broadcast the voices, though not the words, of all Irish republican and Loyalist paramilitaries. The restrictions – targeted primarily at Sinn Féin – means that actors are used to speak the words of any representative interviewed for radio and television.
25 October – As the 25th anniversary of the assassination of John F. Kennedy approaches ITV airs the two part documentary The Men Who Killed Kennedy, a film which explores discrepancies and inconsistencies in the US Government's official version of events.
2 November – In the House of Commons, an amendment introduced by the opposition Labour Party condemning the government's decision over the broadcasting ban as "incompatible with a free society" is rejected, despite some Conservative MPs voting with Labour.
Evacuation, an episode of ITV's The Bill features one of the series early prominent events - an explosion at Sun Hill police station.
8 November – BBC1 airs Episode 523 of Neighbours featuring the wedding of Scott Robinson and Charlene Mitchell, which is watched by 20 million viewers.
13 November–18 December – The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, one of C.S. Lewis's Chronicles of Narnia, is aired as a six-part TV serial by the BBC, featuring actors including Ronald Pickup, Barbara Kellerman and Michael Aldridge.
23 November – The BBC science fiction series Doctor Who celebrates its 25th anniversary and begins the three part serial Silver Nemesis.
24 November – Frank Ruse, a left-wing Labour councillor for Liverpool City Council accompanies Liverpool's Pagoda Chinese Youth Orchestra to London for an appearance on Blue Peter. He is given a Blue Peter badge, but later receives a BBC headed letter requesting its return. The letter (later discovered to be a forgery) claims the programme had been approached by the office of Labour leader Neil Kinnock expressing concern that a councillor with hard-left views had been given a Blue Peter badge. Upon receiving the returned badge, the BBC writes back to Ruse stating that it had not sent the letter. The incident prompts Ruse to start an enquiry to find out who sent the hoax letter.
26 November – Tugs a children's model animated series made by Clearwater Features (the company behind the first two seasons of Thomas the Tank Enigne & Friends) debuts on ITV.
1 December – ITV's ORACLE Teletext service launches Park Avenue, a teletext based soap opera. It is written by Robert Burns and runs until ORACLE loses its franchise at the end of 1992.
3 December – Comedian Steve Tandy wins New Faces of '88.
11 December – Launch date of the Astra Satellite. The satellite will provide television coverage to Western Europe and is revolutionary as one of the first medium-powered satellites, allowing reception with smaller dishes than has previously been possible.
13 December – Central airs the final episode of Sons and Daughters making it the first ITV region to complete the series.
22 December – BBC1 airs Civvy Street, a spin-off episode of EastEnders set during World War II.
25 December – The final edition of It's a Knockout to air on BBC1 is another celebrity special, It's a Charity Knockout From Walt Disney World, featuring teams of celebrities from the United Kingdom, United States and Australia. The series returns to S4C in 1991.
26–30 December – As part of a Christmas special, Channel 4 soap Brookside airs five episodes over five consecutive days.
Ulster Television in Northern Ireland is the last in the ITV network to begin 24-hour transmission.
BBC1
3 January – First of the Summer Wine (1988–1989)
3 May – 4 Square (1988–1991)
30 May – Tumbledown
3 September – Noel's Saturday Roadshow (1988–1990)
12 September – Stoppit and Tidyup (1988)
18 September – On the Record (1988–2002)
17 October – Playdays (1988–1997)
20 October – Charlie Chalk (1988–1989)
29 December – You Rang, M'Lord? (1988–1993)
BBC2
15 February – Red Dwarf (1988–1999, 2012–present)
9 May – DEF II (1988–1994)
18 October – Colin's Sandwich (1988–1990)
ITV
4 January – After Henry (1988–1992)
20 February – You Bet! (1988–1997)
London's Burning (1988–2002)
16 April – All Clued Up (1988–1991)
19 July - Wheel of Fortune (1988–2001)
26 July – I Can Do That (1988–1991)
3 September – The Hit Man and Her (1988–1992)
6 September – Count Duckula (1988–1993)
3 October – This Morning (1988—present)
24 November – Children's Ward (1988–2000)
26 November - TUGS (1988–1989)
1 December – Park Avenue on ORACLE (1988–1992)
3 December – How to Be Cool (1988)[14]
Channel 4
11 January – Fifteen to One (1988–2003, 2013–present)
23 September – Whose Line Is It Anyway? (1988–1998)
Charts Number-one singles
"Always on My Mind" - Pet Shop Boys
"Heaven Is a Place on Earth" - Belinda Carlisle
"I Think We're Alone Now" - Tiffany
"I Should Be So Lucky" - Kylie Minogue
"Don't Turn Around" - Aswad
"With a Little Help from My Friends" - Wet Wet Wet / Billy Bragg
"Doctorin' the Tardis" - The Timelords
"I Owe You Nothing" - Bros
"Nothing's Gonna Change My Love For You" - Glenn Medeiros
"The Only Way Is Up" - Yazz and the Plastic Population
"A Groovy Kind of Love" - Phil Collins
"He Ain't Heavy, He's My Brother" - The Hollies
"Desire" - U2
"One Moment in Time" - Whitney Houston
"Orinoco Flow (Sail Away)" - Enya
"First Time" - Robin Beck
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Tags: thatwastheyearthatwas1987
1987 After many years of research a new drug AZT is used for the treatment of AIDS. After a long period of growth the US stockmarket drops 22.6% in one day on October 19th and throughout the rest of the world major falls are recorded by the end of October with Hong Kong dropping by 45.8%. In the UK 2 major transport disasters happen when A cross-channel ferry capsizes and an underground fire in Kings Cross Tube Station. England also suffers one of the worst storms in history when Hurricane force winds hit much of the South of England.
Events from the year 1987 in the United Kingdom. At the beginning of the year, the Archbishop of Canterbury's envoy Terry Waite was kidnapped in Lebanon and remained a hostage until 1991. The major political event of this year was the re-election of Margaret Thatcher in June, making her the longest continuously serving Prime Minister since Lord Liverpool in the early 19th century. The year was also marked by a number of disasters — the sinking of the ferry MS Herald of Free Enterprise, the Hungerford massacre, the "Great Storm", the Remembrance Day Bombing in Northern Ireland and the King's Cross fire.
In 1987 three million people were out of work; the "big bang" had just revolutionised the City and there was wide concern that exorbitant salaries would distort pay scales; as heavy industry collapsed, what became known as the underclass was swelling; there had been riots in Tottenham; the gap between state and private education was becoming a chasm; beggars were back in the underpasses and the doorways of London's West End; the NHS was, as ever, a political minefield.
Margaret Thatcher secures her third term in office
11 June – The 1987 General Election sees Margaret Thatcher secure her third term in office. However, her majority is reduced to 102 compared to the 144 seat majority gained at the election four years ago. High profile casualties of the election include the SDP's former leader Roy Jenkins (once a Labour Home Secretary) and the Ulster Unionist Party's 75-year-old Enoch Powell (a former Conservative MP). Four ethnic minority candidates are successful: Diane Abbott, Paul Boateng, Bernie Grant and Keith Vaz. Among the MP's retiring from parliament is 75-year-old James Callaghan, the former prime minister.
DNA profiling
In 1987, in the first ever mass DNA screen, the police and forensic scientists screened blood and saliva samples from 4,000 men aged between 17 and 34 who lived in the villages of Enderby, Narborough and nearby Littlethorpe and did not have an alibi for murders. The turn out rate was 98%, but the screen did not find any matches to the semen samples. The police and scientists expanded the screen to men with an alibi, but still did not find a match.
In August 1987, a woman overheard a colleague, Ian Kelly, boasting that he had given a sample posing as a friend of his, Colin Pitchfork. Pitchfork had persuaded Kelly to take the test as he claimed he had already given a sample for a friend who had a flashing conviction. The police arrested Colin Pitchfork in September 1987, and scientists found that his DNA profile matched that of the murderer.
Colin Pitchfork had previous convictions for flashing, and claimed that the murders had begun as flashings, but the girls had run away, which had excited him. In January 1988, Colin Pitchfork was sentenced to life imprisonment for the murders, and was told he had to serve a minimum of 30 years.
A British scientist, Sir Alec Jeffreys, developed DNA profiling in the 1980s. DNA for profiling can be extracted from samples of human cells found at a Crime Scene, including blood, semen, skin, saliva, mucus, perspiration and the roots of hair, and Profiling can even be carried out on old and dried out samples.
The case of Colin Pitchfork was the first murder conviction based on DNA profiling evidence (there was a previous rape conviction based on this type of evidence).
1987: Gunman kills 14 in Hungerford rampage
A man has shot 14 people dead in the Berkshire town of Hungerford. Police identified the gunman as Michael Ryan, 27. Local people described him as a "loner" and a "gun fanatic". Ryan was armed with an automatic rifle, a pistol and at least one hand grenade when he went on the rampage early on Wednesday afternoon. His victims included his mother and a police officer who tried to tackle him in Hungerford which lies about 60 miles (96km) west of London. At least 16 people are known to have been injured.
Ryan's first victim was a woman he shot dead as she picnicked with her two children in Savernake Forest about 10 miles (16km) from Hungerford. Soon afterwards at 1245, an armed man - identified by witnesses as Ryan - fired at a woman cashier in a nearby petrol station but missed. Less than 10 minutes later firefighters were called to a house fire in Hungerford where they found the body of a woman believed to be the gunman's mother.
'Fired without warning'
By 1300 Ryan had moved on to Hungerford's main shopping area where he fired indiscriminately killing at least 12 people. Witnesses spoke of a heavily armed man in combat gear who opened fire without warning. As police realised the seriousness of the incident armed officers and helicopters were rushed to the area. But for much of the afternoon Ryan managed to evade the huge manhunt and was only later tracked down to a school on the outskirts of town. The building is now surrounded by armed police and negotiators have been brought in to persuade the gunman to give himself up.
Michael Ryan later turned his gun on himself and was found dead inside the school by police. The death toll eventually reached 16. At the time the incident was the worst mass killing of recent times in Britain. It led to tighter restrictions on gun ownership with the introduction of the Firearms (Amendment) Act of 1988. Critics said the legislation did not go far enough to prevent other massacres occurring.
In March 1996 Thomas Hamilton shot dead 16 school children and their teacher in the Scottish town of Dunblane.
1987: Hurricane winds batter southern England
15 October – During a weather forecast, BBC meteorologist Michael Fish reports "Earlier on today, apparently, a woman rang the BBC and said she heard there was a hurricane on the way; well, if you're watching, don't worry, there isn't, but having said that, actually, the weather will become very windy, but most of the strong winds, incidentally, will be down over Spain and across into France.". Hours later, Britain is hit by the worst storm for 284 years. Fish later drew criticism for the comments, but has since claimed that they referred to Florida, USA, and were linked to a news story immediately preceding the weather bulletin, but had been so widely repeated out of context that the British public remains convinced that he was referring to the approaching storm.
Southern Britain has begun a massive clear-up operation after the worst night of storms in living memory. At least 13 people are known to have died and many dozens have been injured, mostly by falling trees and buildings. Rescue workers faced an unprecedented number of call-outs as winds hit 94 mph (151 km/h) in the capital and over 110 mph (177 km/h) in the Channel Islands.
Weather forecasters have faced criticism for failing to predict the severity of the weather.
The worst affected areas were along the south coast - in Kent five people died including two seamen in Dover Harbour, and in Dorset two firemen were killed as they answered an emergency call. The stormy weather was first predicted at the beginning of the week when the Meteorological Office identified a depression strengthening over the Atlantic.
Last night BBC weatherman Michael Fish reassured viewers the system would track along the English Channel, but instead it cut a swathe right across the south of the country.
Commuters were today advised to stay at home as hundreds of roads and railway lines remain blocked by fallen trees. Some houses and apartments had their roofs blown off. On the Isle of Wight the famous Shanklin Pier, nearly a century old, was reduced to driftwood and in Jaywick, Essex, a caravan park was flattened.
Along the south coast damage to yachts and boat yards was extensive. In Folkestone a Sea Link ferry was blown aground and its crew had to be rescued. The insurance industry is bracing itself for huge payouts. Most household policies cover storm damage, and thousands of homeowners have already started claims. In the London of Borough of Ealing alone, 600 calls came from people whose homes and cars had been struck by falling trees and debris.
Len Turner of Ealing Council said central funding from the government might be needed to deal with the exceptional clean-up costs local councils are facing. "It's going to take an enormous amount of effort and money; I hope we can look to the Government to support us because the burden on local rate payers is going to be enormous."
1987: Lester Piggott jailed for three years
Former champion jockey, Lester Piggott, has been sentenced to three years imprsionment after being found guilty of an alleged tax fraud of over £3m. The 51-year-old remained stony-faced as he was sentenced by Mr Justice Farquharson at Ipswich Crown Court. But his wife, Susan, collapsed in tears as he was taken to Norwich prison.
Piggott was jailed after failing to declare income to the Inland Revenue of £3.25m. The biggest sum on the charge sheet relates to an alleged omission of £1,359,726 from additional riding income. Another alleged that for 14 years, from 1971, he omitted income of £1,031,697 from bloodstock operations.
False declarations
Piggott, whose personal fortune is estimated at £20m, is said to have used different names to channel his earnings in secret bank accounts in Switzerland, the Bahamas, Singapore and the Cayman Islands. The nine times Derby winner has been prosecuted in the biggest individual income tax-dodging case ever brought in Britain and the sentence is the highest to be passed for a personal tax fraud. Piggott was charged after a joint Customs and Inland Revenue investigation, codenamed Centaur after the halfman, half-horse beast of mythology, into his affairs. The jockey was said to have signed false declarations to the Inland Revenue during three successive inquiries into his tax affairs between 1970 and 1985.
The judge remarked that Piggott even misled his own accountants "until the matter was forced out of you" last year. Other leading jockeys and racing figures were also questioned during the inquiry but the Inland Revenue said it was "too early to say" whether more prosecutions will follow. Top racing figures have been left stunned by the punishment imposed on Piggott, who has become a household name throughout the world. The champion jockey, Pat Eddery said: "I am shocked and very sad. I did not think he would get three years, but the law is the law."
The sentence was condemned as a "terrible injustice" by the Newmarket trainer, David Thom, who said Piggott had put "more money in the taxman's coffers than any 100 people could have done." But appeals for leniency by Mr John Mathew, QC, Piggott's counsel, had been rejected by the judge, who said he could not "pass over" the scale of Piggott's VAT and income tax evasion without an invitation to others tempted to cheat. He will be eligible for parole after one year or if early release is refused, could earn remission of one year for good behaviour.
1987 Timeline
January - Most of Britain is affected by heavy snow and sub zero temperatures.
1 January – Personal Equity Plans permitting tax-free investments in shares are introduced.
2 January – Golliwogs are banned from Enid Blyton books by their publisher and replaced by politically correct gnomes following complaints that golliwogs were offensive to black people.
4 January – Economists predict that unemployment will fall below 3,000,000 by the end of this year.
5 January – Harold Macmillan, Lord Stockton, former prime minister, is buried in the village of Horsted Keynes, having died on 29 December at the age of 92.
7 January – Telford, the new town created in Shropshire some 20 years ago, is reported to have the highest unemployment rate in the West Midlands region, even eclipsing the unemployment levels seen in the city of Birmingham and nearby towns including Wolverhampton, Brierley Hill, Wednesbury and Bilston, which have lost a large percentage of traditional heavy industry since the late 1970s, although Brierley Hill's unemployment crisis is beginning to ease with the ongoing development of the Merry Hill Shopping Centre, which already includes two retail parks and a large shopping mall and is set to expand even further by the end of the decade.
13 January – Prince Edward leaves the Royal Marines just three months after joining.
14 January – Heavy snow falls across Britain leaving houses, towns, roads, railways and motor vehicles stranded and blocked.
15 January – Unemployment is reported to have fallen in December 1986 for the fifth month in succession.
20 January - Terry Waite, the special envoy of the Archbishop of Canterbury in Lebanon, disappears in Beirut while negotiating for the release of hostages.
Police arrest 26 suspected football hooligans across Britain after a mass operation.
30 January – The flotation of British Airways begins.
11 February - British Airways is privatised and listed on the London Stock Exchange.
Cynthia Payne is acquitted of controlling prostitutes in her London home.
12 February – Edwina Currie sparks controversy by stating that "good Christians won't get AIDS".
24 February – It is alleged that six Nazi war criminals are living in Britain.
26 February - Church of England's General Synod votes to allow the ordination of women.
Rosie Barnes wins the Greenwich seat for the SDP from Labour in a by-election.
3 March – National Health Service prescription charges rise from £2.20 to £2.40.
6 March - British ferry MS Herald of Free Enterprise capsizes while leaving the harbour of Zeebrugge, Belgium, killing 193 on board.
The value of the pound is at a five-year high.
13 March – 25-year-old Matthew Taylor wins Truro for the Liberals in the by-election caused by the death of David Penhaligon three months ago.
19 March – Winston Silcott, a 28-year-old black man, is sentenced to life imprisonment for the murder of PC Keith Blakelock in the Tottenham riots 17 months ago.
23 March – 31 people are injured when a suspected IRA bomb explodes at a British army barracks in Rheindahlen, West Germany.
27 March – Neil Kinnock meets Ronald Reagan in Washington DC.
29 March – Margaret Thatcher visits Moscow.
30 March – Christie's auction house in London sells one of Vincent van Gogh's iconic Sunflowers paintings for £24,750,000.
1 April – MP's vote against the restoration of the death penalty by 342–230.
3 April – The jewellery of the late Duchess of Windsor is sold at auction for £31 million, six times the expected value.
5 April - Arsenal win the Football League Cup for the first time in their history with a 2-1 win over Liverpool, earning them their first major trophy since 1979. Charlie Nicholas scores both of Arsenal's goals.
16 April – Conservative MP Harvey Proctor appears in Court charged with gross indecency.
22 April – The former prime minister Jim Callaghan is appointed to the Order of the Garter. He will be retiring from parliament after the general election.
29 April – Chancellor Nigel Lawson promises that the United Kingdom will soon have an income tax rate of 25p in the pound.
30 April – The House of Lords approve the sterilisation of a "mentally subnormal" 17-year-old female.
4 May - Everton win the Football League First Division title for the ninth time in their history.
8 May – Soldiers of the SAS kill eight members of the Provisional Irish Republican Army at Loughgal, County Antrim.
11 May - Margaret Thatcher calls a general election for 11 June, with most of the opinion polls pointing towards her securing a third successive election victory for the Conservatives, with the Labour opposition expected to increase its share of votes and seats in its first general election under the leadership of Neil Kinnock.
British Rail renames Second class as Standard class.
14 May – Unemployment has fallen to 3,107,128.
15 May – Family Law Reform Act removes remaining legal distinctions between children born to married and unmarried parents.
16 May – Coventry City F.C. win the FA Cup for the first time in their history with a 3–2 win in the final over Tottenham Hotspur, who had won all of their previous seven FA Cup finals.
25 May - Aldershot F.C. become the first team to win promotion through the new Football League playoffs, winning promotion from the Fourth Division with a 3-0 aggregate win over their illustrious opponents Wolverhampton Wanderers (who have a total of eight major trophies to their name, the most recent just seven years ago). The Hampshire club have already condemned another illustrious side, Bolton Wanderers (four times FA Cup winners) to relegation to the Fourth Division for the first time in their history.
3 June – The last MORI poll before the general election shows the Conservatives 11 points ahead of Labour with 43% of the vote, while the Liberal/SDP Alliance's support stands at 24% and their hopes of building on their result at the last election look exceedingly slim.
11 June – The 1987 General Election sees Margaret Thatcher secure her third term in office. However, her majority is reduced to 102 compared to the 144 seat majority gained at the election four years ago. High profile casualties of the election include the SDP's former leader Roy Jenkins (once a Labour Home Secretary) and the Ulster Unionist Party's 75-year-old Enoch Powell (a former Conservative MP). Four ethnic minority candidates are successful: Diane Abbott, Paul Boateng, Bernie Grant and Keith Vaz. Among the MP's retiring from parliament is 75-year-old James Callaghan, the former prime minister.
18 June – Unemployment has fallen below 3 million for the first time since 1981 after the biggest monthly fall in unemployment since records began in 1948 seeing more than 100,000 of the unemployed find jobs in May.
19 June - Howard Kendall, managers of Football League champions Everton, resigns to take over of Atletico Bilbao in Spain. His successor at Everton is the club's assistant manager Colin Harvey.
22 June – Race riots break out in the Chapeltown area of Leeds.
25 June – A MORI poll shows support for the Conservative Party stands at almost 50% – the highest during Mrs Thatcher's time as leader.
29 June – 25 years after the first James Bond film was released, the 15th Bond film is released – with the spy now being played by Timothy Dalton.
30 June – Peter Beardsley, the 26-year-old England striker, becomes the most expensive player transferred between British clubs when he completes a £1.9 million move from Newcastle United to Liverpool.
12 July – £60 million is stolen during the Knightsbridge Security Deposit robbery.
16 July - British Airways and British Caledonian agree a £237 million merger.
Unemployment is reported to be down to just over 2,900,000.
22 July – Palestinian cartoonist Naji al-Ali is shot in London; his condition is described as "critical".
24 July – Novelist and former Conservative MP Jeffrey Archer wins a libel case against Daily Star over allegations that he was involved in a vice ring.
29 July – The Channel Tunnel is given the go-ahead after Margaret Thatcher and François Mitterrand ratify the Treaty of Canterbury. It is expected to be open within six years.
31 July - The Attorney General institutes legal proceedings against The Daily Telegraph to prevent it publishing details from the book Spycatcher.
The Queen opens the Docklands Light Railway in London, the first driver-less railway in Great Britain.
August – Rick Astley’s Never Gonna Give You Up is released, the first of eight singles to reach the Top 10 in the UK.
4 August – Just months after confessing to a further two murders, the Moors Murderer Ian Brady claims that he committed a further five murders.
6 August – Dr David Owen resigns as leader of the Social Democratic Party after its members vote to merge with the Liberal Party.
10 August – One person a day in Britain is now reported to be dying of AIDS.
13 August - First building of post-war design to be Listed: Bracken House in the City of London, designed by Sir Albert Richardson as the Financial Times headquarters (1955–9).
Unemployment continues to fall, with the 12th successive monthly fall bringing the national total to less than 2.9 million.
19 August - Michael Ryan shoots dead 14 people in the Berkshire town of Hungerford before taking his own life with a rifle. 16 people are injured, some of them seriously.
Order of the Garter is opened to women.
21 August – The Hungerford massacre death toll rises to 16 with the deaths of two more victims in hospital from their injuries.
27 August – Robert Maclennan replaces David Owen as leader of the Social Democratic Party.
29 August – Naji Salim al-Ali dies in hospital more than five weeks after being shot.
30 August – David Owen forms a breakaway SDP.
7 September – Ford completes its takeover of the luxury sports car company Aston Martin.
9 September – 25 Liverpool football fans are extradited to Belgium to face charges of manslaughter in connection with the Heysel Stadium disaster more than two years ago.
11 September – The government unveils plans to abolish the Inner London Education Authority.
22 September – The government bans automatic weapons of the type used by Hungerford killer Michael Ryan.
23 September – An Australian court lifts the ban on the publication of Spycatcher.
October - Construction work begins on the extension to the M40 motorway between Oxford and Birmingham. It is hoped that the motorway, providing an alternative route to the M6 and M1 from the midlands to London as well as improving road links with the midlands and the South Coast ports, will be fully operational by 1990.
1 October – Swedish home product retailer IKEA opens its first British store at Warrington in Cheshire.
9 October – Margaret Thatcher tells the Conservative Party Conference in Blackpool that she wants to continue as prime minister until 1994 and the age of 69, which would make her Britain's oldest prime minister since Harold Macmillan in 1963.
11 October – £1 million pound Operation Deepscan in Loch Ness fails to locate the legendary Loch Ness Monster.
15 – 16 October – Great Storm: Hurricane force winds batter much of south-east England, killing 23 people and causing extensive damage to property.
18 October – Two days after the end of the storm in south-east England, some 250,000 homes in the region are still without electricity.
19 October – Black Monday: Wall Street crash leads to £50 billion being wiped of the value of shares on the London stock exchange.
23 October – Retired English jockey Lester Piggott is jailed for 3 years after being convicted of tax evasion.
25 October – Peugeot begins production of its second car – the 405 four-door saloon – at the Ryton plant near Coventry. The first customers are set to take delivery of their cars after Christmas. A French-built estate version will be launched next year.
1 November – British Rail establishes a world speed record for diesel traction, 238.9 km/h (148.4 mph) with a test InterCity 125 formation between Darlington and York.
2 November – Peter Brooke succeeds Norman Tebbit as chairman of the Conservative Party.
3 November – It is announced that unemployment in Britain fell quicker during October than in any other European country.
5 November – London City Airport opens.
8 November – Enniskillen bombing: Eleven people are killed by a Provisional Irish Republican Army bomb at a Remembrance Day service at Enniskillen.
11 November – Customs officers in Southampton seize more than £50 million worth of cocaine – the most expensive haul of the drug ever found in Britain.
12 November – Unemployment has fallen to 2.7 million (just under 10% of the workforce), the lowest level of unemployment in Britain for over six years.
17 November – The government announces that the Poll tax (community charge) will be introduced in April 1990.
18 November – A fire at Kings Cross on the London Underground kills 31 people.
19 November – Conservative support has reached 50% in a MORI poll for the first time.
24 November - The government announces that free eye tests are to be abolished.
Late November – The first Acid House raves are reported in the United Kingdom, many of them being in derelict buildings.
December - The British-built Peugeot 405 is European Car of the Year, and Peugeot's first winner of the award for nearly 20 years. British sales begin in the new year, several months after it was launched in France.
9 December – The England cricket team's tour of Pakistan is nearly brought to a premature end when captain Mike Gatting and umpire Shakoor Rana row during a Test Match.
15 December – Channel Tunnel construction is initiated, and it is expected to open in 1993 or early 1994.
17 December – A year that has seen an excellent performance for the British economy ends with unemployment at less than 2.7 million.
25 December – ITV enjoys a record breaking audience when more than 26 million viewers tune in for the Christmas Day episode of Coronation Street, in which Hilda Ogden (Jean Alexander) makes her last appearance in the show after 23 years.
29 December – PWL release the Kylie Minogue single I Should Be So Lucky. Australian Minogue, 19, has already earned a cult following in Britain with her part in the hugely popular TV soap Neighbours.
31 December – 31 British and Belgian people are recognised in the New Year Honours for heroism shown in the rescue operation at the Zebrugge tragedy earlier in the year.
Inflation remains low for the sixth year running, standing at 4.2% for 1987.
Largest ever deficit to date on UK balance of payments.
With overall unemployment falling below 3,000,000, youth unemployment is now below 1,000,000.
Overall economy growth for the year reaches 5.5% - the highest since 1963.
Television
16 January – The Zircon affair becomes public knowledge when The Guardian reports that the government ordered the BBC to shelve a documentary in the Secret Society series about the Zircon satellite. Two days later documentary maker Duncan Campbell is subject to an injunction preventing him from discussing or writing about the programme's content, but subsequently writes an article about the episode for the New Statesman.
29 January – Alasdair Milne is sacked by the newly appointed Chairman of the BBC Board of Governors, Marmaduke Hussey. He is replaced by a senior BBC accountant, Michael Checkland.
5 February - Princess Anne appears on sports quiz A Question of Sport, a matter of weeks after team captain Emlyn Hughes famously mistook a picture of her on a horse for jockey John Reid. The episode gains a record audience of 19 million viewers.
21 February – An apparently inebriated Oliver Reed appears on the ITV chat show Aspel & Company, where he stumbles and lurches around the set.
24 February – The sitcom Hardwicke House makes its debut on ITV. The series is badly received by critics and viewers and is cancelled after just two episodes (the second broadcast the following evening). The remaining five episodes of the series have never been transmitted.
26 February – Michael Checkland succeeds Alasdair Milne as Director-General of the BBC.
9 March – Debut of Central Television's Intimate Contact, a drama dealing with the issue of AIDS.
25 April – The Australian soap opera Prisoner: Cell Block H makes its debut on Central Television in the Midlands. This is believed by many viewers to be the series debut on British television, but in fact it had been running in the Yorkshire region since 1984. Central were the first region to conclude the series, however, in December 1991.
26 April – Channel 4's The Tube airs for the last time after five series.
22 May–20 June – Television coverage of the first Rugby World Cup from Australia and New Zealand.
9 June – Debut of the Tyne Tees produced chart show The Roxy, presented by David Jensen and Kevin Sharkey. The programme is intended as a stablemate for the Independent radio hit parade The Network Chart Show, following a similar format to the BBC's Top of the Pops, but its Newcastle-upon-Tyne location impinges on its ability to secure live performances. The show also suffers from poor ratings because it does not have a regular slot on the ITV network, and is cancelled in April 1988.
11 June–12 June – Coverage of the results of the 1987 general election is broadcast both on BBC1 and ITV.
19 June – Television debut of The Grand Knockout Tournament, an It's a Knockout special featuring members of the British Royal Family alongside sporting and other celebrities. Also known as It's a Royal Knockout, the event attracts much media derision and is deemed to have been a failure, although it raised £1 million for charity.
20 August – In the wake of the previous day's Hungerford massacre in which 16 people were shot dead by gun enthusiast Michael Ryan, the BBC, ITV and Channel 4 pull several forthcoming films and programmes containing violence from their schedules. Among them are the 1966 western Nevada Smith, an episode of The Professionals and the 1982 post-apocalyptic film Battletruck. A showing of First Blood is also cancelled.
7 September – Sylvester McCoy becomes the seventh actor to play the Doctor in BBC One's long-running Doctor Who.
14 September – After 30 years on ITV, the schools service ITV Schools moves to Channel 4, allowing ITV to concentrate on building a fully commercial daytime schedule.
15 October – During a weather forecast, BBC meteorologist Michael Fish reports "Earlier on today, apparently, a woman rang the BBC and said she heard there was a hurricane on the way; well, if you're watching, don't worry, there isn't, but having said that, actually, the weather will become very windy, but most of the strong winds, incidentally, will be down over Spain and across into France.". Hours later, Britain is hit by the worst storm for 284 years. Fish later drew criticism for the comments, but has since claimed that they referred to Florida, USA, and were linked to a news story immediately preceding the weather bulletin, but had been so widely repeated out of context that the British public remains convinced that he was referring to the approaching storm.
16 October – As a result of the Great Storm of 1987, electrical power to TV-am's studios is lost and an emergency programme has to be transmitted from facilities at Thames Television's Euston Road centre using reports from TV-am's own crews and those of ITN, TSW and TVS. The BBC's Breakfast Time, which would usually come from Lime Grove and was able to broadcast as the studios were without power, as was most of BBC Television Centre at Wood Lane. The early part of the programme was broadcast from the continuity suite at TV Centre usually used for Children's BBC presentation as this area had generator support, before a larger studio was able to be brought into use.
4 November–18 November – Damon and Debbie becomes the first 'soap bubble'. It was a miniseries which took two characters from Brookside into new locations and their own story.
17 November – The BBC sees the first appearance of The 999 Programme from S4C Fireman Sam first voiced by John Alderton in the early years.
23 November – The TV-am strike begins after members of the technicians' union the ACTT walk out in a dispute over the station's ‘Caring Christmas Campaign’. What is meant to be a 24-hour stoppage continues for several months when staff are locked out by Managing Director Bruce Gyngell. TV-am is unable to broadcast Good Morning Britain, the regular format is replaced with shows such as Flipper, Batman and Happy Days. By December a skeleton service that sees non-technical staff operating cameras and Gyngell himself directing proceedings, begin to allow Good Morning Britain to start broadcasting again. The strikers are eventually sacked and replaced with non union staff. Viewing figures remain high throughout the disruption, which continues well into 1988, although normal programming gradually resumes. Other ITV stations later follow Gyngell's example.
28 November – Ventriloquist Jimmy Tamley wins New Faces of '87, coming just ahead of comedian Joe Pasquale, who is second.
December – Thamesside TV, a pirate TV station set up by Thameside Radio, goes on air in the same city. There were only two known broadcasts in December 1987.
25 December - ITV enjoys a record-breaking audience when more than 26 million viewers tune in for the Christmas Day episode of Coronation Street, in which Hilda Ogden (Jean Alexander) makes her last appearance in the show after 23 years.
31 December – In an unusual move, the Chimes of Big Ben are integrated into an episode of EastEnders on BBC 1. Character Den Watts brought a television into the bar of the Queen Vic, 'watched' the chimes in their entirety, and the episode resumed.
Network 21, a Pirate television station in London, broadcasts for around 30 minutes on Friday evenings.
BBC1
9 January – Rockliffe's Babies (1987–1988)
15 September – Bad Boyes (1987–1988)
26 September – ChuckleVision (1987—2009)
Going Live! (1987–1993)
12 October – Going for Gold (BBC 1987–1996, Channel 5 2008 – 2009)
17 November – Fireman Sam (BBC 1987–1994, 2005–2008, Channel 5 & CITV 2008–present)
BBC2
7 January - Filthy, Rich & Catflap (1987)
9 March – French and Saunders (1987–2007)
ITV
6 January – Inspector Morse (1987–2000)
7 January – Allsorts (1987–1995)
9 March – Intimate Contact (1987)
1 May – Matlock (1987–1997)
9 June – The Roxy (1987–1988)
5 July – Watching (1987–1993)
2 August – The Ruth Rendell Mysteries (1987–2002)
7 September – Knightmare (1987–1994)
The Time, The Place (1987–1998)
Chain Letters (1987–1997)
13 September – The New Statesman (1987–1994)
18 October – The Charmer (1987)
Unknown – Playbox (1987-1992)
1 May – After Dark (1987–1997, BBC 2003)
3 May – Network 7 (1987–1988)
4 November – Damon and Debbie (1987)
Music
"Jack Your Body" - Steve "Silk" Hurley
"I Knew You Were Waiting (For Me)" - Aretha Franklin and George Michael
"Stand By Me" - Ben E. King
"Everything I Own" - Boy George
"Respectable" - Mel and Kim
"Let It Be" - Ferry Aid
"La Isla Bonita" - Madonna
"Nothing's Gonna Stop Us Now" - Starship
"I Wanna Dance With Somebody (Who Loves Me)" - Whitney Houston
"Star Trekkin'" - The Firm
"It's a Sin" - Pet Shop Boys
"Who's That Girl" - Madonna
"I Just Can't Stop Loving You" - Michael Jackson and Siedah Garrett
"Never Gonna Give You Up" - Rick Astley
"Pump Up the Volume" - MARRS
"You Win Again" - Bee Gees
"China in Your Hand" - T'Pau
"Always on My Mind" - Pet Shop Boys
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Tags: england london unitedkingdom award celebrities gbr
LONDON, ENGLAND - JANUARY 21: (L-R) Edwina Currie, Vicki Michelle, Anthony McPartlin, Melanie Sykes, Declan Donnelly, Nadia Forde, Michael Buerk, Jimmy Bullard and Jake Quickenden pose in the winners room with the award for Best Entertainment Programme for 'I'm a Celebrity Get Me Out of Here!' at the National Television Awards at 02 Arena on January 21, 2015 in London, England. (Photo by Anthony Harvey/Getty Images)
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Tags: christmas england manchester nikon unitedkingdom edwinacurrie nikon2470mmf28 nikond610
Spotted Edwina Currie doing some Christmas shopping.
Edwina Jones, born Edwina Cohen and commonly known by her first married name, Edwina Currie, is a former British Member of Parliament.
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Tags: christmas england manchester nikon unitedkingdom edwinacurrie nikon2470mmf28 nikond610
Spotted Edwina Currie doing some Christmas shopping.
Edwina Jones, born Edwina Cohen and commonly known by her first married name, Edwina Currie, is a former British Member of Parliament.
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Local fundraiser with Edwina Currie
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Tags: nhsconfederation
Panel session on health and politics past, present and future: L-R Edwina Currie, Alan Milburn, Anita Anand, Stephen Dorrell and Frank Dobson
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Huddersfield Women’s Luncheon Club 90th Anniversary
Jason was honoured to be the guest speaker at the Huddersfield Women’s Luncheon Club 90th anniversary. Formed at Springwood Hall on 5th February 1924, the club have hosted many famous and influential people to speak including Anne Widdecombe, Bernard Ingham and Edwina Currie.
Over 70 members were in attendance, with Jason speaking about his role as an MP before hosting a Q&A session.
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Tags: london thatcher edwinacurrie amjamjazzthatcherportfolio baronessknightofcollingtree
Excited guests rush to the party. Right. Edwina 'Dear John' Currie. Centre. Baroness Knight of Collingtree, formerly Dame Jill Knight. Infamous in south east London for her inflammatory remarks about Afro-Caribbean parties which were perceived as endorsing direct vigilante action. Not long after, fire at a party in New Cross killed 13 people. The exact causes are still contested.
Her name was Immortalised in the chant taken up on the march which followed.
'Dame Jill Knight set the fire alight.'
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"HE MAY HAVE BEEN GREY TO THE WORLD BUT HE WAS A VERY EXCITING LOVER
Edwina's astonishing
verdict on John Major
TORY John Major, derided as Britain's most dull and boring politician, turned into an astonishing superstud when he took lover Edwina Curry to bed.
For four years he treated her to marathon sex sessions at their lovenest—her flat in London.
And she breathlessly scribbled in her diary: "He may have been grey to the world, but he was a very exciting lover."
Mother never warned us, says Currie's daughter
By Catherine Milner
12:00AM BST 13 Oct 2002
Edwina Currie's daughter only learnt of her mother's affair with John Major when a newspaper dropped through her door, she revealed yesterday. "
Tory true blue underpants ....irony is though - she sued the Guardian when a journalist hinted / implied she'd done extra curricular research for her novel " A Parliamentary Affair "
" During her 14 years in the House of Commons, Mrs Currie was no stranger to controversy.
As Junior Health Minister, her comment in 1988 that 'most of the egg production in this country, sadly, is now affected with salmonella' caused sales to plummet and led to her resignation from the post.
She had previously upset Northerners when she claimed they were dying of 'ignorance and chips' and was branded patronising for advising the elderly to wear long johns during the winter.
But it was her revelation in 2002 that she had a four-year affair with former Prime Minister John Major that rocked even her most ardent supporters. She gave lurid details of the fling in her book Diaries 1987-1992, discussing her lover's blue underwear and bathtime conversations.
The affair was while she was a backbencher and Major was a whip in Margaret Thatcher's Government.
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Edwina Jones (formerly Edwina Currie MP) took this using my X100, returning the favour when I took one of John and her - nicely framed in my opinion.
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blackburne house
situated on Hope Street, Liverpool. Blackburne House was originally built between 1785 -1790 it was the countryside home of John Blackburne the Mayor of Liverpool in 1788.
In 1844 ship owner George Holt purchased the property. in that year the building was opened as the first girls school in Liverpool, in 1874 the original house was rebuilt and enlarged and became the Liverpool Institute high school for Girls. it was awarded grade II listed status in 1975 it sadly closed its doors as a school in 1986, one famous ex pupil was Edwina Currie.
the building lay unused until 1992 when it was decided it would be an ideal location for the Womens Technology and Education Centre and so in 1994 it opened its doors once again.
My gas ring will be pining
Without you
For sure, will be insolvent,
As its best client,
Now will go to pass.
My dearest fowl
You got a life in prison
With all your sisters, without rhyme or reason,
All jam packed cheek by jowl.
In batteries you are now a statistic,
Industrial gulag, which puts to shame
A number rather more characteristic
Of Soviet era, at its grimmest game.
My dearest Supermarket, I’m addicted
To buy for ever all your tasteless junk,
As my dependency is now to be predicted
A boring number of a faceless skunk.
Your sheer manipulation, so disgusting,
Is flying in the face of common sense.
Blindfolded crowds are being hold to ransom,
Automatons with limbs, but without brains..
In my despair I’ll try to be more vocal
But am afraid, as being middle-class,
I will be deemed to fart above my station
And turn my reputation to an ass.
Post Script:
This being said, I praise Edwina Currie,
The Minister of salmonella fame,
Who caused the British Egg to go and hurry
To clean its act, in spite of all its gain.
Copyright © Constantin Roman
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Off for the day. More Fashion Week photos to follow. ALL these girls like me. tata.
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Winter wardrobe 2010-11. Not unlike 2006-07. Central heating is for wimps
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Thought it was Edwina Currie, but I was corrected.
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Tags: art museum george big gallery stokeontrent strike currie edwina debate miners potteries galloway a bigadebateedwinacurriegeorgegallowayminers
Edwina Currie at the Big A debate in Stoke-on-Trent, March 3rd 2010
The debate was on the 25th anniversary of the end of miners strike, and looked in detail at the situation afterwards. It was a lively, explosive affair, and a fantastic event to be at.
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Central heating is for wimps. Say what you like - I'm still better-looking than Edwina Currie.
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i think it may snow today. this cock robin has a plan.
Bitterly cold overnight but the temp. is higher now and it's almost dark at 11am. Rant:
It seems the oil companies have drawn in their horns if the current filling-station prices are any indicator. But will the energy companies follow suit? I say starve them out. Do an Edwina Currie and buy extra clothes and don't burn your heating. At all. Obviously if you have an under-12 or an over-70 in your house it's not that simple or easy, but maybe heat one room and live in it? If you use your oven, live in your kitchen. You don't need to heat your bedroom - use two duvets, and get that dressing gown you didn't really need out of the wardrobe.
I'm being serious. They think they know you will pay, just like the oil companies, but unlike the oil companies they don't have the tradition of helping governments make political capital. Teach them a lesson. You can't afford not to or they'll be back screwing you into the ground next year with their "unavoidable" increases. Remember that a "cheaper" energy supplier is a relative term - they are all at it. My Q1-2008 bill was three times the Q3 bill. This year I'm NOT BLOODY HAVING IT.
We are told the consumer boom is over and, sure enough, leisure and luxury providers are now cutting off their noses to spite their competitors' faces, yet we hear too that inflation is at its highest since whenever, led by energy prices (and bank charges!) So reclaim your spending power by giving them a third to a half of what they've budgeted, and when they start paying bank charges, maybe your bank will take the hint too.
If you are over 60 and you get that £100 - a patronising insult in itself - I suggest you take the money to Matalan and buy two hoodies. One to wear in bed, and one for the robberies you'll need to commit to pay your gas or electric bill. You'll have about £70 left so spend the rest on a good night out, but be sure to keep enough back to be able to send that nice Mr. Darling a thank you note for the lovely treat.
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I did this one when it came out that Edwina Currie had been having it off with John Major.
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Tags: signs reflections islands scotland arran edwinacurrie johnandgill arranaromatics
Stu reflects on the sign proudly displayed outside the Arran Aromatics factory shop, boasting that the facility was opened by none other than a political no-mark, whose only major achievements were convincing people that eggs could kill them and humping John Major.
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For all those people whom I may or may not know who bought a camper van last week, look, you're just like Edwina Currie.
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Findern, on 8 June 2008. Tower mill, built before 1797, house conversion and extension c.1900. Formerly the home of Edwina Currie when she was MP for South Derbyshire.
Digital photo.
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Edwina Currie, who joined us for the last 15 miles to Mizen Head
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Tags: edwinacurrie
Shh....I quite like Edwina Currie. I've met her a couple of times, I've had e-mail on a couple of subjects, she adores cycling, she organises charity rides for Marie Curie, I live in Currie (the place stoopid!) and I think she's very charasmatic.
Does that make me a bad person?
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In relation to money, what is the national currency of Romania ? | RON - Romanian New Leu rates, news, and tools
RON - Romanian New Leu
Romania, Leu
The Romanian Leu is the currency of Romania. Our currency rankings show that the most popular Romania Leu exchange rate is the RON to EUR rate . The currency code for Lei is RON, and the currency symbol is lei. Below, you'll find Romanian Leu rates and a currency converter. You can also subscribe to our currency newsletters with daily rates and analysis, read the XE Currency Blog , or take RON rates on the go with our XE Currency Apps and website.
| Leu |
In which film of 1958 did Janet Leigh play a character named Morganna ? | Romania Facts, Facts about Romania
Romania Facts
Where is Romania?
Romania is located in the region separating Central and Southeastern Europe. Located on the Lower Danube, it shares its borders with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and Moldova to the northeast and east, and Bulgaria to the south.
What is the capital of Romania?
Located in the southeast of Romania, Bucharest is the capital of Romania. It is the cultural, industrial, and financial center of Romania. It is officially known as the Municipality of Bucharest, although the etymology of the name is uncertain. It was first mentioned in 1459. Today, it is the hub of Romania's national railway network.
How big is Romania?
The total area of Romania is 92,043 square miles. It has an estimated population of 21,904,551.
What is the currency of Romania?
Romanian Leu is the official currency of Romania. Its ISO 4217 code is RON. It is divided into 100 bani. Romania is a member of the European Union and is expected to adopt the euro in 2015. The currency is regulated by the National Bank of Romania.
Which is the largest city of Romania?
The capital of Romania, Bucharest, is the largest city of Romania. It covers an area of 88 square miles and has an estimated population of 1,942,254.
What is the official language of Romania?
Romanian is the official language of Romania. It is spoken as the first language by 91% of the population. Hungarian and Vlax Romani are other important minority languages. Other languages spoken in the country are German, English, and French.
What is the religion of Romania?
Since Romania is a secular state, there is no state religion. Majority of the population in Romania identify themselves as Orthodox Christians. Jews, atheist, and Muslims constitute the minority in the country.
What is the literacy rate of Romania?
Adult literary rate of Romania ranks 45th in the world. In 2004, the adult literacy rate was 97.3%.
Who is the political leader of Romania?
Romania is a semi-presidential republic. The government of the country is divided into three branches, the executive, legislative and judicial. Executive powers are vested in both the president and the government. The president appoints the prime minister, who in turn appoints the member of councils. Traian Basescu is the current President of Romania. He was sworn in as the president on December 20, 2004. Victor Ponta is the current Prime Minister of Romania.
When is the National Day of Romania celebrated?
The national Day of Romania is celebrated on December 1. Also known as the Great Union Day, December 1 commemorates the unification of Transylvania, Banat, Bessarabia, and Bukovina with the Romanian Kingdom. It is the national holiday of Romania.
What is the economy of Romania like?
The economy of Romania is the 11th largest in the European Union by total GDP nominal. In 2009, the GDP and the per capita income of Romania were $251.741 billion and $11,755. Services sector accounts for 52.6% of the GDP, followed by industry (35%), and agriculture (12.4%). Unemployment rate stands at 7.3%. Electric machinery, textiles and footwear, software, mining, timber, chemicals, and petroleum refining are some of the main industries in the country. Major trade flows are with Germany, China, Hungary, Bulgaria, France, Russia, and Kazakhstan.
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On which island country can you find Bradley Adams International airport ? | FSX Airports|Grantley Adams International of Barbados! - YouTube
FSX Airports|Grantley Adams International of Barbados!
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Published on Mar 17, 2014
This is my first airport show case video. Feedback is always welcome! Grantley Adams International is the only airport on the Caribbean island country of Barbados. British Airways, Virgin Atlantic, Air Canada, JetBlue, and other airlines service the airport, which has one runway. The airport is also one of the many homes of Concorde. This airport is home to a British Airways Concorde.
Music:
| Barbados |
Who designed Marble Arch in London ? | Barbados Airport | Grantley Adams International | Barbados.org
There is an in-bound duty free shop in the Arrivals Terminal.
Friendly porters are available to assist you with your bags... be sure to agree on a price for their services.
Car hire , taxis and public transportation are all easily available.
Departing
On departure you will be dropped off near the airline counters where you should queue to check-in.
When leaving the island be sure to arrive at the Barbados airport early to indulge in some last minute duty free shopping and island cuisine!
Barbados Concorde Experience!
Grantley Adams International Airport was once a destination for British Airways Concorde which flew to the Barbados airport weekly during the winter season. The Concorde fleet has now been retired and Barbados is proud to be the home to one of these magnificent aircraft. Visit the Barbados Concorde Experience Museum right next door to Grantley Adams International for a once in a lifetime experience!.
Best Barbados Hotel Deals
Still need a place to stay in Barbados? Let us help you find your ideal accommodation...
Air Conditioning
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What is the name of the thoroughfare in Springfield where the cartoon family 'The Simpsons' live ? They reside at number 742. | Springfield's state - Wikisimpsons, the Simpsons Wiki
Springfield's state
(Redirected from Springfield's State )
This article needs to be put into In-Universe style.
All episode names must be made into references using <ref>"[[Episode Name]]"</ref> with {{Reflist}} at the bottom under a heading references.
This article or section needs to be cleaned up to fit in with the Manual of Style .
Springfield's state
Brewing, Manufacturing, Agriculture, Petrochemicals, Nuclear Power
Abbreviations - USPS:
Springfield's state is an American state.
Contents
Description[ edit ]
It is best known for containing Springfield . It is not known where it is, due to a mixture of geographical features and various comments by inhabitants. The state was founded by circus freaks, and was believed to be the location of New Sodom, due to misinterpreting a passage in the Bible . [1] Settlers from Maryland heading for the New Sodom instead however founded Springfield , built on Puritan values, and Shelbyville , built on marriage between cousins. [2]
The state has many counties. Springfield County is were the city of Springfield is located. There is also Swartzwelder County which borders Springfield and the rural Spittle County , which claims to be the birthplace of the loogie. Other cities in the state include: Cypress Creek , founded by the Globex Corporation ; Ogdenville , famous for its outlet malls and monorail; Little Pwagmattasquarmsettport , known as America's scrod basket; and Capital City , the largest city and the state capital. Catfish Lake is known for its fishing and marriage retreats. There is also the unpopular community of Stenchburg , as well as towns such as Terror Lake , Cape Fear , New Horrorfield , Screamville , Frigid Falls , Mount Seldom and Lake Flaccid . [3]
Economy[ edit ]
The state is made up of mainly agricultural land, with occasional large cities such as Capital City and medium-sized towns such as Springfield and Shelbyville. The farms mainly grow corn, livestock, dairy, fruit, cotton, tobacco, and tomacco , while within the cities, the main industries are brewing by the Duff and Fudd beer corporations, coal mining, casinos, manufacture of boxes, pillows, food, copper, iron, steel, industrial equipment, dangerous chemicals and retail. This balance means that most of the population works in low paid, blue collar jobs.
Despite this, several wealthy citizens exist, most famously Charles Montgomery Burns (a utilities magnate), Aristotle Amadopoulos (another utilities magnate), Hank Scorpio (a crime lord who seized the Eastern Seaboard) and, until his imprisonment, Artie Ziff (an entrepreneur).
The state features two international airports: Springfield and Capital City . Springfield also has a nuclear power plant , a naval base, an army base and an air force base.
The state includes both areas of high wealth (Old Springfield, the center of Capital City ), and slum areas (Capital City outskirts, New Springfield). Because of this, the state becomes very polarized, with constant feuds between upper and lower class citizens over issues as petty as telephone area codes.
The state also contains at least 2000 McDonald's Restaurants, according to Lou. [4]
Geography[ edit ]
The state is heavily polluted due to years of environmental neglect by the government and the local nuclear plants. Toxic waste is to be found in most bodies of water as well as the occasional mutated three-eyed fish. Despite this, the state has a wide array of wildlife, including grizzly bears, bald eagles, and manatees.
The state has a variety of geographical features, such as gorges, forests, mountains, rivers, beaches, deserts, lakes, wetlands and a glacier.
Springfield is a northern state that fought with the Union during the Civil War.
Politics[ edit ]
Mary Bailey is the current Governor of Springfield's State. [5] Mr. Burns has also run for Governor, but lost out to Bailey. A former Governor was Chester L. Suicide , who has a bridge named in his honor. [6]
Springfield town is run by a Mayor. The current mayor is Democrat "Diamond" Joe Quimby. He often takes bribes and is a known womanizer. Previous Mayors include attempted murderer Robert Terwilliger .
Education[ edit ]
The state follows a standard education system, with elementary schools, junior high schools and high schools. However, the state has a very low education budget; schools can only afford to buy books other schools have banned, they are forced to cancel all artistic and physical education, and must rent out classrooms as prison cells to make ends meet. The most extreme example of this is Springfield Elementary School , which was moved from Missouri brick by brick after reaching bottom of the state league table. The state is also home to Springfield University , Springfield A&M (which was founded by a cow), and the unfortunately-acronymed Springfield Heights Institute of Technology .
Transport[ edit ]
The state has a comprehensive Interstate Highway system, linking to Oregon, Michigan, New Jersey, Texas and "some other state." Interstate 95 was depicted in one of the episodes. The area also has a good rail network, with both passenger and freight services. The area's several international airports also provide a strong transport link with destinations in the state, other US states, and the world.
Another, less orthodox system is the monorail system installed in Springfield , Brockway , Ogdenville and North Haverbrook , since closed for safety reasons.
What state is Springfield in?[ edit ]
The uncertain location of Springfield is a running gag in the series, based on the fact that 34 states in the United States have at least one community with that name; and several have more than one. Episodes frequently make fun of the fact that Springfield's state has never been revealed, by adding further conflicting descriptions, obscuring onscreen map representations, and interrupting conversational references.
It is most likely that Springfield is in a fictional state with an exact location in the United States which will vary from episode to episode. A good example of this is when Flanders says that the four states that border Springfield are Ohio , Nevada , Maine , and Kentucky , which is impossible. [7]
Geography of Springfield and its location[ edit ]
There are many geographical features of Springfield that means many parts of the USA could not hold the city.
Springfield's State has to border the ocean or sea, meaning landlocked states could not house Springfield. This means that Arizona , Arkansas , Colorado , Idaho , Iowa , Kansas , Kentucky , Missouri , Montana , Nebraska , Nevada , New Mexico , North Dakota , Oklahoma , South Dakota , Tennessee , Utah , Vermont , West Virginia and Wyoming are all not possible. Although not landlocked, Illinois , Indiana , Michigan , Minnesota , Ohio, Pennsylvania , and Wisconsin only border lakes, and so are also not possible. Springfield has also been made clear to be in a state and not a district, so the District of Columbia is not possible.
We also know that West Springfield is three times the size of Texas, [8] which itself is the second biggest state. Alaska, the biggest, wouldn't be able to hold West Springfield, let alone the rest of Springfield and the rest of the state. This further proves that Springfield is in a fictional state set in the United States of America. However, the phrase "three times the size of Texas" could also refer to several real-world towns named "Texas" in a variety of states (e.g. Texas, New Jersey; etc.).
Is Springfield in...[ edit ]
Kentucky[ edit ]
Homer gives an old Italian woman a mug with the word "Kentucky" printed on it, offending the woman (according to the woman Kentucky means whore in Italian), implying they come from Kentucky. [9]
Mr. Burns states they will smuggle sugar in from south of the border to which Homer replies, "Oh, you mean Tennessee?", implying they live in Kentucky. [10]
Additionally, there are frequent mentions throughout Simpsons episodes of the state capital, Capital City . The capital of Kentucky, Frankfort, has an airport which is called "Capital City Airport" and is located within an hour's drive of Springfield, Shelbyville, and Simpsonville. When Bart and Lisa go on a field trip to Capital City, they get lost and meet a bunch of hobos/rednecks, a common stereotype of people in Kentucky. [11]
A factor that could rule out Kentucky is the fact that Springfield's state borders an ocean, whereas Kentucky is a landlocked state and so doesn't border an ocean or sea. Also, Ned Flanders says that Kentucky is one of the four states that border Springfield, meaning Springfield could not be in Kentucky. [7]
When discussing the state flag and the appearance of the Confederate battle flag on it, Lisa notes that it is especially embarrassing due to Springfield being in a northern state. However, it also must be noted that Kentucky never seceded from the Union during the American Civil War, although the state's loyalties were bitterly divided and a rump Confederate government was established in the western portion of the state.
Geographically there are many things against the Simpsons living in Kentucky. The state is both too small and isn't close to the ocean. Also, very few citizens have a southern accent, which would be common in most parts of Kentucky.
Ohio[ edit ]
When Marge is asked for her address over the phone, she responds by saying " 742 Evergreen Terrace , Springfield, Oh hiya Maude , come on in!". She could have said "Ohio" instead of "Oh hiya" at the end, meaning that Springfield is in Ohio or that Marge was just saying hi to Maude. [12]
Ned Flanders says that Ohio is one of the four states that border Springfield, proving Springfield isn't in Ohio. [7]
Florida[ edit ]
A sign in Springfield shows the distance to Orlando too far for Springfield to be in the same state. [13] There is also evidence to disprove this point when the family vacations to Florida (which Homer refers to as "America's wang") and is prohibited from returning. [14] After the Simpsons are expelled from Florida, Marge and Homer mark that state on a map, which shows only two states remaining that still welcome the Simpsons: Arizona and North Dakota , but Homer crosses out Arizona because "It smells funny" and it is announced mockingly the Simpsons are to visit North Dakota- but logically the only remaining state on a map would have to be the state in which the Simpsons reside.
Sylvia Winfield sold her house and Homer says "Going to run out the clock in Florida, hey?". Therefore, they do not live in Florida. [15]
However, it frequently snows in Springfield, which overwhelmingly rules out the state as being the Simpsons' home.
Also, there are many tall mountains in Springfield (ex: The Murderhorn ) while Florida is a mostly flat state with no mountains at all.
Texas[ edit ]
A road sign at the Springfield city limit lists a distance of 676 miles to Mexico City . Thus, Springfield would be located in southern Texas. [16]
It took the Simpson family only a few minutes to get to Mexico , and since Texas borders the ocean and Mexico, it could be considered the place. However, this can be dismissed also because Texas does not border 5 different states on one side. [17]
When A group making a film is looking for a location to film in, there is an advert for Texas and also sees an advert for Springfield further ruling out this Texas. [18]
New Jersey[ edit ]
Marge was driving and sees a car that is very slow from New Jersey , and Marge told the driver to go back to New Jersey so they can't live in New Jersey. [19]
California[ edit ]
In the episode " Principal Charming " and " Selma's Choice ", Hans Moleman 's driver's license shows a ZIP code of 90701. That is in fact the ZIP code for Artesia, California.
In the episode " Ice Cream of Margie (with the Light Blue Hair) ", Snake commandeers a helicopter after a high-speed police chase, then flies next to Kent Brockman 's news chopper. When Brockman asks him about the traffic below, Snake mentions a pileup on the "101/405 interchange," a real highway crossroads located in Sherman Oaks, California. This possibly hints that Springfield may be in the Los Angeles Metropolitan Area.
During the couch gag for the episode "Wedding for Disaster", the sales tax on Comic Book Guy 's bill works out to be 8.25%, the default sales tax rate in California.
Numerous characters' driver's licenses can be seen. Most of these Springfield driver licenses, especially Homer's, resemble California driver's licenses.
Springfield, California is an unincorporated community and Springfield has a municipal government.
In The Simpsons Movie , Russ Cargill goes to see "President Schwarzenegger". Arnold Schwarzenegger is currently the governor of California.
In the episode " Itchy & Scratchy Land ", The Simpsons family briefly has to stop at a Fruits and Vegetables Checkpoint, causing Homer to panic (as he was apparently smuggling Fruits and Vegetables as a side job). Fruits and Vegetables Checkpoints are a very common place in California.
According to the episode "The Seven-Beer Snitch" (episode fourteen of The Simpsons' sixteenth season), there's a gas chamber in the Springfield prison. Only five states have a gas chamber as an option for capital punishment in their prisons: California, Arizona, Wyoming, Missouri and Maryland. This coupled with the fact that Springfield is located on an ocean and the sun sets on it seems to leave California as the only possibility.
Although, in the Simpsons Jumbo Rain-Or-Shine Fun Book, there is a fill-in-the-blank story in which Lisa says, "There's a car with ____ strapped to its roof!" to which Marge responds to by saying, "They must be from California."
Michigan[ edit ]
In the episode " Duffless ", Homer's driver's license shows an address of "Springfield NT 49007". ZIP code 49007 belongs to Kalamazoo, Michigan.
In the episode " Three Men and a Comic Book " Bart attempts to redeem a bottle deposit. The refund is a dime; only Michigan has a 10-cent deposit on bottles.
However, in the episode " Take My Wife, Sleaze ", Chief Wiggum remarks to Homer "Well, uh, be that as it may, ah, the gang is wanted in eight other states and we have a little saying around here, let Michigan handle it." This dismisses the Michigan theory, as Wiggum is considered an expert on slacking off on his duties and leaving his work to be completed by others.
Nebraska[ edit ]
In Burns Baby Burns, Montgomery Burns's long lost son recognizes his father on a train but is unable to board it before it moves away. He asks an attendant standing on the final carriage where it is going and is told "Springfield". The son says: "Yeah, but what state?" The guard's reply is almost inaudible, but ends in the syllable "-aska". This suggests that Springfield could be in Nebraska or Alaska.
But The Simpsons Movie rules out Alaska as they move there.
Additionally, In the episode "The Springfield Files", Mulder tells Scully that there has been "another unsubstantiated UFO sighting in the heartland of America", referring to Homer's close encounter with an alien. Traditionally, "The heartland of America" is applied to Eastern Nebraska, where Nebraska's Springfield exists.
Connecticut[ edit ]
In the episode " Revenge is a Dish Best Served Three Times ", the Rich Texan on whom Homer wishes to seek revenge tells Bart that Homer and himself have buried the hatchet because the two are both from Connecticut, (despite his name). It has previously been revealed that Homer was born in Springfield , though there is no actual Springfield in Connecticut. However, the term "Springfield," if referring to Massachusetts's Springfield metropolitan area , can be used to include Connecticut towns lying just south of the Connecticut–Massachusetts border. It's possible then that "Springfield" is being used to mean simply the greater area around Springfield, Massachusetts, which includes north-central Connecticut.
Alaska[ edit ]
In Burns Baby Burns, Montgomery Burns's long lost son recognizes his father on a train but is unable to board it before it moves away. He asks an attendant standing on the final carriage where it is going and is told "Springfield". The son says: "Yeah, but what state?" The guard's reply is almost inaudible, but ends in the syllable "-aska". This suggests that Springfield could be in Nebraska or Alaska.
In another episode, Lisa says West Springfield is 3 times the size of Texas (though "Texas" is also the name of various towns in various states). Alaska is the only state larger than Texas, so it has to be in Alaska.
However, when offered free air travel to any US State, the Simpsons are told "except Alaska and Hawaii. The freak states."
In "Catch'em If You Can", Homer is about to take a plane trip and complains about the airline of a previous trip. He exclaims, "What kind of an airline routes all their flights through Nome Alaska?". If they lived in Alaska, this is not so bad, if they don't live in Alaska, it is quite a long trip.
In the Simpsons Movie, the Simpsons move to Alaska, which means that they don`t live there.
South Dakota[ edit ]
Based on the episode “ Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington ” it is easy to argue that the Simpsons are from South Dakota.
Midway through this episode we see Congressmen Bob Arnold offered and accepting a bribe from a logging company which wants to clear-cut " Springfield National Forest ."
Congressmen Bob Arnold also poses for a photo shoot with Lisa Simpson (it is presumed that he takes part in the photo shoot to boost his popularity in his district – and that the only reason he is seeing Lisa is because she is from this very same district). After the photo shoot the picture is shown back in Springfield in the “ Springfield Shopper ” newspaper which Moe reads to Barney (additional evidence that Congressmen Bob Arnold is Springfield’s congressman). In response, Barney says, "If I ever vote it’ll be for him. (Belch)"
The 'proof' that the Simpsons are from Springfield, South Dakota comes toward the end of the episode.
An FBI agent, in a successful attempt to set up Congressmen Bob Arnold, poses as an “oil company" executive who wants to drill for oil in Teddy Roosevelt’s head on Mount Rushmore and offers Congressmen Bob Arnold a bribe to get permission to do so. Just so there is no confusion there is an amusing picture showing what this might look like. On the one hand, it would seemingly make sense to be bribing the congressman that actually represents the district which includes Mount Rushmore, thereby placing Springfield in South Dakota. However, South Dakota can also be ruled out since congressman Bob Arnold could be on a natural resources committee in congress and simply knows the lay of the land. Still this doesn't change the fact that the Simpsons are in Congressman Arnold's district.
In the episode Kill The Alligator And Run at the end when the family are looking at the map they decide to visit North Dakota and Bart says he always wanted to see Mount Rushmore but is then told by Lisa that it's in South Dakota and we can clearly see from the map that the family are banned from the state.
In the episode Poppa's Got a Brand New Badge , it is shown the Population of Springfield is around 30,000. Springfield, South Dakota has a population of is 792.
Illinois[ edit ]
In the episode Blood Feud , a thank you letter from Mr. Burns has a return address of "1000 Mammon Ln, Springfield" with scribbles following which could be construed as "IL, 22617".
In one of the episode intros, where the screen zooms out of the universe from the Simpsons' house, it zooms out of Illinois, and there is a real city named Springfield in Illinois. However, since that Springfield is the capital of Illinois, and since the Simpson's capital is Capital City, that rules out Illinois.
The public square found in the Simpson's "Springfield" is very similar to that of one in Springfield, Illinois. At the center of the square, is a statue of Abraham Lincoln, much like that of Jebediah Springfield.
In one episode, an "Abraham Lincoln Squirrel" was found and murdered in Springfield. Illinois is considered Lincoln's home, and so this could widely encourage the Illinois theory.
Springfield, Illinois is located on Lake Springfield.
There is an Evergreen Court Lane in Springfield, Illinois.
However, on a Bart Simpson fake ID, it stated the state was Illinois.
Utah[ edit ]
In the episode Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington during the reading of the competition essays, a map of the United States is shown, and pans to different locations to show other competitors speaking. Just before Lisa is shown, the map shows the state Springfield is located in (signified by a Blinky on the map). The state is the north-western-most state of four states whose boundaries intersect at a single point. There is only one point in the United States where this occurs, and the northwestern of the four states is Utah. However in the episode Little Big Girl Bart and Darcy move to Utah to get married so it can't be in Utah.
North Dakota[ edit ]
In " Moe Letter Blues " Moe mentions moving to Springfield because its zip code on a calculator spells "boobs". This would mean the zip code is 58008 or 80085. 58008 is assigned to Barney, North Dakota. But, in Kill the Alligator and Run, the family says they are still welcome in North Dakota, Bart saying he wants to move to the Dakotas, proving they don't live there.
Indiana[ edit ]
In The Simpsons Movie , Flanders says that Springfield borders Ohio, Nevada, Maine, and Kentucky; Indiana borders two of those four states.
Springfield has often been shown on a (presumed) ocean. Indiana does not border an ocean, but does in fact touch Lake Michigan, which could possibly appear similar to an ocean.
West Virginia[ edit ]
In The Simpsons Movie , Flanders says that Springfield borders Ohio, Nevada, Maine, and Kentucky; West Virginia borders two of those four states.
Wisconsin[ edit ]
In Mother Simpson Bart and Lisa look at Mona's drivers licenses and her name was Mona Simpson on the Wisconsin license. However, this could have been fake as she was on the run from the police.
Regions[ edit ]
One of the couch gags (which cannot be considered canon) zoomed out and showed the Simpsons' house in Springfield, Illinois. While Springfield, Illinois has a Shelbyville 50 miles to the southeast, and a nuclear power plant 40 miles to the north-east, there has not been any indication that it is 'the' Springfield, and could be coincidental. However, The Simpsons does make an indirect reference to the Illinois city; in the episode where Homer is in a graveyard at night digging a plot, discarded dirt covers up the grave of Adlai Stevenson (a prominent Illinois politician and two-time US presidential candidate, buried in Bloomington, Illinois, 50 miles to the northeast). In the episode " G.I. (Annoyed Grunt) ", the Squeaky-voiced teen quits his job to go work at "Jolly Tamale" which is a small but somewhat popular Mexican restaurant in Springfield, Illinois. The Simpsons' street, Evergreen Terrace , is a notoriously poor section of Springfield, Illinois.
The couch gag sequence of The Simpsons episode entitled " The Ziff Who Came to Dinner " again left the location of Springfield something of a mystery. The sequence featured a "zooming out" from the Simpson household to a satellite view, then a solar system view, and so on in a parody of the 1977 documentary short Powers of Ten. The sequence contained plenty of cloud cover, but put Springfield somewhere in the Midwest, probably near the Mississippi River (Iowa, or maybe Missouri). The latter location is also suggested in the episode " Lisa the Tree Hugger " in which Lisa tries to protect the oldest tree in Springfield. To do so, she climbs a giant sequoia tree to prevent a team from cutting it down. When looking down on Springfield she sees a structure resembling the Gateway Arch in St. Louis, Missouri (but also the Space Needle in Seattle, Washington) In the background, the Statue of Liberty in New York, and the Eiffel Tower in Paris, France can also be seen, along with a large river. It should be noted that the Eiffel Tower appears to be closer than the Statue of Liberty, which is impossible.
In the episode " Marge vs. the Monorail ", monorail salesman Lyle Lanley proclaims "I've sold monorail systems to Brockway , Ogdenville , and North Haverbrook ! And, by gum, it put them on the map!" He then holds up a map of the U.S. where Brockway, Ogdenville and North Haverbrook are the only cities shown. Marge then later drives to nearby North Haverbrook (where everybody resents there being a monorail there, despite the sign at the city limits saying "Where the Monorail is KING!"). The map shows North Haverbrook in the Midwest, approximately in Iowa. It should be noted that since the monorail seller was a fraud, the map may not be accurate and made to make sure all three cities fit on the map.
In the episode " Scenes from the Class Struggle in Springfield ", the Simpsons go to the Ogdenville outlet mall to get a new television. The sign in Springfield indicates that it is only '90 miles' to Ogdenville. When Lyle Lanley holds up the map, Ogdenville is in New Mexico and Brockway appears to be in South Carolina).
In the episode " Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington ", when it is Lisa's turn to speak, it shows a map where Springfield is in "Illinois".
In the episode " The Springfield Files ", Mulder tells Scully that there has been "another unsubstantiated UFO sighting in the heartland of America", referring to Homer's close encounter with an alien; so, for that episode, Springfield was presumably somewhere in the Midwest.
Homer suggests that Springfield is within a state bordering the Great Lakes. He said:
Oh, why did I take it the wedding ring off? ... Oh, right! To see if I could skip it across Lake Michigan.
However, this is only slightly relevant - he could have been visiting the state at the time. The Simpsons address, 742 Evergreen Terrace , is an actual address in Savannah, Missouri.
West of the Mississippi[ edit ]
In several episodes the radio and television stations in Springfield use the call sign KBBL . All radio and television station call signs west of the Mississippi River, except for few grandfathered stations, begin with the letter K while stations east of the Mississippi River begin with the letter W. This implies then that Springfield must be west of the Mississippi River because its television station uses the call sign KBBL, television being non-existent at the time of creation of the K and W call sign system, unless the stations in question operate on a dual-license arrangement (an owner of a grandfathered radio station that later received a license for a sister television station), as in KYW-AM radio station and KYW-TV/KYW-DT television stations, in Philadelphia, KDKA-AM and KDKA-TV in Pittsburgh, both of which are in Pennsylvania, and WDAY-FM, WDAY-AM, and WDAY-TV/WDAY-DT in Fargo and WDAZ-TV/WDAZ-DT in Grand Forks, North Dakota.
Also, when the Simpsons get to Delaware on a train, they pass the Mississippi River, meaning they live somewhere west of it.
East coast[ edit ]
Springfield, Massachusetts is referenced by the "Springfield Memorial Bridge" which separates Springfield from West Springfield in the cartoon and in Massachusetts. Another Massachusetts reference is that Mayor Quimby and his political machine have similarities to the powerful Kennedy family, including the mayor and his family's thick Boston accent even though Springfield, Massachusetts natives DO NOT have the famous New England accent. Of Simpsons writers and producers, more of them attended college in Massachusetts than any other state. A segment on WFXT revealed that Springfield's city hall is actually copied from that of Chelmsford, Massachusetts. This however, could simply mean nothing. The bridge could be a coincidence, and Quimby may not have grown up in Springfield.
In the episode " Mother Simpson ", Homer discovers that the tombstone he always thought belonged to his mother actually belongs to Walt Whitman (causing Homer to pummel said tombstone and curse "Leaves of Grass, my ass!"). Walt Whitman is buried in Harleigh Cemetery, Camden, New Jersey.
In the episode " Bart the Fink ", when Bart questions the local bankers about the check he gave to Krusty, a phone call is made to New York at 2:01 PM, then to Cayman Islands at 2:02 PM. Afterwards, a fax is made to Washington D.C at 2:03 PM, and Krusty is arrested in Springfield at 2:04 PM. The first three places are all in UTC-5 time zone when the Northern Hemisphere is in winter, when the episode was first aired. And assuming the sequence of events is meant to show how quickly the authority reacts to tax evasion, that would put Springfield in the North American Eastern Time Zone.
In the episode " Lisa the Iconoclast ", it is revealed that settlers founded Springfield in 1796, which was before the Louisiana Purchase. Therefore, Springfield must be east of the Mississippi River.
In the episode " Poppa's Got a Brand New Badge ", the character Fat Tony drives into downtown Springfield past a highway identification sign that very closely resembles United States Interstate signs, and bears the route number 95. The real I-95 is a major north-south route along the east coast of the United States. It should be noted however, that this was a parody of The Sopranos, which takes place in New Jersey, through which I-95 runs. However, The Simpsons cannot take place in New Jersey, as Homer and Bart must drive extensively to reach the Edison National Historic Site. In the episode " Old Yeller-Belly ", the Amish build a treehouse for the Simpsons, indicating that Springfield is in either Ohio or Pennsylvania. Also, Milhouse's mother mentions Mechanicsburg; there is a Mechanicsburg in both Ohio and Pennsylvania.
There is a Springfield in Virginia through which I-95 runs; while there is no Mechanicsburg in Virginia, there are four communities named Mechanicsville.
In the episode "The Bart of War", a Mohican says his tribe's land stretched from " Krusty Burger to Gary's Waterbed Warehouse" while he indicated parts of Springfield.
In one episode, "Bart's Comet", a comet is threatening to strike Springfield. Professor Frink devises a plan in which a rocket is fired at the comet. The rocket is shown being launched from the Springfield Armory, which was established in Springfield, Massachusetts during the Revolutionary War, and still exists as a historical museum.
In the episode " New Kids on the Blecch ", L.T. Smash is able to drive an aircraft carrier to New York City.
In the episode " Boy-Scoutz 'N the Hood ", On the map of " Krusty Burger " locations, Homer points to the one off the east coast, implying they live on the east coast
Shown in various episodes inside of Android's Dungeon Comics & Baseball Card Shop is a Boston Red Sox pennant, a hometown baseball team in Springfield, Massachusetts.
In the episode " Homer vs. the Eighteenth Amendment ", during the St. Patrick's Day parade, a drunk local sporting a Red Sox shirt shouts, "Hey, this is some wicked pah-ty, huh?" in a heavy Bostonian accent.
The episode " Worst Episode Ever " implies that Springfield is located in Massachusetts, as one of Jeff Albertson's pirated videos, a Cold War-era classified mission tape, states that Springfield was designated as a "NWB" (or Nuclear Whipping Boy.), and the map of Springfield in question heavily resembled the real life Springfield, Massachusetts.
In the episode " The City of New York vs. Homer Simpson ", Homer has a flash back from a time when he stopped in NYC on a bus trip to Harrisburg (presumably PA). The fact that Homer was traveling through New York to get to Harrisburg would seem to suggest that he had to travel south to get to Pennsylvania, thus placing Springfield in either New York or New England.
West coast[ edit ]
There is a strong case for the non-existent state being west of the Mississippi River, particularly somewhere on the west coast. This is supported by the facts that:
Springfield sits on the ocean, and
it has various features that only the west coast has
redwood tree(s)
mesas
a TV station that starts with a K (assuming that the Federal Communications Commission of the Simpsons' universe mirrors the real world FCC.)
sunsets over the ocean
Springfield's local radio station uses the call letters KBBL. In the episode " Colonel Homer ", the town also has a country music radio station KUDD . "K" as the first call letter usually indicates a radio station west of the Mississippi River, whereas "W" as the first call letter usually indicates a radio station east of the Mississippi River. Most of the exceptions to the rule (such as station KDKA in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, WFAA in Dallas, Texas, WOAI in San Antonio, Texas, WOW in Omaha, Nebraska, WDAY in Fargo, North Dakota, or WHB in Kansas City, Missouri) were assigned call letters before this convention was established. It should be noted that in " Homer Alone ", the lobby of Rancho Relaxo (located in the Springfield Mountains) plays the radio station "Coma", whose call letters are WKOMA. It is also possible that if the town was located next to the Mississippi River, they could also receive "W" stations on their radio.
Several episodes indicate that Springfield has an ocean coastline. One episode showed jellyfish washing up on Springfield Beach.
In another episode, " Boy-Scoutz 'N the Hood ", Bart, Homer, and the Junior Campers float out to sea during a rafting trip. They are rescued by floating towards an unmanned oil rig which nevertheless features a failing Krusty Burger restaurant. Offshore oil rigs in the United States are found off the coasts of the Gulf of Mexico and California. Earlier when they were still on the river, the Krusty Burger map shows two locations at two oil rigs, one off each coast. However, when the stranded group discovered the near by restaurant, Homer points at the east coast oil rig.
The episode " New Kids on the Blecch " established that oceangoing warships visit and dock at Springfield's harbor. However, the skyline is similar to New York City and there is a reference to destroying the Mad Magazine headquarters, which in another episode are said to be in New York City.
The episode " Simpson Tide " also shows that the submarine Homer is commanding travels west out of the Springfield Harbor into Russian waters.
Springfield is also served by the Union Pacific Railroad.
In one episode, the Simpsons were going to Delaware, while on a train they had to cross the Mississippi, meaning they came from the west.
In " Ice Cream of Margie (with the Light Blue Hair) " Snake Jailbird reports a traffic jam at the 101-405 interchange, both of which run up the Pacific Coast of the United States. Their interchange is in the San Fernando Valley in Los Angeles, California.
In the episode El Viaje Misterioso de Nuestro Jomer , Marge notes that Springfield slopes down in a westward direction, lending more credibility to the West Coast theory.
Other places[ edit ]
Springfield is near a junction of five states (in real life, no such junction exists), yet it borders the ocean; it has a canyon, a desert, and mountains, including the tallest mountain in the United States. (In the episode " King of the Hill ", Bart claims the Murderhorn is more than four miles higher than Springfield's elevation. The actual tallest mountain in the United States, Mount McKinley in Alaska, rises less than four miles above sea level.) Plus, the city has a vulnerability to every sort of natural disaster, which no one area would have. Sometimes it snows in Springfield, the town once experienced a hurricane, its ocean coast has an oil platform close offshore, and Springfield's western side (which is three times the size of Texas) is a vast oil field. Springfield is also 2,000 miles away from Arlen, Texas, which Hank Hill said in a brief cameo ("We drove 2,000 miles for this?). Arlen, Texas, interestingly enough, is just as fictional and mysterious as Springfield.
" Bart After Dark " establishes that the series is set near Baby Seal Beach , which a television reporter says is on the West Coast, which would place the Springfield in that episode in California or Oregon.
Additionally, in " Boy-Scoutz 'N the Hood " there is a scene in which Bart, Homer, Flanders, and Rod are lost at sea, which would imply they live on either the West or East coasts.
In an earlier episode " Kamp Krusty ", it is established that Tijuana is just a day trip away, meaning that the Springfield in this episode could logically be in California, New Mexico or Arizona.
In " You Only Move Twice ", a newspaper is seen indicating that Hank Scorpio has taken control of the East coast. In that same episode, Cypress Creek (the community where the Simpsons move, which is said to be upstate) is shown with mountains. The Springfield in this episode has to be in one of the mountain states.
The revelation that Springfield was once entirely in the telephone area code 636 and that chaos erupted when half the town was switched to the new area code 939 does not clarify the situation; area code 636 is in Missouri, while 939 is in Puerto Rico . In another episode, Superintendent Chalmers refers to Springfield Elementary School as "the most dilapidated in all of Missouri", and shocks everyone (viewers and characters alike) by this disclosure, before continuing with "and that's why it was shut down and moved here, brick by brick." There also happens to be a Lake Springfield in Missouri.
There is also evidence that the Simpsons live in Louisiana. During one of the Halloween specials, it is proposed that Kang , a space alien, is the real father of Maggie. When Kang initiates telepathic contact with Maggie, Maggie responds by transmitting a signal with her pacifier. As the camera pans away from earth, the concentric radio signals are shown to be emanating from Louisiana. Furthermore, Marge is of French ancestry (her maiden name is Bouvier), so maybe she is Cajun.
In an episode where the Simpsons visit a prep school, Homer says to Lisa that he will pay for her to attend any college in South Carolina.
When Lisa goes to work with Homer, he points out Springfield Power Plant's location on a map of the USA, it appears to be in a fictional state south of Florida and is given as a place which would really be in the ocean.
A central highway called Highway 401 is mentioned in several episodes. There is a central highway named Highway 401 in the Province of Ontario, Canada, that passes through the City of Toronto. This has also lead to speculation of Toronto being the inspiration to Springfield (or of Springfield, Ontario being the show's location); however as mentioned above, the countless pieces of evidence of Springfield being in the United States automatically disprove this theory. However, Springfield has been shown to be close to the Canadian border, as the Simpsons have made day-trips into Canada, and everybody in Springfield knows the Canadian Anthem.
In the episode " Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington " the Simpson's mail contains the ZIP code 192005, a made-up ZIP code obviously, as real ZIP codes are 5 digits.
In the episode " Lisa the Beauty Queen ", Lisa greets a boatload of immigrants to be deported. Springfield must have access to the coasts via a river or lake.
Various other episodes show traveling characters:
In the episode where the Simpsons go to New York City, Homer has a flash back from a time when he stopped in NYC on a bus trip to Harrisburg (presumably PA). The fact that Homer was traveling through New York to get to Harrisburg would seem to suggest that he had to travel south to get to Pennsylvania, thus placing Springfield in either New York or New England.
The episode " Old Money ", Abraham Simpson had to cross the state border to reach a casino.
When Snake steals the Kwik-E-Mart in the episode Marge in Chains , a road sign says "63 miles to North Haverbrook and 678 miles to Mexico City ". That would place Springfield within Mexican territory or in the southern most tip of Texas. However, the very same road sign contradicts with the established location of North Haverbrook somewhere between South Dakota and Nebraska, as seen in " Marge vs. the Monorail ".
The episode " Viva Ned Flanders " (and other episodes in which characters visit Las Vegas) establishes that Springfield is within an easy day's drive of Las Vegas by car.
The episode " New Kids on the Blecch " establishes that Springfield is only a few minutes' sail from New York City by ship.
The family has been to New York City and Canada by bus.
In an episode where Homer joins the US Navy reserve, a map shows his submarine's route leaving Springfield on the US Pacific coast.
Marge is seen driving to Ogdenville, which was shown in the southwest, approximately Arizona.
Homer is shown driving into Montana, presumably on a short trip.
The family is shown driving over the Mississippi River en route to Washington, D.C.
Ned Flanders falls for one of Homer's pranks by going to Montana to meet Jesus by Train.
Skinner drives Willie's car from Springfield to Orlando, Florida and passes a sign saying Orlando, 2653 miles. The Springfield in this episode has to be in a coastal county of Washington state, either Grays Harbor, Jefferson or Clallam.
In "Boy-Scoutz 'N the Hood", Homer pulls out a map of Krusty Burger locations in the US. The map clearly indicates that there are KB's in the following states/areas:
Northwestern Nevada on the border of SE Oregon and NE California;
SE Border of Utah;
SE border area of Texas or possibly the eastern border of Louisiana;
Midpoint connection of Missouri, Arkansas, Mississippi, Tennessee, and Kentucky;
A point around the Alabama, Georgia and Florida connecting borders;
and a spot looking like Northern Kentucky, which touches Indiana, Ohio, and Virgina.
In the episode " The Old Man and the Key ", Abraham Simpson states that Springfield is 1000 km from Branson, Missouri. A circle of exactly 1000 km would sweep (clock-wise) southwestern Texas, eastern New Mexico, mid-eastern Colorado, northwestern Nebraska, center-southeastern South Dakota, central Minnesota, northern Wisconsin, central Michigan, central Ohio, southwestern West Virginia, a very small and uninhabited segment in the east most tip of Kentucky, southeastern Virginia, eastern Tennessee, western North Carolina, northwestern South Carolina, central Georgia, and northwestern Florida.
In a trailer for The Simpsons Movie , Ned Flanders and Bart hike to the top of a mountain, where Flanders states that from the summit "you can see the four states that border Springfield: Ohio, Nevada, Maine and Kentucky." These states are, in fact, nowhere near each other and are not linked to each other, thus they cannot be linked to Springfield. However it should be noted that all of the states Flanders indicates have "Springfields" in them, except for Nevada (though ironically Nevada is the only place an official, life-sized, scale replica of the Simpsons house can be found). However Lisa says west Springfield is three times the size of Texas.
Where Springfield Isn't[ edit ]
Note: Some evidence is based on presuming the convention that one does not say the state name when mentioning a city in the same state that they reside.
Alabama: In the episode " I Married Marge ", one of Homer's competing job applicants said he was from the Alabama chapter of Alpha Tau. It is unlikely someone would say that if Springfield were in Alabama, although since the applicant is talking about his college experience this could refer to the University of Alabama rather than the state. In the episode " They Saved Lisa's Brain ", Dr. Hibbert says "I'm moving back to Alabama," implying that Springfield is not in Alabama.
Alaska: In the episode " Marge on the Lam ", when Marge and Ruth are chased by the police, a road sign is seen with "State Line: 2 miles". Alaska, Hawaii, and the insular areas are the only places where driving to other states directly is not possible. In the episode " Fear of Flying ", Kwazy Klown Airlines offers the Simpsons free tickets to anywhere in the United States, excluding Alaska and Hawaii, "the freak states." And when Homer told his family about the "good news", Bart asks to go to Alaska and Lisa to Hawaii. In the episode " Home Sweet Homediddly-Dum-Doodily ", Homer says "We leave you the kids for three hours, and the county take 'em away?" to Grandpa. Alaska and Louisiana are the two states that do not divide into counties, but boroughs and parishes respectively. In The Simpsons Movie the Simpsons move to Alaska.
Arizona: Homer reveals that Springfield observes daylight saving time. At the time when this episode was first aired (November 5, 1995), Hawaii, most of Arizona, and a large portion of Indiana did not observe daylight saving time. However, Springfield could be in the area of Arizona that doesn't observe daylight savings time, which would mean they lived on an reservation. In the episode " Kill the Alligator and Run ", Arizona is one of the only two states the The Simpsons are allowed in (the other one is North Dakota), but Homer says Arizona smells funny and Marge crosses Arizona off the chart. This implies they do not live in Arizona. Also, there is no place in Arizona called Springfield.
Arkansas: In "Dancing Homer", it is learned that the state capital has a Major League Baseball team. Little Rock does not.
California: In the episode " And Maggie Makes Three ," Homer talks to a young shoeshiner that works at his "dream job," or the Bowling Alley. He promises that the young boy will someday make it to California.
Connecticut: In the episode " Homer Simpson, This Is Your Wife ," Marge says to a member of her family, "What are you doing in the Nutmeg State?" The Nutmeg State is Connecticut, and if Marge is surprised that someone has traveled into the Nutmeg State, it therefore follows that the Simpsons do not live in Springfield, Connecticut. In the episode " Changing of the Guardian ", Marge mentions "the state" and Homer asks if she meant Conneticut. Marge says she meant their state, so Conneticut is a different state to theirs.
Delaware: In the episode " Simpsons Tall Tales ", the family is going on a trip to Delaware, and when Homer shakes a fist at the airport ticketholder, the family is kicked out of the airport and opts for train travel. So Springfield isn't in Delaware either.
Florida: In the episode Bart vs. Australia , Homer tells Bart that next time he should commit a crime in Orlando, Florida - indicating that Springfield isn't in Florida.
Georgia: In the episode " Homer vs. the Eighteenth Amendment ", Homer states to Marge "What about that freezer lady in Georgia," when trying to console her.
Hawaii: In the episode So It's Come to This: A Simpsons Clip Show , Homer offers to take his family to Hawaii. Therefore, Springfield cannot be in Hawaii. Also, in the episode " Burns Verkaufen der Kraftwerk ", Horst tells Springfield Nuclear Power Plant alcoholic employees that they'll spend six weeks at their drying-out facility in Hawaii. In the episode " Fear of Flying ", Kwazy Klown Airlines offers the Simpsons free tickets to anywhere in the United States, excluding Alaska and Hawaii, "the freak states." And when Homer told his family about the "good news", Bart asks to go to Alaska and Lisa to Hawaii. So Springfield is not in either of these states. Also the Simpsons have easily driven to various parts of the Continental United States, impossible to do in Hawaii. In the episode " King-Size Homer ", Homer reveals that Springfield observes daylight saving time. At the time when this episode was first aired (November 5, 1995), Hawaii, most of Arizona, and a large portion of Indiana did not observe daylight saving time.In the episode " Little Big Mom " Homer and Bart got their leprosy treated in Hawaii.
Idaho: In "Dancing Homer", it is learned that the state capital has a Major League Baseball team. Boise does not.
Indiana: In "Dancing Homer", it is learned that the state capital has a Major League Baseball team. Indianapolis does not.
Iowa: In the episode " Moaning Lisa ", Lisa wails for the Iowa farmer whose land has been taken away by uncaring bureaucrats, and the West Virginia coal-miner. Mr. Largo explains that "none of these unpleasant people are going to be at the recital next week", which could imply that Springfield isn't in Iowa or West Virginia.
Kansas: In "Dancing Homer", it is learned that the state capital has a Major League Baseball team. Topeka does not.
Kentucky: In "Dancing Homer", it is learned that the state capital has a Major League Baseball team. Frankfurt does not.
Louisiana: In the episode " Radio Bart ", Chief Wiggum mentions a piece of machinery in Shreveport, Louisiana, so Springfield is not in Louisiana. Also, in the episode " Home Sweet Homediddly-Dum-Doodily ", Homer says "We leave you the kids for three hours, and the county take 'em away?" to Grandpa. Alaska and Louisiana are the two states that do not divide into counties, but boroughs and parishes respectively.
Maine: In "Dancing Homer", it is learned that the state capital has a Major League Baseball team. Augusta does not.
Maryland: In the episode " Lisa the Iconoclast ", it is revealed that settlers left Maryland and founded Springfield. Therefore, Springfield is not in Maryland.
Massachusetts: In the episode " Sideshow Bob's Last Gleaming ", Sideshow Bob dismisses the air show as "butt-cut Alabamians spewing colored smoke from their whizz jets", and Homer tells Sideshow Bob to "go back to Massachusetts". In the episode " We're on the Road to D'ohwhere ," in which Homer drives Bart to Portland, Oregon to attend a discipline camp, the two make reference to Massachusetts' laws on gay marriage by saying, "Did you know that in Massachusetts it's legal for a guy to marry his son?". Also, in one episode, Otto used corporal punishment on Bart, after wrecking the bus and Skinner said, No corporal punishment, and Massachusetts allows corporal punishment. Also, in " The Regina Monologues ," they get trapped in a London roundabout, a type of intersection prevalent in Massachusetts, without knowing how to exit it. Strangely, the episode Worst Episode Ever implies that Springfield is actually located in Massachusetts, as one of Jeff Albertson's pirated videos, a Cold War-era classified mission tape, had stated that Springfield was designated as a "NWB" (or Nuclear Whipping Boy.), and the map of Springfield in question heavily resembled the real life Springfield, Massachusetts.
Michigan: In the episode " Take My Wife, Sleaze ", when Homer is calling Chief Wiggum to report the Hell's Satans kidnapping Marge, Wiggum says: "Well, We have a little saying around here: Let Michigan handle it."
Minnesota: In "Dancing Homer", it is learned that the state capital has a Major League Baseball team. St. Paul does not.
Mississippi: as Principal Skinner notes that selling kids is only legal in Springfield and Mississippi in the episode Simpsoncalifragilisticexpiala(Annoyed Grunt)cious .
Missouri: as Superintendent Chalmers says that Springfield was voted the Worst Elementary School in Missouri ("Lisa Gets an A"), so they tore it up and moved it to the current location. In addition, during the episode when Abe Simpson regains his driver's license, and drives to Branson, Missouri. Lisa remarks "Branson is a thousand miles from here," which rules out any place in Missouri, counting out the fact the expression could have been an exaggeration. In " Homer Badman ," Abe hangs a 49-star American flag because he won't recognize Missouri.
Montana: In "Dancing Homer", it is learned that the state capital has a Major League Baseball team. Helena does not.
Nebraska: In "Dancing Homer", it is learned that the state capital has a Major League Baseball team. Lincoln does not.
Nevada: In "Dancing Homer", it is learned that the state capital has a Major League Baseball team. Carson City does not.
New Hampshire: In "Dancing Homer", it is learned that the state capital has a Major League Baseball team. Concord does not.
New Jersey: In the episode " The Wizard of Evergreen Terrace ", Homer and Bart are seen driving into New Jersey with the intention of destroying Thomas Edison's hinged chair invention.
New Mexico: In the episode " Boy-Scoutz 'N the Hood ", Homer looks at the Krusty Burger map and says "Hey, there's a new Mexico!" Assuming that Homer is smart enough to know his home state, Springfield is not in New Mexico. The same joke appears in the episode Homer vs. Dignity , where Mr. Burns is surprised to learn there is a New Mexico.
New York: In the episode 22 Short Films About Springfield , Principal Skinner makes up the word "steamed hams" and claims that it is a "regional dialect" of upstate New York. Many people also believed that Springfield was not in New York state because in one episode, The City of New York vs. Homer Simpson , Homer loathes New York. However, Homer only mentions loathing the city of New York, meaning that Springfield could very well be in another part of the state of New York. Many residents of upstate New York, in fact, do share a loathing of New York City and its suburban areas. However, In "Dancing Homer", it is learned that the state capital has a Major League Baseball team. Albany does not.
North Carolina: In the episode Bart-Mangled Banner , Mayor Quimby compares the national hatred of Springfield caused by Bart's mooning of the U.S. flag to that of "Hitler City, North Carolina" before it changed its name to Charlotte.
North/South Dakota: In one episode the family discuss where they are still welcome in America, and one of the states is North Dakota. Bart then says "Alright! I've always wanted to see Mount Rushmore!" Marge then tells him that that's South Dakota, proving they don't live in South nor North Dakota.
Ohio: In the episode " Homer and Apu ", Apu said that Kwik-E-Mart is known as Stop-O-Mart in Ohio.
Oklahoma: In "Dancing Homer", it is learned that the state capital has a Major League Baseball team. Oklahoma City does not.
Oregon: In "Dancing Homer", it is learned that the state capital has a Major League Baseball team. Salem does not. Although Capital City may refer to the city in the state with the best economy not necessarily the government, Portland produces more than Salem therefore leaving more room for debate. Also, Matt Groening is from Oregon and the Simpsons is supposed to be based on his family.
Pennsylvania: In "Dancing Homer", it is learned that the state capital has a Major League Baseball team. Harrisburg does not.
Rhode Island: In the episode " Pygmoelian ", referring to Moe's liquor license, Lenny says the license is only good in Rhode Island; Moe replies by saying "I've been meaning to get that updated, uh, for this state".
South Carolina: In "Dancing Homer", it is learned that the state capital has a Major League Baseball team. Columbia does not.
Tennessee: In "Dancing Homer", it is learned that the state capital has a Major League Baseball team. Nashville does not.
Texas: In the episode Raging Abe Simpson and His Grumbling Grandson in "The Curse of the Flying Hellfish" , Grandpa Van Houten says he won a chili cook-off in Beaumont, Texas. In the episode " Who Shot Mr. Burns? (Part Two) ", Chief Wiggum says to Mr. Burns "No jury in the world's gonna convict a baby. Hmm, maybe Texas". Therefore, Springfield cannot be in Texas. In the episode " Old Money ", the ghost of Bea says, "They've got me haunting a family in Texas". Therefore, Springfield cannot be in Texas. Texas is also too small to contain Springfield, as West Springfield is "three times the size of Texas", according to the episode " Half-Decent Proposal ". In " Bart Star ," Hank Hill says "We drove 2000 miles for this?" suggesting they drove out of Texas to get to Springfield.
Utah: In the episode " Bart's Comet ", when Principal Skinner discovers Bart is responsible for the balloon prank, Bart says "race you to Utah" to Milhouse. Therefore, Springfield must not be in Utah. Also, in the episode " Homer vs. Lisa and the 8th Commandment ", Bart is watching the Top Hat Channel. That channel is not available in Utah or Florida.
Vermont: In "Dancing Homer", it is learned that the state capital has a Major League Baseball team. Montpelier does not. In "The Canine Mutiny" Laddie, Bart's new dog, is from Vermont.
Virginia: In "Dancing Homer", it is learned that the state capital has a Major League Baseball team. Richmond does not.
Washington: In "Dancing Homer", it is learned that the state capital has a Major League Baseball team. Olympia does not.
Washington, D.C.: In the episode " Mother Simpson ", it is shown that there is a state college. This means that Springfield is in a state, not in the District of Columbia nor in any of the insular areas.
Wisconsin: In the episode The Bart of War after Bart said "Hey! some jerks cleaned our field!" Nelson said "It's awful! It looks like Wisconsin!" so Springfield could not be in Wisconsin.
Wyoming: In "Dancing Homer", it is learned that the state capital has a Major League Baseball team. Cheyenne does not.
West Virginia: In the episode " Moaning Lisa ", Lisa wails for the Iowa farmer whose land has been taken away by uncaring bureaucrats, and the West Virginia coal-miner. Mr. Largo explains that "none of these unpleasant people are going to be at the recital next week", which could imply that Springfield isn't in Iowa or West Virginia.
The South: In the episode " The PTA Disbands ", a historical re-enactment has the American Civil War soldiers of Fort Springfield wearing Union blue, "heroically" massacring wounded Confederate soldiers in gray uniforms who have come to surrender. As such, Springfield cannot have been in one of the states that sided with the Confederate States of America. Springfield is also not in the South because when Carl and Lenny are handling nuclear waste in the episode " Marge vs. the Monorail ", Lenny wonders where they dump it. Carl says,"Probably in one of those southern states where the governor's a crook." In " Bart vs. Lisa vs. the Third Grade ," the Capitol City Governor states that the state flag, which contains a Confederate flag in it, "is an embarrassment, particularly as we are a northern state."
Georgia, Missouri, Tennessee, California, Nevada, Utah: In the episode " Bart on the Road ", Nelson says "I've always wanted to see Macon, Georgia". When the boys arrive in Branson, Missouri, Bart refers to the place with "Missouri";. They are also seen entering the border of Tennessee explicitly. When Homer replaces the light bulbs on the nuclear plant map, California, Nevada, and Utah are shown with all their plants and none is Springfield. These would eliminate 6 states.
Arizona and North Dakota: In the episode, " Kill the Alligator and Run ", the family marks on a map that they are no longer welcome in Florida, which leaves Arizona (ruled out because it smells funny) and North Dakota, and, of course Springfield. Also Marge has said in numerous episodes that the whole state of Florida hated the Simpsons
Connecticut, Kansas, Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania: The Kwik E Mart sells beer and in the episode " Simpson Safari " Bart attempts to buy wine in a supermarket therefore Springfield can't be in; Colorado, Connecticut, Kansas, Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, or Utah as none of these states allow the sale of wine in grocery stores.
Patty and Selma work at the Department of Motor Vehicles . The authority is known by various alternate names in Arizona, Florida, Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Nevada, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Texas and Washington.
In the episode "Much Apu About Nothing", there are also several clues as to where Springfield isn't
On Homer's weekly paycheck, it is shown that the state withholds income tax. Therefore, this rules out Alaska, Florida, Nevada, New Hampshire, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Washington, and Wyoming.
Fat Tony told Apu that his false identity was born in Green Bay, Wisconsin. So Springfield isn't in Wisconsin.
When Homer is coaching Apu for immigration test, Homer first points to Chicago , but Lisa corrects him saying "you're not pointing anywhere near Springfield" and points out the correct location. At this time, Bart walks in and blocks the view. In this screenshot , we know that Springfield isn't in Washington, Oregon, California, Idaho, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, Montana, or Wyoming. In another screenshot , we know Springfield isn't in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and the District of Columbia.
All of these statistics preclude every state in America except for Illinois. Illinois has a small strip of coastline in the northern part of the state. Illinois was also part of the Union in the Civil War and is a northern state. Illinois also has a Major League Baseball team in "Capital City" which would be Chicago.
Canada[ edit ]
The only place resembling the shape of Springfield is in Ontario, Canada near stoney creek opposite Springfield, Illinois. However, it is quite clear that Springfield is definitely in the US, and the roads, landscape and terrain are completely different. Furthermore, during The Simpsons Movie, it is the United States' government that encloses Springfield in the dome, making Canada an impossible place. Additionally, in The Bart of War, Captain McCallister says "not a war anthem, like our national anthem, but one of peace, like the national anthem of Canada." This further disproves the Canadian theory. Another fact is that Springfield is always mentioned as being located in a "state", while in Canada the term used is "Provinces".
North Tacoma?[ edit ]
David Silverman , a director for the Simpsons, has claimed that Springfield is in the fictional state of "North Tacoma" (or "North Takoma").[citation needed] This is substantiated by the state abbreviations NT and TA used within the show. However, this has never been officially confirmed in any canonical episode of The Simpsons or by other Simpsons producers. And on Homer's Driver License the state is NT and the zip code is 49007, which is a Kalamazoo, Michigan zip code.
Plan B?[ edit ]
As seen in " Trash of the Titans ", a "Plan B" exists that lets the city move. It is possible that Springfield's state has been in a constant state of flux over the years considering the amount of pollution it theoretically creates and diversity of animal life shown. This is also supported in Viva Ned Flanders where Lisa states that she is surprised that they allowed the Monty Burns Casino to come along when they moved the city.
Dialects and accents[ edit ]
Regional dialects and accents are often used to help place people's origins. The citizens of Springfield have a range of accents, though many originate from elsewhere (such as the Scottish Groundskeeper Willie or Indian Apu Nahasapeemapetilon ). Apart from the General American accent spoken by most children and many adults (for example, as spoken by Homer Simpson), a notable segment of the middle-aged generation of Springfield natives has an accent variety typical of the greater New York metropolitan area. Marge Simpson and Barney Gumble both exhibit rhotic New York accents, while Carl Carlson and Lenny Leonard, as well as Moe Szyslak, who is not a Springfield native, but who did move to Springfield as a young child, all have non-rhotic (i.e. more "fully-fledged" r-dropping) New York accents.
However, there are a variety of other accents also spoken by presumed natives of the town. The town's mayor, Joe Quimby, oddly has an accent reminiscent of John F. Kennedy, which is itself a cultivated, non-natural accent that has some similarities to the local Boston accent. There are also some noticeable Springfielders with other accents, such as the Southern accent lightly displayed by Ned Flanders and strongly exhibited by the local Spuckler clan .
One possibility to explain the diversity of accents in the relatively small city is that different socioeconomic groups in the town have different accents or that the town is a melting pots of various dialects, perhaps because it is located midway between a variety of distinct dialect regions.
Springfield based on Springfield, Oregon[ edit ]
In an interview with Matt Groening in 2012 , Groening revealed that Springfield was named after Springfield , Oregon . However, the state itself doesn't seem to be Oregon and there seems to be many differences between Oregon and Springfield's state. [20] The statement was misinterpreted by many and Springfield's state is not Oregon, Springfield is just based on Oregon. [21]
| Evergreen Terrace |
On a standard London Monopoly board which is the most expensive of the Orange properties, costing £200 to purchase? | Springfield's State | Simpsons Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
In The Simpsons Movie , Russ Cargill goes to see "President Schwarzenegger". Arnold Schwarzenegger was the former governor of California.
In the episode " Itchy & Scratchy Land ", The Simpsons family briefly has to stop at a Fruits and Vegetables Checkpoint, causing Homer to panic (as he was apparently smuggling Fruits and Vegetables as a side job). Fruits and Vegetables Checkpoints are a very common place in California.
In the episode "C.E. D'oh", Smithers mentions that Mr. Burns is going to face trouble as the U.S. Government discovered evidence that Mr. Burns dumped nuclear waste into Legoland. The only Legoland that exists in the United States is in California, and most of the attractions seen were from the Legoland section Mini-USA, and it is also unlikely that Mr. Burns would travel a long distance just to dump nuclear waste.
According to the episode "The Seven-Beer Snitch", there's a gas chamber in the Springfield prison. Only five states have a gas chamber as an option for capital punishment in their prisons: California, Arizona, Wyoming, Missouri and Maryland. This coupled with the fact that Springfield is located on an ocean and the sun sets on it seems to leave California as the only possibility.
Although, in the Simpsons Jumbo Rain-Or-Shine Fun Book, there is a fill-in-the-blank story in which Lisa says, "There's a car with ____ strapped to its roof!" to which Marge responds to by saying, "They must be from California."
Also there is a Waverly Hill which is a parody on Beverly Hill, in California.
When Skinner drives Willie's car 2653 miles from Springfield to Orlando, if he uses conventional roads, it could put him in California, Oregon or Idaho.
In "The Canine Mutiny", it is implied that medicinal marijuana is legal. At the time (the episode first aired in 1997), only California had legalized marijuana for medical use.
The town square is based on the plaza in Arcata, California.
Massachusetts
In the episode "'Tis the Fifteenth Season", Homer buys an electronic astrolabe at Springfield Heights Mall. One of the astrolabe's screens displays what appear to be its current latitude and longitude. These coordinates (42° N, 71° W) point to Bridgewater, MA. Also there is a Springfield, Massachusetts and a West Springfield, Massachusetts.
In the episode "Behind the Laughter" the Simpsons are explicitly referred to by the narrator as "this Western Massachusetts family."
Also there was a contest for The Simpsons Movie to find out what the state the Simpsons were located in based on sates with had a town called Springfield, and that state would get to have the premier of The Simpsons Movie. The city that was picked was Springfield Vermont.
Chelmsford MA is also referenced several times throughout the years. Springsfields' town hall is based on the town hall there and Zesty's Pizza which has been a landmark in the small Mass town for decades appears in the opening credits in a couple of episodes.
Michigan
In the episode " Duffless ", Homer's driver's license shows an address of "Springfield NT 49007". ZIP code 49007 belongs to Kalamazoo, Michigan. ("NT" is the postal abbreviation for the Northwest Territories of Canada, however.)
From S4E16 "Duffless". Homer's license shows Springfield's state
In the episode "3 Men and a Comic Book", Bart attempts to redeem a bottle deposit. The refund is a dime; only Michigan has a 10-cent deposit on bottles.
However, in the episode Take My Wife, Sleaze , Chief Wiggum remarks to Homer "Well, uh, be that as it may, ah, the gang is wanted in eight other states and we have a little saying around here, let Michigan handle it." This dismisses the Michigan theory, as Wiggum is considered an expert on slacking off on his duties and leaving his work to be completed by others.
In the Simpsons comics story "A Tale of 2 Pen Pals," Homer tells Bart he had a "foreign" pen pal when he was a boy, who was from Michigan.
Nebraska
In Burns, Baby Burns , Montgomery Burns's long lost son recognizes his father on a train but is unable to board it before it moves away. He asks an attendant standing on the final carriage where it is going and is told "Springfield". The son says: "Yeah, but what state?" The guard's reply is almost inaudible, but ends in the syllable "-aska". This suggests that Springfield could be in Nebraska or Alaska.
But The Simpsons Movie rules out Alaska as they move there. Implying Springfield is located in Nebraska.
Additionally, in the episode "The Springfield Files", Mulder tells Scully that there has been "another unsubstantiated UFO sighting in the heartland of America", referring to Homer's close encounter with an alien. Traditionally, "The heartland of America" is applied to Eastern Nebraska, where Nebraska's Springfield exists.
Connecticut
In the episode " Revenge is a Dish Best Served Three Times ", the Rich Texan on whom Homer wishes to seek revenge tells Bart that he and Homer have buried the hatchet because the two are both from Connecticut, (despite his name). It has previously been revealed that Homer was born in Springfield .
In Treehouse of Horror XIII, when it is shown that the Homer clones will have spread across the entire United States, one of the faces in the first frame appears over Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island.
Alaska
In Burns, Baby Burns , Montgomery Burns's long lost son recognizes his father on a train, but is unable to board it before it moves away. He asks an attendant standing on the final carriage where it is going and is told "Springfield". The son says: "Yeah, but what state?" The guard's reply is almost inaudible, but ends in the syllable "-aska". This suggests that Springfield could be in Nebraska or Alaska.
In another episode, Lisa says West Springfield is 3x the size of Texas. Alaska is the only state larger than Texas, so it has to be in Alaska.
However, when offered free air travel to any US State, the Simpsons are told "except Alaska and Hawaii. The freak states."
In "Catch'em If You Can", Homer is about to take a plane trip and complains about the airline of a previous trip. He exclaims, "What kind of an airline routes all their flights through Nome Alaska?". If they lived in Alaska, this is not so bad, if they don't live in Alaska, it is quite a long trip.
In the Simpsons Movie, the Simpsons move to Alaska, which means that they don't live there.
Virginia
First frame of Homer Clones report
Springfield has an Army base; Fort Myers, 12 miles away. It also has a nuclear power plant 80 miles away, in addition the State has 2 (albeit extinct) volcanoes.
Springfield has Dulles International Airport, 27 miles away; and Richmond (the state capital) also has an airport.
In Dancin' Homer , Capital City has a Second Best Western; Richmond has 4 Best Westerns.
Virginia did not allow gay marriages at the time; it has been previously stated that the Simpsons' state does not allow gay marriages.
Virginia has a Navy base and an Air Force base. In Treehouse of Horror XIII , when it is shown that the Homer clones will have spread through the entire United States, one of the faces appears in Virginia in the first frame.
Possible suggestion that leads to the affirmation that Spring Field is in Virginia. Season 13 Episode 22. Fat Tony and the mob are headed to Homer's house in a cinematic view that shows Interstate 95 . If you use this as a basis, Interstate 95 cuts right through present day Springfield, Virginia. The state of Tennessee is the south (southwest) border of Virginia. Springfield is on the water of Potamic River, at Ft. Belvoir (now a museum). The Springfield CDP is recognized by the U.S. Census Bureau with a population of 30,484 as of the 2010 census.
(Source: Mateo Bynumato avid Simpson's fan)
Moe has mentioned that American Rock singer Dave Grohl was once mugged in Springfield. [8] Given that Grohl grew up in a place called Spirngfield in Virginia, this could be considered the correct state.
Missouri
In A Tale of Two Springfields , as well as the dubiously canonical videogame Simpsons: Hit and Run , it is revealed that Springfield's area code is 636. Missouri has this area code. The new area code, 939, is in Puerto Rico. Also, the Simpsons' address, 742 Evergreen Terrace is an actual address in Savannah, Missouri.
In "The Simpson Movie", the town attempts to sneak out in front of Russ Cargil up a rope holding a bomb intended to blow up the town. The town raises an old KBBL radio tower up to climb toward the rope. According to the FCC, KBBL is located in Springfield, MO.
In The City of New York vs. Homer Simpson , Homer tells the rest of the family, "...So if anyone asks we are sophisticated millionaires from the Ozarks." Springfield, Missouri is located within the Ozarks and is commonly referred to as the Queen City of the Ozarks.
In Bart on the Road , Bart, Milhouse, Nelson, and Martin pass through Branson, Missouri on their way to Knoxville, Tennessee. Although it isn't the most direct path, it is possible to take 65 South straight to Branson Missouri and take 160 East to get into Tennessee and from there to Knoxville.
In several episodes, Shelbyville has made an appearance as Springfield's twin city. Missouri has both a Shelbyville and a Springfield.
However, Grampa Simpson has an inveterate, unexplained hatred of Missouri, implying that it is not his own state. That said, he also claims that Missouri represents the "last time I vote to admit a new state." Missouri was admitted to the Union in 1821, which would make Grampa over 200 years old, so all of his opinions on Missouri may be the result of his senility.
South Dakota
Based on the episode " Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington ", it is easy to argue that the Simpsons are from South Dakota.
Midway through this episode we see Congressmen Bob Arnold offered and accepting a bribe from a logging company which wants to clear-cut " Springfield National Forest ."
Congressmen Bob Arnold also poses for a photo shoot with Lisa Simpson (it is presumed that he takes part in the photo shoot to boost his popularity in his district – and that the only reason he is seeing Lisa is because she is from this very same district). After the photo shoot the picture is shown back in Springfield in The Springfield Shopper newspaper which Moe reads to Barney (additional evidence that Congressmen Bob Arnold is Springfield’s congressman). In response, Barney says, "If I ever vote it’ll be for him. (Belch)"
The 'proof' that the Simpsons are from Springfield, South Dakota comes toward the end of the episode.
An FBI agent, in a successful attempt to set up Congressmen Bob Arnold, poses as an “oil company" executive who wants to drill for oil in Teddy Roosevelt’s head on Mount Rushmore and offers Congressmen Bob Arnold a bribe to get permission to do so. Just so there is no confusion there is an amusing picture showing what this might look like. On the one hand, it would seemingly make sense to be bribing the congressman that actually represents the district which includes Mount Rushmore, thereby placing Springfield in South Dakota. However, South Dakota can also be ruled out since congressman Bob Arnold could be on a natural resources committee in congress and simply knows the lay of the land. Still this doesn't change the fact that the Simpsons are in Congressman Arnold's district.
In the episode Kill The Alligator And Run at the end when the family are looking at the map they decide to visit North Dakota and Bart says he always wanted to see Mount Rushmore but is then told by Lisa that it's in South Dakota and we can clearly see from the map that the family are banned from the state.
In the episode Poppa's Got a Brand New Badge , it is shown the Population of Springfield is around 30,000. Springfield, South Dakota has a population of is 792.
Illinois
In the episode Blood Feud , a thank you letter from Mr. Burns has a return address of "1000 Mammon Ln, Springfield" with scribbles following which could be construed as "IL, 22617".
In one of the episode intros, where the screen zooms out of the universe from the Simpsons' house, it zooms out of Illinois, and there is a real city named Springfield in Illinois. There is also a real city named Shelbyville in Illinois, 63.6 miles away from Springfield, IL.
This page also suggests that they may be from Springfield, IL.
In Bart vs. Lisa vs. the Third Grade, when the satellite signal is emitting, it is coming from Springfield, Illinois.
The public square found in the Simpson's "Springfield" is very similar to that of one in Springfield, Illinois. At the center of the square, is a statue of Abraham Lincoln, much like that of Jebediah Springfield.
In one episode, an "Abraham Lincoln Squirrel" was found and murdered in Springfield. Illinois is considered Lincoln's home, and so this could widely encourage the Illinois theory.
In Treehouse of Horror XIII, when it is shown that by tomorrow the Homer clones will spread through the entire United States, one of the faces in the first frame was in Illinois.
Springfield, Illinois is located on Lake Springfield.
There is also a Shelbyville in central Illinois, the same region of the state as Springfield.
There is an Evergreen Court Lane in Springfield, Illinois.
In the movie, Ned says that Ohio, Nevada, Maine and Kentucky all border Springfield. Illinois borders one of these states.
Springfield has often been shown on a (presumed) ocean. Illinois does not border an ocean, but does in fact touch Lake Michigan, which could possibly appear similar to an ocean.
This is also strongly suggested in Season 24; Episode 17, What Animated Women Want, when the camera rapidly zooms out of Springfield, showing that the city is probably near Chicago, definitely in Illinois.
In season 7; Episode 16, Lisa the Iconoclast, when members of Springfield are digging up the grave of Jebadiah Springfield (looking for a literal silver tongue), Groundskeeper Willie tosses a shovel-full of dirt onto the eternal flame of Adlai Stevenson. Adlai Stevenson (likely referring to Adlai Stevenson II) was a former Democratic governor of Illinois and ran for president in 1952 and 1956.
Utah
In the episode Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington during the reading of the competition essays, a map of the United States is shown, and pans to different locations to show other competitors speaking. Just before Lisa is shown, the map shows the state Springfield is located in (signified by a Blinky on the map). The state is the north-western-most state of four states whose boundaries intersect at a single point. There is only one point in the United States where this occurs, and the northwestern of the four states is Utah. However in the episode Little Big Girl Bart and Darcy move to Utah to get married so it can't be in Utah. In the episode "Kill Gil: Volumes 1 & 2", the Utah Jazz of the NBA can be seen getting ready to play. Although, the Jazz could possibly be the visiting team. In the episode Radioactive Man, they are looking for a place to film Radioactive man. In a listing, Springfield is listen under "Film Utah".
North Dakota
In " Moe Letter Blues " Moe mentions moving to Springfield because its zip code on a calculator spells "boobs". This would mean the zip code is 58008, assigned to Barney, North Dakota. But, in Kill the Alligator and Run, the family says they are still welcome in North Dakota, Bart saying he wants to move to the Dakotas, proving they don't live there.
Indiana
In The Simpsons Movie , Flanders says that Springfield borders Ohio, Nevada, Maine, and Kentucky; Indiana borders two of those four states.
Springfield has often been shown on a (presumed) ocean. Indiana does not border an ocean, but does in fact touch Lake Michigan, which could possibly appear similar to an ocean.
West Virginia
In The Simpsons Movie , Flanders says that Springfield borders Ohio, Nevada, Maine, and Kentucky; West Virginia borders two of those four states.
New Hampshire
The map at the end of Kill the Alligator and Run suggests that the Simpsons live somewhere in New England. The Southeastern tip of New Hampshire borders the ocean, and Springfield's proximity to the ocean rather than a lake is referenced in some episodes. When Homer goes to vote in the 2012 election, a Romney campaign banner reads "I Have A House In Your State"; though it's more likely a vague exaggeration of Romney's wealth, Romney did in fact own a house in New Hampshire at the time. New Hampshire also has a nuclear powerplant in the southern coastal region of the state.
Wisconsin
In Mother Simpson , Bart and Lisa look at Mona's driver's license and her name was Mona Simpson on the Wisconsin license. However, this could have been fake, as she was on the run from the police.
Tennessee
In Coming To Homerica , Milhouse states they are in Tennessee Titans territory as he and Bart walk past the Ogdenvillians, that have moved to Springfield, wearing Minnesota Vikings jerseys.
Regions
One of the couch gags (which cannot be considered canon) zoomed out and showed the Simpsons' house in Springfield, Illinois. While Springfield, Illinois has a Shelbyville 50 miles to the southeast, and a nuclear power plant 40 miles to the north-east, there has not been any indication that it is 'the' Springfield, and could be coincidental. However, The Simpsons does make an indirect reference to the Illinois city; in the episode where Homer is in a graveyard at night digging a plot, discarded dirt covers up the grave of Adlai Stevenson (a prominent Illinois politician and two-time US presidential candidate, buried in Bloomington, Illinois, 50 miles to the northeast). In the episode " G.I. (Annoyed Grunt) ", the Squeaky-voiced Teen quits his job to go work at "Jolly Tamale" which is a small but somewhat popular Mexican restaurant in Springfield, Illinois. The Simpsons' street, Evergreen Terrace , is a notoriously poor section of Springfield, Illinois.
The couch gag sequence of The Simpsons episodes entitled " The Ziff Who Came to Dinner ", On a Clear Day I Can't See My Sister ", and " Eternal Moonshine of the Simpson Mind " again left the location of Springfield something of a mystery. The sequence featured a "zooming out" from the Simpson household to a satellite view, then a solar system view, and so on in a parody of the 1977 documentary short Powers of Ten. The sequence contained plenty of cloud cover, but put Springfield somewhere in the Midwest, probably near the Mississippi River (Iowa, or maybe Missouri). The latter location is also suggested in the episode " Lisa the Tree Hugger " in which Lisa tries to protect the oldest tree in Springfield. To do so, she climbs a giant sequoia tree to prevent a team from cutting it down. When looking down on Springfield she sees a structure resembling the Gateway Arch in St. Louis, Missouri (but also the Space Needle in Seattle, Washington) In the background, the Statue of Liberty in New York, and the Eiffel Tower in Paris, France can also be seen, along with a large river. It should be noted that the Eiffel Tower appears to be closer than the Statue of Liberty, which is impossible.
In the episode " Marge vs. the Monorail ", Springfield Monorail salesman Lyle Lanley proclaims "I've sold Springfield Monorail systems to Brockway , Ogdenville , and North Haverbrook ! And, by gum, it put them on the map!" He then holds up a map of the U.S. where Brockway, Ogdenville and North Haverbrook are the only cities shown. Marge then later drives to nearby North Haverbrook (where everybody resents there being a Springfield Monorail there, despite the sign at the city limits saying "Where the Springfield Monorail is KING!"). The map shows North Haverbrook in the Midwest, approximately in Iowa. However, the same map shows Ogdenville in the southwest around the California-Arizona border, despite a later episode " Coming to Homerica " showing that Ogdenville is Springfield's neighbor. It should be noted that since the Springfield Monorail seller was a fraud, the map may not be accurate and made to make sure all three cities fit on the map.
In the episode " Scenes from the Class Struggle in Springfield ", the Simpsons go to the Ogdenville outlet mall to get a new television. The sign in Springfield indicates that it is only '90 miles' to Ogdenville. When Lyle Lanley holds up the map, Ogdenville is in New Mexico and Brockway appears to be in South Carolina).
In the episode " Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington ", when it is Lisa's turn to speak, it shows a map where Springfield is in "Illinois".
In the episode " The Springfield Files ", Mulder tells Scully that there has been "another unsubstantiated UFO sighting in the heartland of America", referring to Homer's close encounter with an alien; so, for that episode, Springfield was presumably somewhere in the Midwest.
Homer suggests that Springfield is within a state bordering the Great Lakes. He said:
Oh, why did I take it the wedding ring off? ... Oh, right! To see if I could skip it across Lake Michigan.
However, this is only slightly relevant - he could have been visiting the state at the time. The Simpsons address, 742 Evergreen Terrace , is an actual address in Savannah, Missouri.
West of the Mississippi
In several episodes the radio and television stations in Springfield use the call sign KBBL . All radio and television station call signs west of the Mississippi River, except for few grandfathered stations, begin with the letter K while stations east of the Mississippi River begin with the letter W. This implies then that Springfield must be west of the Mississippi River because its television station uses the call sign KBBL, television being non-existent at the time of creation of the K and W call sign system, unless the stations in question operate on a dual-license arrangement (an owner of a grandfathered radio station that later received a license for a sister television station), as in KYW-AM radio station and KYW-TV/KYW-DT television stations, in Philadelphia, KDKA-AM and KDKA-TV in Pittsburgh, both of which are in Pennsylvania, and WDAY-FM, WDAY-AM, and WDAY-TV/WDAY-DT in Fargo and WDAZ-TV/WDAZ-DT in Grand Forks, North Dakota.
Also, when the Simpsons get to Delaware on a train, they pass the Mississippi River, meaning they live somewhere west of it.
East coast
Springfield, Massachusetts is referenced by the "Springfield Memorial Bridge" which separates Springfield from West Springfield in the cartoon and in Massachusetts. Another Massachusetts reference is that Mayor Quimby and his political machine have similarities to the powerful Kennedy family, including the mayor and his family's thick Boston accent even though Springfield, Massachusetts natives DO NOT have the famous New England accent. Of Simpsons writers and producers, more of them attended college in Massachusetts than any other state. A segment on WFXT revealed that Springfield's city hall is actually copied from that of Chelmsford, Massachusetts. This however, could simply mean nothing. The bridge could be a coincidence, and Quimby may not have grown up in Springfield.
In the episode " Mother Simpson ", Homer discovers that the tombstone he always thought belonged to his mother actually belongs to Walt Whitman (causing Homer to pummel said tombstone and curse "Leaves of Grass, my ass!"). Walt Whitman is buried in Harleigh Cemetery, Camden, New Jersey.
In the episode " Bart the Fink ", when Bart questions the local bankers about the check he gave to Krusty, a phone call is made to New York at 2:01 PM, then to Cayman Islands at 2:02 PM. Afterwards, a fax is made to Washington D.C at 2:03 PM, and Krusty is arrested in Springfield at 2:04 PM. The first three places are all in UTC-5 time zone when the Northern Hemisphere is in winter, when the episode was first aired. And assuming the sequence of events is meant to show how quickly the authority reacts to tax evasion, that would put Springfield in the North American Eastern Time Zone.
In the episode " Lisa the Iconoclast ", it is revealed that settlers founded Springfield in 1796, which was before the Louisiana Purchase. Therefore, Springfield must be east of the Mississippi River.
In the episode " Poppa's Got a Brand New Badge ", the character Fat Tony drives into downtown Springfield past a highway identification sign that very closely resembles United States Interstate signs, and bears the route number 95. The real I-95 is a major north-south route along the east coast of the United States. It should be noted however, that this was a parody of The Sopranos, which takes place in New Jersey, through which I-95 runs. However, The Simpsons cannot take place in New Jersey, as Homer and Bart must drive extensively to reach the Edison National Historic Site. In the episode " Old Yeller-Belly ", the Amish build a treehouse for the Simpsons, indicating that Springfield is in either Ohio or Pennsylvania. Also, Milhouse's mother mentions Mechanicsburg; there is a Mechanicsburg in both Ohio and Pennsylvania.
There is a Springfield in Virginia through which I-95 runs; while there is no Mechanicsburg in Virginia, there are four communities named Mechanicsville.
In the episode "Bart of War", a Mohican says his tribe's land stretched from " Krusty Burger to Gary's Waterbed Warehouse " while he indicated parts of Springfield.
In one episode, "Bart's Comet", a comet is threatening to strike Springfield. Professor Frink devises a plan in which a rocket is fired at the comet. The rocket is shown being launched from the Springfield Armory , which was established in Springfield, Massachusetts during the Revolutionary War, and still exists as a historical museum.
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By the Sleepy Lagoon is the title tune to which famous radio programme? | The lagoon show | Comment | The Observer
The Observer Profile
The lagoon show
Sixty years ago this week, the beguiling tones of 'By The Sleepy Lagoon' launched an institution. Since then, the great, the good and some Prime Ministers have let it lull them into a gentle confessional: Desert Island Discs
Sue Arnold
The Observer
Bognor, as far as we know, is famous for two things - George V's dying words 'Bugger Bognor' and 'By The Sleepy Lagoon', the signature tune of Desert Island Discs, radio's favourite and longest-running entertainment programme, inspired by a view from that less than glamorous seaside town.
Two seconds into the familiar melody - the combination of sweeping strings, seagulls and spray never fails - and you can feel the sand beneath your toes as you run towards the nearest palm tree where your pile of eight carefully chosen records waits, neatly stacked.
On Wednesday evening a line-up of famous castaways, both on stage and off, will celebrate the programme's sixtieth birthday at a gala evening in the Royal Festival Hall, London, introduced by Sue Lawley who has been the programme's presenter since 1988.
Apart from the additional choice of a luxury in 1951 and a book in 1958 (television chef Jamie Oliver said recently he'd skip the book because he didn't read) the format of the programme has remained unchanged since its creator, Roy Plomley, first presented it in 1942.
You can see why. It's simple, it's revealing, it's entertaining and it works. As the man said, if it ain't broke don't fix it. Over the years Desert Island Discs has taken its share of critical knocks and sustained the odd dent but it's always kept going. In 1994, when newsreader Trevor McDonald was invited to be on the show the Commission for Racial Equality cottoned on to the fact that, out of the many hundreds of guests who had been featured in the series, he was only the tenth non-white participant. The tally till then was five blacks (Shirley Bassey, Joan Armatrading, Dizzie Gillespie, Jesse Norman and Frank Bruno), and four Asians (Ravi Shankar, Salman Rushdie, Imran Khan and photographer Mohamed Amin).
Was this really representative of a liberal, non-racist society? the CRE complained. Several times during her stewardship Lawley has been criticised for being too intrusive and too political. Was it necessary, or indeed seemly, listeners protested, for her to elicit the confession from Chancellor Gordon Brown that he wasn't gay? It says much for Lawley's interviewing skills that she never actually asked him if he were.
There's more than one way of skinning a cat, and sympathetic charm is Lawley's way. The one time she lost the merest smidgen of her famously professional cool was when she was asking Sir Oswald Mosley's widow, Diana, Nazi sympathiser and personal friend of Adolf Hitler, about the holocaust. Lady Mosley had been describing at some length the extraordinary blueness of the Führer's eyes, which she had first noticed when they were staying at his home. But what about the six million Jews murdered by the Nazis, asked Lawley. 'Oh no, I don't think it was as many as that,' protested Lady Mosley. 'I know it was much, much less.' Pause, longish pause and then: 'Tell us about your fifth record, Lady Mosley.' It was a great radio moment.
Considering the kudos attached to being a Desert Island Discs guest, it isn't that difficult to qualify for that coveted slot in the hammock swinging between the two palm trees. Other radio interview programmes demand far more taxing criteria of their guests. Unless she publicly bludgeoned Lord Sainsbury to death with a rolling pin it's unlikely that Delia Smith would ever wind up In The Psychiatrist's Chair opposite Professor Anthony Clare, or On The Ropes with John Humphrys. And the chances of Sir Alex Ferguson being invited on to Radio 3's Private Passions to discuss his musical preferences with Michael Berkeley are remote. It's much easier to get on to DID; you don't even have to be famous, just good at something.
A lot of people have been invited not just once but twice, three times or even, as in comedian Arthur Askey's case, four times to reminisce about their lives and spin their eight discs. Do we really need three repeat performances of his acting career from John Mills or Peter Ustinov? You could be forgiven at times like these for thinking that the bottom of the talent barrel had been well and truly scraped.
Roy Plomley's talent was his ability to recognise how much a person's musical taste can accurately reveal about their character. The fact that he happened to be a radio presenter and this was the perfect vehicle for a radio programme was a bonus.
But Plomley was a little too eager to accommodate his guests, especially if they were royal or titled. You could almost hear him touching his forelock when he asked Princess Margaret if Her Royal Highness would care to explain why she had chosen that particular song by Herman's Hermits. HRH said that she'd heard it on the car radio one after noon when she was sitting in a traffic jam on her way home to Kensington Palace and had quite liked it. Fascinating, breathed Plomley, absolutely fascinating.
By rights, then, it should have been enjoyable when film director Otto Preminger was so rude to his host that most of his remarks had to be edited out. 'I see I am embarrassing you,' Preminger said, 'because your face has gone bright red and your bald head is sweating.' Plomley had the last laugh. All Preminger's music came from films he had directed and his choice of book was his own autobiography.
It wasn't Elizabeth Schwarzkopf who asked for a mirror - her vanity came out in other ways: most of her records were acclaimed Schwarzkopf performances. Seven of Rex Harrison's records on the other hand were Benny Goodman tracks. 'I'm sorry about this,' he told Plomley, 'but I just love jazz.' His one non-Goodman track was Mozart. 'And if you could only take one, which would it be?' came the usual question. Mozart, said Harrison.
Numerous lists have been compiled over the years about the castaways' preferred composers, singers, books and luxuries. Taken en masse they're pretty unadventurous. The last movement of Beethoven's Ninth, 'The Ode to Joy', has been top of the classical pops for yonks followed closely by the adagio from Schubert's C-Major quintet (Nazi chief Reinhard Heydrich's favourite piece of music) and a clutch of concertos - Mozart's clarinet, Bruch's violin, Elgar's cello - which are not that much different from Classic FM's easy breakfast play-list.
The Beatles topped the pop chart. Everyone regardless of their age remembers growing up with a particular Beatles song. Here's a surprise: Paul McCartney, DID's fortieth birthday guest, asked for a guitar as his luxury.
It's the individual musical choices and combinations that say so much about the guests. Arthur Scargill wasn't a bully, he was a sentimental old teddy-bear - look at his music, the 'Chorus of Hebrew Slaves' followed by Elvis singing 'Old Shep', a lament to his sheepdog.
With some notable exceptions the luxuries too are pretty conventional; typewriters, paintbrushes, computers, pianos (but not grand pianos insisted Plomley, playing strictly to the rules because you could use them as shelters), champagne, hot baths.
Sue Lawley as castaway asked for an iron, an ironing board and pure linen sheets. Russell Harty wanted a flagpole flying the Union Jack, Umberto Eco the New York telephone directory.
When the programme is finished the recording is taken down to the BBC sound archives, stripped of its music and the remaining minutes of relaxed, unguarded, at times down-right confessional, warts-and-all conversation is carefully filed under the guest's name. No other programme offers quite the same honest character assessment. That's Island magic for you.
Conceived: 3 November 1941 (first broadcast in 1942)
VIP guests: Royalty, the titled and five Prime Ministers
Odd luxuries: An inflatable doll for Oliver Reed; John Cleese wanted Michael Palin
Sixty years of Desert Island Discs
| Desert Island Discs |
Which film of 1990 features a character named Paul Sheldon, an author who is rescued and then tortured by a woman named Annie Wilkes? | Sleepylagoon.com | SiteGlimpse
Harry James A Sleepy Lagoon lyrics : SLEEPY LAGOON Harry James - words by Jack Lawrence, music by Eric Coates A sleepy lagoon, a tropical moon and two on an i...
http://www.elyrics.net/read/h/harry-james-lyrics/a-sleepy-lagoon-lyrics.html
SLeppy lagoon tattoo ANd piercing (SLEEPY LAGOON TATTOO)'s profile on Myspace, the leading social entertainment destination powered by the passion of our fans.
http://www.myspace.com/lascalaverasta2#!
The Sleepy Lagoon Case: Constitutional rights, and the struggle for democracy: A commemorative symposium, May 20-21, 2005, presented by the UCLA Chicano Studies ...
http://unitproj.library.ucla.edu/special/sleepylagoon/sleepylagoon.htm
List of images, photos, wallpapers, icon, illustrations about sleepy lagoon murder, collected from Google and Flickr.
http://images.mitrasites.com/sleepy-lagoon-murder.html
Sleepy Lagoon A sleepy lagoon A tropical moon and two on an island A sleepy lagoon And two hearts in tune In some lullaby land The fireflies gleam Reflect ...
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6TLQN14QgnI
Murder at the Sleepy Lagoon. The 38th Street Gang was located in what is now part of South Los Angeles near Vernon and Long Beach Boulevards. The gang, along with ...
http://research.pomona.edu/zootsuit/en/trial/
Sleepy Lagoon Hotel, Tin Can Bay, Fraser Coast/South Burnett rating, reviews and information. Sleepy Lagoon Hotel by the independent Australian Good Food Guide (est ...
http://www.agfg.com.au/guide/qld/fraser-coast-south-burnett/hervey-bay-surrounds/tin-can-bay/accommodation/sleepy-lagoon-hotel
Uploaded by tomcat096 on Feb 15, 2012 Sleepy Lagoon - TomCat by The Platter Category: Music Tags: Sleepy Lagoon TomCat by The Platter License: Standard ...
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9mMxZA5CBUE
A "Sleepy Lagoon" type scenario arising in Ceres, California. Brutal police retaliation against Mexican-American youths continues unabated by Ernesto Cienfuegos
http://www.aztlan.net/ceres_sleepy_lagoon.htm
A Kiss at daybreak & 15,029 other titles; musical compositions & recordings. (Part 071 of 078)
http://www.faqs.org/copyright/sleepy-lagoon-arr-for-hammond-organ-m-eric-coates-arr/
News Results
Board weeds through hedge issues
The issue most recently planted itself, once again, at Longboat Key Town Hall, in March, when Sleepy Lagoon resident Morris Kertzer attended a commission workshop to voice concerns about the height of his neighbor’s 12-foot bamboo plant, which wasn’t ...
Longboat Observer
Lincolnshire Philharmonia Orchestra to perform at RAF College Cranwell
Next comes Eric Coates' By the Sleepy Lagoon, most famous as the theme tune to Radio 4's Desert Island Discs, allegedly the Queen's favourite radio programme. The first half ends with the tone poem Tintagel, by Arnold Bax, a stirring depiction of the ...
Lincolnshire Echo
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