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The European port of Split lies in which body of water? | Map of Adriatic Sea - World Seas, Adriatic Sea Map Location Facts - World Atlas
Map of Adriatic Sea - World Seas, Adriatic Sea Map Location Facts
Adriatic Sea
The Adriatic Sea is a part of the Mediterranean Sea positioned between the eastern coastline of Italy, and countries of the Balkan Peninsula, from Slovenia, south through Croatia. Montenegro, and to Albania.
The southern boundary of the sea ends in the Strait of Otranto between Albania and Italy's Salento Peninsula. Immediately south of that strait the Ionian Sea begins.
The distance from Brindisi to Venice is 685 km (426 mi), and from Ancona to Split is 228 km (142 mi). The sea is about 805 km (500 mi) in length, with an estimated area of 135,250 sq km (52,220 sq mi).
Ancona, Bari, Brindisi, Dubrovnik, Rijeka, Split and Venice are its chief ports and the sea is well served by regional ferries.
| Adriatic Sea |
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.}}{\*\pnseclvl4\pnlcltr\pnstart1\pnindent720\pnhang{\pntxta )}} {\*\pnseclvl5\pndec\pnstart1\pnindent720\pnhang{\pntxtb (}{\pntxta )}}{\*\pnseclvl6\pnlcltr\pnstart1\pnindent720\pnhang{\pntxtb (}{\pntxta )}}{\*\pnseclvl7\pnlcrm\pnstart1\pnindent720\pnhang{\pntxtb (}{\pntxta )}}{\*\pnseclvl8 \pnlcltr\pnstart1\pnindent720\pnhang{\pntxtb (}{\pntxta )}}{\*\pnseclvl9\pnlcrm\pnstart1\pnindent720\pnhang{\pntxtb (}{\pntxta )}}\pard\plain \nowidctlpar\tqc\tx4680\adjustright \f16 { }{\b\fs33 \tab Chapter 1 \par \tab Europe}{\fs22 \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard\plain \s16\nowidctlpar\adjustright \b\f17\fs32 {Multiple Choice \par }\pard\plain \nowidctlpar\adjustright \f16 {\fs22 \par }\pard\plain \s16\nowidctlpar\adjustright \b\f17\fs32 {Defining the European Realm \par }\pard\plain \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 1.}{\b\fs22 \tab The following are statements describing the demographic and economic conditions which may be generally ascribed to the European Realm. Which one is inaccurate?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-381\li928\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. \tab Europe constitutes one of the great population clusters of the world. \par }\pard \fi547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *B. Levels of economic development in Europe decline from east to west. \par }\pard \fi-381\li928\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 C. \tab Europe's population is highly urbanized. \par D. \tab European agriculture is mainly market-oriented. \par E. \tab European economies are predominantly industrial. \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \~2.}{\b\fs22 \tab Europe\rquote s relative location:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-381\li928\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. \tab has proven inefficient for international trade \par B. \tab is one of inferior global accessibility \par C. \tab is disadvantaged by its proximity to the sea \par }\pard \fi547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *D. is one of centrality within the land hemisphere \par }\pard \fi-381\li928\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 E. \tab is disadvantaged by its closeness to Australia \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \~3.}{\b\fs22 \tab Continentality refers to:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. more extreme climates located inland \par }\pard \fi-381\li928\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 B. \tab processes that have led to continental drift \par C. \tab Devolution on the European continent \par D. \tab maritime forces that affect climates in the Central Uplands \par E. \tab climates located only in areas of A climates \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard\plain \s16\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \b\f17\fs32 {Landscapes and Opportunities \par }\pard\plain \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \~4.\tab }{\b\fs22 The major chain of mountains in Europe is referred to as the:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. Alpines\tab B. Apennines\tab C. Pyrenees \par D. Carpathians\tab E. Central Uplands \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \~5.\tab }{\b\fs22 Which of the following is not in the Western Uplands?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Sweden\tab *B. Switzerland\tab C. Scotland \par D. Ireland\tab E. Portugal \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \~6.}{\b\fs22 \tab The landform region predominating in the area to the north of the Alpine chain is the:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. Central Uplands\tab B. Western Uplands\tab C. North European Lowland \par D. Iberian Lowland\tab E. Great Divide \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par \sect }\sectd \sbknone\linex0\headery1440\footery1440\sectdefaultcl \pard\plain \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {\fs22 \~7.}{\b\fs22 \tab The North European Lowland}{\fs22 : \par }\pard \fi-443\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A.\tab contains the mountain ranges of the Alps\tab \par }\pard \fi547\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *B. is the most densely populated of Europe\rquote s landscape regions \par }\pard \fi-443\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 C.\tab does not include southeastern England \par D. \tab has historically functioned as a barrier to contact and communication due to its marshy conditions \par E.\tab contains the plains of Greece \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard\plain \s16\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \b\f17\fs32 {Europe\rquote s Premodern Heritage \par }\pard\plain \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \~8.\tab }{\b\fs22 Such things as roads, railroads and ports are best defined as:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi547\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. irredentism\tab B. centripetal forces\tab *C. infrastructure \par D. devolution forces\tab E. none of the above \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \~9.\tab }{\b\fs22 The geographic principle under which particular peoples and particular places concentrate on the production of particular goods is known as:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi547\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. spatial specialization\tab B. Balkanization\tab C. supranationalism \par D. irredentism\tab *E. areal functional specialization \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard\plain \s16\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \b\f17\fs32 {Decline and Rebirth \par }\pard\plain \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 10.\tab }{\b\fs22 The emergence of modern Europe after the Dark Ages is known as the:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi547\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Great Awakening\tab B. primate city theory\tab C. irredentism \par D. mercantalism\tab *E. Renaissance \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 11.}{\b\fs22 \tab Which of the following was not an objective of mercantilism?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi547\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. establishing Christianity throughout the world\tab \par }\pard \fi-443\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 B. \tab the rapid accumulation of gold and silver \par C. \tab acquisition of overseas colonies \par D. \tab developing international trading ties \par E. \tab all of the above were objectives of mercantilism \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard\plain \s16\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \b\f17\fs32 {The Revolutions of Modernizing Europe \par }\pard\plain \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 12.}{\b\fs22 \tab The innermost land use ring of the von Th\'fcnen Model contains:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-443\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. \tab the central business district of the city \par B. \tab ranching and animal products \par C. \tab a set of markets for grain crops \par *D.\tab intensive farming and dairying \par E. \tab extensive agriculture \par \sect }\sectd \linex0\headery1440\footery1440\sectdefaultcl \pard\plain \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {\fs22 13.}{\b\fs22 \tab Which of the following is not a feature of the original Isolated State Model?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi547\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. the need for constant territorial growth of producing areas \par }\pard \fi-443\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 B. \tab a concentric\_zone spatial pattern \par C. \tab a single, centrally\_located market \par D. \tab a surrounding wilderness across which no trade occurred \par E. \tab all are features of the Isolated State model \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 14.}{\b\fs22 \tab Von Th\'fcnen in his \ldblquote Isolated State\rdblquote argued that five belts of human activity would develop around the central town or city. The first (or nearest) of these is: }{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-443\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. \tab a belt of forest, still used for timber and firewood \par B. \tab a broad zone of increasingly extensive field crops \par C. \tab a zone of manufacturing and handcrafting \par }\pard \fi547\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *D. a zone of intensive agriculture and dairying \par }\pard \fi-443\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 E. \tab a belt in which ranching prevails and animal products are generated \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 15.\tab }{\b\fs22 The industrial revolution in Europe:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. \tab produced the first specialized industries anywhere in the region \par B. \tab caused a large immigration of workers from other parts of the world to fill the \par }\pard \fi990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 available jobs in the factories \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *C. initially was focused in England, where machinery was invented and the use of steam to drive engines emerged \par D. \tab gave enormous situational advantage to large cities such as London and Paris, \par }\pard \fi990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 positioned on coal fields and near iron ores \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 E.\tab confirmed the superior quality of European products, which were already beating inferior textiles and other wares from India and China before the Industrial Revolution even began \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 16.}{\b\fs22 \tab The economic geographer Alfred Weber is known for his contribution of:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. \tab an organic theory explaining the growth of states \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *B. a set of principles governing the location of industry \par }\pard \fi-990\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \tab C. \tab a model of commercial agricultural spatial organization \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 D. \tab a worldwide classification scheme of primate cities \par E. \tab a global climate regionalization scheme \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par 17.}{\b\fs22 Forces which concentrate particular industries in particular locations are:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. agglomerative\tab B. deglomerative\tab C. industrial inertia \par D. regional factors\tab E. none of the above \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 18.\tab }{\b\fs22 Europe\rquote s political revolution:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. began in the 1780s with the French Revolution \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 B. \tab ended with the formation of the German state in the 1870s \par C. \tab was stimulated by the new weaponry produced by the Industrial Revolution \par D. \tab originated as a reaction to the oppression of the Roman Empire \par E. \tab was an anticolonial rebellion that threw off Moorish and Ottoman yokes \par }\pard \sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par \sect }\sectd \linex0\headery1440\footery1440\sectdefaultcl \pard\plain \fi-624\li624\sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {\fs22 19.}{\b\fs22 \tab Which of the following events occurred within the ten years following the onset of the French}{\fs22 }{\b\fs22 Revolution (1789)?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. \tab the downfall of France's monarchy \par B. \tab the establishment of the French nation-state \par C. \tab the emergence of Napoleon as the leader of France \par }\pard \fi624\sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *D. all of the above \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 E. \tab the founding of Paris \par }\pard \sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 20.\tab }{\b\fs22 __________ forces tie a nation together.}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Irredentist\tab *B. Centripetal\tab C. Centrifugal \par D. Charismatic\tab E. none of the above \par }\pard \sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 21.\tab }{\b\fs22 __________ forces are divisive to a nation.}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Irredentist\tab B. Centripetal\tab *C. Centrifugal \par D. Charismatic\tab E. none of the above \par }\pard \sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 22.}{\b\fs22 \tab Which of the following is the strongest example of a European nation-state?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Bosnia\tab B. Northern Ireland\tab *C. Poland \par D. Belgium\tab E. Spain \par }\pard \sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard\plain \s16\sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \b\f17\fs32 {Contemporary Europe \par }\pard\plain \sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 23.}{\b\fs22 \tab Which of the following states is unilingual in that it possesses a single language spoken throughout}{\fs22 }{\b\fs22 its territory:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Switzerland\tab *B. Austria\tab C. Yugoslavia \par D. Belgium\tab E. United Kingdom \par }\pard \sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 24.\tab }{\b\fs22 Which of the following languages is not a Slavic language?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Russian\tab B. Ukrainian\tab C. Bulgarian \par D. Serbo-Croatian\tab *E. Romanian \par }\pard \sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 25.\tab }{\b\fs22 Complementarity deals with the fact that commodity flows between A and B depend upon:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \li624\sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. a surplus of a commodity at place A and a deficit of the commodity at place B \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 B. \tab the existence of transportation routes between A and B \par C. \tab supply at A and a transportation link to B \par D. \tab demand at B and a transportation link between A and B \par E. \tab none of the above \par }\pard \sl230\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 26.\tab }{\b\fs22 The spatial interaction principle of complementarity}{\fs22 : \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. \tab operates only in the presence of intervening opportunities \par B. \tab could not operate in Europe before World War II \par }\pard \li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *C. describes trade in which one area specifically needs the surplus commodity of another area \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 D. \tab refers to the ease with which a product may be shipped between two places \par E. \tab none of the above \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par \sect }\sectd \linex0\headery1440\footery1440\sectdefaultcl \pard\plain \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {\fs22 27.\tab }{\b\fs22 An example of an intervening opportunity is:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. Florida is an intervening opportunity for vacationers from New York considering a vacation \par }\pard \fi990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 in California \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 B. \tab Route I-95 between Miami and West Palm Beach represents an intervening opportunity \par C. \tab the movement of goods and people between place A and place B is an intervening \par }\pard \fi990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 opportunity \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 D. \tab California is an intervening opportunity for oranges being sent to New York \par E. \tab none of the above \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par 28. }{\b\fs22 The three principles of spatial interaction are:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. \tab complementarity, intervening opportunity, Balkanization \par B. \tab complementarity, intervening opportunity, irredentism \par C.\~\tab complementarity, intervening opportunity, transferability \par D.\~\tab centripetal forces, intervening opportunity, Balkanization \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *E.\~none of the above \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 29.\tab }{\b\fs22 Which of the following is not a relatively recent example of European transportation improvements?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-5707\li6331\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. English Channel tunnel\tab B. high speed rail links\tab *C. magnetic levitation trains \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 D. tunnels through the Alps\tab E. a major interstate system similar to the US system \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 30.}{\b\fs22 \tab A country's leading urban center, disproportionately large and exceptionally expressive of national}{\fs22 }{\b\fs22 feelings, such as Paris is to France, is known as the country\rquote s:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. capital city\tab *B. primate city\tab C. nodal point \par D. functional region\tab E. central place \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 31.\tab }{\b\fs22 Which of the following capital cities is not a primate city?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Paris \tab B. Lisbon\tab C. Athens \par *D. Bern \tab E. Vienna \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 32.\tab }{\b\fs22 The downtown area of a city is known as the:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. primate area\tab B. central area\tab C. levitation \par *D. Central Business District \tab E. core area \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 33.}{\b\fs22 \tab The process whereby regions within a state demand and gain political strength and growing autonomy is known as:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. devolution\tab B. irredentism\tab C. conurbation \par D. supranationalism\tab E. CBD \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 34.}{\b\fs22 \tab Which of the following is not an area of previous or potential devolution? }{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. southern Sweden\tab B. Belgium\tab C. Czechoslovakia \par D. Yugoslavia\tab E. Scotland \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par \sect }\sectd \linex0\headery1440\footery1440\sectdefaultcl \pard\plain \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {\fs22 35.}{\b\fs22 \tab Which of the following is not one of the four Motors of Europe?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. Tirane (Albania)\tab B. Milan\tab C. Stuttgart \par D. Barcelona\tab E. Lyon \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 36.\tab }{\b\fs22 A Euroregion:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. \tab is made up of three or more European countries \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *B. is a formal territorial entity straddling one of Europe\rquote s traditional international boundaries \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 C. \tab is the area around the CBD of a European city \par D. \tab is like NATO, but without the political overtones \par E. \tab is not at all like Ohmae\rquote s regional state \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 37.}{\b\fs22 \tab The US plan to aid Europe after World War II was known as the _______ Plan.}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Benelux\tab B. Development\tab C. Common Market \par D. European Parliament\tab *E. Marshall \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 38.}{\b\fs22 \tab Which of the following is not an example of European supranationalism?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Benelux\tab B. COMECON\tab C. the Common Market \par D. the European Parliament\tab *E. the solidarity labor movement \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 39.\tab }{\b\fs22 The voluntary association of three or more countries is known as:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. devolution\tab B. irredentism\tab C. conurbation \par *D. supranationalism\tab E. CBD \par \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 40.\tab }{\b\fs22 European supranationalism all began with:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. EFTA\tab *B. Benelux\tab C. the Council of Europe \par D. NATO\tab E. the European Union \par }\pard \fi990\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 41.\tab }{\b\fs22 The major competition to the original European Common Market was:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-2773\li3397\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Benelux\tab *B. EFTA\tab C. the Council of Europe \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 D. NATO\tab E. the European Union \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par 42. }{\b\fs22 The major factor keeping Eastern European countries out of the European Union is:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. under the rules of the EU, richer countries must subsidize poorer countries \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 B.\tab Western Europeans still hold a grudge against Eastern Europeans \par C. \tab Turkey has been promised admission before the Eastern European states and Greece objects \par }\pard \fi990\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 to the admission of Turkey \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 D. \tab all Eastern European countries have unstable governments \par E. \tab none of the above are major factors \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 43.\tab }{\b\fs22 The Common Market evolved into the European Community. It is being replaced by:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. the European Union\tab B. NATO\tab C. Benelux \par D. EFTA\tab E. none of the above \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 44.\tab }{\b\fs22 The Treaty on European Unity was signed at:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Berlin\tab B. London\tab C. Paris \par D. Geneva\tab *E. Maastricht \par \sect }\sectd \sbknone\linex0\headery1440\footery1440\sectdefaultcl \pard\plain \s16\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \b\f17\fs32 {Western Europe \par }\pard\plain \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 45.\tab }{\b\fs22 A country that was divided into two political units after World War II was:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. United Kingdom\tab B. Italy\tab *C. Germany \par D. Austria\tab E. Greece \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 46.\tab }{\b\fs22 _______ dominates Western Europe demographically and economically.}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. France\tab B. Belgium\tab C. Austria\tab *D. Germany\tab E. Switzerland \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 47.\tab }{\b\fs22 Which of the following is not a historically German industrial area?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. The Ruhr\tab B. Saxony\tab C. Silesia \par *D. Po River Basin\tab E. All of the above are German industrial areas \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 48.\tab }{\b\fs22 The Ruhr industrial complex is linked via the Rhine River to:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Genoa\tab B. Paris\tab C. Brussels \par *D. Rotterdam\tab E. Dammit \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 49.\tab }{\b\fs22 Most foreign workers in Germany are of _________origin.}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Bulgarian\tab B. Dutch\tab C. Danish \par *D. Turkish\tab E. Austrian \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 50.\tab }{\b\fs22 The major river in Germany, which enters the North Sea through the Netherlands and which passes through the Ruhr is the: \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. Rhine\tab B. Danube\tab C. Loire \par D. Thames\tab E. Seine \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par 51.\tab }{\b\fs22 Germany is divided into subdistricts called:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. landers\tab B. states\tab C. provinces \par D. Ruhrs\tab E. departments \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par 52.}{\b\fs22 \tab The current population of Germany is in excess of:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. 100 million\tab B. 10 million\tab C. 200 million \par *D. 80 million\tab E. none of the above \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 53.}{\b\fs22 \tab A city in Germany benefitting from the restoration of its hinterland as a result of the reunification of Germany is:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Berlin\tab *B. Hamburg\tab C. Lander \par D. Saar\tab E. Bonn \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par 54. }{\b\fs22 \tab German reunification:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. occurred in 1990 \par B. has led to a country with 16 lander \par C. made the Poles uneasy because of the territory Germany lost to Poland after WW II \par D. made the UK and France uneasy because of German economic power \par *E. all of the above are true \par \sect }\sectd \sbknone\linex0\headery1440\footery1440\sectdefaultcl \pard\plain \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {\fs22 55. }{\b\fs22 \tab German reunification:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. \tab united Wessies with Ossies \par B. \tab united the East\rquote s 17 million population with that in the West \par C. \tab has led to some problems as some westerners have resented additional taxes to help the East \par D. \tab has yet to bring the standard of living in the East to the levels in the West \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *E. all of the above are true \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 56.}{\b\fs22 \tab The only European country with coastlines on the Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, and the}{\fs22 }{\b\fs22 North Sea is:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Portugal\tab B. Austria\tab C. Spain \par *D. France\tab E. none of the above \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par 57. }{\b\fs22 \tab Which of the following statements is false?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. \tab Germany is larger territorially than France. \par B. \tab Germany has a better river system than France. \par C. \tab Germany is more industrialized than France. \par D. \tab Germany is more urbanized than France. \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *E. France has better harbors than does Germany. \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 58.\tab }{\b\fs22 France is divided into regions called:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. landers\tab B. states\tab C. provinces \par D. Ruhrs\tab *E. regions \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 59.}{\b\fs22 \tab Which of the following rivers does not flow through French territory?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. the Rhine\tab *B. the Danube\tab C. the Loire \par D. the Rh\'f4ne\tab E. all of the above flow through French territory \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 60.\tab }{\b\fs22 Which of the following statements is true?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. \tab Paris initially benefitted from an excellent site. \par B. \tab Paris initially benefitted from an excellent situation. \par C. \tab The site of Paris is far inferior to that of any other French city. \par D. \tab Situation refers to the physical attributes of a place. \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *E. A and B are true \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 61.\tab }{\b\fs22 Which of the following is not a major French industry?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-5707\li6331\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Wine\tab B. Cheese\tab C. Fashion \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 D. High Tech\tab *E. Aluminum \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 62.\tab }{\b\fs22 _______ is a country which has continued to maintain a network of colonies and to take an intense interest in former colonies.}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Germany\tab *B. France\tab C. Belgium \par D. Denmark\tab E. Switzerland \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par \sect }\sectd \linex0\headery1440\footery1440\sectdefaultcl \pard\plain \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {\fs22 63.}{\b\fs22 \tab Benelux refers to}{\fs22 : \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. a region south of Transylvania \par *B. the Low Countries of Western Europe\tab C. a region in central England \par D. the northern sections of Australia\tab E. southern Greece \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 64.}{\b\fs22 \tab Which of the following countries is not a signatory of the Benelux Agreement?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Netherlands\tab B. Belgium\tab *C. Liechtenstein \par D. Luxembourg\tab E. all are signatories \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 65.}{\b\fs22 \tab The administrative headquarters for the European Union and NATO is}{\fs22 : \par }\pard \li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Geneva\tab B. Paris\tab *C. Brussels \par D. Strasbourg\tab E. Auckland \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 66.\tab }{\b\fs22 Lands reclaimed from the sea are known as:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. beneluxes\tab B. Netherlands\tab *C. polders \par D. flat lands\tab E. islands \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 67.\tab }{\b\fs22 The Randstad is comprised of:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-5707\li6331\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and The Hague\tab \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 B. \tab Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and Brussels \par C. \tab Holland, Rotterdam, and The Hague \par D. \tab Amsterdam, Belgium, and The Hague \par E. \tab none of the above \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 68.\tab }{\b\fs22 Europe\rquote s busiest port, the shipping gateway for the Rhine and the Meuse Rivers is:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Amsterdam\tab *B. Rotterdam\tab C. Randstad \par D. London\tab E. Berlin \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 69.\tab }{\b\fs22 Which of the following European countries is landlocked?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. Switzerland\tab B. Croatia\tab C. Albania \par D. Belgium\tab E. Spain \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 70.\tab }{\b\fs22 Which of the following statements is false?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. \tab Switzerland is a multilingual country. \par B. \tab Austria is a unilingual country. \par C. \tab The physical geography of Europe is marked by sharp diversity with respect to climate, \par \tab topography, and soils. \par }\pard \li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *D. Europe may be delineated as a region due to its cultural homogeneity. \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 E. \tab Switzerland is located in the Alps. \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 71.\tab }{\b\fs22 Which of the following statements is false?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. Austria is multilingual and Switzerland is unilingual. \par B. Austria has more flatland than Switzerland. \par C. Austria is 85 percent Catholic, Switzerland is half Protestant. \par D. Austria has a better raw material base than Switzerland. \par E. All of the above are true. \par \sect }\sectd \sbknone\linex0\headery1440\footery1440\sectdefaultcl \pard\plain \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {\fs22 72.\tab }{\b\fs22 The European country that has purp orted to practice strict neutrality is:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Germany\tab B. Austria\tab C. Finland \par *D. Switzerland\tab E. Belgium \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 73.\tab }{\b\fs22 The easternmost city of Western Europe is:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Prague\tab B. Geneva\tab C. Warsaw \par *D. Vienna\tab E. Bonn \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 74.\tab }{\b\fs22 The only Western European state that is not a member of the European Union is}{\fs22 : \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Austria\tab B. England\tab C. Spain \par *D. Switzerland\tab E. Belgium \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard\plain \s16\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \b\f17\fs32 {The British Isles \par }\pard\plain \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {\fs22 \par 75.}{\b\fs22 \tab Which of the following is not a portion of the United Kingdom?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. Republic of Ireland\tab B. England\tab C. Scotland \par D. Wales\tab E. all are part of the UK \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par 76.}{\b\fs22 \tab The United Kingdom was often protected from European wars by the:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. English Channel\tab B. North Sea\tab C. Baltic Sea \par D. French Canyon\tab E. Irish army \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 77.}{\b\fs22 \tab Significant oil and natural gas supplies have been found beneath the:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Baltic Sea\tab B. Gulf of Finland\tab *C. North Sea \par D. Adriatic Sea\tab E. none of the above \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 78.}{\b\fs22 \tab In Scotland:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. \tab oil and gas have become major industries\tab \par }\pard \fi-5707\li6331\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 B. \tab a feeling of nationalism is developing\tab \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 C. \tab an important shipbuilding industry exists \par D. \tab there are about 5 million people \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *E. all of the above \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 79.\tab }{\b\fs22 Which of the following is not a region of the United Kingdom?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Affluent Southern England\tab B. Stagnant Northern England \par C. Northern Ireland\tab D. Wales \tab *E. Ireland \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 80.\tab }{\b\fs22 The must rugged part of the United Kingdom is:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Southern England\tab B. Northern England \par C. Northern Ireland\tab *D. Wales \tab E. Great Britain \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 81.\tab }{\b\fs22 An important coal mining area that has been ravaged by strip mines is}{\fs22 : \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. France\tab B. Scotland\tab C. Northern Ireland\tab *D. Wales \tab E. England \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par \sect }\sectd \sbknone\linex0\headery1440\footery1440\sectdefaultcl \pard\plain \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {\fs22 82.\tab }{\b\fs22 The major conurbation of London lies within which of the following regions?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. Affluent Southern England\tab B. Stagnant Northern England \par }\pard \fi-5707\li6331\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 C. Scotland\tab \tab D. Wales \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 E. London lies on the border between the North and the South \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 83.\tab }{\b\fs22 More than half of the population of Northern Ireland trace their ancestry to:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. Scotland or England\tab B. Wales or London\tab C. Northern France \par D. Brittany\tab E. London \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 84.\tab }{\b\fs22 The population of Northern Ireland:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. is overwhelmingly Catholic\tab \par B. is made up of refugees from Wales\tab *C. is dominated by Protestants \par D. are all members of the Irish Republican Army\tab E. none of the above \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 85.\tab }{\b\fs22 A European country that has declined in population over the past centuries is:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. Ireland\tab B. England\tab C. France \par D. Germany\tab E. Iceland \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 86.\tab }{\b\fs22 As of 1998, the situation in Northern Ireland between Catholics and Protestants:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. was rapidly deteriorating \par *B. had reached the point where an agreement to end the conflict had been negotiated\tab C. had not changed in character since the early 1950s \par D. was solved via union with the Republic of Ireland \par E. was solved by the partition of the country \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 87.\tab }{\b\fs22 The decline in population in the Republic of Ireland is in part due to:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. the potato famine\tab B. economic decline\tab C. social conservativism \par D. terrorist activity \tab E. all but D above \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard\plain \s16\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \b\f17\fs32 {Northern (Nordic) Europe \par }\pard\plain \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {\b\f17\fs28 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 88.\tab }{\b\fs22 Norden:}{\fs22 \par {\listtext\pard\plain\s17 \f16 \hich\af16\dbch\af0\loch\f16 1.\tab}}\pard\plain \s17\fi-366\li990\sl235\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\jclisttab\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\ls1\outlinelevel0\adjustright \f16 { is comprised of the Scandinavian countries, Norway, Denmark, and Sweden \par }\pard\plain \fi624\sl235\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {*B. has a largely inhospitable northern climate \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\sl235\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {C. \tab is entirely separated by water from the rest of Europe \par D. \tab is the least developed region of Europe, due to its peripheral location \par E. \tab has always been able to exploit abundant natural resources \par }\pard \sl235\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright { \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl235\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {89.\tab }{\b Which of the following is not a Nordic country?}{ \par }\pard \fi624\sl235\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {*A. Malta\tab B. Norway\tab C. Finland \par D. Estonia\tab E. Iceland \par }\pard \sl235\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright { \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl235\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {90.\tab }{\b All of the following help to unite some of the Norden countries except:}{ \par }\pard \fi624\sl235\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {*A. Catholicism \tab B. language\tab C. democratic traditions \par D. a respect for individual rights\tab E. the Lutheran church \par }\pard \sl235\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright { \par \sect }\sectd \sbknone\linex0\headery1440\footery1440\sectdefaultcl \pard\plain \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {91.\tab }{\b An economic activity that is important in Norway, Sweden, and Finland is: }{ \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {*A. forestry\tab B. computer programming\tab C. steel production \par D. aluminum\tab E. banking \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright { \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {92.\tab }{\b Fjords are associated with which of the following countries?}{ \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {*A. Norway\tab B. Sweden\tab C. Denmark \par D. Estonia\tab E. Switzerland \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright { \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {93.\tab }{\b The Northern European country that has benefitted the most from North Sea oil is:}{ \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {A. Denmark\tab *B. Norway\tab C. Iceland \par D. Estonia\tab E. Sweden \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright { \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {94.\tab }{\b The country located on the Jutland Peninsula and the smallest state (in area) in Norden is}{: \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {A. Sweden \tab B. Norway\tab C. Estonia \par D. Iceland \tab *E. Denmark \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright { \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {95.\tab }{\b Copenhagen serves as:}{ \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {A. the capital of Denmark\tab B. a break-of-bulk point\tab C. an entrep\'f4t \par D. the Baltics\rquote leading port\tab *E. all of the above \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright { \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {96.\tab }{\b Which country has the best agricultural economy?}{ \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {A. Sweden \tab B. Norway\tab C. Estonia \par D. Iceland \tab *E. Denmark \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright { \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {97.\tab }{\b Which Norden city serves as a break of bulk, or entrep\'f4t, city?}{ \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {A. Stockholm\tab *B. Copenhagen\tab C. Oslo \par D. Reykjavik\tab E. Baltic City \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright { \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {98.\tab }{\b Finland lost significant territories to:}{ \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {A. Finland\tab *B. Russia\tab C. Denmark \par D. Norway\tab E. Belarus \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright { \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {99.}{\b \tab ___________ has more in common with Finland than the other two Baltic states and is thus included as part of Northern Europe.}{ \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {*A. Estonia\tab B. Latvia\tab C. Lithuania \par D. Sweden\tab E. Belarus \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright { \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {100.\tab }{\b Estonia was, at one time, part of the Kingdom of:}{ \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {A. Finland\tab *B. Sweden\tab C. Denmark \par D. Norway\tab E. Belarus \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright { \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {101.\tab }{\b This former Soviet Republic is small in terms of population size, speaks a language related to Finnish, and is about 30 percent Russian:}{ \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {A. Belorussia\tab B. Moldova\tab C. Kaliningrad \par *D. Estonia\tab E. Latvia \par \sect }\sectd \sbknone\linex0\headery1440\footery1440\sectdefaultcl \pard\plain \fi-624\li624\sl235\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {102.\tab }{\b Iceland\rquote s chief economic activity is:}{ \par }\pard \fi624\sl235\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {A. forestry\tab B. cold drinks\tab *C. fishing \par D. high technology\tab E. none of the above \par }\pard \sl235\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright { \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl235\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {103.\tab }{\b The Norden country with the lowest population is:}{ \par }\pard \fi624\sl235\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {A. Estonia\tab B. Denmark\tab *C. Iceland \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {D. Sweden\tab E. Malta}{\b\f17\fs28 \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\b\f17\fs28 \par }\pard\plain \s16\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \b\f17\fs32 {Mediterranean Europe \par }\pard\plain \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 104.}{\b\fs22 \tab The Iberian Peninsula is isolated from the rest of Europe by which mountain chain?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. Pyrenees\tab B. Alps\tab C. Apennines \par D. Appalachians\tab E. Transylvanian Alps \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 105.\tab }{\b\fs22 The most spatially discontinuous of the European regions is:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. British Isles\tab *B. Mediterranean Europe\tab C. Eastern Europe \par D. Western Europe\tab E. Northern Europe \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 106.\tab }{\b\fs22 The Mediterranean European country with the lowest percentage living in urban areas is:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Spain\tab *B. Portugal\tab C. Malta \par D. Italy\tab E. Greece \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 107.}{\b\fs22 \tab The Tyrrhenian Sea lies between:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-5707\li6331\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. Sardinia and Italy\tab B. Italy and Croatia\tab C. Greece and Turkey \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 D. Spain and France\tab E. Poland and Russia \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 108.}{\b\fs22 \tab Italy\rquote s economic core, no longer focused on Rome, is located today in:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Romania\tab *B. Po River Valley\tab C. the Indus River Valley \par D. Greece\tab E. the Alpine chain \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 109.\tab }{\b\fs22 Which of the following cities is located in Italy\rquote s core area?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. Milan-Turin-Genoa \tab B. Rome\tab C. Barcelona \par D. Naples \tab E. Catalonia \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 110.\tab }{\b\fs22 Southern Italy is known as the:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. Mezzogiorno \tab B. Sicily\tab C. Milan \par D. Ancona\tab E. Lombardy \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par 111. }{\b\fs22 Which country has the greatest potential for hydroelectric power?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. the Netherlands\tab B. Ireland\tab C. Denmark \par *D. Italy\tab E. Belgium \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par 112. }{\b\fs22 Northern and Southern Italy are divided by the:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Alps\tab B. Apennines\tab C. Po River \par *D. Anacona Line\tab E. Pasta Mountains \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par \sect }\sectd \sbknone\linex0\headery1440\footery1440\sectdefaultcl \pard\plain \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {\fs22 113. }{\b\fs22 The southern part of Italy is to be helped by the discovery of:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. gold\tab B. uranium\tab C. silver \par *D. oil\tab E. pasta \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 114. }{\b\fs22 The Autonomous Community in eastern Spain just south of the Pyrenees Mountains \tab centered on industrialized Barcelona is known as:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Silesia\tab B. Galicia\tab *C. Catalonia \par D. Lombardy\tab E. Portugal \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par 115. }{\b\fs22 Spain is subdivided into subunits called:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Departments\tab B. Provinces\tab *C. Autonomous Communities \par D. Spaniards\tab E. States \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par 116. }{\b\fs22 An ethnic minority in northeastern Spain that has a separatist movement is the}{\fs22 : \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Catalonians\tab B. Castillians\tab *C. Basque \par D. Vulcans\tab E. Portuguese \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par 117. }{\b\fs22 Spain\rquote s leading industrial area is known as:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Basque\tab B. Madrid Province\tab C. the Pyrenees \par *D. Catalonia\tab E. Arroz con Pollo \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par 118. }{\b\fs22 Spain\rquote s major industries include:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. wine production\tab B. sugar cane\tab C. coconut oil \par D. tourism\tab *E. A and D above \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par 119. }{\b\fs22 ____ on the Iberian peninsula is one of Europe\rquote s poorer countries}{\fs22 . \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Germany\tab B. Italy\tab C. Spain \par D. Denmark \tab *E. Portugal \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par 120. }{\b\fs22 The largest Greek island is:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. Crete\tab B. Cyprus\tab C. Athens \par D. Sicily\tab E. Sardinia \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 121. }{\b\fs22 This country was one of the cradles of western civilization and has had many \tab conflicts with Turkey.}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. Greece\tab B. Italy\tab C. Bulgaria \par D. Romania\tab E. Macedonia \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par 122. }{\b\fs22 The capital and primate city of Greece is}{\fs22 : \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. Athens\tab B. Crete\tab C. Cyclades \par D. Cyprus\tab E. Macedonia \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par 123. }{\b\fs22 The Acropolis is found in which of the following countries?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. Greece\tab B. Italy\tab C. Bulgaria \par D. Romania\tab E. Macedonia \par \sect }\sectd \sbknone\linex0\headery1440\footery1440\sectdefaultcl \pard\plain \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {\fs22 124. }{\b\fs22 The island contested between Greece and Turkey is:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. Cyprus\tab B. Crete\tab C. Malta \par D. Sicily\tab E. Macedonia \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard\plain \s16\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \b\f17\fs32 {Eastern Europe \par }\pard\plain \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 125.\tab }{\b\fs22 The European region that has undergone the greatest political changes in the past five years is:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. Eastern Europe\tab B. Western Europe\tab C. The British Isles \par D. Nordic Europe\tab E. Mediterranean Europe \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 126.}{\b\fs22 \tab Your textbook identifies Eastern Europe as a zone of politico-geographical splintering and fracturing, called a:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Irredentist region\tab B. hinterland\tab *C. shatter belt \par D. Balkan\tab E. heartland region \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 127.}{\b\fs22 \tab The term \ldblquote Balkanization\rdblquote refers to:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. \tab a peculiar language spoken in Bulgaria\tab \par B. \tab the landmass located just north of Italy \par C. \tab a rift in the Serbian plain \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *D. the division and fragmentation of the Eastern Europe region \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 E. \tab the imposition of the Slavic religion \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 128.\tab }{\b\fs22 Which of the following is not a Baltic republic?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Latvia\tab B. Lithuania\tab C. Estonia \par *D. Moldova\tab E. All of the above are Baltic republics. \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par 129. }{\b\fs22 The Danube River empties into the:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Adriatic Sea\tab B. Mediterranean Sea\tab C. Caspian Sea \par *D. Black Sea\tab E. Black Forest \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par 130. }{\b\fs22 From the end of World War II until the 1990s, Eastern Europe was dominated by the:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Ottomans\tab B. Hapsburgs\tab C. Lithuanians \par *D. U.S.S.R.\tab E. Poles \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par 131. Which of the following was a Serbian dominated state established after World War I? \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Serbia\tab B. Bosnia\tab C. Macedonia \par *D. Yugoslavia\tab E. All of the above were established after World War I \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par 132. }{\b\fs22 Which of the following is not a state created in the mid-1990s?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Bosnia\tab B. Slovakia\tab C. Slovenia \par *D. Poland\tab E. Croatia \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par 133. }{\b\fs22 The leading manufacturing/industrial complex in Poland is located in}{\fs22 : \par }\pard \fi624\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Gdansk\tab B. Warsaw\tab C. Slovenia \par *D. Silesia\tab E. The Ukraine \par \sect }\sectd \sbknone\linex0\headery1440\footery1440\sectdefaultcl \pard\plain \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {\fs22 134. }{\b\fs22 The capital and leading city in Poland is:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-5707\li6331\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Danzig\tab B. Gdansk\tab C. Krakow \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *D. Warsaw\tab E. Polandia \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 135.\tab }{\b\fs22 Traditionally, Poland was:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. an agrarian country\tab \tab B. an industrialized country \par C. a major source of raw materials\tab D. a service-based economy \par E. ethnically diverse \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 136.}{\b\fs22 \tab Which of the following countries is almost entirely Roman Catholic?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Estonia\tab B. Albania\tab *C. Poland \par D. England\tab E. Sweden \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 137.}{\b\fs22 \tab The country at odds with the Russians over access of the Russian military to its territory is:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Austria\tab B. Italy\tab *C. Lithuania \par D. England\tab E. Danube \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 138.}{\b\fs22 \tab The country which lost Kaliningrad to the Soviets was:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Austria\tab B. Italy\tab *C. Lithuania \par D. England\tab E. Danube \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par 139. }{\b\fs22 The Russian exclave between Lithuania and Poland is: }{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-5707\li6331\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. Kaliningrad\tab B. Latvia\tab C. Belarus \par }\pard \fi-2773\li3397\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 D. Balkan\tab E. None of the above \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 140.\tab }{\b\fs22 This former Soviet Republic, with its capital at Riga, is located on the Baltic Sea, and, although there are strong nationalist feelings, about 33 percent of the population is Russian.}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Belarus\tab B. Moldova\tab *C. Latvia \par D. Estonia\tab E. Kirghizia \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 141.}{\b\fs22 \tab The former Soviet Republic that took the brunt of the impact of World War II is:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Latvia\tab B. Moldova\tab *C. Belarus \par D. Ukraine\tab E. Kazakh \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 142.\tab }{\b\fs22 This former Soviet Republic, with its capital at Mensk, is also called White Russia, and is still strongly linked to Moscow.}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. Belarus\tab B. Lithuania\tab C. Georgia \par D. Estonia\tab E. Ukraine \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 143.}{\b\fs22 \tab The so-called Prague Spring took place in which Eastern European country?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Belarus\tab *B. Czech Republic\tab C. Hungary \par D. Moldova\tab E. Yugoslavia \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par \sect }\sectd \linex0\headery1440\footery1440\sectdefaultcl \pard\plain \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {\fs22 144.\tab }{\b\fs22 The three regions of former Czechoslovakia were:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. Bohemia, Moravia, Slovakia \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 B. \tab Bohemia, Slovenia, and Croatia \par C. \tab Belarus, Irrendentia, Slovakia \par D. \tab Czechia, Slovakia, and Bohemia \par E. \tab Prague, Silesia, Moravia \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 145.}{\b\fs22 \tab Which Eastern European country has led the region in technology and engineering skills?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Belarus\tab *B. Czech Republic\tab C. Slovakia \par D. Moldova\tab E. Bosnia \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 146.}{\b\fs22 \tab Which of the following countries devolved with war?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Bosnia\tab B. Czechoslovakia\tab *C. Yugoslavia \par D. Moldova\tab E. Slovenia \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 147.}{\b\fs22 \tab Slovakia has a large _______ minority. }{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Czech\tab *B. Hungarian\tab C. Serbian \par D. Moldovan\tab E. Jewish \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 148.}{\b\fs22 \tab When a state seeks to acquire the ethnically similar people and territory on the other side of its boundary by}{\fs22 }{\b\fs22 appealing to a concentrated group, this action is termed}{\fs22 : \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. irradiation\tab B. irrational\tab C. interference \par *D. irredentism\tab E. irresponsible \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 149.\tab }{\b\fs22 The most linguistically-distinctive country in Eastern Europe is:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Belarus\tab *B. Hungary\tab C. Moldova \par D. Poland\tab E. Russia \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 150.}{\b\fs22 \tab The home of the Magyars is:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Britain\tab B. Spain\tab *C. Hungary \par D. Greece\tab E. Magyarstan \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 151.}{\b\fs22 \tab _____ is the only net food exporter in Eastern Europe.}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Britain\tab B. Spain\tab *C. Hungary \par D. Greece\tab E. Magyarstan \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 152.\tab }{\b\fs22 The former Yugoslavian Republic that is closest to Italy is:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Slovakia\tab *B. Slovenia\tab C. Serbia \par D. Macedonia\tab E. Bosnia \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 153.\tab }{\b\fs22 The three major ethnic groups in former Yugoslavia were:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-5707\li6331\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Czechs, Slovaks, and Bohemians\tab *B. Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 C. Macedonians, Slovaks, and Albanians\tab D. Yugos, Slavs, and Croats \par E. Hungarians, Moldovans, and Bosnians \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par \sect }\sectd \sbknone\linex0\headery1440\footery1440\sectdefaultcl \pard\plain \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {\fs22 154.\tab }{\b\fs22 For many years, Yugoslavia was held together by a Croatian war hero named:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Walesa\tab B. Marshall\tab C. Belgrade \par *D. Tito\tab E. Kosovo \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 155.\tab }{\b\fs22 Which of the following is not a state created by the devolution of former Yugoslavia?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Bosnia\tab B. Macedonia\tab C. Croatia \par *D. Slovakia\tab E. Moldova \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 156.\tab }{\b\fs22 The first to secede from Yugoslavia and the furthest of the former Yugoslav republics from Belgrade is:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Croatia\tab B. Serbia\tab C. Bosnia \par D. Kosovo\tab *E. Slovenia \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 157.}{\b\fs22 \tab This crescent shaped republic was an ally of Nazi Germany. }{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. Croatia\tab B. Serbia\tab C. Bosnia \par D. Kosovo\tab E. Slovenia \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 158.}{\b\fs22 \tab This republic has Serb, Croat, and Muslim populations that were finally brought together in 1995 at a peace conference in Dayton, Ohio.}{ \fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. Bosnia\tab B. Serbia\tab C. Croatia \par D. Kosovo\tab E. Slovenia \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 159.}{\b\fs22 \tab Which of the following areas is not associated with Serbia?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. The name Yugoslavia\tab B. Kosovo\tab C. Montenegro \par D. Vojvodina\tab *E. Magyars \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 160.}{\b\fs22 \tab In the late 1990s, which of the following areas of Yugoslavia is involved in an effort to free itself of Serb rule?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Albania\tab *B. Kosovo\tab C. Montenegro \par D. Vojvodina\tab E. Magyar \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 161.}{\b\fs22 \tab The country whose name was contested by Greece is:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Bulgaria \tab B. Kosovo\tab C. Montenegro \par D. Vojvodina\tab *E. Macedonia \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 162.\tab }{\b\fs22 An unusual aspect of Albania is:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. \tab its location on both the Baltic and Adriatic Seas \par {\listtext\pard\plain\s17 \f16 \hich\af16\dbch\af0\loch\f16 2.\tab}}\pard\plain \s17\fi-366\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\jclisttab\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\ls1\outlinelevel0\adjustright \f16 {its large Eastern Orthodox population \par }\pard\plain \fi-366\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {C. \tab its former control by the Ottoman Empire \par D. \tab its former control by the Austro-Hungarian Empire \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {*E. its large Muslim population \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright { \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {163.\tab }{\b The Eastern European country that is Europe\rquote s poorest country is:}{ \par }\pard \fi-2773\li3397\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {A. Portugal\tab B. Bulgaria\tab C. Poland \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {D. Serbia\tab *E. Albania \par \sect }\sectd \sbknone\linex0\headery1440\footery1440\sectdefaultcl \pard\plain \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {\fs22 164.\tab }{\b\fs22 Bulgarians have felt close to the Russian population because: }{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. \tab the Russians are a fellow Serbian population \par B. \tab the capital Sofia is close to the Russian city of Kiev \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *C. the Russians were responsible for driving the Turks from the area \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 D. \tab the Russians were responsible for freeing Bulgaria from the control of the Hungarians \par E. \tab none of the above \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 165.\tab }{\b\fs22 The Bulgarians have discriminated against which of the following ethnic minorities?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Bessarabians\tab B. Moldovans\tab *C. Turks \par D. Albanians\tab E. none of the above \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 166.\tab }{\b\fs22 Romania is twice as large as:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Bessarabia\tab B. Moldova\tab *C. Bulgaria \par D. Albania\tab E. none of the above \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 167.}{\b\fs22 \tab For many years, Romania was run by:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Walesa\tab B. Marshall\tab C. Belgrade \par D. Tito\tab *E. Ceausescu \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 168.}{\b\fs22 \tab Translyvania is located in:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Moldova\tab B. Spain\tab C. Italy \par D. Latvia\tab *E. Romania \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 169.}{\b\fs22 \tab The Eastern European country that sold oil to pay off debts while its own population did without energy is:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Moldova\tab B. Serbia\tab C. Slovakia \par D. Bulgaria\tab *E. Romania \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 170.\tab }{\b\fs22 Soviet political planners left a strip of territory in the hands of ________, resulting in Moldova being landlocked.}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Belarus\tab B. Romania\tab C. Bulgaria \par *D. Ukraine\tab E. Kishinev \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 171.\tab }{\b\fs22 A country that considered uniting with Romania is:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Belarus\tab B. Romania\tab C. Bulgaria \par *D. Moldova\tab E. Kishinev \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 172.\tab }{\b\fs22 Ukraine}{\fs22 : \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 *A. contains the Donets Basin coalfields and the Krivoy Rog iron ores \par }\pard \fi-366\li990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 B. \tab is bisected by the Volga River, also its major transport artery \par C. \tab is named after the Ukrays, early settlers in this region who developed the irrigation \par \tab systems that still serve the farmers of today \par D. \tab included over half the Soviet population, including urban clusters of Rostov and Leningrad \par E. \tab was the Soviet Union's chief industrial region, accounting for over 90 percent of the \par }\pard \fi990\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 annual manufacturing output \par \sect }\sectd \sbknone\linex0\headery1440\footery1440\sectdefaultcl {\footerl \pard\plain \sl-240\slmult0\nowidctlpar\adjustright \f16 { \par }\pard \sl-19\slmult0\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\lang1024\cgrid {\shp{\*\shpinst\shpleft1440\shptop0\shpright10800\shpbottom19\shpfhdr1\shpbxpage\shpbypara\shpwr3\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz2\shplockanchor\shplid2051{\sp{\sn shapeType}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn fFlipH}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fFlipV}{\sv 0}} {\sp{\sn fillColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fillBackColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fFilled}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn lineWidth}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fLine}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fShadow}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}}{\shprslt{\*\do\dobxpage\dobypara\dodhgt2\dprect \dpx1440\dpy0\dpxsize9360\dpysize19\dpfillfgcr0\dpfillfgcg0\dpfillfgcb0\dpfillbgcr0\dpfillbgcg0\dpfillbgcb0\dpfillpat1\dplinehollow}}}}{\kerning2 \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\kerning2 \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tqr\tx9360\adjustright {\f18\fs28\kerning2 Page }{\field{\*\fldinst {\f18\fs28\kerning2 PAGE }}{\fldrslt {\f18\fs28\lang1024\kerning2 40}}}{\f18\fs28\kerning2 \tab Europe \par }}{\footerr \pard\plain \sl-240\slmult0\nowidctlpar\adjustright \f16 { \par }\pard \sl-19\slmult0\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\lang1024\cgrid {\shp{\*\shpinst\shpleft1440\shptop0\shpright10800\shpbottom19\shpfhdr1\shpbxpage\shpbypara\shpwr3\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz3\shplockanchor\shplid2052{\sp{\sn shapeType}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn fFlipH}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fFlipV}{\sv 0}} {\sp{\sn fillColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fillBackColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fFilled}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn lineWidth}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fLine}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fShadow}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}}{\shprslt{\*\do\dobxpage\dobypara\dodhgt3\dprect \dpx1440\dpy0\dpxsize9360\dpysize19\dpfillfgcr0\dpfillfgcg0\dpfillfgcb0\dpfillbgcr0\dpfillbgcg0\dpfillbgcb0\dpfillpat1\dplinehollow}}}}{\kerning2 \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\kerning2 \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tqr\tx9360\adjustright {\f18\fs28\kerning2 Europe\tab Page }{\field{\*\fldinst {\f18\fs28\kerning2 PAGE }}{\fldrslt {\f18\fs28\lang1024\kerning2 41}}}{\f18\fs28\kerning2 \par }}\pard\plain \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright \f16 {\fs22 173.}{\b\fs22 \tab Which of the following states in Eastern Europe is the largest both territorially and in population?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Bulgaria\tab B. England\tab *C. Ukraine \par D. Hungary\tab E. Albania \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 174.}{\b\fs22 \tab The largest ethnic minority in Ukraine is:}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Bulgarians\tab B. Moldovans\tab C. Crimeans \par *D. Russians\tab E. Tatars \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 175.\tab }{\b\fs22 The coal producing region of the Ukraine is the: \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Karaganda\tab B. Kuzbas\tab *C. Donbas \par D. east Siberian lowland\tab E. Povolzhye \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 176.\tab }{\b\fs22 Which of the following is included within Ukraine?}{\fs22 \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Leningrad\tab *B. Krivoy Rog\tab C. Estonia \par D. Moscow\tab E. the Urals \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \fi-624\li624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 177.\tab }{\b\fs22 An area that Russia feels should be part of Russia rather than Ukraine is}{\fs22 : \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 A. Moldova\tab *B. Crimea\tab C. Armenia \par }\pard \fi624\nowidctlpar\brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 D. Slovakia\tab E. Krivoy Rog \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tqc\tx4680\tx5760\adjustright {\b\fs33\kerning2 \tab Chapter 1 \par \tab Europe}{\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard\plain \s16\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \b\f17\fs32 {\kerning2 True-False \par }\pard\plain \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \f16 {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard\plain \s16\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \b\f17\fs32 {\kerning2 Defining the European Realm \par }\pard\plain \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \f16 {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 1. \tab Eastern Europe\rquote s definition has increased significantly with the downfall of the Irish Republican Army. (F) \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard\plain \s16\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \b\f17\fs32 {\kerning2 Landscapes and Opportunities \par }\pard\plain \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \f16 {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \~2.\tab Of the four landscape/landform regions in Europe, the Central Uplands contain the majority of the realm's productive coalfields. (T) \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 3. \tab The Meseta Plateau is a dominant landscape feature of the Iberian Peninsula. (T) \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard\plain \s16\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \b\f17\fs32 {\kerning2 Europe\rquote s Premodern Heritage \par }\pard\plain \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \f16 {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 4. \tab The Greek Empire was the first truly interregional political unit in Europe. (F) \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \~5.\tab The Romans extended their Empire as far west as Britain, whereas the Greeks before them did not. (T) \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard\plain \s16\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \b\f17\fs32 {\kerning2 Decline and Rebirth \par }\pard\plain \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \f16 {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \~6. \tab During the Dark Ages, the Ottoman Turks established an Islamic Empire that included all of Europe south of the Baltic and North Seas. (F) \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \~7.\tab Although it pursued the acquisition of territory and precious metals, mercantilism was not concerned with actively spreading Christianity throughout the New World. (T) \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard\plain \s16\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \b\f17\fs32 {\kerning2 The Revolutions of Modernizing Europe \par }\pard\plain \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \f16 {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 8.\~\tab Although von Th\'fcnen\rquote s locational principles can no longer be applied to modern Europe, many developing countries still exhibit patterns reminiscent of the Isolated State. (F) \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 9.\tab Britain\rquote s Midlands, Germany\rquote s Ruhr, and Poland\rquote s Silesia all possessed major coal deposits that helped launch Industrial Revolutions. (T) \par \sect }\sectd \linex0\headery1440\footery1440\sectdefaultcl \pard\plain \s16\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \b\f17\fs32 {\kerning2 Contemporary Europe \par }\pard\plain \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \f16 {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 10. \tab Transferability is an interaction concept related to the costs of overcoming the distance between two places. (T) \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 11.\tab The spatial interaction principle of transferability refers to the ability to move a good at a bearable cost. (T) \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 12. \tab The Council of Europe meets in Strasbourg, France. (T) \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 13.\tab Mark Jefferson is best known for his work in political geography and an article entitled \ldblquote Laws of the Spatial Growth of States\rdblquote published in 1989. (F) \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 14. \tab Jefferson\rquote s Law of the Primate City holds that a country\rquote s leading city is disproportionately large and exceptionally expressive of national capacity and feeling. (T) \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 15.\tab Paris is an exception to Jefferson\rquote s Law of the Primate City. (F) \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 16. \tab Modern supranationalism in Europe began with Benelux. (T) \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 17.\tab Because of internal bickering, the European Union in the 1990s contains fewer member\_states than it did when founded i n 1957. (F) \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 18. \tab Each of the three Benelux countries is a member of the European Union. (T) \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 19.\tab The United Kingdom, a charter member of the European Common Market, quit that organization in disagreement in 1973. (F) \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard\plain \s16\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \b\f17\fs32 {\kerning2 Western Europe \par }\pard\plain \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \f16 {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 20. \tab The leading states of the region we have defined as Western Europe are France and West Germany. (T) \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 21.\tab The Ruhr is located in the Paris Basin. (F) \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 22. \tab The city of Paris has great advantages of site, but major disadvantages in its situation. (F) \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 23.\tab The \'cele de la Cit\'e9 possesses a favorable situation with respect to the rest of the Paris Basin. (T) \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 24. \tab Belgium and the Netherlands possess economies that contain similar proportions of agricultural and manufacturing activity. (F) \par }\pard \sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\sl234\slmult1\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 25.\tab Belgium and the Netherlands are to a considerable degree in a position of economic complementarity. (T) \par \sect }\sectd \linex0\headery1440\footery1440\sectdefaultcl \pard\plain \s16\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \b\f17\fs32 {\kerning2 The United Kingdom \par }\pard\plain \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \f16 {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 26. \tab The United Kingdom consists of England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. (T) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 27.\tab Northern England has both the major industrial areas and the majority of England\rquote s good agricultural land. (F) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 28. \tab The northeastern corner of Ireland was a haven for English and Scottish Catholics and remained under British control. (F) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 29.\tab The Republ ic of Ireland (Eire) is situated in the northern portion of that island, and is today once again ruled by the British government. (F) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard\plain \s16\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \b\f17\fs32 {\kerning2 Northern (Nordic) Europe \par }\pard\plain \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \f16 {\b\f17\fs28\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 30. \tab Northern Europe is the same as Norden. (T) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 31.\tab Due largely to its peripheral location, Nordic Europe remains underdeveloped. (F) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 32. \tab The three largest Nordic countries all have their major concentrations of population in the southern part of their land area. (T) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 33.\tab Stockholm is not only Norway\rquote s capital, but Northern Europe's largest city as well. (F) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 34. \tab Denmark, because of its location south of the Baltic Sea, is not considered part of the region of Norden. (F) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 35.\tab An entrep\'f4t, such as Copenhagen, is a place where goods are collected, stored, and transshipped. (T) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard\plain \s16\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \b\f17\fs32 {\kerning2 Mediterranean Europe \par }\pard\plain \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \f16 {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 36. \tab A characteristic feature of Mediterranean Europe is the region\rquote s vast covering of natural forests, especially on the Spanish Meseta. (F) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 37.\tab Mediterranean Europe is characterized by a peripheral distribution of much of its population. (T) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 38. \tab After its medieval period of prominence, Italy\rquote s Po Valley area has lost nearly all of its importance. (F) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 39.\tab Although the Po Valley has great agricultural advantages, what marks the region today is the greatest development of manufacturing in Med iterranean Europe. (T) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 40. \tab Italy has significant hydroelectric power potential in its southern extreme. (F) \par \sect }\sectd \sbknone\linex0\headery1440\footery1440\sectdefaultcl \pard\plain \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \f16 {\fs22\kerning2 41.\tab Greece\rquote s environment has been denuded by centuries of deforestation. (T) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard\plain \s16\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \b\f17\fs32 {\kerning2 Eastern Europe \par }\pard\plain \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \f16 {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 42. \tab The Danube River has been the great regional bond for Eastern Europe. (F) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 43.\tab The Iron Curtain was cracked when Hungary opened its border with Germany. (F) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 44. \tab The Balkan Peninsula does not contain territory that belonged to the former Soviet Union. (T) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 45.\tab The \ldblquote Balkanization\rdblquote of a region implies its political unification. (F) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 46. \tab Tito was the leader of Bulgaria. (F) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 47.\tab Unlike other Eastern European countries, Poland has suffered little from environmental degradation. (F) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 48. \tab Poland is mostly a Lutheran country with a small Jewish minority. (F) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 49.\tab Latvians make up a bare majority in their own country. (T) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 50. \tab Prague is the Czech Republic's primate city. (T) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 51.\tab Slovenia seceded from Yugoslavia in the early 1990s. (T) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 52. \tab Albania is the most prosperous Eastern European country. (F) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 53.\tab In the post-World War II period, the Soviet Union permitted each Eastern European country to run its own economic affairs without interference. (F) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 54. \tab Bulgaria did not appear on a map until 1878. (T) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 55.\tab High-quality iron ore is found in the Krivoy Rog area of the Ukraine. (T) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 56. \tab Krivoy Rog and the Donets Basin are both located in the Ukraine Industrial Region. (T) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par \par \sect }\sectd \linex0\headery1440\footery1440\sectdefaultcl \pard\plain \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \f16 {\fs33\kerning2 Matching}{\fs22\kerning2 \par \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 57.\tab A term referring to a French-speaking Belgian (A) \par 58. \tab A venture involving three or more national states (C) \par 59.\tab Protectionist policy of European states during the 16th to 18th centuries that promoted a state\rquote s economic position in contest with other countries (D) \par 60. \tab A place, usually a port city, where goods are imported, stored, and transshipped (B) \par 61.\tab A policy of cultural extension and potential political expansion aimed at a national group living in a neighboring country (E) \par }\pard \fi547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par A. Walloon \par B. Entrep\'f4t \par C. supranationalism \par D. mercantilism \par E. irredentism \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 62. \tab Reclaimed lands (A) \par 63.\tab The disintegration of the nation-state as a result of emerging or reviving regionalism (B) \par 64.\tab Exists when two regions through an exchange of raw materials and finished products can specifically satisfy each other\rquote s demands (C) \par 65. \tab The fragmentation of a region into smaller, often hostile, political units (D) \par 66.\tab The external locational attributes of a place; its relative location or position with reference to other non-local places (E) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 A. polders \par B. devolution \par C. complementarity \par D. Balkanization \par E. situation \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 67. \tab Appennine Mountains (C) \par 68.\tab Borders Black Sea (A) \par 69. \tab International conference headquarters (D) \par 70.\tab Serbo\_Croatian (E) \par 71. \tab Jutland Peninsula (B) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 A. Bulgaria \par B. Denmark \par C. Italy \par D. Switzerland \par E. former Yugoslavia \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par \par \sect }\sectd \sbknone\linex0\headery1440\footery1440\sectdefaultcl \pard\plain \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \f16 {\fs22\kerning2 72.\tab Southwestern Iberia (E) \par 73. \tab Joined to West Germany in 1990 (C) \par 74.\tab Home of the Magyars (D) \par 75. \tab Flemish (B) \par 76.\tab Norden (A) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 A. Sweden \par }\pard \fi547\nowidctlpar\tqr\tx9360\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 B. Belgium \tab \par }\pard \fi547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 C. East Germany \par D. Hungary \par E. Portugal \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par \par }\pard\plain \s16\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \b\f17\fs32 {\kerning2 Fill Ins \par }\pard\plain \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright \f16 {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 77. \tab The Isolated State model of commercial agricultural spatial organization was devised by the economist__________. (Von Th\'fcnen) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 78.\tab A country\rquote s leading urban center, disproportionately large and exceptionally expressive of nati onal feelings, is known as its__________city. (Primate) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 79. \tab A territorial component of the United Kingdom that is prone to devolution today is__________. (Scotland, Wales) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 80.\tab International cooperation involving the voluntary participation of three or m ore countries in an economic or political association is known as__________. (Supernationalism) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 81. \tab _______is the general term for a large, megalopolis-like urban complex that is formed by the coalescence of two or more metropolitan areas. (Conurbation) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 82.\tab In addition to Scandinavia, the Norden region also contains the countries of__________, __________, and __________. (Estonia, Iceland, Finland) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 83. \tab Besides the United Kingdom, the European country that has benefitted most from the North Sea oil boom is__________. (Norway) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 84.\tab The Iberian Peninsula is isolated from the rest of Europe by a high range called the__________Mountains. (Pyrenees) \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \fi-547\li547\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 85.\tab Italy\rquote s economic core area, no longer focused on Rome, is today located in__________. (Lombardy or Po River) \par }\pard \fi2880\nowidctlpar\tx-1440\tx-720\tx0\tx547\tx928\tx2880\tx5760\adjustright {\fs22\kerning2 \par }\pard \nowidctlpar\tx-1080\tx-720\tx0\tx624\tx990\tx3397\tx6331\adjustright {\fs22 \par }}
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What is the young of a bobcat called? | What is a baby bobcat called? | Reference.com
What is a baby bobcat called?
A:
Quick Answer
According to the Defenders of Wildlife, a baby bobcat is called a kitten. A typical bobcat litter, born in an isolated den, has one to six kittens.
Full Answer
The kittens, born in the spring, nurse for about two months and then start eating solid foods. After five months, a mother starts teaching her young how to hunt for themselves because, once they leave the den, bobcats live alone. Kittens remain in the den until they reach eight to 11 months of age. At this time, the mother forces them out and away from the area she has claimed. As solitary animals, the young bobcats generally hunt small animals, such as rabbits, rodents, birds and bats.
| Kitten |
Which English poet was buried upright in London’s Westminster Abbey in 1637? | Lynx and Bobcat | San Diego Zoo Animals & Plants
San Diego Zoo Animals & Plants
Lynx lynx, L. pardinus, L. canadensis, L. rufus
CLASS: Mammalia (Mammals)
SPECIES: lynx (Eurasian lynx), pardinus (Spanish lynx), canadensis (Canadian lynx), rufus (bobcat)
ABOUT
The lynx is known by the tuft of black hair on the tips of its ears and its short or bobbed tail.
A lynx’s keen vision earns this cat legendary status in the myths of many cultures. In Greek, Norse, and North American myths, the lynx sees what others can’t, and its role is revealing hidden truths. Even the name lynx pays tribute to the cat’s eyes. It is believed to have come from the Greek word leukos meaning white or bright, possibly a reference to the way the lynx’s eyes shine in the dark due to a reflective structure, the tapetum lucidum. However, glowing eyes aren’t an exclusive trait of lynx—all cats, and many other animals, have them. So what sets this species apart?
When it comes to identifying a cat as a lynx, it’s not the eyes that have it, but the ears. The lynx is known by the tuft of black hair on the tips of its ears and its short or bobbed tail. In fact, one species of lynx is called a bobcat! All lynx have these tufts, but their purpose isn’t completely clear. Some scientists think a lynx uses them like whiskers to detect things above its head. Others think the cluster of hairs enhances the cat’s hearing.
Long legs and a short tail are other traits that link a cat to the lynx group. Most lynx are found in areas that often have deep layers of snow for long periods of time, and their elongated limbs help them maneuver through the habitat. Hair on the underside of their broad paws provides traction on slippery surfaces. An exception is the bobcat Lynx rufus, which doesn’t have furry soles like other lynx and generally doesn’t live in areas of heavy snow.
HABITAT AND DIET
Connecting lynx: There are four lynx species.
Canadian lynx
The Canadian lynx Lynx canadensis, found in Canada and the northern US (including Alaska), is also known as the North American lynx. It has extremely thick, light brown or gray fur with light black spots. Adult males are just slightly larger than the females. Features unique to the Canadian lynx include a black tail tip and huge paws with long, thick fur to keep the cat’s toes warm in the winter. It can spread its toes out wide like snowshoes for walking in soft snowCanadian lynx live in dense forests where their main prey, the snowshoe hare, is found. Since the hares are nocturnal, so are the cats. These cats are so dependent on the snowshoe hare for survival that when the hare population drastically drops, so does the lynx population.
Eurasian lynx
The Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx has long, thick, light-colored fur that is silky in the winter and shorter, thinner, and darker-colored in the summer. This is the largest and most numerous of the lynx species, and it is the most widespread, currently found in 46 countries in Europe, northern Asia, and the Middle East! A subspecies of Eurasian lynx, the Siberian lynx, is the largest of all; some males can weigh up to 84 pounds (38 kilograms).
Large paws with fur on the soles give Eurasian lynx traction; long legs also help when walking in deep snow. These cats are good swimmers, too, and have been seen crossing rivers. In the wild, their preferred diet is deer and other hoofed animals. Eurasian lynx living in Russia's Ural Mountains follow the winter migration routes of roe deer, reindeer, and moose.
Spanish or Iberian lynx
The Spanish or Iberian lynx Lynx pardinus evolved separately from the rest of the Old World lynx populations, isolated from the rest of Europe by the Pyrenees Mountains. It is about half the size of the Eurasian lynx and has the most spots on its coat. Its hair is short and coarse for the milder Mediterranean climate.
The most rare of the lynx and possibly the rarest of all cats, the Spanish lynx is found in Spain and Portugal only. It lives in an area where millions of migrating birds gather together each spring and fall; although rabbits are the mainstay of their diet, the cats hunt ducks and other low-flying birds at this time.
The North American bobcat is about twice the size of a domesticated cat. Longer hind legs give the bobcat a rocking, or "bobbing" motion when it runs.
The bobcat is known by lots of names: wildcat, bay lynx, and lynx cat. Some people call it the spitfire of the Animal Kingdom, because it seems fearless and won't back down from a fight! Found throughout North America, it is our continent's most common native cat.
Bobcats look very similar to Canadian lynx. But bobcats have smaller feet and don't have the furry soles of the other lynx, so they are not as well equipped to live in areas of heavy snow. Bobcats are able to survive in a variety of habitats, from deserts to swamps to forests, as long as there are places where they can hide. They often live in rocky areas that give them shelter from extreme cold or heat.
Bobcats often compete with coyotes for the same food and shelter. They are good climbers and can escape up a tree, if needed, but they'd rather spend their time on the ground. Bobcats can swim if they have to, but it's not their first choice!
Although considered part of the small cat grouping, lynx are much larger than your average housecat, and males are about 25 percent larger than the females. The four lynx species are physically different from each other and have adapted to their various habitats.
Lynx hunt mainly at night, especially in areas near people, and their peak activity periods are at dawn and dusk. During the day, they usually hide and sleep in secluded haunts such as rock crevices, caves, or thick tangles of fallen trees and brush.
Mountain lions and fishers are the Canadian lynx and bobcat’s greatest enemy; the cats must also share habitat and prey with other predators, including bears, foxes, and coyotes. All lynx fiercely defend themselves when cornered, and although they typically avoid people, they may attack a human if threatened.
With its padded, furry claws, the lynx can quietly sneak up on its prey.
Like other cats, the lynx is a stalk-and-ambush hunter. It slowly sneaks up on its prey, such as a rabbit, while the prey is busy eating, and then pounces on its victim. The cat rarely chases after potential food, especially if the snow is deep. Instead, it hides behind tree stumps or rocks until a potential meal walks by. Depending on where it lives, the lynx feeds on pigs, beavers, rabbits and hares, rodents, or deer; some eat birds such as grouse.
Lynx at the San Diego Zoo are offered a nutritionally complete ground-meat diet made for zoo carnivores, plus a rib bone twice weekly, a rat and rabbit once a week, and beef heart for training purposes.
FAMILY LIFE
Eurasian lynx kittens, like this one, are usually born in early spring.
Lynx are solitary animals, with adults coming together only for breeding purposes. Lynx kittens are usually born in the early spring in dens that are found under fallen tree branches, large tree roots, or in rock piles. There are usually one to four kittens in a litter, and the mother is a single parent.
Lynx kittens are born with their eyes closed and their ears folded. If there is a lot of food for the mother, the kittens grow quickly; if food is scarce, few kittens survive. Lynx kittens nurse for four to five months, and during the last few weeks of nursing, they also start eating solid food. Researchers recently discovered that one kitten may kill a littermate at about the same time as it is weaned from milk to meat, but we don't yet know the reason for this.
Young lynx can fend for themselves at the age of 10 months, but they usually hang out with their mother for up to a year and don't reach adult size until they are 2 years old. Sometimes siblings that have just left their mother travel and hunt together for several months before going their separate ways.
Young lynx can fend for themselves by 10 months of age.
Lynx can make a variety of sounds similar to those made by a housecat: mews, yowls, spits, and hisses. And just like our own kitties, they can also purr. A mother lynx often purrs while nursing or cleaning her kittens. Lynx usually yowl and growl most often during the breeding season. The cats also use scent marks, facial expressions, and different ear positions to help get their message across to other lynx.
AT THE ZOO
The San Diego Zoo’s first lynx residents were bobcats that arrived in 1922. A Eurasian lynx came in 1938.
CONSERVATION
The world is not a safe place for lynx right now. They are having a harder time finding food as more people move into the cats' habitats. And in some areas, their forest homes are being cut down for agricultural uses. Hunting is still a problem for these beautiful animals, too. The soft, luxurious coat that keeps lynx warm and comfortable in the colder months is also popular in the fur industry, especially the lighter-colored belly fur. It is estimated that about 90,000 bobcat and lynx pelts are sold each year to fur markets. We think the coats look much better on the cats!
The Spanish lynx population currently numbers less than 150 individuals. Sadly, this makes them one of the rarest of all cat species and probably the most endangered carnivore in Europe. What caused their decline? The loss of their main food source, rabbits. In the 1950s, a doctor released a disease called myxomatosis to control the rabbit population in his garden. It worked too well, and the rabbit population was almost wiped out. Ironically, conservationists are now breeding rabbits, vaccinating them against the disease, and releasing them into the wild to replenish the wild rabbit populations and help feed the lynx.
Sounds
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Which fashion designer re-designed the UK hospital gown in 2010? | Don't look back – the hospital gown is getting a makeover | Life and style | The Guardian
Don't look back – the hospital gown is getting a makeover
Designer Ben de Lisi, best known for his catwalk frocks, is to redesign the common hospital gown
One of the more flamboyant designs of hospital gown available in the US.
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It isn't the fabric that's the problem – my most recent hospital experience involved a pleasantly patterned white-and-blue number. Nor the length or shapelessness of the hospital gown (at least the bagginess offers a kind of disguise). The real problem, of course, is what goes on behind your back. Women on Gok Wan's How To Look Good Naked receive hours, weeks, of tutoring before they acquire the mindset necessary to flash a backside to the public. In hospital, there is no such coaching and the exposure is unfortunately inadvertent.
"The number of awful gowns I've had to hand out to people," laments Ann Keen, health minister, who worked as a nurse for 28 years. Now all that is changing. Fashion designer Ben de Lisi, best known for gowns of the red-carpet variety, is redesigning the common hospital gown, the result of a project instigated by the Department of Health in collaboration with the Design Council to improve patient privacy and dignity. "Why would a designer noted for glamorous evening gowns be capable of designing a hospital gown?" De Lisi asks. He says he persuaded the Department of Health to let him try with sketches of an evening dress morphing into a night shirt. They were convinced, and next month his designs will be trialled in King's College Hospital, London.
In fact, the hospital gown market has been growing for some time – and those keen to smarten up for a hospital visit need not wait for De Lisi's designs. In the US, the industry is thought to be worth $76m (£49m), according to Premier Inc, an allliance of hospitals, and there are even hospital gown boutiques: for $50 you can waft around the ward in a printed one from hospitalgowns.com with a "waterfall neckline. . . and hidden body cut for access to the mid-section". As long as a decade ago, designer Nicole Miller anticipated De Lisi with a range of gowns for the Hackensack University Medical Centre in New Jersey – with stethoscopes printed all over. You see, it is possible to have fun in a hospital gown.
As for his new model, De Lisi is giving away few clues. "The gown is unisex," he says. "It has access points throughout the garment to the body. If someone is waiting on ward for a test or x-ray, their modesty is kept in check." But, he says firmly, "It does not open up the back."
Perhaps these gowns may not feel so far from the red-carpet kind after all? "Well," he says, "there are similarities in the sense that it is one garment and it goes over the body. You could call it a hospital dress." It is also probably the closest most of us will get to wearing a red-carpet dress, complete with "a label in the seam that says 'This is a Ben de Lisi design'."
| Ben de Lisi |
In Afrikaans, which city is called Kapstad? | Why Can’t We Have a Better Hospital Gown? « Cancer
By Heather Millar
By Heather Millar
When I first saw the press release about a new hospital gown design being introduced by the Henry Ford Hospital in Detroit, I thought, “Hallelujah! At least this is one medical problem we can solve. Next time, God forbid, I’m in the hospital, I’ll have warmer, more attractive gown that doesn’t flutter in the back, showing off my backside to all and sundry.”
The gown looks like reasonably non-ugly spa robe, with a contrasting kimono collar, a slit in the back that overlaps like an envelope, and snaps on the side that can both resize the gown and allow clinical access.
Then, I started to research the whole hospital gown issue. The usual design that patients endure is called the “Johnny gown.” The story goes that it evolved in the 1800s: some say from nightshirts; others say from bed sheets. I can’t imagine that that revelation would surprise anyone who’s survived any time in a hospital clinic. The “Johnny” looks like repurposed bed linen.
Apparently, various groups have been trying to redesign the hospital gown for, well, a ridiculously long time. Here’s a smattering of efforts from the last decade or so:
Fashion designers have taken a crack at it:
The Cleveland Clinic in Ohio, one of the nation’s premier cancer centers, has worked with designers Diane von Furstenberg , who suggested a wrap-around robe style, and Donna Karan , who added slits and Velcro.
In Britain, U.S.-born designer Ben de Lisi added jaunty stripes, snaps down the side, a pouch for a cell phone and a snuggly fleece shawl.
Designer Nicole Miller came up with a kimono-like version for Hackensack Medical Center in New Jersey.
And, as the Cat in the Hat might say, “But that is not all. Oh, no. That is not all…”
A Maine hospital designed a floor-length sarong to accommodate the modesty of Muslim patients. In Birmingham, England, they tried out Velcro jumpsuits .
Researchers have tried to solve the problem: Students in North Carolina, crowd-sourced a trial run of 500 prototype gowns. Ball State University students came up with five new designs . University of Minnesota students preferred the kimono style . University of Cincinnati students came up with a twirl-y design with a sash . It reminds me of fairy costumes my daughter once fashioned out of silk scarves.
Any of these—even the fairy-like one—would be a big step for patient-kind. Yet, the horrendous Johnny gown remains the most common. Why?
Part of it is cost, I think. The open-in-the-back monstrosities only cost to and can be washed and re-used dozens of times. Nicole Miller’s version costs twice as much. Yet how to explain why newer designs in the same price range haven’t developed a widespread following?
One marketing blogger suggests that the needs of patients get lost in the course of polling endless focus groups and trying to accommodate “stakeholders,” hospitals, doctors, chief financial officers, gown manufacturers. Where are the patients here?
Perhaps it’s just the inertia of medical practice. Doctors and hospitals remain notoriously slow to change. The Wall Street Journal published several thousand words on the issue and quoted a vice-president of Premier, Inc. a non-profit coalition of 2100 hospitals as saying the Johnny gown gets “a bum rap.” He added, in the ultimate put-down, “Aren’t there more pressing problems worth tackling?”
Patients run into this all the time: “Hey, we’re trying to save your life with chemo, why are you whining about your bald head?” or “Would you rather live or complain about side effects?” or “What’s more important: being comfortable or getting the best treatment?”
I don’t see why we can’t have both clinical efficiency and patient comfort: Of course, being seriously ill is not exactly a trip to the spa. I’m not calling for someone to massage my feet during a blood draw. But little, little things can be such a source of comfort when you’re going through hell. I’ll never forget the doc who took 30 seconds to squeeze my arm before a major procedure, look me in the eye and wish me luck. I’ll never forget the infusion ward med tech who always remembered my family and who never failed to bring me a warmed blanket. A warm, comfortable, not-revealing hospital gown would likewise give comfort.
Maybe we patients need to rise up and demand an end to the Johnny gown. Oh, right, many of us are really sick and don’t have the energy for public advocacy. But come on, medical establishment: Give us some better gowns.
Until that happens, you can take matters into your own hands. If you know how to sew, get a free pattern here , and make your own . Tori Spelling allegedly did! Really, though, can you imagine the Beverly Hills 90210 star at a sewing machine? I bet she hired it done.
You can do that, too. BYOG (Bring Your Own Gown) offers pretty hip hospital gowns for moms-to-be. I don’t see any reason why cancer patients couldn’t wear them too.
Dear Johnnies and Gownies also make attractive options. Don’t expect hospitals to be supplying these high-fashion gowns anytime soon: Prices range from to .
When you think about lying, freezing, in a Johnny on a gurney, it might just be worth it.
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In the human body, which vitamin helps the blood to clot? | Vitamin K | University of Maryland Medical Center
Other conditions that benefit from vitamin K include:
Excessive Bleeding
Vitamin K is used to reduce the risk of bleeding in liver disease, conditions where your body doesn’t absorb enough vitamin K, or if you take antibiotics for a long time.
In the U.S., Canada, Great Britain, and many other countries, all newborns receive vitamin K injections to prevent the possibility of bleeding, particularly in the brain. Babies are born without any bacteria in their intestines and do not get enough vitamin K from breast milk to tide them over until their bodies are able to make it.
Even though vitamin K deficiency in newborns is very rare, it is dangerous enough that doctors give the injections. Newborns at greatest risk for vitamin K deficiency are premature or those whose mother had to take seizure medications during pregnancy. Mothers on seizure medications are often given oral vitamin K for 2 weeks before delivery.
Osteoporosis
Your body needs vitamin K to use calcium to build bone. People who have higher levels of vitamin K have greater bone density, while low levels of vitamin K have been found in those with osteoporosis. Similarly, some studies suggest that low levels of vitamin K are associated with a higher risk of osteoarthritis.
There is increasing evidence that vitamin K improves bone health and reduces the risk of bone fractures, particularly in postmenopausal women who are at risk for osteoporosis. In addition, studies of male and female athletes have also found that vitamin K helps with bone health. However, some studies have found that vitamin K didn’t help with bone density.
Dietary Sources
Foods that contain a significant amount of vitamin K include beef liver, green tea, turnip greens, broccoli, kale, spinach, cabbage, asparagus, and dark green lettuce. Chlorophyll is the substance in plants that gives them their green color and provides vitamin K.
Freezing foods may destroy vitamin K, but heating does not affect it.
Available Forms
There are 3 forms of vitamin K:
Vitamin K1 or phylloquinone, the natural version of K1 and phytonadione, the synthetic type of K1
Vitamin K2 or menaquinone
Vitamin K3 or menaphthone or menadione
Vitamin K1 is the only form available in the U.S. as a supplement. It is available as part of multivitamin complexes or alone, in 5 mg tablets.
Water-soluble chlorophyll is the most common form of vitamin K found over the counter. It is available in tablet, capsule, and liquid forms.
How to Take It
As with all supplements, check with a health care provider before taking vitamin K or giving it to a child.
People whose bodies can’t absorb enough vitamin K, because of gallbladder or biliary disease, cystic fibrosis, celiac disease, or Crohn's disease, will probably get more benefit from a multivitamin containing vitamin K than an individual vitamin K supplement. In certain circumstances, your doctor may give you a vitamin K shot.
The daily Adequate Intake for vitamin K is:
Pediatric
Infants birth - 6 months: 2 mcg
Infants 7 - 12 months: 2.5 mcg
Children 1 - 3 years: 30 mcg
Children 4 - 8 years: 55 mcg
Children 9 - 13 years: 60 mcg
Adolescents 14 - 18 years: 75 mcg
A single injection of vitamin K is also given at birth.
Adult
Men 19 years and older: 120 mcg
Women 19 years and older: 90 mcg
Pregnant and breastfeeding women 14 - 18 years: 75 mcg
Pregnant and breastfeeding women 19 years and older: 90 mcg
Precautions
Because of the potential for side effects and interactions with medications, you should take dietary supplements only under the supervision of a knowledgeable health care provider.
At recommended doses, vitamin K has few side effects.
Vitamin K crosses the placenta and is also found in breast milk. Pregnant women and women who are breastfeeding should talk to their doctor before taking vitamin K supplements.
People with a rare metabolic condition called Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency should avoid vitamin K.
People who take warfarin (Coumadin) should not take vitamin K (see “Possible Interactions”).
People who are receiving dialysis for kidney diseases can have harmful effects from too much vitamin K.
Possible Interactions
If you are currently being treated with any of the following medications, you should not take vitamin K without first talking to your health care provider.
Antibiotics -- Antibiotics, especially those known as cephalosporins, reduce the absorption of vitamin K in the body. Using them for more than 10 days may lower levels of vitamin K because these drugs kill not only harmful bacteria but also the bacteria that make vitamin K. People who already have low levels of vitamin K, such as those who are malnourished, elderly, or taking warfarin (Coumadin) are at greater risk. Cephalosporins include:
Cefamandole (Mandol)
Cefmetazole (Zefazone)
Cefotetan (Cefotan)
Phenytoin (Dilantin) -- Phenytoin interferes with the body's ability to use vitamin K. Taking anticonvulsants (such as phenytoin) during pregnancy or while breastfeeding may lower vitamin K in newborns.
Warfarin (Coumadin) -- Vitamin K blocks the effects of the blood-thinning medication warfarin, so that it doesn’t work. You should not take vitamin K, or eat foods containing high amounts of vitamin K, while you are taking warfarin. Speak with your physician for specific dietary guidelines.
Orlistat (Xenical, Alli) and Olestra -- Orlistat, a medication used for weight loss, and olestra, a substance added to some foods, lowers the amount of fat you body can absorb. Because vitamin K is a fat-soluble vitamin, these medications may also lower levels of vitamin K. The Food and Drug Administration now requires that vitamin K and other fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, and E) be added to food products containing olestra. Doctors who prescribe orlistat usually recommend taking a multivitamin with these vitamins. If you should not be taking vitamin K, then you should avoid foods that contain olestra.
Cholesterol-lowering medications -- Bile acid sequestrants, used to reduce cholesterol, reduce how much fat your body absorbs and may also reduce absorption of fat-soluble vitamins. If you take one of these drugs, your doctor may recommend a vitamin K supplement:
Cholestyramine (Questran)
Booth SL, Al Rajabi A. Determinants of vitamin K status in humans. Vitam Horm. 2008;78:1-22.
Borrelli F, Ernst E. Alternative and complementary therapies for the menopause. Maturitas. 2010 Aug;66(4):333-43. Review.
Breen GA, St. Peter WL. Hypoprothrombinemia associated with cefmetazole. Ann Pharmacother. 1997;31(2):180-184.
Bugel S. Vitamin K and bone health in adult humans. Vitam Horm. 2008;78:393-416.
Crowther MA, Julian J, McCarty D, et al. Treatment of warfarin-associated coagulopathy with oral vitamin K: a randomized controlled trial. Lancet. 2000;356(9241):1551-1553.
Dennehy C, Tsourounis C. A review of select vitamins and minerals used by postmenopausal women. Maturitas. 2010 Aug;66(4):370-80. Review.
Goldman L, Ausiello D. Cecil Medicine, 23rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders Elsevier. 2007;181.
Kitchin B, Morgan SL. Not just calcium and vitamin D: other nutritional considerations in osteoporosis. Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2007 Apr;9(1):85-92. Review.
McCormick RK. Osteoporosis: integrating biomarkers and other diagnostic correlates into the management of bone fragility. Altern Med Rev. 2007 Jun;12(2):113-45. Review.
Misra D, Booth SL, Tolstykh I, Felson DT, Nevitt MC, Lewis CE, Torner J, Neogi T. Vitamin K deficiency is associated with incident knee osteoarthritis. Am J Med. 2013;126(3):243-8.
Polin: Fetal and Neonatal Physiology, 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders Elsevier; 2011.
Shiraki M, Shiraki Y, Aoki C, Miura M. Vitamin K2 (menatetrenone) effectively prevents fractures and sustains lumbar bone mineral density in osteoporosis. J Bone Miner Res. 2000;15(3):515-523.
Thornquist MD, Kristal AR, Patterson RE, et al. Olestra consumption does not predict serum concentrations of carotenoids and fat-soluble vitamins in free-living humans: early results from the sentinel site of the olestra post-marketing surveillance study. J Nutr. 2000;130(7):1711-1718.
Tucker KL. Osteoporosis prevention and nutrition. Curr Osteoporos Rep. 2009 Dec;7(4):111-7. Review.
Whitlock RP, Crowther MA, Warkentin TE, Blackall MH, Farrokhyar F, Teoh KH. Warfarin cessation before cardiopulmonary bypass: lessons learned from a randomized controlled trial of oral vitamin K. Ann Thorac Surg. 2007 Jul;84(1):103-8.
Wilson DC, Rashid M, Durie PR, et al. Treatment of vitamin K deficiency in cystic fibrosis: effectiveness of a daily fat-soluble vitamin combination. J Pediatr. 2001;138(6):851-855.
Alternative Names
| Vitamin K |
The Caloris Basin, a large impact crater, is on which planet in our solar system? | Are yours helping or hurting you?
By Bryan Walsh
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Almost every expert recommends it. And everyone’s taking it. But what if we’ve been using it wrong? What if our vitamin D supplements aren’t really helping us at all?
If your car’s oil light went on once a week…and every time you checked the oil, it was running low…what would you do?
Shrug? Top up the oil tank (again)? Do your best to forget about it?
Or would you try to figure out the cause? Why that oil light kept coming on? Why your oil was running low?
If you’re smart, you take your car to the mechanic. Where you learn that low oil is just a symptom. There, the mechanic looks for the real problem.
Why, then, don’t we take the same approach with our health? With our supplements?
Why’s that vitamin D low?
Research over the last few years has indicated that a large percent of the world’s population is low in vitamin D. However, the response to this is kinda strange.
Healthcare practitioners typically test a patient’s vitamin D levels and notice that they’re low.
Then s/he prescribes a vitamin D supplement.
The patient comes in again a few months later and vitamin D is still low.
So the doctor increases the supplement.
Interestingly, very few professionals ever ask: Why is this person’s “vitamin D tank” leaking in the first place?
The answer might surprise you.
D is for deficiency
In the past decade, Vitamin D has emerged as something of a miracle supplement, studied more than any other vitamin in the 21st century.
Hundreds of research studies suggest that vitamin D can help prevent everything from osteoporosis to autoimmune disorders, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and much more.
It affects recovery and body composition , and the influence of our genes . Some have even suggested that vitamin D deficiency might cause obesity.
Meanwhile, statistics suggest that between 40-50% of otherwise healthy adults and children don’t have enough vitamin D.
In fact, the past few years have seen a worldwide increase in rickets, a vitamin D deficiency usually seen in malnourished children — even in industrialized countries!
The good news: Health care providers are aware of this research and the risks associated with low vitamin D levels.
What’s potentially more troubling is their response.
Many doctors routinely prescribe high levels of vitamin D supplements, with doses ranging from 2000-10,000 IU (International Units) per day, up to 50,000 IU per week, and sometimes more.
Vitamin D obviously supports human health. But why aren’t we addressing the underlying reasons that our D levels are so routinely low?
And how safe is long-term, high dose vitamin D supplementation, really?
Are we over-D-osing ourselves?
What is vitamin D and how is it made?
The term “vitamin D” refers to a group of fat-soluble compounds that serve as pre-hormones, or hormone precursors, to the active form of vitamin D, called calcitriol.
Among the more well known forms of vitamin D is vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol), found in fish, egg yolks, and cheese, and synthesized in the skin of humans and animals.
Another common form, vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol), is synthesized by plants, such as mushrooms, and is the form most often used to fortify foods such as milk.
We make vitamin D in our skin when we get out in the sun — more precisely, when our skin is exposed to ultraviolet-B radiation (UVB).
This initial form of vitamin D, called 7-dehydrocholesterol, then travels to the liver, where it is converted into another slightly more active form of vitamin D called 25-hydroxyvitamin D.
This is the form of the vitamin that doctors are testing when looking for deficiency.
When vitamin D leaves the liver, it travels to the kidneys where it is converted once more into the highly metabolically active form of vitamin D called calcitriol, or 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D.
This is no longer considered a vitamin but rather, a steroid hormone. (You may be familiar with other steroid hormones such as estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol).
Vitamin D’s role in the body
As the name of vitamin D’s active form, calcitriol, suggests, this micronutrient helps regulate calcium and other minerals in our bodies. Calcitriol increases calcium absorption from food in our digestive tract.
If we need more calcium, our kidneys can produce more of the active form of vitamin D, which raises our calcium levels by increasing the amount we absorb from our food.
Before the recent interest in vitamin D, it was thought that only a few select organs of our body had receptors for vitamin D, called Vitamin D Receptors, or VDRs.
However, recent research suggests that nearly every cell of our body has receptors for vitamin D, indicating a much more potent role for this vitamin than we previously recognized.
This new information has helped us discover that vitamin D also influences our immune system and helps in cell differentiation, blood pressure regulation, insulin secretion, and more.
This brings us back to our original question: What does a vitamin D deficiency mean? What does it signal — in a broader sense — about what might have gone wrong in our bodily processes?
The D-eficiency debate
25-hydroxyvitamin D, the form of vitamin D largely produced by the liver, is generally accepted as the most reliable marker to assess one’s vitamin D status.
However, that’s where the agreement ends. Scientists can’t even agree on the optimal reference range for vitamin D.
True vitamin D deficiency — the kind that will cause bone abnormalities such as rickets and osteomalacia — occurs at levels below 25 ng/mL in blood.
Some researchers believe a more optimal range is anywhere between 50 – 80 ng/mL. But there’s no universal consensus.
In 2010, the National Institute of Health (US) set the Recommended Dietary Allowance for vitamin D at 600 IUs daily for infants, children, and adults up to 70 years of age. This is an increase from their previous recommendation of 200 IUs daily.
While this increase may seem substantial, some people claim that it doesn’t go far enough and could be “disastrous” to health.
We’ll consider that later in this article.
Sunny days… or not?
According to the National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements, we can easily meet our body’s requirements for vitamin D simply by getting enough sunshine.
Exposing 30% of our unprotected skin (i.e. non-sunscreen coated, unclothed skin) for five to thirty minutes between the hours of 10 a.m. and 3 p.m., three times a week, should do it.
But given the number of us suffering from sub-optimal levels of vitamin D — even in latitudes with high sun exposure — you have to wonder if that recommendation is accurate.
And for those of us who live north of the 49th parallel — well, let’s just say that we won’t be exposing 30% of our unprotected skin very often in the winter.
If your levels are low, should you supplement?
It’s clear that vitamin D plays a number of important roles in the body and that vitamin D deficiency can hurt you.
Some studies suggest that the lower one’s vitamin D level, the higher the risk of all-cause mortality.
On the other hand, studies also indicate that the risk of overall mortality actually rises once vitamin D levels exceed ~40 ng/mL.
And overall, we just don’t have solid scientific evidence about the long-term safety of high dose vitamin D supplementation.
Perhaps, before we start swallowing too many pills, we need to evaluate what we are doing. After all, medical science has been wrong before.
To get a better understanding of the issues, let’s explore some important relationships between vitamin D and other key nutrients.
Vitamin D and calcium
One potential risk of excessively high dose vitamin D is toxicity causing hypercalcemia, or high levels of calcium in the blood.
It works to kill rats. One form of rodenticide is essentially a toxic dose of vitamin D — enough to cause the soft tissues to calcify and kill the animal.
However, hypercalcemia rarely appears without supra-physiological doses of vitamin D, which in humans would be somewhere in the range of 30,000-40,000 IUs daily.
Most people who supplement with vitamin D don’t take anywhere near that amount.
Still, that doesn’t necessarily mean the dose they are taking is safe.
Calcium levels in the body are so tightly regulated that abnormalities won’t always show up in blood serum tests. But they may appear in other ways.
One of these is hypercalcuria — otherwise known as calcium kidney stones.
Hypercalcuria occurs when the body tries to rid itself of excess calcium by excreting it, via the kidneys. Based on this relationship, some researchers suggest that high levels of vitamin D supplementation may lead to kidney stones.
Indeed, one study demonstrated that nursing home residents taking 5,000 IU of vitamin D for six months showed an increased urinary calcium/creatinine ratio, suggesting that excess calcium was coming out in the urine — likely because there was too much in their bodies.
On the other hand, another recent study found that among subject with vitamin D levels ranging from 20 – 100 ng/mL, there was no difference in the occurrence of kidney stones.
So the verdict isn’t clear.
But kidney stones are not the only risk of too much calcium.
If the body can’t regulate calcium levels, the mineral may deposit itself throughout the soft tissues of the body, including the arteries. And unfortunately, some studies suggest that this is a real possibility when vitamin D levels become too high.
Three studies in particular have demonstrated increased arterial calcification in animal models with a range of vitamin D intake.
And other studies suggest that too much vitamin D could also hurt human cardiovascular function.
You know, the mere possibility that high-dose vitamin D supplementation could increase calcium levels in the soft tissues of the body (e.g. the arteries) should raise serious questions about the practice of supplementing this way.
Especially considering the prevalence of heart disease in our society.
So by now, you may be ready to toss your vitamin D supplement in the garbage.
But before you do, again: We really need to consider why our vitamin D levels seem so inadequate that we’re tempted to supplement in the first place.
Recall: Vitamin D and calcium exist in a delicate balance.
So maybe, just maybe, vitamin D levels are low because calcium levels are already too high.
And through a negative feedback loop, the body suppresses vitamin D production and/or conversion to minimize further increases in calcium.
Why might our calcium levels be too high? Possibilities include magnesium deficiency, pH imbalance, protein deficiency, liver dysfunction, and more.
In other words — maybe the oil is low because there is an underlying problem, not just because the car guzzles oil.
Let’s take a closer look at some possible interactions.
Vitamin D and vitamin K
The “K” in vitamin K comes from the German koagulation. Coagulation refers to the process of blood clot formation. This should hint to you that vitamin K plays a crucial role in the body’s blood clotting pathway.
Put simply, vitamin K allows the body to use calcium to perform its clotting function.
If vitamin K is low, the body can’t use calcium in this way, and therefore, cannot clot.
Besides its role in clotting, Vitamin K also helps to form and maintain our bones and teeth.
It does so by activating a specific protein called osteocalcin that helps the body use calcium and deposit it where it belongs.
In other words, there is a very potent calcium-vitamin K connection in that vitamin K helps the body use calcium properly. And if we’re deficient in vitamin K, calcium levels can build up and deposit themselves in our soft tissues.
People who are low in vitamin K are more likely to suffer from atherosclerosis, or calcification of the arteries.
And those with a high vitamin K intake (especially vitamin K2) seem to have less calcification of their arteries.
In fact, research in rats has shown that supplementing with vitamin K2 (but not K1) not only inhibits arterial calcification, it can also remove 30-50% of the calcium that has already been deposited.
Unfortunately, this magic effect has not been shown in humans as yet.
Hopefully by now, you can see the delicate dance that’s going on. Vitamin D increases calcium levels in the body. Vitamin K helps the body use calcium.
So if one were to supplement with high-dose vitamin D in the presence of vitamin K deficiency, the long-term results could be disastrous.
Vitamin D and magnesium
Magnesium is an important mineral involved in over 300 different processes in the body, including the ability to make and use ATP, the body’s main form of energy.
Of those 300 roles, magnesium aids in a handful of activities related to vitamin D production and use. In particular, it seems to modulate the sensitivity of our tissues to vitamin D.
Not only does magnesium play an important role in proper Vitamin D activity and function, but crucially, it also helps to maintain calcium balance.
At least half of the population fails to meet the Recommended Dietary Allowance for magnesium. This may be because soil levels of magnesium have fallen considerably in the past 50 years, making it harder to meet our needs.
Because magnesium is used in vitamin D metabolism, some researchers theorize that supplementing with high levels of vitamin D could cause an even greater magnesium deficiency in an already deficient population.
Interestingly, a relatively recent study demonstrated a strong correlation between magnesium and vitamin D deficiency.
This study showed that magnesium supplementation, taken along with vitamin D supplementation, was more effective at correcting a vitamin D deficiency than vitamin D supplementation alone.
Simply by increasing magnesium intake, we may decrease mortality related to vitamin D deficiency — without taking any extra vitamin D.
But beyond vitamin D’s relationship to magnesium is magnesium’s relationship to calcium. And in some ways, these two minerals have opposite effects.
For example, calcium stimulates muscle contraction while magnesium promotes muscle relaxation. Calcium boosts platelet activation and clotting, while magnesium inhibits them.
Contrary to popular belief, the individual level of either of these minerals may be less important than the balance between the two.
Too much calcium together with a magnesium deficiency could cause problems like increased calcium deposits in the arteries. Meanwhile, bumping up magnesium can prevent calcification of the arteries.
But what if you’re low in magnesium and decide to supplement with vitamin D?
There could be many negative consequences, including — you guessed it — calcium deposits in the arteries.
Vitamin D and vitamin A
Besides its delicate interactions with calcium and vitamin K, vitamin D also relates to vitamin A in our bodies.
The term “vitamin A” refers to another group of fat-soluble compounds which aid growth and development, reproduction, immune system function, eyesight, skin health, and gene expression.
Because fat-soluble vitamins can be stored in the body, they can reach toxic levels.
And here’s something interesting: It turns out that vitamin A can prevent vitamin D toxicity, and vice versa.
What this means is that if you’re deficient in vitamin A, high doses of vitamin D could cause problems.
And the lower your vitamin A status, the more toxic excess vitamin D becomes.
Meanwhile, some studies suggest that increasing vitamin A can reduce the calcium buildup that tends to go along with higher levels of vitamin D.
It could also protect against the pathological calcification effects of too much vitamin D supplementation.
Here’s the bottom line — it’s about balance
By now, the point should be clear: In the presence of other deficiencies, we should be careful about supplementing with high doses of vitamin D.
With studies suggesting that up to 35% of our population may be sub-clinically deficient in vitamin K, and a body of mounting evidence exploring the synergistic interplay between vitamin K and vitamin D with calcium homeostasis, bone formation, and arterial calcification, we need to take this warning seriously.
In fact, one study suggests that vitamin D supplementation may actually contribute to vitamin K deficiency (and in turn to bone loss and calcification of soft tissues).
The researchers recommended supplementing vitamins A and K simultaneously with vitamin D to improve the therapeutic effect of vitamin D while decreasing potential unwanted side effects of vitamin D taken alone.
The most worrisome of these is the effect of too much vitamin D on calcification of the cardiovascular system.
Cardiovascular disease is already the number one killer in industrialized nations. We don’t need to add to the risks of developing it.
Take D with care
As much as we think we know about the human body, we still have more to learn.
For instance, just when we thought we had human anatomy all figured out, a “new” ligament appeared in the knee. (Of course, it had been there all along.)
And when it comes to human physiology and biochemistry, as well as the role that nutrition and individual nutrients play in our bodies, we know even less.
The point of this article is not to frighten you away from vitamin D supplements.
Vitamin D deficiency is a real phenomenon and a real risk to health, so we need to ensure that we’re getting enough of this important nutrient.
At the same time, we also need to:
question the possible long-term consequences of high dose vitamin D supplementation in isolation;
consider the role of other key nutrients that work together with vitamin D; and
always look for the underlying cause of any deficiency symptoms.
What should you do?
1. Get enough vitamin D… but not too much.
Doses of around 1,000 IUs per day — even as high as 2,000 IUs a day in the winter months when you’re not exposed to much sunlight — are likely safe. Especially when other key nutrients are included, such as vitamin K, vitamin A, and magnesium. You can ensure you are getting enough of these by taking a quality multi-vitamin .
Avoid vitamin over-dosing. While it’s clear that the previous recommendation of 200 IUs a day is probably too low, until more conclusive research on long term high-dose vitamin D supplementation has been completed, you should avoid taking too much.
Get outside. Yeah, it’s not a perfect system, especially in winter months. But sunlight is still the best way for our bodies to make and regulate vitamin D.
2. Support vitamin D’s work
Remember that other nutrients act together with vitamin D. Consume a wide variety of minimally processed foods to help get vitamin D’s nutritional colleagues such as magnesium, vitamin A, and vitamin K.
Eat your greens and fermented foods. Dark leafy greens — such as kale, spinach, or Swiss chard — are good sources of vitamin K1. They’re also high in dietary magnesium. Fermented veggies such as sauerkraut along with eggs, meats (especially organ meats such as liver) and fermented/aged cheeses are good sources of vitamin K2.
Eat the rainbow. The carotenoid form of vitamin A is found in colorful fruits and veggies. Eggs, butter, full-fat dairy (such as cheese) and organ meats are also great sources of the active retinol form of vitamin A.
Keep your intestinal flora happy and healthy. Vitamin K conversion happens in the GI tract. So eat plenty of fermented foods and prebiotic fiber, consider a probiotic supplement, and avoid antibiotics unless absolutely necessary (research has found that broad-spectrum antibiotics can reduce K production by up to 75%).
Review all medications and supplements with your doctor and/or pharmacist. Many medications, such as corticosteroids like Prednisone, weight loss drugs like Orlistat, cholesterol-blocking drugs like statins, and/or high blood pressure drugs like thiazide diuretics can disrupt the delicate balance of vitamin and mineral regulation in the body. Make sure you know all the side effects and interactions of any medications (or “healthy” supplements) you are taking.
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Elvis Presley played the role of Clint Reno in which 1956 film? | Love Me Tender : 20th Century Fox 1956 : Elvis' Movies : 1956 Elvis Presley. : 'For Elvis Fans Only' Official Elvis Presley Fan Club
Love Me Tender - 20th Century Fox
Elvis' first movie, 'Love Me Tender'.
Love Me Tender premiered Nov. 15, 1956 at New York's Paramount Theater.
Love Me Tender is a western drama set immediately after the Civil War. In Elvis Presley's first film, he appears in the secondary role of Clint Reno. This was the only time in his acting career that Elvis received second billing. Clint, the youngest of the four Reno brothers, stayed behind to run the family farm during the war while his older brothers were off fighting for the Confederacy.
Star Richard Egan plays Vance Reno, the eldest brother whom the family believes to have been killed in battle. Upon returning home, Vance is shocked to discover that Clint has married Vance's former sweetheart, Cathy, played by Debra Paget. The love triangle, complicated by the greedy actions of some unscrupulous ex-Confederates, eventually pits brother against brother, resulting in Clint's death. The downbeat ending is tempered by the brothers' reconciliation as Clint dies in Cathy's arms.
Actor Richard Egan who played Vance Reno, older brother to Elvis' character, Clint, was a high ranking officer in the U.S. Army during W.W.II. He received a master's degree at Stanford and taught school at Northwestern before deciding to become an actor. He won a Golden Globe award in 1953 as Most Promising Male Newcomer.
Neville Brand played Mike Gavin, the man who shot and killed Elvis' character.
Brand had joined the Army in 1939, intending to make it his career, and became the fourth most decorated GI in World War II. While in the army he made his acting debut in army training films, which changed the direction of his life. Brand went on to play in 79 movie roles and 29 TV roles. His heavy features and gravel voice made him a natural tough guy. He would play gangster Al Capone in four different projects.
Mildred Dunnock played Elvis' mother.
Dunnock was nominated twice for the Best Supporting Actress Oscar - first for Death Of A Salesman (1951) and then for Baby Doll (1956). She was a schoolteacher before becoming a character actress.
Bruce Bennett played Major Kincaid. Bruce Bennett was his name as an actor. Before that he was known as Herman Brix, a silver medal winner for shot put in the 1928 Olympics. He was personally picked by Tarzan creator Edgar Rice Burroughs to follow in the footsteps of fellow Olympic stars Johnny Weissmuller and Buster Crabbe to play the role of Tarzan on the silver screen. He would go on to play in 119 movies.
Barry Coe, who played Mr. Davis, won a Golden Globe in 1959 as Most Promising Male Newcomer, nominated with Troy Donahue, George Hamilton and James Shigeta. Shigeta's greatest fame came with the film Flower Drum Song and he later co-starred with Elvis in the film ' Paradise, Hawaiian Style '
Producer David Weisbart would go on to produce three more Elvis movies: ' Flaming Star ', ' Follow That Dream ' and ' Kid Galahad '. Weisbart's credits included producing Rebel Without A Cause (1955) and an Oscar nomination for Best Editing for Johnny Belinda (1948).
Writer Robert Buckner had won both a Writers Guild Of America award and a Golden Globe award for Bright Victory (1951) and had received an Oscar nomination for writing for the film Yankee Doodle Dandy.
Behind The Scenes of Love Me Tender
Elvis' first experience as a Hollywood actor was closely followed in the entertainment press from the day he was assigned a role in Love Me Tender until the day the film was released. The close scrutiny affected the outcome of the film in several ways. Originally called The Reno Brothers, this western drama was retitled after a number of articles announced that advanced sales for 'Love Me Tender' -- one of the songs recorded for the film -- exceeded a million copies. It was the first time advanced sales for a single release had ever surpassed the million mark, and the producers capitalized on the publicity by changing the film's title.
The enormous amount of press coverage also affected the film's conclusion. During production, fanzines leaked that Elvis's character was supposed to die near the end of the film. As originally shot, the final scene features Mother Reno solemnly ringing the dinner bell as her three remaining sons toil in the fields. Pain and loss are registered on the faces of Mother Reno and Cathy, who mourn the death of Clint. Elvis' legion of fans were disturbed by the news that their idol was to be killed off in his first film.
In an attempt to counter an 'adverse public reaction,' Twentieth Century-Fox shot an alternative ending in which Clint is spared. For reasons known only to the producers, this second ending was rejected. A compromise ending was used instead. Clint is killed as called for in the original script, but the final shot superimposed a ghostly close-up of Elvis as Clint crooning 'Love Me Tender' as his family slowly walks away from his grave. The fans were then left with a final image of Elvis doing what he was famous for -- singing.
Prior to the film's premiere at the Paramount Theater in New York, a 40-foot likeness of Elvis as Clint Reno was erected atop the theater's marquee. Part of the ceremony surrounding the unveiling of the huge cutout included placing the world's largest charm bracelet, which measured nine feet, around the figure's wrist. The charms depicted various events in Elvis's career, and the bracelet was a giant replica of one being merchandised across the country. Some fans attending the unveiling carried placards that complained about Elvis's on-screen death, but Presley biographers have speculated that Colonel Tom Parker, the singer's notorious manager, passed them out to garner even more publicity.
If the promotion surrounding Love Me Tender generated excitement among Elvis fans, it generated loathing among the critics. Reviewers around the country were lying in wait for the film, and many were brutal in their assessment of Elvis' performance. In a particularly scathing review for Time magazine, one critic compared Elvis' acting and screen presence to that of a sausage, a 'Walt Disney goldfish,' a corpse, and a cricket -- all in the same brief review. Many did not confine their criticism to Elvis' screen performance. Critics used the opportunity to reiterate the same complaints the Establishment had always hurled at Elvis, including his singing style, his hair, his Southern background, and his fanatical following.
If Elvis cried over the mean-spirited reviews, then he cried all the way to the bank. The film recouped its production costs within three days of release, guaranteeing that Elvis' Hollywood future would be lucrative.
Soundtrack
| Love Me Tender |
In the NATO phonetic alphabet, the letter ‘Z’ is represented by which word? | 1
Producer
- David Weisbart
Title was changed from "The Reno Brothers" to promote the title song sung by Elvis Presley.
Of all the movies starring Elvis Presley, this is the only one in which he didn't get top billing. He was billed third, after Richard Egans and Debra Paget.
The footage of Elvis Presley singing 'Love Me Tender' at the end was shot after preview audiences reacted badly to his character's fate. This new footage created a continuity error, as Elvis had dyed his hair black by the time of the additional shooting, while in the movie his hair color was closer to blonde.
Elvis Presley's real-life backing musicians Scotty Moore, Bill Black and D.J. Fontana were not allowed to play the roles of the band in the movie because according to the casting crew they didn't look like country musicians.
The part of "Clint Reno" was originally offered to 20th Century-Fox contract players Robert Wagner and Jeffrey Hunter and also actor Cameron Mitchell before Presley got it on loan to Fox from Hal B. Wallis to whom he was under contract.
Elvis Presley is credited as co-writer of the film's four songs, but in fact had little to do with writing them; it was just for purposes of royalties. Elvis did reveal at a 1968 press conference , when asked about his 'lack of songwriting, in general' that he did contribute one line of lyrics to the title song, 'Love Me Tender'.
A record number of prints of 'Love Me Tender' were struck in 1956 to accommodate the demand for Elvis Presley's movie debut.
Extra scenes and lines were added for Elvis Presley's character, which was originally supposed to be a minor role before he got the part.
When the film played in theaters, Elvis Presley's fans were screaming so loud that audiences couldn't hear any of his lines.
In its opening weekend film it shot to #2 in Variety's list. Only James Deans' film Giant had more viewers.
The film was produced by 20th Century-Fox but the premiere was at the Paramount Theater on Broadway in New York City. Thousands of fans were outside the building on the night of premiere. A huge paperboard with the image of Elvis Presley was on the outside of the building.
Made back its production cost - approximately $1,000,000 - on its opening weekend.
Although this started out as a "B" feature, it wound up costing approximately $1,000,000. It reportedly made its production cost back in only the first three days of release.
Elvis Presley was later offered the starring role in director Robert D. Webb's next film, The Way To The Gold, but 20th Century-Fox refused to pay the $250,000 plus 50% of the profits that Elvis' manager asked (Fox had offered $150,000 plus 50%).
The title song, "Love Me Tender" was taken from the Civil War ballad "Aure Lea", written by W. W. Fosdick (words) and George R. Poulton (music). That song first appeared on the screen in 1936 sung by a Francis Farmer in "Come And Get It". It was adopted, almost from its' beginning, as the "school song" of The West Point Military Academy and was part of the soundtrack for The West Point Story and The Long Grey Line (1954).
Possibly the first American film to use a 'Squib hit' on an actor (using an explosive under clothing with a blood pack to simulate a bullet hit).
In the scene where Cathy Reno is at the window crying, a car can be seen in the background.
A Confederate soldier zips up the pants that were taken off Northern soldiers, before zippers were invented.
When the locomotive engineer is ordered to halt his train, he applies an air brake.
Elvis' hair is black during the final 'Love Me Tender' reprise, but closer to blonde in the rest of the film.
Love Me Tender is a western drama set immediately after the Civil War. In Elvis Presley's first film, he appears in the secondary role of Clint Reno. This was the only time in his acting career that Elvis received second billing. Clint, the youngest of the four Reno brothers, stayed behind to run the family farm during the war while his older brothers were off fighting for the Confederacy.
Star Richard Egan plays Vance Reno, the eldest brother whom the family believes to have been killed in battle. Upon returning home, Vance is shocked to discover that Clint has married Vance's former sweetheart, Cathy, played by Debra Paget. The love triangle, complicated by the greedy actions of some unscrupulous ex-Confederates, eventually pits brother against brother, resulting in Clint's death. The downbeat ending is tempered by the brothers' reconciliation as Clint dies in Cathy's arms.
Actor Richard Egan who played Vance Reno, older brother to Elvis' character, Clint, was a high ranking officer in the U.S. Army during W.W.II. He received a master's degree at Stanford and taught school at Northwestern before deciding to become an actor. He won a Golden Globe award in 1953 as Most Promising Male Newcomer.
Neville Brand played Mike Gavin, the man who shot and killed Elvis' character. Brand had joined the Army in 1939, intending to make it his career, and became the fourth most decorated GI in World War II. While in the army he made his acting debut in army training films, which changed the direction of his life. Brand went on to play in 79 movie roles and 29 TV roles. His heavy features and gravel voice made him a natural tough guy. He would play gangster Al Capone in four different projects.
Mildred Dunnock played Elvis' mother. Dunnock was nominated twice for the Best Supporting Actress Oscar - first for Death Of A Salesman (1951) and then for Baby Doll (1956). She was a schoolteacher before becoming a character actress.
Bruce Bennett played Major Kincaid. Bruce Bennett was his name as an actor. Before that he was known as Herman Brix, a silver medal winner for shot put in the 1928 Olympics. He was personally picked by Tarzan creator Edgar Rice Burroughs to follow in the footsteps of fellow Olympic stars Johnny Weissmuller and Buster Crabbe to play the role of Tarzan on the silver screen. He would go on to play in 119 movies.
Barry Coe, who played Mr. Davis, won a Golden Globe in 1959 as Most Promising Male Newcomer, nominated with Troy Donahue, George Hamilton and James Shigeta. Shigeta's greatest fame came with the film Flower Drum Song and he later co-starred with Elvis in the film Paradise Hawaiian Style.
Producer David Weisbart would go on to produce three more Elvis movies: Flaming Star, Follow That Dream and Kid Galahad. Weisbart's credits included producing Rebel Without A Cause (1955) and an Oscar nomination for Best Editing for Johnny Belinda (1948).
Writer Robert Buckner had won both a Writers Guild Of America award and a Golden Globe award for Bright Victory (1951) and had received an Oscar nomination for writing for the film Yankee Doodle Dandy.
Behind The Scenes of Love Me Tender
Elvis' first experience as a Hollywood actor was closely followed in the entertainment press from the day he was assigned a role in Love Me Tender until the day the film was released. The close scrutiny affected the outcome of the film in several ways. Originally called The Reno Brothers, this western drama was retitled after a number of articles announced that advanced sales for 'Love Me Tender' -- one of the songs recorded for the film -- exceeded a million copies. It was the first time advanced sales for a single release had ever surpassed the million mark, and the producers capitalized on the publicity by changing the film's title.
The enormous amount of press coverage also affected the film's conclusion. During production, fanzines leaked that Elvis's character was supposed to die near the end of the film. As originally shot, the final scene features Mother Reno solemnly ringing the dinner bell as her three remaining sons toil in the fields. Pain and loss are registered on the faces of Mother Reno and Cathy, who mourn the death of Clint. Elvis' legion of fans were disturbed by the news that their idol was to be killed off in his first film.
In an attempt to counter an 'adverse public reaction,' Twentieth Century-Fox shot an alternative ending in which Clint is spared. For reasons known only to the producers, this second ending was rejected. A compromise ending was used instead. Clint is killed as called for in the original script, but the final shot superimposed a ghostly close-up of Elvis as Clint crooning 'Love Me Tender' as his family slowly walks away from his grave. The fans were then left with a final image of Elvis doing what he was famous for...singing.
Prior to the film's premiere at the Paramount Theater in New York, a 40-foot likeness of Elvis as Clint Reno was erected atop the theater's marquee. Part of the ceremony surrounding the unveiling of the huge cutout included placing the world's largest charm bracelet, which measured nine feet, around the figure's wrist. The charms depicted various events in Elvis's career, and the bracelet was a giant replica of one being merchandised across the country. Some fans attending the unveiling carried placards that complained about Elvis's on-screen death, but Presley biographers have speculated that Colonel Tom Parker, the singer's notorious manager, passed them out to garner even more publicity.
If the promotion surrounding Love Me Tender generated excitement among Elvis fans, it generated loathing among the critics. Reviewers around the country were lying in wait for the film, and many were brutal in their assessment of Elvis' performance. In a particularly scathing review for Time magazine, one critic compared Elvis' acting and screen presence to that of a sausage, a 'Walt Disney goldfish,' a corpse, and a cricket -- all in the same brief review. Many did not confine their criticism to Elvis' screen performance. Critics used the opportunity to reiterate the same complaints the Establishment had always hurled at Elvis, including his singing style, his hair, his Southern background, and his fanatical following.
If Elvis cried over the mean-spirited reviews, then he cried all the way to the bank. The film recouped its production costs within three days of release, guaranteeing that Elvis' Hollywood future would be lucrative.
The Story Behind The Song: Love Me Tender
Written by George R Poulton, Vera Matson, Elvis Presley, 1956.
Elvis Presley might not have had one of his hit records if the Poulton family hadn't left England in 1835 to seek a new life in America. They settled in Lansburgh, New York, where young George learnt violin and piano, and hoped to move into conducting. At the age of 12 he also tried composing and, over the next two decades, had more than 20 songs published.
It was the age of minstrel shows, which often featured jaunty, upbeat songs. With this in mind, Poulton composed a tune, with words by lyricist William Whiteman Fosdick, which would be a contrast - a simple sentimental ballad with the highly traditional theme of a beautiful young woman with shining hair.
They called the song Aura Lee and it was published and copyrighted in Cincinnati in 1861: As the blackbird in the spring, 'Neath the willow tree Sat and pip'd I heard him sing Sing-ing Aura Lee.
Aura Lee! Aura Lee!
Maid of golden hair; Sunshine came along with thee, And swallows in the air.
Although Aura Lee was successful as a minstrel song, it gained unexpected popularity with the trainee soldiers at West Point, where it quickly became a graduating class song and gained new words (by LW Becklaw), soon becoming known as Army Blue. The song was also known later as The Violet and The Girl With the Golden Hair.
Soon after Aura Lee was released, the American Civil War began. Music is often part of war. Certain music gains a special currency among the combatants - and so it was with this conflict. Drums, fifes, fiddles, banjos and brass were played by camp fires, at ceremonies, while marching, and even during battle.
Aura Lee became a favourite for troops on both sides of the conflict. The image of the lovely girl was even added to another war song, The Yellow Rose of Texas: Talk about your Clementine Or sing of Aura Lee.
After the war, Aura Lee was taken up by barber-shop quartets and recorded by many artists, but its military connection still hovered. In the 1936 movie 'Come and Get It', Frances Farmer sang it as two different characters (she played a mother and daughter) in different voices.
It reappeared in 'The Last Musketeer' (1952) and 'The Long Grey Line' used it as a West Point song, under the titles, in 1955. Only a year later, Poulton's melody was to be launched to a much wider international audience.
An entertainment phenomenon called Elvis Presley had caused musical hysteria with his recording of Blue Suede Shoes - a hysteria that gained momentum through Heartbreak Hotel, then Hound Dog. With the royalties from these successes, Elvis bought a roomy house in Audubon Drive, Memphis and, having reached impressive heights in recording and television studios, started to cast his eye on a possible movie career.
With the doubtful guidance of Col. Tom Parker, a Dutch immigrant made an honorary colonel, in 1956 Elvis was contracted into his first role, in a movie to be called Love Me Tender. And it was decided that in it he would sing his first-ever non-rock ballad.
So a song was needed. The music director on the movie was Ken Darby, who found the 95-year-old melody Aura Lee. The simple tune needed no restructuring, but new words were called for. It is believed that Darby himself was responsible for the revised lyrics, but he gave the credits to his wife Vera Matson - and Presley. So was born the song Love Me Tender.
Elvis recorded it in August 1956 on a large sound stage without his usual band and backing singers. The second take was declared satisfactory and Love Me Tender was unleashed on a Presley-enthusiastic world. It topped the Billboard chart, remaining number one for five weeks.
Presley and his manager had no compunction about rearranging existing songs to suit themselves. Wooden Heart was a combination of new English words added to the German tune Muss Ich Denn, the French Plaisir d'amour became Can't Help Falling in Love and It's Now or Never was a rewrite of O Sole Mio.
After Presley, other artists stepped up to the recording mic with Love Me Tender: Connie Francis, the Platters, Tony Bennett, Marty Robbins, Kenny Rogers, Engelbert Humperdinck, Paul Anka, Ray Conniff, the Lettermen, Linda Ronstadt, even Frank Sinatra. It was difficult, however, to escape the shadow cast by Presley's intimate and huskily crooned performance.
• Elvis Presley Pedia - www.elvispresleypedia.com �
Copyright � Elvis, Elvis Presley and Heartbreak Hotel are registered trademarks of Elvis Presley Enterprises.
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‘Connubial’ relates to which type of relationship? | Conjugal - definition of conjugal by The Free Dictionary
Conjugal - definition of conjugal by The Free Dictionary
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/conjugal
Related to conjugal: conjugal rights
con·ju·gal
Of or relating to marriage or the relationship of spouses.
[Latin coniugālis, from coniūnx, coniug-, spouse, from coniungere, to join in marriage; see conjoin.]
con′ju·gal′i·ty (-găl′ĭ-tē) n.
con′ju·gal·ly adv.
conjugal
(Sociology) of or relating to marriage or a married couple's relationship: conjugal rights.
[C16: from Latin conjugālis, from conjunx wife or husband, from conjungere to unite; see conjoin]
conjugality n
1. of, pertaining to, or characteristic of marriage.
2. of or pertaining to the relation of husband and wife.
[1535–45; < Latin conjugālis <conjug-, conju(n)x spouse < con- con - + jugum yoke ]
con`ju•gal′i•ty, n.
con′ju•gal•ly, adv.
conjugal
- From Latin conjugare, "join together (in marriage)"—from com-, "together," and jugare, "yoke"—it has an underlying notion of "joining together."
See also related terms for joining .
ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend:
Adj.
1.
conjugal - of or relating to marriage or to the relationship between a wife and husband; "connubial bliss"; "conjugal visits"
connubial
conjugal
adjective marital , nuptial , matrimonial , married , wedded , bridal , spousal , connubial A woman's refusal to allow her husband his conjugal rights was once grounds for divorce.
conjugal
[ˈkɒndʒʊgəl] adj [rights, duties] → conjugal (e)
conjugal
adj rights, bliss, duties → ehelich ; state → Ehe- ; conjugal affection → Gattenliebe f
conjugal
conjugal
(ˈkondʒugəl) adjective
of marriage. egtelik, huweliksagtig زِيجي، زَواجي брачен conjugal manželský ehelich , Ehe-... ægteskabelig συζυγικός conyugal abieluline وابسته به زناشویی aviollinen conjugal שֶׁל נִישוּאִין विवाह संबन्धी, वैवाहिक bračni, supružni házassági mengenai perkawinan hjúskapar- coniugale 婚姻の 부부의, 결혼의 santuokinis, vedybinis laulības- suami isteri echtelijk ekteskapelig małżeński په واده پورې مربوط، دواده conjugal conjugal супружеский manželský zakonski bračni äktenskaplig ที่เกี่ยวกับความสัมพันธ์ฉันท์สามีภรรยา evliliğe ilişkin 婚姻的 подружній; шлюбний ازدواجى về hôn nhân 婚姻的
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Link to this page:
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References in classic literature ?
While Laurie and Amy were taking conjugal strolls over velvet carpets, as they set their house in order, and planned a blissful future, Mr.
View in context
It was not to be doubted that poor Harriet's attachment had been an offering to conjugal unreserve, and her own share in the story, under a colouring the least favourable to her and the most soothing to him, had in all likelihood been given also.
View in context
So spake our general Mother, and with eyes Of conjugal attraction unreprov'd, And meek surrender, half imbracing leand On our first Father, half her swelling Breast Naked met his under the flowing Gold Of her loose tresses hid: he in delight Both of her Beauty and submissive Charms Smil'd with superior Love, as JUPITER On JUNO smiles, when he impregns the Clouds That shed MAY Flowers; and press'd her Matron lip With kisses pure: aside the Devil turnd For envie, yet with jealous leer maligne Ey'd them askance, and to himself thus plaind.
| Marriage |
How many stars are on the national flag of Syria? | Guide 5289 - Sponsor your spouse, common-law partner, conjugal partner or dependent child
Sponsor your spouse, common-law partner, conjugal partner or dependent child
Complete Guide (IMM 5289)
This is not a legal document.
For legal information, see the:
You can request this publication in another format .
Before you apply
If you haven’t already, read our Basic Guide (IMM 5525) , which has all the information you need to prepare your application package.
This guide is designed to give you more detailed information and guidance. For explanations of the terms used in the application process, see Appendix A: Key definitions.
Who can use this application
Use this application if you are a Canadian citizen or a permanent resident of Canada who is 18 years of age or older and you want to sponsor:
your spouse or common-law partner who lives with you in Canada, and his or her dependent child or children
your spouse, common-law partner or conjugal partner who lives overseas, and his or her dependent child or children
your dependent child or children
Use this guide to help you prepare both your application to sponsor and your family member’s application for permanent residence.
Note: Applications to sponsor conjugal partners and dependent children are processed outside Canada.
Your obligations as a sponsor
When you agree to be a sponsor, you must sign an undertaking , promising to give financial support for the basic needs of your spouse or partner and their dependent children.
Basic needs are:
food, clothing, shelter and other needs for everyday living,
dental care, eye care and other health needs that aren’t covered by public health services.
By signing the undertaking, you must make sure the people you sponsor won’t need to ask the government for financial help. If they receive social assistance, you’ll have to pay back what they received during the undertaking period. You won’t be able to sponsor anyone else until you have repaid the amount. For more information, see the Defaults section below
The undertaking is a promise of support meaning that it will stay in effect for the length of the undertaking period even if your situation changes. The undertaking won’t be cancelled, even if:
the person you sponsor becomes a Canadian citizen
you become divorced, separated or your relationship with the sponsored person breaks down
the person you sponsor moves to another province or country
you have financial problems
May I cancel my undertaking after it’s been approved?
If you change your mind after you submit the sponsorship application and undertaking, you must write us a letter before a final decision is taken on the file. You can only withdraw an undertaking if the Case Processing Centre in Mississauga (CPC-M) agrees to the withdrawal. See Step 6 to find out where to mail your letter .
Length of undertaking
Your obligations as a sponsor start as soon as the undertaking is in effect. Read the information below to see how long your undertaking will be valid.
Your spouse, common-law partner or conjugal partner
Length of undertaking is 3 years from the day your spouse, common-law partner or conjugal partner becomes a permanent resident.
Dependent child over 19 years of age
Length of undertaking is 3 years from the day your dependent child (or the dependent child of your spouse, common-law partner or conjugal partner) over 19 years of age becomes a permanent resident.
Dependent child under 19 years of age
Length of undertaking is 10 years from the day your dependent child (or the dependent child of your spouse, common-law partner or conjugal partner) under 19 years of age becomes a permanent resident, or until the child becomes 22 years old, whichever comes first. The length of undertaking for residents of Quebec is slightly different.
Note: You will be in default if your relative gets social assistance from the government while the undertaking is in effect.
Are you eligible to sponsor?
To sponsor, you must…
be a Canadian citizen, a person registered in Canada as an Indian under the Canadian Indian Act or permanent resident,
be 18 years of age or older,
live in Canada or have proof, if you are a Canadian citizen living outside of Canada, that you will live in Canada after the sponsored person becomes a permanent resident,
sign an undertaking promising to provide for your family member’s basic needs and, if it applies to you, those of any dependent children,
If you live in Quebec, you must also meet Quebec’s conditions to be a sponsor ,
prove that you have enough income to provide basic needs for your spouse or partner’s dependent children. This means meeting or exceeding a minimum necessary income, which is an amount published yearly by the Canadian government. You must submit documents showing your financial resources for the past 12 months only if the spouse or partner you are sponsoring has a grandchild who is coming with them (see subsection 1(3) of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Regulations (IRPR) for more information). You would not provide those documents to IRCC if you live in Quebec.
You may not be able to sponsor if you…
signed an undertaking for a previous spouse or partner and and it has not been three years since he or she became a permanent resident,
receive social assistance for a reason other than disability,
previously sponsored someone and did not pay back any social assistance that they received while the undertaking was in place.
are in default on an immigration loan or a performance bond
did not pay court-ordered alimony or child support
For more information. See Defaults below.
have declared bankruptcy which has not been discharged
were convicted of
For more information. See Sponsorship Bar for Violent Crime
were previously sponsored as a spouse, common-law or conjugal partner and became a permanent resident of Canada less than five years ago,
For more information. See Five-year Sponsorship Bar
are under a removal order,
are in a penitentiary, jail, reformatory or prison,
have already applied to sponsor your current spouse or partner and haven’t received a decision.
Sponsoring if you live outside Canada
If you are a Canadian citizen living outside Canada, you can sponsor a spouse, a common-law partner or conjugal partner, or a dependent child who has no children of his or her own. However, you must show that you will live in Canada when the sponsored person becomes a permanent resident.
Note: Permanent residents living abroad may not sponsor from outside of Canada. Canadian citizens travelling as tourists are not considered to be living abroad.
Defaults
A previous sponsorship undertaking
If family members you sponsored in the past got social assistance or welfare while the undertaking was valid, you can’t sponsor until:
you repay the full amount of any social assistance or welfare payment or
repay the debt to the satisfaction of the government authority that issued the benefit or ordered you to pay.
See appendix D to find out how to repay the money owed.
An immigration loan
If you got a transportation, assistance or right of permanent residence fee (previously called the right of landing fee) loan and have missed payments:
You can’t sponsor if you are in default of your loan. For more information, contact us .
Support payment obligations
If you were ordered by a court to make support payments to a spouse or child and haven’t made payments:
You can’t sponsor until you resolve the family support matter.
A performance bond
If you agreed to pay money to guarantee that an immigrant would fulfil his or her obligations under immigration legislation:
You can’t sponsor until you pay the full amount of the bond.
Five-year sponsorship bar for people who were sponsored to come to Canada as a spouse or partner
If a spouse or partner sponsored you, you cannot sponsor a new spouse or partner within five years of becoming a permanent resident.
This rule applies even if you got your Canadian citizenship within those five years. Other members of the Family Class will not be affected by the rule change.
Spouses and partners sponsored before
Date IRCC got your sponsorship application
Are you eligible to sponsor someone?
Before March 2, 2012
The five-year sponsorship bar does not apply, no matter when you became a permanent resident.
On or after March 2, 2012
The five-year sponsorship bar applies. You cannot sponsor someone until you have been a permanent resident for five years.
Sponsorship bar for violent crime
The sponsorship bar prevents people who have been convicted of certain crimes from sponsoring a family member.
If you have been convicted of a crime that caused bodily harm to any of the relatives listed below, you can’t sponsor anyone under the Family Class.
Note:
“Partner” includes common-law and conjugal partners.
Relatives not listed here may still fall under this category. If you are not sure, check the full list of rules or contact us .
Relatives the sponsorship bar can apply to:
your current or ex-spouse/partner and/or their children,
your children,
your parent/grandparent, child/grandchild, sibling, niece/nephew, aunt/uncle, or cousin, or
the current or ex-spouse/partner and children of the above
the parent/grandparent, child/grandchild, sibling, niece/nephew, aunt/uncle, or cousin of your current or ex-spouse/partner or children, or
the current or ex-spouse/partner and children of any of the above
your child’s spouse, partner or children,
your spouse’s, partner’s or child’s ex-spouse or ex-partner and children,
your partner’s parent/grandparent, child/grandchild, sibling, niece/nephew, aunt/uncle, or cousin, or
the current or ex-spouse/partner (and their children)of any of the above,
a foster child who is or was cared for by
you,
your current or ex-spouse/partner or their children,
your parent/grandparent, child/grandchild, sibling, aunt/uncle or cousin, or
the current or ex-spouse/partner (and their children) of any of the above, or
your current or ex-boyfriend/girlfriend, their spouse or common-law partner, and their dependent children.
Who can you sponsor?
Using this application, you can sponsor your spouse, common-law partner, or conjugal partner who is at least 18 years old, or your dependent child. (If you’re sponsoring an adopted child, use the sponsorship package for adopted children .) The person you are sponsoring and their family members will need to pass background, security and medical checks.
Identifying the class of application
If you are sponsoring your conjugal partner or dependent child, you must submit an application under the Family Class.
If you are sponsoring your spouse or common-law partner, you may sponsor them under the Family Class or under the Spouse or Common-Law Partner in Canada Class.
For sponsorships of spouses and common-law partners, you must specify the “Class of Application” on the checklist you submit as the covering page for your application package, i.e. on the IMM 5533 – Document Checklist – Spouse , or the IMM 5589 – Document Checklist - Common-Law Partner .
Read the information below to help you determine if your spouse or common-law partner should apply under the Family Class or under the Spouse or Common-Law Partner in Canada Class:
Apply under the Family Class if:
the person you want to sponsor lives outside Canada
the person you want to sponsor currently lives with you in Canada but doesn’t plan to stay in Canada while the application is being processed
you plan to appeal if the application is refused
Apply under the Spouse or Common-Law Partner in Canada Class if the person you want to sponsor:
lives with you in Canada
is eligible to become a permanent resident from within Canada
would like to apply for, and qualifies for, an Open Work Permit so that he or she can work while the application is being processed
For more detailed information about the requirements for these classes, see Part 7 of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Regulations:
for requirements to sponsor a spouse or common-law partner under the Family Class, see Part 7, Division 1
for requirements to sponsor under the Spouse or Common-Law Partner in Canada class, see Part 7, Division 2
Sponsoring your spouse, common-law partner or conjugal partner
If you are married
You can sponsor the person as your spouse if your marriage is a legally valid civil marriage.
Opposite and same-sex marriages:
will be recognized for immigration purposes, where the marriage:
was legally performed in Canada, or
if performed outside of Canada, the marriage must be legally recognized in the country where it took place and in Canada.
Note: IRCC no longer recognizes marriages performed outside of Canada by proxy, telephone, fax, Internet and other forms of marriage where one or both persons were not physically present at the ceremony. For more information, see Operational Bulletin 613 .
If you are in a common-law relationship
You can sponsor the person as your common-law partner (same or opposite sex) as long as you have been living or have lived with your partner for at least 12 consecutive months in a marriage-like relationship.
To show that you are in a common-law relationship, submit proof that you:
share or have shared the same home,
support each other financially and emotionally,
have children together (if applicable),
present yourselves in public as a couple.
If you are in conjugal relationship
A conjugal partner is:
a person who is living outside Canada,
in a conjugal relationship with the sponsor for at least one year, and
could not live with the sponsor as a couple because of reasons beyond their control (e.g. immigration barrier, religious reasons or sexual orientation).
This term applies to both opposite and same-sex couples.
You can sponsor a conjugal partner if:
there is a significant degree of attachment between the two of you, implying not just a physical relationship but a mutually interdependent relationship, and
you have been in a genuine (real) relationship for at least 12 months where marriage or cohabitation (living together) has not been possible because of barriers such as sexual orientation, religious faith, etc.
Sponsoring your spouse or common-law partner who lives with you in Canada
You can apply under the Spouse or Common-Law Partner in Canada class if your spouse or common-law partner cohabits (lives) with you in Canada and has temporary resident status.
Your spouse or common-law partner can’t become a permanent resident in Canada if he or she is inadmissible for any reason other than not having legal immigration status in Canada. A public policy also covers spouses and common-law partners who will be assessed for permanent residence even if they have no legal immigration status in Canada. Before applying, your spouse or common-law partner in Canada must resolve any other situation that made them inadmissible.
To qualify under the Spouse or Common-Law Partner in Canada class, the sponsored person must:
be the spouse or common-law partner of a Canadian citizen or permanent resident in Canada and
have legal immigration status
Important information: To continue to work and study in Canada, your spouse or common-law partner must apply for an extension before their work or study permit expires.
Leaving Canada can automatically cancel temporary resident status as a visitor, student or worker.
If your spouse or common-law partner leaves Canada before becoming a permanent resident, he or she may not be allowed to come back. This is especially true if they need a Temporary Resident Visa to enter Canada.
If the sponsored person can’t return to Canada, you must submit a new application to the Case Processing Centre in Mississauga (CPC-M).
Sponsoring your dependent children
You can sponsor your dependent children outside Canada who meet the following definition:
Definitions of dependent children (types 1 and 2)
Your child or the child of your spouse or common-law partner can be considered a dependent child if that child meets the requirements of type 1 or 2 below:
Type 1
The child is under the age of 19 and is single (not married and not in a common-law relationship).
Type 2
The child is 19 years of age or older and has been financially dependent on a parent since before the age of 19 because of a physical or mental condition.
Note: These requirements must be met on the day the Case Processing Centre receives your application. Whether or not they have reached the age of 19, children falling under type 1 must not be married or be in a common-law relationship when the visa is issued and when they enter Canada.
The person you are sponsoring has a child in the sole custody of a previous spouse. Do they need to include this child in their application?
Yes. Children in the custody of a previous spouse or partner are considered dependent children.
Even if there is a written agreement or court order to show that the sponsored person does not have custody or responsibility, the child must be listed on the application and must be examined.
Doing this gives the sponsored person the possibility to sponsor their child as a member of the family class in the future, when there may be changes to the custody or living arrangements. In addition to your ability to sponsor them in the future, failure to declare and have family members examined will affect your own application.
Passports for family members
The person you are sponsoring and their accompanying family members must have valid passports or travel documents when they arrive. Any documents that are about to expire should be renewed. The person being sponsored should send copies of the new passport or travel document to the office processing the application.
Diplomatic, official, service or public affairs passports cannot be used to immigrate to Canada. The person being sponsored must have a valid regular or private passport when they arrive.
Note: The validity of a visa may be affected by the validity of the passport.
How long is a permanent resident visa valid?
A permanent resident visa is issued for a period not extending beyond the earliest expiry date of the sponsored person’s (and any family members):
medical results
passports
Important information: Once issued, permanent resident visas cannot be extended. If applicants do not use the visas within their validity period, they must re-apply for immigration to Canada. Their sponsor will have to submit a new sponsorship application and pay new processing fees.
Criminality
Generally, people with criminal convictions are not allowed to come to Canada.
Convictions or offences outside Canada
If the person you are sponsoring is outside Canada and has committed or has been convicted of a crime outside Canada, he or she may be able to overcome this criminal inadmissibility. This section does not apply to anyone applying from within Canada and with a conviction or offense outside Canada. Find out how to overcome criminal convictions .
The person can apply for rehabilitation either:
before you submit the sponsorship application, or
by submitting the rehabilitation application with your application for sponsorship. If you choose this option, we will assess your eligibility as a sponsor and do the first assessment of the permanent resident application. However, we will only assess the sponsored person’s admissibility after they get a decision about their rehabilitation application.
If the offence would have been prosecuted summarily in Canada, and if the person was convicted of two or more of these offences, the period for rehabilitation is at least five years after they have finished serving the sentences.
Convictions or offences in Canada
If the person has a criminal conviction in Canada, he or she must ask for a record suspension (formerly a pardon) from the Parole Board of Canada (PBC) before becoming admissible to Canada.
The sponsored person should not fill out the forms in this guide until they have their record suspension. You can ask for a Record Suspension Application Guide or for more information from:
Parole Board of Canada
Clemency and Record Suspension Division
410 Laurier Avenue West
Telephone: 1-800-874-2652 (callers in Canada and the United States only)
Fax: 1-613-941-4981
Website: http://pbc-clcc.gc.ca/index-eng.shtml
(You can download the instructional guide and application forms from the website)
To be considered for a record suspension under the Criminal Records Act, a set period of time must pass after the end of the sentence. The sentence may have been payment of a fine, period of probation, or a prison term.
Note: Once you have a copy of the record suspension, send a photocopy to a Canadian visa office or an IRCC Centre. If the sponsored person is travelling to Canada, he or she should carry a copy of the record suspension.
If the person has had two or more summary convictions in Canada, he or she may no longer be inadmissible if:
at least five years have passed since they finished serving all sentences
they have had no other convictions.
Important information: See Eligibility for Rehabilitation for a summary of the type of offences and length of rehabilitation periods.
Police certificates
Sponsored spouses, partners and dependent children do not have to include police certificates with their application package. Once the application is being processed, we will ask for police certificates from:
the principal applicant
all family members over the age of 18 (whether they will accompany the principal applicant to Canada or not)
When we ask you for police certificates at this stage, you’ll have to submit them for:
the country where you currently live, if you have lived there for six months or more; and
the country where you have spent most of your adult life since the age of 18.
The same applies to your family members who need to submit police certificates.
If you (or your family members) can’t get a police certificate for the two situations above, you must explain in writing why you can’t provide one. You should also include any supporting documents you already have to support your explanation. We will review your explanation and let you know if we need more information or documentation.
Note: Some countries need a consent form from IRCC to issue police certificates. Find out if the country you need a police certificate from requires a consent form. If so, you should submit the consent form to us in place of the police certificate. We will assess the consent form and start the police certificate request.
If the original certificate is not in English or French, you must submit:
the police certificate and
the original copy of the translation from a certified translator.
We will also do our own background checks to see if the person you are sponsoring and their dependants may be inadmissible to Canada.
Things that might affect you
Conditional permanent residence
If your application was received on or after October 25, 2012, the person you are sponsoring may have a condition attached to their permanent resident status. If the condition applies, the sponsored person must live with you in a legitimate relationship for two years after they become a permanent resident.
The condition applies if, at the time of your sponsorship application, the sponsored person:
is your spouse, common-law partner or conjugal partner;
has been in a relationship with you for two years or less and
has no children with you.
Examples
Condition applies if the couple:
is married for two years or less;
has been in a legitimate relationship for two years or less; or
has lived together in a common-law relationship for two years or less;
and
do not have any children together
Condition does not apply if the couple:
is married for more than two years;
have been in a conjugal relationship for more than two years;
has lived together in a common-law relationship for more than two years; or
has children together.
Find more information for Sponsored Spouses or Partners on conditional permanent residence.
Suspension of processing
Do any of these apply to you?
Your citizenship is in the process of being revoked;
You have a removal order against you;
You have failed to respect your residency conditions;
The Minister of Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship and the Minister of Public Safety signed a certificate stating you are inadmissible because of security, human or international rights violation, serious criminality or organized criminality;
You have been charged with an offence that is punishable by a maximum prison term of ten years.
If yes, we won’t start processing your sponsorship application until a final decision has been made.
If you don’t meet the sponsorship requirements
If you don’t qualify as a sponsor and chose to withdraw your sponsorship application:
you will get a refund for the permanent resident visa processing fees and any Right of Permanent Resident Fees you paid.
there will be no decision on the application for permanent residence of the person you are sponsoring
you will not have a right of appeal.
If you fix the situation that made you ineligible to sponsor, you can reapply at a later date.
If you don’t qualify as a sponsor and indicate you want to continue processing:
we will process the application for the person you are sponsoring.
we will likely refuse the application for permanent residence and tell you in writing if you have a right to appeal.
Note: You can tell CPC-M of your plan by checking the correct box under question 1 (on part 1 of the form) on your Application to Sponsor, Sponsorship Agreement and Undertaking (IMM 1344).
Sponsors living in Quebec
The province of Quebec has its own immigration rules. Find out how to sponsor someone if you live in Quebec .
If you live in Quebec:
you must first send your application to the Case Processing Centre in Mississauga (CPC-M).
if you meet the federal requirements to apply for sponsorship, CPC-M will send you an email or letter with instructions to download Quebec’s sponsorship kit.
fill out and submit Quebec’s undertaking kit. You must attach a copy of CPC-M’s email or letter to the undertaking application that you submit to the Quebec government.
If your spouse's or partner's dependent child has dependent children of his or her own, you must show your financial ability to meet the terms of the sponsorship undertaking.
The Quebec government will review your sponsorship application and tell you if your undertaking has been met or not. The Quebec government may deem that your sponsorship has not been met if:
you didn’t meet the terms of a sponsorship agreement in the past because the person you sponsored got social assistance and you haven’t repaid the Quebec government;
during the five years before you submitted your sponsorship application, you didn’t pay alimony or child support even though a court ordered it;
you didn’t follow other conditions imposed by the Quebec authorities or with any federal regulatory requirements, particularly if you got social assistance and aren’t exempt from that condition.
We can’t make a decision on your application until we receive Quebec’s decision about your undertaking application.
Step 1. Get your checklist
The document checklists:
tell you which forms you need
lists all the documents you must submit, and
link you to instructions to fill out each form.
Depending on your application, you will use one of these checklists:
You must print, fill out and submit a copy of this checklist with your application. Place it at the top, as the cover of your application.
Step 2. Gather documents
To make sure you send us an application with all the requested documents:
Use your checklist to make sure you send all the documents you need to submit:
For each item on the checklist, choose the situation that applies to you and check the correct box.
Only submit documents that apply to your specific situation. We will contact you if we need more information.
You must attach a certified translation, including a certified copy of the original of any documents that are not in English or French (this is normally done by a certified translator). See Translation of documents below.
Check your country-specific requirements
You will find your country specific requirements on the family sponsorship application kit webpage.
Checking your country specific requirements will help make sure you send the correct documents for each item on the checklist and will increase the chance that your application will be accepted for processing.
To see additional forms or documents required for the person being sponsored (principal applicant) and his or her family members, select the country where they reside.
You may need to follow special instructions about specific documents based on the country you’ll get the documents from. For example, there are specific requirements for civil documents from different countries (e.g. birth certificates, other proof of identity, child custody documentation, family booklets, etc.).
To see instructions about specific documents, select the country where the document is issued. For example, if you are living in the United States but you are submitting a birth certificate issued in the Philippines, check the requirements for “Philippines” to make sure the document you are submitting is the right one.
Note: your application will be returned if any of the requested documents are missing (see section 10 of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Regulations ( IRPR ) for more information).
Make sure all photocopies are clear and easy to read. Other than copies of original documents used for translations, photocopies do not need to be certified. Don’t send originals unless we ask for them, because they will not be returned.
Important information: While processing your application, we may ask for more documents and there may be delays if you don’t submit them. Should you fail to respond by the deadline given, your application could be refused for not complying with an officer’s request.
Translation of documents
Any document that is not in English or French must be accompanied by:
the English or French translation; and
an affidavit from the person who completed the translation; and
a certified copy of the original document.
Translations may be done by a person who is fluent in both languages (English or French and the unofficial language). If the translation is not provided by a member in good standing of a provincial or territorial organization of translators and interpreters in Canada, the translation must be accompanied by an affidavit swearing to the accuracy of the translation and the language proficiency of the translator.
The affidavit must be sworn in the presence of:
In Canada:
a commissioner of taking affidavits
Authority to certify varies by province and territory. Consult your local provincial or territorial authorities.
Outside of Canada:
a notary public
Authority to administer oaths varies by country. Consult your local authorities.
Important information: Translations must not be done by the applicants themselves nor by members of the applicant’s family. Family member is defined as being a: parent, guardian, sibling, spouse, common-law partner, grandparent, child, aunt, uncle, niece, nephew and first cousin.
Note: An affidavit is a document on which the translator has sworn, in the presence of a person authorized to administer oaths in the country in which the translator is living, that the contents of their translation are a true translation and representation of the contents of the original document. Translators who are certified members in good standing of one of the provincial or territorial organizations of translators and interpreters of Canada do not need to supply an affidavit.
Certified true copies
To have a photocopy of a document certified, an authorized person must compare the original document to the photocopy and must print the following on the photocopy:
“I certify that this is a true copy of the original document”,
the name of the original document,
the date of the certification,
his or her name,
a commissioner of taking affidavits
Authority to certify varies by province and territory. Consult your local provincial or territorial authorities.
Outside Canada:
a notary public
Authority to certify international documents varies by country. Consult your local authorities.
Family members may not certify copies of your documents. Family member is defined as being a: parent, guardian, sibling, spouse, common-law partner, grandparent, child, aunt, uncle, niece, nephew and first cousin.
Step 3. Fill out the forms
Use your checklist to prepare the forms. If any requested forms are not fully completed and signed, or not included in the application package, your application will not be accepted for processing and will be returned to you.
Note: If you are less than 18 years of age, your form must be signed by one of your parents or a legal guardian.
The sponsor must fill out and sign these forms:
Important information: It is a serious offence to give false or misleading information on these forms. The information on your application may be verified.
Important information: Declaring all family members
If you are applying for permanent residence in Canada, you must declare all of your family members . There are no exceptions to the requirement to declare all family members.
In addition, all family members must be examined as part of the process of applying for permanent residence in Canada, even if they will not come to Canada with the principal applicant.
Family members who are not declared and examined are excluded from the family class, which means that they cannot be sponsored by you at a later date. Permanent residents who did not declare all their family members on their application may also be subject to enforcement proceedings that could lead to the loss of permanent resident status. Find more information about why you must declare all family members .
Validate your forms
Some forms have a “Validate” button, specifically the IMM 1344, IMM 0008 and IMM 5669. You should fill out your forms on a computer and validate them to make sure you have answered all questions. This reduces mistakes and helps you submit a form that is complete. When you click on the Validate button, any missing information will be identified by a pop-up error message or a red square aroudn the fields that need to be completed.
After being validated, the IMM 1344 and IMM 0008 will create barcode pages (see image below). Place these barcode pages on top of your application.
Be complete and accurate
Fill out all sections. If a section doesn’t apply to you, write “N/A” (not applicable). If your application is incomplete it may be returned to you (see section 10 of the IRPR for more information) and this will delay processing.
If you need more space for any section, use a separate sheet of paper. Make sure you label this sheet with your name and the question you are answering.
Use the following instructions to fill out the forms. Most of the questions on the forms are straightforward and extra instructions have only been given for some questions. You must answer all questions.
Application to Sponsor, Sponsorship Agreement and Undertaking (IMM 1344)
Who must fill out this application form?
This form must be filled out and signed by:
the sponsor,
the principal applicant (person being sponsored).
Part 1: Application to sponsor and undertaking
Question 3
You can’t have a co-signer if you are sponsoring your spouse, common-law partner or conjugal partner.
Question 4
If the person you are sponsoring doesn’t have a family name on their passport or travel document, enter all given names in the family name field and leave the given name field empty.
If the person you are sponsoring doesn’t have a given name on their passport or travel document, leave the given name field empty.
Question 5
If you don’t know the complete date of birth, use “*” (star sign/asterisk) to fill in the spaces for the year, month or day, where applicable.
Question 6
Parent
Other (do not check)
If you are a common-law or conjugal partner, give the date you entered into that conjugal relationship.
Sponsor personal details
Question 1
If you don’t have a family name on your passport or travel document, enter all your given names in the “Family Names” field and leave the given name field blank.
If you don’t have a given name on your passport or travel document, leave the “Given Name” field blank.
Question 4
If you don’t know your complete date of birth, use “*” (star sign/asterisk) to fill in the spaces for the year, month or day, where applicable.
Question 8
Tell us your current marital status. See the “Key Definitions” for explanations of the different types of marital status .
Enter the date (year, month, day) you were married or you entered into your current common-law or conjugal relationship, i.e. the date your status officially changed from being single to common-law, not the date you started living together.
Question 9
You must tell us if you were previously married or in a common-law relationship.
If you were previously married, a divorce certificate must be provided in order to proceed with your spousal sponsorship.
Sponsor contact information
Question 1
Addresses should be written out in full without using any abbreviations. Use the apartment or unit number, if applicable. Example: 999 Family Street, Unit #3, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, K3J 9T55
Tell us your current mailing address (where information should be mailed):
Post Office Box number, if you have one. If you do not have a post office box, you must provide the street number
Apartment or Unit, if you have one
Street number, you must provide this if you do not have a Post Office Box
Street name, if it applies to you
City or Town
Postal code or zip code
District, if it applies to you
Note: If you haven’t provided us with an email address, all correspondence will go to this address.
Question 6
By giving us your email address, you are hereby authorizing IRCC to send all correspondence, including your file and personal information to this specific email address. Make sure you check your spam folder in case our messages are directed there.
Sponsor residency declaration
Complete this section only if you are a Canadian citizen living outside of Canada and you are sponsoring a spouse, a common-law or conjugal partner, and dependent children who have no children of their own.
You must check the correct box to confirm where (Canadian province or territory) you plan to live if your spouse, common-law or conjugal partner and dependent children become permanent residents.
Sponsor eligibility assessment
Question 1-18
Check “Yes” or “No” in the correct boxes.
Note: Sponsors living (or who plan to live) in Quebec do not need to answer questions 8, 9, 10 and 15.
If you answer “No” to questions 1 to 3
You are not eligible to be a sponsor. You should not submit an application.
If you answer “No” to question 4, but are a Canadian citizen living outside Canada
You may submit a sponsorship for your spouse, common-law partner or conjugal partner and children who have no children of their own.
You must, however, come to Canada to live with the sponsored person. If this is your situation, complete the section “Residency Declaration”.
If you answer “Yes” to any question between 5 and 15
You are not eligible to be a sponsor. You should not submit an application.
If you answer “Yes” to questions 13, 16, 17 or 18
provide the details including date and place, and
read the section “ Suspension of processing ” for situations where processing may be suspended.
Co-signer sections
If you are sponsoring your spouse, common-law partner, or conjugal partner you can’t have a co-signer. Leave the following sections blank:
Co-signer personal details
Undertaking by sponsor (and co-signer)
This section explains what your role and responsibilities will be by submitting this application.
Part 2: Sponsorship agreement
Obligations of the sponsor and obligations of the person to be sponsored
All parties (sponsor and person to be sponsored) must read the obligations carefully.
Declaration
Read the declaration statement carefully before signing. By signing this form, you also declare that you will notify us in writing if there is any change of address and if any other information has changed on the application.
Note
This section must be signed and dated by:
the sponsor;
the co-signer (if there is one)
the sponsored person (principal applicant).
Note: A parent or legal guardian must sign on behalf of a dependent child under the age of 18, where they are the principal applicant being sponsored on an application.
The application will be returned if any signatures are missing (see section 10 of the IRPR for more information).
Sponsorship Evaluation (IMM 5481)
View form IMM 5481
Who needs to fill out this form?
The sponsor fills out this form if sponsoring only a dependent child who has no dependent children of his or her own.
If sponsoring a dependent child who has dependent children of their own, fill out the Financial Evaluation (IMM 1283) form instead.
The Sponsorship Evaluation will help us assess your past and current obligations to any sponsorship undertakings you have signed or co-signed. This form, and the supporting documents you send with your application will help us decide if you meet the residency requirement and if you are able to support the applicant.
Quebec residents do not need to fill out this form.
Question 3
Write your net (after taxes) personal income for the 12 months before the date of your application. Also write the dates of that 12-month period.
Question 5 A and B
Details of current and past undertakings.
Write the number of people included in undertakings in effect and not yet in effect.
If you have signed undertakings in the past, you must give some details about them. Follow the instructions on the form and be specific.
Question 6
Write the number of people you are financially responsible for, but who are not listed in questions 5A and 5B, if it applies to you.
Question 7
Add the number of people listed in questions 4, 5 and 6. Write the total in the box provided.
Financial Evaluation form (IMM 1283)
Who must fill out this application form?
This form must be filled out and signed by:
the person being sponsored (principal applicant)
Note: If you are submitting a sponsorship application for a dependent child, adopted child or orphan, you must complete a separate application package for each child.
Note
You must answer all questions on this application form unless instructed otherwise.
Download and fill out the application form on a computer.
You also have the option of saving your form and completing it later.
Note: Completing the form electronically is easier and reduces mistakes that can slow down the application process.
Read and follow the steps below to help you fill out the application form. Instructions have only been provided when necessary.
Application details
If you choose English or French for an interview, an interpreter won’t be needed.
If your native language isn’t in this list, choose “other”.
Question 6
If you plan to live in the Province of Quebec and are applying under a Quebec immigration program, have you received your Certificat de sélection du Québec (CSQ)?
Check “no” for Question 6 a) and leave 6 c) blank.
Principal applicant’s personal details
The person being sponsored must answer these questions.
Question 1
If you don’t have a family name on your passport or travel document, enter all given names in the family name field and leave the given name field empty.
If you don’t have a given name on your passport or travel document, leave the given name field empty.
Question 3
Write your Unique Client Identifier (UCI) or Client Identification number (Client ID), if you know it (8-digit number). Otherwise, leave it blank. If this is your first application with IRCC you won’t have a UCI or a Client ID.
Question 7
If you don’t know your complete date of birth, please use a “*” (star sign or asterisk) to fill in the spaces for the unknown year, month or day.
Question 10
Under “Other” write “Out of status, requires restoration”;
Leave the “From” and “To” boxes blank.
Question 11
Enter the date of your last entry to Canada, if this applies to you.
Write the place you last entered Canada (e.g. Toronto airport, Lacolle border crossing, seaport Yarmouth, etc.).
Question 13
From the list, choose your current marital status. For an explanation of the different types of marital status, see the Key definitions .
Contact information
Question 1
Addresses should be written out in full without using any abbreviations. Use the apartment or unit number, if applicable. Example: 999 Family Street, Unit #3, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, K3J 9T5
Write your current mailing address (where information should be mailed). Include the following:
Post Office Box number, if you have one. If you do not have a post office box, you must provide the Street number
Apartment or Unit, if this applies to you
Street number, It is the number on your house or apartment building. You must provide this if you did not type in a Post Office Box
Street name, if it applies to you
City or Town
Postal code or zip code
District, if it applies to you
Note: If you have not provided us with an email address, all correspondence will go to this address.
Question 6
By giving us your email address, you are hereby authorizing IRCC to send your file and personal information to this specific email. Make sure you check your spam folder in case our messages are directed there.
Language Details
Question 1
This question is used for information purposes only. One of Canada’s objectives for immigration is to support and assist the development of minority language communities in Canada.
Dependants
You, the principal applicant must answer each question on behalf of each of your dependants.
Note: Remember that all questions in this section are about your dependant. You must include:
your spouse or common-law partner,
all of your dependent children who are not already permanent residents or Canadian citizens, and
your spouse or common-law partner’s dependent children who are not already permanent residents or Canadian citizens.
You can add up to five dependants in this form: [IMM 0008] .
To add a new dependant to the application, click the “Add Dependant” button, located at the bottom of the page.
To remove a dependant from the application, click the “Remove Dependant” button.
If you have more than five family members, you must complete the Additional Dependants/Declaration [IMM 0008DEP] form for each additional family member to make sure everyone is included in your application.
Important
You must list all family members in your application for permanent residence, whether they are coming with you to Canada or not. You must also provide details on family members whose location is unknown (including those missing or presumed dead). If they have not been declared and examined, this may affect your application and you will not be able to sponsor them at a later date. Do not include individuals that are not members of the family class (e.g. sponsor’s parents, siblings, cousins etc.).
Dependant’s personal details
Question 1-9
Questions 1 to 9 are the same as the questions you answered for yourself. See the previous instructions to help you answer the questions for your dependants.
Question 10
Under “Other” write “Out of status, requires restoration”;
Leave the “From” and “To” boxes blank.
Consent and declaration of applicant
Read the instructions below to complete your form properly.
Once you have completed the application, click on the “Validate” button located at the top or bottom of the form. This will create a barcode page.
Note: This barcode page will not show up if you fill out your application by hand.
Print all pages of your application form.
Read all of the statements in all sections carefully and:
Note
Write your name in the space provided.
Check the correct box to tell us if you agree that the information in this application about your intended occupation, education and work experience may be shared with prospective employers to help them hire workers.
Sign and date in the spaces provided.
By signing, you certify that you fully understand the questions asked, and that the information you have given is complete, truthful, and correct. If you don’t sign and date, the application will be returned to you (see section 10 of the IRPR for more information). A parent or legal guardian must sign on behalf of a dependent child under the age of 18, if they are the principal applicant.
Place the barcode page(s) on the top of your application (forms and supporting documents) when you submit it.
Additional Dependants/Declaration (IMM 0008DEP)
Who must fill out this form?
This form must be completed by:
The person being sponsored (principal applicant), on behalf of each dependant not included in the Generic Application Form for Canada (IMM 0008).
The questions are the same that you answered for yourself and other dependants on the IMM 0008.
Follow the previous instructions to help you answer the questions.
Consent and declaration of applicant
Read all of the statements in all sections carefully and then:
Write your dependant’s name in the space provided.
Check the correct box to tell us if you agree that the information in this application related to your dependant’s intended occupation, education and work experience may be shared with prospective employers to help them hire workers.
Sign and date in the spaces provided.
By signing, you certify that your dependant fully understands the questions asked, and that the information you have given is complete, truthful, and correct. If you do not sign and date, the application will be returned to you (see section 10 of the IRPR for more information).
Note: If you are less than 18 years of age, your form must be signed by one of your parents or a legal guardian.
Schedule A – Background/Declaration (IMM 5669)
View form IMM 5669
Note: This form has a "Validate" button. When you press the “validate” button, any missing information will be identified with a pop-up message or a red square around the fields that need to be completed. You should fill out your form on a computer and validate it to reduce mistakes and help you submit a form that is complete. After you validate your form, save an electronic copy.
Make sure you validate your form before you save it. If you submit this form electronically through your online account, you will be asked to upload your saved document. The upload will only work if you validated the form before you saved it.
In most sections, you can add or remove rows as necessary by pressing the plus sign (+) or minus sign (-) buttons.
Who must fill out this application form?
This form must be completed by:
The principal applicant (the person being sponsored);
and
all dependent children aged 18 years or older (whether accompanying you to Canada or not).
You should fill out this form while waiting for your acknowledgement of receipt. Save a copy so it’s ready for upload as soon as you link your application. Make sure you validate the form.
For more information, see “ What you should do after you apply ”
Question 1
Write your UCI (Unique Client Identifier) here. You can find your UCI at the top of your Acknowledgement of Receipt letter. You will only be able to complete this question once you have received this letter.
Question 2
Write your application number here. You can find your application number at the top of your Acknowledgement of Receipt letter. You will only be able to complete this question once you have received this letter.
Personal details
Question 1
Write your full family name (surname or last name) and all your given names (first, second or more) as they appear on your passport, travel or identity document.
Don’t use initials.
Question 2
If you don’t know your complete date of birth, please use a “*” (star sign/asterisk) to fill in the spaces for the unknown year, month or day.
Question 3
the name of the country and the level of jurisdiction (examples: national, regional or municipal),
the name of the department or the branch you worked for, and
activities and/or positions that you held.
Note: Do not use abbreviations.
Question 9
If you answered “yes”, give complete details about your military or paramilitary service (if applicable). Provide the details of your military or paramilitary service for each of the countries whose armed forces you served in.
Note: Please make sure you DO NOT leave any gaps in time.
Failure to account for all time periods will result in a delay in the processing of your application.
Question 10
Write the residential addresses where you have lived since your 18th birthday or the past 10 years, whichever is most recent, complete with the postal code. Do not use Post Office box addresses.
Addresses should be written out in full without using any abbreviations. Use the apartment or unit number, if applicable. Example: 999 Family Street, Unit #3, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, K3J 9T5
Note
Authority to disclose personal information
Declaration of applicant
Read all of the statements in all sections carefully.
The signature section asks you to type your name to electronically sign the form.
Please follow the instructions below, depending on whether you are submitting this form electronically or on paper:
If you are submitting this form electronically:
You must fill out the form on your computer, validate it, and save it to be able to submit it electronically. You will not be able to upload a form that has been printed and scanned, even if it has been validated.
In the signature section, type your name and select the date using the date selection tool.
When you submit your Schedule A electronically through your online account, you will complete an electronic signature when you upload the document.
At that time, you will certify that the information provided is true, complete and correct.
You do not need to print a copy of the form or sign a paper copy.
If you are submitting this form in paper format by mail:
You can fill out the form on your computer (recommended) or fill it out by hand.
If you are filling it out on the computer: In the signature section, type your name and select the date using the date selection tool. Then, print out the form and sign in writing (provide your original handwritten signature) next to your name in the signature box. If you do not sign and date the form according to these instructions, it will not be accepted and will be returned to you.
If you are filling the form out by hand: In the signature section, sign your name and complete the date legibly. If you do not sign and date the form, it will not be accepted and will be returned to you.
Note: Your representative cannot sign this form on your behalf. You must sign it yourself.
Whether you are submitting electronically or on paper:
By signing, you certify that you fully understand the questions asked, and that the information you have provided is complete, truthful, and correct.
Additional Family Information (IMM 5406)
Who needs to fill out this form?
This form must be filled out and signed by:
The principal applicant,
All dependent children aged 18 or over (whether coming with you to Canada or not).
Note: if your dependent child is the principal applicant on a sponsorship application, you should complete this form on their behalf regardless of their age.
SECTION A
Write the personal details for:
Yourself (the person being sponsored),
If you are married and you were physically present at the marriage, write “married – physically present” in the marital status box
If you are married and you were not physically present at the marriage, write “married – not physically present” in the marital status box. Note that we do not recognize marriages by proxy.
your spouse or common-law partner, (if this applies to you)
If you are married and your spouse was physically present at the marriage, write “married – physically present” in the marital status box
If you are married and your spouse wasn’t physically present at the marriage, write “married – not physically present” in the marital status box. Note that we do not recognize marriages by proxy.
your mother, and
your father.
SECTION B
Write the personal details for your children. It is very important that you list all of your children (even if they are already permanent residents or citizens of Canada). This includes:
married children,
children of your spouse(step-children) or common-law partner,
any of your children who have been adopted by others,
any of your children who are in the custody of an ex-spouse, former common-law partner or other guardian.
You must answer all questions. If any sections do not apply to you, answer “N/A”.
SECTION C
Write personal details about your:
brothers,
After carefully reading the statements in this section, sign and date the declaration.
Relationship Information and Sponsorship Evaluation Form (IMM 5532)
View form IMM 5532
Use the following instructions to fill out the form. Most of the questions on the form are straightforward and extra instructions have only been given for some questions. You must answer all questions.
If you need more space for any question, attach a separate sheet of paper. Make sure you indicate the section and question you are answering (e.g. Part A, question 1).
Who must fill out this application form?
This form must be filled out and signed by:
The sponsor
Personal information about Sponsor and Principal Applicant:
Date of birth:
If you do not know the complete date of birth, use “*” (star sign/ asterisk) to fill in the spaces for the year, month or day.
Client ID:
provide only if you have one
if this is your first time dealing with IRCC, you will not have a Client ID
Part A – Sponsorship Evaluation and Information about the Sponsor
The sponsor fills out this section.
Question 1
Sponsor’s employment history
Starting with your current employer, give details of all employers you have worked for over the past 5 years
Make sure there are no gaps in time
if you were unemployed, explain how you supported yourself
if you were self-employed, write the name of your business and the date it was established
for your monthly salary or income, write the gross amount (amount before taxes)
See example below of a complete answer:
Dates
Question 2
Other sponsorships
Complete the table by writing the names and dates of birth for anyone you have sponsored or co-signed to sponsor in the past.
You must include everyone you have ever sponsored, even if they have not become permanent residents of Canada yet.
For each person, specify if you were the sponsor or co-signer.
Question 5
Address history
Addresses should be written out in full without using any abbreviations. Use the apartment or unit number, if applicable. Example: 999 Family Street, Unit #3, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, K3J 9T5
Make sure there are no gaps in time. Do not use P.O. boxes.
Question 7
Consent to disclose
Check “Yes” or “No” to tell us if you consent to the results of a marriage fraud investigation being released to your spouse or partner.
Your consent for this question is voluntary. If you do not consent, your application will still be processed and this will not have a negative impact.
Question 8 and 9
Read the declaration statement carefully before signing.
By signing, you certify that you fully understand the questions asked, and that the information you have provided is complete, accurate and factual.
Question 10
Signature
In this section, the sponsor must sign and date the application form. If any signatures are missing, the application will be returned (see section 10 of the IRPR for more information).
Part B – Information about the Principal Applicant
This section must be completed by the person being sponsored (principal applicant)
Question 3
Consent to disclose
Check “Yes” or “No” to indicate if you consent to the results of a marriage fraud investigation being released to your sponsor.
Consent provide for this question is voluntary. If consent is not provided, your application will still be processed and this will not have a negative impact.
Question 4 and 5
Read the declaration statement carefully before signing.
By signing, you certify that you fully understand the questions asked, and that the information you have provided is complete, accurate and factual.
Question 6
Signature
The person being sponsored must sign and date in this box. If any signatures are missing, the application will be returned (see section 10 of the IRPR for more information).
Part C – information about relationship
The person being sponsored must complete this section
Question 11
If you feel that something else might support your application and was not addressed in previous questions, please add it here. You do not need to add anything if you feel that there is enough information in your other answers.
Question 12 & 13
Read the declaration statement carefully before signing.
By signing, you certify that you fully understand the questions asked, and that the information you have provided is complete, accurate and factual.
Question 14
Signatures:
Both the sponsor and principal applicant (person being sponsored) must sign in the boxes provided. If not, the application will be returned (see section 10 of the IRPR for more information).
If you used an interpreter, have him or her complete the “Interpreter Declaration” section at the end of the form.
Use of a Representative (IMM 5476)
Who may use this form?
Complete this form only if you:
are appointing a representative;
have to update contact information for your previously appointed representative; or
are cancelling a representative’s appointment.
If you have dependent children aged 18 years or older, they need to complete their own copy of this form if a representative is also doing business on their behalf.
Who is a representative?
A representative is someone who gives advice, consultation, or guidance to you at any stage of the application process, or in a proceeding and, if you appoint him or her as your representative by filling out this form, has your permission to do business on your behalf with Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC) and the Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA)
You do not need to hire a representative. We treat everyone equally, whether they use a representative or not.
For more information about how to fill out the form, visit: Use of a Representative .
Step 4. Pay the fees
Calculating your fees
Before you send us your application, use the fee table to find out how much you need to pay.
Application
Note: Your dependent children don’t need to pay the right of permanent residence fee. This includes any dependent child sponsored as a principal applicant.
Residents of Quebec
If you are a resident of Quebec, you will need to pay another processing fee to the province of Quebec when you apply to Quebec. For more information, visit Quebec fees and payment methods . Do not include this extra fee with the sponsorship application you submit to IRCC.
Pay your fees online
You can pay your fees online if you have:
a valid email address;
access to a printer (you will need to print the receipt), and
a credit or debit card.
Instructions
Go to online Payment .
Follow the online instructions.
At the end, click on the button to print the IRCC official receipt with barcode. Print two copies.
Note
Do not exit without printing the receipt!
Attach a copy of this receipt to your completed application. Keep the second copy of the receipt for your records.
Proof of payment
The receipt you printed is your proof of payment.
In Canada, the only way to pay your fees is through online payment. We will return your application if you send any other type of payment (see section 10 of the IRPR for more information).
Fee payment for Canadian sponsors residing outside of Canada
Canadian citizens living abroad can pay their fees online .
The following mode of payment may be used ONLY if you reside outside of Canada and you do not have access to the Internet. If you do not have access to the Internet, you may pay by International bank draft or money order in Canadian funds.
However, to process your application, your fee payment must meet the following criteria:
be payable to the Receiver General for Canada;
be in Canadian funds
be cashable through a Canadian financial institution;
clearly indicate name, street address and account number of the financial institution in Canada where it may be cashed.
Note: Do not provide a post office box as an address. Expired bank drafts and money orders will be returned.
Incorrect fee payment
Payment issue - No fee included
CIC will return your application.
Note: Processing of your application will only start after you return your application with the requested fees.
Payment issue - Insufficient fees included
CIC will return your application.
Note: Processing of your application will only start after you return your application with the requested fees.
Payment issue - Overpayment
P.O. Box 5040, Station B
Mississauga, ON
L5A 3A4
Send the application package with all the requested documents in a stamped envelope to the address above.
If you are sending the application by a courier service, use this address (no public drop-offs):
Case Processing Centre – Mississauga
2 Robert Speck Parkway, Suite 300
Mississauga, ON
What you should do after you apply
For applicants (person being sponsored):
As soon as your sponsor is found to be eligible, we will send you an acknowledgement of receipt with your application number. The section below explains what you should be doing when you get this email or letter:
Link your application to your online account
With your acknowledgement of receipt email or letter, you will get instructions about how to create an online account to link your application. To prepare, find out how to link your application .
For faster processing times, you should link your application online within seven calendar days. We will communicate with you or your designated representative through this secure method.
If after seven days you have not linked your application, a letter will be sent to you by mail asking for the requested documents.
Note: Creating an online account and linking your application will reduce the time it takes to process your application because it reduces communication time. If you do not link your paper application to an online account, it will likely increase your processing time because we can’t complete processing without the requested information.
Check your online account for additional information needed to process your application
After linking your application, check right away to see what else we need to process your application. Everyone will find at least two requests in their account:
a request to complete and submit a background information form, known as Schedule A.
a request to submit police certificates.
Failure to respond to a request to submit documentation within the allotted time could result in the refusal of your application.
Medical requirements
To become permanent residents, you and all of their dependent children must have medical exams.
If you have a dependent child who is a minor and you have joint or sole custody, that child is considered a dependant. The child will need a medical exam even if he or she lives with the other parent and will not be coming with you to Canada.
All of your family members need to be examined even if they aren’t applying to come to Canada with you. If they have not been declared and examined, this may affect your application and you will not be able to sponsor them at a later date.
Important information: Family members who are Canadian citizens or permanent residents do not need to pass a medical examination.
Medical instructions
Note: If you had already completed an immigration medical examination, you must provide proof. Depending on when the exam was done, you may have to do it again. We will tell you if you need a new medical exam.
If you see a request for a medical exam in your online account, you must:
download and print the IMM 1017 form, which will be issued to you and all family members (if applicable) with instructions for completing the medical exam
bring the IMM 1017 form with you to your exam. This will make sure you aren’t asked to do medical tests that aren’t needed to process your application.
take the medical exam within 30 days of receiving the request in your online account
You should not be concerned if you do not see a request to do your medical examination in your online account immediately after you link your application. Because medical results can expire, we may not issue medical instructions to you immediately after receiving your application. This is to ensure a new medical exam is not required again later. You should monitor your online account so that you are able to comply within 30 days of receiving your medical instructions.
Medical insurance
If you are in Canada, you may be able to get medical insurance while your application is being processed. Contact your provincial or territorial health department to find out if you are eligible.
Submit your Schedule A – Background / Declaration (IMM 5669)
View form IMM 5669
All applicants and family members over the age of 18 and all principal applicants (including a dependent child under the age of 18) must upload a validated electronic copy of this form within 30 days from the date of the acknowledgement email or letter.
To speed up processing and avoid delays, we strongly recommend that you:
fill out this form while waiting for your acknowledgement of receipt
make sure the form is validated
save a copy so it’s ready to upload as soon as you link your application
Important: When you are completing your personal history, don’t leave any gaps in time. Pay close attention to questions 6 and 9. Gaps in time will cause delays in processing because we will ask you to re-submit a completed form. Your application could be refused if you don’t submit a complete form. See example below:
From (YYYY-MM)
The following may delay processing:
missing signature on application forms
unclear photocopies of documents
documents not sent with a certified English or French translation
verification of your information and documents
a medical condition that may need more tests or consultations
a criminal or security problem
consultation is needed with other offices in Canada and abroad
Interview
If an interview is needed, we will tell you in writing. We will tell you the date, time and location of the interview, and tell you which documents to bring.
During an interview, an officer will ask the principal applicant about his or her
relationship with the sponsor
financial situation
past difficulties with the law
We may also ask questions that will be used to evaluate the principal applicant’s means to settle successfully in Canada.
What happens next?
Eligibility review
If sponsoring your spouse or common-law partner who lives with you in Canada and you are applying in the Spouse or Common-law Partner in Canada class:
If you meet all of the sponsorship requirements, we will:
process your spouse’s or common-law partner’s application
send your spouse or common-law partner an email or letter explaining if he or she has been approved or if more information is needed
do medical, security and background checks
contact your spouse or common-law partner for a confirmation of permanent residence interview, where we will make the final decision on permanent resident status
If your spouse’s or common-law partner’s application is refused:
your spouse or common-law partner must leave Canada at the end of their period of temporary stay
If your spouse or common-law partner leaves Canada while the application is being processed:
there is no guarantee that they will be allowed to re-enter Canada. This is especially true if they need a visitor visa.
If sponsoring a spouse, common-law or conjugal partner or dependent child outside Canada:
If you and your sponsored relative meet all immigration requirements,
the visa office will:
ask you to submit passports and
issue permanent resident visas to your sponsored relative and the family members who are coming to Canada.
Your sponsored relative must then arrive in Canada either with or before their family members, and within the validity period of the visas.
If you or your sponsored relative don’t meet all immigration requirements,
the application will be refused, and
you will get an email or letter explaining the reasons for the refusal and will be informed of your right to appeal the decision to the Immigration and Refugee Board (IRB)
If you choose to withdraw the sponsorship if you don’t meet the sponsorship requirements,
CPC-M will return your complete application (including supporting documents) to you.
Note: You will be repaid all processing fees except the sponsorship fee of $75. The application for permanent residence will not be processed.
Working and studying – spouses and common-law partners who are in Canada
If your spouse or common-law partner already has a work or study permit, he or she may continue to work or study as long as the permit is valid. It is illegal to work or study without authorization from IRCC.
Working
Your spouse or common-law partner in Canada can apply for an open work permit when they apply for permanent residence. They must include a completed Application to Change Conditions, Extend my Stay or Remain in Canada as a Worker form [IMM 5710] and the correct fee, explaining that they are applying for an open work permit.
If your spouse or common-law partner has already submitted an application for permanent residence but hasn’t applied for an open work permit, he or she can submit a completed IMM 5710 and the correct fee to this address:
CPC – Vegreville
Vegreville, AB
T9C 1X6
For more instructions, see the guide for Applying to Change Conditions or Extend Your Stay in Canada .
Studying
We will advise your spouse or common-law partner in writing when he or she is eligible to apply for a study permit.
However, if your spouse or common-law partner already has a study permit and wants to keep their temporary resident status as a student, he or she may submit an Application to Change Conditions, Extend my Stay or Remain in Canada as a Student form [IMM 5709] . See the guide for more instructions.
For more information
Current processing times
Processing time can change. You can check current processing times on the Application processing times webpage.
Checking application status
The person you are sponsoring can receive instant email updates and more detailed, up-to-date case status on their permanent resident application by creating an online account. Find out how .
In Canada and the United States
You may Contact Us or go online to see the current status of your application:
Click on Check application status , and
follow the instructions provided.
To obtain details on how to remove your application status information from the Internet, visit the “ Frequently Asked Questions ” (FAQ) section.
Outside Canada and the United States
Contact the Canadian embassy, high commission or consulate responsible for your region.
Protecting your information
Your personal information is:
available to CIC and the Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA) employees who need to see it in order to provide the services to you, and
not disclosed to other organizations except as permitted under the provisions of the Privacy Act or the Citizenship Regulations.
For more information. You can obtain additional information on the protection of your data by visiting the Help Centre .
Need help?
If you need help, you can find answers to your questions by visiting the Help Centre .
Table 1 – Eligibility for Rehabilitation
The table below explains when a person may be deemed rehabilitated and is eligible to apply for parole.
Conviction or offence
Rehabilitation period
When you are deemed rehabilitated (must not have committed or have been convicted of any other offence)
When eligible to apply for rehabilitation
Convicted of an offence outside Canada that, if committed in Canada, would be an indictable offence punishable by a maximum prison term of less than 10 years
At least 10 years after you have finished serving the sentence
Five years after you have finished serving the sentence
Committed an offence outside Canada that, if committed in Canada, would be an indictable offence punishable by a maximum prison term of less than 10 years
At least 10 years after you committed the offence
Five years after offence was committed
Convicted of or committed an offence outside Canada, that, if committed in Canada, would be punishable by a maximum prison term of 10 years or more
Not applicable
Five years after you completed the sentence or committed the offence
Convicted of two or more offences outside Canada that, if committed in Canada, would constitute summary conviction offences
At least five years after you finish serving the sentences
Not applicable
Must apply for a record suspension (formerly pardon)
Appendix A: Key definitions
Sponsor
A Canadian Citizen, a person registered in Canada as an Indian under the Canadian Indian Act or permanent resident of Canada who is 18 years of age or older and is applying to sponsor a member of the family class or a member of the spouse or common-law partner in Canada class. To be a sponsor, you must promise to give financial support for the basic needs of the members of your family and their dependent children. You must also meet all of the sponsorship eligibility requirements. See subsection 130(1) of the IRPR for the legal definition.
Principal applicant
When a family applies for permanent residence together, one family member must be the main or “principal” applicant. If the main purpose of the application is to sponsor a spouse or partner for permanent residence in Canada, the principal applicant is the spouse or partner. If the main purpose of the application is to sponsor a dependent child for permanent residence in Canada, the principal applicant is the dependent child. However, when parents are included in an application, the dependent child cannot be the principal applicant.
Family members
An applicant’s closest relatives, in the context of an application. It is defined as a spouse or common-law partner, dependent children, and their dependent children.
See section 1(3) of the IRPR for the legal definition.
Spouse
Means either of the two people (opposite or same sex) in a marriage that is legally recognized in the country where it took place, as well as in Canada.
Important information
a person who is living outside Canada,
in a conjugal relationship with a sponsor for at least one year, and
could not live with the sponsor as a couple because of reasons beyond their control (e.g. immigration barrier, religious reasons or sexual orientation.
This term applies to both heterosexual and homosexual couples.
In most cases, the foreign partner is also not able to legally marry their sponsor and qualify as a spouse. In all other respects, the couple is similar to a common-law couple or a married couple, meaning they have been in a bona fide (genuine or real) conjugal relationship for a period of at least one year.
A significant degree of attachment and mutual interdependence between both partners must be shown. The couple must submit proof of the obstacles or restrictions that are preventing them from living together or getting married.
See section 2 of the IRPR for the legal definition.
Dependent children
Means the children of the sponsor or principal applicant.
Your child or the child of your spouse or common-law partner is a dependent child if they meet one of these requirements:
TYPE 1
The child is under the age of 19 and is single (not married and not in a common-law relationship).
TYPE 2
The child is 19 years of age or older and has been financially dependent on a parent since before the age of 19 because of a physical or mental condition.
Note: The child must meet the requirement on the day the Case Processing Centre receives your complete application. Even if they have reached the age of 19, children falling under type 1 must not be married or be involved in a common-law relationship when the visa is issued and when they enter Canada.
See section 2 of the IRPR for the legal definition.
Dependent child of a dependent child
Means the children of dependent children of the sponsor or principal applicant.
Accompanying dependant
Any dependent child or dependant of a dependent child (grandchild) who plans to immigrate to Canada with the principal applicant. They are included on the application.
When sponsoring more than one child as a principal applicant, each child must have its own application form. They are not considered to be accompanying dependants of each other.
Non-accompanying dependant
Children who meet the definition of a dependent child but who are not immigrating to Canada along with the principal applicant. They must be listed on the principal applicant’s application for permanent residence and must be examined in order to process the principal applicant and remain eligible for sponsorship at a later date.
Family Class
This immigration category allows Canadian citizens and permanent residents to sponsor certain members of their family to come to Canada as permanent residents. See section 116 of the IRPR for the legal definition.
Spouse or Common-Law Partner in Canada Class
This immigration category allows Canadian citizens and permanent residents to sponsor their spouses or common-law partners who live with them in Canada and have temporary resident status. See sections 123 and 233 of the IRPR for the legal definition.
Marital Status
This means that you have never been married and are not in a common-law relationship.
Widowed:
This means that your spouse has died and that you have not re-married or entered into a common-law relationship.
Appendix B: Request letters
Fingerprint request letter
Appendix C: Photo specifications
Important: If your application is approved, this photo will be used to create the first Permanent Resident Card for you (and your family members, if applicable). To avoid delays in getting your card, it’s important that the photos meet these specifications.
Notes to the applicant
Take this information with you to the photographer
Make sure that you provide the correct number of photos specified in the Checklist.
You must provide identical and unaltered photographs.
Photographs may be in colour or in black and white.
Photographs must be original and not altered in any way or taken from an existing photograph.
Photographs must reflect your current appearance (taken within the past six (6) months).
Notes to the photographer
The photographs must be:
taken by a commercial photographer;
50 mm x 70 mm (2 inches wide x 2 3/4 inches long) and sized so the height of the face measures between 31 mm and 36 mm (1 1/4 inches and 1 7/16 inches) from chin to crown of head (natural top of head);
clear, sharp and in focus;
taken with a neutral facial expression (eyes open and clearly visible, mouth closed, no smiling);
taken with uniform lighting and not show shadows, glare or flash reflections;
taken straight on, with face and shoulders centred and squared to the camera (i.e. the photographs must show the full front view of the person’s head and shoulders, showing the full face centered in the middle of the photograph);
taken in front of a plain white background with a clear difference between the person’s face and the background. Photographs must reflect and represent natural skin tones.
The back of one (1) photograph must:
bear the name and date of birth of the subject, as well as the name and complete address of the photography studio;
bear the date the photograph was taken;
The photographer may use a stamp or handwrite this information. Stick-on labels are unacceptable.
Appendix D: Contact information for provincial authorities
If the person you sponsor or any of their dependants gets financial support under a federal, provincial or municipal assistance program during the validity of the agreement, you will be in default of your obligations.
If you need information about how to repay the money owed, contact the provincial office listed below. Services are available during local business hours only.
British Columbia
| i don't know |
Indian politician Sonia Gandhi was born in which country in 1946? | Sonia Gandhi | Indian politician | Britannica.com
Indian politician
Alternative Title: Edvige Antonia Albina Maino
Sonia Gandhi
Rajiv Gandhi
Sonia Gandhi, original name Edvige Antonia Albina Maino (born December 9, 1946, Lusiana, Veneto region, Italy ), Italian-born Indian politician who was president of the Indian National Congress (Congress Party; 1998– ) and chairperson of the United Progressive Alliance (2004– ), the ruling coalition.
Sonia Gandhi.
U.S. Department of State
While studying English at a language school in Cambridge , England, Sonia met Rajiv Gandhi , a mechanical engineering student at the University of Cambridge and son of Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi . The couple married in 1968 and moved into the prime minister’s official residence, although Rajiv eschewed politics for a career as a commercial airline pilot. However, in 1980 his brother, Sanjay, died, and Rajiv subsequently entered the political arena. When Indira Gandhi was assassinated in 1984, Rajiv was named prime minister. Though Sonia campaigned for Rajiv, she chose to remain in the background, studying art restoration and working to preserve India’s artistic treasures.
When Rajiv was assassinated in 1991, Sonia was seen by many as the natural heir to the Nehru-Gandhi dynasty , and she was offered the leadership of the Congress Party. She rejected the offer and refused to discuss politics publicly. In 1993, however, she visited Rajiv’s former constituency in Amethi, Uttar Pradesh , and was greeted by cheering crowds. She subsequently traveled throughout the country on behalf of trusts and committees devoted to Indian public life.
In 1998 Gandhi agreed to become president of the then struggling Congress Party. Her initial efforts were overshadowed by the party’s loss to the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) later that year in elections to the Lok Sabha (lower chamber of the Indian parliament), but she won a seat in that chamber in parliamentary polls the following year. After a nationwide campaign that targeted struggling farmers and the unemployed, the Congress Party won the 2004 Lok Sabha elections (with Gandhi retaining her seat), but it failed to secure an absolute majority. The party subsequently formed a new coalition called the United Progressive Alliance (UPA). Gandhi, however, chose not to head the government as prime minister, because her foreign birth had become a politically controversial issue. Instead, she invited the economist Manmohan Singh to serve as prime minister.
In March 2006 Gandhi resigned from the Lok Sabha and as chairperson of the National Advisory Council—which oversaw the implementation of UPA policies and provided a salary to Gandhi for her work—after accusations that she was breaking a law that banned members of parliament from holding an additional office for profit. She was reelected two months later, however, and also in 2009. Although she again won handily in the 2014 Lok Sabha elections, the Congress Party suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of the BJP, and the UPA government was swept from power.
Britannica Stories
| Italy |
In which year was the Factory Act passed in Britain, to improve conditions for children working in factories? | Sonia Gandhi Religion - Sonia Gandhi Net Worth
Sonia Gandhi Religion
Read more...
Sonia Gandhi
Sonia Gandhi Net Worth is $2 Billion. Sonia Gandhi is the President of the Indian National Congress and has a net worth of $2 billion. Sonia Gandhi has made her net worth from her many years in politics and was the longest serving President in the pa. Sonia Gandhi (born Antonia E...
Sonia Gandhi Net Worth is $2 Billion.
Sonia Gandhi Net Worth is $2 Billion. Sonia Gandhi is the President of the Indian National Congress and has a net worth of $2 billion. Sonia Gandhi has made her net worth from her many years in politics and was the longest serving President in the pa Sonia Gandhi is an Italian-born Indian politician and the President of the Indian National Congress, one of the major political parties of India. She is the widow of former Prime Minister of India, Rajiv Gandhi and belongs to Nehru-Gandhi family. After his assassination in 1991, she was invited by the Indian National Congress to take over the Congress but refused and publicly stayed away from politics amidst constant prodding by the Congress. She finally agreed to join politics in 1997; in 1998, she was elected as the leader of the Congress.
Since then, Sonia Gandhi has been the President of the Indian National Congress Party. She has served as the Chairperson of the ruling United Progressive Alliance in the Lok Sabha since 2004. In September 2010, on being re-elected for the fourth time, she became the longest serving president in the 125-year history of the Congress party. Her foreign birth has been a subject of much debate and...
| i don't know |
In 1997, what was the first mammal to be cloned from an adult cell? | BBC ON THIS DAY | 22 | 1997: Dolly the sheep is cloned
1997: Dolly the sheep is cloned
Scientists in Scotland have announced the birth of the world's first successfully cloned mammal, Dolly the sheep.
Dolly, who was created at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, was actually born on 5 July 1996 although her arrival has only just been revealed.
Dolly is the first mammal to have been successfully cloned from an adult cell. Previous clonings have been from embryo cells.
The sheep's birth has been heralded as one of the most significant scientific breakthroughs of the decade although it is likely to spark ethical controversy.
Scientists in Scotland cloned a ewe by inserting DNA from a single sheep cell into an egg and implanted it in a surrogate mother.
They now have a healthy seven-month-old sheep - Dolly - who is an exact genetic duplicate of the animal from which the single cell was taken.
DNA tests have revealed that Dolly is identical to the ewe who donated the udder cell and is unrelated to the surrogate mother.
It will enable us to study genetic diseases for which there is presently no cure
Dr Ian Wilmut, embryologist
Embryologist Dr Ian Wilmut, from the Roslin Institute, said: "It will enable us to study genetic diseases for which there is presently no cure and track down the mechanisms that are involved."
The research, published in Nature magazine, follows the Edinburgh team's success in cloning sheep embryos. Last year they produced two identical sheep, which were clones of an original embryo.
The company which has bought the rights to the research, PPL Therapeutics, said Dolly would help to improve understanding of ageing and genetics and lead to the production of cheaper medicines.
US President Bill Clinton has set up a special task force to investigate cloning in order to examine the legal and ethical implications.
| Dolly (sheep) |
What is the highest range of the male singing voice? | What is Cloning
What is Cloning
What is Cloning
Clones are organisms that are exact genetic copies. Every single bit of their DNA is identical.
Clones can happen naturally—identical twins are just one of many examples. Or they can be made in the lab. Below, find out how natural identical twins are similar to and different from clones made through modern cloning technologies.
How Is Cloning Done?
Many people first heard of cloning when Dolly the Sheep showed up on the scene in 1997. Artificial cloning technologies have been around for much longer than Dolly, though.
There are two ways to make an exact genetic copy of an organism in a lab: artificial embryo twinning and somatic cell nuclear transfer.
1. Artificial Embryo Twinning
Artificial embryo twinning is a relatively low-tech way to make clones. As the name suggests, this technique mimics the natural process that creates identical twins.
In nature, twins form very early in development when the embryo splits in two. Twinning happens in the first days after egg and sperm join, while the embryo is made of just a small number of unspecialized cells. Each half of the embryo continues dividing on its own, ultimately developing into separate, complete individuals. Since they developed from the same fertilized egg, the resulting individuals are genetically identical.
Artificial embryo twinning uses the same approach, but it is carried out in a Petri dish instead of inside the mother. A very early embryo is separated into individual cells, which are allowed to divide and develop for a short time in the Petri dish. The embryos are then placed into a surrogate mother, where they finish developing. Again, since all the embryos came from the same fertilized egg, they are genetically identical.
2. Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer
Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), also called nuclear transfer, uses a different approach than artificial embryo twinning, but it produces the same result: an exact genetic copy, or clone, of an individual. This was the method used to create Dolly the Sheep.
What does SCNT mean? Let's take it apart:
Somatic cell: A somatic cell is any cell in the body other than sperm and egg, the two types of reproductive cells. Reproductive cells are also called germ cells. In mammals, every somatic cell has two complete sets of chromosomes, whereas the germ cells have only one complete set.
Nuclear: The nucleus is a compartment that holds the cell's DNA. The DNA is divided into packages called chromosomes, and it contains all the information needed to form an organism. It's small differences in our DNA that make each of us unique.
Transfer: Moving an object from one place to another. To make Dolly, researchers isolated a somatic cell from an adult female sheep. Next they removed the nucleus and all of its DNA from an egg cell. Then they transferred the nucleus from the somatic cell to the egg cell. After a couple of chemical tweaks, the egg cell, with its new nucleus, was behaving just like a freshly fertilized egg. It developed into an embryo, which was implanted into a surrogate mother and carried to term. (The transfer step is most often done using an electrical current to fuse the membranes of the egg and the somatic cell.)
The lamb, Dolly, was an exact genetic replica of the adult female sheep that donated the somatic cell. She was the first-ever mammal to be cloned from an adult somatic cell.
Watch these videos of enucleation and nuclear transfer.
How does SCNT differ from the natural way of making an embryo?
Natural fertilization, where egg and sperm join, and SCNT both make the same thing: a dividing ball of cells, called an embryo. So what exactly is the difference between the two?
An embryo's cells all have two complete sets of chromosomes. The difference between fertilization and SCNT lies in where those two sets come from.
In fertilization, the sperm and egg have one set of chromosomes each. When the sperm and egg join, they grow into an embryo with two sets—one from the father's sperm and one from the mother's egg.
In SCNT, the egg cell's single set of chromosomes is removed. It is replaced by the nucleus from a somatic cell, which already contains two complete sets of chromosomes. So, in the resulting embryo, both sets of chromosomes come from the somatic cell.
Is cloning an organism the same as cloning a gene?
You may have heard about researchers cloning, or identifying, genes that are responsible for various medical conditions or traits. What's the difference?
When scientists clone an organism, they are making an exact genetic copy of the whole organism, as described above.
When scientists clone a gene, they isolate and make exact copies of just one of an organism's genes. Cloning a gene usually involves copying the DNA sequence of that gene into a smaller, more easily manipulated piece of DNA, such as a plasmid. This process makes it easier to study the function of the individual gene in the laboratory.
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Who was the mother of King James l of England? | King James I | Britroyals
Born: June 19, 1566 at Edinburgh Castle, Scotland
Parents: Mary, Queen of Scots, and Henry Stewart, Lord Darnley
Relation to Elizabeth II: 9th great-grandfather
House of: Stuart
Ascended to the throne: March 24, 1603 aged 36 years
Crowned: July 25, 1603 at Westminster Abbey, also as James VI of Scotland at Stirling Castle on July 29, 1567
Married: Anne, Daughter of Frederick II of Denmark and Norway
Children: Three sons and five daughters, of whom three survived infancy; Henry, Elizabeth and Charles
Died: March 27, 1625 at Theobalds Park, Hertfordshire, aged 58 years, 9 months, and 7 days
Buried at: Westminster
Reigned for: 22 years, and 3 days, King of Scotland for 57 years 1567-1625
Succeeded by: his son Charles
James was the son of Mary Queen of Scots and her second husband Henry Stewart, Lord Darnley. He was descended through the Scottish kings from Robert the Bruce, and the English Tudors through his great grandmother Margaret Tudor sister of Henry VIII. His parent�s marriage was short-lived and Darnley was found murdered 8 months after James was born in June 1566. His mother married again, but in 1567 was forced to renounce the throne of Scotland in favour of her infant son. James became King James VI of Scotland aged 13 months in July 1567, and was crowned at Stirling. Mary fled to England where she was eventually executed following Catholic plots against Elizabeth I in 1587.
His childhood and adolescence were unhappy, abnormal, and precarious; he had various guardians, whose treatment of him differed widely. His education, although thorough, was weighted with strong Presbyterian and Calvinist political doctrine, and his character � highly intelligent and sensitive, but also fundamentally shallow, vain, and exhibitionist � reacted violently to this. He also sought solace with extravagant and unsavoury male favourites who, in later years, were to have a damaging effect on his prestige and state affairs. A suitable Queen was found for him in Anne of Denmark and they were married in 1589. As King of Scotland, he curbed the power of the nobility, although his attempts to limit the authority of the Kirk (Church of Scotland) were less successful.
When Elizabeth I of England died in 1603 unmarried, James moved to London and was crowned King James I of England the first of the Stuart Kings of the combined crowns of England and Scotland. The English courtiers were wary of his Scottish favourites, affairs with male courtiers and uncouth ways. He was however a supporter of literature and arts. William Shakespeare was among the �Kings Men� troupe of actors who performed plays for their patron James. He commissioned the King James Authorized Version of the Bible, published in 1611, which remains one of the most important English translations of the Bible. He initially acted mainly upon the advice of Robert Cecil, Earl of Salisbury, but on Salisbury�s death all restraint vanished. His religious policy consisted of asserting the supreme authority and divine right of the crown and suppressing both Puritans and Catholics who objected. Guy Fawkes' attempt to blow up Parliament in 1605 produced an anti-Catholic reaction, which gave James a temporary popularity which soon dissipated.
His foreign policy aimed primarily at achieving closer relations with Spain was not liked by Parliament who saw Spain as the Old Catholic enemy of the Armada and competitor for world trade. During his reign the East India Company expanded trade bringing spices from the East, and Jamestown was founded in Virginia. His willingness to compromise politically, even while continuing to talk in terms of absolutism, largely accounts for the superficial stability of his reign. However, the effects of many of his actions were long term, becoming fully obvious only after his death. James and Anne had 8 children only three of whom survived infancy. Their eldest son Henry died aged 18 of typhoid, and their 2nd son Charles became King Charles I. The marriage of their daughter Elizabeth to Frederic V, Elector Palatine and King of Bohemia, was to result in the eventual Hanoverian succession to the British throne.
King James I's Signature
Quotes:
What God hath conjoined let no man separate. I am the husband and the whole isle is my lawful wife' - James VI of Scotland who also became James I of England on the union of the crowns of Scotland and England, 1603
�[Smoking is] hateful to the nose, harmful to the brain, and dangerous to the lungs.� � King James I
�I can make a lord, but only God can make a gentleman� � King James I
�God�s wounds! I will pull down my breeches and they shall see my arse!� � King James I (on being told that his subjects wanted to see his face)
�Kings are justly called gods for they exercise a manner or resemblance of divine power upon earth� � King James I
Timeline for King James I
Year
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Which Irish musician released a 1988 album entitled ‘Watermark’? | King James I of England, (VI of Scotland)
King James I of England
(VI of Scotland)
INTERESTING FACTS
King James I was a Christian who wanted the Bible in the hands of the common man. Specially commanded the Authorized (King James) Version of 1611 of the Bible .
King James was known for his wisdom. He was known as "Great Britain's Solomon" while he was yet alive.
Fluent in Greek, Latin, French, English, and his native Scots. Schooled in Italian and Spanish.
Wrote extensively including Basilicon Doron (the Kingly Gift), Daemonologie , and tracts on varied subjects such as "Counterblaste to Tobacco" which condemned the use of tobacco. Counterblaste is considered the first anti-smoking tract. These and many other writings are found in The Workes of the Most High and Mightie Prince Iames (in Jacobean typography, the letter "I" can represent I or J), a massive collection of the king's writings now online. In The Workes, one finds that King James was a contender for the faith of Jesus Christ and cared about the spiritual well-being of his kingdom. He even wrote Christian meditations for his people. His writings are still relevant today-- King James has a message that Rome does not want you to hear .
William Shakespere was one of his subjects. Learning and writing thrived under the King's reign.
Formed the foundation for what is now known as the British Empire by uniting warring tribes of Scotland and then enjoining the crowns of Scotland and England in 1603. He was the first to call his new kingdom, "Great Britain" .
King James was became King of Scotland in 1567 when he was 13 months old and acceded to the English throne in 1603.
Scottish reformation leader John Knox read the sermon when he was crowned King.
He endured racism as a Scot ruling over the English, nevertheless had the love and admiration of many subjects. Years after his death, detractors tried to sully his good name. Unfortunately, it continues today, yet KJV translators, yea the King himself had predicted such.
King James was sickly having crippling arthritis, weak limbs, abdominal colic, gout, and a number of other chronic illnesses. He also had physical handicaps which affected his legs and tongue. Coupled with numerous attempts on his life, he required constant attention and watchcare.
His mother was Mary Queen of Scots who was deposed in 1567 and executed in 1587 after 19 years in prison. His father, Lord Darnley, was murdered in 1567.
Roman Catholic clerics tried to kill him more than once. The King was born during the time of the Reformation and well knew popery's atrocities. In 1536, popery burned William Tyndale to death for distributing the Bible and it was MUCH displeased with King James' authorization of a Bible in English (see translator's notes ). Roman Catholic Nicolo Molin, an Ambassador said this of King James:
"...He is a Protestant...The king tries to extend his Protestant religion to the whole island. The King is a bitter enemy of our religion (Roman Catholic)...He frequently speaks of it in terms of contempt. He is all the harsher because of this last conspiracy (Gun Powder Plot) against his life...He understood that the Jesuits had a hand in it."
King James said this in Basilicon Doron:
"I am no papist as I said before...Now faith...is the free gift of God (as Paul sayeth). It must be nourished by prayer, which is no thing else but a friendly talking to God. Use oft to pray when ye are quiet, especially in your bed..."
He led a chaste life. Sir Henry Wotton (June 1602) said this of King James:
"There appears a certain natural goodness verging on modesty...He wears short hair...among his good qualities none shines more brightly than the chastness of his life, which he has preserved without stain down to the present time. Contrary to the example of almost all his ancestors, who disturbed the kingdom with the great number of bastards which they left."
F.A. Inderwick wrote in 1891:
"James had a reputation for learning , for piety, for good nature, and for liberality."
In 1603, Sir Roger Wilbaham wrote:
"The King is of sharpest wit and invention...of the sweetest most pleasant and best nature that I ever knew, desiring nor affecting anything but true honor."
King James loved literature and wrote extensively including the Basilicon Doron which contains instructions to his son on how to live and be a just king. King James' advice to his son concerning chastity:
"Keep your body clean and unpolluted while you give it to your wife whom to only it belongs for how can you justly crave to be joined with a Virgin if your body be polluted? Why should the one half be clean, and the other defiled? And suppose I know, fornication is thought but a veniall sin by the most part of the world, yet remember well what I said to you in my first book regarding conscience, and count every sin a breach of God's law, not according as the vain world esteems of it, but as God judge and maker of the law accounts of the same: hear God commanding by the mouth of Paul to abstain from fornication, declaring that the fornicator shall not inherit the kingdom of heaven, and by the mouth of John reckoning out fornication among other grievous sins that declares the commiters among dogs and swine."
Advice to his son on how to treat his wife.
"And for your behavior to your wife, the Scripture can best give you counsel therein. Treat her as your own flesh, command her as her lord, cherish her as your helper, rule her as your pupil, please her in all things reasonable, but teach her not to be curious in things that belong not to her. You are the head, she is your body, it is your office to command and hers to obey, but yet with such a sweet harmony as she should be as ready to obey as you to command, as willing to follow as you to go before, your love being wholly knit unto her, and all her affections lovingly bent to follow your will."
King James loved his wife, Queen Anne, and wrote beautifully of her. They had nine children together . Once, while out hunting, Queen Anne mistakenly killed King James' favorite dog. Sir Dudley Carleton wrote in 1613:
The queen shooting a deer mistook her mark and killed Jewel, the King's most special and favourite hound; at which he stormed exceedingly awhile; but after he knew who did it he was soon pacified and with much kindness wished her not to be troubled with it for he should love her never the worse; and the next day sent her a diamond worth �2000 as a legacy from his dead dog....The Queen by her late pacification hath gained Greenwich.
King James is the founding monarch of the United States. Under his reign, we have the first successful colonies planted on the American mainland--Virginia, Massachsetts and Nova Scotia. King James ordered, wrote and authorized this Evangelistic Grant Charter to settle the Colony of Virginia:
"To make habitation...and to deduce a colony of sundry of our people into that part of America, commonly called Virginia...in propogating of Christian religion to such people as yet live in darkness...to bring a settled and quiet government."
Where the word of a king is, there is power.
Ecclesiastes 8:4
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What is the name of the spiked metal plate fixed to a boot for climbing on ice or rock? | Rock, Ice and Mountain Climbing Terms, Glossary, Definitions - Santiam Alpine Club
Glossary of rock, ice and mountain climbing terms
Alpine: Concerning high mountains, originally, concerning the Alps.
Alpine start: An early morning start to ascend before the sun softens the snow or to return before nightfall.
Alpine style: Lightweight, fast climbing that emphasizes the role of speed in safety, to climb and return quickly during a window of good weather.
AMS (acute mountain sickness, hypoxemia, hypoxia): Symptoms of low blood oxygen due to high altitude: headache, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, malaise and disturbed sleep. Also see HADE below.
Anchor: A point where the rope is secured to the snow, ice or rock to provide protection against a fall. An equalized anchor system places equal weight on multiple devices to reduce the chance of failure. Any individual anchor point, whether one piece of protection or an anchor system, must be able to hold a fall. The condition of the rock, snow or ice determines whether an individual anchor device or an anchor system is required to provide adequate security.
Equalized anchor system
Approach: The nontechnical section of the climb that leads to the technical part of the climb.
Ascender (Jumar, Clog): A mechanical braking device used for belaying oneself from a vertical fixed rope. By contrast, for a traverse protected by horizontal fixed line, carabiners on slings are often used to connect the climber to the main rope. As carabiners have no braking capability, a climber will fall to the lower anchor or to the lowest point between two anchors. Self-belay from prusik or bachmann knot is a known unsafe technique. Unlike a carabiner, prusik cord burns through quickly once it begins sliding on the main line.
Avalanche: Movement down the mountain of previously stationary snow, rock, or both. Snow avalanche conditions for open slopes can often be predicted by monitoring the weather. As days of high avalanche danger and known avalanche areas are generally avoided, more climbers are injured by a single falling rock or piece of ice.
Bachmann (bachman) knot: A friction knot similar in design and purpose to a prusik knot with the difference that the Bachmann can be set up in a self-regulating configuration. When used in a z-pulley, when tension is released the Bachmann slides along the main rope. When tension pulls the knot tight, the knot prevents downward motion of the pulley. Although similar in purpose to an ascender, a Bachmann knot will burn quickly through the prusik cord should it begin to slip.
Bachmann knot video
Base weight: The weight of a pack before food, fuel and water. Some thru-hikers flirt with hypothermia by skimping on two warm and dry items to reach a base weight below 10 pounds, 4.5 kilograms, by omitting a stove and carrying a single-wall shelter instead of a double-wall tent. Together, these safety upgrades can sum to as little as 2 additional pounds, 1 kilogram. Dry hiking reduces weight by carrying only enough water to reach the next known water source, another way to leave oneself unprepared for an emergency. A mountaineer's pack loaded with safety gear — a helmet, a harness, a rope plus the appropriate protection for the route — is often not weighed. What is, is. "That is the question: Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to" remain indifferent about "what the meaning of the word 'is' is," and about whom is boasting of a light pack as they toss their sleeping bag into another's tent. "Or to take arms against a sea of troubles." Either way, base weight is likely to be about the same.
Belay: A safety technique where a stationary climber provides protection by means of ropes, anchors and braking devices or techniques, to an ascending or descending partner. A static belay is when a fall is held fast. A dynamic belay is when a fall is brought to a gradual stop by allowing the rope to slide somewhat to not overload the anchor with the force of the fall. Static belay is often used on ice and rock where the anchors are bombproof and the pitch is near vertical. Dynamic belay is often used on snow where the anchors are questionable and the slope is angled enough the climber can slide a small distance without injury.
Belay commands and common line set up
Belay device (ATC, figure eight): A metal device through which a climbing rope is threaded to create friction to brake a fall. Many belay devices can double as a rappel device. An ATC makes a fine belay device but the wire can be pulled into the device when using it as a rappel device. A figure eight is difficult to work as a belay device but is a reliable rappel device.
Belay station: An anchored position from where a climber provides roped protection for a partner climbing.
Bergschrund (schrund): A gap or crevasse that appears near the head of a glacier where the neve field portion of the glacier joins the valley portion of the glacier. A moat is a gap between the top edge of a glacier and the upper portions of the mountain face. Schrunds and moats can create obstacles.
Bivouac (bivy, bivi): A high camp, not always a planned overnight stop.
Bollard: An anchor in snow or ice created by cutting or shaping the surface so a rope or sling can encircle the feature.
Bolt: A substantial metal pin drilled in the rock to provide permanent protection, a type of anchor rejected by Trads.
Boot-ax belay: A belay technique used on snow where the climbing rope is wound around both a firmly planted ice ax shaft and the belayer's boot. Boot-ax belay usually requires an anchor in addition to the ax. As with belay from many types of snow anchors, a dynamic belay (see the video linked above) will reduce the odds of anchor failure.
Boulder: To climb a difficult, but short, rock pitch where a potential fall will be of minimal consequence.
Cairn: A pile of rock, wood or both used to mark a route or route junction.
Cam: A mechanical spring-loaded device that can be inserted in rock cracks through which a climbing rope can be threaded for protection.
Carabiner (biner): Forged aluminum devices of various shapes (oval, D, etc.) with a spring-loaded gate through which a climbing rope can be threaded, used to connect to protection or to provide connections in an anchor. The gate of a locking carabiner can be locked closed for increased security. Two regular carabiners with opposed gates can replace safely one locking carabiner.
Chimney: A rock route large enough for the climber to fit inside and use the relative wealth of holds from both sides of the chimney.
Clean: To remove protection (cams, pickets, etc.), usually the responsibility of the last climber in a rope team.
Clipping in: Using a carabiner to connect to belays and anchors or to connect ropes to protection.
Cornice: Wind-sculpted snow overhanging a ridge, a hazard avoided by not walking on the cornice or in the fall line below it.
Couloir: A gully, sometimes a potential route. A chute or bowling alley is steep enough for rock or ice fall to be a concern.
Crampons: Spiked metal devices that attach firmly to climbing boots to provide reliable footing on ice and firm snow slopes.
Crevasse: A crack in a glacier surface. Crevasses vary in width and depth and are often concealed by surface snow that forms a snow bridge. Concealed crevasses are one hazard on glaciers. The other is falling rock.
Crevasse rescue
Deadman: Any device (picket, shovel, bag of snow) buried in snow to serve as an anchor.
Dial in (dialed, wired): Knowing a route well from having climbed the same pitch or mountain repeatedly. A similar concept is hanging on a rope in the same place to practice moves repeatedly, a practice known as hangdog or dog. A legitimate question to ask a climb organizer is, "Do you have the route dialed in?" Experienced climbers often go exploring together. New climbers should consider limiting themselves to climbs dialed in by one or more climb participants. Snow routes change frequently enough to evade getting dialed in.
Double-wall tent: A tent that, even within tight confines, protects sleeping bags from condensation — and occupants from hypothermia — by adding an interior wall between the rain fly and the sleeping bag. In reliably-warm conditions, 3-season tents are preferred as they offer the best ventilation and the least weight. In conditions that might be hot or cold, 3 to 4-season tents convert as appropriate by multiple doors and vents that can be left opened or closed. A 3 to 4-season tent secured in 4-season mode is wonderfully warm and dry almost no matter what is happening outside. Only in reliably-wintry conditions are exclusively 4-season tents appropriate.
Down climb: Descending a pitch often requires more skill than climbing up and therefore provides good practice for the climber and, sometimes, the belayer. Because down climbing is statistically safer than rappelling, down climbing is preferred to rappelling when time allows.
Dry-tool: To ascend a section of rock using ice tools, a technique used for short sections of rock between sections of snow or ice on alpine climbs.
Edging: A rock climbing technique where the edges of the climbing shoes are used to stand on small footholds. By contrast, smearing applies as much of the sole of the climbing shoe as possible to a rock slab to achieve maximum friction.
Exposure: The distance from the climber to where the climber would likely stop in the event of an unprotected fall.
Fall: To lose involuntarily one's position. Short falls onto protected rope tend to be silent since there is insufficient time to make a sound. Often the belayer has no information except the rope going tight. A screamer is long enough to provide the luxury of vocal panic. A whipper is similar to a screamer but the vocal routine returns to normal when the rope catches the fall. A crater ends when the climber hits the ground.
Fall! (falling!): What climbers in the vicinity yell to protect their team and others when someone is in a fall.
Fall line: The direction a fall will take. The belay position and belay anchors must be in line with the fall line to prevent a pendulum effect. Avoid climbing in the fall line of another climber higher on the pitch, of a cornice or anything else that might come down the mountain. When traversing a glacier, stay lower on the glacier than the collection of rocks that have fallen onto the glacier.
Figure-eight knot: The basic climber's knot, when retraced, used to attach a climber's harness to the rope and for many other purposes. Not to be confused with a figure-eight belay and rappel device.
Flat footing and front pointing
Fluke: A dynamic snow anchor that dives deeper as it moves. For use in soft snow where pickets will pull out. Because a fluke slows a fall rather than stops a fall, flukes should only be used on pitches where slowing a fall provides adequate protection.
Free climb: To climb using only one's hands and feet without artificial aids. A belay rope may be employed. As opposed to aid climb.
Free solo: To free climb without a belay rope and to accept a crater as the potential consequence of a long fall.
Front pointing: A technique for ascending steep or overhanging ice where the extended front points of the crampons provide grip by biting into the ice.
Gendarme: A mass of rock protruding from a ridge that forces the route from the top of the ridge to its side. From the French word for constable or police.
Girth hitch: A knot made by looping the end of a sling over itself, often used to attach to anchors, to connect multiple slings for a longer sling, and to connect one's ice ax to the harness.
Glissade: Descending moderate snow slopes under control by sliding on one's feet or rump. Glissading steep or icy slopes is the cause of many of mountaineering accidents. Glissading only works in snow. Glissading does not work on ice and on hard crust where self-arrest cannot slow and stop a fall.
Gym rat: One of many often colorful terms for persons who, with swagger, assert they know climbing because they climb in rock gyms. When rock and mountain climbing, they often become frightened because they are nubs (aspiring newbies) regarding anchors and protection.
HACE (high altitude cerebral edema): Swelling of the brain due to cell death and fluid increase, the most serious form of altitude sickness.
HADE (high altitude dumb): Temporary intelligence loss due to reduced oxygen in the blood supplying the brain. Unlike HACE and HAPE, HADE often occurs at modest altitudes and can be artificially induced at sea level by drinking excessive bourbon, etc.
HAPE (high altitude pulmonary edema): Fluid buildup in the lungs. Can lead to HACE if descent is not immediate.
Harness: A strong belt with leg loops made of nylon webbing used to secure the climber to the rope, often with loops to hold climbing hardware. A chest harness is sometimes worn in addition to a waist harness to prevent an inverted fall, for example, when crossing a glacier with a heavy pack.
Making a harness
Headwall: The upper section of a mountain where the terrain is set off from the terrain below by being more steep.
Hexcentric (hex): A hexagon-shaped nut attached to a flexible looped wire for insertion into a rock crack for protection.
Hiker hunger: The need to consume more than the usual amount of food after as little as one day on the trail, the reason planned food allowances often fall short. A cold ambient temperature adds to the effect. Becoming cold, as evidenced by shivering, further adds to the effect.
Hypothermia: Low body temperature caused by cold ambient temperature, more likely when having become wet and when not carrying a heat source, perhaps only for unanticipated circumstances. Although easy to prevent, hypothermia is the most common cause of death in the wilderness.
Ice ax (axe): A mountaineering tool for snow and ice climbing, pointed at the base of the shaft and with a head consisting of a pick and an adze. A standard ax shaft may be 60 to 75 cm in length while technical axes are typically 50 cm long. Second or third tools may be shorter yet, 38-45 cm.
Ice hammer: A variant of the ice ax where the head consists of a pick and a hammer, usually used in combination with an ice ax. The hammer is used to pound in protection like flukes and pickets.
Ice screw: A threaded piton designed to bore into ice securely enough to serve as an anchor.
Jam: To wedge or jam body parts — fingers, a hand, a foot, etc. — into cracks and apply torque to adhere to the rock. Both strenuous and remote from ordinary experience, jamming is difficult to learn and requires real rock to do so as gyms do not replicate cracks well. Once mastered, jamming often becomes the hold of choice by crackmasters.
Lead (sharp end of the rope, on point): To be the first climber up a pitch and to place protection along the way while being belayed by a partner from below.
Lieback (layback): A technique where the climber's hands pull one way and the feet push the opposite way.
Mixed climbing: Ascending a route involving a combination of snow, rock or ice.
Moraine: A random accumulation of boulders, rocks, scree and sand carried down the mountain and deposited by a glacier. Crossing a moraine is not especially dangerous but is slow going and is only chosen when alternative routes would take even more time.
Multi-pitch climb: A technical climb that is longer than a single rope length, thus requiring multiple anchors and belay stations.
Nut (stopper): A metal wedge with a wire loop for insertion into cracks in rock for protection.
Picket: A "T" shaped length of aluminum 2' to 3' long pounded or buried in the snow for protection.
Pitch: A section of climbing between two belay points, no longer than the length of a climbing rope.
Piton: A metal spike that can be hammered into rock cracks for protection, a type of anchor rejected by Trads as climbers leave pitons in the rock.
Plan B: The consequences of a fall. A good Plan B generally involves being caught by a protected rope. A bad Plan B involves probable injury. When conditions do not allow for any good Plan B, for example, snow too soft to hold protection, the appropriate course is to turn around. Loop routes are inherently more hazardous than ascending and descending the same route because climbers forfeit the opportunity to assess a Plan B for the descent route. For example, ascending by a route that can only hold protection before the sun warms it, then descending by another route does not allow the climbers to observe the condition of the descent route before having no choice but to take the route.
Protection (pro, fixation device): Any anchor — a nut, camming device, ice screw, fluke or picket — used during a climb to minimize the consequences of a fall. Intermediate protection is the pro used between two belay points. To maintain adequate speed, anchor systems are generally not used in intermediate protection.
Prusik (prussik, prussick, prussic): A sliding friction knot used to anchor a small diameter rope to a large diameter rope, also, to ascend a rope with prusik slings. The knot bears the last name of the Austrian climber who devised it.
Prusik self-rescue video
PUDs (pointless ups and downs): A feature of poor trails and routes, sometimes an indication the person tasked with route finding should be replaced. Other features might include unsafe stream crossings, brush and downed trees obscuring and blocking the trail.
Rack: The collection of pro carried by a climber on waist harness loops and shoulder slings. A climber wearing a colorful rack bears a striking resemblance to a fanned peacock. It's difficult to stay in fashion because year to year, pastel, dark and neon colors go in and out of style. Black with white accents is always in good taste.
Rappel (rap, abseil): To descend a fixed rope, usually by means of a braking device, statistically the most dangerous climbing technique still in common use probably because some climbers rappel without a good Plan B, that is, without a belay. For the last person down a pitch there is no way to belay a rappel. For that reason the last person often rappels without a belay. An safer alternative, when possible, is for the last person to down climb the pitch while using the rope set up as a top-rope belay.
Rappel variations
Required turn-around time: The time of day at which climbers must turn back in order to descend safely. Unanticipated slow going can cause climbers to reach the required turn-around time before reaching the summit. Climbers may also set a turn-around time in order to return the trailhead before dark, not necessarily for safety reasons.
Ridge walk: A trail above timberline and the immediate terrain often celebrated for the view, as close as backpackers get to the alpine vistas enjoyed by mountaineers.
Rime: A thin layer of ice and hard snow over rock. Verglas is a thin layer of ice over rock. Both are hazardous conditions that might end an ascent.
Rock!: What climbers in the vicinity yell to protect their team and others when nature or a climber sends a rock down the mountain. Often used to alert climbers of any falling object, ice, water bottles, etc.
Runnel: In common usage a rivulet or brook, in mountaineering, a groove in snow created by a falling cornice. Because crossing runnels is slow going, the prospect of crossing a series of runnels often ends an ascent.
Running belay: A similar technique to a fixed-line traverse except the rope moves with the climbers.
Running belay
Runout: The distance between two points of protection, the distance between a lead climber and the last piece of protection, and the fall distance allowed by the distance from the last piece of protection.
Saddle (col): The lowest point of elevation between two peaks. A col more often refers to a low point between two lesser points, like a low point in a ridge. Saddles and cols are common waypoints in routes to eliminate unnecessary elevation gain and loss.
Scramble: Easy unprotected climbing.
Scree: Small loose rocks. Difficult to ascend, like climbing a slope of loose sand, scree slopes are often used for descents, a practice discouraged by Trads.
Second (follow): The climber who follows a lead up a pitch and belays from below while the lead advances, then ascends to the end of the pitch while often removing the intermediate protection.
Self-arrest: A technique that works in some snow conditions on moderate slopes to bring a fall to a stop. First, plant the ax pick to pivot the body below the ax on the slope. Then, while keeping the feet — more importantly, the crampons — off the surface, pull the ax handle under the chest to load weight onto the ax. When speed has slowed enough to lower the feet without causing a flip, then plant the feet firmly in the snow. Make a tripod of the feet and the ice ax. When a member of a fallen rope team, hold the position until determining the team will not begin sliding again if you release the anchor point. Self-arrest does not work in many conditions. Climbers must be aware of the general conditions where it will work, test specific conditions to see if it will work, then adjust the climb plan accordingly. Snow often softens during daylight hours and forms a hard ice crust at night. A slope that supports self-arrest in the morning often will not support self-arrest in the afternoon.
Self-arrest
Self-belay: The essential technique for traveling on snow and ice. One or more ice axes are secured as anchors before the feet move. When both feet are in secure positions, then the ax or axes move to new positions. In this way secure, slow, progress is made. A solo climber will often use a wrist strap to the ax to avoid dropping the ax by accident. When traveling in a rope team, a sling connects the ax to the harness because holding a fallen rope team with only one's arm is untenable. The general rule is to stay in self-belay when another member of the rope team falls and resort to self-arrest only when falling yourself. As with self-arrest, self-belay does not work in many conditions. Climbing on snow requires ongoing tests of the snow conditions and assessment of the climb plan. Test to see if a planted ax handle or pick will hold a fall. Consider if softer snow later in the day will hold for the descent, or if hard crust late in the evening will allow planting an ax. Adjust the climb plan accordingly. Self-belay also refers to using an ascender or carabiners to attach oneself to a fixed line.
A fall on the rope team
Sew up: To place protection close together along a route in excess compared to the common practice for the route. Sewing up good rock and hard snow routes adds to safety by reducing the potential fall distance and fall force reaching an anchor. In poor rock and soft snow, the safer technique is to use the same amount or more protection to create fewer anchor points, but to make each anchor point an anchor system.
Sling (runner): A length of nylon webbing or cord either sewn or tied into a loop used in conjunction with the rope and anchors to provide protection. A daisy chain is a sling sewn into loops so its length can be adjusted easily. A quickdraw is a sewn sling with a carabiner at each end.
Spindrift: Loose, powdery snow incapable of holding protection.
Sport climbing: Climbing a bolted rock route (sport route), a type of climbing with some of its own terminology. Pinkpoint and redpoint refer to the degree the route has been set up.
Spur: A rock or snow rib on a mountain, a lateral ridge.
Stem: To bridge the distance between two holds with one's feet, to push against adjacent or opposing walls with the feet as one might do in a chimney.
Talus: An accumulation of rock larger than scree that has fallen to its location. The presence and amount of talus should be considered when crossing a slope or climbing the pitch above it.
Thru-hiker: A hiker with a small backpack racing along long-distance trail end-to-end. The ideal for a thru-hiker is to maximize distance per day by minimizing gear and supplies, to walk barefoot, naked and, having adapted to life in the wild, to not to carry food or water, but to absorb nutrients from the aroma of flora while clacking along with trekking poles. Step off the trail to let thru-hikers by. They have a long way to go. To enjoy a few thru-hiking epics vicariously, read Carrot's blog at carrotquinn.com . And now for something completely different, the ideal for a backpacker is a comfortable camp following a leisurely hike through one of the best places in the wild during ideal weather after the first freeze in the fall when the bugs are gone. A section hiker is not end-to-end hiking or end-to-ending, but is backpacking a portion of a long-distance trail, likely one of the better parts in a better season. For a day hiker, the ideal is the same as for a backpacker, but limited by the distance a day pack can support them, sufficient for many destinations. A slack-packer can be a day hiker, but is more generally someone not carrying complete overnight gear, but only enough to survive a night in an emergency, for example, a climber heading up from high camp with a lightweight summit pack. The ideal for a trail runner includes a trail in good enough condition they can steal glances away from where their feet will land to enjoy the wild.
Timberline: An elevation high enough trees no longer grow. The precise altitude varies by how sheltered an area is from inhospitable winter conditions. Not only trees, but what comes with a forest, insects are usually not found above timberline. While backpackers get bugged, ridge walkers and mountaineers at higher elevations hike and camp without bother. Mosquito alley is the section of trail between timberline and the trailhead, a distance mountaineers plan break locations around to hike through without a stop.
Top rope: A climbing rope anchored above both the climber and the belayer, to belay someone from below using a rope that loops up from the belayer through a high anchor and then back down to the climber.
Trad: A person who adheres to the principles of traditional climbing: to place and remove the protection used on a climb, to use no device or technique that will scar the rock or mountain.
Trail rhythm: A way of walking for increased speed on a good trail. The method begins with a slightly exaggerated, rhythmic forward and backward swinging of the arms. As a result, the posture becomes more erect, the stride becomes both longer and more steady. The left foot moves forward with the right arm, the right foot moves forward with the left arm. For impressive speed flailing, watch a thru-hiker add trekking poles to the technique. Minimizing stops improves overall speed. With some practice, the water bottles on a large backpack can be accessed without removing the pack. A small day-pack can be carried on one loose shoulder strap and pulled forward to access its contents in order to eat and drink while walking. When off trail, like on a typical summit route, horizontal progress is slow and difficult to predict. Instead of a horizontal measure of speed, mountaineers rely on a prior average vertical distance per hour to estimate their speed on the next mountain.
Traverse: Moving laterally across terrain instead of ascending or descending. Anchoring in with carabiners sliding along a fixed line is fine on a traverse. An ascender is required instead of carabiners when the fixed rope tilts more towards vertical.
Trekking Poles: Although ultramarathon runners will not bother with trekking poles even when thru-hiking, mere mortal thru-hikers and persons with knee problems are inclined to consider trekking poles the only essential piece of gear. Poles, which can be fashioned from downed tree branches, provide balance while crossing streams and other slippery, flat surfaces. The feet retain grip by supporting weight while delegating balance to the poles. Because backpacks have their own inertia, a hiker carrying an unusually heavy backpack can rely on poles for balance on any surface. On slight-uphill stretches of good trail, poles used correctly can increase one's speed. Other than for balance, poles require practice to be useful. Thru-hikers have more experience and find themselves on good trail more often than other hikers, so more often keep trekking poles in their hands even when only carrying them. Poles are a nuisance whenever the hands are wanted for something else, when eating and drinking, when preferring to keep your hands in your pockets, when wiping or blowing your nose, when scrambling and bouldering, when catching a fall, when off trail or on a poor trail where a pole can become stuck between rocks, and are a nuisance for the people behind you when on a dusty trail. Unless circumstances suggest trekking poles will be useful, they are often left at home or, just in case, carried on the pack.
Undercling: A hand hold on rock that depends on upward pressure on a downward hold.
Unzip (zipper fall, zip out): A fall where one piece of protection after another is pulled out by the force of the fall. Often refers to the failure of intermediate protection in rock climbing but is also a threat for fixed lines and for running belays in alpine climbing.
Water knot: A knot used to tie lengths of webbing together or into slings.
Water knot video
Webbing: Flat nylon tape or tubing used for slings and harnesses.
Yosemite/Tahquitz Decimal System: An evolving system to define route difficulty numerically with fine definitions within Class 5. The system bears the names of where it developed in the 1950s.
Z-pulley: A construction of climbing rope, carabiners and slings to leverage three to one the power of a few people so they can pull out a climber who collapsed a snow bridge and fell into a crevasse. A z-pulley plus a u-pulley (c-pulley) gives the rescuers twice the leverage of a z-pulley alone, six to one leverage, enough for one climber to haul out another.
Complex rescues
Zero: From thru-hikers, to take a zero is to camp in the same place for a day and achieve no distance in order to rest, to acclimatize or to hang out in good company. A nero is a day where only a small distance is achieved.
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A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
A vue - adj. French for "onsight", a clean ascent first try with no prior knowledge of the route (see onsight).
A0 - n. (Pronounced �A-zero�) Rating given to using a bolt for aid. No possibility of falling because weight is supported by something that cannot fail.
Abseil - v. UK English for rappel, from the German origin. See Rappel.
Adventure climbing - see Traditional climbing
Aid Climbing - n Originally called direct aid or artificial climbing, aid climbing is a means of ascent where the climber�s weight is supported primarily, or entirely, by slings attached to a device attached to the rock, rather than by the climber�s own hands, feet and other body parts as in free climbing. Upward progress is not required: weighting the rope, or resting on gear is aid. Difficulty increases as security diminishes.
Aider - n. Ladder made of webbing used for Aid Climbing, or as footholds for the belayer on a multi pitch climb. See also: Etrier
Aiding - see Aid climbing
Aid points - n. Gear attached to the rock from which to hang when aid climbing.
Allez - v. French for "Go!" Used to encourage climbers to push on.
Alpine Start - n. The set off time on an Alpine Route to enable a summit and return journey without the worry of the snow & ice melting in the days heat. Generally very early in the morning, ie 3am.
Alpine Style - adj. Doing a mountain route without pre-placing fixed lines or using pre-supplied camp sites for any stage of the journey. Example: The British group climbed the new route on Changabang in fine alpine style.
AMS - n. Acute Mountain Sickness
Anchor - n. That which attaches the belayer to the rock, or otherwise prevents the belayer from being pulled off the belay stance if the leader falls. In roped technical climbing, one climber moves at a time, while the other belays. The belayer must be securely attached to the the rock by means of protection devices (cams, nuts, bolts, pitons), or tied to an immovable object like a boulder or sturdy tree. The attachments are called collectively the "anchor." An ideal anchor relies on at least three bombproof attachment points. (See also belay.)
Angle - n. A type of piton made of a few inches of chromoly steel with a 90 degree angle down its spine, like a shallow taco. Comes in sizes of less than 1/2 inch (baby angle) to 2 inches wide, 4 to 6 inches long, and with an eye in the end for clipping a carabiner. Rarely used now except on aid climbs, and when left as fixed protection on free climbs.
Approach - v. The journey to the base of a crag or route.
Approach shoes - n. A sort of cross between a trainer and a walking boot used for the approach from the car to the base of the climb.
Approach Time - n. The time taken to reach the base of the route your going to climb.
Arete - n. A narrow ridge, or corner, of rock or snow. Derived from the french word for "stop".
Arm bar - n./v. A forearm jammed across a wide crack using a camming effect in order to make progress.
Artificial climbing - see Aid climbing.
Ascend - v. To go up. Climbers ascend a route to get to the top.
Ascenders - n. Mechanical devices used to ascend a rope, consisting of a camming mechanism which bites into the rope when downward pressure is applied but allows movement when slid up the rope.
Ascent - n. A completed climb. 'Everest was one of my many ascents.' 2. v. The upward [not vertical] movement or progress [not motion] of a climber. Antonym: descent.
Autoblock - n./v. A prusik used as a one-way clutch or pulley. Used as a safety back-up knot on a rappel rope. a.k.a. French prusik or "Machard" prusik.
Back clean - 1. v, back cleaning, back cleaned, When leading, to remove superfluous gear from below for anticipated use higher on the pitch, most often when aid climbing by simply reaching back or below to clean. Mindy decided to back clean the last two TCUs she had placed to save them for the centimeter-wide crack out the big roof.
Back step - 1. n, a foot position relative to its foothold wherein the climber uses the outside edge of the toe box, instead of the big toe, inside edge, heel, instep, etc. 2. v, to use the outside edge of one's foot on a foothold. 3. v, (the rope) to place a foot or leg between the rope and the rock in such a way as to make entanglement and, subsequently, an upside-down fall more likely. Dude! Watch your right foot! Don't back step the rope!
Bail - v. To give up and rappel or otherwise get off the route because of weather, darkness, or difficulties. �We both tried and fell on the crux several times, so we bailed.� �We didn�t want to finish in the dark, so we bailed.�
Bail Biner - n. A carabiner left behind when rappelling or lowering off of a climb, usually left on a single bolt or other protection device mid-pitch.
Bandolier - n. A short sling with a padding worn over the shoulder by the leader to hold a rack that is too big to be accommodated by gear loops.
Barn door - n. When the body swings away from the rock from two or more pivot points (usually one hand and one foot) due to the angle. Can occur on a steep lieback as well. Difficult to recover from and often results in a fall.
Base Camp - n The lowest fixed camp on a long route or other journey.
Belay - vb. the process of paying out the rope to the lead climber, or taking in rope for a follower, while he/she climbs, and of protecting the climber in the event of a fall. Belaying allows a climber to fall and live to try again. (2) n. - the place where a climber belays, and the anchor is set up attaching the climber to the rock, normally at the beginning and end of each pitch. (See belay station.) Also, a session of belaying.
Belay Device - n. A device that attaches to the climber�s harness through which the rope is threaded for belaying. Its primary purpose is to create friction quickly in the event of a fall so the belayer can stop the rope, which stops the leader�s fall, simply by pulling against the device. The device creates a �hairpin� turn in the rope at all times and allows the belayer to pay out or take in slack freely, and to stop or brake the rope in an instant. Common belay devices: ATC, GriGri, Sticht Plate
Belay Monkey - n. Any person recruited for the task of belaying for long periods of time. Similar to Belay Betty; usually a non-climbing female recruited to belay a significant other.
Belay Station - n. A secure stance consisting of an anchor, a rope, and a belayer with a belay device. The place where a belayer sits, stands or hangs while belaying.
Belayer - n. a person who is belaying a climber.
Beta - n. information about a route.
Betaflash - n. a clean first ascent with no falls after having received beta. (This contrasts an onsightflash, a clean ascent with no prior knowledge of the route. 2. (vb.) to perform a betaflash.
Big wall - n. A large expanse of steep rock taking a minimum of three days to climb with conventional methods (free and aid climbing, hauling a bag with food water and shelter). El Cap and Half Dome in Yosemite Valley are big walls though both have routes that have been climbed in less than a day. The majority of routes on both require three to eight days to climb. Washington Column, Sentinel, and Leaning Tower are usually not referred to as a big walls. 2. (adj.) Of or pertaining to a big wall. (e.g., big wall climbing gear).
Biner - n. Slang for carabiner, a metal ring with a spring-loaded gate used to attach the rope to protection, and many other things. (See carabiner.)
Bird Beak - n. A thin hook used as protection in small cracks and pockets.
Bivouac - n. a place to spend the night. 2.(vb.) to spend the night, often in an unexpected location. Slang: Bivy
Bivy - n. Slang for Bivouac. A place to spend the night. 2.(vb.) to spend the night, often in an unexpected location.
Bolt - n. A permanent anchor in the rock installed individually as a protection device, or with other bolts or protection devices as an anchor. The bolt is a metal shaft 1/4 inch, 3/8 inch or 5/16 inch in diameter (common sizes), driven into a hole drilled by the climber, and equipped with a hanger to attach a carabiner. Generally, no one installs 1/4 inch bolts anymore, and because most of them are more than 25 years old, they should not be used when found. Occasionally they can be pried out by hand, or break under body weight.
Bomb-bay - adj. Describes a chimney (or sometimes lesser crack) that opens at the bottom toward the ground, similar to the bomb-bay doors on a B-52 aircraft.
Bomber - adj. a corruption of "bombproof" meaning very secure.
Bombproof - adj. Very secure, unlikely to move even when subjected to great force.
Booty - n. gear left behind for the taking, usually either from a previous party bailing on a route or accidentally fixing gear.
Boulder - n./v. a big rock typically climbed without a rope. May be head high to over 30 feet. Each boulder may have many distinct routes. Boulder problems are often top roped (See top rope), but climbing without a rope is thought to be better style. To boulder or to go bouldering is to climb boulder problems.
Bouldering Pad - n. A mat three to four inches thick, and roughly four feet square placed on the ground under a boulderer to cushion a fall. Usually made of layers of foam of various densities and covered with heavy, durable nylon and equipped with straps so that it can be folded in half and carried from place to place on the climber�s back. Also known as a crash pad.
Bouncing - v. Sport climbing technique used to regain the rock after falling and the climber is hanging free and out of reach of the rock. The climber climbs the rope hand over hand (very strenuous), and then drops. At the instant the climber lets go, the belayer hauls in slack thereby raising the climber. Repeating this process eventually brings the climber back to the rock. Also known as boinking, and to superman (compare with batman).
Bowline knot - n. One of the two common knots for tying in to the climbing harness (after the Figure 8 knot). Used by some experienced climbers for indoor and sport climbing because it is easier to untie after repeated loadings. Can be tied with one hand. Should be periodically re-tightened and the loose end MUST be secured with a Stopper knot - it may pull through the loop otherwise. "The rabbit goes out of the hole, around the tree, and back down the hole" is a commonly used phrase that provides hints on how to tie the bowline knot.
Brake Hand - n. The hand that holds the rope on the opposite side of the belay device to the climber.
Bridging - v. Climbing manouver involving arching the legs across a gap to put pressure on two opposing holds or walls. See also: Stemming.
Bucket - n. big handhold that is easy to hold onto. Usually a depression, hole or scoop (concave) in the rock. See also jug.
Bump - v. To move from one hand hold to another with the same hand in a sequential move, typically from an intermediate hold in a linear fashion.
Buildering - n. to climb on buildings or manmade structures. Often done for training for rock climbing.
Buttress - n. A part of the mountain or rock formation that stands out from the main face. May also be used to describe the corner of a rock formation, e.g., the East Buttress of Middle Cathedral.
Cam - n. Short for camming device, removable, portable protection that helps arrest a climbers fall.
Campus - (1) vb. to work out on a campus board. (2) vb. to climb with feet dangling as if using a campus board.
Campus board - n. a runged ladderlike training device used to train for climbing. Originated by the Late Wolfgang Guillich, this simple device has been largely responsible for advances in climbing difficulty around the world.
Carabiner - n. A metal ring with a spring-loaded gate used to attach the rope to protection, and many other things.
Cave - n. A roof enclosed on two sides.
Chalk - n. white drying agent used to keep a climbers hands dry. Sometimes called "white courage" 2. (vb.) to apply chalk to hands.
Chalk Bag - n. A small bag with a stiff rim worn clipped to the harness or around the waist on a belt and used to hold chalk. Allows the climber to access chalk while climbing.
Chalk Up - v. Putting chalk on the hands before or while on a climb.
Chicken Wing - n. A type of arm bar useful in off widths and tight chimneys. Bend arm at elbow so that hand touches shoulder. Insert in crack and push against opposite sides. Works especially well vertically in squeeze chimneys, with elbow pointing up and pressing against one side of chimney, and heel of hand against the other side. 2.(v.) To Chicken Wing: bad climbing form on a face climb where the climber's elbows point out and back at an awkward angle.
Chickenhead - n. A knobby feature (resembling a chicken's head) which provides excellent holds for hands or feet.
Chimney - n. a parallel sided constriction wider than body width. 2. (vb.) to climb a chimney.
Chipping - n. the act of altering the rock by breaking it. Almost universally shunned by climbers, but still performed by those whose bodies and egos are too weak to meet the challenge of a climb.
Chock - n. A generic term for all passive protection that can be wedged into a crack or slot in the rock, i.e., wired nuts, slung nuts, hexes, stoppers, wedges, etc. . .
Choss - n. loose, bad quality rock.
Chossy - adj. like choss.
Class 1 - n./adj. (Archaic. Almost never used.) AKA First Class. Denotes walking where no special footwear is required. One of six classes describing travel in the mountains.
Class 2 - n./adj. (Archaic. Almost never used.) AKA Second Class. Denotes trail walking where it is advisable to have boots or other sturdy footwear. One of six classes describing travel in the mountains.
Class 3 - n./adj. AKA Third Class. Denotes scrambling involving the use of the hands as well as the feet, but where a rope is not needed. More commonly used to describe climbing without a rope, especially when the climbers have a rope.
Class 4 - n./adj. AKA Fourth Class, like Class 3, requiring use of hands as well as feet, sometimes referred to as scrambling, but where a rope is advisable because a fall would likely result in serious injury or death. Class 4 is a step below technical rock climbing (Class 5), which involves more difficult climbing and requires the use of protection devices. For a rock climber to describe something as fourth class usually means that it is easy.
Class 5 - n./adj. AKA Fifth Class. Technical rock climbing requiring the use of rope and protection, and where only one climber moves at a time while belayed by another climber. This is why the Yosemite Decimal System starts at 5.0.
Class 6 - n./adj. (Archaic. Almost never used.) AKA Sixth Class. Direct aid. When the Yosemite Decimal System was first devised, free climbs were rated from 5.0 to 5.9, and the next rating up was 6.0, the point at which you had to hang on the rope. The decimal system never caught on for aid. (See aid ratings.)
Clean - (1) v. To remove protection devices (gear). On a multipitch climb, the climber who seconds (follows the leader), takes out all of the removable gear placed by the leader. (2) adj. A clean climb, or a climb that �goes clean� is one that can be done without using a hammer to pound in pitons or mashies. This method is called clean because it does not damage the rock. (See pin scars.) (3) adj. To complete a climb or project without hang-dogging or falling, especially on top-rope.
Cleaning Tool - n. A metal tool used in the extraction of protection that has become stuck in the rock.
Clipping - v. The act of putting a carabiner onto a bold, the rope, or a piece of protection. 'Clipping!' is a common call to indicate to the belayer that you are about to pull up rope to make a clip.
Clipstick - see Stick Clip
Clove Hitch - n. Knot often used to tie a rope to a carabiner.
Cold shut - n. A type of fixed anchor composed of bent bar stock. Cold shuts, or "shuts," may be open (simply a bent hook that cradles the rope) or closed (welded into a complete loop of metal). Open shuts may be gated to keep the rope from popping out or not. While some types of shuts are still often installed atop (mostly) single-pitch climbs, they have fallen somewhat out favor. Reasons for this include a perceived strength weakness and their short lifespan relative to other types of anchors.
Commitment, level of - n. A term used to define how hard a climb is.
Copperhead - n. Aid device made of a malleable copper alloy and slung on swaged wire cable, used to hammer into shallow grooves and slots in the rock. When pounded with a hammer and chisel, they deform to fit the shape of the rock. These are typically left fixed because they are difficult to remove without damaging the rock.
Cow's Tail - n. A sling girth-hitched onto the harness attachment point.
Crack - n. An inwards split or break in a rock face.
Crack climbing - n. the act of climbing continuous cracks in the rock often requiring specific techniques and protection methods.
Crampons - n. Meal spikes which attach onto climbing boots to allow a firm grip on snow or ice.
Crank - v. Slang for pulling on a hold at your maximum power.
Crash pad - n. See bouldering pad.
Crater - vb. to fall off a climb to the ground.
Crimp - vb. to grip in a way such that fingertips contact the hold with knuckles raised slightly.
Crimper - n. a small edged hold which is conducive to crimping.
Cross Threaded - adj. When the thread on a carabiner's locking mechanism's is not twisting freely, usually due to it being tightened up whilst loaded. This can be very hard to unscrew.
Cross through - n. a reach with hand or foot that crosses the line of the other appendage.
Crucifix move - n. A strenuous stemming move using the arms instead of the legs; the upper body is locked by applying outward pressure on the hands at anything up to shoulder level, allowing the feet to be brought over a bulge or blank section. Often used in conjunction with standard stemming to tackle wide chimneys.
Crux - n. the most crucial, difficult part of the climb.
Cruxy - v. A climb is said to be cruxy if it has several hard sections interspersed with rather easy sections.
D.W.S. - n. Deep water solo. Free solo climbing on routes above deep water, such that the climber will land in the water if they were to fall.
Daisy Chain - n. A sown webbing sling with multiple loops used in aiding and belay stations.
Dead Hang - adj. Hanging from a hold with the arms straightened allowing body weight to be held by the skeleton rather than arm muscles. - good for relaxing the arm muscles
Deadman - n. A metal plate placed into deep snow for use as an anchor.
Deadpoint - n. to catch a hold at the apex of upward momentum at the point where the climber will experience the least force. (see "dyno"). 2. (vb.) to perform a deadpoint
Deck - v. To "deck" or to "deck out" or "hit the deck" is to take a fall resulting in a impact on the floor, often resulting in serious injury or death.
Descender - n. Any device used to rappel or abseil. ie: figure 8, rappel rack, stitch plate
Dihedral - n. A corner. Literally, the word means two planes coming together. It may be a 90 degree corner, and it may be more or less than 90 degrees. (Right, obtuse, acute angles.) Look at a picture of the Nose of El Cap. See that big corner that forms the upper third of the route? Now that�s a dihedral. Also see open book.
Disco Leg - adj. Also known as 'sewing maching leg' or 'doing the wild elvis'. Referres the the uncontrollable shaking of the leg(s) while climbing. Result of tired leg muscles.
Dogging - v. short for 'hang-dogging'. Refers to spending large amounts of time hanging in the harness while working a climb.
Doubled Back - adj. Bringing your harness webbing loop back through the buckle when putting it on. This is an important part of ensuring that your harness is done up correctly.
Double Dyno - n. A dyno where both hands launch out simultaneously for a high break.
Double Overhand knot - see Double Stopper knot
Double Ropes - n. A pair of ropes intended to be used such that only one rope will be clipped into any particular piece of protection. Generally used to reduce rope drag issues on (trad) routes that wander, or where the gear is often well off the main climbing line. A rope intended for this usege will generally be marked with a 1/2 symbol on it, though any rope intended as a single rope can, also, be used as one of a double-ropes pair.
Double Overhand knot - see Double Stopper knot
Double Stopper knot - n. A stopper knot with an extra turn around the parallel strand of rope. More secure than the simple version. a.k.a. Double Overhand knot.
Downclimb - vb. to climb downward rather than upward on a climb.
Draw - n. short for "quickdraw", a useful link consisting of two caribiners connected by a length of rope or webbing. Often used to attach the rope to points of protection.
Drop knee - n. technique requiring twisting your body and a downward turning of the inside knee to increase reach efficiency.
Dynamic rope - n. A rope that stretches to absorb impact, vital for lead climbing.
Dyneema - n. A very strong material used to make slings. Thinner and lighter than typical nylon webbing. Called 'spectra' in the US.
Dyno - n. abbreviation for "dynamic movement", a move that requires some use of momentum. (antonym: static movement) 2. (vb.) to perform a dyno.
Edge - n. a small, horizontal hold. 2. (vb.) to stand on an edge with the corner of a shoe maximizing the pressure applied to a small area of rubber.
Egyptian move - n. The dropped knee technique but without twisting the body, allowing the feet to push in opposition even if using vertical holds. Is sometimes the only way that either hand can be freed up.
Elevator Door - n. Hand technique that is essentially a double Gaston, i.e. both hands are pulling on either side of a narrow crack, like trying to pull elevator doors open.
Elvis leg - n. the uncontrollable shake of a leg uncontrollably during a climb. Often due to a combination of nerves and overcontraction of muscles. Also called sewing machine leg.
Engram - n. psychology An encoding in neural tissue that provides a physical basis for the persistence of memory; a memory trace. e.g. After practicing overhangs, the message from the brain will work on the opposing muscle groups much more effectively when following recently used pathways.
Epic - adj. Surpassing the usual or ordinary, particularly in scope or size. An adventure where everything seems to go wrong and the adventurers are constatnly put at risk.
Escaping the system - v. Transferring the weight of a hanging climber directly to the anchor, so that the belayer can move away to solve a problem.
Etriers - n. The original French term for Aiders. Nylon webbing steps for use when aid climbing.
Exposure - Being very far above your last piece of protection or being in a situation in which you are very aware that you are high off the ground or in a remote location.
Express - n. A quickdraw. Two carabiners connected by webbing or rope. Usually used to link the rope to an element of protection. (European).
Extender - see Quickdraw
F.A. - n. abbreviation for "first ascent". Often seen in guidebooks to list the people responsible for the route.
F.F.A. - n. abbreviation for "first free ascent", first ascent that did not use aid gear.
Face Climbing - v. Climbing on the flat part of a rock face, considered the be the opposite of crack climbing.
Fall Factor - n. The length of the fall divided by the amount of rope paid out. Used when deciding how much strain has been placed on a rope or piece of gear after it has been fallen on.
Fall Line - n. The path of a climber if he were to fall off a climb.
Featherbag - n. The opposite of sandbag.
Fifi Hook - n. A small hook, primarily used when aiding, to clip into a daisy chain or piece of gear.
Figure 4 - n. An uncommon technique to make long reaches that requires lifting a leg over the opposite arm, putting the body in a position that resembles a "4". Mostly used in ice and mixed climbing.
Figure 8 - n. a common rappel / belay device shaped like the number "8".
Figure 8 knot - n. Also known as the "double figure 8" or "figure 8 follow through". The most common knot used to attach the climber's harness to the rope.
Figure 9 - n. An uncommon technique to make long reaches that requires lifting a leg over the arm on the same side of the climbers body, putting the body in a position that resembles a "9". Mostly used in ice and mixed climbing.
Finger jam - n. Obtaining purchase in a crack wide enough for a finger but too narrow for a hand; can be achieved with one or more fingers. An advanced technique. Cracks that are too small for hands and wider than finger width (off-finger size) are especially difficult to master.
Finger lock - n. see "finger jam"
Fist Jam - n. A technique involving a fist being wedged into a crack in order to hold on.
Fixed protection - n. gear that is left on the rock for future use.
Fixed Rope - n. A rope fixed to a route by the lead climber and left in place for all who follow. Also refers to ropes left on sections of alpine climbs in order to aid the next party to attempt the route.
Flag - vb. To dangle a leg in a way that improves balance. Also refers to using feet without holds to improve balance and create sideways momentum.
Flake - n. A rock formation where a 'flake' of rock sticks out from the rest of the wall.
Flapper - n. a superficial injury resulting in a loose flap of skin.
Flared Crack - n. A crack with sides that are not parallel, but instead form two converging planes of rock.
Flash - n. completion of a climb first try with no falls. 2. (vb.) to perform a flash.
Follow - v. Synonym: second. After the first climber leads the pitch, the second (the one who belayed the leader) follows, that is, he/she climbs up to the leader, cleaning (removing protection placed by the leader) the pitch on the way up. Because the leader is belaying the second from above, the second has a top rope and will not fall far if he falls at all. When the follower reaches the leader�s belay, he secures himself, takes the rack, and leads the next pitch. (See swinging leads.)
Fourth Class - n./adj./v. Refers to the Class 1 to 6 system (See Class 1 through 6); movement requiring the use of the hands as well as the feet and requiring specialized foot wear, and requiring a rope for safety, unlike Class 3. Experienced rock climbers tend to think of fourth class as easy and often do not rope up until they are on Class 5 terrain.
Free Climb - v. The act of making upward progress using only your hands, feet, and other body parts for purchase on the rock, as opposed to direct aid where the climber�s weight is supported by a sling attached to a device attached to the rock. When free climbing with a rope, the game is to never rely on the rope for assistance: it is there to catch you only if you fall. Contrast this with aid climbing in which your feet are in slings or stirrups and your hands are free (generally) to place the next piece of gear that will support your weight. While free climbing, you are using only your hands, feet, legs, hips, butt, back, chest, and shoulders to keep yourself from falling, and none of your weight is supported by slings or the rope.
Free Solo - v. To free climb without a rope and without protection. A fall is likely to result in serious injury or death. Usually distinguished from climbing high boulders in that free soloing implies a climb of a pitch or more. Contrast with the term highball.
Front Pointing - v. Technique for ascending steep or overhanging ice. The front teeth of the crampons are used to dig into the ice.
Gaston - n. a climbing technique that involves sidepulling with an elbow pointed outward.
Gate - n. The hinged part of a carabiner which opens to allow the clipping of a rope or piece of gear. etc.
Gear Loops - n. The loops attached to the waist belt on a harness that are used to hold gear.
Girth hitch - n. A very simple hitch for attaching a sling to a harness or a tree. The sling is threaded back through a loop in itself. When attached to a tree or large branch, it should be used carefully as it can be very weak in the wrong configuration.
Glissade - vb. a controled slide down a slope.
Gouttes d'eau - n. pl. fr. Pockets in the rock caused by water erosion.
Grade - n. An approximate measure of the technical difficulty of a climb.
Greasy - adj. slippery
Greenpoint - n. To flash a route on toprope.
Grigri - n. An auto-locking belay device working on a similar principle to car seatbelts, where a shock loading will tighten a sprung camming system and hold the rope. Does not allow dynamic belaying, so a large impact force results.
Gripped - adj. tired and/or scared. Often a synergy between the two.
G-Tox - n./v. A method of shaking out the arms which utilizes gravity to shorten muscle recovery time.
Guide Book - n. A book which shows where climbing routes are located and gives brief descriptions of the route and its difficulty.
Gumby - adj. A (often derogatory) name for a novice climber.
Gym - n. A ussually indoor climbing facility consisting of manmade walls.
Half Rope - n. Same as double ropes.
Hand jam - n./v. Using your hand to gain purchase in a crack by twisting the hand, squeezing or spreading the palm, pulling the thumb down, making a fist, stacking both hands, etc. . .
Hand Traverse - n. Climbing horizontally using hands only. Also: Campus Traverse
Hang - v. Common usage: 'Bill ran up to hang draws on that 5.12". A more experienced climber may climb a route to place quickdraws for other climbers of lesser abilities. Or simply to hang from a handhold.
Hang Dog - vb./n. to repeatedly rest on the rope while climbing.
Hanging Belay - n. A belay stance where the climbers must hang from the anchor rather than sit or stand on a ledge. These tend to be uncomfortable and more time consuming because the climber must hang in the harness, and it is harder to keep gear organized when freedom of movement is restricted. If a ledge is available, climbers will try to end a pitch there to avoid a hanging belay.
Harness - n. Device the climber wears that attaches the climber to the rope so that in the event of a fall, the climber is held by the rope. (See belay.) Modern harnesses include leg loops and a waist band secured by a buckle system. They are designed to withstand far more impact force than they should ever be subjected to in use.
Haul Bag - n. Large and sturdy bag used to carry gear up a big wall climb. Generally cylindrical in shape with a minimal number of straps to avoid snagging on the rock face as it is hauled up at each pitch.
Heel hook - n./vb. a climbing technique involving the use of a heel to pull down like a third arm.
Heel toe lock - n/vb. a climbing technique involving the wedging of a foot lengthwise in a constriction
Helmet - n. Protection for the head from falling gear or rocks.
Hexcentric - n. Commonly referred to as a Hex; a hexagonal shaped metal piece of protection. Allows for passive protection when placed one way and camming action when placed another.
Hidden Hold - n. A hold that is out of sight until a climber is very near it. Hidden holds are often hard to see even at close range and many climbers will climb past one without seeing it.
Highball - n. A very high boulder problem, often with a hard landing. A high boulder problem with a sandy or otherwise soft landing may not be considered a highball. Of Planet X in Joshua Tree John Bachar said: �That�s not a f@#%in� highball.�
Hike - v. To send a climb in excellent style. Usage: "I was falling all over that climb then I took a rest and hiked it."
Hold - n. Any feature of the rock wich affords the climber a place to grip with hands or feet. Also, for indoor use; small plastic molded climbing grips.
Hook - n. Small 'r' shaped piece of metal used as protection on ledges and small holes when aid climbing. Requires a fair amount of skill to place and weight efficiently.
Hooking - n./v. Foot technique involving the use of the heel as a prehensile limb, pulling the body toward a hold. Requires well-fitting heels - slippers are not suitable for this movement style as the heel tends to pop out of the shoe. Best used to cross large overhangs. Camming the heel against a flake and the toe against the wall is often a very effective variation.
Hueco - n. a large indented pocket in the rock. From Hueco Tanks, a popular climbing area with many such features.
Ice Screw - n. A piece of protection for ice climbing that is literaly screwed into the ice. Has a metal hanger on the end for clipping a carabiner.
Impact force - n. The maximum force affecting the climber and anchors as a falling climber is brought to a halt. The faster the deceleration, the greater the impact force.
Incut - adj. An indent An indent in a rockface or climbing wall big enough to be used as a hand or foot hold. Also refers to a hand/foot hold which slants downwards into the wall affording a better grip. ie: an incut crimper, rather than a flat or sloping crimper.
Indoor Climbing - n. Climbing on an articificial wall generally found indoors and utilizing plastic holds.
Instructor - n. A person with the qualifications to teach others about climbing and climbing safety. (not climbing specific)
Inverting - v. Flipping upside down when falling off the wall.
Italian Hitch - see M�nter hitch
Jamming - v. Placing and wedging a body part into a crack in order to hold yourself on the wall.
Jug - n. A big hand hold, usually a great relief to find. (See also, bucket.) Also a verb meaning �to jumar� or the act of ascending a fixed rope with jumars.
Jughaul - n. A route that has nothing but big, easy holds on it.
Jugging - v. See jumaring...
Jumar - n. A device with a handle and a toothed cam that bites the rope when weighted used to ascend a fixed rope. Replaced prussik knots in the 60's, and was one of only two mechanical ascenders on the market for years. Useless on iced ropes. Also a verb meaning �to jumar.� �I was jumaring when it started to rain.�
Jumaring - v. Ascending a rope using jumars.
Karabiner - n. Alternate spelling of carabiner.
Kleimheist hitch - n. A versatile prusik hitch that can be tied using cord or webbing. Allows a climber to ascend or descend a fixed climbing rope, particularly in an emergency situation. Easier to slide on a fixed rope than a normal prusik.
Knee bar - n. Using the thigh and knee to hold oneself onto the rock, often to get a "no-hands rest." See Scum.
Knee lock - see Knee bar
Krab - n. Slang for a carabiner.
Lay back - n/vb. a move requiring pulling with arms to the side and pushing with the feet in the opposite direction. (syn. lieback)
Lead - vb/n. to climb starting with the rope on the ground clipping into protection points on the way up.
Leader - n. The climber who ascends a route first putting up the rope and protection.
Left-right diagonal - n. Combination of, for example, right hand and left foot on holds to give a strong braced through body tension. Particularly effective on steep rock.
Lever - n. A hangboard exercise involving a person hanging by both arms and 'levering' their body into a completely horizontal position. This requires very strong abdominal muscles.
Leverage - n. The action of the climbing rope on protection placed in the rock, this action can cause the protection to work loose.
Locking Carabiner - n. A carabiner with either a screw gate, or twist lock, locking mechanism.
Locking off/Lock-off - v./n. A powerful holding position in which one elbow is fully contracted, allowing the other arm to reach out for a hold. Limits the amount of reach available.
Lower Off - v. To come down from a route after reaching the top or not being able to climb anymore.
Lower Off Point - n. Fixed or placed protection placed on some point of a climb for use when lowering off.
Mallion Rapides - n. A type of carabiner that is screwed shut with a wrench. Also refered to as a Quick-Link.
Manky - adj. The opposite of Bombproof. A piece of gear is said to be manky if it is not placed well and could fall out at any moment.
Mantel - n./vb. a climbing technique involving the transfer of upward force from a pulling action to a pushing action much like a child would climb the kitchen counter to reach the cabinets above.
Match - v. To place both hands or feet on the same hold.
Mixed Climbing - adj. Refers to a route with both rock and ice sections. May also refer to a route with both sport and trad sections.
Mono / Monodoigt - n. French for "one finger" pocket, a pocket in which only one finger can fit.
Move - n. Refers to the motion between holds. ie; "That's a tough move from the gaston to that sloper."
Multi Pitch Climb - n. A climb with more than one pitch, or ropelength.
M�nter Hitch - n. A non-locking hitch that allows enough friction to provide an excellent belay method when used in conjunction with a locking carabiner, preferably a wide-mouthed (HMS) carabiner. Named after Swiss mountain guide Werner M�nter. a.k.a. Italian hitch
Natural Protection - n. One definition suggests that it refers to "traditional" protection, i.e. gear that is placed in cracks or pockets which can be removed with no harm to the rock. ie: cams, nuts, hexes. Another definition suggests that it refers to non-man-made features, e.g. trees, roots, etc., around which a sling kan be placed for protection.
Nubbin - n. A very tiny protrusion that may be used as a sketchy foot or hand hold.
Nuts - n. a flared piece of metal placed into a bottle neck constriction as a means of protection.
Nylon - n. Material used to make slings, aiders and daisychains. Many climbers are shifting over to Dyneema or Spectra however.
Off Belay - n. Common climbing call from a climber to a belayer letting them know they are safe and no longer require belaying.
Offwidth - n/vb a crack that is neither wide enough to fit the whole body (chimney size) nor narrow enough to hand jam. Notorious for the necessity of awkward technique to climb.
Onsight - n/vb. a clean ascent with no falls, first try, with no prior knowledge of the route.
Open Book - n. An inside corner on a right angle. The rock flares out from a central corner looking like an open book. Also see dihedral.
Open hand - n.vb. a technique that requires a maximum amount of skin contact from the hand. Often used on slopers. (antonym: crimper)
Outdoor Climbing - n. Climbing on real rock, ice or snow. Often a foreign concept to gym rats.
Pacing - n./v. A fundamental way of conserving energy by varying the speed of movement according to the angle of the rock.
Palming - n./v. Hand technique where the palm of the hand pushes downward on a slab or bulge, allowing the extension muscles to be used if the angle is low enough to allow good friction.
Passive - adj. Passive protection has no special action like a cam, it is merely wedged into a crack and functions only one way.
Pendulum - v. To swing in an arc on the end of a rope to gain access to an anchor or rock feature to one side of your current position. Also a dangerous situation that may occur during a fall, if the top piece of protections is off to one side.
Peg - n. See piton.
Pin - n. See piton.
Pin scar - n. The remaining damage to a crack after a piton (or pin) has been removed. I don't like that climb; all its holds are pin scars.
Pinch - n. Any hold that must be pinched.
Pinkpoint - n.vb. A clean (no-falls) ascent of a route on lead with gear pre-placed. The climber need only clip the rope into the preplaced protection while climbing. Note: This term has disappeared from sport climbing terminology with all clean leads called redpoints.
Pitch - n. Generally a ropelength between belay stations on a multi-pitch climb.
Piton - n. a long-nosed, spike shaped, piece of metal driven into cracks for protection or aid.
Plastic - n. common name for the material of which artificial holds are made.
Pocket - n. an indented climbing feature that requires insertion of appendages to use.
Pop - adj. What happens to protection when it comes out of its placement. 2.(v.) to make a small throw to the next hold. ie: Pop for the jug.
Portaledge - n. A portable and colapsable ledge used for sleeping on a big wall or multi-pitch climb requiring more than one day to complete.
Pro - n. short for protection.
Problem - n. A bouldering route.
Protection - n. Gear placed on a climb to protect the climber in the event of a fall. ie: nuts, pitons, cams, bolts, quickdraws.
Protection Point - n. The last place on a climb where the leader placed and clipped their rope into a piece of protection.
Prusik Knot - n. A friction knot that when loaded, will lock on a rope. It is used when climbing a rope, backing up a rappel or locking off the belay system.
Psychological protection - n. A very poorly placed peice of protection that will never hold a fall but makes the climber feel better about having gear beneath them.
Pulley System - n. Where the rope runs through a series of pulley's and carabiners to gain a mechanical advantage when pulling the rope.
Pumped - adj. tired. referring to the state of forearms in a desperate state, swollen and unresponsive.
Quick Link - n. An oval shaped, metal ring with a screw gate requiring a wrench to fasten. These are often used to secure quickdraws to bolt hangers on indoor walls or as bail biners when a climber needs to decend from a route which is too difficult.
Quickdraw - n. two caribiners connected by a webbing (usually) or rope. Used to link elements of protection, or more commonly, to link the rope to a piece of protection.
Rack - n. The set of protection equipment used for a climb.
Rappel - n/vb the act of self belaying down the length of a rope to descend.
Redpoint - n/vb. a clean ascent with no falls, placing protection while climbing.
Ring bend - see Water knot
Ring lock - n/vb. a Jam for a crack that is wider than fingers and narrower than hands. Involves bridging the crack with the thumb, and stacking the fingers on top of the thumb.
Ripples - n. pl. Undulations in a slab surface that may allow the feet to gain a hold through friction.
Rock-on - n. Technique where a toe or heel on a hold at about waist height is used to pull the body weight up and over. Can be very strenuous if attempted statically so it is generally best treated as a dynamic move, launching from a foothold and "throwing" the hips by using side pulls or pushing down on a hold behind the hips. Is often the key to difficult slab moves.
Roof - n. a 180 degree overhang.
RP - n. A Specialized brass micro-nut manufactured in Australia.
Runner - n. a sewn or tied loop of webbing or rope used to connect protection elements.
Runout - n/vb/adj. without adequate protection.
RURPs - n. pl. Tiny postage-stamp-sized blades used as fixed equipment - Realized Ultimate Reality Pitons.
Safety rating - Rockclimbing.com uses the following "safety ratings" for routes: G - Well-protected route with low risk as long as climbers follow proper safety precautions; PG13 - Small potential for non-lethal injury; R - Run-out between protection and/or potential injury from falls; X - Little or no protection, dangerous run-outs and potential for serious injury or death from a fall.
Sandbag - n/adj/vb. A climb that receives an inappropriately low rating for the difficulty.
Screamer - n a very long fall. Also a common name for a device which reduces peak force by controlled tearing of stitching, more specifically the brand name for one of these products by Yates.
Scum - vb. To use a body part besides the hands or the feet to ascend or stay on the rock. Sometimes thought of as bad form, but can be used to negotiate a key rest on a long route. Ex. I would've fallen if I hadn't been able to scum with the top of my head on that roof and shake my arms out.
Second - vb following the leader on a multi-pitch route, and typically cleaning any protection that was placed on the pitch. 2. (n) a person (one or more) who is seconding a climb.
Send - vb to complete a route successfully.
Self Arrest - vb. the act of stopping oneself with the axe in the case of a fall while on a snow slope.
Sharp end - n. slang The lead (top) end of a rope when lead climbing.
Sidecling - n. Any hold that requires the climber to pull on it in a sideways manner.
Slab - n any climb that is less than vertical, especially those devoid of features requiring smearing of the feet.
Slap - n./v. A type of dynamic move involving the fast movement of a hand from one hold to another while the rest of the body remains fairly still.
SLCD - Abbreviation for Spring-Loaded Camming Device - a mechanical protection device that is often simply called a cam.
Sling - n/vb a loop of webbing or rope (see runner)
Sloper - n. a downward sloping hold.
Smear - n/vb the act of placing a large surface area of shoe rubber on a hold to create maximum friction.
Solo - n/vb Climbing alone, without a partner. Often used as abbreviation for free solo, which refers to climbing without a partner or protection.
Sport Climbing - n a school of climbing that generally emphasizes shorter routes, physically difficult movement, and bolted protection. This includes gym climbing and competition.
Spotting - v./n. A way of reducing the hazard for unroped climbers. One or more people shield a climber from a bad landing with their hands.
Stack(ing) � n/vb. Placing fingers above each other in a crack to lock while crack climbing. In addition to a finger stack, you can stack hand and fist jams together with two hands for offwidth cracks. It's even possible (although probably not very often used) to stack a knee and a fist/hand together in off-width cracks.
START - n. acronym A simple way to create a safe belay - Simple, Tested, Angle, Reliance, Tensioned.
Static move - n. A slow reach for a hold, the opposite of a dynamic move which involves "slapping" or even jumping for a hold.
Static rope - n. A nonelastic rope, useful for situations other than lead climbing.
Stem - n/vb movement requiring opposing outward pressure much like a child climbing a door jam.
Stick Clip - n. A device attached to a pole of some sort, usually a painters pole, that will hold the carabiner on a quickdraw with rope attached. Used to clip the first and sometimes second bolt of a climb to prevent decking if you fall on the climb before you are able to clip the first bolt.
Stitch plate - n. A belay device consisting of a flat plate with a single or, more commonly, a pair of slots, often used generically.
Stopper knot - n. An overhand knot usually tied around a parallel strand of rope to secure the loose end of a main knot. The more secure double version is commonly used (see Double Stopper Knot). a.k.a. thumb knot.
Tape - n. Zinc oxide tape.
Tape knot - see Water knot
Taping up - v. The action of applying tape around the knuckles or used to improvise gloves with bare palms in order to protect from rock crystals digging into the flesh. Especially useful in crack climbing.
Thumb knot - see Stopper knot
Top rope - n/vb. A climb that has the rope anchors preset at the top of the climb. In general this results in shorter falls than a "lead".
Topo - n a map of routes and their names.
Traditional/ trad / trad climbing - n/adj Climbing that emphasizes longer routes and removable protection.
Tuffa - n. Generally rounded hanging features formed by calcium leaching out of limestone. Basically the climber's version of Stalactites.
Twin-ropes - n. A pair of ropes intended to be clipped together as a single rope while lead climbing. A rope intended for such usage will generally be marked with an infinity (sideways 8) symbol.
Twist-lock - n./v. A lock-off in which the body is turned to face the hold. Often combined with turning the hips at right angles to the rock by using the outside edge of the opposite foot. Allows a considerably greater reach.
Udge - n./v. A type of dynamic move that starts as a static reach for a hold, but the last few inches are just beyond the comfortable point of balance and require a sudden committing acceleration to reach the hold. Sometimes an intermediate sloping hold can be used mometarily to gather resources for the final surge.
Undercling - n/vb a hold that requires fingers to face upward rather than downward.
Undercut - see Undercling
V ratings - n. an open ended scale used to rate the difficulty of boulder problems. See "ratings" in the beginner section for a conversion chart.
Verglas - n. a thin layer of ice covering rock.
Weighting (the rope) - v./n. Resting by hanging on the belay rope. Not allowed in a a clean ascent.
Whipper - n A fall from above protection while lead or trad climbing.
Wire - n. Slang for Nut. See Nuts.
Wired - adj. describing a well rehearsed climbing sequence.
Water knot - n. Used to connect the ends of a sling into a loop or to link two slings together. It is basically an overhand knot in one end, with the other end fed back through in the reverse direction. Can also be used for ropes, but the ropes can easily become undone. Should be pulled very tight, with long tail ends (at least five times the sling's width). a.k.a. ring bend or tape knot.
Worm grinding - Slab climbing technique where a toe is placed onto a change in angle, with the other toes lower. The toe is ground into the rock as the other toes are pivoted upward; once the rubber has bitten it will stay put and absorb all the climber's weight.
Yosemite Decimal System (YDS) - n. the most common system used to rate difficulty in the U.S. Most technical rock climbing is rated on a scale of 5.0 to 5.14c/d with higher numbers representing harder climbs.
Zipper - vb. to pull out protection sequentially while falling.
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Which US President ordered the development of the hydrogen bomb, in response to Russia (USSR) detonating its first atomic bomb? | Soviets explode atomic bomb - Aug 29, 1949 - HISTORY.com
Soviets explode atomic bomb
Publisher
A+E Networks
At a remote test site at Semipalatinsk in Kazakhstan, the USSR successfully detonates its first atomic bomb, code name “First Lightning.” In order to measure the effects of the blast, the Soviet scientists constructed buildings, bridges, and other civilian structures in the vicinity of the bomb. They also placed animals in cages nearby so that they could test the effects of nuclear radiation on human-like mammals. The atomic explosion, which at 20 kilotons was roughly equal to “Trinity,” the first U.S. atomic explosion, destroyed those structures and incinerated the animals.
According to legend, the Soviet physicists who worked on the bomb were honored for the achievement based on the penalties they would have suffered had the test failed. Those who would have been executed by the Soviet government if the bomb had failed to detonate were honored as “Heroes of Socialist Labor,” and those who would have been merely imprisoned were given “The Order of Lenin,” a slightly less prestigious award.
On September 3, a U.S. spy plane flying off the coast of Siberia picked up the first evidence of radioactivity from the explosion. Later that month, President Harry S. Truman announced to the American people that the Soviets too had the bomb. Three months later, Klaus Fuchs, a German-born physicist who had helped the United States build its first atomic bombs, was arrested for passing nuclear secrets to the Soviets. While stationed at U.S. atomic development headquarters during World War II, Fuchs had given the Soviets precise information about the U.S. atomic program, including a blueprint of the “Fat Man” atomic bomb later dropped on Nagasaki, Japan, and everything the Los Alamos scientists knew about the hypothesized hydrogen bomb. The revelations of Fuchs’ espionage, coupled with the loss of U.S. atomic supremacy, led President Truman to order development of the hydrogen bomb, a weapon theorized to be hundreds of times more powerful than the atomic bombs dropped on Japan.
On November 1, 1952, the United States successfully detonated “Mike,” the world’s first hydrogen bomb, on the Elugelab Atoll in the Pacific Marshall Islands. The 10.4-megaton thermonuclear device instantly vaporized an entire island and left behind a crater more than a mile wide. Three years later, on November 22, 1955, the Soviet Union detonated its first hydrogen bomb on the same principle of radiation implosion. Both superpowers were now in possession of the so-called “superbomb,” and the world lived under the threat of thermonuclear war for the first time in history.
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Which British designer designed the iPod? | Atomic Timeline | Atomic Heritage Foundation
Atomic Heritage Foundation
1895 to 1937: Early Nuclear Science
November 8, 1895German physicist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovers x-rays.
1896French physicist Henri Becquerel discovers radioactivity.
1898Marie and Pierre Curie discover polonium and radium.
1911Ernest Rutherford articulates his model of the atom, at the center of which exists a nucleus containing the majority of the atom's mass and all of its positive charge.
June 3, 1920Ernest Rutherford speculates on the possible existence and properties of the neutron in his second Bakerian Lecture, London.
December 28, 1931Irene Joliot-Curie reports studying penetrating particles produced by beryllium when bombarded by alpha rays. She believes the particles, which are actually neutrons, to be energetic gamma rays.
May 1932British physicist James Chadwick discovers the neutron.
September 12, 1933Leo Szilard conceives the idea of using a chain reaction of neutron collisions with atomic nuclei to release energy. He also considers the possibility of using this to make bombs. This predates the discovery of fission by more than six years.
Mid-January, 1934Irene Joliot-Curie and Frederic Joliot conduct the first demonstration of artificial radioactivity.
May 1934Enrico Fermi and his team in Rome bombard elements with neutrons and split uranium but do not realize it.
July 4, 1934Szilard files a patent application describing the use of neutron-induced chain reactions to create explosions and the concept of the critical mass.
September 1934Ida Noddack publishes a paper in Zeitshrift fur Angewandte Chemie arguing that the anomalous radioactivities produced by neutron bombardment of uranium may be due to the atom splitting into smaller pieces.
October 22, 1934Enrico Fermi discovers the principle of neutron moderation, and the enhanced capture of slow neutrons.
October 8, 1935The British War Office rejects Leo Szilard's offer to turn over to them his patents of nuclear energy for free, an offer made to bring them under British secrecy laws.
December 1935James Chadwick wins the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovery of the neutron.
February, 1936The British Admiralty accepts Leo Szilard's offer to turn over his patents.
1938 to 1939: Discovering Fission
January 29, 1939J. Robert Oppenheimer hears about the discovery of fission. Within a few minutes, he realizes that excess neutrons must be emitted, and that it might be possible to build a bomb.
December 21, 1938Otto Hahn submits a paper to Naturwissenschaften conclusively showing the production of radioactive barium from neutron irradiated uranium.
December 24, 1938Otto Frisch and his aunt Lise Meitner correctly interpret Hahn's results as evidence that the uranium nucleus had split in two (Fission).
Mid-January, 1939Leo Szilard hears about the discovery of fission from Eugene Wigner. He immediately realizes that the fission fragments, due to their lower atomic weights, would have excess neutrons that must be shed.
January 13, 1939Otto Frisch observes fission directly by detecting fission fragments in an ionization chamber. With the assistance of William Arnold, he coins the term "fission".
January 26, 1939Niels Bohr publicly announces the discovery of fission at an annual theoretical physics conference at George Washington University in Washington, DC.
January 28, 1939Physicists recreate fission experiment at the Carnegie Atomic Physics Observatory in Washington D.C.
February 5, 1939Niels Bohr realizes that uranium-235 and uranium-238 must have different fission properties, uranium-238 could undergo fission by fast neutrons but not slow ones, and that uranium-235 accounted for observed slow fission in uranium.
March 1939Enrico Fermi and Herbert Anderson find that there are about two neutrons produced for every one consumed in fission.
April 22, 1939Frederic Joliot and his group publish their work on the secondary neutrons released in nuclear fission. This demonstrates that a chain reaction is indeed possible.
June 1939Enrico Fermi and Leo Szilard submit a paper to Physical Review describing subcritical neutron multiplication in a lattice of uranium oxide in water, but it is clear that natural uranium and water cannot make a self-sustaining reaction.
July 3, 1939Leo Szilard writes to Fermi describing the idea of using a uranium lattice in carbon (graphite) to create a chain reaction.
August 2, 1939Pres. Roosevelt receives "The Einstein Letter" warning about the prospect of an atomic bomb.
August 31, 1939Niels Bohr and John A. Wheeler publish a theoretical analysis of fission. This theory implies that uranium-235 is more fissile than U-238, and that the isotope of the undiscovered element 94 with 239 nucleons is also very fissile. These implications are not immediately recognized.
September 1, 1939Nazi Germany invades Poland, beginning World War II.
1939 to 1941: Investigating Nuclear Weapons
October 21, 1939The first meeting of the Advisory Committee on Uranium in Washington, DC, which was created at President Roosevelt's order. The physicists argue for urgent government attention, but Adamson is hostile. Teller requests $6,000 for research on preliminary uranium-graphite slow neutron experiments, which is grudgingly approved.
February 1940Otto Frisch and Rudolf Peierls, living in the United Kingdom, consider the possibility of fast fission in uranium-235. Based on a theoretical estimate of the fast fission cross section they estimate the critical mass of pure uranium-235 at "a pound or two", and that a large percentage could be fissioned before explosive disassembly. They also estimate the likely effects of the bomb, and possible assembly methods, as well as estimates of the feasibility of isotope separation.
March, 1940After much prodding by Leo Szilard, Lyman Briggs, head of the Uranium Committee, finally releases a promised $6,000 budgeted for conducting neutron experiments with Enrico Fermi at Columbia University.
March, 1940Otto Frisch and Rudolf Peierls conclude that only one pound of highly enriched uranium is needed for a bomb.
March 2, 1940The first direct measurements of the enormous slow fission cross section of uranium-235 are made by John Dunning at Manhattan, NY.
April 9, 1940Germany invades Denmark and Norway.
April 10, 1940First meeting of the British committee (later code-named the MAUD Committee) organized by Henry Tizard to consider Britain's actions regarding the "uranium problem". Research into isotope separation and fast fission is agreed upon.
April 27, 1940Second meeting of Lyman Briggs' The Uranium Committee. Briggs' decision is that neither research on fast fission, nor work on building a critical uranium-graphite assembly, should begin until the small scale lab experiments, just getting underway, are finished.
May 1940George Kistiakowsky suggests gaseous diffusion as a possible means for producing uranium-235 to Vannevar Bush during a meeting at Carnegie Institution.
May 10, 1940Germany launches its assault on Western Europe, attacking Holland, Belgium and France.
May 27, 1940Louis Turner mails Leo Szilard a manuscript arguing that the isotope of element 94 with 239 nucleons, not yet discovered, should be highly fissionable like uranium-235, and could be manufactured by bombarding uranium-238 with neutrons, to form uranium-239. The same day, Edwin McMillan and Philip Abelson submit the report "Radioactive Element 93" to Physical Review describing their discovery of element 93, neptunium, produced by bombarding uranium with neutrons. Britain subsequently protests the publication as a violation of wartime secrecy.
June 1940The MAUD Committee acquires its name. Franz Simon begins research on isotope separation through gaseous diffusion.
June 27, 1940The National Defense Research Committee (NDRC) is created to organize U.S. scientific resources for war including research on the atom and the fission of uranium.
July 1, 1940The newly founded The National Defense Research Committee, headed by Vannevar Bush, takes over responsibility for uranium research. In his final report, Lyman Briggs requests $140,000 for further work: $40,000 for lab measurements, and $100,000 for large scale uranium-graphite studies. Bush approves only $40,000.
November 1, 1940The $40,000 contract from the NDRC finally comes through. Work begins at Manhattan, NY to assemble a large subcritical pile made of graphite and uranium oxide.
November 1940John Dunning and Nobel Prize winner Harold Urey begin investigating isotope separation techniques without U.S. government support.
December 1940The MAUD Committee issues a report on isotope separation authored by Franz Simon. The report concludes that manufacturing uranium-235 by gaseous diffusion is feasible on a scale suitable for weapons production.
February 1941Philip Abelson begins working on uranium enrichment at the Naval Research Laboratory. He selects liquid thermal diffusion as the technique to pursue.
February 24, 1941Glenn Seaborg and his research team discover plutonium.
March 1941The Department of Terrestrial Magnetism (DTM) at the Carnegie Institution measures the fast cross-section of uranium-235. Using it, Rudolf Peierls, on the MAUD Committee, calculates a new critical mass for uranium-235 at 18 pounds as a bare sphere or 9 to 10 pounds when surrounded by a reflector. A memorandum is prepared by the MAUD Committee describing the importance of fast fission for bomb design and transmits it to the U.S. Briggs locks up the document on arrival and shows it to no one.
March 6, 1941Glenn Seaborg and Art Wahl isolate the first pure neptunium-239 (0.25 micrograms). In a matter of days it decays into a (barely) visible speck of pure plutonium.
March 28, 1941Joseph Kennedy, Glenn Seaborg and Emilio Segre show that the plutonium sample undergoes slow fission, which implies it is a potential bomb material.
May 1941After months of growing pressure from scientists in Britain and the U.S. (particularly University of California at Berkeley's Ernest O. Lawrence), Vannevar Bush at The National Defense Research Committee decides to review the prospects of nuclear energy further and engages Arthur H. Compton and the National Academy of Sciences for the task. The report is issued May 17 and treats military prospects favorably for power production, but does not address the design or manufacture of a bomb in any detail. At this same time, Bush creates the larger and more powerful Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD), which is empowered to engage in large engineering projects in addition to research, and becomes its director.
May 1941Tokutaro Hagiwara at the University of Kyoto delivers a speech in which he discusses the possibility of a fusion explosion being ignited by an atomic bomb, apparently the first such mention.
May 18, 1941Emilio Segre and Glenn Seaborg determine that the slow cross-section of plutonium-239 is 170% of that of uranium-235, proving it to be an even better prospect for a nuclear explosive.
June 22, 1941Nazi Germany invades the Soviet Union.
June 28, 1941The Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) is established. Vannevar Bush is put in charge.
July 1941Emilio Segre and Glenn Seaborg measure the fast fission cross-section of plutonium-239, finding a high value.
July 15, 1941The MAUD Committee approves its final report and disbands. The report describes atomic bombs in some technical detail, provides specific proposals for developing them, and includes cost estimates. Although the contents of The MAUD Report reach Vannevar Bush at The Office of Scientific Research and Development immediately, he decides to wait for the report to be transmitted officially before taking any further action on fission development. In short, the report concludes that an atomic bomb is indeed feasible.
August to September, 1941Enrico Fermi and his team at Manhattan, NY begin assembling a subcritical experimental pile containing 30 tons of graphite and 8 tons of uranium oxide. It gives a projected k value of 0.83, indicating that purer materials are needed.
September, 1941Enrico Fermi muses to Edward Teller whether a fission explosion could ignite a fusion reaction in deuterium. After some study, Teller concludes that it is impossible.
1941 to 1942: Getting Organized
September 3, 1941With PM Winston Churchill's endorsement, the British Chiefs of Staff agree to begin development of an atomic bomb.
October 3, 1941The MAUD Report reaches the US through official channels.
October 9, 1941Vannevar Bush brings The MAUD Report to President Roosevelt for his consideration. FDR asks Bush to determine the cost of an atomic bomb and to explore Army construction needs.
October 12, 1941Peter L. Kapitza, one of the leaders of Soviet physics, remarked at an international "anti-Fascist" meeting of scientists in Moscow that the recent discovery of nuclear energy could be useful in the war against Germany and that the theoretical prospects of a uranium bomb seemed promising. The Soviet Union would later launch its own atomic program.
October 21, 1941Arthur H. Compton holds a meeting in Schenectady, NY with Ernest O. Lawrence, J. Robert Oppenheimer, George Kistiakowsky, and James B. Conant reviewing The MAUD Report and the most recent US work. The meeting ends by concluding that an atomic bomb could be made.
November 1, 1941Arthur H. Compton issues the final NAS report, highlighting the importance of conducting further research on the feasibility of a U-235 bomb. The report is delivered to FDR by Vannevar Bush on November 27.
November 1, 1941John Dunning and Eugene Booth at Manhattan, NY demonstrate the first measurable U-235 enrichment through gaseous diffusion.
December 6, 1941Vannevar Bush holds a meeting in Washington to organize an accelerated research project. Arthur H. Compton remains in charge. Harold Urey is appointed to develop gaseous diffusion and heavy water production at Manhattan, NY; Ernest O. Lawrence will investigate electromagnetic separation at the University of California at Berkeley; and Eger Murphree will develop centrifuge separation and oversee engineering issues. James B. Conant advocates pursuing Pu-239, but no decision on this is made.
December 7, 1941Japan attacks Pearl Harbor.
December 8, 1941The US declares war on Japan.
December 11, 1941The US declares war on Germany and Italy following their declaration of war on the US.
December 18, 1941The first meeting of the S-1 project is held, sponsored by the OSRD. S-1 is dedicated to the full scale research development of fission weapons.
January 19, 1942Pres. Roosevelt approves the production of an atomic bomb. Arthur H. Compton creates the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago to act as a consolidated research center. He transfers work on "uranium burners" (reactors) to it. J. Robert Oppenheimer organizes a program on fast neutron theoretical physics at the University of California at Berkeley.
February 1942Arthur H. Compton asks Gregory Breit to coordinate physics research on fast neutron phenomena. At this time available experimental data on all aspects of fast neutron reactions and fission is extremely limited and imprecise. Theoretical techniques are also rudimentary.
April 1942Enrico Fermi relocates to the Chicago Met Lab. He builds an experimental pile in the Stagg Field squash courts with a projected k value of 0.995, then begins planning the construction of the world's first man-made critical pile, to be called CP-1. Fermi's efforts now shifts from demonstrating feasibility to securing graphite and uranium of adequate purity and in sufficient quantity to build the reactor.
April 1942Glenn Seaborg arrives in Chicago and starts work on developing an industrial-scale plutonium separation and purification process. Percival Keith of the Kellogg Co. begins designing a gaseous diffusion pilot plant.
May 18, 1942Gregory Breit, who has been coordinating physics research on fast neutron phenomena, quits, leaving the neutron physics effort without leadership. Arthur H. Compton asks J. Robert Oppenheimer to take over in his place.
May 19, 1942Robert Oppenheimer writes Ernest O. Lawrence that the atomic bomb problem was solved in principle and that six good physicists should have the details mostly worked out in six months. His optimism is based on the belief that gun assembly would suffice for both uranium and plutonium.
May 23, 1942S-1 program leaders discuss priorities. James B. Conant urges proceeding with *all* options for producing fissionable material simultaneously: gaseous diffusion, centrifuge, Electromagnetic Separation, and plutonium breeding using both graphite and heavy water reactors. He argues that redundant development will reduce the time to successful production to the shortest possible time, regardless of cost.
June 1942J. Robert Oppenheimer joins the Chicago Met Lab to lead an effort on fast neutron physics, and prepares an outline for the entire neutron physics program. Production of plutonium through marathon irradiation by cyclotron begins. Chicago Met Lab engineering council begins developing plans for large scale plutonium production reactors. President Roosevelt approves a plan for spending $85 million for a weapon development program.
June 18, 1942Due to continuing and increasing organizational problems, Col. James Marshall is ordered by Brig. Gen. Wilhelm Styer to organize a U.S. Army Corps of Engineers District to take over and consolidate atomic bomb development.
July to September, 1942Oppenheimer assembles theoretical study group in Berkeley to examine the principles of bomb design. Included are J. Robert Oppenheimer, Hans Bethe, Edward Teller, John Van Vleck, Felix Bloch, Robert Serber, and Emil Konopinski. During the summer the group develops the principles of atomic bomb design, and examines the feasibility of fusion bombs. Oppenheimer emerges as a natural leader. The group estimates the mass of U-235 required for a high yield detonation at 30 kg (estimated at 100 Kt), megaton range fusion bombs are also considered highly likely. During this period Richard C. Tolman and Robert Serber discuss the idea of using explosives to collapse a shell of fissile material in place of the gun assembly method. Serber reports that they co-authored a short paper on the subject, although this paper has not been found. At this time Enrico Fermi and his staff are busy arranging for the materials required for Chicago Pile 1.
July 27, 1942First shipment of irradiated uranium arrives at the Chicago Met Lab (300 lb.).
Mid-August 1942Enrico Fermi's group demonstrates an experimental pile with a projected k value of close to 1.04. Achieving a chain reaction is now certain.
August 13, 1942The Manhattan Engineer District is formally established.
August 20, 1942Glenn Seaborg isolates pure plutonium through a separation process suitable for industrial scale use.
August 29, 1942A status report by James B. Conant is relayed to the Secretary of War by Vannevar Bush indicating the very positive results of Oppenheimer's group. Bush adds his concerns about the organization and leadership of the project, requesting new leadership be appointed.
1942 to 1943: Early Manhattan Project
May 15, 1942President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs into law legislation creating the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (converted into the Women's Army Corps in 1943).
1942 Sept 13The S-1 Executive Committee recommends building a pilot plant based on Ernest O. Lawrence's cyclotrons to separate uranium isotopes in Tennessee.
1942 Sept 15Starting on this date, and continuing until November 15, Enrico Fermi's group receives shipments of uranium and graphite for CP-1 and prepares them for assembly.
1942 Sept 17Col. Leslie Groves is notified at 10:30 a.m. by Gen. Brehon Somervell that his assignment overseas has been cancelled and that he will take another assignment - command of the Manhattan Engineer District. Groves' previous assignment had required overseeing ten billion dollars’ worth of construction projects, including the construction of the Pentagon.
1942 Sept 18Col. Leslie Groves buys 1250 tons of high quality Belgian Congo uranium ore stored on Staten Island.
1942 Sept 19Col. Leslie Groves selects Oak Ridge, TN as the site for the pilot plant. He buys Site X, 52,000 acres of land on the Clinch River. Preliminary construction work begins soon after.
1942 Sept 19At Col. Leslie Groves' insistence the Manhattan Project is granted approval by the War Production Board to use the highest emergency procurement priority in existence (AAA) when needed.
1942 Sep 23Col. Leslie Groves is promoted to Brigadier General.
1942 Sept 29J. Robert Oppenheimer proposes that a "fast-neutron lab" to study fast neutron physics and develop designs for an atomic bomb be created. The idea at this point is for the lab to be a small research institution that would not be involved in the engineering and production of nuclear weapons.
1942 OctGen. Leslie Groves puts DuPont in charge of the plutonium production project.
1942 OctJames B. Conant recommends to Vannevar Bush that information exchange with Britain, already largely one-way (UK --> US), be sharply restricted. Bush passes this recommendation to President Roosevelt. As a result the US loses access to British work in gaseous diffusion, which seriously delays successful plant completion.
1942 OctCentrifuge separation is abandoned due to technical problems.
1942 Oct 5Gen. Leslie Groves visits the Chicago Met Lab and meets the key scientists, including J. Robert Oppenheimer. He orders key engineering decisions for plutonium production, under debate for months, be made in 5 days.
1942 Oct 15Gen. Leslie Groves asks J. Robert Oppenheimer to head Project Y, planned to be the new central laboratory for weapon physics research and design.
1942 Oct 19Vannevar Bush approves J. Robert Oppenheimer's appointment in meeting with Oppenheimer and Gen. Leslie Groves.
1942 Nov 3Glenn Seaborg reports that due to plutonium's high alpha activity, slight amounts of light element impurities can cause a serious problem with neutron emission from alpha -> n reactions. This issue caused major concern with many project leaders, including Leslie Groves and James B. Conant, not only due to its own significance, but because it raised apprehension about the impact of other unexplored phenomena. (This issue later became moot due to the problems with Pu-240 contamination). Later in the month the Lewis Committee is formed to review progress and make recommendations.
1942 Nov 12The Military Policy Commission decides to skip the pilot plant stages and go directly from research to industrial-scale production.
1942 Nov 16Enrico Fermi's group begins constructing Chicago Pile-1 at Stagg Field using round-the-clock shifts. Also, Groves and Oppenheimer visit the Los Alamos, NM mesa in New Mexico and select it for "Site Y."
1942 Nov 25General Leslie Groves selects Los Alamos, NM as the site for a scientific research laboratory, codenamed "Project Y". J. Robert Oppenheimer is selected as laboratory director.
1942 DecDuring this month the work on gaseous diffusion is reorganized. On the strength of the Lewis Committee's recommendation, gaseous diffusion is chosen as the principal enrichment approach. Kellex Corporation, a subsidiary of Kellog is created to build a plant, Percival Keith is put in charge. Contracts are put in place, and hiring begins for plant construction. Kellex immediately begins work on a process for producing usable barrier material on an industrial scale.
1942 DecVannevar Bush provides Roosevelt with an estimate placing the total cost for the Manhattan Project at $400 million (almost 5 times the previous estimate). Roosevelt approves the expenditure.
1942 DecPlans and contracts are made for the construction of an experimental reactor, plutonium separation plant, and Electromagnetic separation facility at Oak Ridge, TN.
1942 Dec 1After 17 days of work, Enrico Fermi's group completes Chicago Pile-1. It contains 36.6 metric tons of uranium oxide, 5.6 metric tons of uranium metal, and 350 metric tons of graphite. Construction is halted sooner than planned when Fermi projects that a critical configuration has been reached.
1942 Dec 2At 3:49 p.m., CP-1 goes critical. It demonstrates a k value of 1.0006, and is allowed to reach a thermal output of 0.5 watts (ultimately it operates at 200 watts maximum). This is the first sustained nuclear fission chain-reaction with the Chicago Pile-1 (CP-1).
1942 Dec 6M. M. Sundt Company is appointed contractor to build Los Alamos Laboratory in a handshake deal. Sundt begins construction immediately, without plans or blueprints in order to finish as quickly as possible.
1943 Jan 16General Leslie Groves selects Hanford, WA as a site for plutonium production.
1943 FebThe Soviet Union secretly launches its own atomic program under the direction of Igor Kurchatov. The program was extremely limited throughout the war and included no more than fifty personnel.
1943 Feb 18Construction begins at Oak Ridge, TN on buildings for the Y-12 Plant -- the electromagnetic U-235 separation plant.
1943 MarThe original construction program nears completion, and staff begins arriving at Los Alamos, NM to begin operations. From this point on the site grows non-stop through the end of the war.
1943 Mar 27Richard Tolman writes J. Robert Oppenheimer about using explosives to collapse a shell into a critical mass. This is the earliest surviving reference to the idea of implosion (although this term was not used).
1943 AprilA series of staff conferences among the roughly 100 scientific staff members are held at Los Alamos, NM. These include indoctrination lectures by Robert Serber (later published as The Los Alamos Primer) on April 5, 7, 9, 12, and 14; and meetings to plan the laboratory's work from April 15 through May 6. The laboratory's initial organization and leadership is worked out.
1943 AprilSeth Neddermeyer begins research on implosion, seeking to compress hollow metal assemblies.
1943 AprilHans Bethe is selected over Edward Teller to head the theoretical division. Teller is soon placed in charge of lower priority research on fusion weapons.
1943 AprilJ. Robert Oppenheimer projects that 100 g of 25% enriched U-235 will be produced by Electromagnetic Separation by 1 Jan. 1944.
1943 AprilBy the end of the March planning sessions, the necessity of including ordnance development activity at Los Alamos was apparent. This greatly expanded the scope of work undertaken at the laboratory to engineering development, and eventually acting as prime contractor for weapon production, and manufacturer of key weapon components (including all nuclear components, and the implosion system).
1943 April 1Fencing of the reservation completed -- Oak Ridge, TN is closed off to public access. Also, construction begins on plant for manufacturing gaseous diffusion barriers in Decatur, IL although no barrier materials of usable quality have yet been produced.
1943 AprilLos Alamos, NM provides its scientists introductory lectures on nuclear physics and bomb design.
1943 AprilAt the beginning of the month the original building plan for Los Alamos, NM is 96% complete. It is already apparent that the original construction program is inadequate to meet needs.
1943 April 20A contract is concluded with the University of California to manage Los Alamos, NM acting as paymaster, accountant, and procurement agency. This contract (back dated to Jan. 1 for work already performed) served as the basis for University of California management of both the Los Alamos and Lawrence Livermore laboratories.
1943 May 10The Los Alamos, NM review committee approves the laboratory's research program.
1943 May 31Surveying begins for the K-25 Plant, the gaseous diffusion uranium enrichment plant at Oak Ridge, TN.
1943 JuneK-25 Plant construction begins in Oak Ridge, TN.
1943 JuneNavy Capt. William Parsons arrives at Los Alamos, NM as Ordnance Division leader to begin directing gun assembly research.
1943 June 24Working with cyclotron produced plutonium, Emilio Segre determines that the spontaneous fission rate is 5 fissions/kg-sec. This is well within the assembly speed capability of a high speed gun.
1943 July 4Seth Neddermeyer conducts first explosion in the implosion research program (currently consisting of Neddermeyer, and 3 informal assistants).
1943 July 10-15The first nuclear physics experiment is conducted at Los Alamos, NM (the measurement of Pu-239 fission neutron yield), inaugurating it as a functioning laboratory.
1943 AugustThe first Alpha Electromagnetic Separation unit for uranium begins operation. Construction staff at Oak Ridge, TN now exceeds 20,000. Also, construction begins on the cooling systems for the production reactors at Hanford, WA. Construction staff is about 5,000.
1943 AugDespite the efforts of more than 1000 researchers at Kellex and Columbia University, no suitable gaseous diffusion barrier material has yet been developed.
1943 AugDue to lagging progress on gaseous diffusion, and continuing uncertainties about the required amount of U-235 for a bomb, General Leslie Groves decides to double the size of the Y-12 Plant.
1943 AugPresident Franklin Roosevelt and Winston Churchill sign the Quebec Agreement.
1943 Sept 8Italy surrenders to Allied forces.
1943 Sept 17First shot fired in gun assembly research program at Los Alamos, NM. The focus at this point is on developing a high velocity gun for plutonium since a uranium gun would be much easier to make.
1943 Sept 20John von Neumann arrives on a visit to Los Alamos, NM and points out the potential for high compression from implosion. This is a clear advantage for the technique which would make a bomb more efficient, and require a smaller critical mass. Edward Teller and Hans Bethe begin investigating the subject theoretically, J. Robert Oppenheimer and General Leslie Groves become very interested in its potential, and efforts to accelerate the program begin. John von Neumann agrees to work on the physics of implosion in his spare time.
1943 Sept 23J. Robert Oppenheimer suggests recruiting George Kistiakowsky, the leading explosives research director at The Office of Scientific Research and Development, to aid an expanded implosion effort.
1943 OctThe first Alpha racetrack (containing 96 units) is completed. A work force of 4800 to run the Y-12 Plant has been assembled. Startup is unsuccessful due to unexplained shorts in the magnets.
1943 OctProject Alberta, the full scale atomic bomb delivery program, begins. Norman Ramsey appointed to select and modify aircraft for delivering atomic bombs.
1943 Oct 4DuPont engineers release reactor design drawings for the first Hanford, WA plutonium production pile, 100-B, allowing construction to begin.
1943 Oct 10Site preparation starts for the B-100 plutonium production reactor, B Reactor, at Hanford, WA.
1943 Oct 21First concrete is poured for the K-25 Plant building at Oak Ridge, TN.
1943 NovThe top experts in England on fission weapons, many former members of the MAUD committee, depart England for the US to assist the atomic bomb project. Included are Niels Bohr, Otto Frisch, Rudolf Peierls, James Chadwick, William Penney, George Placzek, Philip B. Moon, James Tuck, Egon Bretscher, and Klaus Fuchs.
1943 NovThe Navy approves Philip Abelson's plan to build a liquid thermal diffusion pilot plant for enriching uranium, the S-50 Plant.
1943 NovThe world's first sample of plutonium in metal form is produced by reducing PuF4 with Ba at the Chicago Met Lab.
1943 Nov 4The X-10 Graphite Reactor pile goes critical at Oak Ridge, TN. This air-cooled experimental pile begins producing the first substantial (gram) amounts of plutonium to assist research into its properties. The world supply of plutonium at this time is 2.5 mg, produced by cyclotrons. Also, a Manhattan Project Governing Board meeting approves an ambitious implosion research program, intended to develop it to the point of usability in six months.
1943 Nov 29The first B-29 modifications begin at Wright Field, Ohio to adapt it for carrying atomic bombs.
1943 DecAfter attempts to bring the first Alpha racetrack into operation fail, the Y-12 Plant is shut down for equipment rebuilding.
1943 DecEmilio Segre measures the spontaneous fission rate of U-235 at Los Alamos, NM, and finds it lower than expected. This allows a substantial reduction in performance of the planned gun assembly method for uranium.
1943 DecChemical separation of reactor-produced plutonium begins, using fuel from the X-10 Graphite Reactor pile.
1944: Developing the Bomb
1944 JanGeorge Kistiakowsky arrives at Los Alamos, NM to assist Seth Neddermeyer in implosion research. It becomes increasingly clear that Neddermeyer's academic research style is unsuited to directing a rapidly expanding research and engineering program.
1944 JanProblems with developing suitable diffusion barriers leads General Leslie Groves to switch planned production to a new type of barrier, creating months of delays in equipping the K-25 Plant for operation.
1944 JanPhilip Abelson, after learning about the problems with the Manhattan Project's gaseous diffusion plant, informs J. Robert Oppenheimer about the progress in his research on liquid thermal diffusion technology. This eventually leads to the construction of the S-50 Plant at Oak Ridge.
1944 JanGeneral Leslie Groves and J. Robert Oppenheimer decide to plan for a fission bomb test (none was envisioned before this). Groves stipulates that the active material must be recoverable if a fizzle occurs, so the construction of Jumbo, a 214 ton steel container (25 ft x 12 ft), is authorized.
1944 Sept 16The S-50 Plant begins partial operation at Oak Ridge, TN, but leaks prevent substantial output.
1944 Jan 11An implosion theory group is set up with Edward Teller as head.
1944 FebWith the concrete building to house it complete, construction begins on the first reactor at Hanford, WA, the B Reactor.
1944 FebThe Los Alamos Governing Board reevaluates deuterium fusion research and determines that tritium would be necessary to make an explosive reaction. Priority of fusion bomb work is further downgraded.
1944 FebThe Y-12 Plant sends 200 grams of uranium-235 to Los Alamos, NM.
1944 Feb 16George Kistiakowsky becomes a full-time Los Alamos staff member, replacing Seth Neddermeyer as leader of implosion research.
1944 MaySix months after the start of accelerated implosion research, little progress towards successful implosion has been made. Inadequate diagnostic equipment prevent accurate measurement of implosion process, and no scheme to avoid asymmetry has yet shown promise. The current approach is to use many simultaneous detonation points over the surface of a sphere, and try different methods of inert spacers or gaps to suppress the shaped charge-like jets that form when detonation waves from adjacent initiation points merge. Spalling (the ejection of fragments) from the interior surface of the hollow core is a serious problem, as is simply getting precise simultaneous detonation.
1944 MarEmilio Segre has improved his spontaneous fission estimates in cyclotron plutonium (essentially pure Pu-239) to 11 fissions/kg-sec. This is still acceptable for gun assembly, but greatly narrows the margin of security.
1944 Mar 3Drop tests of dummy atomic bombs begin from specially modified B-29s at Wendover, Utah.
1944 AprIBM calculating equipment arrives at Los Alamos, NM and is put to work on implosion research.
1944 AprJames Tuck suggests idea of using explosive lenses to create spherical converging implosion waves.
1944 AprilMonsanto at Dayton, OH begins delivering polonium for initiator research. The rate is initially 2.5 curies/month.
1944 Apr 5-15On April 5 the first sample of reactor produced plutonium arrives from Oak Ridge, TN. Emilio Segre immediately begins monitoring its spontaneous fission rate. By April 15 he makes a preliminary estimate of a spontaneous fission rate of over 50 fissions/kg-sec (due to Pu-240 contamination), far too high for gun assembly. The report is kept quiet due to limited statistics, and observations continue.
1944 MayLos Alamos, NM staff exceeds 1200 employees.
1944 MayEdward Teller is removed as head of the implosion theory group, and also from fission weapon research entirely, due to conflicts with Hans Bethe and his increasing obsession with the idea of the Super (hydrogen bomb).
1944 MayTwo British scientists join Los Alamos, NM, and prove to have important impacts on the implosion program. Geoffrey Taylor (arrived May 24) points out implosion instability problems (especially the Rayleigh-Taylor instability), which ultimately leads to a very conservative design to minimize possible instability. James Tuck brings the idea of explosives lenses for detonation wave shaping (2-D lenses for plane wave generation originally proposed by M. J. Poole in England, 1942), but suggests developing 3-D lenses to create a spherical implosion.
1944 May 9The 50 milliwatt Water Boiler reactor goes critical at Los Alamos, NM. Holding 565 g of U-235 (in the form of 14.7% enriched uranyl sulfate), dissolved in a 12" sphere of water, this is the world's first reactor to use enriched uranium, and the first critical assembly constructed at Los Alamos.
1944 May 28First test of the exploding wire detonator, used to achieve precise, reliable simultaneous detonation for implosion.
1944 JuneJ. Robert Oppenheimer replaces Seth Neddermeyer with George Kistiakowsky as director of implosion research.
1944 JuneHans Bethe and Rudolf Peierls work on developing explosive lens concept.
1944 JuneJohn von Neumann provides design breakthrough for the slow component for focusing.
June 3, 1944After visiting the uranium enrichment pilot plant at the Naval Research Laboratory, a team of Manhattan Project experts recommends that a liquid thermal diffusion plant be built to feed enriched material to the electromagnetic enrichment plant at Oak Ridge, the S-50 Plant.
1944 June 6Allied forces launch the Normandy invasion.
1944 June 18General Leslie Groves contracts to have the S-50 Plant, intended for liquid thermal diffusion uranium enrichment, built at Oak Ridge, TN in no more than three months.
1944 JulyAir Force Lt. Col. Paul Tibbets begins organizing the 509th Composite Group, which will deliver atomic bombs in combat, at Wendover Field, Utah.
1944 JulyExperiments with explosive lens designs begin by mid-month when 2-D models are fired.
1944 JulyThe design for the gun gadget neutron initiator is completed.
1944 JulyScientists at the Chicago Met Lab issue the "Prospectus on Nucleonics," which concerns the international control of atomic energy.
1944 July 4J. Robert Oppenheimer reveals Emilio Segre's spontaneous fission measurements to the Los Alamos, NM staff. The neutron emission for reactor-produced plutonium is too high for gun assembly to work. The measured rate is 50 fissions/kg-sec, the fission rate in Hanford, WA plutonium is expected to be over 100 times higher still. The discovery of the high spontaneous fission rate of reactor-produced plutonium was a turning point for Los Alamos, NM, the Manhattan Project, and eventually for the practice of large-scale science after the war. The planned plutonium gun had to be abandoned, and J. Robert Oppenheimer was forced to make implosion research a top priority, using all available resources to attack it. A complete reorganization of Los Alamos Laboratory is required. With just 12 months to go before expected weapon delivery a new fundamental technology, explosive wave shaping, has to be invented, made reliable, and an enormous array of engineering problems had to be solved. During this crisis the many foundations for post-war science were laid. Scientist-administrators (as opposed to academic or research scientists) came to the forefront for running large scale research efforts. Automated numerical techniques (as opposed to manual analytical ones) were applied to solve important scientific problems, not just engineering applications. The dispersal of key individuals after the end of the war later carried these insights, as well as the earlier organizational principles developed at Los Alamos throughout American academia and industry.
1944 AugThe Air Force begins modifying 17 B-29s for combat delivery of atomic weapons at the Glenn L. Martin plant in Omaha, Nebraska.
1944 AugDeak Parsons assesses February 1945 as the earliest an implosion lens system can be ready for full scale test "with extremely good breaks", and most likely late 1945.
1944 AugA. Francis Birch takes over the uranium gun project.
1944 SeptAt this point the K-25 Plant is half built, but no usable diffusion barriers have been produced. The Y-12 Plant is operating at only 0.05% efficiency. The total production of highly enriched uranium to date is a few grams.
1944 SeptDuring the fall Robert Christy suggests the "Christy gadget", the use of a solid core that is raised to supercriticality solely by compressing the metal to twice normal density. This conservative implosion design avoids instability and spalling problems, but the period of maximum compression is brief and requires a "modulated initiator" (a neutron generator that emits a burst at a precise moment). Earlier shell designs could have relied on spontaneous fission and still achieved reasonable efficiency.
1944 SeptPresident Franklin Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill sign the Hyde Park aide-memoire, pledging to continue researching atomic technology.
1944 Sept 22The first RaLa implosion test shot is made in Los Alamos, NM. This diagnostic technique used 100 curies of radiolanthanum produced by the X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge, TN to provide an intense gamma source for making observations of implosion (essentially an internal x-ray generator). This is the largest radioisotope source ever assembled in the world up to this time.
1944 Sept 26Loading uranium into the first full scale plutonium reactor, the B Reactor, at Hanford, WA is completed. This reactor contains 200 tons of uranium metal, 1200 tons of graphite, and is cooled by 5 m^3 of water/sec. It designed to operate at 250 megawatts, producing some 6 kg of plutonium a month. Fermi supervises reactor start-up.
1944 Sept 27-30After several hours of operation at 100 megawatts, the B Reactor pile inexplicably shuts down, then starts up again by itself the next day. Within a few days this is determined to be due to poisoning by the highly efficient neutron absorber Xenon-135, a radioactive fission product. The reactor must be modified to add extra reactivity to overcome this effect before production can begin.
1944 Oct 12The first B-29s arrive in the Mariana Islands to begin bombing Japan. Japan has so far remained free from air attacks (except for the symbolic Doolittle raid in 1942).
1944 Oct 27J. Robert Oppenheimer approves plans for a bomb test in the Jornada del Muerto valley at the Alamagordo Bombing Range. General Leslie Groves approves 5 days later, provided that the test be conducted in Jumbo.
1944 NovY-12 Plant output has reached 40 grams of highly enriched uranium a day.
1944 Nov 24The first B-29 raid on Japan begins. 100 planes are launched, only 16 bombs hit the target factory.
1944 DecWork begins on an implosion initiator for the solid core bomb, it is not clear at this point if one can be made.
1944 DecFirst successful explosive lens tests conducted at Los Alamos, NM, establishing the feasibility of making an implosion bomb.
1944 DecY-12 Plant output climbs to 90 grams of highly enriched uranium a day.
1944 Dec 8Polish Physicist Joseph Rotblat resigns from the Manhattan Project upon learning that an American atomic bomb will not be used against Nazi Germany.
1944 Dec 17The D pile goes critical at Hanford, WA with sufficient reactivity to overcome fission product poisoning effects. Large scale plutonium production begins.
1944 Dec 22First Fat Man bomb assembly is completed as production gets underway. Explosive lenses and nuclear material are not yet available, the bomb assemblies are used for airdrop and ground handling practice.
1944 Dec 26Processing of irradiated uranium slugs to separate plutonium begins at Hanford, WA.
1944 Dec 28The modified B Reactor pile is restarted.
1945: Building the Bomb
1945 JanY-12 Plant output reaches an average of 204 grams of 80% U-235 a day; projected production of sufficient material for a bomb (~40 kg) is July 1.
1945 JanUsable barrier tubes begin arriving at the K-25 Plant.
1945 Jan160 g of plutonium from the X-10 Graphite Reactor is on hand at Los Alamos, NM. The first shipment from Hanford, WA has not yet arrived.
1945 JanSubstantial production of ~0.85% enriched uranium begins at the S-50 Plant, with ten of 21 racks going in to operation.
1945 Jan 18The Dragon experiment conducted by Otto Frisch, in which a U-235 hydride slug is dropped through a barely subcritical U-235 hydride assembly, creates the world's first assembly critical through prompt neutrons alone (prompt critical). The largest energy production for a drop is 20 megawatts for 3 milliseconds (the temperature rises 6 degrees C in that time).
1945 Jan 20Curtis LeMay takes command of the Twentieth Air Force in the Marianas. The fleet contains 345 aircraft, but in three months of bombing none of the nine top priority targets have been destroyed. Also, the first stage of the K-25 Plant is charged with uranium hexafluoride and begins operation.
1945 Jan 31Robert Bacher reports to Oppenheimer that a Po-210/Be-9 implosion initiator (still to be designed) is possible.
1945 FebThe F reactor goes on-line at Hanford, WA, raising theoretical production capacity to 21 kg/month.
1945 FebUranium gun design is completed and frozen. Only planning for deployment and combat use once the U-235 is delivered is now required (although studies of an improved gun design, begun on Dec. 7 and later abandoned, are underway).
1945 FebPlanning for an implosion bomb test begins in earnest.
1945 FebInitiator tests begin. Demand for polonium from Dayton, OH rises to 100 curies/month.
1945 FebAdmiral Nimitz, Commander in Chief, Pacific Ocean Areas, is notified of the nature of the atomic bomb project.
1945 FebTinian Island is selected as the base of operations for atomic attack.
1945 Feb 2Los Alamos, NM receives its first plutonium from Hanford, WA.
1945 Feb 13Dresden, Germany is burned down in an incendiary raid killing 50,000.
1945 Feb 19Marines land on Iwo Jima, a Japanese observation post for the B-29 raids. Over the next two months 6,281 marines are killed, and 21,865 are wounded in capturing the island from 20,000 defenders.
1945 Feb 20First stage of the K-25 Plant begins operating.
1945 Feb 23A fire bomb test raid on Tokyo with 172 planes burns one square mile, the most destructive raid on Japan to date.
1945 Feb 28A meeting between J. Robert Oppenheimer, General Leslie Groves, George Kistiakowsky, James B. Conant, Richard Tolman, Hans Bethe, and Charles Lauritsen is held to fix the design approach for the plutonium bomb. It is agreed that work will focus on the solid core Christy gadget, use explosive lenses, use a modulated initiator, and electric detonators. The use of Composition B and Baratol for the lenses was also decided, as was the multiple lens configuration and detonator arrangement. However none of these approaches or components have been proved yet. Solid core compression has not been demonstrated at this time. A schedule for completing research, development, engineering, and testing is also established. The (partial) goals are:Solve detonator timing problem, have detonators in full production, and begin large-scale lens production (Apr 15).Begin hemisphere shots to measure shock wave convergence (Apr 25).Demonstrate implosion compression in full scale test (May 15).Begin lens fabrication for The Trinity Test (June 4).Begin assembly of The Trinity Test Gadget (July 4).
1945 Mar 1The powerful Cowpuncher Committee is organized to "ride herd" on implosion bomb development.
1945 MarThe first evidence of solid compression from implosion is observed (5%).
1945 Mar 5J. Robert Oppenheimer officially freezes explosive lens design.
1945 Mar 9-10General Curtis LeMay launches an all-out low altitude firebomb raid on Tokyo with 334 B-29s. Flames engulf 15.8 square miles of the city, killing about 100,000 people and injuring 1,000,000 (41,000 seriously).
1945 Mar 11-18During these eight days fire raids with similar tactics are launched on Nagoya, Osaka, and Kobe; the second, third, and fourth largest cities in Japan. An additional 16 square miles of city are burned, killing more than 50,000 people.
1945 Mar 12K-25 Plant begins production in Oak Ridge, TN.
1945 Mar 15All 21 racks at the thermal diffusion sector at the S-50 Plant finally in operation.
1945 Apr 3Preparations begin at Tinian Island to support the 509th Composite Group, and to assemble the atomic bombs.
1945 Apr 11Robert Oppenheimer reports that George Kistiakowsky has achieved optimal performance with implosion compression in sub-scale tests.
1945 Apr 12Otto Frisch completes criticality and "zero-yield" experiments with U-235 at Los Alamos, NM. Also, President Roosevelt dies and Harry S. Truman become president.
1945 Apr 13President Harry Truman learns of the existence of atomic bomb development from Secretary of War Henry Stimson.
1945 Apr 27The first meeting of the Target Committee to select targets for atomic bombing. Seventeen targets are selected for study: Tokyo Bay (for a non-lethal demonstration), Yokohama, Nagoya, Osaka, Kobe, Hiroshima, Kokura, Fukuoka, Nagasaki, and Sasebo (some of these are soon dropped because they had already been burned down).
1945 Apr 30Initiator Committee (Hans Bethe, Enrico Fermi and Robert Christy) selects the most promising design for fission initiator (neutron generator) to be used in the implosion bomb. The "Urchin" design is favored, and work on initiator fabrication begins. Also, first batch of supplies for the atomic bomb deployment leaves for Tinian Island from Wendover, Utah.
1945 MayLittle Boy is ready for combat use, except for the U-235 core. It is estimated sufficient material will be available by 1 August.
1945 May 31Critical mass tests with plutonium begin at Los Alamos, NM.
1945 May 2The first Raytheon Mark II X-Unit arrives for detonation testing.
1945 May 7The 100-ton test is conducted. 108 tons of TNT, laced with 1000 curies of reactor fission products, are exploded 800 yards from Trinity ground zero to test instrumentation for The Trinity Test. This is the largest instrumented explosion conducted up to this date. Also, Nazi Germany surrenders to the Allies.
1945 May 9General procedures for atomic bombing are completed by D.M. Dennison, under Deak Parsons.
1945 May 10-11Target Committee reconvenes. On the committee now are J. Robert Oppenheimer, John von Neumann, Deak Parsons, and Hans Bethe. Meeting discusses issues combat employment of atomic bombs (e.g. proper burst height, etc.). Target list is shortened to Kyoto, Hiroshima, Yokohama, and Kokura Arsenal (Niigata is considered).
1945 May 25464 B-29s raid Tokyo again, burning out nearly 16 square miles of the remaining city. Only a few thousand are killed, urban inhabitants have learned to flee fire bomb attacks quickly and escape the flames. Also, Operation OLYMPIC, the invasion of Kyushu (the southern Japanese island), is set for November 1.
1945 May 28Target Committee meets with Lt. Col. Paul Tibbets in attendance. The meeting reviews preparation for delivering atomic bombs, and status of conventional bombing of Japan. Tibbets estimates that by Jan. 1, 1946 all major cities of Japan will have been destroyed by fire bombing. The target list is now Kyoto, Hiroshima, and Niigata.
1945 May 30Secretary of War Henry Stimson rules out Kyoto, the ancient capital of Japan, as a target for atomic attack.
1945: Ending the War
1945 JuneScientists begin circulating Franck Report, which urges demonstration of the bomb prior to military use.
June 1945The Interim Committee, organized to guide the final conduct of the war and the post-war reconstruction and led by Secretary of State Designate James Byrnes, issues the recommendations that the atomic bomb be dropped as soon as possible, that an urban area be the target, and that no prior warning be given.
1945 JuneCurtis LeMay estimates that the Twentieth Air Force will finish destroying the 60 most important cities in Japan by Oct. 1. Also, the T-5 group in the Los Alamos T (Theory) Division estimates The Trinity Test explosion yield at 4-13 Kt.
1945 June 10509th Composite Group crews begin arriving on Tinian Island with their modified B-29s.
1945 June 14General Leslie Groves submits the target selections to General George Marshall.
June 16, 1945The Scientific Panel of the Interim Committee, which includes Enrico Fermi, J. Robert Oppenheimer, Arthur Compton, and Ernest Lawrence, reports that it sees "no acceptable alternative" to the use of an atomic weapon against Japan.
1945 June 21The first implosion initiator is ready.
1945 June 21The Interim Committee rejects The Franck Report.
1945 June 24Otto Frisch confirms that the implosion core design is satisfactory after criticality tests.
1945 June 26The United Nations charter is signed by delegates of fifty nations.
1945 June 27General Leslie Groves meets with J. Robert Oppenheimer and Deak Parsons to plan delivery of atomic bombs to the Pacific theater.
1945 JulyFinal preparations begin at the New Mexico test site, the Jornada del Muerto at the Alamagordo Bombing Range, for the first atomic bomb test, code named Trinity. The date is set for July 16. Jumbo is not used in the test, since plutonium delivery schedules make recovery of active material (in the event of a fizzle) less important.
1945 July 3Casting of the U-235 projectile for Little Boy is completed.
1945 July 6Machining of the uranium reflector for The Trinity Test completed.
1945 July 7Explosives lens casting for The Trinity Test completed.
1945 July 10The best available lens castings are selected for The Trinity Test.
1945 July 11Assembly of Gadget, the first atomic bomb begins. Also, Japanese Foreign Minister Shigenori Togo cables Ambassador Naotake Sato in Moscow advising him to explore using the USSR as an intermediary in surrender negotiations.
1945 July 12-13The plutonium core and the Gadget components leave Los Alamos, NM for the test site separately. Assembly of Gadget begins at 1300 hours on July 13. Assembly of Gadget's explosive lens, uranium reflector, and plutonium core is completed at Ground Zero at 1745 hours.
1945 July 14Gadget is hoisted to the top of the 100 foot test tower, and the detonators are installed and connected. Final test preparations begin. Meanwhile, Little Boy bomb units, accompanied by the U-235 projectile, are shipped out of San Francisco on the USS Indianapolis for Tinian Island. Lastly, the only full-scale test of the implosion lens system (before Gadget) is conducted. Initial analysis indicates failure. Bethe later corrects mistaken calculations and finds that the measurements are consistent with optimum performance.
1945 July 16At 5:29:45 a.m., as part of The Trinity Test, Gadget is detonated in Alamogordo, NM in the first atomic explosion in history. The explosive yield is 20-22 Kt (initially estimated at 18.9 Kt), vaporizing the steel tower.
1945 July 17Potsdam conference of President Harry Truman, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (succeeded on July 28 by Clement Attlee), and Soviet Premier Josef Stalin begins.
1945 July 19J. Robert Oppenheimer suggests to General Leslie Groves that the U-235 from Little Boy be reworked into uranium/plutonium composite cores for making more implosion bombs (4 implosion bombs could be made from Little Boy's pit). Groves rejects the idea since it would delay combat use.
1945 Jul 20The 509th Composite Group begins flying practice missions over Japan.
1945 July 23Secretary of War Henry Stimson, in Potsdam for meeting between President Truman and Soviet Premier Stalin, receives current target list. In order of choice it is: Hiroshima, Kokura, and Niigata. He also receives an estimate of atomic bomb availability: Little Boy should be ready for use on Aug. 6, second Fat Man-type by Aug. 24, 3 should be available in September, and more each month - reaching 7 or more in December. Also, first A-bomb test unit dropped by 509th at Tinian, and combat hemispheres for Fat Man are fabricated.
1945 July 24President Truman discloses the existence of the atomic bomb to Stalin (who had already been informed about it by his spies). Meanwhile, General Leslie Groves drafts the directive authorizing the use of the atomic bombs as soon as bomb availability and weather permit. It lists the following targets in order of priority: Hiroshima, Kokura, Niigata, and Nagasaki. This directive constitutes final authorization for atomic attack, no further orders are issued. Also, The U-235 target for Little Boy is cast at Los Alamos, NM.
1945 July 25Peer de Silva, the official courier for the Fat Man core, signs for 6.1 kg of plutonium at Los Alamos, NM.
1945 July 26President Truman issues the Potsdam Declaration, which warns Japan of "prompt and utter destruction" and requires unconditional surrender of the Japanese armed forces. USS Indianapolis delivers Little Boy bomb units, and the U-235 projectile to Tinian Island. Five C-54 transport planes leave Kirtland Air Force Base, Albuquerque with: the Little Boy U-235 target (its final component); the Fat Man plutonium core, and its initiator.
1945 July 29The Japanese government rejects the Potsdam surrender demand. Also, the five C-54 transports arrive at Tinian. All components for Little Boy are now on site, but no Fat Man bomb assemblies have yet arrived.
1945 July 30The nuclear components (target, projectile, and 4 initiators) are inserted into bomb unit number L11.
1945 July 31The assembly of Little Boy is completed. It is ready for use the next day.
1945 Aug 1A typhoon approaching Japan prevents launching an attack with Little Boy. Several days are required for weather to clear.
1945 Aug 2Fat Man bomb cases F-31 and F-32 arrive on Tinian. Fat Man assembly begins. Bombing date is set for August 11.
1945 Aug 4Lt. Col. Paul Tibbets briefs the 509th Composite Group about the impending attack. He reveals that they will drop immensely powerful bombs, but the nature of the weapons are not revealed.
1945 Aug 5At 1500 Gen. Curtis LeMay officially confirms the mission for the next day. Lt. Col. Paul Tibbets will take over as pilot, Deak Parsons will fly as weaponeer. Lt. Col. Paul Tibbets names B-29 No. 82 the "Enola Gay" after his mother, over the objections of its pilot Robert Lewis. Little Boy is loaded on the plane. Also, Dummy Fat Man unit F33 (complete except for plutonium core) is prepared for practice bombing run.
1945 Aug 60000: Final briefing, the target of choice is Hiroshima. Lt. Col. Paul Tibbets is pilot, Robert Lewis is co-pilot. 0245: Enola Gay begins takeoff roll. 0730: The bomb is armed. 0850: Flying at 31,000 ft Enola Gay crosses Shikoku due east of Hiroshima. Bombing conditions are good, the aim point is easily visible, and no opposition is encountered. 0915:17 Little Boy is released at 31060 feet. 0916:02 (8:16:02 Hiroshima time) Little Boy explodes at an altitude of 1850 feet, 550 feet from the aim point, the Aioi Bridge, with a yield of 12.5-18 Kt (best estimate is 15 Kt).
1945 Aug 7In the absence of an immediate surrender, a crash effort begins to print and distribute millions of leaflets to major Japanese cities warning of future atomic attacks. Also, The date for dropping Fat Man is moved up to August 10, then to August 9, to avoid a projected 5 days of bad weather. This requires skipping many check out procedures during assembly.
1945 Aug 8At Foreign Minister Togo's request, Soviet Ambassador Sato tries to persuade the Soviets to mediate surrender negotiations. Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov cancels the meeting, then announces that the Soviet Union is at war with Japan effective the next day. Meanwhile, leaflet dropping, and warnings to Japan by Radio Saipan begin (Nagasaki does not receive warning leaflets until August 10). Fat Man unit F33 is dropped in practice bomb run. Assembly of Fat Man unit F31 with the plutonium core completed in the early morning. At, 2200, Fat Man is loaded on B-29 "Bock's Car".
1945 Aug 90347: Bock's Car takes off from Tinian, the target of choice is Kokura Arsenal. Charles Sweeney is pilot. Soon after takeoff he discovers that the fuel system will not pump from the 600 gallon reserve tank. 1044: Bock's Car arrives at Kokura but finds it covered by haze, the aim point cannot be seen. Flak and fighters appear, forcing the plane to stop searching for it. Sweeney turns toward Nagasaki, the only secondary target in range. Upon arriving at Nagasaki, Bock's Car has enough fuel for only one pass over the city even with an emergency landing at Okinawa. Nagasaki is covered with clouds, but one gap allows a drop several miles from the intended aim point. 1102 (Nagasaki time): Fat Man explodes at 1950 feet near the perimeter of the city, scoring a direct hit on the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works. Yield is 19-23 Kt (best estimate is 21 Kt). Meanwhile, J. Robert Oppenheimer cables General Leslie Groves with the following shipping schedule: 11 Aug. first quality HE unit; 12 Aug. next plutonium core; 14 Aug. another first quality HE unit.
August 10, 1945Japanese civilian and military leaders are still unable to agree on accepting the Potsdam Declaration's surrender terms. Emperor Hirohito instead breaks the tradition of imperial non-intervention in government and orders that surrender be accepted, provided that the Emperor be allowed to retain his position. General Groves reports that the second plutonium core would be ready for shipment on August 12 or 13, with a bombing possible on August 17 or 18. President Truman orders a halt to further atomic bombing until further orders are issued.
1945 Aug 11President Truman and Secretary of State Byrnes reply with an amended form of the Potsdam Decree that acknowledges the Emperor, but still refuses to guarantee his position. General Leslie Groves decides to delay shipping the second plutonium core and contacts Robert Bacher just after he had signed receipt for shipping the core to Tinian Island. The core is retrieved from the car before it leaves Los Alamos, NM. Also, Strategic Air Forces Carl Spaatz halts area firebombing.
1945 Aug 12Henry DeWolf Smyth publicly releases his report, "Atomic Energy for Military Purposes."
1945 Aug 13Secretary of War Henry Stimson recommends shipping the second plutonium core to Tinian Island. President Truman orders area firebombing resumed. Gen. Henry Arnold, US Army Air Force, launches the largest raid on Japan of the war with over 1000 B-29s and other aircraft, carrying 6000 tons of bombs.
1945 Aug 14Following leaflet bombing of Tokyo with surrender terms, Hirohito orders that an Imperial Edict accepting surrender be issued. At 2:49 p.m. (1:49 a.m. Washington time), Japanese news agency announces surrender.
1945 Aug 17J. Robert Oppenheimer warns Secretary of War Henry Stimson that:Atomic weapons would improve qualitatively and quantitatively over coming years.Adequate defenses against nuclear weapons would not be developed.The US would not retain hegemony over nuclear weapons.Wars could not be prevented even if better nuclear weapons were developed.
1945 Aug 30General Douglas MacArthur arrives in Japan to oversee the formal surrender ceremony and to establish a democratic Japanese government.
1945 Sept 2Japanese officials sign the formal Japanese Instrument of Surrender on board the USS Missouri.
1945 Sept 9S-50 Plant completely shuts down.
1945 Oct 16J. Robert Oppenheimer resigns as director of Los Alamos Laboratory, accepting a post at CalTech.
1945 Oct 17Norris Bradbury takes over as director of Los Alamos Laboratory (a position he would hold for 25 years).
1946 to 1949: Exploring Thermonuclear Weapons
January 24, 1946The United Nations Atomic Energy Commission is established.
May 21, 1946Louis Slotin receives a lethal dose of radiation while conducting an experiment placing 2 half-spheres of beryllium around a plutonium core. The screwdriver separating the half-spheres slipped, causing the halves to touch and the plutonium to go supercritical, emitting high levels of radiation.
May 30, 1946Louis Slotin dies after receiving a lethal dose of radiation from a failed experiment at Los Alamos.
July 1, 1946The U.S. conducts Shot Able of Operation Crossroads, its first postwar nuclear test, at Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands. The purpose of Operation Crossroads, which included two shots, Able and Baker, was to investigate the effect of nuclear weapons on naval warships. The Able test yielded 23 kilotons.
July 25, 1946The U.S. military conducts Shot Baker of Operation Crossroads, a 23 kiloton standard "Fat Man" stockpile weapon exploded underwater at Bikini Atoll. Operation Crossroads was intended to give information about the effect of the atomic bomb on naval vessels. A column of radioactive water severely contaminated ships that were not otherwise destroyed by the explosion.
August 1, 1946President Truman signs the Atomic Energy Act. This establishes the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) which assumes responsibility for all Manhattan Engineering District (MED) properties.
December 25, 1946The Soviets achieve their first nuclear chain reaction in a graphite lattice that was much like Enrico Fermi's reactor at the Chicago Met Lab (CP-1).
January 1, 1947The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission takes over the Manhattan Project's research and production facilities from the Manhattan Engineer District.
August 25, 1947The Manhattan Engineering District is abolished.
April 30, 1948US military conducts shot Yoke of Operation Sandstone, the first fission weapon to use a levitated core design.
August 29, 1949The Soviet Union explodes its first atomic bomb in Asia near Semipalatinsk. The RDS-1 explosion yields 22 kilotons of TNT, similar to the Little Boy and Fat Man bombs that were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The RDS-1 bomb was an implosion weapon containing a solid plutonium core that was modeled after the American Fat Man bomb.
September 23, 1949Harry Truman announces the explosion of the first Soviet atomic bomb, which came to be known as "Joe-1" (for Joseph Stalin) or First Lightning, to the American public.
October 30, 1949The General Advisory Committee (GAC) of the Atomic Energy Commission, chaired by J. Robert Oppenheimer, publishes a report on the feasibility of the hydrogen bomb. It recommends that the United States not pursue the development of thermonuclear weapons and instead focus on more advanced fission weapons.
1950 to 1959: The Two Superpowers
January 31, 1950President Truman announces that the Atomic Energy Commission will "continue its work on all forms of atomic weapons, including the so-called hydrogen or superbomb."
February 3, 1950Klaus Fuchs is arrested by the United Kingdom for espionage.
February 24, 1950The Joint Chiefs of Staff requests President Truman to approve all out development of hydrogen bombs and the means for their production and delivery.
March 10, 1950After seeking advice from the Special Committee of the NSC, Truman approves the Joint Chiefs of Staff's request to develop hydrogen bombs. Construction of the reactors for producing tritium thought to be necessary for thermonuclear fuel commenced soon after.
June 9, 1950Niels Bohr presents his “Open Letter to the United Nations.” As early as 1944, Bohr had recognized that the creation of atomic weapons would completely change the nature of future warfare. Bohr stressed the free exchange of scientific and technological information as critical to creating the basis for peaceful cooperation between nations, and reflected on the "hopes and the dangers" of the Atomic Age.
January 27, 1951The U.S. conducts its first nuclear detonation, Operation Ranger Shot Able, at the Nevada Test Site.
March 1951Edward Teller and Stanislaw Ulam come up with a promising design (the details of which are still highly classified) to facilitate the ignition of a large mass of thermonuclear fuel by a relatively small fission explosion. Calculations based on the new design commenced immediately, most of them done by Los Alamos scientists. In addition, scientists used some of the earliest computing machines to help with calculations.
April 20, 1951The United States Conducts the Shot Easy nuclear test on April 20, 1951 at Enewetak Atoll in the Marshall Islands. It was the second in the Operation Greenhouse series of nuclear weapons tests. The Easy test, meant to test a new, lighter implosion bomb, yielded 47 kilotons.
May 1951The United States begins Operation Greenhouse, a series of nuclear tests conducted at Eniwetok Atoll to test various design principles that would later become pivotal in the development of thermonuclear weapons. The purpose of these tests was to reduce the size, weight, and amount of fissile material necessary for nuclear weapons, while simultaneously increasing their destructive power.
May 8-9, 1951The U.S. conducts the "George" nuclear test at Eniwetok Atoll in the Pacific Ocean as part of Operation Greenhouse. The "George" test involved a device in which a relatively large fission yield was to be used to ignite a relatively small mass of thermonuclear fuel. According to Edward Teller, the success of the "George" shot was pivotal in the development of the Super and provided scientists with the confidence to proceed along further speculations of thermonuclear design principles.
October 28, 1951The United States conducts the Baker Shot; the second nuclear test conducted in the Operation Buster-Jangle test series. It is held at the Nevada Test Site in October-November 1951. Baker is detonated on October 28, 1951, yielding 3.5 kilotons.
October 30, 1951The US military conducts the Charlie Shot of Operation Buster, a 14 kiloton airdrop fission bomb with a composite plutonium-uranium core.
November 1, 1951The US military conducts the Dog Shot of Operation Buster, a 21 kiloton airdrop fission bomb with a composite plutonium-uranium core. As part of Operation Desert Rock I, thousands of military personnel were present to simulate activity on a nuclear battlefield.
November 19, 1951The United States conducts the "Sugar" nuclear test on November 19, 1951 at the Nevada Test Site. The test yields 1.2 kilotons. "Sugar" is the 6th test of Operation Buster-Jangle and is conducted in conjunction with Operation Desert Rock II, with troops conducting maneuvers at a distance of 5 miles to simulate activity on a nuclear battlefield.
December 20, 1951The first US nuclear reactor to produce electricity, EBR-1, goes critical.
April 1, 1952The United States conducts the Shot Able nuclear test; the first in the Operation Tumbler Snapper series of nuclear tests at the Nevada Test Site. The test is conducted on April 1, 1952, and had a yield of 1 kiloton.
April 22, 1952The United States conducts Shot Charlie on April 22, 1952, the third in the Operation Tumbler Snapper series of nuclear tests at the Nevada Test Site. Charlie yielded 31 kilotons, and was part of the Desert Rock IV exercises, where thousands of military personnel trained to simulate activity on a nuclear battlefield.
May 1, 1952The United States conducts Shot Dog on May 1, 1952, the fourth in the Operation Tumbler Snapper series of nuclear tests at the Nevada Test Site. Dog yielded 19 kilotons. It was part of the Desert Rock IV exercises, where thousands of military personnel trained to simulate activity on a nuclear battlefield.
October 3, 1952The UK tests its first atomic bomb, known as Hurricane.
November 1, 1952The United States tests its first ever thermonuclear device at Eniwetok Atoll in the South Pacific during Operation IVY. The Mike Shot yielded 10 megatons of TNT and was roughly 1000 times larger than the bomb dropped on Hiroshima seven years earlier.
November 16, 1952The United States tests a second nuclear device during Operation IVY known as the "King Shot". This device was dropped from an aircraft and exploded at an altitude of 1480 feet above its target. The explosion, which derived its energy entirely from fission, was extremely large and probably yielded somewhere around 500 kilotons.
March 17, 1953The United States conducts the "Annie" nuclear test at the Nevada Test Site on March 17, 1953. It yielded 16 kilotons. A wood-framed house was built for the occasion as part of a civil defense study on the effects of a nuclear explosion.
April 25, 1953The United States conducts the "Simon" test on April 25, 1953. It was the 7th nuclear detonation in the Operation Upshot-Knothole test series at the Nevada Test Site. It yielded 43 kilotons.
May 19, 1953The United State conducts the "Harry" test on May 19, 1953. It was the 9th nuclear detonation in the Operation Upshot-Knothole test series at the Nevada Test Site. Shot Harry yielded 32 kilotons, and was the most efficient pure fission device ever detonated with a yield under 100 kt. Due to an unexpected change in the wind, "Harry" caused the highest amount of radioactive fallout of any test in the continental United States, contaminating the city of St. George, Utah. The test was later called "Dirty Harry."
May 25, 1953U.S. military conducts Shot Grable of Operation Upshot-Knothole, the first test of a nuclear artillery shell from a 280mm AFAP (Artillery Fired Atomic Projectile). The explosion yielded 15 kilotons and was the second ever US detonation of a gun-type design nuclear weapon.
June 19, 1953Julius and Ethel Rosenberg are executed by the U.S. for passing atomic secrets to the USSR.
August 8th, 1953Soviet Premier Georgy Malenkov announces that the United States no longer had a monopoly on the hydrogen bomb.
August 12, 1953The first test of a Soviet thermonuclear device takes place. The test, which became known as Joe-4 (this had been the fourth Soviet nuclear explosion whose occurrence was announced by the United States), took place at the Semipalatinsk test site and yielded roughly 400 kilotons of TNT.
December 8, 1953President Eisenhower delivers his "Atoms for Peace" speech which outlines a program for the distribution of peaceful nuclear technology, materials, and know-how to many countries with less advanced research.
March 1, 1954The United States conducts the "Bravo" test, the largest thermonuclear device in history up to that point. Bravo was a device using Lithium Deuteride as its fuel and the explosion yielded 15 megatons. The bomb was in a form readily adaptable for delivery by an aircraft and was thus America's first weaponized hydrogen bomb.
March 25, 1954The US conducts Shot Romeo of Operation Castle, a 11 megaton thermonuclear weapon whose observed yield was far higher than anticipated (only 4 Mt) due to a lack of understanding of the complex conditions inside of a hydrogen bomb.
June 29, 1954J. Robert Oppenheimer's security clearance is revoked by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission after numerous accusations that he passed atomic secrets to the Soviets.
March 12, 1955The United States conducts Shot Hornet at the Nevada Test Site on March 12, 1955. It was the fifth of 14 tests in the Operation Teapot nuclear test series. Operation Teapot was designed to test new kinds of fission devices. This test yielded 4 kilotons.
November 22, 1955The first megaton-range Soviet Hydrogen bomb is detonated in Kazakhstan.
May 28, 1957U.S. conducts shot Boltzmann of Operation Plumbbob, a light-weight "boosted" nuclear warhead that yielded 12 kilotons. The nuclear system weighed only 145 lbs and was 18 by 32 inches in size.
June 2, 1957U.S. conducts Shot Franklin of Operation Plumbbob, a 140 ton weapon that was projected to yield 2 kilotons but instead fizzled.
July 5, 1957U.S. conducts Shot Hood of Operation Plumbbob, a 74 kiloton fission bomb and the largest atmospheric test ever at the Nevada Test Site.
June 24, 1957The United States conducts Shot Priscilla on June 24, 1957. It was the third of 29 nuclear tests conducted at the Nevada Test Site in 1957 as part of Operation Plumbbob. "Priscilla" yielded 37 kilotons. Operation Plumbbob was the longest, most comprehensive test series in the continental United States and became controversial after much of the operation was declassified. Plumbbob released approximately 58,300 kilocuries of radioiodine (I-131) into the atmosphere over a four month period, producing about 32% of all civilian exposure due to continental nuclear tests.
July 24, 1957The United States conducts the Shot Kepler nuclear test on July 24, 1957. It was the seventh of 29 nuclear tests conducted at the Nevada Test Site in 1957 as part of Operation Plumbbob. "Kepler" yielded 10 kilotons and was intended to test a ICBM warhead.
September 6, 1957The United States conducts the Coulomb-B Shot safety test during Operation Plumbbob, a controversial series of 29 nuclear tests held at the Nevada Test Site. Detonated on September 6, 1957, Coulomb-B was intended to make sure that an accidental detonation of conventional high explosives in a nuclear device would not cause a nuclear reaction.
October 4, 1957USSR launches Sputnik-1, the first artificial satellite in space.
December 6, 1957The United States conducts the Coulomb-C Shot safety test on December 6, 1957 at the Nevada Test Site. The test yielded an unexpectedly high amount of 500 tons, leading to public concern over nuclear fallout.
June 28, 1958The "Oak" nuclear test is conducted by the United States on June 28, 1958 at Enewetak Atoll in the Marshall Islands. It was part of the Operation Hardtack I series. The Oak Shot, conducted on a barge, yielded nearly 9 megatons, making it the 6th largest U.S. nuclear test.
August 27, 1958First shot of Operation Argus creates an artificial radiation belt around the planet.
October 16, 1958The United States conducts the Shot Dona Ana nuclear test at the Nevada Test Site on October 16, 1958. It was part of the Operation Hardtack II series, in which the United States conducted 37 nuclear tests. It which yielded a relatively small 37 tons.
1960 to 1991: The Nuclear Arms Race
February 13, 1960France tests its first atomic bomb.
July 20, 1960The U.S. tests the first submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM).
March 14, 1961A B-52 crashes near Yuba City, California, jettisoning two nuclear weapons.
October 30, 1961The Soviet Union detonates Tsar Bomba, the largest nuclear device in human history. The weapon yielded 57 megatons of TNT, four times larger than any nuclear device tested by the United States. The amount of explosive energy released by Tsar Bomba amounted to all of the explosives used during World War II multiplied by ten!
May 6, 1962Shot Frigate Bird is the only US ballistic missile tested with a live nuclear warhead.
May 8, 1962US military conducts Shot Yukon of Operation Dominic, a 100 kiloton fission bomb.
July 17, 1962The US conducts its last atmospheric nuclear test during Operation Storax.
October 16, 1962The Cuban Missile Crisis begins after surveillance photos taken by a routine U-2 flight over Cuba show Soviet Medium-Range Ballistic Missiles on the island.
October 18, 1962US military conducts Shot Chama of Operation Dominic, a relatively light weight, small diameter hydrogen bomb meant to fit onto an ICBM. The weapon yielded 1.6 megatons.
June 10, 1963In his commencement address at American University, President John F. Kennedy announces that "high-level discussions will shortly begin in Moscow looking toward early agreement on a comprehensive test ban treaty." He declares, "The United States does not propose to conduct nuclear tests in the atmosphere so long as other states do not do so."
October 10, 1963The Limited Test Ban Treaty, signed by JFK and Nikita Khrushchev, enters into effect. The LTBT bans all nuclear weapons tests above ground, in the atmosphere, underwater, and in outer space.
October 16, 1964China tests its first atomic bomb.
January 17, 1966A B-52 crashes over Palomares, Spain, dropping four hydrogen bombs. Of the four Mk28 type hydrogen bombs the B-52 carried, three were found on land near the small fishing village of Palomares. The non-nuclear explosives in two of the weapons detonated upon impact with the ground, resulting in the contamination of roughly 1 square mile area by plutonium. The fourth, which fell into the Mediterranean Sea, was recovered intact after nearly a 3-month-long search.
June 17, 1967China tests its first hydrogen bomb. It was a fully functional, three-stage hydrogen bomb, tested just 32 months after China had made its first fission device. China thus produced the shortest fission-to-fusion development known in history.
January 21, 1968A B-52 carrying four hydrogen bombs crashes in Greenland, causing the conventional explosives aboard to detonate and the nuclear payload to rupture and disperse, which resulted in radioactive contamination.
March 12, 1968The United States conducts the Buggy nuclear test underground at the Nevada Test Site as part of the Operation Crosstie series. Also part of Operation Plowshare, an effort to use nuclear explosives for peaceful construction purposes, Buggy involved the simultaneous detonation of five nuclear devices to excavate a channel. Each yielded 1.1 kilotons.
July 1, 1968Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty is opened for signature. A total of 190 parties have joined the Treaty since 1968, with five states being recognized as nuclear-weapon states: the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and China (also the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council).
August 24, 1968France tests its first hydrogen bomb, code named Canopus, at the Fangataufa atoll. The device was suspended from a large hydrogen filled balloon and produced a 2.6 megaton yield at an altitude of 1800 feet. As a result of the successful detonation, France became the 5th thermonuclear nation.
December 8, 1968The United States conducts the Schooner nuclear test underground at the Nevada Test Site as part of the Operation Bowline series. "Schooner" was also part of Operation Plowshare, an effort to use nuclear explosives for peaceful construction purposes. The test yielded 30 kilotons.
March 5, 1970The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty signed two years earlier enters into force. The treaty allowed sharing of atomic technology for "peaceful purposes" to non-nuclear nations under the agreement that these nations would never develop an atomic weapons program.
May 26, 1972US President Richard Nixon and Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev sign the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM) and the first Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT), both of which were important steps in slowing the nuclear arms race between the US and the USSR.
May 18, 1974India tests its first "peaceful nuclear device" (PNE), dubbed Smiling Buddha. The Smiling Buddha was the first confirmed nuclear test by a nation outside the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.
April 7, 1978Production of "neutron bomb" is cancelled by US President Jimmy Carter. The Neutron bomb is a type of thermonuclear weapon designed specifically to release a large portion of its energy as energetic neutron radiation (fast neutrons) rather than explosive energy. Although their extreme blast and heat effects are not eliminated, it is the enormous radiation released by ERWs that is designed to be a major source of casualties.
March 9, 1979Temporary injunction granted by US court against The Progressive Magazine for attempting to publish designs for H-bomb. The story contained information about the still-classified "Teller-Ulam" design principle and configuration.
March 28, 1979A partial nuclear meltdown occurs in one of the two United States Three Mile Island nuclear reactors in Dauphin County, Pennsylvania. The partial meltdown resulted in the release of small amounts of radioactive gases and radioactive iodine into the environment. It was the worst accident in U.S. commercial nuclear power plant history.
September 22, 1979The US Vela satellite records a "double-flash" characteristic of a nuclear weapons test off the coast of South Africa. The test is believed to be conducted by either South Africa or Israel, however the incident remains a mystery to this day.
March 11, 1983Pakistan begins sub-critical testing series for nuclear weapons.
September 26, 1983Soviet Stanislav Petrov, the duty officer at the command center for the Oko nuclear early-warning system, narrowly averts nuclear war when the system reported a missile being launched from the United States. Petrov judged that the report was a false alarm. This decision is credited with having prevented an erroneous retaliatory nuclear attack on the United States, which could have resulted in large-scale nuclear war. Investigation later confirmed that the satellite warning system had malfunctioned.
November 2, 1983A 10-day NATO training exercise, known as Able Archer 83, begins in Casteau, north of the Belgian city of Mons. The USSR feared that the US would actually launch a preemptive nuclear attack during the exercise.
April 26, 1986A catastrophic nuclear accident occurs at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine, which was under the direct jurisdiction of the central authorities of the Soviet Union. An explosion and fire released large quantities of radioactive particles into the atmosphere, which spread over much of the western USSR and Europe.
October 5, 1986 The London Sunday Times publishes photos provided by defected Dimona worker Mordechai Vanunu revealing the Israeli nuclear program.
1992 to Present: After the Cold War
September 23, 1992The U.S. conducted its last nuclear test, code named Divider, at an underground facility in Nevada. It was the last of the 1,032 nuclear tests carried out by the United States since The Trinity Test 47 years earlier.
May 11, 1998India detonates its first "weaponized" nuclear bombs. It is the first time India has carried out such tests since 1974. The experiments took place without any warning to the international community, and there was widespread outrage and concern over the tests.
May 28, 1998Pakistan detonates its first nuclear weapons in response to India's nuclear tests two weeks earlier. The move provoked worldwide condemnation and fears of a nuclear conflict in one of the world's most volatile regions.
March 11, 2011Fukushima Daiichi nuclear-power plant accident occurs after a severe earthquake off the coast of Japan.
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Saint Apollinia is the patron saint of which medical profession? | CatholicSaints.Info » Blog Archive » Saint Apollonia – The Patron Saint of Dentistry
Saint Apollonia – The Patron Saint of Dentistry
Ever since I have known that dentistry had a patron saint I have been interested in her and have from time to time gathered material germane to the subject.
On a recent excursion to Quebec I made a visit to Sainte Anne and you may be sure that one of the things that drew me thither was to see this portion of the jaw of Saint Apollonia. I made a brave effort to locate this piece of jaw but not being a French scholar and French being the “official” language at Saint Anne, I was unable to find it. I am very much afraid it either is not there or else is not accounted among the valued possessions of the church.
Upon my return home, I concluded to gather together the material I have and present it to the dental profession. In my search for material I have been aided by my friend, Mr. Charles G. Marrett, and the pictures I show I have obtained mostly from friends who have traveled abroad and have been on the outlook for pictures of Saint Apollonia for me, knowing I am interested in the subject.
An article on Saint Apollonia appeared in the July, 1913, number of the Dental Brief. This article, however, has many inaccuracies and I also believe I can add much to the subject. Dr. Koch, in his History of Dental Surgery, refers to this Saint and a painting of Saint Apollonia was presented to the Philadelphia Academy of Stomatology by Dr. C. N. Pierce in 1900. So far as I know these are the only references to Saint Apollonia in our dental literature.
For centuries before there was any dental profession, men and women suffering from toothache had been accustomed to call upon Saint Apollonia to come to their assistance. Poor mortals, that was about all they could do, for a medieval toothache was a pretty hopeless affair. If Apollonia declined to help you, you might try a charm, or go upon a little pilgrimage, but in the end you would probably be quite speedily reduced to the drastic remedy of extraction, and be forced to hunt up some one with a pair of forceps or tweezers – the barber, surgeon or the blacksmith. Extraction could have been no laughing matter in those rough days. Wise and wealthy people saved up their toothaches till the day came round for one of the great annual fairs or markets, and then had their decayed stumps harvested, amid a blare of trumpets, by artists in gorgeous costumes. On such occasions the victim would be further enheartened by a large and interested concourse of spectators.
But perhaps the best thing to do, if Saint Apollonia refused her aid was to seek some monastery and ask the good brothers to take your tooth out. They were usually willing to do so, if approached in the proper spirit. They kept up this tooth pulling practice, too, into quite recent times. Not so very many years ago, if we happened to be on the Capitoline Hill at Rome on one of the proper days, we should have seen a gloomy band of men, women, and children toiling up the long, steep stairs to the portals of the church of Santa Marie in Araceli, not barefooted or on their knees, but with swollen, aching cheeks, done up in cloths or handkerchiefs, which would be tied in large disconsolate bow knots in a way no longer the fashion for pedestrian toothaches. On the upper step a squad of Franciscan friars, forceps in hand, awaited the sufferers, and there on the crest of Araceli’s marble staircase, the populace of Rome, amid much unrestrained and hearty screeching, were wont to have their teeth out at the expense of the church.
On the whole, Apollonia does not seem to have done her duty very well. Teeth are tolerably scarce in Christian history. Even such an exquisite as King Henry III of France at the height of his fascinations did not possess a tooth to his name.
We find there are two Saint Apollonias; a real one, as historic as Queen Elizabeth or Julius Caesar, and no handsomer; and a legendary one, all youth and grace and loveliness. And it is the latter the artists painted, and the toothache patients invoked. Although so far as she goes the real Apollonia is extremely authentic, we have only a few details concerning her. We know that she lived in Alexandria, and that on February 9th of the year 250, during the persecution of the Christians ordered by the Emperor Decius, she was cruelly tortured by having her teeth knocked out, and then was burned to death. As everybody knows, one of the chief authorities for the history of the early Christian Church is the
Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius, Bishop of Caesarea
in the fourth century. If we turn to book VI, chapter 41, of this work we shall find there a letter from Dionysius, Bishop of Alexandria, written to Fabius, Bishop of Antioch, which gives an account of the Decian persecution at Alexandria, and also tells us all we really know of Saint Apollonia. Since it is her only historical document, we will quote the portions which relate to her:
“The persecution with us did not begin with the imperial edict, but preceded it a whole year. And a certain prophet and poet excited the mass of the heathen against us, stirring them up to their native superstition. Stimulated by him, and taking full liberty to exercise any kind of wickedness, they considered this the only way of showing their piety – to slay us. First, then, seizing a certain aged man, named Metras, they called on him to utter impious expressions, and as he did not obey, they beat his body with clubs, and pricked his face and eyes; after which they led him away to the suburbs, where they stoned him.”
The letter then relates how they also maltreated and stoned a woman named Quinta and continues:
“Then with one accord, all rushed upon the houses of the pious, and whomsoever of their neighbors they knew, they drove thither in all haste, and despoiled and plundered them, setting apart the more valuable of the articles for themselves; but the more common and wooden furniture they threw about and burnt in the roads, presenting a sight like a city taken by the enemy. They also seized that admirable virgin Apollonia, then in advanced age, and beating her jaws, they broke out all her teeth, and kindling a fire before the city, threatened to burn her alive, unless she would repeat their impious expressions. She appeared at first to shrink a little, but when suffered to go, she suddenly sprang into the fire and was consumed.”
That is all our actual knowledge of Saint Apollonia and it is surely sufficiently pathetic and deplorable.
She was promptly canonized, and took her place among the noble army of martyrs, but one can readily guess that “an admirable virgin in advanced age” would not be so popular with painters and writers of religious poetry and afflicted devotees as something younger and more romantic. Therefore, it is not surprising that “the admirable virgin in advanced age” grew steadily younger and more beautiful in church tradition and ecclesiastical art, and as she grew more attractive, her story became more elaborate. Here it is in its revised and accepted form:
There lived in Alexandria during the first half of the third century a very opulent magistrate, of unknown name. He had married a wife whom he loved devotedly, and who loved him fondly in return. The only blot on the happiness of this pair was the fact that they had no children. They addressed earnest and unceasing prayers to Juno, Ceres, Jupiter, all the gods, to grant unto them a son or daughter to inherit their vast wealth, but all without avail. Three pious pilgrims arrived in Alexandria, and went from house to house asking alms in the name of the Redeemer and the Blessed Virgin, his mother, for they were tired and hungry. The magistrate’s wife, seated at her window one day saw them, and heard their petition at a house across the way. Her interest was aroused by their strange words, and she called to them saying: “What sort of begging is that of yours, and who are the gods in whose name you ask?” Wherefore the pilgrims told her of Christ, His life and teaching. And she asked them if the Virgin Mar}’ would hear her if she prayed that a child might be given her, and the pilgrims replied that the Virgin would be gracious to her without any doubt. Then the wife of the magistrate fell on her knees and prayed long and fervently to the Holy Virgin, and her request was granted and a daughter was born to her, to whom she gave the name of Apollonia.
The child grew into a maiden as lovely and graceful as a flower, and as good and pure as she was beautiful. The family of a Roman magistrate quite naturally conformed to the established religion of the state, but the mother never ceased to talk to her daughter about the wonderful circumstances of her birth, and about Christ and the Holy Virgin to whom she had addressed her prayers. Apollonia drank in all the details, and as she got older there sprang up in her heart a strong desire to be baptized and become a Christian. And Heaven did not leave her helpless. An angel came to her one day and led her out of Alexandria into the desert to the cell of Leonine, a disciple of Saint Anthony. Apollonia told him her story and her wish to be a Christian, and Leonine baptized her forthwith. Hardly had he done so than another angel swooped down from Heaven, and throwing a garment of shining white about Apollonia cried: “This is Apollonia, the servant of Jesus; Go, now, to Alexandria and preach the faith of Christ.”
Apollonia returned home filled with ecstasy and zeal. She went among the people and preached to them with wonderful eloquence, making many converts. Before long complaints concerning her and her doings began to pour in on her father. Why did he, a Roman magistrate, allow his daughter to break so flagrantly the laws of the Empire?
He, much disturbed, called Apollonia to him to explain her conduct. She defended herself with dignity and fervor, and still kept on with her preaching and conversions, until her father, beside himself with anger, gave her up to the Roman governor to be dealt with as a criminal. The governor ordered her to be taken into the temple of one of the pagan gods, Serapis, most likely, and bade her fall on her knees before the statue of the deity and adore it. Apollonia flatly refused to comply. She advanced haughtily to the statue, made the sign of the cross, and commanded the demon inside to depart. There was an awful rumble, a crash, a shriek, and from the broken image the demon fled, crying: “The holy virgin, Apollonia, drives me forth.”
This proceeding served to send the governor into a fit of violent wrath. At his bidding the girl was bound to a column, and one by one her beautiful teeth were all pulled out with a pair of pincers. Then a big fire was kindled, and, as Apollonia persisted in her faith, she was flung headlong into the blaze, and there gave up her soul to God, being borne to Heaven by His angels.
Even in the guise of a lovely and romantic maiden Saint Apollonia never attained great vogue. When one compares her to some other female saints – Cecilia, Catherine, Agnes, Lucia, Agatha, Barbara, Margaret – and thinks of all the multitude of churches and chapels which have been reared to them in many lands, and the hundreds of paintings of them which fill the galleries and ornament the altars of the world, Saint Apollonia’s light seems but a dim one indeed. Apparently, the only people who have cherished her and her memory to any extent, have been those with toothaches. They were told or read of her sufferings, with her teeth, and relied on her sympathy for theirs. The following prayer is published in F. Martinez’s book on dentistry published in Valladolid, Spain, in 1557:
Illustrious virgin martyr, Apollonia,
Pray to the Lord for us
Lest for our offenses and sins we be punished
By diseases of the teeth.
Another ancient prayer is the following: “Eternally omnipotent God, for whose honor blessed Apollonia, virgin and martyr, steadfastly suffered the horrible crushing-out of her teeth, grant Thou as we desire, that we may be made happy in commemoration of her, thru whose most pious intercession we were freed from toothache and all imminent evils. Through Christ our Lord. Amen.” There is also an amusing dialogue in Cervantes’ Don Quixote (published in 1615) as follows:
“Be in no pain then,” replied the bachelor, “but go home, in Heaven’s name, and get something warm for breakfast, and on your way repeat the prayer of Saint Apollonia – if you know it.”
“Bless me!” replied the housekeeper, “the prayer of Saint Apollonia, say you? That might do something if my master’s distemper laid in his gums, but alas! it is all in his brains.”
There must have been millions of these toothache devotees thru the long centuries, but they seem on the whole to have teen an ungrateful lot, for once their pain stopped or their teeth were out, they evidently quite quickly forgot their patroness.
There was once in Florence a convent dedicated to Apollonia, but it was long ago secularized and is now devoted to some military purpose. Only its refectory remains intact. There one can see a small gallery of paintings, but Saint Apollonia does not figure on any of the canvases.
The pictures of this saint are few anywhere. Mrs Jameson in her
Sacred and Legendary Art
names those that were known to her, and few things escaped the keen eyes of that indefatigable English lady, but strangely enough the Saint Apollonias we know best and think most of, she does not mention, while most of the paintings on her list, which is a short one, have since her time by reason of sales and many relocations hidden themselves irretrievably from the gaze of the ordinary tourist. Mrs. Jameson saw a Saint Apollonia by Hemlinck – where she does not say – one by Furini in the Rinuccini Palace at Florence, one by Granacci in Munich, others by the same artist in the Academy at Florence, and lastly the saint’s martyrdom by Procaccini in Milan Cathedral. But pictures have been of late years much bandied about by art critics, shuffled and dealt about so extensively among artists, that what was called a Furini or a Granacci in Mrs. Jameson’s time, may nowadays circulate as an Allori or a Bugiardini. Palaces and their contents have been so bought and sold that the migrations of paintings have been many and extensive. There are, nevertheless, two or three Saint Apollonias which can be easily found and enjoyed.
Go to Rome, cross the Tiber, and in the Trastevere quarter visit the big Corsini Palace which stands just across the street from the Farnesina where Raphael painted some immortal frescoes. This Corsini Palace was in other centuries the home of various lordly papal nephews, Riarii, Corsini, etc. Within its walls in 1689 died that most curious and unpleasant female, Queen Christina of Sweden, the Roman Catholic daughter of the great Protestant champion, Gustavus Adolphus, the Christina who preferred men’s clothes to her ordinary female attire, who found being queen a dull business and so gave up her throne, who murdered her lover Monaldeschi at Fontainebleau, who refused to comb her hair oftener than once a month and at last would not comb it at all, and clapped upon her head a moth-y brown wig like Dr. Johnson’s. Now, on the walls of the rooms in which this eccentric lady lived and-died, hang the pictures of the Galleria Nazionale of Rome, and among them is Saint Apollonia by Carlo Dolce in the artist’s customary over sentimental manner. Carlo’s saint is a very pretty girl, but is not impressive or convincing as a Christian martyr. Dionysius of Alexandria would surely never recognize in her “the admirable virgin of advanced age,” who, for her faith leaped into flames of fire. Her head is thrown back, her eyes are raised with languishing glances to Heaven; one hand is pressed against her. bosom, in the other she holds tight, in a pair of forceps, a very perfect tooth. But we refuse to believe for a minute that this tooth is hers. Look at her! she has not lost a single one.
One artist has painted Saint Apollonia to perfection; that is Bernardino Luini, who lived a hundred and fifty years before Carlo Dolce, and did his best work during the first quarter of the Sixteenth century. Bernardino Luini was the most celebrated master of the Lombard school. He was born at Luino about 1465. He is one of the five great painters whose “supremacy” Ruskin names. Upon this always graceful, always tender, always lovely painter fell some shreds from the mantle of his great master, Leonardo. Saint Apollonia may well rejoice that she found such an artist to portray her, for having once be held her as Luini has depicted her at Milan and Saronno, you feel an affectionate interest in her, though you may not be a dentist, or even have a toothache.
Most beautiful of all Saint Apollonias is she of San Maurizio on the Corso Magenta at Milan. There is a bit of history connected with her and her charming sister saints. Early in the Sixteenth century a family of the name of Bentivoglio were lords of Bologna. Bologna belonged by right to the Popes, as did Ravenna, Forli, Rimini, Perugia, and many other cities of Central Italy, for several hundred years before, Pepin, King of the Franks, had conquered the Lombards and handed their cities over to Rome. But the hand of the Papacy had often been weak, its temporal authority defied with impunity, so that in the course of time, ambitious wealthy families had gained the control of affairs in most of these cities and ruled them as their own. Such were the Polentani in Ravenna, the Malatesta in Rimini, the Baglioni in Perugia, and the Bentivogli in Bologna. Toward the close of the fifteenth century and the beginning of the Sixteenth, there came to the Papal throne a series of strong, able, warlike Pontiffs bent upon wresting these cities from the hands of the usurping lords. Such were Sixtus IV, Alexander VI, and Julius II. The last, a fierce old warrior priest succeeded in ousting Giovanni Bentivoglio from Bologna, and sending him in full flight to a place of safety. Giovanni found a secure refuge in Milan, then at the height of its glory under the Sforza dukes. Florence itself, under her munificent Medici, could hardly vie for magnificence and culture with the Milan of Duke Ludovico II Moro, to bask in whose sympathetic patronage, architects, artists, sculptors, and men of letters hurried from all Italy.
Giovanni Bentivoglio turned quite naturally to Duke Ludovico for help and a haven, since his wife was of the Sforza family, and his son, Alessandro, had married another of the house. Giovanni was now well on in years and in declining health. Nevertheless, he was reluctant to surrender Bologna to the Pope, and sent his son, Alessandro, to France to try to win Louis XII to the Bentivoglio cause. Alessandro was entirely unsuccessful in this attempt, and while absent in France, his father Giovanni died. They buried him in the church of San Maurizio quite close to his habitation, a church often called the church of the Great Monastery, because attached to it was a big convent for nuns with many buildings and extensive gardens. Some years later the beautiful daughter of Alessandro Bentivoglio took the veil and entered the convent of San Maurizio as Sister Alessandra. Of course the interest of the Bentivogli in this establishment was now great. The church had become ruinous; an architect named Giovanni Dolcebuono was commissioned by the convent to rebuild it, and Alessandro Bentivoglio, the deprived Duke of Bologna took upon himself the burden of decorating the interior of the edifice where his father lay in his tomb, and where his daughter was to worship every day as a nun. He summoned to him a painter whose name just then was golden in Milan – Bernardino Luini – and bade him cover the walls of the new building with frescoes, and Luini painted on the walls of San Maurizio some of his most delightful works.
Every stone of the Great Convent has been swept away; streets of close set buildings now cross and re-cross the site of the gardens where Sister Alessandra used to walk, but the church still remains intact, a thing of beauty. It is rather like a large hall than a church, for it has no side aisles, only a series of flanking chapels. Every inch of the church is covered with frescoes; walls, ceiling, galleries, chapels; and most of them are from the hand of Luini. But we are not in search of Luinis. We are after Saint Apollonia, and we shall not have much difficulty in finding her. This is a nun’s church. Therefore, midway of it, a partition wall rises almost to the vaulting, separating that part of the building open to the general public from the portion reserved exclusively for the worship of the nuns and the convent. It is on this partition wall against which stands the High Altar, that we discover the great Luinis in all their gay, clear colors, and their serene beauty. The altar piece is not by Luini, but everything above it and on either side is his.
Look to the left, first. We see let into the wall the tabernacle in which the Blessed Sacrament is reserved. On either side of it stands a saint. Such saints as would grace any paradise. Saint Cecilia has her head crowned with roses, Saint Ursula is crowned with a golden diadem, for she was a royal Breton princess; a sword is thrust into her breast. Above the tabernacle, within a semi-circular lunette kneels Alessandro Bentivoglio, the donor of the frescoes, magnificently arrayed in his ducal robes. He holds his missal reverently in his hand, and about him stand three saints; Saint Benedict with long white beard – for this great convent is a Benedictine foundation; and the two Saint Johns, the Baptist and Evangelist, perhaps placed here in compliment to Alessandro’s father, Giovanni. The Baptist has his little white lamb along with him.
Now turn to the right side of the altar. In the place corresponding to that occupied by the tabernacle on the opposite wall, is a figure of the Risen Christ. Beside him stand two other saints, sisters in sweet sanctity to Cecilia and Ursula. One of them is Lucia, with her two tortured eyes stuck into a sort of sharp bodkin; the other is Apollonia with her forceps and tooth, and a book, – for she was a teacher – and also her martyr’s palm. This Apollonia is certainly a figure of dignity and beauty worth going far to see. In the lunette above, a lady kneels, plainly a great lady, for look at her sumptuous robe of white brocade that sweeps and billows about her, and swells into more than ample sleeves. This is Alessandro’s wife, Ippolita Sforza. A Benedictine nun stands hovering over her, a white dove perched on her shoulder. This nun pretends to be Saint Scholastica, the sister of Saint Benedicti, but she is young and pretty, and is in reality none other than Sister Alessandra Bentivoglio, daughter of the kneeling Ippolita. These two ladies are supported by Saint Catherine with her wheel, and Saint Agnes with her white lamb, which balances very neatly the lamb of the Baptist across the altar.
If you pass through this partition wall into the nun’s church, back of it you will find preserved on that side, about the nun’s High Altar, other life size figures of saints, and among them another fine Saint Apollonia.
In the year 1525, Luini while in Milan accidentally killed a man. The details of the affair are not known, but the artist fled from the city pursued by the officers of the law. Some thirteen miles north of Milan on the road to Como is a small town called Saronno, nowadays famous for a certain sort of gingerbread called Amaretti. In Saronno was a pilgrimage church dedicated to the Virgin, and known as the Sanctuary of the Holy Virgin. It possessed the right of sanctuary for criminals; once inside the sacred bounds no constable or bailiff could touch them. Here Luini not only found a safe refuge, but employment as well, for the monks set him to work to decorate their choir walls, paying him thirty cents a day, together with a daily portion of food and wine. This seems to us niggardly remuneration for a Luini, but he was apparently amply satisfied, for he not only covered the choir and its chapels with scenes from the life of Mary, but before he left this asylum he painted for the monks as a gift, a Nativity, which was so beautiful that the good brothers exclaimed it was a pity Luini did not murder more men. This Nativity has vanished from Saronno, but we can still see Luini’s scenes from the Virgin’s story on the choir wall, and, besides these, “In the choir apse are two charming life size figures of saints, one of them Saint Catherine, the other Saint Apollonia.
If we had not already been to San Maurizio we should think no Apollonia could be more sweetly beautiful than this one who stands here gently contemplating us, the forceps and tooth in one hand, the palm of martyrdom in the other. Her golden hair ripples down from beneath a sort of turban, appropriate to an oriental saint. She is quite as lovely as the Milan Apollonia but lacks her majesty.
Saint Apollonia did not wholly perish from the earth when the fires of Alexandria consumed her body in the year 250. Fragments of her head and teeth were rescued from the ashes by devout disciples, and today her relics are scattered throughout Europe; stray bits of her have even reached America. Her head is in the ancient Basilica of Santa Maria in Trastevere at Rome, Cardinal Gibbon’s parish church or titular, for every Cardinal has his own church in the Eternal City. Her arms are in another old Roman church, Saint Lawrence, outside the walk; and part of her jaw is preserved in San Basilio also in Rome. There are teeth or pieces of them in churches at Naples, Volterra, Bologna. Antwerp, Brussels, Malines, Liege, and in five different churches in Cologne; and on this side of the Atlantic, as I have said, the celebrated pilgrimage church of Saint Anne de Beaupre, near Quelle, is said to possess a portion of her jaw.
She is not needed now, this saint of Egypt, as in those hard old days of yore, but let us hope her relics are not entirely unvisited. Doubtless many a remote or pious toothache she still helps to cure. Surely it should not be difficult for any man or woman, with or without a toothache, to offer up a prayer or two to a saint of such gracious, gentle, charm as the Apollonia of Bernardino Luini.
– Henry A Kelley, DMD, Portland, Maine; from The Journal of the National Dental Association, 1919
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by Ryan Donnelly, DDS – Long before there was any dental profession, men and women who were experiencing dental pain would call upon St. Apollonia, the patron saint of dentistry, for relief, and recite a prayer similar to the relatively modern one above. Although a clear line cannot always be drawn between theology and the health sciences, there have been relationships between these two disciplines in the past. As Andrew White (1898) noted, the relationship has not always been an amicable one. It was viewed by many as irreligious to seek methods of curing ailments by natural rather than spiritual means. It became the practice of religious leaders to classify men of science generally with sorcerers and magic mongers…
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St. Apollonia: The Patron Saint of Dentistry
In Rome there stood a shrine in one of the city’s great churches dedicated to St. Apollonia and people were said to travel great distances to ask for the assistance of the saint in a search for an end to their pain by reciting the following:
“0 Glorious Apollonia, patron saint of dentistry and refuge to all those suffering from diseases of the teeth, I consecrate myself to thee, beseeching thee to number me among thy clients. Assist me by your intercession with God in my daily work and intercede with Him to obtain for me a happy death. Pray that my heart like thine may be inflamed with the love of Jesus and Mary, through Christ our Lord. Amen. 0 My God, bring me safe through temptation and strengthen me as thou didst our own patron Apollonia, through Christ our Lord. Amen.” Prayer to St. Apollonia, a Catholic prayer card.
Fig. 1— Copy of a lithograph reproducing an original painting that is part of the Wesseler Collection at the Royal School of Dentistry in Stockholm
Long before there was any dental profession, men and women who were experiencing dental pain would call upon St. Apollonia (Fig. 1), the patron saint of dentistry, for relief, and recite a prayer similar to the relatively modern one above.
Although a clear line cannot always be drawn between theology and the health sciences, there have been relationships between these two disciplines in the past. As Andrew White (1898) noted, the relationship has not always been an amicable one. It was viewed by many as irreligious to seek methods of curing ailments by natural rather than spiritual means. It became the practice of religious leaders to classify men of science generally with sorcerers and magic mongers. This resulted in the association of atheists with physicians and gave rise to the proverb, “Where there are three physicians there are two atheists.” The religious alternatives to medicine’s cause were various appeals to saints specializing in particular diseases: St. Remy cured fevers, St. Gall cured tumors, St. Valentine cured epilepsy, St. Christopher cured throat disease, St. Eutropius cured dropsy, and so on. In his The Large Catechism, religious revolutionary Martin Luther did not necessarily side with the sciences’ search for answers to ailments in nature, but also denounced the invocation of the help of any being, such as a saint, except for that of God and the Holy Trinity. He called the fasting and honoring of St. Apollonia for help with a toothache an abomination. Luther labeled those who engage in such practices as equivalent to idolaters such as sorcerers and magicians (Bente and Dau, 1921). Despite varying opinions of the ability of a saint actually to help, the question arises, “Why is this saint designated to heal a particular disease. What caused St. Apollonia to become, the healer of toothaches?” As it turns out, the patron saint of dentistry had a very significant dental experience of her own.
The year in question in regards to St. Apollonia is 249 A.D. according to Craughwell (2001). He noted that it was the year that Decius inherited the Roman Empire and its waning power. The Roman Army was fighting on defensive fronts against barbarian tribes on all sides of the Empire. Decay was occurring within the Empire. Great cities like Carthage, Ephesus and even Rome itself suffered as senators and other elites retired to their country estates to escape political rivalries and plots resulting in murder. In a desperate attempt to gain favor in the eyes of their ancient gods, Decius published an edict commanding citizens to publicly worship the Roman gods before a local commission. Christians refused to obey the order, triggering their empire wide persecution. The church had weathered flare-ups of persecution in its 250-year history, but never on such a scale.
It should be noted that another recounting of the story placed the time as the same year but under Emperor Philip right before Decius’ ascension. Whichever the case, these conditions set the stage for the martyrdom of St. Apollonia. In the traditional rendition of her tale it is said that during the festivities commemorating the first millenary of the Roman Empire a poet prophesied a calamity caused by the Christians. A mob of the heathen population inflicted “bloody outrages on the Christians whom the authorities made no effort to protect” (Kirsch, 1907). The mob transformed their fervor to violence. Their first victim was Metranus (Metras), who refused to abandon his faith. He was beaten with staffs, reed splinters were impaled in his eyes, and he was subsequently stoned to death. A woman was the next target. Cointha (Quinta) would not pay divine worship to one of their idols when carried to a temple. She reproached their god, enraging them further. The mob then tied her to a horse and dragged her over streets of sharp pebbles until the cruel scourging caused her death. Another of the Alexandria martyrs was a holy man beaten in his own home. Serapion, bruised and his bones broken, was thrown from the roof of his house headlong to end his torture (Resende, 2003).
Fig. 2—The martyrdom of Saint Apollonia the patron Saint of Dentists in A.D. 249 is the subject of this mid-fifteenth-century illumination from the Hours of Etienne Chebalier by Jean Fouquet.
When Apollonia was apprehended she was ordered to worship the heathen’s stone idols, according to Armstrong (1995). Instead, she made the sign of the cross causing the idols to break into a thousand pieces. The future saint’s teeth were then pulled out one by one. (Fig. 2) Another source describes how Alexandrian Christians respected Apollonia for her chastity, religious devotion, and charitable deeds. It then tells of how she refused to offer a pagan sacrifice and so her teeth were all knocked out with a bludgeon. Although how it happened may vary from story to story, they are all consistent in the fact that she did lose her teeth at the hand of her aggressors (McNamara, 2003). After this tortuous attack in which Beresford (2001) mentions her cheeks were torn to shreds, he narrates the malicious manner in which the “venerable old virgin” was threatened with a bonfire in an attempt to coerce her into submission with the threat of throwing her into the “all-devouring flames.” Faced with the choice of reciting the series of “wicked and blasphemous” statements or death, Apollonia paused the mob in an apparent moment of reflection. When her captors released her expecting compliance she hurled herself into the flames sealing her own fate in the inferno and capturing her own place in history and the Christian religion from that time on. O’Connell (1956) claims that this had the added effect of terrifying the blood hungry rioters who were aghast at the notion that a woman was ready to meet death more easily than her persecutors were prepared to deliver it. The story takes on a note of authenticity when it is told by a contemporary of Apollonia’s, Dionysius, who was the Bishop of Antioch from 247 to 265 A.D. He wrote a letter addressed to Fabius that describes the martyrdom of Metras and Quinta and continued as follows:
“At that time Apollonia the parth”nos presb”tis (virgo presbytera, by which he very probably means not a virgin in advanced years, but a deaconess) was held in high esteem. These men seized her also and by repeated blows broke all her teeth. They then erected outside the city gates a pile of fagots and threatened to burn her alive if she refused to repeat after them impious words (either blasphemy against Christ, or an invocation of the heathen gods). Given, at her own request, a little freedom she sprang quickly into the fire and was burned to death.” (Kirsch, 1907)
Fig. 3—Saint Apollonia by Francisco de Zubar‡n from the MusŽe du Louvre, Paris. Courtesy of the Web Gallery of Art.
Beckett (1998) does attempt to put a silver lining on the dark cloud of this tragic tale writing that Apollonia accepted her inevitable demise but chose to bring it about in a fashion that would cause her persecutors to think more deeply and because she was determined to spare them the sin of killing her. One less well-knowm version of her story is told as follows:
“Saint Apollonia was the miraculously conceived daughter of rich, barren parents. After nearly giving up hope of being blessed by a child despite constant prayers to her gods, Apollonia’s mother begged the Blessed Virgin to intercede. When in her youth the saint learned of the circumstances of her conception, she became a Christian. Directed by an angel, she went to Saint Leonine, a disciple of Saint Anthony, for baptism. An angel then appeared with her baptismal robe and told her to go and preach in Alexandria, which she did … ends with her father giving her up to the authorities for martyrdom.” (Resende, 2003)
From this horrific event arose the legend of a saint who would watch over those who were experiencing a taste of the pain that Apollonia endured on that day, long ago, near the dawn of her Christian religion. Protecting those with a toothache has resulted in her earning the title of the Patron Saint of Dentistry drawing together a profession of medical nature and a figure of a religious import. There was even a New England dental journal honoring her name called ‘The Apollonian.’ To this day her sacrifice is remembered as people look upon her in ancient art where she is typically portrayed as a pretty young girl rather than the old woman she actually was. (Fig. 3) Armstrong (1995) notes that she is shown wearing a necklace of teeth or holding a tooth in a pair of pincers. She holds her symbol, a palm leaf, to signify her victory over death. The article, Unique Wine Label Features Saint Apollonia (1985), mentioned her likeness and name have even shown up on a particular wine label, the only such label devoted to an important figure in dental history Bunn (2003) reports that Apollonia’s teeth and parts of her jaw can be found in a number of churches across Europe where on February ninth her feast day is recognized. While the saint has been popular in art, Cohen (1975) stated that a few chapels remain that are dedicated to the saint, the oldest of which is in the village of Perelle in the parish of St. Saviour on the island of Guernsey. The martyrdom of St. Apollonia has inspired many forms of art and literature, inspired faith and hope in the devout, and drawn the seemingly contrasting philosophies of medicine and religion together. Her bravery and famous martyrdom persevere in the hearts and minds of those who use the saints in theological capacities, as well as those people in the dental field who have a professional respect for a figure of her import in the history of the dentistry.
References
Armstrong, Carole. Lives and Legends of the Saints with Paintings from the Great Art Museums of the World. New York, Simon and Schuster, 1995.
Beckett, W. Sister Wendy’s Book of Saints. New York, Dorling Kindersley, 1998.
Bente, F. and Dau, W. H. T. The Large Catechism in Trigiot Concordia: The Symbolical Books of the Ev. Lutheran Church. St. Louis, Concordia Pub. House, 1921.
Beresford, A. M. ‘Una oraci”n, seflora, que le dixeron que sablas, de sancta Polonia para ei dolor de las muelas’: Celestina and the Legend of Saint Apollonia. Bulletin of Hispanic Studies, 2001, 78: 39-57.
Bunn, S. T. St. Apollonia, Patron Saint of Dentistry. Retrieved 5/6/2003 from http: www.drbunn.com/apollonia.htm.
Cohen, R. A. Chapel of St. Apolline. Brit Dent J, 1975, 138:147-148.
Craughwell, T. J. Saints for Every Occasion. Charlotte, NC, Stampley Enterprises, 2001.
Kirsch, J. P. Catholic Encyclopedia: Saint Apollonia. Retrieved 5/6/2003 from http /www.catholic-forum.com/saints/stal3002.htm
McNamara, RF. St. Apollonia and Friends in Saints Alive. Retrieved 5/6/2003 from http://www.stthomasirondeguoit.com/SaintsAlive/id264.htm.
O’Connell, CJB. The Roman Martyrology. Westminster, MD, The Newman Press, 1956.
Resende, R. A Padroeira Da Odontologia. Retrieved 4/2/2003 from http://www.utopia.com.br/esperanto/odonto/santa.html.
Unique Wine Label Features Saint Apollonia. Bull Hist Dent, 1985,33 No. 2:132.
White, A.D. A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom. New York, D. Appleton and-Co., 1898.
Ryan Donnelly, DDS is a graduate of Oregon Health Sciences University School of Dentistry.
Article orginally published in the Journal of the History of Dentistry Vol. 53, No. 3 /Nov 2005 p.97 copyright ©2005, all rights reserved
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‘The past is a foreign country, they do things differently there’, are the opening words to which novel? | Rereading: The Go-Between by LP Hartley | Books | The Guardian
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Rereading: The Go-Between by LP Hartley
A story of lost innocence, hypocrisy and Britishness – but LP Hartley's masterpiece can also be read as a sophisticated gay novel
Julie Christie in Joseph Losey's 1970 film of The Go-Between. Photograph: Sportsphoto Ltd/Allstar
Ali Smith
Friday 17 June 2011 18.55 EDT
First published on Friday 17 June 2011 18.55 EDT
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"The past is a foreign country: they do things differently there." For the past year or so, when I've been giving readings, I've asked the people in the audience if they know or remember LP Hartley's 1953 novel, The Go-Between. Generally there's a single yes or a couple of yeses; otherwise silence, a shaking of heads. Then I'll say the first half of its first line and the audience will come back loud and strong on their own with the second half.
Certainly Hartley and his multi-awardwinning work (his Eustace and Hilda trilogy, completed in 1947, was hugely acclaimed, and the film version of his 1957 novel, The Hireling, won the main award at Cannes in 1973) have all but disappeared from contemporary literary consciousness. I first read his best-known novel, The Go-Between, at the age of 16 in 1979 (in a Penguin copy with Julie Christie under a parasol on the front, a still from Joseph Losey's 1970 film adaptation), because Hartley was the most contemporary writer on our Sixth Year Studies English course. I opened the same book again for the first time in three decades a couple of years ago. Can a book ambush you? From the prologue ("Are you vanquished, Colston, are you vanquished?") to the epilogue ("Tell him there's no spell or curse except an unloving heart") it felt, as I reread, uncannily familiar, like something I knew – and had no idea I knew – by heart.
A combination of knowing and not-knowing is this novel's driving force. It announced itself to Hartley when he was in Venice in May 1952, working on a completely different project; he put it immediately aside and wrote The Go-Between quite fast, revising his draft as soon as October and November. It's set at – or rather, framed by – the mid-point of the 20th century, "the most changeful half a century in history", when Leo Colston, a man in his mid-60s, sits down in a drab realist 1950s room, the rain hammering at the window, to sort through some old papers. Almost straight away he comes upon a red cardboard box once used for his childhood Eton collars: in it are inconsequential odds and ends; some dried-up sea-urchins, some rusty magnets, "which had almost lost their magnetism", and a diary. He picks each thing up in turn. "Something came and went between us: the intimate pleasure of recognition." But about the "Diary for the year 1900", with its Zodiac figures circling the announcement of this new "Golden Age", the "glorious destiny of the 20th century", he can remember nothing except a sense of baleful loss. He opens it: the combination lock, which he knows without knowing, is set to the letters of his own name. His own long-gone story breaks open on him all over again.
Leo is 12 years old and visiting his upper-class schoolfriend Marcus's family seat, Brandham Hall in Norfolk, in the summer of 1900. He is wearing his too-hot Norfolk jacket (which makes him a sort of clothing joke), having come away unprepared for heat, in fact confident there wouldn't be any such thing, since he considers himself something of a magician; in the novel's prologue he relates how a curse he wrote in blood in his diary last term has caused two bullies to concuss themselves by falling off the school roof. He has ordered up a cool summer in the same way. But the summer is hotter than is imaginable. "In the heat, the commonest objects changed their nature. Walls, trees, the very ground one trod on, instead of being cool were warm to the touch: and the sense of touch is the most transfiguring of all the senses . . . In the heat the senses, the mind, the heart, the body, all told a different tale. One felt another person, one was another person."
He also happens to be a lesser person at Brandham Hall, a mere mortal among its rich gods and goddesses. "For the first time I was acutely aware of social inferiority." He keeps his lower status a secret, though Marcus's mother, Mrs Maudsley (there's a nice Tennysonian hum to her name) has an Elizabethan ability to fix you like a pinned butterfly with her gaze. Marcus's older sister, Marian, is Leo's first encounter with beauty – as if he has met not a person but a concept. "So that is what it is to be beautiful, I thought." Marian, delightful, intuits Leo's embarrassment, keeps his secret about his lack of correct clothing and sweeps him off to Norwich where she buys him a cool green suit. She is positioned to marry the local Viscount Winlove, Hugh Trimingham, back from the Boer war with half his face scarred so badly that he looks like the god Janus, Leo thinks; one side an end and the other a beginning. Trimingham goes about his business wounded and elegant at once, with a great deal more knowledge of what's happening than he lets on.
What's happening is this: the facts of life are about to be taught to Leo, a boy so naive that at first it's comic, then it hurts the heart. As the mercury rises, Leo becomes a kind of Mercury himself, a deliverer of messages between Marian and her lower-class lover, the tenant farmer and local "ladykiller", Ted Burgess, who promises to teach Leo what's what when it comes to "spooning". Much of the novel's humour lies in Leo's sweet literalness, and in the interlocked layers of knowing and unknowing viewed by Colston 50 years on, then by us, far off in our so-knowing future. His prepubescent blankness, when it comes to what "spooning" might be, makes for both funniness and discomfort. Do lady killers really kill ladies?
Meanwhile, he can't say the name Hugh without it sounding, to Marian, like the word "who" or the word "you" – this in a book very much about identity, about who we are in the personal, the social, the historical and the natural senses. Leo is a boy who loves words, was bullied in the first place for using the long word vanquished in his diary for a football match victory; when his curses, astonishingly, seem to have taken effect he ponders what the action of putting words on paper might mean. "It was then I began to cherish a dream of becoming a writer – perhaps the greatest writer of the greatest century, the 20th." His new clothes, his very greenness, liberate him, make a hero of him, and at the same time are his downfall.
As much as it is a revelation of the childishness of social hierarchy, of human delusions of power, and of the tragedy inevitable where war or history and innocence meet, Hartley's novel is a fine disquisition on appearance versus naked truth. "In those days dress was much more ceremonious and jackets were not lightly discarded." Clothes in the novel demonstrate societal stricture, so that the revelation, not just of the sexual act, but of the cross-class sexual act, is contextualised as all the more unthinkable. A beautifully poised bathing scene ("the word denoted an intenser experience than it does now") highlights the apartness of men and women and the frissons of the body. Leo observes the beautiful cornfield-coloured body of Ted Burgess for the first time; it "spoke to me of something I did not know . . . maturity in its most undeniable form", lying near-naked in the reeds, smiling "an intimate, pleased smile, that would have looked childish or imbecile on most people, but on him had the effect of a feather on a tiger."
The more clothes Ted had on, "the less he looked himself". This is a novel of memorably dressed-up theatrical set-pieces: a cricket match that is a little class-war in itself; a concert at which the tension between tenants and landlords, village and Hall, is overshone by a moment that's half real innocence, half hopeless sentimentality; a fierce earthy battle between Leo and a Freudianly insidious Atropa Belladonna (deadly nightshade). The novel signals itself and its seeming concerns almost too clearly – the beautiful doomed farmer cleaning his gun so assiduously. In fact its self-conscious narrative quality, at a glance, can seem a little crude, like a too-obvious jigsaw. But to think this is – yes – naive: The Go-Between is a work winged at the heel and rises above its earthy self in a voice that's expansive. More: something radical happens when this seeming crudeness and this real elegance come together – a revelation of narrative's own naivety in a book very much about the clichés of story, the pressures to conform and the losses and tragedies that arise from such pressures.
It is a masterpiece of double-speak and secrecy, somehow both ambiguous and direct. It works a magic on obviousness, so that it becomes a novel about British embarrassment and embarrassing Britishness. It's a book which subtly, almost mischievously, rejects subtlety: "the facts of life were a mystery to me, though several of my schoolfellows claimed to have penetrated it." But couched and quiet at its centre is a whole other novel at a further level of knowing, innocence and unsaidness. Now, in a reread, I can see what I certainly couldn't consciously have seen or said in 1979, that Leo, in love with both the concept of Marian and the "half-unwilling gentleness", the feather on the tiger, the "natural" body of Burgess, is a go-between in quite another way.
With its vision of "foreignness", of the marginalisations inherent in class and sexuality, of the different possible self, the "different tale", it can also be seen as a gentle gay novel, and one of immense sophistication. Part defeated by repression, part glorious in discretion, part melodrama, part Hardy, part Lawrence; I wonder if its appearance in 1953 and its boldness then with the more surface issues of class and sexuality are partly responsible for Lady Chatterley's Lover finally seeing unexpurgated publication, which it did a decade after the appearance of The Go-Between. Its spirit, unlike Chatterley's, is gloomed, overshadowed by terrible new knowledge, two world wars, the Holocaust and the atom bomb: an "abyss", as Hartley puts it, at the core of the glorious new century. Hartley returns again and again in his critical essays, bewilderedly, as if he can't look away, to this "abyss".
So the novel looks backwards in essence, but one half of its face, its war-scarred, war-numbed half, looks forwards, towards Larkin, towards the literary realism of the late 1950s and early 60s. Its voice is echoed today in writers such as Colm Tóibín, John Banville, Paul Bailey, Alan Hollinghurst. It's no surprise that the film director Losey adapted it and included it in his trilogy of radical works examining Englishness, class, repression and morality alongside The Servant and Accident; the screenplay of The Go-Between is a pristine and skilful reworking by Harold Pinter.
Mercury is the god of communication, the god of thieves, the god of artists, the god of the conduit between living souls and dead souls. This novel, a revelation of the tragedy of hypocrisy and the workings of power, of the human need for "calumny" to be "more colourful than it is", also communicates images of a magnetism so strong that "with its strength went a suggestion of beauty and mystery that took hold of my imagination in spite of all my prejudice". It is full of images of rebirth, the most astonishing of which is the final image of the much older Leo literally revisiting his past and coming away again with yet one more romantic errand to run. The real revelation is of something which soars above social hierarchy and even the 20th-century abyss. It is both subtle and crass: a modern kind of sublime.
"One remembers things at different levels." The Go-Between is about books as much as it's about memory. It's a model of the importance of rereading (and God knows we treat books lightly – we wouldn't, after all, expect to know a piece of music properly on just one listen), knowledge and innocence so much part of its structure as to make it a knowingly different book on revisiting. Above all, though, it is a text which works like a charm: books are, in essence, go-betweens, works which conjure rhythm and release across time and history, across places of familiarity and those foreign to us; and personally and individually, too, it's all a going-between, for every person who picks up a book for a first, then a second, then a third time.
Ali Smith's There But For The is published by Hamish Hamilton.
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Which UK children’s tv show, launched in 1968, had a mascot called Murgatroyd? | What Star Wars Can Teach Us about History
What Star Wars Can Teach Us about History
January 14, 2016
This post is adapted from History: A Student's Guide by Nathan Finn.
A Long Time Ago, In a Galaxy Far, Far Away . . .
Ever since the original Star Wars movie opened in theaters in 1977, the words mentioned above have been a part of American popular culture. Each of the live-action movies in the Star Wars franchise that have been released thus far begin with these words set against a black screen. Cue the famous theme song by composer John Williams. Once the music begins, a short summary of the backstory leading up to the film scrolls upward across the screen. Once the prologue is completed, the movie begins. I get chill bumps every time I sit in a theater and the opening words appear on the screen; even my disappointment in the moribund second trilogy of movies could not take away this feeling of anticipation.
In a helpful article on historical thinking, Thomas Andrews and Flannery Burke suggest that the opening sequence in the Star Wars films reminds us of the importance of historical context. [1] I believe it also offers another important reminder to historians. The past, while often open to scholarly study, took place a long time ago in a faraway place (if not another galaxy). Many historians emphasize this point by citing the famous opening line to L. P. Hartley’s 1953 novel The Go-Between: “The past is a foreign country; they do things differently there.” [2] This is true even of the recent past. For this reason, historians must take into account matters of historical context when studying the past.
The Importance of Historical Context
You might think of historical context as everything that was in the atmosphere at the time of the subject you are studying. According to one introductory textbook, historical context “might be seen as the setting of the period” and includes “the social, cultural, political, economic, and technological milieu of the day.” [3] Christian historians (really, any good historian) would point out historical context also includes the religious and other worldview assumptions from the period under consideration.
A keen sense of historical context helps protect historians from the temptation of presentism, which is any attempt to read present assumptions back into the past. Professional historians work hard to avoid presentism. As Gordon Wood notes,
The present should not be the criterion for what we find in the past. Our perceptions and explanations of the past should not be directly shaped by the issues and problems of our own time. The best and most serious historians have come to know that, even when their original impulse to write history came from a pressing present problem. . . .
The more we study the events and situations in the past, the more complicated and complex we find them to be. The impulse of the best historians is always to penetrate ever more deeply into the circumstances of the past and to explain the complicated context of past events. The past in the hands of expert historians becomes a different world, a complicated world that requires considerable historical imagination to recover with any degree of accuracy. [4]
Presentism lends itself to a number of common historical fallacies. According to David Hackett Fischer, “A fallacy is not merely an error itself, but a way of falling into error. It consists in [sic] false reasoning, often from true factual premises, so that false conclusions are generated.” [5] Historical fallacies are rife within popular accounts of the past and can even be found among incautious professional historians.
Past vs. Present
Casual students of history frequently assume that what is true of the present was true of the past in more or less equivalent ways. For example, consider the history of the civil rights movement. Observers sometimes assume that civil rights activists in the 1950s and 1960s were theological liberals because they were also political liberals. After all, it is quite common today, in America at least, to closely associate liberal politics and liberal theology with one another (the same holds true for conservative politics and conservative theology).
Nevertheless, as David Chappell has demonstrated, while civil rights activists were all over the map theologically, many held fairly orthodox views of human sinfulness and the need for personal redemption through faith in Jesus Christ. [6] It would be incorrect to simplistically assume that what is true of the present—or at least seems to be true—was true of the past in exactly the same way.
This is not to suggest that no continuity exists between the past and present; continuity can be demonstrated in countless ways. Christians assert there is nothing new under the sun (Eccles. 1:9); on one level, this is absolutely true. Christian historians, however, should remember that the sun shines differently, depending upon where one is standing; the shadows are always moving and sometimes clouds obstruct our view of the sky.
Remembering our distance from the past helps to keep careful historians humble. This should be especially important to Christian historians, for whom humility is both a professional best practice and a spiritual virtue. Every historian studies the past from a particular point of view. In the case of a believing historian, the Christian worldview will be integral to that perspective. Nevertheless, the past deserves to be understood according to its own terms, insofar as this is possible.
While there might be any number of legitimate ways to apply insights from the past to the present, the past deserves to be treated as more than the preamble to the present. The discipline of history recognizes that the study of the past is a worthwhile end in itself, even when the subject being studied has little to no bearing on the present. If God created everything that is, and if he providentially rules all things according to his sovereign purposes, then every moment in the past matters to God. The past should also matter to historians enough to be treated with the respect it deserves.
Notes:
[1] Thomas Andrews and Flannery Burke, “What Does It Mean to Think Historically?” Perspectives on History, January 2007, accessed October 3, 2014, http://www.historians.org/publications-and-directories/perspectives-on-history/january-2007/what-does-it-mean-to-think-historically .
[2] Most famously, see David Lowenthal, The Past is a Foreign Country (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), which is primarily a critique of nonprofessional misuses and abuses of the past. For other historians who play off of this language, see Fea, Why Study History? 47–63; and Carl R. Trueman, Histories and Fallacies: Problems Faced in the Writing of History (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2010), 109–40.
[3] Michael J. Galgano, J. Chris Arndt, and Raymond M. Hyser, Doing History: Research and Writing in the Digital Age (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage, 2008), 4.
[4] Gordon S. Wood, The Purpose of the Past: Reflections on the Uses of History (New York: Penguin, 2008), 10.
[5] Fischer has catalogued the most common of these fallacies in his classic work on the subject. See David Hackett Fischer, Historians’ Fallacies: Toward a Logic of Historical Thought (New York: Harper and Row, 1970). More recently, Carl Trueman has discussed how historians are often not careful enough when studying the history of ideas in particular. See Trueman, Histories and Fallacies.
[6] David L. Chappell, A Stone of Hope: Prophetic Religion and the Death of Jim Crow (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2004).
Nathan A. Finn (PhD, Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary) is dean of the School of Theology and Missions and professor of Christian thought and tradition at Union University. He is the author of History: A Student's Guide .
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The Antionette Perry Awards for Excellence are better known by what name? | How two Kansas brothers came to influence the nation’s art and literary circles | The Wichita Eagle
June 9, 2016 5:11 PM
How two Kansas brothers came to influence the nation’s art and literary circles
By Beccy Tanner
Order Reprint of this Story
This Sunday night, when some of you turn your televisions to CBS at 7 p.m. to watch the Antoinette Perry Awards for Excellence in Theatre – better known as the Tonys – think about the Kansas connection.
There would not be a Tony Award had it not been for a Kansan who created the awards in honor of his partner, Antoinette Perry.
Brock Pemberton, a Broadway producer and founder of the Tony Awards, grew up in Leavenworth and attended both the College of Emporia in Emporia and the University of Kansas in Lawrence.
He was a nephew of Marshall Murdock, founding editor and publisher of The Wichita Eagle.
Pemberton also had a brother named Murdock Pemberton.
Both were nurtured in their young careers by Marshall Murdock and William Allen White, editor of the Emporia Gazette.
The two Pembertons later move to New York.
In the 1920s and 1930s, Brock Pemberton produced plays. Some of his best-known hits included “Harvey,” about a man whose best friend is an imaginary rabbit, and “Personal Appearance,” later made into the movie “Go West, Young Man.” During World War II, Brock Pemberton was instrumental in establishing USO shows for the military.
Brock Pemberton’s partner in theater was Antoinette Perry, an actress, director and co-founder of the American Theatre Wing. He nicknamed her “Tony.” She died in 1946.
The first Tony was awarded in 1947 to recognize outstanding talent and technical achievement. When Brock Pemberton died in 1950, he was awarded posthumously a Tony for his role as founder and original chairman of the awards. He is buried in a New York cemetery.
His brother went on to become the first art critic at the New Yorker magazine and one of the founders of the Algonquin Round Table, the literary world’s most celebrated group of writers, critics and actors.
Murdock Pemberton died in 1982. There is a tombstone for him in Maplewood Memorial Lawn Cemetery in Emporia.
| Tony Award |
According to the Bible, how many pieces of silver did each of the Philistines offer Delilah to find out where Samson’s strength lay? | Barter Theatre
Barter Theatre
The Barter Theatre, located in the Blue Ridge highlands of
Abingdon
, Virginia, was founded by Robert Porterfield in 1933 and designated the State Theater of Virginia in 1946. It is the longest-running professional Equity theater in the nation. (The Actors' Equity Association is a live-theater labor union.) Opening its doors in the midst of the Great Depression , Barter earned its name by allowing patrons to pay the admission price with produce, dairy products, or livestock. The shows were sometimes forced to compete with the noise that accompanied bartered livestock. On occasion, the theater also paid playwrights, such as Tennessee Williams and Thornton Wilder, Virginia hams for their works rather than standard royalties. George Bernard Shaw, a vegetarian, demanded to be paid in spinach. The theater expanded in 1961, opening a second stage across the street, and has earned a national reputation through touring companies and its association with many prominent and influential actors, including Gregory Peck, Ernest Borgnine, and Kevin Spacey. The Barter Theatre won a Tony Award in 1948 for Best Regional Theater. MORE...
In This Entry
Early Years
Saltville
native Robert Porterfield was an out-of-work actor in New York City when he decided to return to southwestern Virginia in 1932. He brought with him twenty-two other unemployed actors, and together they founded Barter Theatre, advertising, "With vegetables you cannot sell, you can buy a good laugh." The theater's first show, the three-act drama After Tomorrow, written by John Golden and Hugh S. Stange, opened on June 10, 1933, and played to a full house. Admission was forty cents, with most patrons paying the equivalent in vegetables, dairy products, or livestock. By the end of the season, the Barter Company had made $4.35 in cash proceeds, which Porterfield then donated to the Motion Picture Relief Fund. (The charity dated to the 1880s but was especially active during the depression, helping, for instance, to pay for the birth of Bela Lugosi's son.)
Porterfield
The Barter Theatre's system of payment was, on the one hand, a clever advertising gimmick. Porterfield and his partners accepted almost anything as payment, including toothpaste, snakes, and underwear. A pig was worth ten tickets, while two quarts of milk bought one ticket. On the other hand, bartering was more than just a gimmick; it was essential to the theater's initial success. During the depression years, regional and local theater groups around the country struggled to survive and many failed. Outside funding and grants were largely nonexistent and the rights to many popular plays were prohibitively expensive for small companies. The Barter was able to survive and eventually even thrive by making its productions accessible to audiences and by attracting the support of, and providing work for, New York actors such as Hume Cronyn, Gregory Peck, Patricia Neal, and Ernest Borgnine. Other famous Barter alumni include Ned Beatty, Larry Linville, James Burrows, and Wayne Knight.
Facilities
The facilities for the Barter Theatre were originally constructed in Abingdon in 1831 by the congregation of Sinking Spring Presbyterian Church. Later the brick structure became home to theatrical productions staged by the Sons of Temperance, an exclusive all-men's club with branches in the United States, Canada, and Great Britain. In 1890 the Sons of Temperance donated the building to Abingdon to be used as a town hall. It later become home to the fire department, which placed a siren on the roof that was used until 1994. If the siren rang during a performance, actors were instructed to freeze during its duration and then resume the play.
In addition to competing with the fire siren, actors in the first years contended with livestock bartered for tickets. Chickens, pigs, or other animals often milled about the back of the theater. Also, the town jail was for a time located directly beneath the stage—and even after the jail space was no longer used for holding criminals, it was used as a holding area for dogs suspected of rabies. When, by the 1950s, the building was in need of improvements and updates, Porterfield was able to acquire the remains of the now-demolished Empire Theatre in New York City. With a volunteer crew, Porterfield salvaged $75,000 worth of property from the Empire before its destruction, including seats, carpeting, paintings, wall tapestries, and a lighting system designed by the American inventor Thomas Edison. Several portraits were also salvaged, including one of Maude Adams, the original Peter Pan.
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In which board game do players use a ‘doubling cube’, which has the numbers 2,4,8,16,32,64 on it? | The Backgammon Doubling Cube History
Tournament play
The Backgammon Doubling Cube History
Backgammon, in its original form, did not use the doubling cube. Common backgammon, played for single points does not use the doubling cube either. For that reason, many players have never used one before and when first faced with the option and opportunity to do so, might not understand what it means and how it affects the game.
The original doubling cube was introduced to Backgammon in the 1920s. However, tracing back the roots of the cube to much earlier times, a similar item was used as far back as the 17th century in a game very similar to backgammon. It is unknown if the doubling cube used in the 1600s was reintroduced 250 years later or if someone came up with the idea anew after all that time had passed.
The doubling cube itself is a simple cube with six sides similar to the dice that sits in the middle of the board during a game. On the cube are the numbers 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, and 64. Each number represents an increase in the stakes of any given backgammon game. The first turn of the game has the doubling cube placed in the center of the board with 64 facing upwards. This represents 1 times the normal stakes, meaning no one has yet doubled.
When a player doubles, they turn the cube to the next highest value, in this case 2, and then 4 and so on. After a player has doubled, if the opponent accepts the double, they are given possession of the cube and have the sole right to decide if the stakes should rise again during the game.
The doubling cube is only used during match play. A match in Backgammon is a series of games in which players strive to earn enough points to reach the target amount. The amount of points necessary to win a match varies depending on the format and circumstances of the match. This style of play makes it so players can focus on the larger picture rather than any one game.
Each game in a match is worth one point. However, the doubling cube is introduced to allow players the ability to raise the stakes or value of that game exponentially. When the game begins, neither player has control of the doubling cube. It sits in the middle of the board. If a player feels they might win the game, they can use the doubling cube and double the stakes. The decision to do so must be done before a turn begins. The opponent is then given the opportunity to accept the double or decline it.
If the opponent decides he does not have a chance to come back and win, he can decline the cube and surrender the game. The winning player then gains 1 point in the match. However, if they accept the cube, the value of the game rises to 2 points and the cube is given to the player who accepted the double. From now on, the player with the cube is the only one who may decide to double the game.
Using the doubling cube adds a psychological and mathematical level to the game that enhances money and tournament play. It makes the game harder and more compelling.
BG Calendar
| Backgammon |
In which mountain range is the 2000 film ‘Vertical Limit’ set? | Rolling the Doubling Cube - GammonVillage Magazine
Rolling the Doubling Cube
1 February 2014
Douglas Zare
Backgammon stands out from other games of skill and chance because of the doubling cube. In fact, the doubling cube could be added to many other activities, even spectator sports. However, many casual players don't know how the doubling cube is used. While it is good to learn the rules of checker play first, many experienced casual players have never learned to use the doubling cube. One said, "I think after you play the game, you roll the doubling cube to see how many points you win." Well, that's creative. The doubling cube does resemble a large die. What can you learn from rolling it? In this column we will see two applications of the idea of rolling the doubling cube.
A game of dice
Suppose you get to choose between rolling the doubling cube (labeled 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64) and an ordinary die (labeled 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6). I'll roll the other. The game will be to roll the larger number. Given the choice, you would pick the doubling cube, of course. Because the nth number on the doubling cube is larger than the nth number on the regular die, it is clearly better to choose to roll the cube even though it is possible to lose by rolling a 2 or 4 against a 5, for example, or we could tie.
To make it more fair, let's say that when you roll the ordinary die, the numbers are multiplied by 5. So, a roll showing 3 pips would be 15. This has the side benefit of eliminating ties. Which die should you choose? Now the game is much closer, and perhaps it isn't obvious which has an advantage.
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In 2003, which UK retailer won a legal battle to advertise for employees in jobcentres? | Ann Summers - The Full Wiki
The Full Wiki
More info on Ann Summers
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Ann Summers Ltd
Ann Summers is a British High street retailer selling knickers and sex toys.
Contents
3 External links
History
The company was named after the female secretary (Annice Summers) of the male founder (Caborn Waterfield). [1] The company has targeted female consumers with the arrival of Jacqueline Gold. Passion8 , Stringfellows , Playboy , Beate Uhse AG , Nookii, Utopia Supplies, LoveHoney , Temptations Direct, Sh! Women's Erotic Emporium and more traditional retailers ( Superdrug , Boots [2] ) / internet sellers ( Amazon.com [3] ) are some of Ann Summers competitors.
Having worked at Royal Doulton , Jacqueline Gold decided she did not want to go into management, and asked her father David Gold to gain extra work experience. After acquiring the four stores of the "Ann Summers" chain in 1972 with his brother Ralph Gold, they gave Jacqueline at the age of 19 summer work experience in May 1979 - Jacqueline was paid £45 a week, less than the tea lady. [4]
As her parents had separated when she was 12, Jacqueline was not close to her father. Gold also didn't like the atmosphere at "Ann Summers", which was Gold Group's "up market" clean sex shop. Jacqueline says of her introduction: "It wasn't a very nice atmosphere to work in. It was all men, it was the sex industry as we all perceive it to be."
Ann Summers, 79 Wardour Street, London
Ann Summers in Kingston upon Hull .
But a chance visit to a Tupperware-style fashion party in an east London flat in 1981 changed everything - Jacqueline saw the potential of selling sexy lingerie and sex toys to women in the privacy of their own homes. Jacqueline launched the Ann Summers Party Plan - a home marketing plan for sex toys, with a strict "no men allowed" policy. These parties were and remain immensely popular, providing women with an excuse to meet for a party and talk about sex, and have entered British popular culture. They also provided the company with a way of circumventing the law which limited their presentation space for sex toys [5] .
Jacqueline was made Chief Executive of the company in 1987. Jacqueline transformed the chain into a multi-million pound business, with a sales force today of over 7,500 women as party organisers; 139 [6] high street stores in the UK, Ireland , Channel Islands and Valencia , Spain ; with an annual turnover of £110 million in 2006/7. [7] In 1999 the chain relaunched its website, and in 2000 it acquired the five stores of the Knickerbox brand [8] and its range of premium site lingerie kiosks - "Knickerbox" concessions are now in every Ann Summers store.
Although the chain has one licensed sex shop in Bristol selling a wide range of products, Jacqueline has described the latest award-winning new store concept as: "Wonderful! Every time I walk in, it feels as if I‘m entering an intimate, sexy and very girly boudoir. I just love it." [9]
The company's head office was raided as part of an immigration check in 2004, consequently 15 staff were arrested and 10 were subsequently deported. [10] The company employs a series of celebrity models to show off its lingerie, who presently include Kate Lawler , Nancy Sorrell and Emma B .
After a number of years of falling sales and profits, sales have increased back to 2005 / 2006 levels of £117m [11] and profits to £3m, up from £1.53m pre-tax for the period 2006/7. [7] [12] Previously profits had doubled to £9.5m in 2001/2, [13] £8.9m in 2002/3 [5] [14] ,falling to £3.2m in 2003/4 [15] - following investment in a new building and technology, dropping further to £2.2M in 2004/5. [16]
Ann Summers lingerie factory in Portsmouth closed in 2005, with over 50 redundancies. [17] Other parts of Gold Group International(GGI), the parent company have been sold, such as Gold Air, which is now owned by Air Partner [18] , along with a large number of Birmingham City F.C. [19] (which followed Birmingham's return from relegation [20] and lower than expected profits [21] ) and a management buyout of a leading publishing business. [22] [23] GGI was part owner of the Sunday Sport [24] prior to its sale.
In June 2009, it is rumoured that Ann Summers are in negotiation with Football League Championship club Peterborough United to become their shirt sponsor for the 2009/10 season. David Gold is known to be a long-term friend of Peterborough United director Barry Fry .
Controversy
Due to the adult nature of the stores, Ann Summers has faced opposition, both legal and social. For example, when attempting to open a new store in Tunbridge Wells , [25] they were accused of degrading marriage . [26] In 2003, they won a legal battle to advertise for employees in job centres [27] and an ASA complaint was rejected. [28]
Additionally, Ann Summers in Perth was forced to close after the local people complained about the store (mostly from parents embarrassed by questions raised by their children) which also led to other problems with the store. [29] Perth was originally the only UK town where an Ann Summers store failed to take off. [30] However, in May 2007 the Middleton Grange, Teesside store which opened in November 2005 was closed after less than two years of trading due to poor sales. [31]
In 2002, the company was hit with a number of problems including the theft of some of its internal IT systems [32] and a recall of its best selling vibrator [33] . The company received a letter of complaint from Buckingham Palace , due to a non endorsed advert featuring the Queen. [34]
In 2003, the company's payments to party organisers were investigated and discussed by a number of media sources. [35]
In 2004, two complaints were upheld by the ASA. [36] The ASA decided that the first ad was degrading to women, offensive and unsuitable for use as a poster. In the second case the ASA ruled that the use of a nursery rhyme was likely to attract the attention of children and that the advertisement was unsuitable for the medium in which it appeared.
In 2006, Muslim groups complained about the release of a blow up doll named Mustafa Shag, claiming that the doll was offensive to Muslims as Mustafa was one of the names given to the Prophet Mohamed. [37]
In 2007, the company faced legal issues with Apple Inc due to its release of an electronic add-on to music players called the iGasm. The company has not backed down despite cease and desist orders by Apple. [1] . Also, a former director, who is now a Beate Uhse AG employee [38] is pursuing a libel claim against Jacqueline Gold [39] . A recent advert was banned from the tube. [40]
References
| Ann Summers |
Haddonfield, Illinois is the setting for which 1978 horror film? | ann summers : definition of ann summers and synonyms of ann summers (English)
4 External links
History
The company was named after Annice Summers, the female secretary of the male founder, Caborn Waterfield. Annice Summers, who was born Annice Goodwin in 1941 but took her stepfather’s surname, left the company soon after it opened following a row with Caborn. She currently resides in Umbria, Italy , two hours from Rome, as a reclusive multi-millionaire. [3]
Retail
The first Ann Summers shop was opened in 1970 in Marble Arch , London, from which it grew to six shops.
Ann Summers was purchased in 1972 by brothers Ralph and David Gold , who turned it from a standard sex shop into an established high street brand and lingerie boutique. In 1981, David Gold installed his daughter Jacqueline Gold (who is the current Chief Executive of Ann Summers) and she introduced the Party Plan concept. The retail operations for all of Ann Summers’ shops are managed from the Head Office in Whyteleafe , Surrey , and as of December 2010 Ann Summers operates 144 retail outlets across the UK, Ireland, the Channel Islands and Spain.
The shops offer lingerie, underwear, cosmetics , swimwear and sex toys. The stores sell 2 million Rampant Rabbits , a kind of vibrator exclusive to Ann Summers, per year. [4]
International
In order to cater to Muslim women Ann Summers was granted permission to open 22 shops in the Middle East including Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. Its flagship store is in Dubai. [5] [6]
Party Plan
Jacqueline Gold initiated the Party Plan concept in 1981. [4] Initially, the Ann Summers parties were as much a way of circumventing regulations restricting the display of sex toys as they were a marketing tactic, but their popularity quickly grew and Ann Summers now employs over 7,500 Party Organisers, coordinated from the Head Office in Surrey. There are around 4,000 Ann Summers Parties every week in the UK. [7]
The Ann Summers parties are exclusively women-only, [7] and include the presentation of sex toys and lingerie in the informal setting of someone’s home; usually the home of one of the attendees. It can also involve the perusal of a catalogue, and often there are party games. [8]
Controversy
Due to the adult nature of the business, Ann Summers has frequently faced opposition, both legal and social. For example, in 2003, they won a legal battle to advertise for employees in job centres [9] and an ASA complaint was rejected. [10]
They have also encountered opposition to their advertising. The company received a letter of complaint from Buckingham Palace , due to a non-endorsed advert featuring the Queen. [11]
In 2010, Ann Summers’ Halloween advert was banned by the Radio Advertising Clearance Centre, which decided the advert used "fairly overt sexual references in terms of sound effects." [12]
Additionally, Ann Summers in Perth was forced to close after the local people complained about the store (mostly from parents embarrassed by questions raised by their children), which also led to other problems with the store. [13] [ dead link ] Perth was originally the only UK town where an Ann Summers store failed to take off. [14] [ dead link ] However, in May 2007 the Middleton Grange, Hartlepool store which opened in November 2005 was closed after less than two years of trading due to poor sales. [15]
In 2003, the company's payments to party organisers were discussed by a number of media sources. [16]
In 2004, two complaints were upheld by the ASA. [17] The ASA decided that the first ad was degrading to women, offensive and unsuitable for use as a poster. In the second case the ASA ruled that the use of a nursery rhyme was likely to attract the attention of children and that the advertisement was unsuitable for the medium in which it appeared.
In 2006, Muslim groups complained about the release of a blow up doll named Mustafa Shag, claiming that the doll was offensive to Muslims as Mustafa was one of the names given to the Prophet Mohamed. [18]
In 2007, the company faced legal issues with Apple Inc due to its release of an electronic add-on to music players called the iGasm . The company has not backed down despite cease and desist orders by Apple. [19] Also, a former director, who is now a Beate Uhse AG employee [20] is pursuing a libel claim against Jacqueline Gold. [21] A recent advert was banned from the tube. [22]
The company's head office was raided as part of an immigration check in 2004, and 15 staff were arrested and 10 were subsequently deported.[ citation needed ]
Ann Summers lingerie factory in Portsmouth closed in 2005, with over 50 redundancies. [23]
References
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The Mackinac Bridge connects the Upper and Lower peninsulas of which US state? | MDOT - Mackinac Bridge
Mackinac Bridge
Mackinac Bridge
Mackinac Bridge
The Mackinac Bridge is located on Interstate 75 in northern Michigan at the Straits of Mackinac.The iconic bridge connects Michigan's upper and lower peninsulas. Mackinaw City is located at the south end of the bridge, while St. Ignace is located at the north end.
Area attractions include the fort grounds at Fort Michilimackinac in Mackinaw City, designated a National Historic landmark in 1960, and camping and recreational opportunities on both sides of the bridge.
The Mackinac Bridge Authority opened an eight-acre Bridge View Park on June 12, 2002. The park, on the north side of the bridge, is a spectacular place to view and photograph the "Mighty Mac."
| Michigan |
What was the title of the 1967 black comedy war film starring Michael Crawford and John Lennon? | MDOT - MiDrive Links
Main Menu > Toll Bridges/Tunnels
Mackinac Bridge
The Mackinac Bridge spans the Straits of Mackinac and connects the upper and lower peninsulas of Michigan. Opened to traffic on November 1, 1957, it is publicly owned and operated by the Mackinac Bridge Authority.
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The Seychelle Islands lie in which body of water? | Seychelles travel guide - Wikitravel
Time Zone
UTC+4
The Seychelles [1] are a group of 115 islands, only a few inhabited, in the Indian Ocean that lie off the coast of East Africa , northeast of Madagascar .
Understand[ edit ]
The Seychelles were disputed between France and Great Britain during the age of colonialism, with Britain ending up in control in 1814 after the Napoleonic Wars. The islands achieved independence in 1976; however, free elections did not occur until 1993. The politics of this island group remain in something of a state of flux, although this should not bother the tourist seeking a relaxing beach vacation.
Get in[ edit ]
No visa is required, but Seychellois (pronounced se-sel-wa) authorities make sure you are not entering to stay for good. Therefore, the following items MUST be presented to the immigration officer:
A passport valid on the date of entry to and exit from Seychelles.
Your return ticket.
Your hotel voucher.
At least 150 USD per day. They will ask for cash, show them. If you have credit cards, show them - you may be asked for the credit balance you have.
A statement of good health and a statement that you are not importing plants or infected animals (The flight attendants in your flight will provide you these papers).
Visitors without pre-booked accommodation are likely to be compelled to book one at the airport for the length of their stay before being allowed to leave the airport. An initial entry permit is granted for 1 month but can be extended for a maximum of 3 months at a time up to a maximum of 1 year in total. See the official travel web-site [2] .
By plane[ edit ]
The only international gateway to the Seychelles is Seychelles International Airport (SEZ) near Victoria . Air Seychelles [3] . International service is also available from Addis Ababa (Ethiopian Airlines [4] ), Nairobi (Kenya Airways [5] ), Dubai (Emirates [6] ), Abu Dhabi (Etihad [7] ) and Doha (Qatar Airways [8] ), and regular charter services from Frankfurt (Condor [9] ).
Centre of Victoria
By boat[ edit ]
The strict controls imposed on cruising yachts in the early 1990s have been gradually lifted and rules and regulations are no longer so complicated. However, some restrictions remain in force, mostly for the sake of environmental protection as most of the islands are surrounded by coral reefs near the surface.
By plane[ edit ]
Air Seychelles [10] operates multiple daily flights between Mahe and Praslin. Over two dozen flights vary in frequency from 15 minute to 2 hour intervals, depending on time of day.
On Mahe the flights depart from the modest domestic terminal, located just next to the international terminal. The tiny airport on Praslin is modern and comfortable.
Air Seychelles also operates once daily or several times per week between Mahe and the islands of Bird, Denis, Fregate, Desroches and Alphonse. Assumption Island and Coetivy can be reached by air charter.
By helicopter[ edit ]
Zil Air provides charter helicopter flights to/from most of the inner and outer Seychelles islands. It is the only scenic flight operator in the Seychelles. Scenic flights can be booked to cover the main islands of Mahé, Praslin, La Digue and the surrounding smaller islands of (among others) Cousine, Félicité, Grande Seour, Curieuse and Bird Island.
By boat[ edit ]
As of June 2013, online bookings and e-ticketing has been made possible for trusted ferry operators in the Seychelles by Seychellesbookings. Cat Cocos and Inter Island ferry offer their routes between Praslin, Mahe and La Digue through this site, making live seat availability and reservation accessible online for the first time. They also offer a range of discounts on Island accommodation, restaurants and activities to complement ferry bookings.
Cat Cocos operates 2 catamaran ferries (With a 3rd ferry coming into service in 2013) serving multiple daily crossings between Mahe and Praslin and a daily crossing extension to La Digue. The sailing normally takes one hour. Non residents should budget roughly between €90 and €100 per person (price at July 2013) for a same day return ticket from Mahe to Praslin. Tickets can be purchased from the Cat Cocos office, opposite the pier, on the same day before travel subject to availability. Alternatively, e-tickets can be purchased online at Seychellesbookings.
Similarly, Inter Island Ferry operate a route betwen Praslin and La Digue with 8 daily departures taking only 15mins in crossing time. Tickets cost around €15 for an adult single, and can be purchased at the office or online with Seychellesbookings. Most arrivals at Praslin are timed to coincide with Cat Cocos departures to Mahe.
Belle Serafina, a small schooner ferry makes the passage between Mahe and Praslin or La Digue in 3-4 hours, usually departing weekdays shortly around 12 from Mahe and heading back at 5AM from La Digue to Mahe. In November 2013 the price for the passage was 20 euros. Schedules and routing need to be confirmed by phone.
It is also possible to take small boats from Mahe direct to La Digue, although departures can be unreliable, there is limited wet weather cover and the journey takes about 3 hours (but that's cheaper than an Indian Ocean Island cruise!)
By car[ edit ]
Driving in Seychelles is on the left side of the road. The roads on Mahe are low-traffic, mountainous, narrow roads, so caution is generally advised. The roads usually have steep drops or low walls on the side instead of curbs, which can make driving on the narrow roads stressful, especially if driving a large vehicle. If you are used to driving on the right and you arrive on Mahe seriously jet lagged, a taxi to the hotel may be a good idea, even if you eventually plan to rent a car.
There are also few places where one could pull over to admire the view, study the map or such. Whenever you see a combination of wide curb and an interesting stop, you should take advantage of the situation.
The traffic situations on the roads can change rapidly. There are no sidewalks, so keep your eyes open for pedestrians. Also you should know that even on narrow winding mountain roads a buss or a truck might be coming at you just behind the next tight turn. Keep to the left and slow down whenever a hairy situation develops. Around Victoria you should also be prepared for sudden traffic jams.
Having a car is really a good idea and makes life much more simple. For as little as 100 rupees worth of gas you can see the entire island of Mahe in a couple of days, including stops at beaches and whatever else catches your eye. There is free parking in 'downtown' Victoria on Mahe, and if you go with a B&B or self-catering option for accommodations its by far the easiest way to pick up groceries. A car will also allow you access to the stores where locals do their regular shopping, and the prices are more reasonable as compared to the small convenience stores along the beaches.
You can only rent on Mahé and Praslin. You can find a small car (eg: Hyundai Atos) for around €35-€45 per day, but keep in mind that renters must be at least 21 years old, have a valid driver's license, and have at least three years of driving experience. There are several car hire counters outside the arrivals hall at Mahe international airport, which provides a convenient way to compare prices. Prices can be negotiated, with the better rate available for rental periods of 3 consecutive days or more. The 'excess' payable by the customer in the event of a claim, ranges from €300 to €1000 depending on the company, so choose carefully and ask the right questions.
Taxis are a popular means of transportation for both short trips and day rental and can be obtained almost anywhere. Taxi prices for non-residents (approx. 20 rupees/1.3Euros per km as of Sept 2010) on a relatively long trip, can easily exceed the cost of hiring a small car for a day.
By bus[ edit ]
Seychelles Public Transport Corporation (SPTC) runs daily bus services on the islands of Praslin and Mahe from morning to evening on nearly every available road on the island. The bus usually passes by every 15 minutes.
Although the bus will get you there, the schedules aren't tight and the drivers are a bit bold on the very narrow roads if you're a nervous passenger.
Climate[ edit ]
Seychelles is hot and humid, with an average yearly temperature of 84°F (29°C), and average sea temperature rarely dropping below 81°F (27°C). However, the heat is usually mitigated by refreshing sea breezes, especially by the beaches. The cooler season in Seychelles is during the southeast monsoon season (May to September) and the warmer season is during the northwest monsoon (November to March). April and October are "changeover months" between the two monsoons, when the wind is variable. The northwest monsoon season tends to be warmer with more rain, while the southeast monsoon season is usually drier and cooler.
Talk[ edit ]
Languages spoken in the Seychelles are Seychellois Creole , English and French . With the smallest ability in French or English you'll be able to get around just fine, and a little effort, even a few basic phrases, will assist.
Culture[ edit ]
Seychelles is not well-known as culture destination, but those who spend their entire vacation on the beach do miss out on several interesting sights.
The Arulmigu Navasakti Vinayagar Temple in Victoria is the centre of Hinduism on the islands. The temple is beautifully decorated and the ceremonies of the temple are interesting to see. Visitors are welcome, and discreet photography is allowed. Footwear should be removed and left in the vestibule. Please turn off your phone and avoid loud talking.
Seychelles Natural History Museum in Victoria is small, inexpensive and interesting. Visitors will learn about the unique nature and geology of the islands.
The ruined youth village of Cap Ternay is located at the end of a narrow one lane road on Mahe. This quiet and eerily beautiful place is best enjoyed by those who spend a bit of time beforehand reading about the site's history.
Nature[ edit ]
Vallee de Mai on Praslin is a national park and world heritage site, home to amazing flora and fauna, including the world's largest seed: the coco de mer. The remote paths far from the entrance are less crowded and offer the best views, but can be rough and steep. Wear sturdy shoes and bring a water bottle. It is also a good idea to start the visit with a guided tour so that you can fully appreciate the unique features of the park. Entrance fee: Free for residents, 315 rupees (~20Euros) for foreigners (Sept 2010).
Beaches on the Seychelles also good for activities other than swimming and tanning. Especially during low tide one can spot interesting wildlife there. Find a deserted beach and move quietly, and you may be rewarded by sightings of ghost crabs, leaping blennys, flying fish and many other species.
Do[ edit ][ add listing ]
Visit the beaches. Many of the beaches are untouched by man's influence and are refreshingly uncrowded. They offer clear blue skies and a tranquility you will rarely find. A hike along the coastline from Beau Vallon to Anse Major will take about 1.5-2 hours and your reward will be a small deserted beach that's fit for a king. The scenery along the hike is breathtaking. Not all beaches are suitable for swimming depending on the time of year, due to the seasonal winds. Do not ignore warning signs indicating that a beach is hazardous for swimming, no matter how it seems to you.
The conditions on the beaches depend on the strength and direction of wind, absence or presence of a protective reef and the tide. One should not worry, however, because Seychelles has beaches in abundance, and if the conditions on one beach are not good, a perfect beach may be only 5 minutes drive away.
Aldabra Atoll: The world's largest coral atoll that stretches about 22 miles east to west and encloses a huge tidal lagoon. Aldabra is the original home of the giant land tortoise and tiger sharks and manta rays can also often be seen here.
Watersports: The warm Indian Ocean waters make Seychelles the perfect place for the water enthusiasts. Explore on board a yacht, power boat, catamaran or sailboat. Windsurfing is also popular and the best time for this activity is usually around May then in October, at the start and end of the trade winds.
Scuba diving, snorkeling, and fishing are also extremely popular and can be done almost anywhere in Seychelles. Baie Ternay is superb and easily acccessible by glass bottom boat tour from Beau Vallon beach - leave yourself an empty day and walk the beach for a 'last minute' booking - great deals can be bartered. Snorkeling (provided you have your own gear - some hotels lend masks, snorkels and fins to guests) is FREE and there are many great spots: off some of the small beaches at Glacis, past Mouse Island at Anse Royale, along the reef at Port Launay (near Ephelia Resort). Often spotted are a wide array of tropical fish, sea turtles, eagle rays and more!
Land Sports: Golf, tennis, squash, badminton, horseback riding, biking and hiking are some of the recreational activities available on the Seychelles Islands. Bike rentals and walking tours are great ways to sightsee and since distances are relatively short and the scenery is beautiful, walking is probably the best way to see the smaller islands (La Digue, Praslin), while walking along the main road can be quite intimidating as the roads are narrow and local cars/busses drive quite quickly. On Mahe it is not advised to ride bicycles, and there are no rental shops within sight. Bird watching is also popular and the islands are home to many of the worlds most treasured and rare species of animals. The best place to do so is Cousin Island which although only 1 km (0.6 miles) in diameter, is home to more than 300,000 birds, but many unique species can be found at ease on Mahe.
Nightlife: Do not miss most popular Nightclub "Lovenut" in the centre of Victoria, 100 metres walk from central Taxi station. Also entertaining are "Tequila Boom" at (Bel Ombre) and "Katiolio" (near Anse Royale) night clubs. "Katiolio" was one of the first nightclubs to open on Mahe and boats an open-air that is directly beside the ocean.
International Charter Group: [11] . Yacht charter and sailing, one of the worlds largest yacht charter companies, can take care of all charter requirements, from bareboat to crewed in the Seychelles. Operating from nine offices worldwide (USA, Spain, UK, Germany, Italy, France, Spain, Switzerland, Caribbean, Honk Kong and Dubai).
Hiking There are several maintained hiking routes on the main island of Mahe and a few on Praslin. The Seychelles tourism office has a few descriptions of the hiking routes with maps available to be purchased. Check out openstreetmap [12] for some hiking tracks around the islands.
Seychelles also has numerous markets, art galleries and shops, colonial Creole-style plantation houses, and the main island of Mahé has six museums, a botanical garden, and several national monuments. The market downtown Victoria has a good selection of local produce, and spices for sale that are all grown locally and 100% authentic.
Learn[ edit ]
The University of the Seychelles [13] has a medical degree for Americans.
Public education has been free and mandatory for a ten years period of primary schooling, for children ages six to 16 since 1980. Primary education is followed by five years of secondary education. Seychelles does not provide education at university level, but there is a teacher training college and a polytechnic institute, and as mentioned above, the University of Seychelles - American Institute of Medicine does exist. Because of the absence of higher education facilities, many students study abroad, mostly in the United Kingdom.
Work[ edit ]
Working and doing business in the Seychelles can be difficult due to the the humidity and heat. Forget about wearing a suit or anything resembling one; rather, opt for a light cotton shirt and pants. The atmosphere in the Seychelles is relaxed and it can take a lot of effort to achieve very little.
Tourism is one of the most important sectors of the economy. In fact, about 15 percent of the work force is directly employed in tourism, and employment in banking, transportation, construction, and other activities is closely tied to the tourist industry.
Buy[ edit ][ add listing ]
The islands' currency is the Seychelles rupee (SCR). To get the best rates, use credit cards as much as possible, and get your cash from ATMs. However, it is also possible to buy rupees from the airport and from several banks. Credit cards and European debit cards are widely accepted, with the notable exception of gas stations. Petrol must be paid with cash.
Trading in foreign currency, long illegal, was legalized in November 2008, and the currency freely floated. This has also wiped out the previously wide-spread black market, which offered up to twice the official rate. The £ buys around 21-22 Rupees on Jan 2012.
Shopping[ edit ]
The best place for shopping is Victoria, the capital, and more specifically the market at the city centre. There are also a few outlets on the island, Praslin, but few shopping areas on the other islands. Larger hotels have boutiques but shopping in Seychelles is not one of the major attractions.
Small grocery stores, usually run by the Indian community, are found all over the islands. These are, however, not particularly cheap, and have little or no local flavor. If doing self catering, the large hypermarket at the outskirts of Victoria is an option. The supermarket is boring, but also efficient and inexpensive.
While visiting, be sure to buy the classic and traditional Seychelles souvenir, the coco-de-mer, or the 'nut of the sea,' a nut from trees native to the islands in the Seychelles - but this requires an export licence. Other locally made souvenirs, although not as unique, can be purchased like sea shell and pearl jewellery, textiles and straw hats, in addition to needlework & crochet, paintings by local artists and woodwork.
Tipping[ edit ]
Most service providers already include a service charge of 5% - 10%. Tipping is not obligatory in the Seychelles, however, any extra change is greatly appreciated.
Eat[ edit ][ add listing ]
Seychellois cuisine has been greatly influenced by the islands' rich cultures. Creole cooking, varied seafood dishes, coconuts and curries are the most popular. The main product of the country, fish, is cooked in a variety of ways. Especially the red snapper is very tasty and well known to visitors.
Cheapest food: Collect coconuts on the beach and learn how to open their terrible cover (not the shell, that's easy; they have a thick cover of natural fibres; to open it: hit the coconut very strongly many times on the edges, sooner or later the fibres break up).
Drink[ edit ][ add listing ]
Seychelles offers a fantastic nightlife scene that caters to tourists. The active nightlife is mostly located around the larger hotels and in addition to theatres, cinemas and discos, there are numerous fun and trendy restaurants.
If you enjoy a good beer you must try the local Seybrew beer, it tastes similar to a light Bavarian style beer and is a must to get you through those balmy days. You can save yourself a packet buying the beer from stores on the side of the road like the locals do rather than from hotels. A dark Takamaka Rum on the beach under the stars is the best way to end a day on the Seychelles.
Sleep[ edit ][ add listing ]
The Seychelles are not tolerant of backpackers turning up at the airport without accommodation booked. In such a situation, you will likely be taken to a counter where you will have to book & pay for accommodation for the duration of your trip before being allowed through immigration. Visitors need to provide details of their accommodation on their landing card (Hotel Name, address, phone number), and additionally, being questioned by the immigration officer about their accommodation details ("Is your booking at hotel <x> confirmed?" etc..)
Most accommodations are relatively expensive and some islands have only one hotel. In fact, some of the islands aren't even permanently inhabited and accommodation can be found on fewer than 10. Your best bet for a budget bed is renting an apartment or bungalow, which are available at better rates. Also keep in mind that hotel prices greatly increase and accommodation can be hard to find during the peak seasons from December to January and July to August. Holidays such as Easter can also get very busy.
Most resorts can be found on the main islands of Mahe and Praslin . A few (very) high end ones, like the North Island , have their own private islands. Additionally, you will find an array of 'small hotels' which can be ideal as a get-together venue with that special feeling of exclusiveness.
AVANI Seychelles, PO Box 626, Victoria, Mahe, Seychelles, ☎ +24 8 4 673 000, [14] . checkin: at 12.00 pm; checkout: at 10.00 am. The Avani Seychelles Barbarons Resort and Spa is located in Mahe, Seychelles with an magnificent sea view. Ideal for couples, the resort offers beautifully designed rooms and suits for your preference. Main resort activities include water sports, gym, horse riding and traditional cooking classes for tourists. USD 270. ((-4.683192),55.454335) edit
Stay safe[ edit ]
Try to avoid any dark lanes, and always be careful not to leave your bag unattended. Swimming alone on isolated beaches is not advisable. If you sail, avoid bringing valuables; if you have no choice, become adept at finding great hiding places.
There is some social activity along a secondary road behind Beau Vallon beach (left from the Boathouse restaurant), but locals mostly seem content to admire their flashy cars and mostly ignore passers-by.
There are newly instituted tourist police stationed at every beach on Mahe and are easily recognizable by their blue or white golf shirts, with a tourist police badge sewn on.
They are very friendly and more than willing to help keep a good eye, even though you may not see them. They are honest and freely offer advice. Potential thieves are obvious (mostly due to lurking and just stand out from the locals) and tend to hide just off the beach or across the narrow streets near more out of the way beaches. Jail terms are stiff and are strictly enforced since the island makes lots of money from tourism.
Actual tourist scams are very rare, but it is advisable to check all bills at the restaurants and other establishments before paying.
Stay healthy[ edit ]
Chikungunya virus is a disease spread by mosquitoes, and causes flu-like symptoms. It is increasing in concern and although it is rare to die from it, the joint pain it causes can last for months. Insect repellent can help deter mosquitoes but not much else can be done as a precaution. The disease is native to East Africa and occasionally is introduced and quickly eradicated.
Tap water is safe to drink on Mahe and Praslin, but water quality is variable in undeveloped areas. It is recommended to drink bottled water only and to avoid bodies of fresh water like lakes, rivers, ponds, etc.
Respect[ edit ]
The attitude towards manners and dressing are generally relaxed, and common sense and common courtesy are usually enough to keep one out of trouble. Shorts and T-shirts can be worn almost everywhere, although very revealing clothing, such as bikini tops, should only be worn on the beaches, especially if one is planning to visit a place of worship. Dress shirt and long trousers are appropriate for a night out in Victoria or for a dinner in an upscale establishment.
Nature is a treasured aspects of the islands. Do not litter or disturb wildlife or plants.
Contact[ edit ]
The Seychelles Tourism board is a great point of reference and they will be able to answer any and all questions you might have. Their website is www.seychelles.travel
Embassies/consulates[ edit ]
There are only six embassies/High Commisions and another dozen or so consulates. The Chinese embassy is an attraction itself while the multilevel, colonial-era Victoria House on the corner of Francis Rachel & State House Streets is home to several of these consulates.
Belgium, Victoria House, Victoria, ☎ 224434. edit
France, Victoria House, Victoria, ☎ 382500. edit
Greece, Victori, ☎ +248 373050 (fax: +248 373456). edit
India, Le Chantier, ☎ 4610301. edit
Mauritius, Anse aux Pins, ☎ 376441. edit
Netherlands, Glacis, ☎ 261200. edit
Try Comoros , Mauritius , and Madagascar
Many tourists travel to these alternative destinations because of their similarity and the fact that they do not have as high of prices for accommodation, travel and other daily expenses, which incur in Seychelles due to the island's high exclusivity. Or viewed in another perspective: The Seychelles are small disperse mountainous islands with poor transport infrastructure, prices in the tourism related industry will always remain high as the infrastructure will never be able to cope with mass tourism numbers.
The common perception of Seychelles only offering an expensive accommodation, however, is an unfortunate one as you truly are likely to find accommodation to fit into almost everyone’s budget. Some establishments will offer you a double room for two persons starting at €65. At this cost you will not have many luxuries, but you will have the Creole hospitality that has made these islands so famous.
| Indian Ocean |
Which jazz pianist, bandleader and composer was backed by the Red Hot Peppers? | Seychelles - Climate Lies
With a GDP per capita ranking the country 62 of 229 countries in the world, Seychelles is ahead of Hungary, Poland, Russia, Argentina and many others. Seychelles� main industries are tuna fishing, followed by tourism. While Seychelles officials view global warming as an opportunity to obtain money from western countries, their biggest problem is piracy: �Piracy is a serious threat to tuna fisheries management � The country�s revenues have dropped by 30% over the past year due to attacks from pirates based in Somalia � The press quotes the pirates as saying that international fishing vessels, including some belonging to Seychelles, illegally fish in Somali waters� [ http://www.voanews.com/english/news/africa/east/Seychelles-Official-Warns-of-Threats-to-Countrys-Tuna-Industry-84478922.html ]
While they are trying to scam money from �rich� countries (several countries in the EU have lower GDP per capita than Seychelles) for the phony issue of climate change, their real problem is pirates.
Seychelles Drought
With a population of 88,000, Seychelles is composed of several small tropical islands north of Madagascar off the coast of Africa. �The climate of Seychelles is tropical, having little seasonal variation. Temperatures on Mah� rarely rise above 29 C. or drop below 24 C. The southeast monsoon from late May to September brings cooler weather, and the northwest monsoon from March to May, warmer weather. High winds are rare inasmuch as most islands lie outside the Indian Ocean cyclone belt; Mah� suffered the only such storm in its recorded history in 1862. Mean annual rainfall in Mah� averages 2,880 millimeters at sea level and as high as 3,550 millimeters on the mountain slopes. Precipitation is somewhat less on the other islands, averaging as low as 500 millimeters per year on the southernmost coral islands. Because catchment provides most sources of water in Seychelles, yearly variations in rainfall or even brief periods of drought can produce water shortages.� [ http://countrystudies.us/seychelles/5.htm ]
The following figure shows annual precipitation for Seychelles from the NOAA Global Historical Climate Network (GHCN) database (plotted at http://www.appinsys.com/GlobalWarming/climate.aspx ). The recent �drought� (many countries would love to receive > 1600 mm) is not as bad as in the 1930s.
Seychelles is part of the Southern African Development Community. The following figures are from a SADC report [ http://www.wamis.org/agm/meetings/wocald06/S4-Garanganga.pdf ]. Seychelles is one of the rainiest parts of the area (it is shown below expanded in the box). Note that the high end of the rainfall scale is anything over 500 mm.
The following figures show Seychelles rainfall for Oct-Dec (right) and Jan-Mar (right). Most of Africa would be happy to get so much rain.
Seychelles� drought problem � a lack of groundwater and a lack of reservoirs to store rainwater. A 2010 article in the Seychelles Nation Online: �The funny thing is that we get so much rain in Seychelles � a little over two metres of rain falls every year over the main granitic islands. Technically, this should be more than enough to supply us with all the water we need for our homes, and even hotels and other industries. The trouble is, how do we store all this rainwater to use in times of drought? The PUC has a very, very limited reservoir capacity, as we all experience daily. In recent years, our solution has been desalination, but the desalination process uses a lot of energy � we could, at fairly low cost and minimal impact to the environment, build a medium-sized reservoir at Mare Aux Cochons that would alleviate a lot of our problems. Other small reservoirs could be built on some of the larger rivers that don�t dry up during times of drought.� [ http://www.nation.sc/index.php?art=21098 ]
Antarctica / Greenland Ice Melt
The main potential for sea level rise due to global warming comes from melting ice in Antarctica and Greenland. Alarmists say this will inundate tropical islands, but the evidence is lacking.
Antarctica
The following figure shows the approximate boundaries of areas that have warmed or cooled over the past 35 years. [ http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/05/080507132855.htm ] The mass balance has been increasing. A 2006 paper (Wingham et al, �Mass Balance of the Antarctic Ice Sheet� Royal Society 2006) states: �Mass
gains from accumulating snow, particularly on the Antarctic Peninsula and within East Antarctica, exceed the ice dynamic mass loss from West Antarctica. � 72% of the Antarctic ice sheet is gaining 27G29 Gt yrK1, a sink of
ocean mass sufficient to lower global sea levels by 0.08 mm / yr� [ http://www.cpom.org/research/djw-ptrsa364.pdf ]
(See: http://www.appinsys.com/GlobalWarming/RS_Antarctica.htm for more info on Antarctica)
Greenland
There are only two stations in Greenland with long-term data in the NOAA GHCN database � Godthab Nuuk and Angmagssalik. The following figure shows the annual average temperature for the last 100 years (plotted at http://www.appinsys.com/GlobalWarming/climate.aspx ). Although there were some �warm� years in the 2000s, there is no warming trend in 100 years of data.
The following figure (left) shows �ice sheet elevation change rate (dH/dt) in cm/year, derived from 11 years of ERS-1/ERS-2 satellite altimeter data, 1992 to 2003. The spatially averaged rate is 5.4 +/- 0.2 cm/year, or 5 cm/year when corrected for isostatic uplift.� [ http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/~wsoon/MattCronin-Mar21-07-d/Johannessenetal05-GreenlandIceFinal.pdf ] The report also states: �An increase of 6.4 T 0.2 centimeters per year (cm/year) is found in the vast interior areas above 1500 meters�. The decrease at low elevation after 2000 is due to increased adjacent sea surface temperatures.
�
The above figure (right) shows Greenland melt runoff from a 2006 paper (Box et al: �Greenland Ice Sheet Surface Mass Balance Variability (1988-2004) From Calibrated Polar MM5 Output�, Journal of Climate, Vol. 19, No. 12) [ http://polarmet.mps.ohio-state.edu/jbox/pubs/Box_et_al_J_Climate_2006.pdf ] The Greenland melting was at least as large in the 1930s-1940s.
(See: http://www.appinsys.com/GlobalWarming/RS_Greenland.htm for more info on Greenland)
With Antarctica having a slight net uptake of water, and Greenland having a only slight contribution to sea level that is no greater than during the 1930s/40s, Jumeau�s claim that sea level will be drowning people in Seychelles is a lie.
| i don't know |
Which British luxury liner made her maiden voyage from Southampton in May 1936? | Welcome to Adobe GoLive 5
May 27
Queen Mary's Maiden Voyage
On this day in 1936, the British luxury liner RMS Queen Mary made her maiden voyage. She traveled from Southampton, England to New York.
Back and Forth. For more than 30 years, the Queen Mary made 1001 ocean crossings, transporting hundreds of thousands of passengers across the Atlantic. In 1967, the ship known as "The Inevitable Ship" was sold to the city of Long Beach, California.
History Moments. The Cunard Line began plans for a pair of new super liners to replace the Mauretania, Aquitania and Berengaria on their North Atlantic route back in 1926. The first keel plate was not laid until 1930. Work began on the new Southampton dry dock in June of 1931, only to be halted that December because of the Depression and an inability to secure further bank loans. By then the hull plating was 80% complete; the ship stood nine stories tall. In April of 1934, 28 months later, construction resumed and continued through 1936, when King Edward VIII made an inspection tour of the ship.
On This Day in 1936, the Queen Mary departed Southampton at 4:33 PM, arriving in at Cherbourg, France at 8:47 p.m. and departing at 12:39 a.m. the following morning. She arrived in New York, at Pier 90, 5 days, 5 hours, and 13 minutes later.
Queen Mary Fights in the War. The Queen Mary did its part for the war effort. From 1940 to 1946, she carried a total of 765,429 military personnel, sailing a total of 569,429 miles. The luxury liner carried up to 15,000 troops at a time. The ship not only carried wounded returning to the United States; she transported Winston Churchill three times to conferences, and carried 12,886 G.I. brides and children.
| RMS Queen Mary |
In Greek mythology, who tore his eyes out when he discovered that he had married his mother? | English Estates Dunhill Root Briar Patent (126) (R) (1936) | Buy English Estates Tobacco Pipes at Smokingpipes
English Estates: Dunhill Root Briar Patent (126) (R) (1936)
Product Number: 004-002-5874
The year is 1936: King George V of the United Kingdom dies. His eldest son succeeds to the throne, becoming Edward VIII; Construction of Hoover Dam is completed; British luxury liner RMS Queen Mary leaves Southampton on her maiden voyage across the Atlantic; The 1936 Summer Olympics open in Berlin, Germany, and mark the first live television coverage of a sports event in world history; and this pipe was made. Oh how I love the look of old Dunhill "bowling ball" cumberland bits! They look fantastic on these old patent pieces, which have a deep and rich coloring and finish which the company did not do as much in later years. For its age; this is fantastic. If only made a decade ago, it would still be fantastic. Beautiful pipe!
-Adam Davidson
The pipe you see is the pipe you receive. Click here to see our photography process.
Measurements & Other Details
PAT.No 417574 16
59
Condition: 4.5/5 The innertube was cut off and glued inside the stem, and the tenon was funneled into the airway (like most tenons are). Some rim darkening and minor dings as well on the bowl.
Length: 5.55 in./140.97 mm.
Bowl Height: 1.88 in./47.75 mm.
Chamber Depth: 1.60 in./40.64 mm.
Chamber Diameter: 0.77 in./19.56 mm.
Outside Diameter: 1.42 in./36.07 mm.
Stem Material: Vulcanite
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In which part of the human body is the metacarpus? | II. Osteology. 6b. 2. The Metacarpus. Gray, Henry. 1918. Anatomy of the Human Body.
Henry Gray (18211865). Anatomy of the Human Body. 1918.
6b. 2. The Metacarpus
The metacarpus consists of five cylindrical bones which are numbered from the lateral side (ossa metacarpalia I-V); each consists of a body and two extremities.
1
Common Characteristics of the Metacarpal Bones.The Body (corpus; shaft).The body is prismoid in form, and curved, so as to be convex in the longitudinal direction behind, concave in front. It presents three surfaces: medial, lateral, and dorsal. The medial and lateral surfaces are concave, for the attachment of the Interossei, and separated from one another by a prominent anterior ridge. The dorsal surface presents in its distal two-thirds a smooth, triangular, flattened area which is covered in the fresh state, by the tendons of the Extensor muscles. This surface is bounded by two lines, which commence in small tubercles situated on either side of the digital extremity, and, passing upward, converge and meet some distance above the center of the bone and form a ridge which runs along the rest of the dorsal surface to the carpal extremity. This ridge separates two sloping surfaces for the attachment of the Interossei dorsales. To the tubercles on the digital extremities are attached the collateral ligaments of the metacarpophalangeal joints.
3
The Head or Digital Extremity (capitulum) presents an oblong surface markedly convex from before backward, less so transversely, and flattened from side to side; it articulates with the proximal phalanx. It is broader, and extends farther upward, on the volar than on the dorsal aspect, and is longer in the antero-posterior than in the transverse diameter. On either side of the head is a tubercle for the attachment of the collateral ligament of the metacarpophalangeal joint. The dorsal surface, broad and flat, supports the Extensor tendons; the volar surface is grooved in the middle line for the passage of the Flexor tendons, and marked on either side by an articular eminence continuous with the terminal articular surface.
4
Characteristics of the Individual Metacarpal Bones.The First Metacarpal Bone (os metacarpale I; metacarpal bone of the thumb) (Fig. 229) is shorter and stouter than the others, diverges to a greater degree from the carpus, and its volar surface is directed toward the palm. The body is flattened and broad on its dorsal surface, and does not present the ridge which is found on the other metacarpal bones; its volar surface is concave from above downward. On its radial border is inserted the Opponens pollicis; its ulnar border gives origin to the lateral head of the first Interosseus dorsalis. The base presents a concavo-convex surface, for articulation with the greater multangular; it has no facets on its sides, but on its radial side is a tubercle for the insertion of the Abductor pollicis longus. The head is less convex than those of the other metacarpal bones, and is broader from side to side than from before backward. On its volar surface are two articular eminences, of which the lateral is the larger, for the two sesamoid bones in the tendons of the Flexor pollicis brevis.
FIG. 229 The first metacarpal. (Left.) ( See enlarged image )
The Second Metacarpal Bone (os metacarpale II; metacarpal bone of the index finger) (Fig. 230) is the longest, and its base the largest, of the four remaining bones. Its base is prolonged upward and medialward, forming a prominent ridge. It presents four articular facets: three on the upper surface and one on the ulnar side. Of the facets on the upper surface the intermediate is the largest and is concave from side to side, convex from before backward for articulation with the lesser multangular; the lateral is small, flat and oval for articulation with the greater multangular; the medial, on the summit of the ridge, is long and narrow for articulation with the capitate. The facet on the ulnar side articulates with the third metacarpal. The Extensor carpi radialis longus is inserted on the dorsal surface and the Flexor carpi radialis on the volar surface of the base.
6
The Third Metacarpal Bone (os metacarpale III; metacarpal bone of the middle finger) (Fig. 231) is a little smaller than the second. The dorsal aspect of its base presents on its radial side a pyramidal eminence, the styloid process, which extends upward behind the capitate; immediately distal to this is a rough surface for the attachment of the Extensor carpi radialis brevis. The carpal articular facet is concave behind, flat in front, and articulates with the capitate. On the radial side is a smooth, concave facet for articulation with the second metacarpal, and on the ulnar side two small oval facets for the fourth metacarpal.
7
The Fourth Metacarpal Bone (os metacarpale IV; metacarpal bone of the ring finger) (Fig. 232) is shorter and smaller than the third. The base is small and quadrilateral; its superior surface presents two facets, a large one medially for articulation with the hamate, and a small one laterally for the capitate. On the radial side are two oval facets, for articulation with the third metacarpal; and on the ulnar side a single concave facet, for the fifth metacarpal.
8
The Fifth Metacarpal Bone (os metacarpale V; metacarpal bone of the little finger) (Fig. 233) presents on its base one facet on its superior surface, which is concavo-convex and articulates with the hamate, and one on its radial side, which articulates with the fourth metacarpal. On its ulnar side is a prominent tubercle for the insertion of the tendon of the Extensor carpi ulnaris. The dorsal surface of the body is divided by an oblique ridge, which extends from near the ulnar side of the base to the radial side of the head. The lateral part of this surface serves for the attachment of the fourth Interosseus dorsalis; the medial part is smooth, triangular, and covered by the Extensor tendons of the little finger.
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Adele Casagrande founded which Italian fashion house in 1925 in Rome? | Image
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Skeleton (anterior view): set of bones making up the framework of human body.
Maxilla: bony upper part of the jaw.
Mandible: bony lower part of the jaw.
Clavicle: bone of the shoulder girdle, between the sternum and the scapula.
Manubrium: upper part of the sternum.
Sternum: bone connected to the front of the ribs of the thoracic cage.
Ribs (1 to 7): first bones of the thoracic cage.
False ribs (8, 9, 10): the eight, ninth and tenth ribs of the thoracic cage, which protect the lower part of the lungs.
Floating ribs (11, 12): last two ribs of the thoracic cage.
Ilium: bone of the pelvic girdle, comprised of the fusion of the ilium, the ischium and the pubic bone.
Sacrum: bone that is jointed with the hip bone to form the pelvis.
Ischium: one of the bones of the ilium.
Femur: the thigh bone, the longest bone of a human body.
patella: round, flat bone situated over the knee.
Tibia: bone forming the inside of the lower leg.
Fibula: bone forming the outside of the lower leg.
Tarsus: bony area at the back of the foot.
Metatarsus: bones of the foot between the tarsus and the toes.
Distal phalanx: last phalange of a finger.
Middle Phalanx: middle phalange of a finger.
Proximal phalanx: jointed segment of a finger or toe.
Metacarpus: hand bone between the carpus and the phalanges.
Carpus: jointed parts of the hand between the forearm and the metacarpus.
Radius: bone forming the outside of the forearm.
Ulna: bone forming the inside of the forearm.
Humerus: bone of the upper arm.
Scapula: bone of the back of the shoulder.
Malar bone or zygomatic bone: cheek bone.
Nasal bone: bones of the nose.
Temporal: bone of the temple.
Frontal: bone of the forehead.
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Who played Will Scarlet in the 1980’s UK tv series ‘Robin of Sherwood’? | Scarlet Inside - A Tribute to Will Scarlet from Robin of Sherwood
Robin Hood Links - just what it says
About Ray Winstone - biography, career details, interviews (including Starlog interview about the role of Will Scarlet). Constantly updated.
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In the UK, which item of furniture in the House of Commons at Westminster was originally designed by Augustus Welby Pugin in the 19th Century? | Robin of Sherwood
Robin of Sherwood
1 9 8 4 - 1 9 8 6 (UK)
22 x 50 minute episodes
This inspired longbow-and-magic version of the Sherwood legend came from the pen of Richard Carpenter (who had written Catweazle ) and HTV's golden age of adventure television.
Following the massacre of his family and the destruction of his home by Norman soldiers, a vengeful 12th century Robin of Loxley (Michael Praed) is endowed by an incarnation of Herne the Hunter with Albion, one of the seven swords of Wayland.
Thus equipped, Robin dons a disguise to become 'Robin in the hood', and is joined in his heroic Saxon fray against the Norman oppressor by Maid Marion and the usual stalwarts, plus the Carpenter-created deadly Saracen, Nasir.
A far arrow-shot from the usual Merry Men fluffery, this series plunged through two seasons of pagan-drenched atmosphere, intriguing characters (none more so than Ray Winstone's psychopathic Will Scarlet and Nickolas Grace's delightfully politicking Sheriff of Nottingham) and clean-limbed action until Robin met a hero's death on a lone hilltop in 'The Greatest Enemy'.
His rebel spirit, however, was resurrected in the body of Robert of Huntingdon (played by Jason Connery, son of 007 Sean) who led the outlaw band for a series of valedictory romping through the green-leaved beauty of Sherwood Forest.
Clannad supplied the BAFTA-winning soundtrack.
EPISODES
Robin Hood and the Sorcerer | The Witch of Elsdon | Seven Poor Knights from Acre | Alan a Dale | The King's Fool | The Prophecy | The Children of Israel | Lord of the Trees | The Swords of Wayland | The Enchantment | The Greatest Enemy | Herne's Son: Part 1 | Herne's Son: Part 2 | The Power of Albion | The Inheritance | The Sheriff of Nottingham | The Cross of St. Ciricus | Cromm Cruac | The Betrayal | Adam Bell | The Pretender | Rutterkin | The Time of the Wolf: Part 1 | The Time of the Wolf: Part 2
Robin of Loxley
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What is the name of a brooch or ring with a portrait profile carved in relief? | cameo | Definition, meaning & more | Collins Dictionary
Collins English Dictionary. Copyright © HarperCollins Publishers
Word origin of 'cameo'
C15: from Italian cammeo, of uncertain origin
cameo in American English (ˈkæmiˌoʊ ; kamˈēōˌ)
Definitions
nounWord forms: plural ˈcameˌos
1. a carving in relief on certain stratified gems (sardonyx, agate , etc.) or shells so that the raised design, often a head in profile, is usually in a layer of different color from its background. see also intaglio
2. a gem, shell, etc. so carved
3.
a. a minor but well-defined role in a play, film, etc., esp. when performed by a notable actor
Webster’s New World College Dictionary, Fourth Edition, compiled by the editors of Webster’s New World Dictionaries. Copyright © 2010 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. All rights reserved.
Word origin of 'cameo'
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The epitaph of which Hollywood actress is ‘She did it the hard way’? | Antique Cameo Pendant | eBay
Antique Cameo Pendant
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In the game of scrabble, how many points is the ‘F’ tile worth? | Stefan Fatsis is the author of Word Freak and A Few Seconds of Panic and is a panelist on Hang Up and Listen . Follow him on Twitter.
Any Scrabble player can tell you that the X is actually worth eight points. But as Butts was creating the game, in a fifth-floor walkup in Queens, he tinkered—with the layout of the board, with the total number of tiles, with their distribution, and with their respective point values. “It’s not hit or miss,” Butts said long afterward. “It’s carefully worked out.”
Seventy-five years later, Butts’ carefully worked out point values are under attack. Late last month, a University of California–San Diego, cognitive science postdoc and casual player named Joshua Lewis conducted a computer analysis to recalibrate Scrabble’s letter values based on the game’s current lexicon. Lewis reposted his findings to Hacker News, and they were picked up by Digg and went viral. Around the same time, Sam Eifling, writing for Deadspin, asked a programmer friend to do the same . Both were inspired by the fact that while the language had changed dramatically from the time Butts performed his calculations, the game of Scrabble had not.
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It’s a fair observation. Since Scrabble was adopted in chess parlors in New York in the 1950s, competitive players have dissected its strategic quirks. One early realization was that short words have outsized value, so players scoured the preferred source (the now-defunct Funk & Wagnalls Standard College Dictionary) and compiled lists of two- and three-letter words. They also recognized that the most common letters showed up in a lot of words, so they recorded and memorized seven- and eight-letter words—ones that would earn the 50-point bonus for using all seven tiles at once—that contained A, E, I, N, R, S, and T, among other single-point letters. You didn’t need a computer to see that the Q, though worth the most points, was a pain in the rack but the Z not so much.
Since the publication in 1978 of the Official Scrabble Players Dictionary, a compilation of several standard college dictionaries, the game’s word list has grown by tens of thousands of words. From a playing vantage, the addition of QI (a Chinese life force) and ZA (short for pizza) in the last lexicon update, in 2006, were game-changers. Players feared the new words would cheapen Scrabble, boosting scoring and elevating the role of chance. It didn’t happen. The Q became less of a hindrance, a slightly fairer tile than before, and players adjusted strategy to account for the new gimmes.
That need to adjust validates Lewis’ and Eifling’s suspicion that the values assigned to letters aren’t in perfect harmony with the frequency of their use in English or in its narrower subset, the Scrabble word list. The two approached the problem differently. Eifling and software developer Kyle Rimkus totaled the number of letters in Scrabble-eligible words (1.58 million), isolated the frequency of each letter, and then calculated how overvalued or undervalued each letter was compared to its existing point value. Lewis’ approach was more complicated. He weighted letters not only by appearance in the Scrabble lexicon but also by the frequency with which they appear in words of different lengths (with emphasis on two-, three-, seven-, and eight-letter words) and by their ability to “transition” into and out of other letters.
The findings don’t differ much. In both analyses, the values of about half the letters change by one or two points. One or the other found that B, C, F, H, K, M, P, X, Y, and Z are overvalued, which makes some intuitive sense. For instance, the X (eight points) and the Z (10) can be easy money, especially since they occur in a number of short words; bumping them down to six points apiece is a logical move. Similarly, the H was set by Butts at four points, but it now appears in nine two-letter words and combines beautifully with other letters, while the M appears in 12 two-letter words. Living-room players detest the C, but they haven’t studied seven- and eight-letter “bingos,” in which C’s abound. The clunky U and V, by contrast, are undervalued—ratcheting them up to two points and five points respectively seems reasonable.
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While the media pounced on the story (I joined in ), the Scrabble community has been largely unmoved. Why? Several reasons. One, the game’s owners, Hasbro in North America and Mattel overseas, aren’t changing anything. Two, such proposed rejiggerings aren’t new. Three, players understand that variances, in letter values and tile distribution (too many I’s, the Q without a U), are part of the game and strategize accordingly. Four, there are other, arguably more sophisticated ways to assess tiles values. Five, and most important, adjusting any core variables would create a completely different game requiring different strategies. “It's basically saying, Let’s change the game to make a new game,” Jason Katz-Brown, a software engineer who co-wrote Scrabble’s best computer player, Quackle , told me.
Let’s examine the potential effects of the “new” values. In both Lewis’ and Deadspin’s calculations, 10 tiles decrease in value, four increase, and 12 don’t change. More tiles fall in a band of two to five points, bringing the utility of each closer together. The consensus of my math-brained Scrabble colleagues is that this would be like a dose of lithium for the game, flattening scoring and eliminating swings that keep games interesting. Big but still-reasonable values for some tiles, especially the X and Z, are good because they improve the odds of comebacks, make tile positioning a compelling strategic consideration, and give players with lesser word knowledge a slightly better chance against those who are booked up. “Except for the Q, Josh [Lewis] basically squashes the volatility,” said Eric Chaikin, co-director of the Scrabble documentary Word Wars . “His values take the fun out.”
Quackle co-writer John O’Laughlin, a software engineer at Google, said the existing inequities also confer advantages on better players, who understand the “equity value” of each tile—that is, its “worth” in points compared with the average tile. That gives them an edge in balancing scoring versus saving letters for future turns, and in knowing which letters play well with others. “If we tried to equalize the letters, this part of the game wouldn't be eliminated, but it would definitely be muted,” O’Laughlin said. “Simply playing the highest score available every turn would be a much more fruitful strategy than it currently is.”
In response to Lewis’ findings , John Chew, co-president of the North American Scrabble Players Association and a mathematics doctoral student at the University of Toronto, wrote that Scrabble has always had an “intentional” imbalance between the face value and the equity value of the letters. Whenever the game’s lexicon changes—a fifth edition of the Scrabble dictionary is due in 2014—players adapt. “The tile values were chosen to make an interesting game, not to accurately represent the statistical properties of a particular lexicon,” he wrote.
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In fact, for Alfred Butts, the face value of the letters was secondary to their distribution. That’s because Butts’ original research was for a word-formation game called Lexiko, which didn’t involve a board and didn’t assign points to individual letters.* In the early 1930s, on spreadsheets containing 26 rows, one for each letter, Butts tallied tens of thousands of letters from the pages of the New York Times, the New York Herald Tribune, and the Saturday Evening Post. Then he compared the frequency with which the letters occurred, both on their own and as part of words of particular lengths. From those tabulations, he determined how many of each letter should be included in his game.
Criss-Cross Words, Alfred Butts' prototype for Scrabble
Courtesy National Scrabble® Association.
Butts manufactured and sold a few hundred sets of Lexiko from his Queens walkup, but Milton Bradley and Parker Brothers, among others, rejected it. In 1938, Butts decided to add a board. That’s when he assigned values to letters roughly corresponding with their frequency. Butts’ files, which I read while researching my book Word Freak , contain pages of spreadsheets and notes about letter frequency and tile distribution. But there’s little about how he settled on the point values for his new game, which he named Criss-Cross Words. He did experiment, though. I found one iteration in which the Z was worth nine points; the K and V six; and the B, F, and W five. And there’s the plywood evidence of my six-point X.
My conclusion: Butts coupled intuition with direct observation of the game in action—he tested it on his wife and their friends—to arrive at values that he felt balanced equity and volatility. (Not that he would have used those words.) So, for instance, while Butts might have suspected the X was logically worth six points, he understood that eight would make the game more exciting. Similarly, while Butts included a lexicographically reasonable seven S’s in Lexiko, he knew the letter was so valuable for pluralizing words that he should reduce the number in his board game, which he did, to four.
(As with Lexiko, Butts made and sold Criss-Cross Words from his apartment with no success. In 1948, he sold its rights to a small businessman, James Brunot of Newtown, Conn., who renamed, redesigned, and manufactured the game. Five years later, Scrabble became a national sensation. Butts received royalties until 1976. He died in 1993.)
Scrabble inventor Alfred Butts
Courtesy National Scrabble® Association.
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Lewis and Eifling performed a statistical exercise that can help lay players reconsider particular letters based on the overall lexicon. “Get rid of your J and your Q as quickly as possible, because they’re just damn hard to play and will clog your rack,” Eifling concluded, correctly. A deeper dive would involve valuing each letter based on how it is actually used in Scrabble, because words of certain lengths or lexicographic properties might be more or less useful when playing the game. Lewis’ program didn’t consider, for instance, longer combinations of letters, or the importance of four- and five-letter words. “The game isn’t about drawing words at random from the dictionary,” Chew wrote. “It’s about actually finding places to play them on the board.”
Chew’s and O’Laughlin’s approach to reconsidering the face values of the tiles involves adjusting their equity values. Equity value in Scrabble is similar to advanced baseball stats that compare players to an “average” replacement. Scrabble theorists have been calculating this stat—let’s call it VORT, or Value Over Replacement Tile—since the 1980s. “The Barry Bonds of the Scrabble set,” O’Laughlin said, is the blank, with a VORT of about 25 points. That means a blank plus six random tiles will likely net 25 more points than seven random tiles. At the other end, the Q has the lowest VORT, about -7 points.
To perform a revaluation using VORT, Chew and O’Laughlin would shift the equity value of positive tiles downward and negative tiles upward, have Quackle play thousands of games against itself using those new values, and keep adjusting the values and making Quackle play until the equity of each tile approaches zero. At that point, the tiles could be given corresponding face values, which would be based on how Scrabble is played by the world’s best player.
Chew and O’Laughlin said they aren’t interested in conducting that analysis because it would be time-consuming and wouldn’t add to the understanding of the game. But they have begun trading emails with Lewis, who told me he’s eager to work with the Scrabble quants to learn more and find ways to study the statistical properties of the tiles further. Which shows how, in contrast to the way this story is being framed in the media—Scrabble Controversy!—it’s really just a bunch of curious living-room players and super-smart computer guys swapping ideas about game theory and analysis. Lewis isn’t demanding that the game’s manufacturers change anything, just performing an interesting statistical and intellectual exercise.
Still, he does believe, as he wrote in a new post on Wednesday , that tweaking Scrabble’s tile values would “keep the intentional luck in the game and remove the unintentional luck that has crept in over time as the use of English has changed.” He’s perplexed as to why competitive Scrabble players wouldn’t favor mediating some of the luck, because that might make the results of games and tournaments more accurate.
I can answer that. Because Scrabble players understand that the game’s inequities are on the margins, and that figuring them out is a crucial part of learning to play well. And we respect, and are in fact awed by, how Alfred Butts, without the benefit of computer programs and language databases, came damn close to nailing both letter distribution and letter valuation, and in the process created a game that exquisitely, often maddeningly, balances skill and luck. Making the X worth six points won’t improve on that.
Correction, Jan. 19, 2013: This article originally misspelled the name of Alfred Butts’ first word game, Lexiko.
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Which US actress was born Edna Gillooly in 1932? | 14 Fun Scrabble Facts | Mental Floss
14 Fun Scrabble Facts
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To celebrate the release of the fifth edition of Merriam-Webster’s The Official SCRABBLE Players Dictionary, out today, here are a few fun facts about the game and the competitions it has inspired.
1. SCRABBLE was invented by an architect.
In 1933, New York City architect Alfred Mosher Butts created an early version of the game we know as Scrabble. To determine how many tiles there should be and how many points each letter should be worth, he calculated letter frequency on the front page of the New York Times. So, for example, “Q is a letter that occurs least often in English text, so it should be a letter that there is only one tile of, and that tile should be worth 10 points,” says John Chew, co-president of the North American SCRABBLE Players Association (NASPA).
2. It wasn't always called SCRABBLE.
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Butts named his game Lexico, then changed the name to Criss-Cross Words. His friend and eventual business partner James Brunot came up with the name SCRABBLE in the late 1930s.
3. Initially, no game manufacturers would buy SCRABBLE.
Hasbro
So Butts made the games himself in his garage with Brunot's help, says Chris Cree, co-president of NASPA. “Around 1957, the president of Macy’s saw a game or became familiar with one and placed a huge order that Brunot and Butts couldn’t really fill,” Cree says. “Butts had to sell it to Brunot, who had to sell it to Selchow and Righter, who were the manufactures of the game when I started playing. And they held it until they sold it to Coleco Industries, which sold it to Hasbro.”
4. Despite its long history, SCRABBLE hasn’t changed much.
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“The previous squares are exactly what they were when I first started off—the same 100 tiles and the same distribution,” Cree says. “That’s something pretty neat about the game. It hasn’t changed one iota and it’s still popular.”
Still, there are crazy variations that people play, including one called Clabbers. “That’s the anagram of Scrabble,” Cree says. “You can play words in any order you want to and play the letters in any order you want to as long as the letters can make an anagram of a word.”
5. But the game might not stay the same for much longer.
“There was some controversy last year over whether or not—given how much the nature of the game has changed based on the expansion of its playing lexicon in the 60 years that the game has existed—we should still be playing with the same tile values as they get increasingly out of whack compared to the original statistics on which they were based,” Chew says. “To be specific, there was a major change in the strategy in the game when the word qat was introduced, I think in the 1980s, and more recently, when the word qi was introduced. Playing the game before you had either of these words as options, if you got the Q, you were pretty much stuck with it until you got a U. And even then, you weren’t sure you could score a lot with it. So we would think that whoever got the Q on average was going to get ten or fewer points in their game. Now the Q is a much less negative tile to hold on to, so there are some people who think it should be worth 8 points instead of 10 points.”
6. You can use the word Bingo while playing.
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When players use all seven of their SCRABBLE tiles to make a word, it’s called a bingo. Yell it out to confuse your opponent!
7. NASPA uses different tiles for competition.
Charles Goldstein/NASPA
“If you reach your hand in a bag of wooden set of tiles, you can kind of feel what doesn’t have anything on it and know it’s a blank,” Cree says. “We play with smooth tiles to make sure no one can Braille anything.”
8. There are different word lists for different levels of competition.
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If you’re playing at the school level, the competitive level, or the international level, NASPA has different lists. “Those are all sort of inclusively nested so that you just have to learn more words as you get on and on to a higher level,” Chew says. “The nature of the vocabulary changes—if you’re playing at a school level, you’re not allowed to play words that could possibly cause offense, even if used in the most polite situations. If you’re playing at an adult-level, you’re supposed to be able to play any word a well-read college educated person should have seen in print in some way. And then if you want to compete at an international level, you have to memorize things like misprints in Shakespearian manuscripts and Syrian texts, names of various obscure animals and plants from around the world and words in Indian and things like that.”
9. The game is played competitively in other languages—which can make things complicated.
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Chew says he thinks the game is best played in English, though, for a number of reasons. “Some of the aspects of the board and the rules in terms in the spacing of the bonus tiles and the way you build words is best utilized in English,” he says. “For instance, in French, it’s a little bit too easy to make words because most French words they can stick an E or an S at the end of so, every time you make a word, your opponent just sticks more letters and gets more points. It’s kind of frustrating that way; everyone scores more points overall.”
German SCRABBLE players have the opposite problem, Chew says; it’s hard to turn an existing German word into a longer German word, which creates a looser word grid—and led to a debate about whether they should use the standard seven tiles or up it to eight. “There was a substantial body of players who felt that there are relatively few words that are interesting in German that are less than eight letters long,” he says. “There’s no point to playing with just seven letters.” Eventually the dispute was resolved, and today, Germans play with seven letters, just like the rest of the world does.
There are also tiles specific to certain countries. “In Spanish, there’s a single tile that has two Ls on it,” Chew says. “Or Catalan, which has two Ls with a dot in between it, or Dutch, which has an I and a J on it that look a little bit odd to our eyes.” Professional linguists have determined the values of those tiles.
10. NASPA’s Rule Book is 50 Pages Long.
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“Basically every rule that you look at is a result of someone coming up with a weird interpretation or weird situation,” Chew says. If two games are happening at one table, they try to use different colored tiles so they don’t get mixed up (although that sometimes still happens). Each player has 25 minutes total to play his game, and opponents shouldn’t address each other. And there’s computer adjudication of words, too.
11. There have been a few scandals.
Charles Goldstein/NASPA
Before players start a game, they lay out the 100 tiles—in four groups of 5x5 squares—to make sure all the letters are there. One player, says Cree, allegedly saw the blanks and made sure to pick them out and hide them under his leg. “Various times during the game he would introduce them from underneath his leg to his rack,” he says. “He was suspected first year of doing so, and it was reported he drew both blanks in 29 out of 31 games. The next year, people were looking for him and he was caught.”
There’s also something Chew referred to as the “strip search incident," which occurred during a world championship. "In the world championship, we get a huge cultural divide between the way the people play SCRABBLE in different countries,” he says. “The rules are slightly different around the world, and definitely the etiquette is different around the world."
In this particular incident, a Thai player was facing off against a British player. It was near the end of the game "to the point where there were few enough tiles in the bag that they were keeping track of all the tiles they didn’t play, all the tiles that were sitting in front of them on their rack, and tried to figure out what tiles were still in play and work out all the possibilities and maximize their score regardless of what tiles were in the bag," Chew says. "And they realized that there was a tile that was missing from the game.”
The players assured the officials that they had counted the tiles as they were supposed to, but that this tile was gone. “It’s not unheard of for this to happen,” Chew says. “Sometimes people turn the board too energetically or brush up against it and a tile falls off. In this case, whether or not the missing tile was in the bag, or was active in the game, affected the win/loss of the game. It was played in the tournament, so there was a lot riding on it. So the emotions were quite heated because the two players didn’t know each other, and the Thai player didn’t really speak English and couldn’t express himself in English to his opponent. It was a situation where if the tile was not discovered or brought back into play, the Thai player would win and if not, the English player would win.”
So someone asked the Thai player to turn out his pockets, which made him very angry; he wanted his opponent to turn out his pockets, too—which the Brit didn’t feel like he should have to do, because there was no advantage for him to hold on to the tile. “Then this escalated to well, maybe it’s not in their pockets, maybe it’s down their pants,” Chew says. “Maybe they should be strip searched. Maybe they should be taken to the bathroom and undergo a thorough examination at that point. At which point, the British press got a hold of it and I don’t think they ever reported who ended up winning the tournament, but for several days all the tabloids wanted to talk about the missing G.”
The missing tile was later found in the coat pocket of a player who had played in the game before. “What happened was, instead of making four 5x5 squares for the players to verify that there are a 100 tiles, these guys made one 9x11 square,” Cree says. “Which when you just sit down and look at what you think is a square and it’s actually a bit of a rectangle, 9x11, 10x10, you just glance at it, it looks fine.”
12. The most valuable tiles depend on your level of play.
Getty Images
“When you’re at a lower level, you probably want to hang on to higher value tiles because you don’t know enough about board strategy to get double or triple value for the high value tiles," Chew says. "At the lowest level, if you get a blank, all you’re going to score with it is 0. But if you get even to the bottom rung of competitive play, then the blank becomes by far the most important tile to hang on to. It lets you occasionally make the 50 point bonus for playing all of your tiles. In theory, if you’re paying at your best, or if you’re a computer program, then that blank is worth about 25 points to the average future value of your score.” S is also a good tile to save, Chew says, and a good combination to keep on your rack is “ER or ERS or as many letters in the word RETINAS as you can hold on to.”
13. There are tons of new words getting added to the dictionary this year.
Charles Goldstein/NASPA
They include geocache, chillax, beatbox, frenemy, hashtag, joypad, mojito, selfie, soju, texter, vodcast, vlog, and yuzu, among others. But the ones that will make the most difference are the two letter words, Cree says, the addition of which "allows words to fit on the board that otherwise wouldn’t have."
The two-letter words being added are gi, po, te, and da, which is actually making a comeback—it was in the first edition of the Scrabble dictionary, but Chew had it removed for the second edition. “I’m a little bit relieved and nervous about da coming back into the dictionary,” he says. “I got [death threats] for about 10 years after it was removed. I’ve learned that if there’s one thing Scrabble players can really get united on—despite the fact that they disagree about everything else—it’s that they don’t want anyone messing with their words. Add new ones if you want, but don’t take away the old ones. Ever since then, I’ve made sure we don’t delete words except in extremely unusual situations, and we definitely don’t mess with the two letter words.”
14. It’s possible to score 1782 points on a single word.
iStock
That word is OXYPHENBUTAZONE, and to get the points, player Benjamin Woo played it across the top of the board, hitting three Triple Word Score squares while making seven crosswords downward.
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Who played lawyer Andrew Beckett in the 1993 film ‘Philadelphia’? | Philadelphia (1993) - IMDb
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When a man with HIV is fired by his law firm because of his condition, he hires a homophobic small time lawyer as the only willing advocate for a wrongful dismissal suit.
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Won 2 Oscars. Another 10 wins & 16 nominations. See more awards »
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Storyline
Andrew Beckett, a gay, HIV positive lawyer, is fired from his law firm in fear that they might contract HIV from him. After Andrew is fired, in a last attempt for peace, he sues his former law firm with the help of a homophobic lawyer, Joe Miller. During the court battle, Miller sees that Beckett is no different than anyone else on the gritty streets of the city of brotherly love, sheds his homophobia and helps Beckett with his case before AIDS overcomes him. Written by Geoffrey A. Middleton {[email protected]}
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No one would take on his case... until one man was willing to take on the system.
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Rated PG-13 for some graphic language and thematic material | See all certifications »
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14 January 1994 (USA) See more »
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Trivia
The film's journey from script to screen was an extraordinary rocky one. The script underwent over 25 major revisions, the film's rights were embroiled in bankruptcy proceedings, and the subject matter sparked some major protests. See more »
Goofs
When Andy steps out of Joe's office (after Joe's rejection to become Andy's lawyer), you see him standing and reflecting on his situation. He turns his head to the left, and you can see the lining of a rubber mask on his neck(used to make Hanks' head look shaved). See more »
Quotes
Joe Miller : What do you love about the law, Andrew?
Andrew Beckett : [from the witness stand] I... many things... uh... uh... What I love the most about the law?
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Crazy Credits
"This motion picture was inspired in part by Geoffrey Bowers' AIDS discrimination lawsuit, the courage and love of the Angius family and the struggles of the many others who, along with their loved ones, have experienced discrimination because of AIDS." See more »
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This movie was fantastic.I am a huge Tom Hanks fan. This was one of those movies that really show if an actor really knows how to act. Denzel Washington, I think, should have won the "Supporting Actor" award for 1993 because he was exceptional in the movie. I really enjoyed watching this movie because it made you laugh and cry and very few movies do that. Tom Hanks is the only actor to win two consecutive "Best Actor" awards (Philadelphia and Forrest Gump) and I think Philadelphia was the start of his superior career in acting. In conclusion, I rate Philadelphia a 10 and I recommend it to all Tom Hanks fans.
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Chionophobia is an irrational fear of which type of weather condition? | FILM - 'Philadelphia' - Oscar Gives Way to Elegy - NYTimes.com
FILM; 'Philadelphia': Oscar Gives Way to Elegy
By CLIFFORD ROTHMAN;
Published: January 1, 1995
ONE YEAR AGO, IN THE FILM "Philadelphia," Tom Hanks portrayed the gay lawyer Andrew Beckett who, at the beginning of the film, was seen at an AIDS clinic for an outpatient visit. As the IV drips, Andrew looks impassively around the room. Then the camera pans the faces: a once-handsome man, now gaunt to concentration-camp proportion, jokes about how an obtuse waitress offered him Sweet 'n' Low. "Do I look like I need an artificial sweetener, honey?" he says to the man sitting next to him.
Farther down the row, another man sits quietly. He is a gentle, sandy-haired fellow of about 30, his face littered with lesions.
Both the gaunt man, played by the New York actor Daniel Chapman, and the sandy-haired fellow, played by a novice actor, Mark Sorensen, are now dead. They are among the 43 of the 53 people with AIDS or those who were H.I.V. positive in "Philadelphia" who are now dead. The group also included Ron Vawter, the gay actor who played Andrew's straight colleague (the lone voice of compassion within the white-shoe law firm), and Michael Callen, one of the singers in the Flirtations, the a cappella singing group that performs at Andrew's costume party.
And it included Lou Digenio, who appeared as an extra in several scenes. Mr. Digenio, who was 34 when he died, did not want to be invisible in the courtroom scenes. So he dyed his hair henna red, to avoid getting lost in the crowd.
"Philadelphia" became one of the most successful dramatic films of 1993, earning an Oscar for Tom Hanks and $125 million at the box office worldwide before it was released on video. But audiences may have forgotten about the men in the film with AIDS.
Most of them had volunteered to populate the clinic, party and courtroom scenes; many played AIDS activists. The producers came to Action AIDS Philadelphia, a social services agency, for help in casting people with AIDS. "I tried to cast interesting people," said Bruce Flannery, who represents the organization. "But it wasn't very complex. In some cases, they needed people who were sick looking -- in hospital scenes, for instance, where someone really robust would not have been right." By contrast, he said, "to participate in the courtroom scenes you had to be able to make the commitment to be available for a whole month, and be strong enough to withstand the grueling schedule, including long days of shooting."
The selection process was fairly democratic, with anyone able to put in the necessary hours accepted as an extra.
Jonathan Demme, the film's director, made a conscious decision to use as many people directly affected by the virus as possible. But the use of AIDS patients led to occasional tensions. One incident involved David Bertugli, an extra who had AIDS. Mr. Bertugli was washing up one day after filming and noticed that the extra standing next to him was scrubbing his own hands with alcohol. "You never know," said the man.
"He was afraid he was going to catch H.I.V.," said Gary Bailey, who lives with Mr. Bertugli and was also an extra in the film. Two years after "Philadelphia" was shot, Mr. Bertugli's T-cell count has dropped, along with his weight. Mr. Bailey reported that his family recently came to visit. "They were here to plan my funeral," he said. "Of all the conversations I've had with my parents, this one was the hardest. My father, who is politically a little to the right of Attila the Hun, cried like a baby. If anyone thinks that talking about sex is difficult, try talking to someone you care for about how they want to be buried."
Last year, Tom Hanks was Hollywood's first poster boy for AIDS. Mark Sorensen, the sandy-haired fellow in the AIDS clinic, was its real poster boy. His lesions did not come off with cold cream. Had he not become H.I.V. positive and sought help from Action AIDS Philadelphia, he would have got no closer to a movie than the 10th row of a cineplex.
By the time filming began in the fall of 1992, lesions from Kaposi's sarcoma covered Mr. Sorensen's face. His mother, Ann Sorensen, who lives in Malvern, Pa., outside Philadelphia, remembers that her son had always been vain. As a teen-ager, she said, Mark had been tremendously concerned about his complexion.
"If he got any marks on his face or anything, it would upset him terribly," she said. Mr. Sorensen's father, also named Mark, adds, "We spent many dollars at the doctors and the dermatologists."
Yet when the son was ready to appear in the clinic scene in "Philadelphia," which was shot in a single afternoon, he confided to Tom Hanks that he did not want to wear makeup to hide his lesions. "And he didn't," Mrs. Sorensen recalled. "He said he wanted people to see how it really was."
Fourteen months later, when Mr. Hanks won the Golden Globe award for best actor in a dramatic film, he remembered Mark Sorensen by name, paying tribute in his acceptance speech to his courage and humanity. Mr. Hanks went on to win an Oscar for the part as well, and to make an Oscar acceptance speech that also focused on the plight of people with AIDS.
Mark Sorensen did not live long enough to see either ceremony. Mr. Demme learned that the 31-year-old Mr. Sorensen was near death as the film makers were scoring the movie. "Jonathan immediately called his office," said Mr. Flannery of Action AIDS Philadelphia, "and had one of his assistants jump in the car with a rough, unedited videotape of the movie and drive it from Manhattan to Philadelphia."
MRS. SORENSEN remembers the day: Sept. 16, 1993. Mr. Demme's assistant arrived at the door with a copy of the movie. "She hands us the film and says: 'Take your time. Whenever you're done with the film, call me, and I will come pick it up.' " Mark Sorensen was bedridden, but he did not want to watch the movie from his bed. His mother recalled, "We physically carried him, my husband and myself and our nephew, down the stairs from his bedroom to the living room, and we all watched the movie." . Mr. Sorensen died the next day.
Mr. Sorensen was on camera for only three seconds in the film. Ron Vawter, who had a much larger part, died last April on a jet while returning from Italy, where he had suddenly become gravely ill. Greg Mehrten, his partner of 14 years, remembers that the two of them had been sequestered in a cordoned-off section of the plane, with Mr. Vawter on a stretcher. "His heart just stopped," Mr. Mehrten recalled. For the next five hours, Mr. Mehrten flew with the body. "It was horrifying," he said. "I couldn't hear anyone, and I couldn't see anyone, except Ron. I had never really been with a dead person before."
Although the singer, Michael Callen, had survived for a very long time with the AIDS virus, he was forced by his illness to stop touring with the Flirtations in February 1993, shortly after filming the scene for the movie. He died in Los Angeles a year ago at the age of 38.
The emaciated Daniel Chapman was in a weakened state by the time he appeared in the clinic scene. "He would have been a star," said his mother, Lorraine. He died almost a year ago at the age of 41, after being hospitalized with a stroke.
Photos: Jonathan Demme--The director rushed a copy of the film to a dying extra. (Stephanie Berger); The Flirtations (Cliff Townsend, left, Jon Arterton, Jimmy Rutland, Michael Callen and Aurelio Font) in the film "Philadelphia." (Ken Regan/Camera 5)(pg. 24); Tom Hanks, left, Daniel Chapman, center, and Karen Finley, standing, in a scene from "Philadelphia"--"He would have been a star," says Mr. Chapman's mother. (Ken Regan/Camera 5)(pg. 9)
Clifford Rothman has written about the arts for The Los Angeles Times and The Washington Post.
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What was the name of the first US steam locomotive, built in 1830, to be operated on a common-carrier railroad? | America's First Steam Locomotive, 1830
America's First Steam Locomotive, 1830
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In the 1820s the port of Baltimore was in danger. The threat came from the newly opened Erie Canal (see "Traveling the Erie Canal, 1836" ) and the proposed construction of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal that would parallel the Potomac River from Washington, DC to Cumberland, MD. These new water routes promised to provide a commercial gateway to the West that would bypass Baltimore's thriving harbor and potentially hurl the city into an economic abyss. Something had to be done.
A Modern Reconstruction of
the Tom Thumb
The local entrepreneurs looked across the Atlantic to England and found an answer in the newly developed railroad. In 1828, the Maryland syndicate, led by Charles Carroll - a signer of the Declaration of Independence - broke ground for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. The railroad's objective was to connect Baltimore with the Ohio River and the West. Initially, the railroad's power was to be provided by horses. However, it soon became obvious that animal muscle was no match for the long distances and mountainous terrain that would have to be traveled. The solution lay with the steam engine.
By 1830, the B&O Railroad had extended its track from Baltimore to the village of Ellicott's Mills thirteen miles to the west. The railroad was also ready to test its first steam engine - an American-made locomotive engineered by Peter Cooper of New York.
It was a bright summer's day and full of promise. Syndicate members and friends piled into an open car pulled by a diminutive steam locomotive appropriately named the "Tom Thumb" with its inventor at the controls. Passengers thrilled at the heart-pumping sensation of traveling at the then un-heard speed of 18 mph. The outbound journey took less than an hour. On the return trip, an impromptu race with a horse-drawn car developed. The locomotive came out the loser. It was an inauspicious beginning. However, within a few years the railroad would become the dominate form of long-distance transportation and relegate the canals to the dustbin of commercial history.
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"...it was determined to have a race home."
John Latrobe was a lawyer for the B&O Railroad from its inception. He was present on that eventful day as the locomotive's builder piloted the "Tom Thumb" into history:
"The boiler of Mr. Cooper's engine was not as large as the kitchen boiler attached to many a range in modern mansions. It was of about the same diameter, but not much more than half as high. It stood upright in the car, and was filled, above the furnace, which occupied the lower section, with vertical tubes. The cylinder was but three-and-a half inches in diameter, and speed was gotten up by gearing. No natural draught could have been sufficient to keep up steam in so small a boiler; and Mr. Cooper used therefore a blowing-apparatus, driven by a drum attached to one of the car wheels, over which passed a cord that in its turn worked a pulley on the shaft of the blower...
Mr. Cooper's success was such as to induce him to try a trip to Ellicott's Mills; and an open car, the first used upon the road, already mentioned, having been attached to his engine, and filled with the directors and some friends, the speaker among the rest, the first journey by steam in America was commenced. The trip was most interesting. The curves were passed without difficulty at a speed of fifteen miles an hour; the grades were ascended with comparative ease; the day was fine, the company in the highest spirits, and some excited gentlemen of the party pulled out memorandum books, and when at the highest speed, which was eighteen miles an hour, wrote their names and some connected sentences, to prove that even at that great velocity it was possible to do so. The return trip from the Mills - a distance of thirteen miles - was made in fifty-seven minutes.
But the triumph of this Tom Thumb engine was not altogether without a drawback. The great stage proprietors of the day were Stockton & Stokes; and on this occasion a gallant gray of great beauty and power was driven by them from town, attached to another car on the second track - for the Company had begun by making two tracks to the Mills - and met the engine at the Relay House on
The Race
its way back. From this point it was determined to have a race home; and, the start being even, away went horse and engine, the snort of the one and the puff of the other keeping time and tune.
At first the gray had the best of it, for his steam would be applied to the greatest advantage on the instant, while the engine had to wait until the rotation of the wheels set the blower to work. The horse was perhaps a quarter of a mile ahead when the safety valve of the engine lifted and the thin blue vapor issuing from it showed an excess of steam. The blower whistled, the steam blew off in vapory clouds, the pace increased, the passengers shouted, the engine gained on the horse, soon it lapped him - the silk was plied - the race was neck and neck, nose and nose - then the engine passed the horse, and a great hurrah hailed the victory.
But it was not repeated; for just at this time, when the gray's master was about giving up, the band which drove the pulley, which drove the blower, slipped from the drum, the safety valve ceased to scream, and the engine for want of breath began to wheeze and pant. In vain Mr. Cooper, who was his own engineman and fireman, lacerated his hands in attempting to replace the band upon the wheel: in vain he tried to urge the fire with light wood; the horse gained on the machine, and passed it; and although the band was presently replaced, and steam again did its best, the horse was too far ahead to be overtaken, and came in the winner of the race."
References:
John Latrobe's eyewitness account was originally published in: Latrobe, John H. B. The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad: Personal Recollections (1868), reprinted in Hart, Albert B. (ed.) American History Told by Contemporaries vol. 3 (1927); Mack, Edward C., Peter Cooper, Citizen of New York (1949).
How To Cite This Article:
"America's First Steam Locomotive, 1830", EyeWitness to History, www.eyewitnesstohistory.com (2005).
Peter Cooper, constructor of the "Tom Thumb", invented the gelatin dessert Jello in 1845. He also founded the Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art in New York City in 1859.
| Tom Thumb |
Bukit Timah is the highest point in which Republic of Southeast Asia? | RR Museum of PA :: RR History Timeline 1
and history continues!
Railroad History Timeline
American railroad history has as its roots developments in England related to mining operations and the development of steam engines, late in the 18th century. Certain aspects of this can be traced to similar activities in Germany. The standard distance between the rails of a track ("standard gauge") -- four feet, eight and a half inches -- has been associated with cart trackways in England from the time of Roman domination. Early on, visionary Americans espoused the need for railroads and experimented with steam as a means of propulsion. See also History and Magic of Railroads for further information.
1791 - 1841
Anthracite coal is discovered at Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania.
1804
Richard Trevithick builds a successful steam locomotive to run on rails of the Pen-y-Darren tramway in south Wales.
1809
Thomas Leiper's horse-drawn wooden tramway connected quarries in Delaware County, Pa., to a boat landing. It was the first time rails were utilized for freight transportation.
1815
The state of New Jersey granted America's first railroad charter to Col. John Stevens of Hoboken, to run between New Brunswick and Trenton, NJ. Because of funding difficulties, it was not built.
1825
Col. John Stevens built and operated a prototype steam locomotive on a circular track on his estate at Castle Point, Hoboken, NJ. (A full size replica of "The John Stevens" is on display at the Railroad Museum of Pennsylvania.)
1826
Gridley Bryant uses his broad gauge tramway to haul granite for the Bunker Hill Monument.
1827
Schuylkill Navigation Canal is completed.
1828
July 4, Charles Carroll, the last surviving signer of the Declaration of Independence, lays the first stone to begin construction of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, the nation's first common carrier.
1829
August 8, The Stourbridge Lion, imported from England, was experimentally operated by Horatio Allen on the Delaware & Hudson Canal Company's railroad at Honesdale, Pa. It was the first steam engine to run on commercial railroad tracks in the United States.
1830
A race is staged between the B&O's Tom Thumb and a horse-drawn carriage near Ellicott's Mills, MD; the horse galloped to victory!
The first scheduled passenger train service in America, by Best Friend of Charleston, at Charleston, South Carolina.
23 miles of railroad track in the United States.
1831
Robert Stephenson built the locomotive John Bull in England for the Camden & Amboy Railroad, operated by the sons of Col. John Stevens. It made its inaugural run in Bordentown, NJ in November, and entered regular passenger service in 1833. The C&A fitted the John Bull with lead wheels and "cow catcher" or pilot, the first time these devices were used in America.
The first U.S. mail is carried by rail on the South Carolina Canal & Railroad Co.
Locomotive DeWitt Clinton pulls the first steam train in New York.
The Elizabethtown & Somerville, the earliest ancestor road of the Central Railroad of New Jersey, is incorporated.
1832
April, the 6-foot gauge New York & Erie, the ancestor of the Erie Railway, receives a charter from the New York State Legislature.
November 23, Matthias Baldwin, a Philadelphia jeweler and abolitionist, entered the locomotive business with the successful operation of his first locomotive, Old Ironsides, on the Philadelphia, Germantown & Norristown Railroad.
1833
Staple Bend Tunnel on the Allegheny Portage Railroad, east of Johnstown, Pa., is the first railroad tunnel built in the Western Hemisphere.
Andrew Jackson, the first President to ride on a railroad, travels between Ellicott's Mills and Baltimore, MD.
1834
The Philadelphia & Columbia Railroad opens as part of the "Main Line of Public Works" -- a combined inclined plane, rail and canal route stretching 395 miles through the interior of Pennsylvania.
1837
The first sleeping car, a crudely remodeled day coach, was placed in service on the Cumberland Valley Railroad between Harrisburg and Chambersburg.
The first American-type locomotive (4-4-0) is planned and built.
1840
Nearly 3,000 miles of railroad and 3,300 miles of canal in operation in the United States.
1841
The first caboose, termed a way-car, was placed in service on the Auburn & Syracuse Railroad in New York.
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Which country defeated England 1-0 on 29th June in the 1950 FIFA World Cup ? | 121 (4.65 per match)
A total of 34 teams signed up to participate in the 1950 World Cup qualification rounds, competing for a total of 14 spots in the final tournament. Brazil , as the hosts, and Italy , as the defending champions, qualified automatically.
Several countries withdrew from the World Cup for a variety of reasons. Argentina said "no" because of a problem with the Brazilian soccer federation. Germany (occupied and partitioned) and Japan (occupied) were not allowed to participate in the qualification rounds. Countries that were behind the Iron Curtain declined to participate, including the Soviet Union, Hungary (the finalist of 1938), and Czechoslovakia (the finalist of 1934).
This was also the first time that the 4 teams from the UK (Scotland, England , Northern Ireland and Wales) decided to take part in the qualifying process, after 17 years of self-impose exile. They would play the British Home Championship as a qualifying group, with the top two teams qualifying. FIFA made a real effort to convince the teams from UK. They offered the vice presidency of FIFA to an Scottish Football Association (SFA) member, a place on the executive to the UK associations, and two places for the winners and runners-up of the 1950 British International Championship in the World Cup finals.
The 14 available spots were distributed in continental zones as shown below:
•
Europe (UEFA): 18 teams (including Israel and Syria) competed for 7 direct places. Italy , as the defending champions, qualified automatically. Austria and Belgium withdrew. Turkey qualified, but later withdrew.
•
South America (CONMEBOL): 7 teams competed for a 4 direct places. Brazil , as the host country, qualified automatically. Argentina (a dispute with the Brazilian Football Confederation), Ecuador and Peru (a dispute with FIFA and CONMEBOL) withdrew. Bolivia, Chile , Paraguay and Uruguay qualified by default without playing any match.
•
North America, Central America and Caribbean (CONCACAF): 3 teams competed for 2 spots.
•
Asia (AFC): 4 teams competed for 1 spot. Burma, the Philippines and Indonesia withdrew, so India qualified automatically. India qualified, but later withdrew.
A total of 19 teams played at least one qualifying match. 26 qualifying matches were played, and 121 goals were scored.
The preliminary competition became something of a farce. Some teams qualified and then withdrew, others were invited and then decided not to take part. Originally, 16 teams qualified for the final stage that would be played in Brazil. However, three teams declined to participate and the tournament finally started with only 13 participants. Scotland, who had won the second place in the British Home Championship, decided to resign for having obtained the second place. George Graham, secretary of the SFA, had previously declared that the Scots would only go if they became British champions. Turkey also resigned citing financial problems. Finally, Peru also withdrew at the last minute, due to a dispute with FIFA and CONMEBOL.
Three teams were invited to fill these three gaps: United States , Portugal and France . Portugal refused. After the draw, India, that had qualified for the final stage in Brazil, decided not take part because in those days Indian footballers used to play barefoot, as they did in the Olympics in 1948, and from the 1950 World Cup it was compulsary to wear shoes. France was offered Turkey's spot and originally accepted, but then also withdrew citing the amount of travel that would be required in Group 4.
External link: RSSSF 1950 FIFA World Cup Qualification
Format and seedings
The round-robin format used in the first World Cup was chosen again. The sixteen teams were divided into four groups and the winner of each of them would advance to the final round in which they would face in the round-robin format. The organizers wanted a format that ensured that teams will play at least three games, generating both more ticket revenue and more incentive mainly for teams that had to travel long distances to reach Brazil.
The groups were arranged on a non-geographic basis, so for every game the teams had to travel long distances between venues. One of the teams that had to travel a lot was the United States that had to play in Belo Horizonte, Curitiba and Recife, accumulating a lot of miles.
The only criteria used to determine the winner of the group were the points. Thus, if two teams tied for first place, then a playoff would be necessary to determine the group winner.
The four seeded teams were: Brazil (hosts), Italy (defending champions), Uruguay and England . Withdrawals meant there were two groups of four, one of three and one of two.
Squads
For a complete list of all squads that appeared in the 1950 FIFA World Cup, please, visit: 1950 World Cup squads
Venues
Six cities hosted the tournament. The Host Cities for the 1950 FIFA World Cup were Rio de Janeiro , São Paulo , Belo Horizonte, Recife , Porto Alegre , and Curitiba.
2
TOURNAMENT SUMMARY
The first round had some facts worth noting. In Group A, there was no surprise. Brazil , just as planned, advanced to the final round. Spain topped Group B ahead of England , Chile , and United States . This group produced the greatest surprise of the tournament. England came to the competition as one of the favourites. They never doubted that it was the best soccer nation in the world, especially considering that a Great Britain team recently had beaten the rest of Europe 6–1 in Glasgow, Scotland, in a game dubbed the “Match of the Century”. However, it was not to be. They suffered a shock 1-0 defeat to the United States in the northern industrial town of Belo Horizonte and were eliminated from the tournament after another loss to Spain . When news of the defeat against the United States came to England , people thought it was a misprint in the newspapers and the actual score of the game was 10-1. They began as one of the favourites but ended it in ignominy. A talented Sweden topped Group C after surprisingly beating the defending champions 3–2 in its opening match. Because of this defeat, Italy failed to progress to the second round. It must be said that the majority of its national team died in a tragic plane crash a year earlier, on May 4, 1949. Uruguay had no problems winning Group D, the only group with only two members. They thrashed Bolivia 8-0. The star forward Juan Schiaffino grabbed four goals.
Final round in Sao Paulo: Uruguay 3-2 Sweden
Ademir in the decisive match against Uruguay
The final four-team round robin involved Brazil , Spain , Sweden, and Uruguay , who were making their first World Cup appearance since winning the inaugural tournament. The World Cup winner would be the team that finished on top of this group. Brazil came from thrashing to Sweden by a resounding 7-1 and Spain by a crushing 6 to 1. The Brazilians should not have trouble beating their South American neighbour Uruguay . In the worst case, they only needed a draw and they would be crowned world champions. That's what all Brazilians thought. But what Brazilians thought is not what happened.
The final and deciding match of the four-team final group was contested at Maracanã Stadium in Rio de Janeiro, before a crowd of 200,000 spectators, by Uruguay , who were making their first appearance after the first World Cup, and the hosts Brazil . The match was hard fought and was tied 1-1, but Ghiggia beat Bigode one more time and scored the winner 11 minutes from time to give Uruguay the second World Cup title. Uruguay definitely stunned the crowd and crowned World Cup champion after beating the heavily-favoured Brazil 2-1. One of the biggest surprises in the World Cups history had occurred. For the whole of Brazil , it was a national disaster. After the negative result, that match is referred to as the Maracanazo, a name still used to show a defeat for a Brazilian team by foreign rivals at the famous stadium. It was the first and only time in World Cup history that the champion was not decided by a one-match final.
Poker: Ademir ( Brazil )
•
The youngest player was Carlos Ibañez from Chile : 18y (30 November 1931). The youngest goalkeeper was Antonio Carbajal from Mexico : 21y (07 June 1929). The youngest scorer was Kiki Antenen from Switzerland: 20y (3 November 1929). The youngest champion was Rubén Morán from Uruguay : 19y (6 August 1930). The youngest captain was Harry Keough from United States : 22y (15 November 1927).
•
The oldest player was Stanley Matthews from England : 35y (1 February 1915). The oldest goalkeeper was Srdjan Mrkušić from Yugoslavia: 35y (26 May 1915). The oldest scorer was Obdulio Varela from Uruguay : 32y (20 September 1917). The oldest champion was also Obdulio Varela from Uruguay : 32y (20 September 1917). The oldest captain was Erik Nilsson from Sweden: 33y (6 August 1916).
DID YOU KNOW?
•
The trophy that was given to the World Cup winners was named Victoria. In 1950, in order to pay homage to Jules Rimet who had been President of FIFA for 25 years and promoted the organization of the championship again after World War II, the trophy was first called Jules Rimet Cup, although it was subsequently referred to as the Jules Rimet Trophy.
•
The Italian Ottorino Barassi, Vice President of FIFA in those years, hid the trophy in a shoebox under the bed in his house to avoid falling into the hands of the occupying army.
•
India, who had been invited by FIFA to participate in the final stage in Brazil, decided to give up, because FIFA did not accept them play in bare feet, as they did in the Olympics in 1948.
•
Italy , the defending champion, suffered the loss of most of their best players, who died in a plane crash, Superga air disaster, on 4 May 1949. The Torino team was returning to Italy after a match against Benfica in Portugal when the Fiat G.212, an Italian three-engine airliner, flew into a thunderstorm and crashed into the hill of Superga near Turin, killing all 31 aboard.
•
United States stunned the world by defeating the mighty English team 1 to 0. The Haitian-born Joe Gaetjens gave the victory to the USA . The British media, assuming that there was a typographical error in the information they received, changed the result to 10 to 1. Unfortunately for England , the Kings of Football, there was no such misprint.
•
Joseph Gaetjens, the goal-scoring hero for the USA against England , returned to his native Haiti in 1954. A decade later, he was arrested by the country's secret police and is believed to have been killed - like thousands of other Haitians - by the death squad.
| United States |
‘Marianne’ is a national emblem of which European country? | Walter Bahr (Soccer Player) - Pics, Videos, Dating, & News
1927 Birth Born on April 1, 1927.
TWENTIES
1948 21 Years Old After participating in the 1948 Summer Olympics, Bahr turned professional and helped his club win ASL titles in 1950, 1951, 1953, and 1955. … Read More
He then switched to the Uhrik Truckers, another team in the Philadelphia area, and won the ASL title in 1956. However, "professional" soccer players at that time made little money and Bahr also was a high school teacher during his playing years. In the late 1960s and through the 70's Bahr was a Physical Education teacher at Frankford High School in Philadelphia. He also coached the soccer team. Read Less
1949 22 Years Old Additionally, he was selected to the U.S. national team in 1949 and appeared in 19 games, with one goal. over his international career during a time when the team played only a few games a year.
1950 23 Years Old In the 1950 upset of the English team, Bahr supplied the pass that Joe Gaetjens headed in for the winning goal. … Read More
The entire team was inducted into the National Soccer Hall of Fame in 1976.<br /><br /> In January 2004, Bahr and the four other living members of the 1950 World Cup Team (Frank Borghi, Harry Keough, Gino Pariani and John Souza) were recognized as Honorary All-Americans by the National Soccer Coaches Association of America at its annual convention in Charlotte, North Carolina.<br /><br /> After his retirement as a player, Bahr became a successful soccer coach, leading the Philadelphia Spartans and the Philadelphia Ukrainians of the American Soccer League (ASL). As a teacher at Frankford High School, in Philadelphia, he coached the soccer team. When legendary soccer coach Pete Leaness retired from Temple University, Walt Bahr was named Temple's new coach. From Temple, he moved to Penn State. During his 14-year tenure at Penn State, the team was selected to the NCAA Tournament 12 times. Read Less
FIFTIES
1979 52 Years Old He was NSCAA Coach of the Year in 1979 and elected to the National Soccer Coaches Association of America Hall of Fame in 1995. … Read More
His overall coaching record is 448 wins, 137 losses, and 70 draws.<br /><br /> Bahr's three sons Casey, Chris, and Matt, all played professional soccer in the defunct North American Soccer League. Casey and Chris also played for the U.S. Olympic team, and Chris and Matt later became field goal placekickers in the National Football League,each earning two Super Bowl rings. Bahr's daughter Davies Ann was an All-American gymnast. Bahr is retired and lives in Boalsburg, Pennsylvania, near Penn State, occasionally appearing as a sports commentator for Penn State soccer matches. Read Less
LATE ADULTHOOD
2005 78 Years Old Bahr was portrayed by Wes Bentley in the 2005 movie The Game of Their Lives, which has been distributed in DVD under the title "Miracle Match."
2009 82 Years Old Bahr was featured in the 2009 soccer documentary A Time for Champions discussing the U.S. upset victory over England in the 1950 World Cup.
2015 88 Years Old …
Walter Alfred Bahr (born April 1, 1927 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) is a retired American soccer player, considered one of the greatest ever in his country. He was the long-time captain of the U.S. national team and played in the 1950 FIFA World Cup when the U.S. defeated England 1 -, in what is considered one of the greatest upsets in sports history. Read Less
As of February 2, 2015, Bahr is the sole surviving member of the 1950 squad. … Read More
Bahr, a native of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, began playing soccer at the age of 11 and joined the Philadelphia Nationals of the professional American Soccer League as an amateur player. His talent was obvious and he was paid a great compliment during the Scottish national team tour of the U.S. in 1949 by former Scottish international Tommy Muirhead, who wrote in the Glasgow Daily Mail, "Bahr is good enough to play for any First Division team in the United Kingdom." Read Less
Original Authors of this text are noted on http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Bahr .
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In the novel ‘The Lord of the Rings’, Barliman Butterbur is the proprietor of which inn? | Barliman Butterbur | The One Wiki to Rule Them All | Fandom powered by Wikia
Edit
Barliman Butterbur owned the Prancing Pony for an unknown period of time in the late Third Age . He was fond of Hobbits and had two hobbit employees: Bob , who worked in the stables, and Nob , a servant. He knew Gandalf very well as he frequently came and stayed at the inn from time to time over the years. During the War of the Ring , he forgot to send Gandalf 's letter to Frodo , leaving Frodo uncertain as to Gandalf's fate and causing him to start his journey much later than the letter indicated. He did not remember it until Frodo and his companions arrived to stay at the inn, and even then it was long before the connection was made.
When Gandalf found out he threatened to burn up Butterbur but forgave him in light of his memory problems. He did, however, remember in time to produce Strider 's credentials. Gandalf then blesses his beer for seven years after he learns that Frodo and companions are alive and well and with Strider.
In The Return of the King after the War of the Ring, Butterbur was amazed to learn that Strider , a former patron of his inn and for whom he thought was a mere Ranger from out of the wild, had become a King . When the hobbits visit The Prancing Pony in the third book, Nob went home after dark everyday, which Butterbur kept on forgetting. [1] [2] [3]
Character
Barliman was a good-hearted fat man but notorious for his very bad memory, "One thing drives out another" he says.
Portrayal in adaptations
| List of minor places in Middle-earth |
In May 1940, who became British Prime Minister after the resignation of Neville Chamberlain? | Barliman Butterbur - Middle-Earth Encyclopedia
Barliman Butterbur
David Weatherley as Barliman Butterbur in the New Line film
Innkeeper at Bree . Barliman Butterbur was the proprietor at the Prancing Pony Inn . The Butterbur family had owned the property of the Prancing Pony for many generations, and it was renowned for its convenient location at the crossroads of the Great East Road and the Greenway . It was passed down to Barliman by his father, who must have died sometime before the year 3018 of the Third Age . Because of his position as innkeeper, Barliman was a man of prestige whose only fault was his week memory.
On Mid-years day in 3018, Gandalf arrived and gave Barliman a letter to send to Frodo Baggins . The letter warned that the Nazgul had taken the form of Black Riders and were sent by Sauron after Frodo and his Ring, which was feared to be the One Ring itself. It said to leave the Shire at once. At the moment that Gandalf handed him the letter, Barliman had no servant who was willing to pass through the Old Forest and into the Shire to deliver it, so he completely forgot about it. The Nazgul were in pursuit of Frodo for three months by the time he finally left the Shire.
When they reached Bree, Barliman helped to hide Frodo and his companions. The next morning, the inn was attacked and the four Hobbits ' ponies were released. Being a good-willed man, Barliman bought Bill the Pony for twelve silver pennies for the Hobbits. He also gave Merry Brandybuck an extra eighteen pence for the road.
During Frodo's stay at the Prancing Pony, Barliman told what he knew of the Rangers he distrusted that frequented his inn. One of these Rangers, Strider , stared at Frodo from the second he entered the inn. When the Hobbits left, Strider accompanied them. Barliman apologized for his forgetfulness to Gandalf the next day when the wizard arrived demanding to know where Frodo had gone.
After the trouble that arouse in Bree during the War of the Ring , Barliman earned a great respect for the Rangers he had once distrusted.
Names & Meanings
Barliman is meant to reference the beer ingredient "barley." The name Butterbur references a plant as well as perhaps the large "buttery" figure of Barliman.
References
The Lord of the Rings, The Fellowship of the Ring: "Fog on the Barrow-downs," page 159; "At the Sign of the Prancing Pony," "Strider," pages 178-181; "A Knife in the Dark," pages 189-192
The Lord of the rings, The Return of the King: "Homeward Bound," pages 269-274
"Nomenclature of The Lord of the Rings," definition and translation of Butterbur
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Which US poet wrote the 1864 poem ‘Christmas Day’, after he had received news that his son had been seriously injured fighting in the American Civil War? | Beauty from tragedy, "I Heard the Bells on Christmas Day" | Communities Digital News
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Longfellow House
VIENNA, Va., December 15, 2014 — Many musicians and writers of poetry will admit that some of their finest work comes when they have experienced a death or a tragedy of some kind, that the writing of poetry has an almost cathartic effect on the writer.
Such is the case of one of the best known and most beloved carols associated with Christmas, “I Heard the Bells on Christmas Day,” which came from the pen of American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807-1882) and was written on Christmas Day, 1864.
His had been a tortured life in last few years before that day. On July 11, 1861, his wife Fanny had clipped some long curls from the head of her seven-year-old daughter, Edith, and wanting to save them in an envelope, melted a bar of sealing wax with a candle to seal the envelope.
Fanny Longfellow and two of her sons
Somehow the thin fabric of her clothing caught fire, and she quickly ran to Longfellow’s nearby study for help. He immediately tried to extinguish the flames with a small rug, and when that failed, he threw his arms around Fanny to smother the flames, causing him to sustain serious burns on his face, arms, and hands. His heroic act did not suffice, and Fanny died the next morning of her injuries. Longfellow was unable to even attend the funeral.
Photographs of Longfellow taken or made after the fire usually show him with a full beard, since he was no longer able to shave properly due to the burns and scarring.
The coming of the holiday season in the Longfellow house became a time of grieving for his wife while trying to provide a happy time for the children left at home. It was during Christmas 1862 that he wrote in his journal, “A ‘merry Christmas’ say the children, but that is no more for me.”
He had also suffered another disappointment when his oldest son, Charles Appleton “Charley” Longfellow, quietly left their Cambridge, Mass. home, and enlisted in the Union Army much against the wishes of his father.
In mid-March, Longfellow had received word from Charles, saying, “I have tried hard to resist the temptation of going without your leave, but I cannot any longer.” The determined young man continued, “I feel it to be my first duty to do what I can for my country and I would willingly lay down my life for it if it would be of any good.”
He was 17 years old and went to Capt. W. H. McCartney, who was in charge of Battery A of the 1st Mass. Artillery, asking to be allowed to enlist. McCartney knew the boy and knew he did not have his father’s permission, so he contacted the senior Longfellow to see if he could obtain it on his behalf. Longfellow conceded and acceded to the request.
Charles Longfellow
It was only a few months later that Charley came down with typhoid fever and malaria and was sent home to recover, not rejoining his unit until August 15, 1863.
Following the Gettysburg battle, which Charley had fortunately missed, the conflict made its way into Virginia, and it was at the Battle of New Hope Church, in Orange, VA., part of the Mine Run Campaign, that the young Lt. Longfellow sustained injuries, which seriously disabled him. He was hit in the shoulder and the ricocheting bullet took out some portions of several vertebrae. It was reported that he missed being paralyzed by less than one inch. Longfellow traveled to where his injured son was hospitalized and brought him home to Cambridge to recover.
The war for Charley was over.
And so at Christmas of 1864, a reflective and sad poet sat down and began to write the beautiful words that we sing each Christmas:
I Heard the Bells on Christmas Day
Their old familiar carols play,
And wild and sweet the words repeat
Of peace on earth, good will to men.
I thought how, as the day had come,
The belfries of all Christendom
Had rolled along the unbroken song
Of peace on earth, good will to men.
And in despair I bowed my head:
“There is no peace on earth,” I said,
“For hate is strong and mocks the song
Of peace on earth, good will to men.”
Then pealed the bells more loud and deep:
“God is not dead, nor doth he sleep;
The wrong shall fail, the right prevail,
With peace on earth, good will to men.”
Till, ringing, singing, on its way,
The world revolved from night to day,
A voice, a chime, a chant sublime,
Of peace on earth, good will to men!
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
Remembering that this was written during the Civil War, even though not published until 1872, we see the concerns of the War were much on Longfellow’s mind and heart. Thus there were two other verses that appeared in the original as verses four and five and are not song today, since they emphasize his feelings surrounding the War:
Then from each black accursed mouth
The cannon thundered in the South,
And with the sound,
Of peace on earth, good-will to men!
It was as if an earthquake rent
The hearth-stones of a continent,
And made forlorn,
The households born
Of peace on earth, good-will to men!
Longfellow’s heartfelt words of loss and hope were published and well received. John Baptiste Calkin (1827-1905), an English composer, was similarly affected by the poem, and it was he who penned the music that we know and sing today, slightly rearranging the verses or stanzas as he did.
While he was an organist and a music teacher, Calkin probably is best known as the composer of the music for Longfellow’s poem.
It is a glorious carol and provides the enduring concept that despite tragedy, loss, and even warfare, there is within most of us the hope and wish for “peace on earth, good-will to men!”
A very Merry Christmas to all of you, good friends and readers. May the coming year of 2012 be filled with good times, good books, good friends, and good health! And peace on earth.
| Henry Wadsworth Longfellow |
What type of foodstuff is halloumi? | 'I Heard the Bells on Christmas Day': From tragedy to hope | Communities Digital News
Dec 7, 2015
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During the Christmas of 1864, a saddened and reflective poet sat down and began to write the beautiful and immortal words that we sing each Christmas season.
Vintage image of couple separated by the Civil War, c. 1863. (Public domain)
VIENNA, Va., Dec. 7, 2015 — If you talk to musicians and poets around this time of year, they will often volunteer that some of their finest work comes to them after they have experienced a death or a tragedy of some kind. Writing poetry can, at times, actually have an almost cathartic effect on the author.
Daguerreotype of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow c. 1850 (Image via Wikipedia)
That is certainly the case when we examine one the best-known and most beloved Christmas carols ever associated with an American writer or poet. We’re talking about “I Heard the Bells on Christmas Day,” of course. This still widely read and sung poem—a hymn really—came from the pen of American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807-1882) and was composed on Christmas Day, 1864.
Longfellow has been leading a tortured existence during the last few years before that day. On July 11, 1861, his wife Fanny had clipped some long curls from the head of her 7-year-old daughter, Edith. Wanting to save them in an envelope, she placed the curls inside, then melted a bar of sealing wax with a candle to seal the envelope.
Somehow, the thin fabric of her clothing caught fire, and Fanny quickly ran to Longfellow’s nearby study for help. He immediately tried to extinguish the flames with a small rug, and when that failed, he threw his arms around Fanny to smother the flames, sustaining serious burns on his own face, arms and hands. Tragically, his heroic act did not suffice to save his wife. Fanny died the next morning from injuries. Longfellow himself was injured to the point where he was unable to attend the funeral.
Photographs of Longfellow taken or made after the fire usually show him with a full beard, since he was no longer able to shave properly due to the burns and scarring.
Fanny Appleton Longfellow (Image via Wikipedia)
The coming of the holiday season in the Longfellow house became a time of grieving for his wife while trying to provide a happy time for the children left at home. It was during Christmas 1862 that he wrote in his journal, “A ‘merry Christmas’ say the children, but that is no more for me.”
He had also suffered another disappointment when his oldest son, Charles Appleton “Charley” Longfellow, quietly left their Cambridge, Mass. home, and enlisted in the Union Army much against the wishes of his father.
In mid-March, Longfellow had received word from Charles, saying, “I have tried hard to resist the temptation of going without your leave, but I cannot any longer.” The determined young man continued, “I feel it to be my first duty to do what I can for my country and I would willingly lay down my life for it if it would be of any good.”
He was 17 years old and went to Capt. W. H. McCartney, who was in charge of Battery A of the 1st Mass. Artillery, asking to be allowed to enlist. McCartney knew the boy and knew he did not have his father’s permission, so he contacted the senior Longfellow to see if he could obtain it on his behalf. Longfellow granted that permission with foreboding and regret.
Fanny Longfellow, with sons Charles and Ernest, circa 1849 (Image via Wikipedia)
It was only a few months later that Charley came down with typhoid fever and malaria and was sent home to recover, not rejoining his unit again until August 15, 1863.
Following the battle of Gettysburg, which Charley had fortunately missed, the action made its way back into Virginia. It was at the Battle of New Hope Church in Orange, Virginia—part of the Mine Run Campaign—that the young Lt. Longfellow sustained seriously disabling injuries. He was hit in the shoulder, and the ricocheting bullet took out portions of several vertebrae. It was reported that he missed being paralyzed by less than one inch. Longfellow traveled to where his injured son was hospitalized and brought him home to Cambridge to recover.
The war for Charley was over.
And so during the Christmas of 1864, a saddened and reflective poet sat down and began to write the beautiful and immortal words that we sing each Christmas:
I Heard the Bells on Christmas Day
Their old familiar carols play,
And wild and sweet the words repeat
Of peace on earth, good will to men.
I thought how, as the day had come,
The belfries of all Christendom
Had rolled along the unbroken song
Of peace on earth, good will to men.
And in despair I bowed my head:
“There is no peace on earth,” I said,
“For hate is strong and mocks the song
Of peace on earth, good will to men.”
Then pealed the bells more loud and deep:
“God is not dead, nor doth he sleep;
The wrong shall fail, the right prevail,
With peace on earth, good will to men.”
Till, ringing, singing, on its way,
The world revolved from night to day,
A voice, a chime, a chant sublime,
Of peace on earth, good will to men!
Remembering that this was written during the Civil War, even though not published until 1872, we see the concerns of the War were much on Longfellow’s mind and heart. For that reason, two other verses appeared in the original as verses four and five. These are not usually sung today, since they emphasize the poet’s specific feelings about the War:
Then from each black accursed mouth
The cannon thundered in the South,
And with the sound,
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Lord Gnome is purported to be the proprietor of which fortnightly British publication? | British satirical magazine Private Eye in rude health at 50 - timesofmalta.com
Monday, October 3, 2011, 00:00 by
Sam Reeves, AFP
British satirical magazine Private Eye in rude health at 50
After decades lampooning hapless politicians, Britain’s leading satirical magazine Private Eye turns 50 next month with its brand of irreverent humour as popular as ever. Photo: Carl de Souza/AFP
After decades lampooning hapless politicians, Britain’s leading satirical magazine Private Eye turns 50 next month with its brand of irreverent humour as popular as ever.
The Eye, as it is affectionately known, has defiantly retained its old-fashioned, scrapbook appearance in an age of glossy magazines and fast-moving news delivered via the internet.
Anniversary celebrations include an exhibition at the Victoria and Albert museum in London and a glitzy party in central London, which the invitation says is sponsored by the Worshipful Company of Hacks and Jokewrights.
Largely the brainchild of four men who attended the same private school and worked on the school’s magazine, the Eye’s first edition published on October 25, 1961, was a yellow-paged booklet with the headline: Churchill Cult Next For Party Axe.
Fast forward five decades, and the fortnightly publication with its mix of off-colour humour and serious investigative journalism is going strong under the watchful eye of long-serving editor Ian Hislop and fictional proprietor Lord Gnome.
Its trademark cover with a photograph and a speech bubble regularly pokes fun at Prime Ministers, members of the royal family and media figures and has helped transform it into a British institution selling 200,000 copies each issue.
“I think if it did go glossy and have a very kind of modern design, readers would hate it,” said Eye journalist Adam Macqueen, who has written a book to mark the magazine’s half century entitled Private Eye: The First 50 Years.
“It would not seem as authentic, it is important, that slightly studenty, ragged look,” he said at the magazine’s offices, a maze-like network of cramped rooms in a ramshackle converted townhouse in London’s Soho district.
The Eye’s regular columns range from one focusing on corruption in local authorities, called Rotten Boroughs, to another filled with newsroom gossip, Street of Shame, which makes it a must-read for journalists.
While print media in Britain is in crisis, beset by plunging circulations and constant job cuts, the Eye’s focus on subscriptions and refusal to put all of its content on the Internet have helped to keep its sales healthy, Mr Macqueen said.
Sales of the Eye have hovered between 205,000 and 210,000 an issue in the past three years, and averaged 206,266 an edition between January and June this year, according to figures from the Audit Bureau of Circulations, which records newspaper sales in Britain. Mr Macqueen also put recent success down to a string of major news stories which have given the magazine’s journalists and joke writers plenty of material.
“Bad times for the country make for good times for the Eye – financial crises and coalition governments and unpopular wars, MPs’ expenses, and phone hacking and riots,” he said.
The recent phone-hacking scandal which has rocked the media empire of Rupert Murdoch, a regular target of criticism in the magazine where he is nicknamed the Dirty Digger, was the inspiration for a classic Eye front page.
The Gotcha edition of the Eye sold around 253,000 copies, about 45,000 more than average.
But the magazine has had its fair share of controversy, particularly over front-page jokes judged insensitive.
Perhaps the most controversial was the one following the death of Princess Diana in a Paris car crash in 1997, which prompted a major chain of newsagents to ban the issue from its stores.
Under the headline Media To Blame, it showed mourners outside Buckingham Palace with speech bubbles coming out of three figures. The first person says: “The papers are a disgrace.” “Yes. I couldn’t get one anywhere,” says the next, and the third responds: “Borrow mine. It’s got a picture of the car.”
As for the future, Mr Macqueen believes that as long as Britain keeps producing enough juicy news stories and gossip, there will be a place for the Eye.
If government “suddenly became utterly transparent, as did the media and everything in between, then there probably wouldn’t be much of a gap for it, but I don’t think that is going to happen anytime soon”, he said.
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| Private Eye |
Yorick’s skull appears in which play by William Shakespeare? | Books Monthly feature article
PRIVATE EYE MAGAZINE BY JERRY DOWLEN (Read Jerry Dowlen on Ray Davies on the home page)
‘Private Eye’ Magazine: Fifty Years of Savage Satire and Fun.
‘Private Eye’ magazine is currently celebrating its fiftieth year of publication. Yes, fifty years of satire; fifty years of relentless and often bullseye-hitting investigative journalism; and fifty years of infamous front covers and cartoons. To paraphrase Dr Samuel Johnson: “If a man is tired of ‘Private Eye’, he must be tired of fun”? I cannot deny that characters such as Snipcock & Tweed (publishers), Rita Chevrolet, Sir Herbert Gusset, Man with Beard and Boring Voice, Glenda Slagg, Dave Spart and E.J. Thribb have become fixed references in my life! And who can forget or fail to enjoy such wickedly humorous ‘Private Eye’ front covers or cartoons such as Enoch Powell (“… And some of them have them this big!”); John & Yoko (“This won’t stand up in court”); Monica Lewinsky (“I’m Going to Go Down in History”). etc. When I stop and think about it, I realise that for many more years than I care to remember, it has been a fortnightly ritual of mine, on my way to work, to check out on Wednesday mornings the front cover of the latest new issue of ‘Private Eye’ magazine while I’m walking past the newspaper stand outside The Monument tube station in London.
‘The Private Eye Story – The First 21 Years’ – author Patrick Marnham (Andre Deutsch, 1982); ‘Lord of the Gnomes’ – author Harry Thompson (Mandarin, 1995).
Not only has ‘Private Eye’ reached its fiftieth anniversary but its famous former editor Richard Ingrams has reached the grand old age of seventy-five, this year, too. He was co-founder of ‘Private Eye’ in 1961 and editor from 1963 to 1986. His subsequent success in founding and editing ‘The Oldie’ magazine has dated from 1992, shortly before his biographer Harry Thompson published ‘Lord of the Gnomes’. (It is one of the long-running jokes in ‘Private Eye’ that Lord Gnome is the fictional proprietor of the magazine). So it is twenty years too, being celebrated this year, that ‘The Oldie’ has survived and thrived. Richard Ingrams has proved to be a versatile writer: one of my favourite of his books is the words-and-photographs portrait of Romney Marsh in Kent, published some thirty years ago with co-author Fay Godwin.
If I pair the Ingrams biography with Andrew Marnham’s history of the early days of ‘Private Eye’ I am presented with an immediate but probably over-simplistic hindsight view that ‘Private Eye’ can be split into two distinctly separate eras: the “Ingrams” era and the “Hislop” era. Ian Hislop succeeded Ingrams as editor in 1986 and I duly pose the question: has the transition been seamless, or can you see the join? Answer: Hislop has undoubtedly preserved much of the soul and essential content of ‘Private Eye’, but inevitably the magazine has evolved and shaped in ways that differentiate it from the output during the Richard Ingrams era that I always subliminally associate with the late Willie Rushton, Auberon Waugh (one of my all-time favourite newspaper and magazine columnists) and other early contributors to the magazine, notably including Barry Humphries, alter ego of Dame Edna, who authored the Barry McKenzie cartoon series, illustrated by Nicholas Garland.
In the wake of the “satire boom” that went mainstream into British households via BBC television’s ground-breaking ‘That Was the Week That Was’ in the early 1960s, Ingrams piloted ‘Private Eye’ through some initial teething problems of in-fighting and financial uncertainty to achieve the recognition and praise that came from Jo Grimond in 1971 when the former leader of the Liberal party declared that: “In ‘Private Eye’ you will find stories, sometimes of importance, mentioned nowhere else, and on the whole more accurately reported than in the popular press.”
‘Private Eye’ battled through the 1960s largely regarded as a fringe publication that was often decried as “filth”: the more so when it disrespectfully lampooned the Royal family and figures from the top echelons of government and establishment. Great too was the opprobrium when front covers of ‘Private Eye’ magazine mocked foreign Heads of State: I well remember the outcry in 1966 when Issue 124 had the headline ‘Verwoerd (the assassinated South African prime minister) – A Nation Mourns’, and the illustration was a group of black Zulus staging a war-dance. I remember too – it is one of the first front covers that I am always likely to think of – the state visit to London by Emperor Hirohito of Japan in 1971 when Issue 256 showed him embarking from his aeroplane beneath the caption ‘A Nasty Nip in the Air’.
Fast-forward to the 50th anniversary of ‘Private Eye’ in October 2011 and no one would be astonished to learn that by that time Her Majesty the Queen and other members of the Royal family had been featured on no less than 95 front covers of the magazine. Prominent politicians such as Prime Ministers of Britain or Presidents of the United States had become regular targets too for front-cover mockery. And let’s not forget that Richard Ingrams and John Wells started the immortal ‘Mrs Wilson’s Diaries’ in 1964: ever since then a spoof diary or newsletter, purportedly emanating from 10 Downing Street, has graced the pages of ‘Private Eye’ magazine.
If I tell you that the early 1970s saw the start in ‘Private Eye’ of the ‘Grovel’ gossip column, followed by ‘Pseud’s Corner’, the Crossword, ‘Nooks and Corners’, ‘In the Courts’ and ‘In the City’ does this support or shoot down my theory that the Ingrams era can be distinguished from the Hislop era? Some of these features are running still; others have disappeared. The crossword, incidentally, defiantly perpetuates the element of “filth” in ‘Private Eye’: although its first compiler Tom Driberg is long-gone, still today the answers to the clues in any puzzle will invariably be words or phrases like Sweet FA, Syphilis, Viagra, and All Piss and Wind.
Sport in ‘Private Eye’ magazine: Neasden FC, The Cloggies, Commentatorballs, etc
‘Private Eye’ has not spared football from satire: quite savage satire, too, at times. Their current cartoon series ‘The Premiersh—s’ does not pull any punches in exposing the seamy side of big-money football. Nor is ‘Private Eye’ persuaded that female commentators or reporters have any place in football: from time to time their sports “expert” Sally Jockstrap pens a column in which she gets all her names and facts hopelessly muddled up.
A much gentler touch was applied to Neasden FC, whose hapless manager Ron Knee (age 59) was always “ashen-faced”; whose two supporters Sid and Doris Bonkers were usually the sole paying spectators; and whose players, especially Pevsner, scored multiple own goals. We don’t seem to get Neasden in the magazine that often nowadays, but if ever you should find yourself near Dollis Hill, watching a football match in the North Circular Relegation League where the home side has a one-legged goalkeeper Wally Foot and is losing 0-23, you have probably found Neasden FC!
On the sporting front, the long-running cartoon series ‘The Cloggies’ was a big favourite of mine. Drawn by the late great Bill Tidy, the series made cult heroes of the Lancashire born champion clog-dancing team, whose two big missions in life were to drink copious amounts of ale, and to beat their opponents into submission by virtue of skilfully-executed dance moves that involved brutally kneeing the rival team in tender parts of the body.
‘Commentatorballs’ is the most famous sports column in ‘Private Eye’. It mercilessly reprints verbal nonsenses spouted by commentators during a live broadcast on the television and radio. Here are some recent classics that I have seen in ‘Private Eye’: “The goalkeeper mishandled it with both feet” (Nigel Worthington); “Not one of the Arsenal players surrounded the referee” (Alan Shearer); “It’s 50 – 50 in Wales’s favour” (Ian Robertson). Oh dear! But – could I do the job any better? Definitely not!
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In February 1906, which type of British battleship was launched for the first time? | 10th February 1906: The launch of HMS Dreadnought - YouTube
10th February 1906: The launch of HMS Dreadnought
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Published on Feb 9, 2016
On the 10th February 1906 the British King, Edward VII, launched HMS Dreadnought – a revolutionary new type of battleship that made all other ships obsolete. She was the fastest and most heavily-armed ship in the world, and the name Dreadnought began to be used to describe a whole class of similar ships.
You might think that having the best ship in the world would make Britain the undisputed champion of the seas, but the launch of the Dreadnought arguably created more problems than it solved. Ever since the British government adopted the Two-Power Standard as part of the Naval Defence Act in 1889, the Royal Navy had to have at least the same number of battleships as the next two largest navies in the world combined. At that point it was France and Russia, but by 1906 Wilhelm II had become Kaiser of Germany and began aggressive military expansion and the development of a German Empire under his ‘World Policy’ or Weltpolitik.
But why was the Dreadnought a problem to Britain the Two-Power Standard? The issue was that Britain now only had one more Dreadnought than every other country in the world. With all other ships obsolete in the wake of the new design, it was too easy for other countries to catch up. When Germany launched the first of its Dreadnought-style Nassau ships in 1908, Britain was forced to keep ahead by building more and more. The naval arms race and the tension that followed was a major contributing factor to the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.
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What was the name of the daughter of the Native American chief of the Powhatan Confederacy who married English settler John Rolfe in 1613? | Royal Navy Battleships
Royal Navy Battleships
Sunk in collision with HMS Camperdown, 22 Jun 1893.
Trafalgar
Target ship, sunk Nov 1913.
Sunk as block ship, 1914.
Centurion
War loss: Torpedoed by U.21, 27 May 1915.
War losss: Torpedoed by Turkish PTB, 13 May 1915
War loss: Sunk by mine and gunfire, 18 Mar 1915.
War loss: Torpedoed by U.24, 1 Jan 1915
War loss: Sunk by mine and gunfire, 18 Mar 1915
Destroyed by internal explosion, 26 Nov 1914
War loss: Torpedoed by U.32, 9 Jan 1917
War loss: Struck mine, 27 Apr 1916
Wrecked (ran aground in fog), 30 May 1906
King Edward VII
War loss: Struck mine, 6 Jan 1916
War loss: Torpedoed by UB.50, 9 Nov 1918
War loss: Torpedoed Apr 1916.
Lord Nelson
Training ship, 1919. Scrapped 1922-23.
Collingwood
Destroyed by internal explosion, 9 Jul 1917
Neptune
Sunk as target 20 Jan 1925
Cadet ship 1920-26. Scrapped 1927
Erin
Canada (originally and later Almirante Lattore)
27 Nov 1911
Returned to Chilean ownership Apr 1920. Scrapped 1959
Completed as carrier HMS Eagle. War Loss: Sunk by U-73 11 Aug 1942
King George V
Scuttled Jun 1944 off Normandy
War loss: Struck mine 27 Oct 1914.
Converted to gunnery training ship 1931-32. Scrapped 1946
Broke tow and ran aground 23 Apr 1947, scrapped to 1956
I-04
War loss: Sunk 25 Nov 1941 by U-331
I-01
War loss: Sunk by U-47 at Scapa Flow 14 October 1939
I-05
Cancelled Feb 1922 by Washington Treaty
War loss: Sunk by Japanese torpedo bombers 10 Dec 1941
I-17
Construction stopped Oct 1939. Cancelled 27 Mar 1944.
I-36
Construction stopped Oct 1939. Cancelled 1941
I-45
War loss: Exploded after being hit by gunfire from Lützow, 31 May 1916
War loss: Exploded after being hit by gunfire from von der Tann, 31 May 1916
Sunk to comply with Washington Treaty, 1924
War loss: Exploded after being hit by gunfire from Seydlitz and Derfflinger, 31 May 1916
War loss: Sunk by Japanese torpedo bombers 10 Dec 1941
War loss: Sunk by U-29, 17 Sep 1939.
War loss: Sunk by gunfire from Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, 8 Jun 1940.
Furious
Converted to carrier 1918. Scrapped
Incomparable
War loss: Exploded during engagement with Bismarck, 24 May 1941
Cancelled Feb 1922 by Washington Treaty
Fairfield Shipbuilding & Engineering Co., Govan, Glasgow
Harland & Wolff
Palmers, Shipbuilding & Engineering Co. Greenock
Portsmouth
Thames Iron Works, Blackwall (Bankrupt 1912)
Vickers
Vickers, Barrow-in-Furness
Note on pennant numbers:
British pennant numbers were generally not permanently assigned to a particular ship and may change periodically, unlike those assigned to ships of the US Navy. The only reference that lists these pennant numbers is
Sigfried Breyer's
Battleships and Battlecruisers 1905-1970
, pg 128.
The pennant numbers given apply only to the period of World War II. These pennant numbers were not painted on the ships. Jane's Fighting Ships of World War II contradicts some of these pennant number assignments.
British name prefixes
Since time immemorial, British warship names have been prefixed with "HMS", which stands for His Majesty's Ship or Her Majesty's Ship, depending on whether a king or queen is currently reigning.
Royal Navy Battleship Chronology
22 Jun 1893.HMS Victoria sunk by collision with HMS Camperdown.
10 Feb 1906: HMS Dreadnought launched.
25 Jan 1910: Jackie Fisher retires from the Royal Navy.
August 1914-November 11 1918: World War I. Victory for Great Britain.
28 Aug 1914: Battle of Heligoland Bight. British light forces supported by battlecruisers HMS Lion, HMS Princess Royal, HMS Queen Mary,
, and
attack the light forces guarding the approaches to Germany's main naval bases. After a confused action between the light forces the British battlecruisers intervene directly and decisively. Three German cruisers are sunk.
1914: Jackie Fisher becomes First Sea Lord.
8 Dec 1914: Battle of the Falklands: British battlecruisers HMS Invincible and HMS Inflexible sink German cruisers SMS Scharnhorst and SMS Gneisenau
24 January 1915: Battle of Dogger Bank. First battle between Dreadnought type warships. Battlecruisers HMS Lion, HMS Tiger, HMS Princess Royal, HMS New Zealand, and HMS Indomitable intercept a German raiding force that includes three battlecruisers. The German armored cruiser SMS Blücher is sunk, but communication errors allow the German battlecruisers to escape. The British flagship, HMS Lion, is seriously damaged.
19 Feb 1915-1916: Dardanelles (Gallipoli) campaign.
19 Feb 1915:The Gallipoli campaign opens with the bombardment of the Turkish fortifications guarding the Dardanelles by British and French battleships, mostly obsolete pre-dreadnoughts.
18 Mar 1915: The battleship force attempts to force the straights, but mines and Turkish artillery sink three old battleships, HMS Ocean, HMS Irresistible, and French pre-dreadnought Bouvet, and badly damaged several others. The fleet is forced to withdraw. Ironically had the attack been quickly resumed it almost certainly would have succeeded, for the Turks had run out of ammunition.
25 Apr 1915: The British staged an amphibious invasion with the objective of neutralizing the now rearmed Turkish fortifications. Many older battleships are used for shore bombardment.
25 May 1915: First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill is forced to resign due to the heavy losses in the Dardanelles campaign.
31 May - 1 Jun 1916: Battle of Jutland. This was the largest naval battle to date, and the second largest of all time. It was the largest battleship action ever. The British lose more ships than they sink: three battlecruisers, HMS Invincible, HMS Inflexible, and HMS Queen Mary while sinking only the battlecruiser SMS Lützow and the pre-dreadnought SMS Pommern. The Germans claim a tactical victory, but the battle is a strategic victory for the Royal Navy, which forced the High Seas Fleet had to retreat, and maintained their blockade of Germany.
1918: German Navy mutinies
11 November 1918: Armistace signed.
14 Nov 1918: German fleet interned at the British naval base at Scapa Flow.
21 June 1919: The Grand Scuttle. The bulk of the German fleet, interned at the British naval base at Scapa Flow, scuttles itself in the (justified?) belief that their ships would be siezed by the British.
Washington Treaty
12 Nov 1921-6 Feb 1922 Washington Conference on naval arms limitation.
6 Feb 1922: The Washington Treaty signed. New battleship construction stopped, many old battleships scrapped.
1 September 1939-2 Sep 1945: World War II.
Expensive victory for Great Britain.
14 Sep 1939: German U-47 sinks HMS Royal Oak at Scapa Flow.
17 Sep 1939: Scharnhorst and Gneisenau sink British carrier HMS Glorious.
December 1939: Battle of the River Platte: Graf Spee fights light cruisers HMS Ajax and HMS Achilles and heavy cruiser HMS Exeter, then retreats to Montevideo, Uruguay.
17 December 1939: Graf Spee scuttles near Montevideo, Uruguay, to avoid fighting a now-superior British force.
9 April 1940: HMS Renown engages German battlecruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau. The German battlecruisers retreat.
13 April 1940: Second Battle of Narvik: HMS Warspite and her accompanying destroyers sink a U-64 and eight German destroyers in the restricted waters of Vestfjord .
3 Jul 1940: Mers-el-Khebir: British battleships HMS Valiant and HMS Resolution and battlecruiser HMS Hood attack French battleships and battlecruisers in port to prevent their capture by the Germans. Provence and Dunkerque damaged, Bretagne sunk. Strasbourg escapes.
9 Jul 1940: Battle of Calabria: HMS Warspite, HMS Malaya and HMS Royal Sovereign fight Italian battleships Guilio Cesare and Conte di Cavour. Italian ships retreat.
24-25 Sep 1940: Battle of Dakar: Arguably the most justifiably forgotten battleship action ever. British battleships HMS Barham and HMS Resolution fail to seriously damage the Richelieu. Richelieu returns fire, slightly damaging HMS Barham and more seriously damaging herself.
March 1941: Battle of Cape Matapan: HMS Warspite, HMS Barham, HMS Valiant and several other ships fight Italian forces. Three Italian heavy cruisers, Zara, Pola and Fiume, are sunk, but the Italian battleship Vittorio Veneto escapes.
24 May 1941: Battle of the Denmark Strait: The German battleship Bismarck and heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen sink HMS Hood and damage HMS Prince of Wales. Bismarck is slightly, but signifiantly damaged by HMS Prince of Wales.
27 May 1941: German battleship Bismarck sunk by a combination of gunfire from battleships HMS King George V and HMS Rodney, torpedoes from HMS Dorsetshire, and Bismarck's own scuttling charges.
25 Nov 1941: HMS Barham sunk by U-331 in the Mediterranean.
10 December 1941:HMS Prince of Wales and HMS Repulse are sunk by Japanese torpedo bombers near Singapore.
26 Dec 1943: Battle of the North Cape: Scharnhorst sunk by gunfire from battleship HMS Duke of York, heavy cruiser HMS Norfolk, and light cruiser HMS Belfast, and also by torpedoes from light cruiser HMS Jamaica
6 May 1945: Admiral Dönitz surrenders for Germany, ending the European part of World War II.
2 Sep 1945: Japanese surrender at Tokyo Bay, finally ending World War II. HMS King George V is present.
25 Apr 1946: HMS Vanguard, the last British battleship, is commissioned.
1960: HMS Vanguard, the last British battleship, is scrapped.
Copyright © 2000 Lawrence H. Wells and David R. Wells. All rights reserved.
Click Here to return to the Wells Brothers' Battleships Index
Click Here to return to the Wells Brothers' Home Page
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What is the name of the private yacht that golfer Tiger Woods gave as a wedding gift to his ex-wife Elin? | The Marriage of Tiger and Elin Woods
By Sheri Stritof
Updated February 18, 2016.
From a lavish, posh, ritzy, bewitching, exclusive, expensive, and elaborate sunset wedding to a bizarre crash into a tree and an apology for "transgressions" and "personal failings", the marriage of Tiger Woods and Elin Nordegren continued to make news headlines. Here's information on how the two met and more facts about their wedding, marriage, and divorce.
News Updates:
8/23/2010: While details of the divorce of Tiger Woods and Elin Nordegren Woods were not disclosed, Steve Helling of People.com reported "The couple were present at Bay County Circuit Court in Panama City, Fla., Monday for the execution of their divorce agreement." It is assumed that Elin will use her maiden name, that the couple will share custody of their two children, and that Ellen's share in the division of their property and assets will be substantial.
"Bay County Courthouse officials say the couple showed up for a hearing room at the Bay County juvenile justice court house on East 11th street with their lawyers, to file their divorce papers. Now usually this takes 20 days to become final, but immediately after filing, the Woods then went to the main courthouse on 4th street, where Circuit Judge Judy Pittman Biebel expedited the case."
continue reading below our video
5 Ways You Can Tell It is Love
"This afternoon Elin and Tiger Woods came into the courthouse and filed their petition of dissolution of marriage to get there started for divorce and they went up to the judges office and the final judgment was signed, so they are officially divorced," said Bill Kinsaul, Bay Clerk of Courts."
Where They Met:
Elin and Tiger met in 2001 at the British Open at Royal Lytham in England. Elin was working as an au pair to Jesper Parnevik, a Swedish golfer.
Proposal:
On November 25, 2003, Tiger (27) proposed to Elin (23) in the South African Shamwari Game Reserve while they were on a romantic walk at sunset. They were there for a safari vacation and slept under the stars after the Presidents Cup.
Wedding Date and Info:
October 5, 2004. The ceremony itself was simple although the rest of the wedding preparations were elaborate and expensive. 500 red roses were imported for the wedding.
Their sunset wedding was held under a white-netted pagoda decorated with red roses on the 19th hole of the Sandy Lane Golf Resort in Barbados. Reportedly , Rev. Ricky Kirton was the officiant at their wedding. The exclusive resort is located on the west coast of the Caribbean locale. The wedding reportedly cost between $1.5 million -- $2 million.
Tiger hired the whole complex for a week including 110 rooms and and three golf courses. The rooms reportedly cost from $700 to $9,000 per night each.
A team of hairdressers were flown in from London. Elin wore an off-white sleeveless gown. Tiger wore a beige suit.
Approximately 150 guests were at the wedding, including Oprah Winfrey, Michael Jordan, Charles Barkley, and Bill Gates.
The wedding reception was held in the resort banquet room which was decorated with 10,000 red and black roses. Champagne and caviar were served to the wedding guests. Hootie & the Blowfish played the music, and fireworks lit up the night after the wedding ceremony.
Honeymoon:
Their first night as a married couple was spent on a rented multi-million dollar, 155 foot yacht named Privacy.
Hometowns:
Tiger -- Cypress, California; Elin -- Stockholm, Sweden.
Religion:
Elin: Model, Au Pair (Nanny)
Residences:
Jupiter Island, Florida: "The estate has a four-hole golf course with sand traps, 100 ft.-long swimming pool, diving pool, spa, 100 ft. field and track area, tennis and basketball courts, a pair of boat docks, and a reflecting pond. Inside the facility is a 5,700 sq.-ft. fitness center ... Inside the house, there is a large master suite with his and her bathrooms, three additional bedroom suites, a massive media room, elevator and state-of-the-art kitchen. The basement has a large wine cellar and multiple game rooms. A guest house, garage, golf training studio and boat house round out the [12-acre] property, which stretches from the Atlantic Ocean to the Intracoastal Waterway."
Source: Linda Marx. "See Tiger Woods's Extravagant New Estate." People.com. 2/4/2011.
Windermere, Florida: Southwest of Orlando, Florida, a $2.648 million, 8-bedroom, 9-bath 6,692 sq. ft. three-level home in the gated community of Isleworth with a boat dock, fireplace, swimming pool and spa. This is where Tiger and Elin lived prior to their divorce.
Yacht named "Privacy": 6,500 sq.-ft., $20 million yacht docked at the Old Port Cove Marina in North Palm Beach, Florida. The 155 foot yacht has 5 guestrooms, a gym, a jacuzzi, a lounge bar, an elevator, and other luxuries.
Children:
Tiger and Elin have two children.
Sam Alexis Woods: Born 2007.
Charlie Axel Woods: Born 2009.
Tiger about the birth of their baby: "If she's [Elin] going to have it during the week of the Open, I just don't go. That's the most important thing, not a golf tournament."
Source: Barker Davis. "Halfway Home." . WashingtonTimes.com. 3/27/2007.
Pets:
A border collie named Taz. Tiger received the puppy as a gift from Elin on his 30th birthday.
Other Marriages:
None.
Quotes about the Marriage of Tiger and Elin:
Elin: "I have been through the stages of disbelief and shock, to anger and ultimately grief over the loss of the family I so badly wanted for my children ... I also feel stronger than I ever have. I have confidence in my beliefs, my decisions and myself."
Source: Sandra Sobieraj Westfall. "Elin Nordegren Speaks: 'I Feel Stronger Than I Ever Have.'" People.com. 8/25/2010.
Elin: "I've been through hell. It's hard to think you have this life, and then all of a sudden – was it a lie? You're struggling because it wasn't real. But I survived. It was hard, but it didn't kill me ... I'm so embarrassed that I never suspected –- not a one. For the past 3 1/2 years, when all this was going on, I was home a lot more with pregnancies, then the children and my school ... Forgiveness takes time. It is the last step of the grieving process."
Source: "Elin Nordegren Breaks Silence: Speaks to People Magazine." HuffingtonPost.com. 8/25/2010.
Sandra Sobieraj Westfall: "She [Elin] really wanted people to know three things right off the bat: She’s not violent; she’s never hit him; she had no idea any of this was going on —- as embarrassing as it is for her to admit that, she never suspected ... And lastly, that this was a real marriage for her; that she believed that they were in love and that they were going to be a family forever.”
Source: Michael Inbar. "Tiger Woods' ex: I've been through hell." MSNBC.msn.com. 8/25/2010.
Buzz Bissinger: "... it is safe to say that behind the non-accessible accessibility and seemingly perfect marriage to a beautiful woman was a sex addict who could not get enough. There is nothing wrong with that, given that the opportunities for Tiger were endless. But it is hard not to conclude that the only reason he got married was to burnish that precious image even more, family man on the outside and what Logan calls “this whole alternate life” on the inside. Even Hugh Hefner publicly disapproved of Woods’s behavior, decrying not that he had sex with other women but that he tried to lie and cheat his way through his liaisons without manning up to the fact that the marriage wasn’t working."
Source: Buzz Bissinger. "Tiger in the Rough." VanityFair.com. 2/2010.
Earl Woods: “I’ve told Tiger that marriage is unnecessary in a mobile society like ours.”
Source: Karen Crouse. "Moony Eyes, Lilting Voice, Then a Stunner From Woods." NYTimes.com. 12/26/2009.
Tiger Woods: "I have a balance in my life. Ever since Elin came into my life, things just became a lot better. Someone you can bounce things off, somebody who is a great friend. We do just about everything together. It's nice having that type of person around you. She's so much like me. She's very competitive, very feisty, just like I am."
Source: Denver Post . 4/06.
Tiger on marriage: "Honestly, I think I can be better. My marriage is only going to help me. I found a person I can talk to and a person who is going to be by my side through thick and thin. Elin has instilled a lot of confidence in me in all aspects of my life."
Source: Tiger Woods Site. 4/19/05.
Marriage Scandal News:
3/22/2010: Taking responsibility again, in two interviews on March 21, 2010, Tiger Woods talked about the sex scandal surrounding him. According to CBSNews.com , Tiger admitted "living a lie" and said "It was all me. I'm the one who did it. I'm the one who acted the way I acted ... I've done some pretty bad things in my life ... It was disgusting behavior."
p>2/19/2010: Tiger Woods latest apology includes this comment: "Some people have speculated that Elin somehow hurt or attacked me on Thanksgiving night. It angers me that people would fabricate a story like that."
" Elin never hit me that night or any other night. There has never been an episode of domestic violence in our marriage, ever. Elin has shown enormous grace and poise throughout this ordeal. Elin deserves praise, not blame. The issue involved here was my repeated irresponsible behavior. I was unfaithful. I had affairs. I cheated. What I did is not acceptable, and I am the only person to blame."
12/27/2009: Although there were reports that Tiger's yacht left the Palm Beach area with Tiger aboard , as of 12/27/09, the yacht was still in Palm Beach.
12/11/2009: Tiger Woods said he is going to focus his "attention on being a better husband, father, and person" and used the word "infidelity" for the first time in a statement announcing that he is taking a hiatus from golf.
"I am deeply aware of the disappointment and hurt that my infidelity has caused to so many people, most of all my wife and children. I want to say again to everyone that I am profoundly sorry and that I ask forgiveness. It may not be possible to repair the damage I've done, but I want to do my best to try." Full Statement
12/02/2009: Tiger Woods posted an apology on his web site : "I have let my family down and I regret those transgressions with all of my heart. I have not been true to my values and the behavior my family deserves. I am not without faults and I am far short of perfect. I am dealing with my behavior and personal failings behind closed doors with my family. Those feelings should be shared by us alone ... The stories in particular that physical violence played any role in the car accident were utterly false and malicious."
11/29/09: Tiger Woods statement about his single-car accident. "The only person responsible for the accident is me. My wife, Elin, acted courageously when she saw I was hurt and in trouble. She was the first person to help me. Any other assertion is absolutely false."
Born:
Eldrick "Tiger" Woods: December 30, 1975, in Cypress, California.
Elin Maria Pernilla Nordegren: January 1, 1980 in Stockholm, Sweden.
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Inauguration Day in the US is held during which month of the year? | Tiger Woods Net Worth - biography, quotes, wiki, assets, cars, homes and more
Tiger Woods Net Worth
About Quotes Trivia
Born on: 30th Dec 75 Born in: United States Marital status: Divorced Occupation: Professional Golf
Tiger Woods net worth is estimated at $600 million. He is a renowned golf genius and a perfect combination of power, finesse and athletic prowess. The journey of Tiger Woods from golf prodigy to golf professional began at a very little age of two. His hard work has single-handedly redefined the game of golf and blessed him with countless number of exciting tournament victories which sky rocketed Tiger Woods net worth. He has also been the face behind multimillion dollar endorsements where a significant portion of Tiger Woods net worth came from. He is a perfect blend of incredible golf talents and youthful appeal which makes him an eye candy for the women. Apart from being a golf champion, he is an avid fisherman who has gone fly-fishing as far away as Ireland and Alaska, Tiger Woods is one of the most charitable sports figures and even donated $3 million of his own money to victims of the 2010 earthquake in Haiti, how's that for the human touch of Tiger Woods net worth? His achievements speak for his success. He has amassed over 70 PGA victories and won at 14 majors, including 4 each at the PGA Championship and the Masters, booming Tiger Woods net worth . He is the first athlete to earn over a billion dollars over the course of his career and he has also been awarded PGA Player of the Year a record ten times - an achievement which became a plus factor to Tiger Woods net worth. Update: Recent girlfriend of Tiger Woods , U.S. Skier' Lindsey Vonn seriously injured her right knee during a brutal crashed at the World Alpine Skiing Championship in Austria.
"Achievements on the golf course are not what matters, decency and honesty are what matter."
"And I don't cook, either. Not as long as they still deliver pizza."
"I love to play golf, and that's my arena. And you can characterize it and describe it however you want, but I have a love and a passion for getting that ball in the hole and beating those guys."
"Winning is not always the barometer of getting better."
"There's no sense in going to a tournament if you don't believe that you can win it. And that is the belief I have always had. And that is not going to change."
He has been world number one for the most consecutive weeks and for the greatest total number of weeks of any golfer.
He was inducted December 5, 2007 at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts in Sacramento.
He is the only person to be named Sports Illustrateds Sportsman of the Year more than once.
He has won 79 official PGA Tour events, including 14 majors.
He is the only player to have won all four professional major championships in a row, accomplishing the feat in the 2000–2001 seasons.
Family & relationships
Tiger Woods Estates and Homes (3)
Jupiter Island Mansion
After giving away his Orlando home to ex-wife, Tiger Woods is staying all alone in his sprawling 10-acre ocean front estate in Florida, complete with its own backyard golf course. The house was planned and half built with the help of his now ex-wife, Elin Nordegren. He has spent $54.5 million in building this grand mansion.
Location: Golfer’s new house is is on ultra exclusive Jupiter Island, Florida which is a very small town with a population under 800.
Accommodation: The house is built on the vast area of 10,000 sq ft including a mansion and four other building. The house also has two swimming pools, basketball and tennis courts. The house has large windows each facing towards the endless sea. The mansion has a enormous master bedroom with his and her bathroom that was planned by his ex-wife. There are three other bedroom suites as well. The basemant of the house has a vast wine cellar and possibly a cinema and games area with the best equipment. Four other buildings are boathouse, golf training studio, a stand-alone garage and a enormous guesthouse.Exterior of the house has a tennis court, gym, diving pool, lap lane and small golf course.
Neighborhood: Six of the top 50 golf players in the world, together with top-ranked Luke Donald, at present own homes in the area. Norman, Jack Nicklaus, Gary Player and Masters champion Charl Schwartzel also resides in Jupiter Island.
One of the luxurious properties of Tiger Woods
Orlando home
Tiger Woods bought this Orlando home for $2.6 million where Tiger and Elin lived here prior to their divorce. This home was the site for that infamous car crash that brought Wood’s transgressions to limelight. He has given up Orlando-area home he and soon-to-be ex-wife Elin once shared as part of the couple’s multi-million divorce settlement.
Location: The property is located on the Southwest of Orlando, Florida
Accommodation: The house is spread in the area of 6,692 sq and features 8-bedrooms and 9-baths in 3 stories and a vast living area. The house also has a pool and lush green gardens.
Hawaiian Villa
Tiger Woods owns a luxurious villa in Hawaii. This huge property lies amid nature and boasts a spectacular view of endless water. Woods uses this property as a vacation home.
The bathroom in the villa of Tiger Woods
Tiger Woods Yachts (2)
Solitude yacht
What appeared to be as a failed attempt to salvage his embattled relationship with his wife Elin, Woods bought a fully customized, 61 feet yacht aptly named as Solitude as a gift for her. This is a diving boat which was built at a cost of $2 to $3 million.
Privacy yacht
Tiger Woods own this 155 foot mega yacht that which he bought in the year 2004 for spending some private moments with his family. Along with a permanent crew of 13, the yacht can easily sleep 21 people at a time. On the boat's deck is a large bar and an 8 person jacuzzi. The interior of this yacht have a perfect finishing with cherry woodwork. It has a VIP stateroom which includes two queen size cabin and a twin cabin. The second twin cabin has been converted to a workout room with a treadmill, exercise bike and free weights. The sweeping staircase has transparent stairs and a cherry handrail. The yacht provided Woods with another $1.6 million as a settlement, when he successfully sued the yacht builder who had used his name for promoting its boat and business without permission.
Wonder floating device
Tiger got the yacht made in Christensen Shipyards
Tiger Woods Private jets (1)
Gulfstream G550
Tiger Woods owns a Gulfstream G550. It is a perfect business jet aircraft. Its unique feature is that it is capable of carrying up to 16 people in standard seating configurations and can fly up to 6,500 nmi (12,000 km). It is the longest range business jet ever made.
Gulfstream G550
Tiger woods getting aboard on his private jet
Tiger Woods Autos and Cars (6)
Cadillac Escalade
Tiger Woods drives an Escalade which is the largest vehicle in Cadillac's lineup, with the largest EXT version coming in at a hulking 5,909 pounds. It has that extra heft that can prove to be really valuable in case of a crash, especially in a collision against a smaller vehicle. The Escalade has front air bags for the driver and passenger, and also side-curtain air bags for everyone in the vehicle. It is top rated by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration for passenger safety and it even secured five stars across the board. He was in his Cadillac when the famous car crash happened.
Buick Enclave
Woods was the man who made great contribution in the debut of the Brick Enclave model in the year 2008. Tiger himself was extremely happy with the car’s interiors and exteriors. He stated that,”The interior is so comfortable and there’s plenty of room for my sticks. I’m really excited for Buick and what all- new Enclave means for the division and GM.”
Luxury crossover SUV
One of the finest big saloons on the planet
The Golf Cart
Tiger possess many of these with all the luxury convenience facilities. He is happy to make and own individual models of golf carts; which is the biggest reason for his collection to remain a mystery.
Mercedes-Benz S65
The controversial champion Tiger Woods drives a metallic black Mercedes-Benz S65, and was photographed arriving at a professional golf event held on March 2012. The $210,000 vehicle possesses just the perfect blend of super cool looks and majestic on road performance. Exterior fittings like exaggerated wheel arches and large 19 inch five spoke alloy wheels provides the S65 with a very aggressive stance. The interiors of the S65 are quite roomy and sport just the perfect blend of an expensive wooden trim level along with comprehensive high end nappa leather upholstery.
Tiger Woods Wedding (1)
Elin and Tiger Woods were married on October 5, 2004, at the island nation of Barbados. The overall expenditure on their wedding was $US 1.5 million. Tiger rented the entire Sandy Lane resort including its luxury hotel, its beachfront resort area, its two golf courses and their clubhouses. The ceremonies took place inside a pagoda on the resort grounds, festooned with a reported 500 red roses that Tiger had flown in. Nordegren wore an off-white sleeveless gown and Woods wore a beige suit. There were around 120 guests who attended the ceremony, with basketball stars Michael Jordan and Charles Barkley, and even stars like Bill Gates and Oprah Winfrey. The reception following the wedding ceremony saw rock band Hootie and the Blowfish perform. Tiger Woods and Elin Nordegren separated in December, 2009, as it was revealed that Tiger had participated in a number of extramarital affairs.
Elin
Elin looking beautiful on her wedding day.
Tiger Woods Holiday Destinations(Getaways) (1)
Cayo Espanto, Belize
Off the coast of Belize, a luxurious private island Cayo Espanto is one of the favorite holiday destination of world most famous golfer Tiger Woods. The five star, Belize resort on the island is perfect for discerning vacationers who demands luxury and paradise together. The private villa overlooking the spectacular views of the Caribbean offers enchanting moments. Other celebrity actors including Harrison Ford and Calista Flockhart have also vacationed in the Cayo Espanto as it offers truly a spectacular private vacation retreat.
Cayo Espanto offers truly a spectacular private vacation retreat.
Tiger Woods Cause (4)
Rainforest Foundation Fund
Rainforest Foundation Fund was founded in 1999, by Sting and Trudie Styler with an aim to bring attention to people about the catastrophic state of their valuable forests. The focus was to develop a sustaining organization that can deliver long term support to assert and defend rights, fight against those development programs which have most damaging effects on forests. The famous golfer Tiger Woods is among the 10 supporters who stand strong for the cause of Rainforest Foundation Fund.
Shriners Hospitals for Children
A network of 22 hospital facilities in North America, Shriners Hospitals for Children works to provide superior medical care at no charge to children under the age of 18. With the first hospital opened in Shreveport, LA in 1992, the network today encompasses 22 hospitals in the United States, Mexico and Canada. Shriner hospitals stands at the forefront of medical treatment and research in orthopedic, and has so far provided medical care to 800,000 young people who are now able to lead a better and fuller lives. It also provides world class research and medical opportunities for medical professionals.
Tiger Woods Foundation
Besides supporting the non-profit organizations like Rainforest Foundation Fund and Shriners Hospitals for Children, Tiger Woods also founded his own charity organization named Tiger Woods Foundation. Tiger Woods and his father Earl founded this organization with a dream to provide young people with tools and opportunities needed to achieve a bright future. So far, the foundation has reached millions of young people worldwide by delivering unique experiences and innovative educational opportunities. The foundation reached a significant milestone as four years of project development for the Tiger Woods Learning Center were completed. Tiger Woods Learning Center is one-of-its-kind 35,000 sq. ft education facility custom built for the underserved young children of South California. In addition to TWLC projects, the foundation works to make a difference in the lives of young people through its annual programs and events. Further, celebrities including Glenn Frey and Sheryl Crow support the cause of Tiger Woods Foundation.
Tiger Woods Learning Center
Tiger Woods Learning Center is one-of-its-kind 35,000 sq. ft education facility custom built for the underserved young children of South California. It is the part and parcel of Tiger Woods foundation with an aim to provide courses which help students relate what they learn in schools to what they can become in life. The TWLC works to make kids excited about science, math, language art and technology.
Tiger Woods Pets (1)
Tiger Woods and his ex-wife Elin Nordegren proudly showed-off their new born baby girl Sam Alexis Woods and their favorite dogs; Taz, the border collies and Yogi, the labradoodle. It’s was reported that Tiger Woods is often spotted in Florida with his two friends, the unleashed dogs.
Tiger Woods Brands (3)
Nike
The brand is synonymous with Tiger Woods ever since he became a pro.Nike's $638 million (sales) golf division was built on his back. He earns an estimated $30 million from the deal.
Tag Heur
Apart from being a fan of the Tag heur watches, he was also the brand ambassador of this legendary brand.
Rolex Sea Dweller
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In Australia, on which side of the road do motorists drive? | Driving Down Under: What You Need to Know
Driving Down Under: What You Need to Know
Driving Down Under: What You Need to Know
Cavan Images/Taxi/Getty Images
By Larry Rivera
Updated November 28, 2016.
While cars operate in a similar way all over the world, the differences between travelling on the right and left side of the road can really throw a driver off. To add more confusion into the mix, driving a car from a right-handed driver’s seat when you’re used to driving from the left seat in the car takes even more getting used to.
Foreign travellers who would like to drive in Australia need to consider these conventions before they even get in the vehicle.
Here’s a few things to be aware of before you grab those keys and get going!
First rule: Drive on the left side of the road
Sticking to the left side of the road can make the world seem like it’s flipped upside down when you’re used to driving on the right. In places like the United States, vehicles are operated from the right side of the road, so for those travelling from these kinds of countries, it’s especially important to remember which way the traffic is flowing before driving in Australia.
continue reading below our video
Before Your Road Trip, Watch This
Other than understanding that Australian drivers always stick to the left side of the road , foreign drivers must remember to stay on that left side after they’ve turned left or right. Force of habit might provoke you to swing onto the right side, so it’s important to concentrate.
The only time an Australian driver may venture toward the right side of the road is when they’re safely travelling around parked cars in quiet side streets when there’s no oncoming traffic from the other side, or when they’re being guided to the right side in an official roadworks or police-led situation. Even in these circumstances, the driver must return to the left side as soon as they are able.
Right side of the car
Most Australian cars are fitted with right-sided driver’s seats, and this might be difficult for foreign drivers to get used to in addition to the reversed road position.
To help become accustomed to sitting on this side, remember that the oncoming traffic will be coming on the side of your right shoulder. Many Australian cars are now equipped with automatic transmission instead of stick shift gears, which should make things more simple and allow you to concentrate more efficiently.
What else is there to think about?
Once you’ve processed the reversed positions, the act of driving in Australia is very similar to driving elsewhere. However, there are still a few things to consider before you get in the driver’s seat.
International travellers are permitted to drive in Australia with a foreign driver’s licence for up to three months, provided that the licence is in English. If a driver’s licence does not have a photo, drivers are required to carry another form of formal photo identification with them.
If a licence is in a foreign language, drivers are required to obtain an International Driver’s Permit. This is done in the home country before leaving for Australia. Those wishing to stay in Australia for longer than three months will need to apply for a state licence.
It is up to all drivers on Australian roads to familarise themselves with the road rules, which vary from state to state.
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Who played barmaid Michelle Connor in the UK tv soap ‘Coronation Street’? | How can motorists safely pass cyclists in Australia?
How can motorists safely pass cyclists in Australia?
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Distance makes the difference in cycle campaign
The Road Safety Advisory Council of Tasmania has released a fun bike safety video exploring why keeping your distance is important.
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It's a sunny day and I'm rolling up a steady, tree-lined incline on my bicycle.
Behind me, I hear a car approaching. It's a quiet, narrow road and even though I'm riding to the left of the lane, there isn't a lot of space for overtaking.
The driver slows his vehicle, sees that the way is clear, and overtakes me, leaving a healthy space between us in the process.
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The cycling subculture is a diverse and passionate one, and as a result there are some diverse and useful apps on offer to accompany the ride.
Photo: iStock
And as the car passes, I note that the wheels on the right side of the vehicle have crossed the continuous line in the middle of the road.
He's broken the law and could be liable for a fine.
Or has he? Like so many of the road rules pertaining to cyclists in Australia, it depends where this interaction takes place.
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The passing laws aid overtaking in urban and rural environments.
Queensland became the Antipodean pioneer of "metre matters" passing laws 18 months ago, with trial regulations stipulating that motorists must give one metre of space when passing a cyclist in a speed zone of 60km/h or less, and 1.5 metres when travelling faster.
To facilitate this, motorists were given permission to cross continuous centre lines and drive on painted islands in order to overtake cyclists – so long as this was done safely.
South Australia adopted similar regulations last Sunday , while the ACT will adopt them this Sunday . In Tasmania since late February, motor vehicles have been allowed to cross centre lines to overtake cyclists .
When the laws were announced in Queensland, permission to cross the white line was one controversial issue, with much prediction that an exemption for such a time-honoured practice would lead to road carnage.
To quote the famous Yogi Berra , it's been "deja vu all over again" in South Australia, with the issue running hot in news reports and on social media. The white line exemption has been cited by many as a particular concern.
Of course there are many situations where the white line should never be crossed - which is why the legislation states that safety is paramount.
But in an article in the Adelaide Advertiser headlined " Changes in road rules for cyclists are for the better ", Charles Mountain, the Royal Automobile Association of SA's senior manager of road safety, wrote:
"The new law that allows motorists to cross a solid single line, double lines and painted islands when the road is clear is great as this really reflects what motorists are doing already to safely pass cyclists, particularly through the Adelaide Hills."
Unconscious act
He's absolutely right. I've noticed this time and time again, even when riding in such states as NSW and Victoria, where there is no white line exemption for overtaking a cyclist. It happens on narrow, shoulderless conduits in national parks, on city streets and suburban backroads. I'm sure that motorists often don't even realise they're doing it. They're just focusing on leaving a safe margin while passing.
Of course, to avoid breaking the law, the motorist would have to wait until the continuous line ends or the lane widens.
Meanwhile, squeezing past the cyclist with little room to spare in order to stay inside the line could be ruled as dangerous driving – even in states where there are no "metre matters" laws in place. The law allowing vehicles to cross continuous lines benefits drivers as well as cyclists.
As a driver, I've found that it's usually a lot easier to overtake a bicycle. When a car doing 80km/h is overtaking another vehicle doing 70km/h, the passing car will spend a significant amount of time on the opposite side of the road. This won't happen when overtaking a bicycle that is travelling at a slower speed.
Secondly, a bicycle isn't as wide or as long as a motor vehicle, meaning cars can often leave a safe margin while only crossing the line with two wheels, and spend less time on the other side of the road.
And unlike overtaking other slow vehicles, such as trucks, a motorist can have a clear view of the road ahead of a bicyclist – and any possible upcoming corners or oncoming cars.
Initial hyperventilation
Ray Rice of Bicycle NSW, which is pushing for metre passing laws in its home state, also notes that "motorists are already able to cross unbroken lines in other circumstances – for example, while making a right turn. The legislation will benefit all road users."
So how's the trial been going in Queensland, after the initial hyperventilation? I certainly haven't read of an outbreak of head-on collisions by motorists circumventing cyclists.
This week, the state's Transport and Main Roads department told me they were still collating data for a full evaluation, while Mark Textor, the chairman of the Amy Gillett Foundation, told me "there has been no evidence of any major issue with the legislation, and the AGF's polling in Queensland continues to show strong community support".
Meanwhile, as law changes aimed at making the roads safer for cyclists take hold in half of Australia's states and territories, one simply hopes that people will calm down, educate themselves about the regulations and use courtesy and common sense.
What has been your experience of motorists passing cyclists? Let us know in the comments section. Submissions will be carefully moderated and only those addressing the topic will be considered for publication.
Fairfax journalist Michael O'Reilly has written the On Your Bike blog since 2011. He has won a Cycling Promotion Fund media award and is a regular voice for cycling on radio and television.
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The novel ‘The Hound of the Baskervilles’, by Arthur Conan Doyle, is set on which English moor? | LibriVox
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Sir Arthur Conan DOYLE (1859 - 1930)
The Hound of the Baskervilles is the third of the four crime novels written by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle featuring the detective Sherlock Holmes. Originally serialised in The Strand Magazine from August 1901 to April 1902, it is set largely on Dartmoor in Devon in England's West Country and tells the story of an attempted murder inspired by the legend of a fearsome, diabolical hound of supernatural origin. Sherlock Holmes and his companion Dr. Watson investigate the case. This was the first appearance of Holmes since his intended death in "The Final Problem", and the success of The Hound of the Baskervilles led to the character's eventual revival. - Summary by Wikipedia
Genre(s): Literary Fiction, Detective Fiction
Language: English
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Which electronics company has the motto ‘make.believe’? | The Hound of the Baskervilles - The Arthur Conan Doyle Encyclopedia
The Hound of the Baskervilles
From The Arthur Conan Doyle Encyclopedia
Illustration by Sidney Paget
Manuscript (chapter 13, 1st page)
The Hound of the Baskervilles (HOUN) is a novel written by Arthur Conan Doyle first published in The Strand Magazine in august 1901 - april 1902 (60 illustrations by Sidney Paget ). This is the 27th Sherlock Holmes story.
Contents
in The Strand Magazine (september 1901 - may 1902 [US])
The Hound of the Baskervilles (25 march 1902, George Newnes Ltd. [UK]) 16 illustrations by Sidney Paget
The Hound of the Baskervilles (2 april 1902, Longmans, Green & Co. Colonial Library [UK])
The Hound of the Baskervilles: Another Adventure of Sherlock Holmes (15 april 1902, McClure, Phillips & Co. [US]) 8 ill. by Sidney Paget
The Hound of the Baskervilles (april 1902, Bernhard Tauchnitz No. 3571 [DE])
in Le Temps (8 april - 11 may 1902 [FR]) as Le Chien des Baskerville
in The Atlanta Constitution (5 july - 21 september 1902 [US]) 8 ill. + 2 photos
in Omaha Sunday World Herald (13 july - 28 september 1902 [US]) 21 ill.
in St. Louis Republic Magazine (13 july - 2 october 1902 [US]) 13 ill.
in Boston Post (3-31 august 1902 [US]) 27 ill.
in New York American and Journal (10 august - 2 september 1902 [US]) 23 ill.
in The Indianapolis News (16 august - 4 september 1902 [US])
The Hound of the Baskervilles (september 1902, Longmans, Green & Co. Colonial Library re-issue [UK])
Another Adventure of Sherlock Holmes (1903, George N. Morang & Co. [CA])
The Hound of the Baskervilles (1903-1905, Grosset & Dunlap 4th imp. [US]) 1 frontispiece
The Hound of the Baskervilles (1903-1905, American News Co. People's Library [US])
The Hound of the Baskervilles (1903-1920, James Askew & Son [UK])
in Lyon Républicain (16-24 april 1905 [FR]) as Le Chien des Baskerville
in Mon Bonheur No. 7-18 (14 february - 2 may 1907, Jules Tallandier [FR]) as Le Chien des Baskerville
The Hound of the Baskervilles (9 august 1907, Smith, Elder & Co. Uniform edition [UK])
The Hound of the Baskervilles (1908-1910, Collier's Latest Books of Conan Doyle [US])
in L'Express du Midi (9 september - 20 october 1911 [FR]) as Le Chien des Baskerville
The Hound of the Baskervilles (1912, George Newnes Ltd. Sixpenny Copyright Novels [UK])
The Hound of the Baskervilles (1914, Collier's The Works of A. Conan Doyle #6 [US])
The Hound of the Baskervilles (6 march 1915, Thomas Nelson & Sons Nelson Library [UK])
A Sátán Kutyája (The Dog of Satan) (1918, Erdekes Ujsag [HU])
The Hound of the Baskervilles (august 1918, Thomas Nelson & Sons Nelson's Cloth Bound Books [UK])
The Hound of the Baskervilles (22 june 1922, John Murray Fiction Library [UK])
in L'Ouest-Eclair (25 june - 19 august 1922 [FR]) as Le Chien des Baskerville
The Hound of the Baskervilles (28 august 1925, John Murray Thin Paper edition [UK])
The Hound of the Baskervilles (28 august 1925, Eveleigh Nash & Grayson Ltd. Library of Thrillers [UK])
The Hound of the Baskervilles (1926, Doubleday, Doran & Co. Lambskin Library No. 53 [US])
Extract of chapter 2 in Les Maîtres de la Peur (by André de Lorde and Albert Dubeux) as La Malédiction des Baskerville
The Hound of the Baskervilles (1935, Grosset & Dunlap Ferret Library [US])
in The Complete Sherlock Holmes (1936, Collier's Authorized edition [US])
The Hound of the Baskervilles (date?, Hurst & Co. Copyright Novels [US])
The Hound of the Baskervilles (date?, F. M. Buckles & Co. Copyright Fiction [US])
Covers
Illustrations by Sidney Paget in The Strand Magazine (august 1901 - april 1902)
File:illus-houn-paget-42.jpg|
John Clayton (cabman No. 2704)
Mrs Oldmore
3 Turpey Street, the Borough
Shipley's Yard
Museum of the College of Surgeons
Swan and Edison
Ross and Mangles, Fulham Road
Towns
2008 : The Hound of the Baskervilles. Holmes : John Patrick Lowrie . Watson : Lawrence Albert .
Theatrogaphy
The Bushman and the Hottentot.
Lepidoptera
Published in McClure's in 1902
My Dear Robinson,
It was your account of a west country legend which first suggested the idea of this little tale to my mind.
For this, and for the help which you gave me in its evolution, all thanks.
Yours most truly,
A. Conan Doyle
Chapter 1 : Mr Sherlock Holmes
Mr Sherlock Holmes, who was usually very late in the mornings, save upon those not infrequent occasions when he stayed up all night, was seated at the breakfast table. I stood upon the hearth-rug and picked up the stick which our visitor had left behind him the night before. It was a fine, thick piece of wood, bulbous-headed, of the sort which is known as a 'Penang lawyer'. Just under the head was a broad silver band, nearly an inch across. 'To James Mortimer, MRCS, from his friends of the CCH', was engraved upon it, with the date '1884'. It was just such a stick as the old-fashioned family practitioner used to carry - dignified, solid, and reassuring.
'Well, Watson, what do you make of it?'
Holmes was sitting with his back to me, and I had given him no sign of my occupation.
'How did you know what I was doing? I believe you have eyes in the back of your head.'
'I have, at least, a well-polished, silver-plated coffee-pot in front of me,' said he. 'But, tell me, Watson, what do you make of our visitor's stick? Since we have been so unfortunate as to miss him and have no notion of his errand, this accidental souvenir becomes of importance. Let me hear you reconstruct the man by an examination of it.'
'I think,' said I, following so far as I could the methods of my companion, 'that Dr Mortimer is a successful elderly medical man, well-esteemed, since those who know him give him this mark of their appreciation.'
'Good!' said Holmes. 'Excellent!'
'I think also that the probability is in favour of his being a country practitioner who does a great deal, of his visiting on foot.'
'Why so?'
'Because this stick, though originally a very handsome one, has been so knocked about that I can hardly imagine a town practitioner carrying it. The thick iron ferrule is worn down, so it is evident that he has done a great amount of walking with it.'
'Perfectly sound,' said Holmes.
'And then again, there is the "friends of the CCH". I should guess that to be the Something Hunt, the local hunt to whose members he has possibly given some surgical assistance, and which has made him a small presentation in return.'
'Really, Watson, you excel yourself,' said Holmes, pushing back his chair and lighting a cigarette. 'I am bound to say that in all the accounts which you have been so good as to give of my own small achievements you have habitually underrated your own abilities. It may be that you are not yourself luminous, but you are a conductor of light. Some people without possessing genius have a remarkable power of stimulating it. I confess, my dear fellow, that I am very much in your debt.'
He had never said as much before, and I must admit that his words gave me keen pleasure, for I had often been piqued by his indifference to my admiration and to the attempts which I had made to give publicity to his methods. I was proud, too, to think that I had so far mastered his system as to apply it in a way which earned his approval. He now took the stick from my hands and examined it for a few minutes with his naked eyes. Then, with an expression of interest, he laid down his cigarette, and, carrying the cane to the window, he looked over it again with a convex lens.
'Interesting, though elementary,' said he, as he returned to his favourite corner of the settee. 'There are certainly one or two indications upon the stick. It gives us the basis for several deductions.'
'Has anything escaped me?' I asked, with some self-importance. 'I trust that there is nothing of consequence which I have overlooked?'
'I am afraid, my dear Watson, that most of your conclusions were erroneous. When I said that you stimulated me I meant, to be frank, that in noting your fallacies I was occasionally guided towards the truth. Not that you are entirely wrong in this instance. The man is certainly a country practitioner. And he walks a good deal.'
'Then I was right.'
'To that extent.'
'But that was all.'
'No, no, my dear Watson, not all - by no means all. I would suggest, for example, that a presentation to a doctor is more likely to come from a hospital than from a hunt, and that when the initials "CC" are placed before that hospital the words "Charing Cross" very naturally suggest themselves.'
'You may be right.'
'The probability lies in that direction. And if we take this as a working hypothesis we have a fresh basis from which to start our construction of this unknown visitor.'
'Well, then, supposing that "CCH" does stand for "Charing Cross Hospital", what further inferences may we draw?'
'Do none suggest themselves? You know my methods. Apply them!'
'I can only think of the obvious conclusion that the man has practised in town before going to the country.'
'I think that we might venture a little farther than this. Look at it in this light. On what occasion would it be most probable that such a presentation would be made? When would his friends unite to give him a pledge of their good will? Obviously at the moment when Dr Mortimer withdrew from the service of the hospital in order to start in practice for himself. We know there has been a presentation. We believe there has been a change from a town hospital to a country practice. Is it, then, stretching our inference too far to say that the presentation was on the occasion of the change?'
'It certainly seems probable.'
'Now, you will observe that he could not have been on the staff of the hospital, since only a man well-established in a London practice could hold such a position, and such a one would not drift into the country. What was he, then? If he was in the hospital and yet not on the staff, he could only have been a house-surgeon or a house-physician - little more than a senior student. And he left five years ago - the date is on the stick. So your grave, middle-aged family practitioner vanishes into thin air, my dear Watson, and there emerges a young fellow under thirty, amiable, unambitious, absent-minded, and the possessor of a favourite dog, Which I should describe roughly as being larger than a terrier and smaller than a mastiff.'
I laughed incredulously as Sherlock Holmes leaned back in his settee and blew little wavering rings of smoke up to the ceiling.
'As to the latter part, I have no means of checking you,' said I, 'but at least it is not difficult to find out a few particulars about the man's age and professional career.'
From my small medical shelf I took down the Medical Directory and turned up the name. There were several Mortimers, but only one who could be our visitor. I read his record aloud.
Mortimer, James, MRCS, 1882, Grimpen, Dartmoor, Devon, House-surgeon, from 1882 to 1884, at Charing Cross Hospital. Winner of the Jackson Prize for Comparative Pathology, with essay entitled 'Is Disease a Reversion?' Corresponding member of the Swedish Pathological Society. Author of "Some Freaks of Atavism" (Lancet, 1882), "Do We Progress?" (Journal of Psychology, March, 1883). Medical Officer for the parishes of Grimpen, Thorsley, and High Barrow.
'No mention of that local hunt, Watson,' said Holmes, with a mischievous smile, 'but a country doctor, as you very astutely observed. I think that I am fairly justified in my inferences. As to the adjectives, I said, if I remember right, amiable, unambitious, and absent-minded. It is my experience that it is only an amiable man in this world who receives testimonials, only an unambitious one who abandons a London career for the country, and only an absent-minded one who leaves his stick and not his visiting-card after waiting an hour in your room.'
'And the dog?'
'Has been in the habit of carrying this stick behind his master. Being a heavy stick the dog has held it tightly by the middle, and the marks of his teeth are very plainly visible. The dog's jaw, as shown in the space between these marks, is too broad in my opinion for a terrier and not broad enough for a mastiff. It may have been - yes, by Jove, it is a curly-haired spaniel.'
He had risen and paced the room as he spoke. Now he halted in the recess of the window. There was such a ring of conviction in his voice that I glanced up in surprise.
'My dear fellow, how can you possibly be so sure of that?'
'For the very simple reason that I see the dog himself on our very doorstep, and there is the ring of its owner. Don't move, I beg you, Watson. He is a professional brother of yours, and your presence may be of assistance to me. Now is the dramatic moment of fate, Watson, when you hear a step upon the stair which is walking into your life, and you know not whether for good or ill. What does Dr James Mortimer, the man of science, ask of Sherlock Holmes, the specialist in crime? Come in!'
The appearance of our visitor was a surprise to me since I had expected a typical country practitioner. He was a very tall, thin man, with a long nose like a beak, which shot out between two keen, grey eyes, set closely together and sparkling brightly from behind a pair of gold-rimmed glasses. He was clad in a professional but rather slovenly fashion, for his frock-coat was dingy and his trousers frayed. Though young, his long back was already bowed, and he walked with a forward thrust of his head and a general air of peering benevolence. As he entered his eyes fell upon the stick in Holmes's hand, and he ran towards it with an exclamation of joy.
'I am so very glad,' said he. 'I was not sure whether I had left it here or in the Shipping Office. I would not lose that stick for the world.'
'A presentation, I see,' said Holmes.
'Yes, sir.'
'From one or two friends there on the occasion of my marriage.'
'Dear, dear, that's bad!' said Holmes, shaking his head.
Dr Mortimer blinked through his glasses in mild astonishment.
'Why was it bad?'
'Only that you have disarranged our little deductions. Your marriage, you say?'
'Yes, sir. I married, and so left the hospital, and with it all hopes of a consulting practice. It was necessary to make a home of my own.'
'Come, come, we are not so far wrong after all,' said Holmes. 'And now, Dr James Mortimer-'
'Mister, sir, Mister - a humble MRCS.'
'And a man of precise mind, evidently.'
'A dabbler in science, Mr Holmes, a picker up of shells on the shores of the great unknown ocean. I presume that it is Mr Sherlock Holmes whom I am addressing and not-'
'No, this is my friend Dr Watson.'
'Glad to meet you, sir. I have heard your name mentioned in connection with that of your friend. You interest me very much, Mr Holmes. I had hardly expected so dolichocephalic a skull or such well-marked supra-orbital development. Would you have any objection to my running my finger along your parietal fissure? A cast of your skull, sir, until the original is available, would be an ornament to any anthropological museum. It is not my intention to be fulsome, but I confess that I covet your skull.'
Sherlock Holmes waved our strange visitor into a chair.
'You are an enthusiast in your line of thought, I perceive, sir, as I am in mine,' said he. 'I observe from your forefinger that you make your own cigarettes. Have no hesitation in lighting one.'
The man drew out paper and tobacco and twirled the one up in the other with surprising dexterity. He had long, quivering fingers as agile and restless as the antennae of an insect.
Holmes was silent, but his little darting glances showed me the interest which he took in our curious companion.
'I presume, sir,' said he at last, 'that it was not merely for the purpose of examining my skull that you have done me the honour to call here last night and again to-day?'
'No, sir, no, though I am happy to have had the opportunity of doing that as well. I came to you, Mr Holmes, because I recognise that I am myself an unpractical man, and because I am suddenly confronted with a most serious and extraordinary problem. Recognising, as I do, that you are the second highest expert in Europe-'
'Indeed, sir! May I inquire who has the honour to be the first?' asked Holmes, with some asperity.
'To the man of precisely scientific mind the work of Monsieur Bertillon must always appeal strongly.'
'Then had you not better consult him?'
'I said, sir, to the precisely scientific mind. But as a practical man of affairs it is acknowledged that you stand alone. I trust, sir, that I have not inadvertently-'
'Just a little,' said Holmes. 'I think, Dr Mortimer, you would do wisely if without more ado you would kindly tell me plainly what the exact nature of the problem is in which you demand my assistance.'
Chapter 2 : The Curse of the Baskervilles
'I have in my pocket a manuscript,' said Dr James Mortimer.
'I observed it as you entered the room,' said Holmes.
'It is an old manuscript.'
'Early eighteenth century, unless it is a forgery.'
'How can you say that, sir?'
'You have presented an inch or two of it to my examination all the time that you have been talking. It would be a poor expert who could not give the date of a document within a decade or so. You may possibly have read my little monograph upon the subject. I put that at 1730.'
'The exact date is 1742.' Dr Mortimer drew it from his breast-pocket. 'This family paper was committed to my care by Sir Charles Baskerville, whose sudden and tragic death some three months ago created so much excitement in Devonshire. I may say that I was his personal friend as well as his medical attendant. He was a strong-minded man, sir, shrewd, practical, and as unimaginative as I am myself. Yet he took this document very seriously, and his mind was prepared for just such an end as did eventually overtake him.'
Holmes stretched out his hand for the manuscript and flattened it upon his knee.
'You will observe, Watson, the alternative use of the long s and the short. It is one of several indications which enabled me to fix the date.'
I looked over his shoulder at the yellow paper and the faded script. At the head was written: 'Baskerville Hall', and below, in large, scrawling figures: '1742'.
'It appears to be a statement of some sort.'
'Yes, it is a statement of a certain legend which runs in the Baskerville family.'
'But I understand that it is something more modern and practical upon which you wish to consult me?'
'Most modern. A most practical, pressing matter, which must be decided within twenty-four hours. But the manuscript is short and is intimately connected with the affair. With your permission I will read it to you.'
Holmes leaned back in his chair, placed his finger-tips together, and closed his eyes, with an air of resignation. Dr Mortimer turned the manuscript to the light, and read in a high, crackling voice the following curious, old-world narrative.
'Of the origin of the Hound of the Baskervilles there have been many statements, yet as I come in a direct line from Hugo Baskerville, and as I had the story from my father, who also had it from his, I have set it down with all belief that it occurred even as is here set forth. And I would have you believe, my sons, that the same Justice which punishes sin may also most graciously forgive it, and that no ban is so heavy but that by prayer and repentance it may be removed. Learn then from this story not to fear the fruits of the past, but rather to be circumspect in the future, that those foul passions whereby our family has suffered so grievously may not again be loosed to our undoing.
'Know then that in the time of the Great Rebellion (the history of which by the learned Lord Clarendon I most earnestly commend to your attention) this Manor of Baskerville was held by Hugo of that name, nor can it be gainsaid that he was a most wild, profane, and godless man. This, in truth, his neighbours might have pardoned, seeing that saints have never flourished in those parts, but there was in him a certain wanton and cruel humour which made his name a by-word through the West. It chanced that this Hugo came to love (if, indeed, so dark a passion may be known under so bright a name) the daughter of a yeoman who held lands near the Baskerville estate. But the young maiden, being, discreet and of good repute, would ever avoid him, for she feared his evil name. So it came to pass that one Michaelmas this Hugo, with five or six of his idle and wicked companions, stole down upon the farm and carried off the maiden, her father and brothers being from home, as he well knew. When they had brought her to the Hall the maiden was placed in an upper chamber, while Hugo and his friends sat down to a long carouse, as was their nightly custom. Now, the poor lass upstairs was like to have her wits turned at the singing and shouting and terrible oaths which came up to her from below, for they say that the words used by Hugo Baskerville, when he was in wine, were such as might blast the man who said them. At last in the stress of her fear she did that which might have daunted the bravest or most active man, for by the aid of the growth of ivy which covered (and still covers) the south wall, she came down from under the eaves, and so homeward across the moor, there being three leagues betwixt the Hall and her father's farm.
'It chanced that some little time later Hugo left his guests to carry food and drink - with other worse things, perchance - to his captive, and so found the cage empty and the bird escaped. Then, as it would seem, he became as one that hath a devil, for, rushing down the stairs into the dining-hall, he sprang upon the great table, flagons and trenchers flying before him, and he cried aloud before all the company that he would that very night render his body and soul to the Powers of Evil if he might but overtake the wench. And while the revellers stood aghast at the fury of the man, one more wicked or, it may be, more drunken than the rest, cried out that they should put the hounds upon her. Whereat Hugo ran from the house, crying to his grooms that they should saddle his mare and unkennel the pack, and giving the hounds a kerchief of the maid's he swung them to the line, and so off full cry in the moonlight over the moor.
'Now, for some space the revellers stood agape, unable to understand all that had been done in such haste. But anon their bemused wits awoke to the nature of the deed which was like to be done upon the moorlands. Everything was now in an uproar, some calling for their pistols, some for their horses, and some for another flask of wine. But at length some sense came back to their crazed minds, and the whole of them, thirteen in number, took horse and started in pursuit. The moon shone clear above them, and they rode swiftly abreast, taking that course which the maid must needs have taken if she were to reach her own home.
'They had gone a mile or two when they passed one of the night shepherds upon the moorlands, and they cried to him to know if he had seen the hunt. And the man, as the story goes, was so crazed with fear that he could scarce speak, but at last he said that he had indeed seen the unhappy maiden, with the hounds upon her track. "But I have seen more than that," said he, "for Hugo Baskerville passed me upon his black mare, and there ran mute behind him such a hound of hell as God forbid should ever be at my heels."
'So the drunken squires cursed the shepherd and rode onwards. But soon their skins turned cold, for there came a sound of galloping across the moor, and the black mare, dabbled with white froth, went past with trailing bridle and empty saddle. Then the revellers rode close together, for a great fear was on them, but they still followed over the moor, though each, had he been alone, would have been right glad to have turned his horse's head. Riding slowly in this fashion, they came at last upon the hounds. These, though known for their valour and their breed, were whimpering in a cluster at the head of a deep dip or goyal, as we call it, upon the moor, some slinking away and some, with starting hackles and staring eyes, gazing down the narrow valley before them.
'The company had come to a halt, more sober men, as you may guess, than when they started. The most of them would by no means advance, but three of them, the boldest, or, it may be the most drunken, rode forward down the goyal. Now it opened into a broad space in which stood two of those great stones, still to be seen there, which were set by certain forgotten peoples in the days of old. The moon was shining bright upon the clearing, and there in the centre lay the unhappy maid where she had fallen, dead of fear and of fatigue. But it was not the sight of her body, nor yet was it that of the body of Hugo Baskerville lying near her, which raised the hair upon the heads of these three dare-devil roisterers, but it was that, standing over Hugo, and plucking at his throat, there stood a foul thing, a great, black beast, shaped like a hound, yet larger than any hound that ever mortal eye has rested upon. And even as they looked the thing tore the throat out of Hugo Baskerville, on which, as it turned its blazing eyes and dripping jaws upon them, the three shrieked with fear and rode for dear life, still screaming, across the moor. One, it is said, died that very night of what he had seen, and the other twain were but broken men for the rest of their days.
'Such is the tale, my sons, of the coming of the hound which is said to have plagued the family so sorely ever since. If I have set it down it is because that which is clearly known hath less terror than that which is but hinted at and guessed. Nor can it be denied that many of the family have been unhappy in their deaths, which have been sudden, bloody, and mysterious. Yet may we shelter ourselves in the infinite goodness of Providence, which would not for ever punish the innocent beyond that third or fourth generation which is threatened in Holy Writ. To that Providence, my sons, I hereby commend you, and I counsel you by way of caution to forbear from crossing the moor in those dark hours when the powers of evil are exalted.
'This from Hugo Baskerville to his sons Rodger and John, with instructions that they say nothing thereof to their sister Elizabeth.'
When Dr Mortimer had finished reading this singular narrative he pushed his spectacles up on his forehead and stared across at Mr Sherlock Holmes. The latter yawned and tossed the end of his cigarette into the fire.
'Well?' said he.
'Do you find it interesting?'
'To a collector of fairy-tales.'
Dr Mortimer drew a folded newspaper out of his pocket.
'Now, Mr Holmes, we will give you something a little more recent. This is the Devon County Chronicle of June 14th of this year. It is a short account of the facts elicited at the death of Sir Charles Baskerville which occurred a few days before that date.'
My friend leaned a little forward and his expression became intent. Our visitor readjusted his glasses and began:
'The recent sudden death of Sir Charles Baskerville, whose name has been mentioned as the probable Liberal candidate for Mid-Devon at the next election, has cast a gloom over the county. Though Sir Charles had resided at Baskerville Hall for a comparatively short period his amiability of character and extreme, generosity had won the affection and respect of all who had been brought into contact with him. In these days of nouveaux riches it is refreshing to find a case where the scion of an old county family which has fallen upon evil days is able to make his own fortune and to bring it back with him to restore the fallen grandeur of his line. Sir Charles, as is well known, made large sums of money in South African speculation. More wise than those who go on until the wheel turns against them, he realized his gains and returned to England with them. It is only two years since he took up his residence at Baskerville Hall, and it is common talk how large were those schemes of reconstruction and improvement which have been interrupted by his death. Being himself childless, it was his openly expressed desire that the whole countryside should, within his own lifetime, profit by his good fortune, and many will have personal reasons for bewailing his untimely end. His generous donations to local and county charities have been frequently chronicled in these columns.
'The circumstances connected with the death of Sir Charles cannot be said to have been entirely cleared up by the inquest, but at least enough has been done to dispose of those rumours to which local superstition has given rise. There is no reason whatever to suspect foul play, or to imagine that death could be from any but natural causes. Sir Charles was a widower, and a man who may be said to have been in some ways of an eccentric habit of mind. In spite of his considerable wealth he was simple in his personal tastes, and his indoor servants at Baskerville Hall consisted of a married couple named Barrymore, the husband acting as butler and the wife as housekeeper. Their evidence, corroborated by that of several friends, tends to show that Sir Charles's health has for some time been impaired, and points especially to some affection of the heart, manifesting itself in changes of colour, breathlessness, and acute attacks of nervous depression. Dr James Mortimer, the friend and medical attendant of the deceased, has given evidence to the same effect.
'The facts of the case are simple. Sir Charles Baskerville was in the habit every night before going to bed of walking down the famous Yew Alley of Baskerville Hall. The evidence of the Barrymores shows that this had been his custom. On the 4th of June Sir Charles had declared his intention of starting next day for London, and had ordered Barrymore to prepare his luggage. That night he went out as usual for his nocturnal walk, in the course of which he was in the habit of smoking a cigar. He never returned. At twelve o'clock Barrymore, finding the hall door still open, became alarmed and, lighting a lantern, went in search of his master. The day had been wet, and Sir Charles's footmarks were easily traced down the Alley. Half-way down this walk there is a gate which leads out on to the moor. There were indications that Sir Charles had stood for some little time here. He then proceeded down the Alley, and it was at the far end of it that his body was discovered. One fact which has not been explained is the statement of Barrymore that his master's footprints altered their character from the time he passed the moor-gate, and that he appeared from thence onwards to have been walking upon his toes. One Murphy, a gipsy horse-dealer, was on the moor at no great distance at the time, but he appears by his own confession to have been the worse for drink. He declares that he heard cries, but is unable to state from what direction they came. No signs of violence were to be discovered upon Sir Charles's person, and though the doctor's evidence pointed to an almost incredible facial distortion - so great that Dr Mortimer refused at first to believe that it was indeed his friend and patient who lay before him - it was explained that that is a symptom which is not unusual in cases of dyspnoea and death from cardiac exhaustion. This explanation was borne out by the postmortem examination, which showed long-standing organic disease, and the coroner's jury returned a verdict in accordance with the medical evidence. It is well that this is so, for it is obviously of the utmost importance that Sir Charles's heir should settle at the Hall, and continue the good work which has been so sadly interrupted. Had the prosaic finding of the coroner not finally put an end to the romantic stories which have been whispered in connection with the affair, it might have been difficult to find a tenant for Baskerville Hall. It is understood that the next-of-kin is Mr Henry Baskerville, if he be still alive, the son of Sir Charles Baskerville's younger brother. The young man, when last heard of, was in America, and inquiries are being instituted with a view to informing him of his good fortune.'
Dr Mortimer refolded his paper and replaced it in his pocket.
'Those are the public facts, Mr Holmes, in connection with the death of Sir Charles Baskerville.'
'I must thank you', said Sherlock Holmes, 'for calling my attention to a case which certainly presents some features of interest. I had observed some newspaper comment at the time, but I was exceedingly preoccupied by that little affair of the Vatican cameos, and in my anxiety to oblige the Pope I lost touch with several interesting English cases. This article, you say, contains all the public facts?'
'It does.'
'Then let me have the private ones.' He leaned back, put his finger-tips together, and assumed his most impassive and judicial expression.
'In doing so,' said Dr Mortimer, who had begun to show signs of some strong emotion, 'I am telling that which I have not confided to anyone. My motive for withholding it from the coroner's inquiry is that a man of science shrinks from placing himself in the public position of seeming to endorse a popular superstition. I had the further motive that Baskerville Hall, as the paper says, would certainly remain untenanted if anything were done to increase its already rather grim reputation. For both these reasons I thought that I was justified in telling rather less than I knew, since no practical good could result from it, but with you there is no reason why I should not be perfectly frank.
'The moor is very sparsely inhabited, and those who live near each other are thrown very much together. For this reason I saw a good deal of Sir Charles Baskerville. With the exception of Mr Frankland, of Lafter Hall, and Mr Stapleton, the naturalist, there are no other men of education within many miles. Sir Charles was a retiring man, but the chance of his illness brought us together, and a community of interests in science kept us so. He had brought back much scientific information from South Africa, and many a charming evening we have spent together discussing the comparative anatomy of the Bushman and the Hottentot.
'Within the last few months it became increasingly plain to me that Sir Charles's nervous system was strained to breaking point. He had taken this legend which I have read you exceedingly to heart - so much so that, although he would walk in his own grounds, nothing would induce him to go out upon the moor at night. Incredible as it may appear to you, Mr Holmes, he was honestly convinced that a dreadful fate overhung his family, and certainly the records which he was able to give of his ancestors were not encouraging. The idea of some ghastly presence constantly haunted him, and on more than one occasion he has asked me whether I had on my medical journeys at night ever seen any strange creature or heard the baying of a hound. The latter question he put to me several times, and always with a voice which vibrated with excitement.
'I can well remember driving up to his house in the evening, some three weeks before the fatal event. He chanced to be at his hall door. I had descended from my gig and was standing in front of him, when I saw his eyes fix themselves over my shoulder, and stare past me with an expression of the most dreadful horror. I whisked round and had just time to catch a glimpse of something which I took to be a large black calf passing at the head of the drive. So excited and alarmed was he that I was compelled to go down to the spot where the animal had been and look around for it. It was gone, however, and the incident appeared to make the worst impression upon his mind. I stayed with him all the evening, and it was on that occasion, to explain the emotion which he had shown, that he confided to my keeping that narrative which I read to you when first I came. I mention this small episode because it assumes some importance in view of the tragedy which followed, but I was convinced at the time that the matter was entirely trivial and that his excitement had no justification.
'It was at my advice that Sir Charles was about to go to London. His heart was, I knew, affected, and the constant anxiety in which he lived, however chimerical the cause of it might be, was evidently having a serious effect upon his health. I thought that a few months among the distractions of town would send him back a new man. Mr Stapleton, a mutual friend who was much concerned at his state of health, was of the same opinion. At the last instant came this terrible catastrophe.
'On the night of Sir Charles's death Barrymore the butler, who made the discovery, sent Perkins the groom on horseback to me, and as I was sitting up late I was able to reach Baskerville Hall within an hour of the event. I checked and corroborated all the facts which were mentioned at the inquest. I followed the footsteps down the Yew Alley, I saw the spot at the moor-gate where he seemed to have waited. I remarked the change in the shape of the prints after that point, I noted that there were no other footsteps save those of Barrymore on the soft gravel, and finally I carefully examined the body, which had not been touched until my arrival. Sir Charles lay on his face, his arms out, his fingers dug into the ground, and his features convulsed with some strong emotion to such an extent that I could hardly have sworn to his identity. There was certainly no physical injury of any kind. But one false statement was made by Barrymore at the inquest. He said that there were no traces upon the ground round the body. He did not observe any. But I did - some little distance off, but fresh and clear.'
'Footprints?'
'Footprints.'
'A man's or a woman's?'
Dr Mortimer looked strangely at us for an instant, and his voice sank almost to a whisper as he answered:
'Mr Holmes, they were the footprints of a gigantic hound!'
Chapter 3 : The Problem
I confess that at these words a shudder passed through me. There was a thrill in the doctor's voice which showed that he was himself deeply moved by that which he told us. Holmes leaned forward in his excitement, and his eyes had the hard, dry glitter which shot from them when he was keenly interested.
'You saw this?'
'As clearly as I see you.'
'And you said nothing?'
'What was the use?'
'How was it that no one else saw it?'
'The marks were some twenty yards from the body, and no one gave them a thought. I don't suppose I should have done so had I not known this legend.'
'There are many sheep-dogs on the moor?'
'No doubt, but this was no sheep-dog.'
'You say it was large?'
'Enormous.'
'But it had not approached the body?'
'No.'
'What sort of night was it?'
'Damp and raw.'
'No.'
'What is the alley like?'
'There are two lines of old yew hedge, twelve feet high and impenetrable. The walk in the centre is about eight feet across.'
'Is there anything between the hedges and the Walk?'
'Yes, there is a strip of grass about six feet broad on either side.'
'I understand that the yew hedge is penetrated at one point by a gate?'
'Yes, the wicket-gate which leads on to the moor.'
'Is there any other opening?'
'None.'
'So that to reach the Yew Alley one either has to come down it from the house or else to enter it by the moor-gate?'
'There is an exit through a summer-house at the far end.'
'Had Sir Charles reached this?'
'No, he lay about fifty yards from it.'
'Now, tell me, Dr Mortimer - and this is important - the marks which you saw were on the path and not on the grass?'
'No marks could show on the grass.'
'Were they on the same side of the path as the moorgate?'
'Yes, they were on the edge of the path on the same side as the moor-gate.'
'You interest me exceedingly. Another point. Was the wicket-gate closed?'
'Closed and padlocked.'
'Then anyone could have got over it?'
'Yes.'
'And what marks did you see by the wicket-gate?'
'None in particular.'
'Good Heaven! Did no one examine?'
'Yes, I examined myself.'
'And found nothing?'
'It was all very confused. Sir Charles had evidently stood there for five or ten minutes.'
'How do you know that?'
'Because the ash had twice dropped from his cigar.'
'Excellent! This is a colleague, Watson, after our own heart. But the marks?'
'He had left his own marks all over that small patch of gravel. I could discern no others.'
Sherlock Holmes struck his hand against his knee with an impatient gesture.
'If I had only been there!' he cried. 'It is evidently a case of extraordinary interest, and one which presented immense opportunities to the scientific expert. That gravel page upon which I might have read so much has been long ere this smudged by the rain and defaced by the clogs of curious peasants. Oh, Dr Mortimer, Dr Mortimer, to think that you should not have called me in! You have indeed much to answer for.'
'I could not call you in, Mr Holmes, without disclosing these facts to the world, and I have already given my reasons for not wishing to do so. Besides, besides-'
'Why do you hesitate?'
'There is a realm in which the most acute and most experienced of detectives is helpless.'
'You mean that the thing is supernatural?'
'I did not positively say so.'
'No, but you evidently think it.'
'Since the tragedy, Mr Holmes, there have come to my ears several incidents which are hard to reconcile with the settled order of Nature.'
'For example?'
'I find that before the terrible event occurred several people had seen a creature upon the moor which corresponds with this Baskerville demon, and which could not possibly be any animal known to science. They all agreed that it was a huge creature, luminous, ghastly, and spectral. I have cross-examined these men, one of them a hardheaded countryman, one a farrier, and one a moorland farmer, who all tell the same story of this dreadful apparition, exactly corresponding to the hell-hound of the legend. I assure you that there is a reign of terror in the district, and that it is a hardy man who will cross the moor at night.'
'And you, a trained man of science, believe it to be supernatural?'
'I do not know what to believe.'
Holmes shrugged his shoulders. 'I have hitherto confined my investigations to this world,' said he. 'In a modest way I have combated evil, but to take on the Father of Evil himself would, perhaps, be too ambitious a task. Yet you must admit that the footmark is material.'
'The original hound was material enough to tug a man's throat out, and yet he was diabolical as well.'
'I see that you have quite gone over to the super-naturalists. But now, Dr Mortimer, tell me this. If you hold these views, why have you come to consult me at all? You tell me in the same breath that it is useless to investigate Sir Charles's death, and that you desire me to do it.'
'I did not say that I desired you to do it.'
'Then, how can I assist you?'
'By advising me as to what I should do with Sir Henry Baskerville, who arrives at Waterloo Station' - Dr Mortimer looked at his watch - 'in exactly one hour and a quarter.'
'He being the heir?'
'Yes. On the death of Sir Charles we inquired for this young gentleman, and found that he had been farming in Canada. From the accounts which have reached us he is an excellent fellow in every way. I speak now not as a medical man but as a trustee and executor of Sir Charles's will.'
'There is no other claimant, I presume?'
'None. The only other kinsman whom we have been able to trace was Rodger Baskerville, the youngest of three brothers of whom poor Sir Charles was the elder. The second brother, who died young, is the father of this lad Henry. The third, Rodger, was the black sheep of the family. He came of the old masterful Baskerville strain, and was the very image, they tell me, of the family picture of old Hugo. He made England too hot to hold him, fled to Central America, and died there in 1876 of yellow fever. Henry is the last of the Baskervilles. In one hour and five minutes I meet him at Waterloo Station. I have had a wire that he arrived at Southampton this morning. Now, Mr Holmes, what would you advise me to do with him?'
'Why should he not go to the home of his fathers?'
'It seems natural, does it not? And yet, consider that every Baskerville who goes there meets with an evil fate. I feel sure that if Sir Charles could have spoken with me before his death he would have warned me against bringing this the last of the old race, and the heir to great wealth, to that deadly place. And yet it cannot be denied that the prosperity of the whole poor, bleak country-side depends upon his presence. All the good work which has been done by Sir Charles will crash to the ground if there is no tenant of the Hall. I fear lest I should be swayed too much by my own obvious interest in the matter, and that is why I bring the case before you and ask for your advice.'
Holmes considered for a little time. 'Put into plain words, the matter is this,' said he. 'In your opinion there is a diabolical agency which makes Dartmoor an unsafe abode for a Baskerville - that is your opinion?'
'At least I might go the length of saying that there is some evidence that this may be so.'
'Exactly. But surely if your supernatural theory be correct, it could work the young man evil in London as easily as in Devonshire. A devil with merely local powers like a parish vestry would be too inconceivable a thing.'
'You put the matter more flippantly, Mr Holmes, than you would probably do if you were brought into personal contact with these things. Your advice, then, as I understand it, is that the young man will be as safe in Devonshire as in London. He comes in fifty minutes. What would you recommend?'
'I recommend, sir, that you take a cab, call off your spaniel, who is scratching at my front door, and proceed to Waterloo to meet Sir Henry Baskerville.'
'And then?'
'And then you will say nothing to him at all until I have made up my mind about the matter.'
'How long will it take you to make up your mind?'
'Twenty-four hours. At ten o'clock tomorrow, Dr Mortimer, I will be much obliged to you if you will call upon me here, and it will be of help to me in my plans for the future if you will bring Sir Henry Baskerville with you.'
'I will do so, Mr Holmes.'
He scribbled the appointment on his shirt-cuff and hurried off in his strange, peering, absent-minded fashion. Holmes stopped him at the head of the stair.
'Only one more question, Dr Mortimer. You say that before Sir Charles Baskerville's death several people saw this apparition upon the moor?'
'Three people did.'
'Did any see it after?'
'I have not heard of any.'
'Thank you. Good morning.'
Holmes returned to his seat with that quiet look of inward satisfaction which meant that he had a congenial task before him.
'Going out, Watson?'
'Unless I can help you.'
'No, my dear fellow, it is at the hour of action that I turn to you for aid. But this is splendid, really unique from some points of view. When you pass Bradley's, would you ask him to send up a pound of the strongest shag tobacco? Thank you. It would be as well if you could make it convenient not to return before evening. Then I should be very glad to compare impressions as to this most interesting problem which has been submitted to us this morning.'
I knew that seclusion and solitude were very necessary for my friend in those hours of intense mental concentration during which he weighed every particle of evidence, constructed alternative theories, balanced one against the other, and made up his mind as to which points were essential and which immaterial. I therefore spent the day at my club, and did not return to Baker Street until evening. It was nearly nine o'clock when I found myself in the sitting-room once more. My first impression as I opened the door was that a fire had broken out, for the room was so filled with smoke that the light of the lamp upon the table was blurred by it. As I entered, however, my fears were set at rest, for it was the acrid fumes of strong, coarse tobacco, which took me by the throat and set me coughing. Through the haze I had a vague vision of Holmes in his dressing-gown coiled up in an arm-chair with his black clay pipe between his lips. Several rolls of paper lay around him.
'Caught cold, Watson? said he.
'No, it's this poisonous atmosphere.'
'I suppose it is pretty thick, now that you mention it.'
'Thick! It is intolerable.'
'Open the window, then! You have been at your club all day, I perceive.'
'My dear Holmes!'
'Certainly, but how-?'
He laughed at my bewildered expression.
'There is a delightful freshness about you, Watson, which makes it a pleasure to exercise any small powers which I possess at your expense. A gentleman goes forth on a showery and miry day. He returns immaculate in the evening with the gloss still on his hat and his boots. He has been a fixture therefore all day. He is not a man with intimate friends. Where, then, could he have been? Is it not obvious?'
'Well, it is rather obvious.'
'The world is full of obvious things which nobody by any chance ever observes. Where do you think that I have been?'
'A fixture also.'
'On the contrary, I have been to Devonshire.'
'In spirit?'
'Exactly. My body has remained in this arm-chair, and has, I regret to observe, consumed in my absence two large pots of coffee and an incredible amount of tobacco. After you left I sent down to Stanford's for the Ordnance map of this portion of the moor, and my spirit has hovered over it all day. I flatter myself that I could find my way about.'
'A large scale map, I presume?'
'Very large.' He unrolled one section and held it over his knee. 'Here you have the particular district which concerns us. That is Baskerville Hall in the middle.'
'With a wood round it?'
'Exactly. I fancy the Yew Alley, though not marked under that name, must stretch along this line, with the moor, as you perceive, upon the right of it. This small clump of buildings here is the hamlet of Grimpen, where our friend Dr Mortimer has his headquarters. Within a radius of five miles there are, as you see, only a very few scattered dwellings. Here is Lafter Hall, which was mentioned in the narrative. There is a house indicated here which may be the residence of the naturalist - Stapleton, if I remember right, was his name. Here are two moorland farmhouses, High Tor and Foulmire. Then fourteen miles away the great convict prison of Princetown. Between and around these scattered points extends the desolate, lifeless moor. This, then, is the stage upon which tragedy has been played, and upon which we may help to play it again.'
'It must be a wild place.'
'Yes, the setting is a worthy one. If the devil did desire to have a hand in the affairs of men-'
'Then you are yourself inclining to the supernatural explanation.'
'The devil's agents may be of flesh and blood, may they not? There are two questions waiting for us at the outset. The one is whether any crime has been committed at all, the second is, what is the crime and how was it committed? Of course, if Dr Mortimer's surmise should be correct, and we are dealing with forces outside the ordinary laws of Nature, there is an end of our investigation. But we are bound to exhaust all other hypotheses before falling back upon this one. I think we'll shut that window again, if you don't mind. It is a singular thing, but I find that a concentrated atmosphere helps a concentration of thought. I have not pushed it to the length of getting into a box to think, but that is the logical outcome of my convictions. Have you turned the case over in your mind?'
'Yes, I have thought a good deal of it in the course of the day.'
'What do you make of it?'
'It is very bewildering.'
'It has certainly a character of its own. There are points of distinction about it. That change in the footprints, for example. What do you make of that?'
'Mortimer said that the man had walked on tiptoe down that portion of the alley.'
'He only repeated what some fool had said at the inquest. Why should a man walk on tiptoe down the alley?'
'What then?'
'He was running, Watson - running desperately, running for his life, running until he burst his heart and fell dead upon his face.'
'Running from what?'
'There lies our problem. There are indications that the man was crazed with fear before ever he began to run.'
'How can you say that?'
'I am presuming that the cause of his fears came to him across the moor. If that were so, and it seems most probable, only a man who had lost his wits would have run from the house instead of towards it. If the gipsy's evidence may be taken as true, he ran with cries for help in the direction where help was least likely to be. Then again, whom was he waiting for that night, and why was he waiting for him in the Yew Alley rather than in his own house?'
'You think that he was waiting for someone?'
'The man was elderly and infirm. We can understand his taking an evening stroll, but the ground was damp and the night inclement. Is it natural that he should stand for five or ten minutes, as Dr Mortimer, with more practical sense than I should have given him credit for, deduced from the cigar ash?'
'But he went out every evening.'
'I think it unlikely that he waited at the moor-gate every evening. On the contrary, the evidence is that he avoided the moor. That night he waited there. It was the night before he was to take his departure for London. The thing takes shape, Watson. It becomes coherent. Might I ask you to hand me my violin, and we will postpone all further thought upon this business until we have had the advantage of meeting Dr Mortimer and Sir Henry Baskerville in the morning.'
Chapter 4 : Sir Henry Baskerville
Our breakfast-table was cleared early, and Holmes waited in his dressing-gown for the promised interview. Our clients were punctual to their appointment, for the clock had just struck ten when Dr Mortimer was shown up, followed by the young Baronet. The latter was a small, alert, dark-eyed man about thirty years of age, very sturdily built, with thick black eyebrows and a strong, pugnacious face. He wore a ruddy-tinted tweed suit, and had the weather-beaten appearance of one who has spent most of his time in the open air, and yet there was something in his steady eye and the quiet assurance of his bearing which indicated the gentleman.
'This is Sir Henry Baskerville,' said Dr Mortimer.
'Why, yes,' said he, 'and the strange thing is, Mr Sherlock Holmes, that if my friend here had not proposed coming round to you this morning I should have come on my own. I understand that you think out little puzzles, and I've had one this morning which wants more thinking out than I am able to give it.'
'Pray take a seat, Sir Henry. Do I understand you to say that you have yourself had some remarkable experience since you arrived in London?'
'Nothing of much importance, Mr Holmes. Only a joke, as like as not. It was this letter, if you can call it a letter, which reached me this morning.'
He laid an envelope upon the table, and we all bent over it. It was of common quality, greyish in colour. The address, 'Sir Henry Baskerville, Northumberland Hotel', was printed in rough characters, the post-mark 'Charing Cross', and the date of posting the preceding evening.
'Who knew that you were going to the Northumberland Hotel?' asked Holmes, glancing keenly, across at our visitor.
'No one could have known. We only decided after I met Dr Mortimer.'
'But Dr Mortimer was, no doubt, already stopping there?'
'No, I had been staying with a friend,' said the doctor.
'There was no possible indication that we intended to go to this hotel.'
'Hum! Someone seems to be very deeply interested in your movements.' Out of the envelope he took a half-sheet of foolscap paper folded into four. This he opened and spread flat upon the table. Across the middle of it a single sentence had been formed by the expedient of pasting printed words upon it. It ran: 'as you value your life or your reason keep away from the moor.' The word 'moor' only was printed in ink.
'Now,' said Sir Henry Baskerville, 'perhaps you will tell me, Mr Holmes, what in thunder is the meaning of that, and Who it is that takes so much interest in my affairs?'
'What do you make of it, Dr Mortimer? You must allow that there is nothing supernatural about this, at any rate?'
'No, sir, but it might very well come from someone who was convinced that the business is supernatural.'
'What business?' asked Sir Henry, sharply. 'It seems to me that all you gentlemen know a great deal more than I do about my own affairs.'
'You shall share our knowledge before you leave this room, Sir Henry. I promise you that,' said Sherlock Holmes. 'We will confine ourselves for the present, with your permission, to this very interesting document, which must have been put together and posted yesterday evening. Have you yesterday's Times, Watson?'
'It is here in the corner.'
'Might I trouble you for it - the inside page, please, with the leading articles?' He glanced swiftly over it, running his eyes up and down the columns. 'Capital article this on Free Trade.? Permit me to give you an extract from it. "You may be cajoled into imagining that your own special trade or your own industry will be encouraged by a protective tariff, but it stands to reason that such legislation must in the long run keep away wealth from the country, diminish the value of our imports, and lower the general conditions of life in this island." What do you think of that, Watson?' cried Holmes, in high glee, rubbing his hands together with satisfaction. 'Don't you think that is an admirable sentiment?'
Dr Mortimer looked at Holmes with an air of professional interest, and Sir Henry Baskerville turned a pair of puzzled dark eyes upon me.
'I don't know much about the tariff and things of that kind,' said he, 'but it seems to me we've got a bit off the trail so far as that note is concerned.'
'On the contrary, I think we are particularly hot upon the trail, Sir Henry. Watson here knows more about my methods than you do, but I fear that even he has not quite grasped the significance of this sentence.'
'No, I confess that I see no connection.'
'And yet, my dear Watson, there is so very close a connection that the one is extracted out of the other. "You", "your", "your", "life", "reason" , "value", "keep away", "from the". Don't you see now whence these words have been taken?'
'By thunder, you're right! Well, if that isn't smart!' cried Sir Henry.
'If any possible doubt remained it is settled by the fact that "keep away" and "from the" are cut out in one piece.'
'Well, now - so it is!'
'Really, Mr Holmes, this exceeds anything which I could have imagined,' said Dr Mortimer, gazing at my friend in amazement. 'I could understand anyone saying that the words were from a newspaper, but that you should name which, and add that it came from the leading article, is really one of the most remarkable things which I have ever known. How did you do it?'
'I presume, doctor, that you could tell the skull of a negro from that of an Esquimaux?'
'Most certainly.'
'But how?'
'Because that is my special hobby. The differences are obvious. The supra-orbital crest, the facial angle, the maxillary curve, the-'
'But this is my special hobby, and the differences are equally obvious. There is as much difference to my eyes between the leaded bourgeois type of a Times article and the slovenly print of an evening halfpenny paper as there could be between your Negro and your Esquimaux. The detection of types is one of the most elementary branches of knowledge to the special expert in crime, though I confess that once when I was very young I confused the Leeds Mercury with the Western Morning News. But a Times leader is entirely distinctive, and these words could have been taken from nothing else. As it was done yesterday the strong probability was that we should find the words in yesterday's issue.'
'So far as I can follow you, then, Mr Holmes,' said Sir Henry Baskerville, 'someone cut out this message with a scissors-'
'Nail-scissors,' said Holmes. 'You can see that it was a very short-bladed scissors, since the cutter had to take two snips over "keep away".'
'That is so. Someone, then, cut out the message with a pair of short-bladed scissors, pasted it with paste-'
'Gum,' said Holmes.
'With gum on to the paper. But I want to know why the word "moor" should have been written?'
'Because he could not find it in print. The other words were all simple, and might be found in any issue, but "moor" would be less common.'
'Why, of course, that would explain it. Have you read anything else in this message, Mr Holmes?'
'There are one or two indications, and yet the utmost pains have been taken to remove all clues. The address, you observe, is printed in rough characters. But The Times is a paper which is seldom found in any hands but those of the highly educated. We may take it, therefore, that the letter was composed by an educated man who wished to pose as an uneducated one, and his effort to conceal his own writing suggests that that writing might be known, or come to be known, by you. Again, you will observe that the words are not gummed on in an accurate line, but that some are much higher than others. "Life", for example, is quite out of its proper place. That may point to carelessness or it may point to agitation and hurry upon the part of the cutter. On the whole I incline to the latter view, since the matter was evidently important, and it is unlikely that the composer of such a letter would be careless. If he were in a hurry it opens up the interesting question why he should be in a hurry, since any letter posted up to early morning would reach Sir Henry before he would leave his hotel. Did the composer fear an interruption - and from whom?'
'We are coming now rather into the region of guesswork,' said Dr Mortimer.
'Say, rather, into the region where we balance probabilities and choose the most likely. It is the scientific use of the imagination, but we have always some material basis on which to start our speculations. Now, you would call it a guess, no doubt, but I am almost certain that this address has been written in an hotel.'
'How in the world can you say that?'
'If you examine it carefully you will see that both the pen and the ink have given the writer trouble. The pen has spluttered twice in a single word, and has run dry three times in a short address, showing that there was very little ink in the bottle. Now, a private pen or ink-bottle is seldom allowed to be in such a state, and the combination of the two must be quite rare. But you know the hotel ink and the hotel pen, where it is rare to get anything else. Yes, I have very little hesitation in saying that could we examine the waste-paper baskets of the hotels round Charing Cross until we found the remains of the mutilated Times leader we could lay our hands straight upon the person who sent this singular message. Hullo! Hullo! What's this?'
He was carefully examining the foolscap, upon which the words were pasted, holding it only an inch or two from his eyes.
'Well?'
'Nothing,' said he, throwing it down. 'It is a blank half-sheet of paper, without even a watermark upon it. I think we have drawn as much as we can from this curious letter, and now, Sir Henry, has anything else of interest happened to you since you have been in London?'
'Why, no, Mr Holmes. I think not.'
'You have not observed anyone follow or watch you?'
'I seem to have walked right into the thick of a dime novel,'? said our visitor. 'Why in thunder should anyone follow or watch me?'
'We are coming to that. You have nothing else to report to us before we go into this matter?'
'Well, it depends upon what you think worth reporting.'
'I think anything out of the ordinary routine of life well worth reporting.'
Sir Henry smiled. 'I don't know much of British life yet, for I have spent nearly all my time in the States and in Canada. But I hope that to lose one of your boots is not part of the ordinary routine of life over here.'
'You have lost one of your boots?'
'My dear sir,' cried Dr Mortimer, 'it is only mislaid. You will find it when you return to the hotel. What is the use of troubling Mr Holmes with trifles of this kind?'
'Well, he asked me for anything outside the ordinary routine.'
'Exactly,' said Holmes, 'however foolish the incident may seem. You have lost one of your boots, you say?'
'Well, mislaid it, anyhow. I put them both outside my door last night, and there was only one in the morning. I could get no sense out of the chap who cleans them. The worst of it is that I only bought the pair last night in the Strand, and I have never had them on.'
'If you have never worn them, why did you put them out to be cleaned?'
'They were tan boots, and had never been varnished. That was why I put them out.'
'Then I understand that on your arrival in London yesterday you went out at once and bought a pair of boots?'
'I did a good deal of shopping. Dr Mortimer here went round with me. You see, if I am to be squire down there I must dress the part, and it may be that I have got a little careless in my ways out West. Among other things I bought these brown boots - gave six dollars for them and had one stolen before ever I had them on my feet.'
'It seems a singularly useless thing to steal,' said Sherlock Holmes. 'I confess that I share Dr Mortimer's belief that it will not be long before the missing boot is found.'
'And now, gentlemen,' said the Baronet, with decision, 'it seems to me that I have spoken quite enough about the little that I know. It is time that you kept your promise, and gave me a full account of what we are all driving at.'
'Your request is a very reasonable one,' Holmes answered.
'Dr Mortimer, I think you could not do better than to tell your story as you told it to us.'
Thus encouraged, our scientific friend drew his papers from his pocket, and presented the whole case as he had done upon the morning before. Sir Henry Baskerville listened with the deepest attention and with an occasional exclamation of surprise.
'Well, I seem to have come into an inheritance with a vengeance,' said he, when the long narrative was finished. 'Of course, I've heard of the hound ever since I was in the nursery. It's the pet story of the family, though I never thought of taking it seriously before. But as to my uncle's death - well, it all seems boiling up in my head, and I can't get it clear yet. You don't seem quite to have made up your mind whether it's a case for a policeman or a clergyman.'
'Precisely.'
'And now there's this affair of the letter to me at the hotel. I suppose that fits into its place.'
'It seems to show that someone knows more than we do about what goes on upon the moor,' said Dr Mortimer.
'And also,' said Holmes, 'that someone is not ill-disposed towards you, since they warn you of danger.'
'Or it may be that they wish for their own purposes to scare me away.'
'Well, of course, that is possible also. I am very much indebted to you, Dr Mortimer, for introducing me to a problem which presents several interesting alternatives. But the practical point which we now have to decide, Sir Henry, is whether it is or is not advisable for you to go to Baskerville Hall.'
'Why should I not go?'
'There seems to be danger.'
'Do you mean danger from this family fiend or do you mean danger from human beings?'
'Well, that is what we have to find out.'
'Whichever it is, my answer is fixed. There is no devil in hell, Mr Holmes, and there is no man upon earth who can prevent me from going to the home of my own people, and you may take that to be my final answer.' His dark brows knitted and his face flushed to a dusky red as he spoke. It was evident that the fiery temper of the Baskervilles was not extinct in this their last representative. 'Meanwhile,' said he, 'I have hardly had time to think over all that you have told me. It's a big thing for a man to have to understand and to decide at one sitting. I should like to have a quiet hour by myself to make up my mind. Now, look here, Mr Holmes, it's half-past eleven now, and I am going back right away to my hotel. Suppose you and your friend, Dr Watson, come round and lunch with us at two? I'll be able to tell you more clearly then how this thing strikes me.'
'Is that convenient to you, Watson?'
'Perfectly.'
'Then you may expect us. Shall I have a cab called?'
'I'd prefer to walk, for this affair has flurried me rather.'
'I'll join you in a walk, with pleasure,' said his companion.
'Then we meet again at two o'clock. Au revoir, and good morning!'
We heard the steps of our visitors descend the stair and the bang of the front door. In an instant Holmes had changed from the languid dreamer to the man of action. 'Your hat and boots, Watson, quick! Not a moment to lose!' He rushed into his room in his dressing-gown, and was back again in a few seconds in a frock-coat. We hurried together down the stairs and into the street. Dr Mortimer and Baskerville were still visible about two hundred yards ahead of us in the direction of Oxford Street.
'Shall I run on and stop them?'
'Not for the world, my dear Watson. I am perfectly satisfied with your company, if you will tolerate mine. Our friends are wise, for it is certainly a very fine morning for a walk.'
He quickened his pace until we had decreased the distance which divided us by about half. Then, still keeping a hundred yards behind, we followed into Oxford Street and so down Regent Street. Once our friends stopped and stared into a shop window, upon which Holmes did the same. An instant afterwards he gave a little cry of satisfaction, and, following the direction of his eager eyes, I saw that a hansom cab with a man inside which had halted on the other side of the street was now walking slowly onwards again.
'There's our man, Watson! Come along! We'll have a good look at him, if we can do no more.'
At that instant I was aware of a bushy black beard and a pair of piercing eyes turned upon us through the side window of the cab. Instantly the trap-door at the top flew up, something was screamed to the driver, and the cab flew madly off down Regent Street. Holmes looked eagerly round for another, but no empty one was in sight. Then he dashed in wild pursuit amid the stream of the traffic, but the start was too great, and already the cab was out of sight.
'There now!' said Holmes, bitterly, as he emerged panting and white with vexation from the tide of vehicles. 'Was ever such bad luck and such bad management, too? Watson, Watson, if you are an honest man you will record this also and set it against my successes!'
'Who was the man?'
'I have not an idea.'
'A spy?'
'Well, it was evident from what we have heard that Baskerville has been very closely shadowed by someone since he has been in town. How else could it be known so quickly that it was the Northumberland Hotel which he had chosen? If they had followed him the first day I argued that they would follow him also the second. You may have observed that I twice strolled over to the window while Dr Mortimer was reading his legend.'
'Yes, I remember.'
'I was looking out for loiterers in the street, but I saw none. We are dealing with a clever man, Watson. This matter cuts very deep, and though I have not finally made up my mind whether it is a benevolent or a malevolent agency which is in touch with us, I am conscious always of power and design. When our friends left I at once followed them in the hopes of marking down their invisible attendant. So wily was he that he had not trusted himself upon foot, but he had availed himself of a cab, so that he could loiter behind or dash past them and so escape their notice. His method had the additional advantage that if they were to take a cab he was all ready to follow them. It has, however, one obvious disadvantage.'
'It puts him in the power of the cabman.'
'Exactly.'
'What a pity we did not get the number!'
'My dear Watson, clumsy as I have been, you surely do not seriously imagine that I neglected to get the number? 2704 is our man. But that is no use to us for the moment.'
'I fail to see how you could have done more.'
'On observing the cab I should have instantly turned and walked in the other direction. I should then at my leisure have hired a second cab and followed the first at a respectful distance, or, better still, have driven to the Northumberland Hotel and waited there. When our unknown had followed Baskerville home we should have had the opportunity of playing his own game upon himself, and seeing where he made for. As it is, by an indiscreet eagerness, which was taken advantage of with extraordinary quickness and energy by our opponent, we have betrayed ourselves and lost our man.'
We had been sauntering slowly down Regent Street during this conversation, and Dr Mortimer, with his companion, had long vanished in front of us.
'There is no object in our following them,' said Holmes. 'The shadow has departed and will not return. We must see what further cards we have in our hands, and play them with decision. Could you swear to that man's face, within the cab?'
'I could swear only to the beard.'
'And so could I - from which I gather that in all probability it was a false one. A clever man upon so delicate an errand has no use for a beard save to conceal his features. Come in here, Watson!'
He turned into one of the district messenger offices, where he was warmly greeted by the manager.
'Ah, Wilson, I see you have not forgotten the little case in which I had the good fortune to help you?'
'No, sir, indeed I have not. You saved my good name, and perhaps my life.'
'My dear fellow, you exaggerate. I have some recollection, Wilson, that you had among your boys a lad named Cartwright, who showed some ability during the investigation.'
'Yes, sir, he is still with us.'
'Could you ring him up? Thank you! And I should be glad to have change of this five-pound note.'
A lad of fourteen, with a bright, keen face, had obeyed the summons of the manager. He stood now gazing with great reverence at the famous detective.
'Let me have the Hotel Directory,' said Holmes. 'Thank you! Now, Cartwright, there are the names of twenty-three hotels here, all in the immediate neighbourhood of Charing Cross. Do you see?'
'Yes, sir.'
'You will visit each of these in turn.'
'Yes, Sir.'
'You will begin in each case by giving the outside porter one shilling. Here are twenty-three shillings.'
'Yes, sir.'
'You will tell him that you want to see the waste paper of yesterday. You will say that an important telegram has miscarried, and that you are looking for it. You understand?'
'Yes, sir.'
'But what you are really looking for is the centre page of The Times with some holes cut in it with scissors. Here is a copy of The Times. It is this page. You could easily recognize it, could you not?'
'Yes, sir.'
'In each case the outside porter will send for the hall porter, to whom also you will give a shilling. Here are twenty-three shillings. You will then learn in possibly twenty cases out of the twenty-three that the waste of the day before has been burned or removed. In the three other cases you will be shown a heap of paper, and will look for this page of The Times among it. The odds are enormously against your finding it. There are ten shillings over in case of emergencies. Let me have a report by wire at Baker Street before evening. And now, Watson, it only remains for us to find out by wire the identity of the cabman, No. 2704, and then we will drop into one of the Bond Street picture galleries and fill in the time until we are due at the hotel.'
Chapter 5 : Three Broken Threads
Sherlock Holmes had, in a very remarkable degree, the power of detaching his mind at will. For two hours the strange business in which we had been involved appeared to be forgotten, and he was entirely absorbed in the pictures of the modern Belgian masters. He would talk of nothing but art, of which he had the crudest ideas, from our leaving the gallery until we found ourselves at the Northumberland Hotel.
'Sir Henry Baskerville is upstairs expecting you,' said the clerk. 'He asked me to show you up at once when you came.'
'Have you any objection to my looking at your register?' said Holmes.
'Not in the least.'
The book showed that two names had been added after that of Baskerville. One was Theophilus Johnson and family, of Newcastle, the other Mrs Oldmore and maid, of High Lodge, Alton.
'Surely that must be the same Johnson whom I used to know,' said Holmes to the porter. 'A lawyer, is he not, grey-headed, and walks with a limp?'
'No, sir, this is Mr Johnson the coal-owner, a very active gentleman, not older than yourself.'
'Surely you are mistaken about his trade?'
'No, sir, he has used this hotel for many years, and he is very well known to us.'
'Ah, that settles it. Mrs Oldmore, too, I seem to remember the name. Excuse my curiosity, but often in calling upon one friend one finds another.'
'She is an invalid lady, sir. Her husband was once Mayor of Gloucester. She always comes to us when she is in town.'
'Thank you, I am afraid I cannot claim her acquaintance. We have established a most important fact by these questions, Watson,' he continued, in a low voice, as we went upstairs together. 'We know now that the people who are so interested in our friend have not settled down in his own hotel. That means that while they are, as we have seen, very anxious to watch him, they are equally anxious that he should not see them. Now, this is a most suggestive fact.'
'What does it suggest?
'It suggests - hullo, my dear fellow, what on earth is the matter?'
As we came round the top of the stairs we had run up against Sir Henry Baskerville himself. His face was flushed with anger, and he held an old and dusty boot in one of his hands. So furious was he that he was hardly articulate, and when he did speak it was in a much broader and more Western dialect than any which we had heard from him in the morning.
'Seems to me they are playing me for a sucker in this hotel,' he cried. 'They'll find they've started in to monkey with the wrong man unless they are careful. By thunder, if that chap can't find my missing boot there will be trouble. I can take a joke with the best, Mr Holmes, but they've got a bit over the mark this time.'
'Still looking for your boot?'
'Yes, sir, and mean to find it.'
'But surely, you said that it was a new brown boot?'
'So it was, sir. And now it's an old black one.'
'What! you don't mean to say-?'
'That's just what I do mean to say. I only had three pairs in the world - the new brown, the old black, and the patent leathers, which I am wearing. Last night they took one of my brown ones, and to-day they have sneaked one of the black. Well, have you got it? Speak out, man, and don't stand staring!'
An agitated German waiter had appeared upon the scene.
'No, sir, I have made inquiry all over the hotel, but I can hear no word of it.'
'Well, either that boot comes back before sundown or I'll see the manager and tell him that I go right straight out of this hotel.'
'It shall be found, sir - I promise you that if you will have a little patience it will be found.'
'Mind it is, for it's the last thing of mine that I'll lose in this den of thieves. Well, well, Mr Holmes, you'll excuse my troubling you about such a trifle-'
'I think it's well worth troubling about.'
'Why, you look very serious over it.'
'How do you explain it?'
'I just don't attempt to explain it. It seems the very maddest, queerest thing that ever happened to me.'
'The queerest, perhaps,' said Holmes, thoughtfully.
'What do you make of it yourself ?'
'Well, I don't profess to understand it yet. This case of yours is very complex, Sir Henry. When taken in conjunction with your uncle's death I am not sure that of all the five hundred cases of capital importance which I have handled there is one which cuts so deep. But we hold several threads in our hands, and the odds are that one or other of them guides us to the truth. We may waste time in following the wrong one, but sooner or later we must come upon the right.'
We had a pleasant luncheon in which little was said of the business which had brought us together. It was in the private sitting-room to which we afterwards repaired that Holmes asked Baskerville what were his intentions.
'To go to Baskerville Hall.'
'And when?'
'At the end of the week.'
'On the whole,' said Holmes, 'I think that your decision is a wise one. I have ample evidence that you are being dogged in London, and amid the millions of this great city it is difficult to discover who these people are or what their object can be. If their intentions are evil they might do you a mischief, and we should be powerless to prevent it. You did not know, Dr Mortimer, that you were followed this morning from my house?'
Dr Mortimer started violently. 'Followed! By whom?'
'That, unfortunately, is what I cannot tell you. Have you among your neighbours or acquaintances on Dartmoor any man with a black, full beard?'
'No - or, let me see - why, yes. Barrymore, Sir Charles's butler, is a man with a full, black beard.'
'Ha! Where is Barrymore?'
'He is in charge of the Hall.'
'We had best ascertain if he is really there, or if by any possibility he might be in London.'
'How can you do that?'
'Give me a telegraph form. "Is all ready for Sir Henry?" That will do. Address to Mr Barrymore, Baskerville Hall. Which is the nearest telegraph-office? Grimpen. Very good, we will send a second wire to the postmaster, Grimpen: "Telegram to Mr Barrymore, to be delivered into his own hand. If absent, please return wire to Sir Henry Baskerville, Northumberland Hotel." That should let us know before evening whether Barrymore is at his post in Devonshire or not.'
'That's so,' said Baskerville. 'By the way, Dr Mortimer, who is this Barrymore, anyhow?'
'He is the son of the old caretaker, who is dead. They have looked after the Hall for four generations now. So far as I know, he and his wife are as respectable a couple as any in the county.'
'At the same time,' said Baskerville, 'it's clear enough that so long as there are none of the family at the Hall these people have a mighty fine home and nothing to do.'
'That is true.'
'Did Barrymore profit at all by Sir Charles's will?' asked Holmes.
'He and his wife had five hundred pounds each.'
'Ha! Did they know that they would receive this?'
'Yes, Sir Charles was very fond of talking about the provisions of his will.'
'That is very interesting.'
'I hope', said Dr Mortimer, 'that you do not look with suspicious eyes upon everyone who received a legacy from Sir Charles, for I also had a thousand pounds left to me.'
'Indeed! And anyone else?'
'There were many insignificant sums to individuals and a large number of public charities. The residue all went to Sir Henry.'
'And how much was the residue?'
'Seven hundred and forty thousand pounds.'
Holmes raised his eyebrows in surprise. 'I had no idea that so gigantic a sum was involved,' said he.
'Sir Charles had the reputation of being rich, but we did not know how very rich he was until we came to examine his securities. The total value of the estate was close on to a million.'
'Dear me! It is a stake for which a man might well play a desperate game. And one more question, Dr Mortimer. Supposing that anything happened to our young friend here - you will forgive the unpleasant hypothesis! - who would inherit the estate?'
'Since Rodger Baskerville, Sir Charles's younger brother, died unmarried, the estate would descend to the Desmonds, who are distant cousins. James Desmond is an elderly clergyman in Westmorland.'
'Thank you. These details are all of great interest. Have you met Mr James Desmond?'
'Yes, he once came down to visit Sir Charles. He is a man of venerable appearance and of saintly life. I remember that he refused to accept any settlement from Sir Charles, though he pressed it upon him.'
'And this man of simple tastes would be the heir to Sir Charles's thousands?'
'He would be the heir to the estate, because that is entailed. He would also be the heir to the money unless it were willed otherwise by the present owner, who can, of course, do what he likes with it.'
'And have you made your will, Sir Henry?'
'No, Mr Holmes, I have not. I've had no time, for it was only yesterday that I learned how matters stood. But in any case I feel that the money should go with the title and estate. That was my poor uncle's idea. How is the owner going to restore the glories of the Baskervilles if he has not money enough to keep up the property? House, land, and dollars must go together.'
'Quite so. Well, Sir Henry, I am of one mind with you as to the advisability of your going down to Devonshire without delay. There is only one provision which I must make. You certainly must not go alone.'
'Dr Mortimer returns with me.'
'But Dr Mortimer has his practice to attend to, and his house is miles away from yours. With all the good will in the world, he may be unable to help you. No, Sir Henry, you must take with you someone, a trusty man, who will be always by your side.'
'Is it possible that you could come yourself, Mr Holmes?"
'If matters came to a crisis I should endeavour to be present in person, but you can understand that, with my extensive consulting practice and with the constant appeals which reach me from many quarters, it is impossible for me to be absent from London for an indefinite time. At the present instant one of the most revered names in England is being besmirched by a blackmailer, and only I can stop a disastrous scandal. You will see how impossible it is for me to go to Dartmoor.'
'Whom would you recommend, then?'
Holmes laid his hand upon my arm.
'If my friend would undertake it there is no man who is better worth having at your side when you are in a tight place. No one can say so more confidently than I.'
The proposition took me completely by surprise, but before I had time to answer Baskerville seized me by the hand and wrung it heartily.
'Well, now, that is real kind of you, Dr Watson,' said he. 'You see how it is with me, and you know just as much about the matter as I do. If you will come down to Baskerville Hall and see me through I'll never forget it.'
The promise of adventure had always a fascination for me, and I was complimented by the words of Holmes and by the eagerness with which the Baronet hailed me as a companion.
'I will come with pleasure,' said I. 'I do not know how I could employ my time better.'
'And you will report very carefully to me,' said Holmes. 'When a crisis comes, as it will do, I will direct how you shall act. I suppose that by Saturday all might be ready?'
'Would that suit Dr Watson?'
'Perfectly.'
'Then on Saturday, unless you hear to the contrary, we shall meet at the 10.30 train from Paddington.'
We had risen to depart when Baskerville gave a cry of triumph, and diving into one of the corners of the room he drew a brown boot from under a cabinet.
'My missing boott!' he cried.
'May all our difficulties vanish as easily!' said Sherlock Holmes.
'But it is a very singular thing,' Dr Mortimer remarked. 'I searched this room carefully before lunch.'
'And so did I,' said Baskerville. 'Every inch of it.'
'There was certainly no boot in it then.'
'In that case the waiter must have placed it there while we were lunching.'
The German was sent for, but professed to know nothing of the matter, nor could any inquiry clear it up. Another item had been added to that constant and apparently purposeless series of small mysteries which had succeeded each other so rapidly. Setting aside the whole grim story of Sir Charles's death, we had a line of inexplicable incidents all within the limits of two days, which included the receipt of the printed letter, the black-bearded spy in the hansom, the loss of the new brown boot, the loss of the old black boot, and now the return of the new brown boot. Holmes sat in silence in the cab as we drove back to Baker Street, and I knew from his drawn brows and keen face that his mind, like my own, was busy in endeavouring to frame some scheme into which all these strange and apparently disconnected episodes could be fitted. All afternoon and late into the evening he sat lost in tobacco and thought.
Just before dinner two telegrams were handed in. The first ran:
Have just heard that Barrymore is at the Hall - BASKERVILLE.
The second:
Visited twenty-three hotels as directed, but sorry to report unable to trace cut sheet of Times - CARTWRIGHT.
'There go two of my threads, Watson. There is nothing more stimulating than a case where everything goes against you. We must cast round for another scent.'
'We have still the cabman who drove the spy.'
'Exactly. I have wired to get his name and address from the Official Registry. I should not be surprised if this were an answer to my question.'
The ring at the bell proved to be something even more satisfactory than an answer, however, for the door opened and a rough-looking fellow entered who was evidently the man himself.
'I got a message from the head office that a gent at this address had been inquiring for 2704,' said he. 'I've driven my cab this seven years and never a word of complaint. I came here straight from the Yard to ask you to your face what you had against me.'
'I have nothing in the world against you, nay good man,' said Holmes. 'On the contrary, I have half a sovereign for you if you will give me a clear answer to my questions.'
'Well, I've had a good day and no mistake,' said the cabman, with a grin. 'What was it you wanted to ask, sir?'
'First of all your name and address, in case I want you again.'
'John Clayton, 3, Turpey Street, the Borough. My cab is out of Shipley's Yard, near Waterloo Station.'
Sherlock Holmes made a note of it.
'Now, Clayton, tell me all about the fare who came and watched this house at ten o'clock this morning and afterwards followed the two gentlemen down Regent Street.'
The man looked surprised and a little embarrassed.
'Why, there's no good my telling you things, for you seem to know as much as I do already,' said he. 'The truth is that the gentleman told me that he was a detective, and that I was to say nothing about him to anyone.'
'My good fellow, this is a very serious business, and you may find yourself in a pretty bad position if you try to hide anything from me. You say that your fare told you that he was a detective?'
'Yes, he did.'
'When did he say this?'
'When he left me.'
'Did he say anything more?'
'He mentioned his name.'
Holmes cast a swift glance of triumph at me.
'Oh, he mentioned his name, did he? That was imprudent. What was the name that he mentioned?'
'His name', said the cabman, 'was Mr Sherlock Holmes.'
Never have I seen my friend more completely taken aback than by the cabman's reply. For an instant he sat in silent amazement. Then he burst into a hearty laugh.
'A touch, Watson - an undeniable touch!' said he. 'I feel a foil as quick and supple as my own. He got home upon me very prettily that time. So his name was Sherlock Holmes, was it?'
'Yes, sir, that was the gentleman's name.'
'Excellent! Tell me where you picked him up and all that occurred.'
'He hailed me at half-past nine in Trafalgar Square. He said that he was a detective, and he offered me two guineas if I would do exactly what he wanted all day and ask no questions. I was glad enough to agree. First we drove down to the Northumberland Hotel and waited there until two gentlemen came out and took a cab from the rank. We followed their cab until it pulled up somewhere near here.'
'This very door,' said Holmes.
'Well, I couldn't be sure of that, but I dare say my fare knew all about it. We pulled up half-way down the street and waited an hour and a half. Then the two gentlemen passed us, walking, and we followed down Baker Street and along-'
'I know,' said Holmes.
'Until we got three-quarters down Regent Street. Then my gentleman threw up the trap, and he cried that I should drive right away to Waterloo Station as hard as I could go. I whipped up the mare and we were there under the ten minutes. Then he paid up his two guineas, like a good one, and away he went into the station. Only just as he was leaving he turned round and said: "It might interest you to know that you have been driving Mr Sherlock Holmes." That's how I came to know the name.'
'I see. And you saw no more of him?'
'Not after he went into the station.'
'And how would you describe Mr Sherlock Holmes?'
The cabman scratched his head. 'Well, he wasn't altogether such an easy gentleman to describe. I'd put him at forty years of age, and he was of a middle height, two or three inches shorter than you, sir. He was dressed like a toff, and he had a black beard, cut square at the end, and a pale face. I don't know as I could say more than that.'
'Colour of his eyes?'
'No, I can't say that.'
'Nothing more that you can remember?'
'No, sir, nothing.'
'Well, then, here is your half-sovereign. There's another one waiting for you if you can bring any more information. Good-night!'
'Good-night, sir, and thank you!'
John Clayton departed, chuckling, and Holmes turned to me with a shrug of the shoulders and a rueful smile.
'Snap goes our third thread, and we end where we began,' said he. 'The cunning rascal! He knew our number, knew that Sir Henry Baskerville had consulted me, spotted who I was in Regent Street, conjectured that I had got the number of the cab and would lay my hands on the driver, and so sent back this audacious message. I tell you, Watson, this time we have got a foeman who is worthy of our steel. I've been checkmated in London. I can only wish you better luck in Devonshire. But I'm not easy in my mind about it.'
'About what?'
'About sending you. It's an ugly business, Watson, an ugly, dangerous business, and the more I see of it the less I like it. Yes, my dear fellow, you may laugh, but I give you my word that I shall be very glad to have you back safe and sound in Baker Street once more.'
Chapter 6 : Baskerville Hall
Sir Henry Baskerville and Dr Mortimer were ready upon the appointed day, and we started as arranged for Devonshire. Mr Sherlock Holmes drove with me to the station, and gave me his last parting injunctions and advice.
'I will not bias your mind by suggesting theories or suspicions, Watson,' said he, 'I wish you simply to report facts in the fullest possible manner to me, and you can leave me to do the theorizing.'
'What sort of facts?' I asked.
'Anything which may seem to have a bearing, however indirect, upon the case, and especially the relations between young Baskerville and his neighbours, or any fresh particulars concerning the death of Sir Charles. I have made some inquiries myself in the last few days, but the results have, I fear, been negative. One thing only appears to be certain, and that is that Mr James Desmond, who is the next heir, is an elderly gentleman of a very amiable disposition, so that this persecution does not arise from him. I really think that we may eliminate him entirely from our calculations. There remain the people who will actually surround Sir Henry Baskerville upon the moor.'
'Would it not be well in the first place to get rid of this Barrymore couple?'
'By no means. You could not make a greater mistake. If they are innocent it would be a cruel injustice, and if they are guilty we should be giving up all chance of bringing it home to them. No, no, we will preserve them upon our list of suspects. Then there is a groom at the Hall, if I remember right. There are two moorland farmers. There is our friend Dr Mortimer, whom I believe to be entirely honest, and there is his wife, of whom we know nothing. There is this naturalist Stapleton, and there is his sister, who is said to be a young lady of attractions. There is Mr Frankland, of Lafter Hall, who is also an unknown factor, and there are one or two other neighbours. These are the folk who must be your very special study.'
'I will do my best.'
'You have arms, I suppose?'
'Yes, I thought it as well to take them.'
'Most certainly. Keep your revolver near you night and day, and never relax your precautions.'
Our friends had already secured a first-class carriage, and were waiting for us upon the platform.
'No, we have no news of any kind,' said Dr Mortimer, in answer to my friend's questions. 'I can swear to one thing, and that is that we have not been shadowed during the last two days. We have never gone out without keeping a sharp watch, and no one could have escaped our notice.'
'You have always kept together, I presume?'
'Except yesterday afternoon. I usually give up one day to pure amusement when I come to town, so I spent it at the Museum of the College of Surgeons.'
'And I went to look at the folk in the park,' said Baskerville. 'But we had no trouble of any kind.'
'It was imprudent, all the same,' said Holmes, shaking his head and looking very grave. 'I beg, Sir Henry, that you will not go about alone. Some great misfortune will befall you if you do. Did you get your other boot?'
'No, sir, it is gone for ever.'
'Indeed. That is very interesting. Well, good-bye,' he added, as the train began to glide down the platform. 'Bear in mind, Sir Henry, one of the phrases in that queer old legend which Dr Mortimer has read to us, and avoid the moor in those hours of darkness when the powers of evil are exalted.'
I looked back at the platform when we had left it far behind, and saw the tall, austere figure of Holmes standing motionless and gazing after us.
The journey was a swift and pleasant one, and I spent it in making the more intimate acquaintance of my two companions, and in playing with Dr Mortimer's spaniel. In a very few hours the brown earth had become ruddy, the brick had changed to granite, and red cows grazed in well-hedged fields where the lush grasses and more luxuriant vegetation spoke of a richer, if a damper, climate. Young Baskerville stared eagerly out of the window, and cried aloud with delight as he recognized the familiar features of the Devon scenery.
'I've been over a good part of the world since I left it, Dr Watson,' said he, 'but I have never seen a place to compare with it.'
'I never saw a Devonshire man who did not swear by his county,' I remarked.
'It depends upon the breed of men quite as much as on the county,' said Dr Mortimer. 'A glance at our friend here reveals the rounded head of the Celt, which carries inside it the Celtic enthusiasm and power of attachment. Poor Sir Charles's head was of a very rare type, half Gaelic, half Ivernian in its characteristics. But you were very young when you last saw Baskerville Hall, were you not?'
'I was a boy in my teens at the time of my father's death, and had never seen the Hall, for he lived in a little cottage on the south coast. Thence I went straight to a friend in America. I tell you it is all as new to me as it is to Dr Watson, and I'm as keen as possible to see the moor.'
'Are you? Then your wish is easily granted, for there is your first sight of the moor,' said Dr Mortimer, pointing out of the carriage window.
Over the green squares of the fields and the low curve of a wood there rose in the distance a grey, melancholy hill, with a strange jagged summit, dim and vague in the distance, like some fantastic landscape in a dream. Baskerville sat for a long time, his eyes fixed upon it, and I read upon his eager face how much it meant to him, this first sight of that strange spot where the men of his blood had held sway so long and left their mark so deep. There he sat, with his tweed suit and his American accent, in the corner of a prosaic railway-carriage, and yet as I looked at his dark and expressive face I felt more than ever how true a descendant he was of that long line of high-blooded, fiery, and masterful men. There were pride, valour, and strength in his thick brows, his sensitive nostrils, and his large hazel eyes. If on that forbidding moor a difficult and dangerous quest should lie before us, this was at least a comrade for whom one might venture to take a risk with the certainty that he would bravely share it.
The train pulled up at a small wayside station, and we all descended. Outside, beyond the low, white fence, a wagonette with a pair of cobs was waiting. Our coming was evidently a great event, for station-master and porters clustered round us to carry out our luggage. It was a sweet, simple country spot, but I was surprised to observe that by the gate there stood two soldierly men in dark uniforms, who leaned upon their short rifles and glanced keenly at us as we passed. The coachman, a hard-faced, gnarled little fellow, saluted Sir Henry Baskerville, and in a few minutes we were flying swiftly down the broad, white road. Rolling pasture lands curved upwards on either side of us, and old gabled houses peeped out from amid the thick green foliage, but behind the peaceful and sunlit country-side there rose ever, dark against the evening sky, the long, gloomy curve of the moor, broken by the jagged and sinister hills.
The wagonette swung round into a side road, and we curved upwards through deep lanes worn by centuries of wheels, high banks on either side, heavy with dripping moss and fleshy harts-tongue ferns. Bronzing bracken and mottled bramble gleamed in the light of the sinking sun. Still steadily rising, we passed over a narrow granite bridge, and skirted a noisy stream, which gushed swiftly down, foaming and roaring amid the grey boulders. Both road and stream wound up through a valley dense with scrub oak and fir. At every turning Baskerville gave an exclamation of delight, looking eagerly about him and asking countless questions. To his eyes all seemed beautiful, but to me a tinge of melancholy lay upon the country-side, which bore so clearly the mark of the waning year. Yellow leaves carpeted the lanes and fluttered down upon us as we passed. The rattle of our wheels died away as we drove through drifts of rotting vegetation - sad gifts, as it seemed to me, for Nature to throw before the carriage of the returning heir of the Baskervilles.
'Hullo!' cried Dr Mortimer, 'what is this?'
A steep curve of heath-clad land, an outlying spur of the moor, lay in front of us. On the summit, hard and clear like an equestrian statue upon its pedestal, was a mounted soldier, dark and stern, his rifle poised ready over his forearm. He was watching the road along which, we travelled.
'What is this, Perkins?' asked Dr Mortimer.
Our driver half turned in his seat.
'There's a convict escaped from Princetown, sir. He's been out three days now, and the warders watch every road and every station, but they've had no sight of him yet. The farmers about here don't like it, sir, and that's a fact.'
'Well, I understand that they get five pounds if they can give information.'
'Yes, sir, but the chance of five pounds is but a poor thing compared to the chance of having your throat cut. You see, it isn't like any ordinary convict. This is a man that would stick at nothing.'
'Who is he, then?'
'It is Selden, the Notting Hill murderer.'
I remembered the case well, for it was one in which Holmes had taken an interest on account of the peculiar ferocity of the crime and the wanton brutality which had marked all the actions of the assassin. The commutation of his death sentence had been due to some doubts as to his complete sanity, so atrocious was his conduct. Our wagonette had topped a rise and in front of us rose the huge expanse of the moor, mottled with gnarled and craggy cairns and tors. A cold wind swept down from it and set us shivering. Somewhere there, on that desolate plain, was lurking this fiendish man, hiding in a burrow like a wild beast, his heart full of malignancy against the whole race which had cast him out. It needed but this to complete the grim suggestiveness of the barren waste, the chilling wind, and the darkling sky. Even Baskerville fell silent and pulled his overcoat more closely around him.
We had left the fertile country behind and beneath us. We looked back on it now, the slanting rays of a low sun turning the streams to threads of gold and glowing on the red earth new turned by the plough and the broad tangle of the woodlands. The road in front of us grew bleaker and wilder over huge russet and olive slopes, sprinkled with giant boulders. Now and then we passed a moorland cottage, walled and roofed with stone, with no creeper to break its harsh outline. Suddenly we looked down into a cup-like depression, patched with stunted oaks and firs which had been twisted and bent by the fury of years of storm. Two high, narrow towers rose over the trees. The driver pointed with his whip.
'Baskerville Hall,' said he.
Its master had risen, and was staring with flushed cheeks and shining eyes. A few minutes later we had reached the lodge-gates, a maze of fantastic tracery in wrought iron, with weather-bitten pillars on either side, blotched with lichens, and surmounted by the boars' heads of the Baskervilles. The lodge was a ruin of black granite and bared ribs of rafters, but facing it was a new building, half constructed, the first fruit of Sir Charles's South African gold.
Through the gateway we passed into the avenue, where the wheels were again hushed amid the leaves, and the old trees shot their branches in a sombre tunnel over our heads. Baskerville shuddered as he looked up the long, dark drive to where the house glimmered like a ghost at the farther end.
'Was it here?' he asked, in a low voice.
'No, no, the Yew Alley is on the other side.'
The young heir glanced round with a gloomy face.
'It's no wonder my uncle felt as if trouble were coming on him in such a place as this,' said he. 'It's enough to scare any man. I'll have a row of electric lamps up here inside of six months, and you won't know it again with a thousand candle-power Swan and Edison right here in front of the hall door.'
The avenue opened into a broad expanse of turf, and the house lay before us. In the fading light I could see that the centre was a heavy block of building from which a porch projected. The whole front was draped in ivy, with a patch clipped bare here and there where a window or a coat-of-arms broke through the dark veil. From this central block rose the twin towers, ancient, crenellated, and pierced with many loopholes. To right and left of the turrets were more modern wings of black granite. A dull light shone through heavy mullioned windows, and from the high chimneys which rose from the steep, high-angled roof there sprang a single black column of smoke.
'Welcome, Sir Henry! Welcome, to Baskerville Hall!'
A tall man had stepped from the shadow of the porch to open the door of the wagonette. The figure of a woman was silhouetted against the yellow light of the hall. She came out and helped the man to hand down our bags.
'You don't mind my driving straight home, Sir Henry?' said Dr Mortimer. 'My wife is expecting me.'
'Surely you will stay and have some dinner?'
'No, I must go. I shall probably find some work awaiting me. I would stay to show you over the house, but Barrymore will be a better guide than I. Good-bye, and never hesitate night or day to send for me if I can be of service.'
The wheels died away down the drive while Sir Henry and I turned into the hall, and the door clanged heavily behind us. It was a fine apartment in which we found ourselves, large, lofty, and heavily raftered with huge balks of age-blackened oak. In the great old-fashioned fireplace behind the high iron dogs a log-fire crackled and snapped. Sir Henry and I held out our hands to it, for we were numb from our long drive. Then we gazed round us at the high, thin window of old stained glass, the oak panelling, the stags' heads, the coats-of-arms upon the walls, all dim and sombre in the subdued light of the central lamp.
It's just as I imagined it,' said Sir Henry. 'Is it not the very picture of an old family home? To think that this should be the same hall in which for five hundred years my people have lived! It strikes me solemn to think of it.'
I saw his dark face lit up with a boyish enthusiasm as he gazed about him. The light beat upon him where he stood, but long shadows trailed down the walls and hung like a black canopy above him. Barrymore had returned from taking our luggage to our rooms. He stood in front of us now with the subdued manner of a well-trained servant. He was a remarkable-looking man, tall, handsome, with a square black beard, and pale, distinguished features.
'Would you wish dinner to be served at once, sir?'
'Is it ready?'
'In a very few minutes, sir. You will find hot water in your rooms. My wife and I will be happy, Sir Henry, to stay with you until you have made your fresh arrangements, but you will understand that under the new conditions this house will require a considerable staff.'
'What new conditions?'
'I only meant, sir, that Sir Charles led a very retired life, and we were able to look after his wants. You would, naturally, wish to have more company, and so you will need changes in your household.'
'Do you mean that your wife and you wish to leave?'
'Only when it is quite convenient to you, sir.'
'But your family have been with us for several generations, have they not? I should be sorry to begin my life here by breaking an old family connection.'
I seemed to discern some signs of emotion upon the butler's white face.
'I feel that also, sir, and so does my wife. But to tell the truth, sir, we were both very much attached to Sir Charles, and his death gave us a shock and made these surroundings very painful to us. I fear that we shall never again be easy in our minds at Baskerville Hall.'
'But what do you intend to do?'
'I have no doubt, sir, that we shall succeed in establishing ourselves in some business. Sir Charles's generosity has given us the means to do so. And now, sir, perhaps I had best show you to your rooms.'
A square balustraded gallery ran round the top of the old hall, approached by a double stair. From this central point two long corridors extended the whole length of the building, from which all the bedrooms opened. My own was in the same wing as Baskerville's and almost next door to it. These rooms appeared to be much more modern than the central part of the house, and the bright paper and numerous candles did something to remove the sombre impression which our arrival had left upon my mind.
But the dining-room which opened out of the hall was a place of shadow and gloom. It was a long chamber with a step separating the dais where the family sat from the lower portion reserved for their dependents. At one end a minstrels' gallery overlooked it. Black beams shot across above our heads, with a smoke-darkened ceiling beyond them. With rows of flaring torches to light it up, and the colour and rude hilarity of an old-time banquet, it might have softened, but now, when two black-clothed gentlemen sat in the little circle of light thrown by a shaded lamp, one's voice became hushed and one's spirit subdued. A dim line of ancestors, in every variety of dress, from the Elizabethan knight to the buck of the Regency, stared down upon us and daunted us by their silent company. We talked little, and I for one was glad when the meal was over and we were able to retire into the modern billiard-room and smoke a cigarette.
'My word, it isn't a very cheerful place,' said Sir Henry. 'I suppose one can tone down to it, but I feel a bit out of the picture at present. I don't wonder that my uncle got a little jumpy if he lived all alone in such a house as this. However, if it suits you, we will retire early tonight, and perhaps things may seem more cheerful in the morning.'
I drew aside my curtains before I went to bed and looked out from my window. It opened upon the grassy space which lay in front of the hall door. Beyond, two copses of trees moaned and swung in a rising wind. A half moon broke through the rifts of racing clouds. In its cold light I saw beyond the trees a broken fringe of rocks and the long, low curve of the melancholy moor. I closed the curtain, feeling that my last impression was in keeping with the rest.
And yet it was not quite the last. I found myself weary and yet wakeful, tossing restlessly from side to side, seeking for the sleep which would not come. Far away a chiming clock struck out the quarters of the hours, but otherwise a deathly silence lay upon the old house. And then suddenly, in the very dead of the night, there came a sound to my ears, clear, resonant, and unmistakable. It was the sob of a woman, the muffled, strangling gasp of one who is torn by an uncontrollable sorrow. I sat up in bed and listened intently. The noise could not have been far away, and was certainly in the house. For half an hour I waited with every nerve on the alert, but there came no other sound save the chiming clock and the rustle of the ivy on the wall.
Chapter 7 : The Stapletons of Merripit House
The fresh beauty of the following morning did something to efface from our minds the grim and grey impression which had been left upon both of us by our first experience at Baskerville Hall. As Sir Henry and I sat at breakfast the sunlight flooded in through the high mullioned windows, throwing watery patches of colour from the coats-of-arms which covered them. The dark panelling glowed like bronze in the golden rays, and it was hard to realize that this was indeed the chamber which had struck such a gloom into our souls upon the evening before.
'I guess it is ourselves and not the house that we have to blame!' said the Baronet. 'We were tired with our journey and chilled by our drive, so we took a grey view of the place. Now we are fresh and well, so it is all cheerful once more.'
'And yet it was not entirely a question of imagination,' I answered. 'Did you, for example, happen to hear someone, a woman I think, sobbing in the night?'
'That is curious, for I did when I was half asleep fancy that I heard something of the sort. I waited quite a time, but there was no more of it, so I concluded that it was all a dream.'
'I heard it distinctly, and I am sure that it was really the sob of a woman.'
'We must ask about this right away.'
He rang the bell and asked Barrymore whether he could account for our experience. It seemed to me that the pallid features of the butler turned a shade paler still as he listened to his master's question.
'There are only two women in the house, Sir Henry,' he answered. 'One is the scullery-maid, who sleeps in the other wing. The other is my wife, and I can answer for it that the sound could not have come from her.'
And yet he lied as he said it, for it chanced that after breakfast I met Mrs Barrymore in the long corridor with the sun full upon her face. She was a large, impassive, heavy-featured woman with a stern, set expression of mouth. But her tell-tale eyes were red and glanced at me from between swollen lids. It was she, then, who wept in the night, and if she did so her husband must know it. Yet he had taken the obvious risk of discovery in declaring that it was not so. Why had he done this? And why did she weep so bitterly? Already round this pale-faced, handsome, black-bearded man there was gathering an atmosphere of mystery and of gloom. It was he who had been the first to discover the body of Sir Charles, and we had only his word for all the circumstances which led up to the old man's death. Was it possible that it was Barrymore, after all, whom we had seen in the cab in Regent Street? The beard might well have been the same. The cabman had described a somewhat shorter man, but such an impression might easily have been erroneous. How could I settle the point for ever? Obviously the first thing to do was to see the Grimpen postmaster, and find whether the test telegram had really been placed in Barrymore's own hands. Be the answer what it might, I should at least have something to report to Sherlock Holmes.
Sir Henry had numerous papers to examine after breakfast, so that the time was propitious for my excursion. It was a pleasant walk of four miles along the edge of the moor, leading me at last to a small grey hamlet, in which two larger buildings, which proved to be the inn and the house of Dr Mortimer, stood high above the rest. The postmaster, who was also the village grocer, had a clear recollection of the telegram.
'Certainly, sir,' said he, 'I had the telegram delivered to Mr Barrymore exactly as directed.'
'Who delivered it?'
'My boy here. James, you delivered that telegram to Mr Barrymore at the Hall last week, did you not?'
'Yes, father, I delivered it.'
'Into his own hands?' I asked.
'Well, he was up in the loft at the time, so that I could not put it into his own hands, but I gave it into Mrs Barrymore's hands, and she promised to deliver it at once.'
'Did you see Mr Barrymore?'
'No, sir, I tell you he was in the loft.'
'If you didn't see him, how do you know he was in the loft?'
'Well, surely his own wife ought to know where he is,' said the postmaster, testily. 'Didn't he get the telegram? If there is any mistake it is for Mr Barrymore himself to complain.'
It seemed hopeless to pursue the inquiry any further, but it was clear that in spite of Holmes's ruse we had no proof that Barrymore had not been in London all the time. Suppose that it were so - suppose that the same man had been the last who had seen Sir Charles alive, and the first to dog the new heir when he returned to England. What then? Was he the agent of others, or had he some sinister design of his own? What interest could he have in persecuting the Baskerville family? I thought of the strange warning clipped out of the leading article of The Times. Was that his work or was it possibly the doing of someone who was bent upon counteracting his schemes? The only conceivable motive was that which had been suggested by Sir Henry, that if the family could be scared away a comfortable and permanent home would be secured for the Barrymores. But surely such an explanation as that would be quite inadequate to account for the deep and subtle scheming which seemed to be weaving an invisible net round the young baronet. Holmes himself had said that no more complex case had come to him in all the long series of his sensational investigations. I prayed, as I walked back along the grey, lonely road, that my friend might soon be freed from his preoccupations and able to come down to take this heavy burden of responsibility from my shoulders.
Suddenly my thoughts were interrupted by the sound of running feet behind me and by a voice which called me by name. I turned, expecting to see Dr Mortimer, but to my surprise it was a stranger who was pursuing me. He was a small, slim, clean-shaven, prim-faced man, flaxen-haired and lean-jawed, between thirty and forty years of age, dressed in a grey suit and wearing a straw hat. A tin box for botanical specimens hung over his shoulder, and he carried a green butterfly-net in one of his hands.
'You will, I am sure, excuse my presumption, Dr Watson,' said he, as he came panting up to where I stood. 'Here on the moor we are homely folk, and do not wait for formal introductions. You may possibly have heard my name from our mutual friend, Mortimer. I am Stapleton, of Merripit House.'
'Your net and box would have told me as much,' said I, 'for I knew that Mr Stapleton was a naturalist. But how did you know me?'
'I have been calling on Mortimer, and he pointed you out to me from the window of his surgery as you passed. As our road lay the same way I thought that I would overtake you and introduce myself. I trust that Sir Henry is none the worse for his journey?'
'He is very well, thank you.'
'We were all rather afraid that after the sad death of Sir Charles the new baronet might refuse to live here. It is asking much of a wealthy man to come down and bury himself in a place of this kind, but I need not tell you that it means a very great deal to the country-side. Sir Henry has, I suppose, no superstitious fears in the matter?'
'I do not think that it is likely.'
'Of course you know the legend of the fiend dog which haunts the family?'
'I have heard it.'
'It is extraordinary how credulous the peasants are about here! Any number of them are ready to swear that they have seen such a creature upon the moor.' He spoke with a smile, but I seemed to read in his eyes that he took the matter more seriously. 'The story took a great hold upon the imagination of Sir Charles, and I have no doubt that it led to his tragic end.'
'But how?'
'His nerves were so worked up that the appearance of any dog might have had a fatal effect upon his diseased heart. I fancy that he really did see something of the kind upon that last night in the Yew Alley. I feared that some disaster might occur, for I was very fond of the old man, and I knew that his heart was weak.'
'How did you know that?'
'My friend Mortimer told me.'
'You think then, that some dog pursued Sir Charles, and that he died of fright in consequence?'
'Have you any better explanation?'
'I have not come to any conclusion.'
'Has Mr Sherlock Holmes?'
The words took away my breath for an instant, but a glance at the placid face and steadfast eyes of my companion showed no surprise was intended.
'It is useless for us to pretend that we do not know you, Dr Watson,' said he. 'The records of your detective have reached us here, and you could not celebrate him without being known yourself. When Mortimer told me your name he could not deny your identity. If you are here, then it follows that Mr Sherlock Holmes is interesting himself in the matter, and I am naturally curious to know what view he may take.'
'I am afraid that I cannot answer that question.'
'May I ask if he is going to honour us with a visit himself?'
'He cannot leave town at present. He has other cases which engage his attention.'
'What a pity! He might throw some light on that which is so dark to us. But as to your own researches, if there is any possible way in which I can be of service to you, I trust that you will command me. If I had any indication of the nature of your suspicions, or how you propose to investigate the case, I might perhaps even now give you some aid or advice.'
'I assure you that I am simply here upon a visit to my friend Sir Henry, and that I need no help of any kind.'
'Excellent!' said Stapleton. 'You are perfectly right to be wary and discreet. I am justly reproved for what I feel was an unjustifiable intrusion, and I promise you that I will not mention the matter again.'
We had come to a point where a narrow grassy path struck off from the road and wound away across the moor. A steep, boulder-sprinkled hill lay upon the right which had in bygone days been cut into a granite quarry. The face which was turned towards us formed a dark cliff, with ferns and brambles growing in its niches. From over a distant rise there floated a grey plume of smoke.
'A moderate walk along this moor-path brings us to Merripit House,' said he. 'Perhaps you will spare an hour that I may have the pleasure of introducing you to my sister.'
My first thought was that I should be by Sir Henry's side. But then I remembered the pile of papers and bills with which his study table was littered. It was certain that I could not help him with those. And Holmes had expressly said that I should study the neighbours upon the moor. I accepted Stapleton's invitation, and we turned together down the path.
'It is a wonderful place, the moor,' said he, looking round over the undulating downs, long green rollers, with crests of jagged granite foaming up into fantastic surges. 'You never tire of the moor. You cannot think the wonderful secrets which it contains. It is so vast, and so barren, and so mysterious.'
'You know it well, then?'
'I have only been here two years. The residents would call me a new-comer. We came shortly after Sir Charles settled. But my tastes led me to explore every part of the country round, and I should think that there are few men who know it better than I do.'
'Is it so hard to know?'
'Very hard. You see, for example, this great plain to the north here, with the queer hills breaking out of it. Do you observe anything remarkable about that?'
'It would be a rare place for a gallop.'
'You would naturally think so, and the thought has cost folk their lives before now. You notice those bright green spots scattered thickly over it?'
'Yes, they seem more fertile than the rest.'
Stapleton laughed. 'That is the great Grimpen Mire,' said he. 'A false step yonder means death to man or beast. Only yesterday I saw one of the moor ponies wander into it. He never came out. I saw his head for quite a long time craning out of the bog-hole, but it sucked him down at last. Even in dry seasons it is a danger to cross it, but after these autumn rains it is an awful place. And yet I can find my way to the very heart of it and return alive. By George, there is another of those miserable ponies!'
Something brown was rolling and tossing among the green sedges. Then a long, agonized, writhing neck shot upwards and a dreadful cry echoed over the moor. It turned me cold with horror, but my companion's nerves seemed to be stronger than mine.
'It's gone!' said he. 'The Mire has him. Two in two days, and many more, perhaps, for they get in the way of going there in the dry weather, and never know the difference until the Mire has them in its clutch. It's a bad place, the great Grimpen Mire.'
'And you say you can penetrate it?'
'Yes, there are one or two paths which a very active man can take. I have found them out.'
'But why should you wish to go into so horrible a place?'
'Well, you see the hills beyond? They are really islands cut off on all sides by the impassable Mire, which has crawled round them in the course of years. That is where the rare plants and the butterflies are, if you have the wit to reach them.'
'I shall try my luck some day.'
He looked at me with a surprised face. 'For God's sake put such an idea out of your mind,' said he. 'Your blood would be upon my head. I assure you that there would not be the least chance of your coming back alive. It is only by remembering certain complex landmarks that I am able to do it.'
'Hullo,' I cried. 'What is that?'
A long, low moan, indescribably sad, swept over the moor. It filled the whole air, and yet it was impossible to say whence it came. From a dull murmur it swelled into a deep roar and then sank back into a melancholy, throbbing murmur once again. Stapleton looked at me with a curious expression on his face.
'Queer place, the moor!' said he.
'But what is it?'
'The peasants say it is the Hound of the Baskervilles calling for its prey. I've heard it once or twice before, but never quite so loud.'
I looked round, with a chill of fear in my heart, at the huge swelling plain, mottled with the green patches of rushes. Nothing stirred over the vast expanse save a pair of ravens, which croaked loudly from a tor behind us. 'You are an educated man. You don't believe such nonsense as that?' said I. 'What do you think is the cause of so strange a sound?'
'Bogs make queer noises sometimes. It's the mud settling, or the water rising, or something.'
'No, no, that was a living voice.'
'Well, perhaps it was. Did you ever hear a bittern booming?'
'No, I never did.'
'It's a very rare bird - practically extinct - in England now, but all things are possible upon the moor. Yes, I should not be surprised to learn that what we have heard is the cry of the last of the bitterns.'
'It's the weirdest, strangest thing that ever I heard in my life.'
'Yes, it's rather an uncanny place altogether. Look at the hillside yonder. What do you make of those?'
The whole steep slope was covered with grey circular rings of stone, a score of them at least.
'What are they? Sheep-pens?'
'No, they are the homes of our worthy ancestors. Prehistoric man lived thickly on the moor, and as no one in particular has lived there since, we find all his little arrangements exactly as he left them. These are his wigwams with the roofs off. You can even see his hearth and his couch if you have the curiosity to go inside.'
'But it is quite a town. When was it inhabited?'
'Neolithic man - no date.'
'What did he do?'
'He grazed his cattle on these slopes, and he learned to dig for tin when the bronze sword began to supersede the stone axe. Look at the great trench in the opposite hill. That is his mark. Yes, you will find some very singular points about the moor, Dr Watson. Oh, excuse me an instant! It is surely Cyclopides.'
A small fly or moth had fluttered across our path, and in an instant Stapleton was rushing with extraordinary energy and speed in pursuit of it. To my dismay the creature flew straight for the great Mire, but my acquaintance never paused for an instant, bounding from tuft to tuft behind it, his green net waving in the air. His grey clothes and jerky, zigzag, irregular progress made him not unlike some huge moth himself. I was standing watching his pursuit with a mixture of admiration for his extraordinary activity and fear lest he should lose his footing in the treacherous Mire, when I heard the sound of steps, and, turning round, found a woman near me upon the path. She had come from the direction in which the plume of smoke indicated the position of Merripit House, but the dip of the moor had hid her until she was quite close.
I could not doubt that this was the Miss Stapleton of whom I had been told, since ladies of any sort must be few upon the moor, and I remembered that I had heard someone describe her as being a beauty. The woman who approached me was certainly that, and of a most uncommon type. There could not have been a greater contrast between brother and sister, for Stapleton was neutral tinted, with light hair and grey eyes, while she was darker than any brunette whom I have seen in England - slim, elegant, and tall. She had a proud, finely cut face, so regular that it might have seemed impassive were it not for the sensitive mouth and the beautiful dark, eager eyes. With her perfect figure and elegant dress she was, indeed, a strange apparition upon a lonely moorland path. Her eyes were on her brother as I turned, and then she quickened her pace towards me. I had raised my hat, and was about to make some explanatory remark, when her own words turned all my thoughts into a new channel.
'Go back!' she said. 'Go straight back to London, instantly.'
I could only stare at her in stupid surprise. Her eyes blazed at me, and she tapped the ground impatiently with her foot.
'Why should I go back?' I asked.
'I cannot explain.' She spoke in a low, eager voice, with a curious lisp in her utterance. 'But for God's sake do what I ask you. Go back and never set foot upon the moor again.'
'But I have only just come.'
'Man, man!' she cried. 'Can you not tell when a warning is for your own good? Go back to London! Start to-night! Get away from this place at all costs! Hush, my brother is coming! Not a word of what I have said. Would you mind getting that orchid for me among the mare's-tails yonder? We are very rich in orchids on the moor, though, of course, you are rather late to see the beauties of the place.'
Stapleton had abandoned the chase and came back to us breathing hard and flushed with his exertions.
'Hullo, Beryl!' said he, and it seemed to me that the tone of his greeting was not altogether a cordial one.
'Well, Jack, you are very hot.'
'Yes, I was chasing a Cyclopides. He is very rare, and seldom found in the late autumn. What a pity that I should have missed him!'
He spoke unconcernedly, but his small light eyes glanced incessantly from the girl to me.
'You have introduced yourselves, I can see.'
'Yes. I was telling Sir Henry that it was rather late for him to see the true beauties of the moor.'
'Why, who do you think this is?'
'I imagine that it must be Sir Henry Baskerville.'
'No, no,' said I. 'Only a humble commoner, but his friend. My name is Dr Watson.'
A flush of vexation passed over her expressive face. 'We have been talking at cross purposes,' said she. 'Why, you had not very much time for talk,' her brother remarked, with the same questioning eyes.
'I talked as if Dr Watson were a resident instead of being merely a visitor,' said she. 'It cannot much matter to him whether it is early or late for the orchids. But you will come on, will you not, and see Merripit House?'
A short walk brought us to it, a bleak moorland house, once the farm of some grazier in the old prosperous days, but now put into repair and turned into a modern dwelling. An orchard surrounded it, but the trees, as is usual upon the moor, were stunted and nipped, and the effect of the whole place was mean and melancholy. We were admitted by a strange, wizened, rusty-coated old manservant, who seemed in keeping with the house. Inside, however, there were large rooms furnished with an elegance in which I seemed to recognize the taste of the lady. As I looked from their windows at the interminable granite-flecked moor rolling unbroken to the farthest horizon I could not but marvel at what could have brought this highly educated man and this beautiful woman to live in such a place.
'Queer spot to choose, is it not?' said he, as if in answer to my thought. 'And yet we manage to make ourselves fairly happy, do we not, Beryl?'
'Quite happy,' said she, but there was no ring of conviction in her words.
'I had a school,' said Stapleton. 'It was in the north country. The work to a man of my temperament was mechanical and uninteresting, but the privilege of living with youth, of helping to mould those young minds and of impressing them with one's own character and ideals, was very dear to me. However, the fates were against us. A serious epidemic broke out in the school, and three of the boys died. It never recovered from the blow, and much of my capital was irretrievably swallowed up. And yet, if it were not for the loss of the charming companionship of the boys, I could rejoice over my own misfortune, for, with my strong tastes for botany and zoology, I find an unlimited field of work here, and my sister is as devoted to Nature as I am. All this, Dr Watson, has been brought upon your head by your expression as you surveyed the moor out of our window.'
'It certainly did cross my mind that it might be a little dull - less for you, perhaps, than for your sister.'
'No, no, I am never dull,' said she quickly.
'We have books, we have our studies, and we have interesting neighbours. Dr Mortimer is a most learned man in his own line. Poor Sir Charles was also an admirable companion. We knew him well, and miss him more than I can tell. Do you think that I should intrude if I were to call this afternoon and make the acquaintance of Sir Henry?'
'I am sure that he would be delighted.'
'Then perhaps you would mention that I propose to do so. We may in our humble way do something to make things more easy for him until he becomes accustomed to his new surroundings. Will you come upstairs, Dr Watson, and inspect my collection of Lepidoptera? I think it is the most complete one in the south-west of England. By the time that you have looked through them lunch will be almost ready.
But I was eager to get back to my charge. The melancholy of the moor, the death of the unfortunate pony, the weird sound which had been associated with the grim legend of the Baskervilles-all these things tinged my thoughts with sadness. Then on the top of these more or less vague impressions there had come the definite and distinct warning of Miss Stapleton, delivered with such intense earnestness that I could not doubt that some grave and deep reason lay behind it. I resisted all pressure to stay for lunch, and I set off at once upon my return journey, taking the grass-grown path by which we had come.
It seems, however, that there must have been some short cut for those who knew it, for before I had reached the road I was astounded to see Miss Stapleton sitting upon a rock by the side of the track. Her face was beautifully flushed with her exertions, and she held her hand to her side.
'I have run all the way in order to cut you off, Dr Watson,' said she. 'I had not even time to put on my hat. I must not stop, or my brother may miss me. I wanted to say to you how sorry I am about the stupid mistake I made in thinking that you were Sir Henry. Please forget the words I said, which have no application whatever to you.'
'But I can't forget them, Miss Stapleton,' said I. 'I am Sir Henry's friend, and his welfare is a very close concern of mine. Tell me why it was that you were so eager that Sir Henry should return to London.'
'A woman's whim, Dr Watson. When you know me better you will understand that I cannot always give reasons for what I say or do.'
'No, no. I remember the thrill in your voice. I remember the look in your eyes. Please, please, be frank with me, Miss Stapleton, for ever since I have been here I have been conscious of shadows all round me. Life has become like that great Grimpen Mire, with little green patches everywhere into which one may sink and with no guide to point the track. Tell me, then, what it was that you meant, and I will promise to convey your warning to Sir Henry.'
An expression of irresolution passed for an instant over her face, but her eyes had hardened again when she answered me.
'You make too much of it, Dr Watson,' said she. 'My brother and I were very much shocked by the death of Sir Charles. We knew him very intimately, for his favourite walk was over the moor to our house. He was deeply impressed with the curse which hung over his family, and when this tragedy came I naturally felt that there must be some grounds for the fears he had expressed. I was distressed, therefore, when another member of the family came down to live here, and I felt that he should be warned of the danger which he will run. That was all which I intended to convey.'
'But what is the danger?'
'You know the story of the hound?'
'I do not believe in such nonsense.'
'But I do. If you have any influence with Sir Henry, take him away from a place which has always been fatal to his family. The world is wide. Why should he wish to live at the place of danger?'
'Because it is the place of danger. That is Sir Henry's nature. I fear that unless you can give me some more definite information than this it would be impossible to get him to move.'
'I cannot say anything definite, for I do not know anything definite.'
'I would ask you one more question, Miss Stapleton. If you meant no more than this when you first spoke to me, why should you not wish your brother to overhear what you said? There is nothing to which he, or anyone else, could object.'
'My brother is very anxious to have the Hall inhabited, for he thinks that it is for the good of the poor folk upon the moor. He would be very angry if he knew that I had said anything which might induce Sir Henry to go away. But I have done my duty now and I will say no more. I must get back, or he will miss me and suspect that I have seen you. Good-bye!'
She turned, and had disappeared in a few minutes among the scattered boulders, while I, with my soul full of vague fears, pursued my way to Baskerville Hall.
Chapter 8 : First Report of Dr Watson
From this point onwards will follow the course of events by transcribing my own letters to Mr Sherlock Holmes which lie before me on the table. One page is missing, but otherwise they are exactly as written, and show my feelings and suspicions of the moment more accurately than my memory, clear as it is upon these tragic events, can possibly do.
Baskerville Hall, Oct. 13th
My Dear Holmes,
My previous letters and telegrams have kept you pretty well up-to-date as to all that has occurred in this most Godforsaken corner of the world. The longer one stays here the more does the spirit of the moor sink into one's soul, its vastness, and also its grim charm. When you are once out upon its bosom you have left all traces of modern England behind you, but on the other hand you are conscious everywhere of the homes and the work of prehistoric people. On all sides of you as you walk are the houses of these forgotten folk, with their graves and the huge monoliths which are supposed to have marked their temples. As you look at their grey stone huts against the scarred hillsides you leave your own age behind you, and if you were to see a skin-clad, hairy man crawl out from the low door, fitting a flint-tipped arrow on to the string of his bow, you would feel that his presence there was more natural than your own. The strange thing is that they should have lived so thickly on what must always have been most unfruitful soil. I am no antiquarian, but I could imagine that they were some unwarlike and harried race who were forced to accept that which none other would occupy.
All this however, is foreign to the mission on which you sent me, and will probably be very uninteresting to your severely practical mind. I can still remember your complete indifference as to whether the sun moved round the earth or the earth round the sun. Let me, therefore, return to the facts concerning Sir Henry Baskerville.
If you have not had any report within the last few days it is because up till to-day there was nothing of importance to relate. Then a very surprising circumstance occurred, which I shall tell you in due course. But, first of all, I must keep you in touch with some of the other factors in the situation.
One of these, concerning which I have said little, is the escaped convict upon the moor. There is strong reason now to believe that he has got right away, which is a considerable relief to the lonely householders of this district. A fortnight has passed since his flight, during which he has not been seen and nothing has been heard of him. It is surely inconceivable that he could have held out upon the moor during all that time. Of course, so far as his concealment goes there is no difficulty at all. Any one of these stone huts would give him a hiding-place. But there is nothing to eat unless he were to catch and slaughter one of the moor sheep. We think, therefore, that he has gone, and the outlying farmers sleep the better in consequence.
We are four able-bodied men in this household, so that we could take good care of ourselves, but I confess that I have had uneasy moments when I have thought of the Stapletons. They live miles from any help. There are one maid, an old manservant, the sister, and the brother, the latter not a very strong man. They would be helpless in the hands of a desperate fellow like this Notting Hill criminal, if he could once effect an entrance. Both Sir Henry and I were concerned at their situation, and it was suggested that Perkins the groom should go over to sleep there, but Stapleton would not hear of it.
The fact is that our friend the baronet begins to display a considerable interest in our fair neighbour. It is not to be wondered at, for time hangs heavily in this lonely spot to an active man like him, and she is a very fascinating and beautiful woman. There is something tropical and exotic about her which forms a singular contrast to her cool and unemotional brother. Yet he also gives the idea of hidden fires. He has certainly a very marked influence over her, for I have seen her continually glance at him as she talked as if seeking approbation for what she said. I trust that he is kind to her. There is a dry glitter in his eyes, and a firm set of his thin lips, which go with a positive and possibly a harsh nature. You would find him an interesting study.
He came over to call upon Baskerville on that first day, and the very next morning he took us both to show us the spot where the legend of the wicked Hugo is supposed to have had its origin. It was an excursion of some miles across the moor to a place which is so dismal that it might have suggested the story. We found a short valley between rugged tors which led to an open, grassy space flecked over with the white cotton grass. In the middle of it rose two great stones, worn and sharpened at the upper end, until they looked like the huge, corroding fangs of some monstrous beast. In every way it corresponded with the scene of the old tragedy. Sir Henry was much interested, and asked Stapleton more than once whether he did really believe in the possibility of the interference of the supernatural in the affairs of men. He spoke lightly, but it was evident that he was very much in earnest. Stapleton was guarded in his replies, but it was easy to see that he said less than he might, and that he would not express his whole opinion out of consideration for the feelings of the Baronet. He told us of similar cases where families had suffered from some evil influence, and he left us with the impression that he shared the popular view upon the matter.
On our way back we stayed for lunch at Merripit House, and it was there that Sir Henry made the acquaintance of Miss Stapleton. From the first moment that he saw her he appeared to be strongly attracted by her, and I am much mistaken if the feeling was not mutual. He referred to her again and again on our walk home, and since then hardly a day has passed that we have not seen something of the brother and sister. They dine here to-night, and there is some talk of our going to them next week. One would imagine that such a match would be very welcome to Stapleton, and yet I have more than once caught a look of the strongest disapprobation in his face when Sir Henry has been paying some attention to his sister. He is much attached to her, no doubt, and would lead a lonely life without her, but it would seem the height of selfishness, if he were to stand in the way of her making so brilliant a marriage. Yet I am certain that he does not wish their intimacy to ripen into love, and I have several times observed that he has taken pains to prevent them from being tête-à-tête. By the way, your instructions to me never to allow Sir Henry to go out alone will become very much more onerous if a love affair were to be added to our other difficulties. My popularity would soon suffer if I were to carry out your orders to, the letter.
The other day - Thursday, to be more exact - Dr Mortimer lunched with us. He has been excavating a barrow at Long Down, and has got a prehistoric skull which fills him with great joy. Never was there such a single-minded enthusiast as he! The Stapletons came in afterwards, and the good doctor took us all to the Yew Alley, at Sir Henry's request, to show us exactly how everything occurred upon that fatal night. It is a long, dismal walk, the Yew Alley, between two high walls of clipped hedge, with a narrow band of grass upon either side. At the far end is an old, tumble-down summer-house. Half-way down is the moor-gate, where the old gentleman left his cigar ash. It is a white wooden gate with a latch. Beyond it lies the wide moor. I remembered your theory of the affair and tried to picture all that had occurred. As the old man stood there he saw something coming across the moor, something which terrified him so that he lost his wits, and ran and ran until he died of sheer horror and exhaustion. There was the long, gloomy tunnel down which he fled. And from what? A sheep-dog of the moor? Or a spectral hound, black, silent, and monstrous?
Was there a human agency in the matter? Did the pale, watchful Barrymore know more than he cared to say? It was all dim and vague, but always there is the dark shadow of crime behind it.
One other neighbour I have met since I wrote last. This is Mr Frankland, of Lafter Hall, who lives some four miles to the south of us. He is an elderly man, red-faced, white-haired, and choleric. His passion is for the British law, and he has spent a large fortune in litigation. He fights for the mere pleasure of fighting, and is equally ready to take up either side of a question, so that it is no wonder that he has found it a costly amusement. Sometimes he will shut up a right of way and defy the parish to make him open it. At others he will with his own hands tear down some other man's gate and declare that a path has existed there from time immemorial, defying the owner to prosecute him for trespass. He is learned in old manorial and communal rights, and he applies his knowledge sometimes in favour of the villagers of Fernworthy and sometimes against them, so that he is periodically either carried in triumph down the village street or else burned in effigy, according to his latest exploit. He is said to have about seven lawsuits upon his hands at present, which will probably swallow up the remainder of his fortune, and so draw his sting and leave him harmless for the future. Apart from the law he seems a kindly, good-natured person, and I only mention him because you were particular that I should send some description of the people who surround us. He is curiously employed at present, for, being an amateur astronomer, he has an excellent telescope, with which he lies upon the roof of his own house and sweeps the moor all day in the hope of catching a glimpse of the escaped convict. If he would confine his energies to this all would be well, but there are rumours that he intends to prosecute Dr Mortimer for opening a grave without the consent of the next-of-kin, because he dug up the neolithic skull in the barrow on Long Down. He helps to keep our lives from being monotonous and gives a little comic relief where it is badly, needed.
And now, having brought you up to date on the escaped convict, the Stapletons, Dr Mortimer, and Frankland of Lafter Hall, let me end on that which is most important and tell you more about the Barrymores, and especially about the surprising development of last night.
First of all about the test telegram, which you sent from London in order to make sure that Barrymore was really here. I have already explained that the testimony of the postmaster shows that the test was worthless and that we have no proof one way or the other. I told Sir Henry how the matter stood, and he at once, in his downright fashion, had Barrymore up and asked him whether he had received the telegram himself. Barrymore said that he had.
'Did the boy deliver it into your own hands?' asked Sir Henry.
Barrymore looked surprised, and considered for a little time.
'No,' said he, 'I was in the box-room at the time, and my wife brought it up to me.'
'Did you answer it yourself ?'
'No, I told my wife what to answer, and she went down to write it.'
In the evening he returned to the subject of his own accord.
'I could not quite understand the object of your questions this morning, Sir Henry,' said he. 'I trust that they do not mean that I have done anything to forfeit your confidence?'
Sir Henry had to assure him that it was not so and pacify him by giving him a considerable part of his old wardrobe, the London outfit having now all arrived.
Mrs Barrymore is of interest to me. She is a heavy, solid person, very limited, intensely respectable, and inclined to be puritanical. You could hardly conceive a less emotional subject. Yet I have told you how, on the first night here, I heard her sobbing bitterly, and since then I have more than once observed traces of tears upon her face. Some deep sorrow gnaws ever at her heart. Sometimes I wonder if she has a guilty memory which haunts her, and sometimes I suspect Barrymore of being a domestic tyrant. I have always felt that there was something singular and questionable in this man's character, but the adventure of last night brings all my suspicions to a head.
And yet it may seem a small matter in itself. You are aware that I am not a very sound sleeper, and since I have been on guard in this house my slumbers have been lighter than ever. Last night, about two in the morning, I was aroused by a stealthy step passing my room. I rose, opened my door, and peeped out. A long black shadow was trailing down the corridor. It was thrown by a man who walked softly down the passage with a candle held in his hand. He was in shirt and trousers, with no covering to his feet. I could merely see the outline, but his height told me that it was Barrymore. He walked very slowly and circumspectly, and there was something indescribably guilty and furtive in his whole appearance.
I have told you that the corridor is broken by the balcony which runs round the hall, but that it is resumed upon the farther side. I waited until he had passed out of sight, and then I followed him. When I came round the balcony he had reached the end of the farther corridor, and I could see from the glimmer of light through an open door that he had entered one of the rooms. Now, all these rooms are unfurnished and unoccupied, so that his expedition became more mysterious than ever. The light shone steadily, as if he were standing motionless. I crept down the passage as noiselessly as I could and peeped round the corner of the door.
Barrymore was crouching at the window with the candle held against the glass. His profile was half turned towards me, and his face seemed to be rigid with expectation as he stared out into the blackness of the moor. For some minutes he stood watching intently. Then he gave a deep groan and with an impatient gesture he put out the light. Instantly I made my way back to my room, and very shortly came the stealthy steps passing once more upon their return journey. Long afterwards when I had fallen into a light sleep I heard a key turn somewhere in a lock, but I could not tell whence the sound came. What it all means I cannot guess, but there is some secret business going on in this house of gloom which sooner or later we shall get to the bottom of. I do not trouble you with my theories, for you asked me to furnish you only with facts. I have had a long talk with Sir Henry this morning, and we have made a plan of campaign founded upon my observations of last night. I will not speak about it just now, but it should make my next report interesting reading.
Chapter 9 : The Light upon the Moor
[Second report of Dr Watson] Baskerville Hall, Oct. 15th
My Dear Holmes, If I was compelled to leave you without much news during the early days of my mission you must acknowledge that I am making up for lost time, and that events are now crowding thick and fast upon us. In my last report I ended upon my top note with Barrymore at the window, and now I have quite a budget already which will, unless I am much mistaken, considerably surprise you. Things have taken a turn which I could not have anticipated. In some ways they have within the last forty-eight hours become much clearer and in some ways they have become more complicated. But I will tell you all and you shall judge for yourself.
Before breakfast on the morning following my adventure I went down the corridor and examined the room in which Barrymore had been on the night before. The western window through which he had stared so intently has, I noticed, one peculiarity above all other windows in the house - it commands the nearest outlook on to the moor. There is an opening between two trees which enables one from this point of view to look right down upon it, while from all the other windows it is only a distant glimpse which can be obtained. It follows, therefore, that Barrymore, since only this window would serve his purpose, must have been looking out for something or somebody upon the moor. The night was very dark, so that I can hardly imagine how he could have hoped to see anyone. It had struck me that it was possible that some love intrigue was on foot. That would have accounted for his stealthy movements and also for the uneasiness of his wife. The man is a striking-looking fellow, very well equipped to steal the heart of a country girl, so that this theory seemed to have something to support it. That opening of the door which I had heard after I had returned to my room might mean that he had gone out to keep some clandestine appointment. So I reasoned with myself in the morning, and I tell you the direction of my suspicions, however much the result may have shown that they were unfounded.
But whatever the true explanation of Barrymore's movements might be, I felt that the responsibility of keeping them to myself until could explain them was more than I could bear. I had an interview with the baronet in his study after breakfast, and I told him all that I had seen. He was less surprised than I had expected.
'I knew that Barrymore walked about nights, and I had a mind to speak to him about it,' said he. 'Two or three times I have heard his steps in the passage, coming and going, just about the hour you name.'
'Perhaps, then, he pays a visit every night to that particular window,' I suggested.
'Perhaps he does. If so, we should be able to shadow him, and see what it is that he is after. I wonder what your friend Holmes would do if he were here?'
'I believe that he would do exactly what you now suggest,' said I. 'He would follow Barrymore and see what he did.'
'Then we shall do it together.'
'But surely he would hear us.'
'The man is rather deaf, and in any case we must take our chance of that. We'll sit up in my room tonight, and wait until he passes.' Sir Henry rubbed his hands with pleasure, and it was evident that he hailed the adventure as a relief to his somewhat quiet life upon the moor.
The baronet has been in communication with the architect who prepared the plans for Sir Charles, and with a contractor from London, so that we may expect great changes to begin here soon. There have been decorators and furnishers up from Plymouth, and it is evident that our friend has large ideas, and means to spare no pains or expense to restore the grandeur of his family. When the house is renovated and refurnished, all that he will need will be a wife to make it complete. Between ourselves, there are pretty clear signs that this will not be wanting if the lady is willing, for I have seldom seen a man more infatuated with a woman than he is with our beautiful neighbour, Miss Stapleton. And yet the course of true love does not run quite as smoothly as one would under the circumstances expect. To-day, for example, its surface was broken by a very unexpected ripple, which has caused our friend considerable perplexity and annoyance.
After the conversation which I have quoted about Barrymore, Sir Henry put on his hat and prepared to go out. As a matter of course I did the same.
'What, are you coming, Watson?' he asked, looking at me in a curious way.
'That depends on whether you are going on the moor,' said I.
'Yes, I am.'
'Well, you know what my instructions are. I am sorry to intrude, but you heard how earnestly Holmes insisted that I should not leave you, and especially that you should not go alone upon the moor.'
Sir Henry put his hand upon my shoulder, with a pleasant smile.
'My dear fellow,' said he, ' Holmes, with all his wisdom, did not foresee some things which have happened since I have been on the moor. You understand me? I am sure that you are the last man in the world who would wish to be a spoil-sport. I must go out alone.'
It put me in a most awkward position. I was at a loss what to say or what to do, and before I had made up my mind he picked up his cane and was gone.
But when I came to think the matter over my conscience reproached me bitterly for having on any pretext allowed him to go out of my sight. I imagined what my feelings would be if I had to return to you and to confess that some misfortune had occurred through my disregard for your instructions. I assure you my cheeks flushed at the very thought. It might not even now be too late to overtake him, so I set off at once in the direction of Merripit House.
I hurried along the road at the top of my speed without seeing anything of Sir Henry, until I came to the point where the moor path branches off. There, fearing that perhaps I had come in the wrong direction, after all, I mounted a hill from which I could command a view - the same hill which is cut into the dark quarry. Then I saw him at once. He was on the moor path, about a quarter of a mile off, and a lady was by his side who could only be Miss Stapleton. It was dear that there was already an understanding between them and that they had met by appointment. They were walking slowly along in deep conversation, and I saw her making quick little movements of her hands as if she were very earnest in what she was saying, while he listened intently, and once or twice shook his head in strong dissent. I stood among the rocks watching them, very much puzzled as to what I should do next. To follow them and break into their intimate conversation seemed to be an outrage, and yet my clear duty was never for an instant to let him out of my sight. To act the spy upon a friend was a hateful task. Still, I could see no better course than to observe him from the hill, and to clear my conscience by confessing to him afterwards what I had done. It is true that if any sudden danger had threatened him I was too far away to be of use, and yet I am sure that you will agree with me that the position was very difficult, and that there was nothing more which I could do.
Our friend, Sir Henry, and the lady had halted on the path and were standing deeply absorbed in their conversation, when I was suddenly aware that I was not the only witness of their interview. A wisp of green floating in the air caught my eye, and another glance showed me that it was carried on a stick by a man who was moving among the broken ground. It was Stapleton with his butterfly-net. He was very much closer to the pair than I was, and he appeared to be moving in their direction. At this instant Sir Henry suddenly drew Miss Stapleton to his side. His arm was round her, but it seemed to me that she was straining away from him with her face averted. He stooped his head to hers, and she raised one hand as if in protest. Next moment I saw them spring apart and turn hurriedly round. Stapleton was the cause of the interruption. He was running wildly towards them, his absurd net dangling behind him. He gesticulated and almost danced with excitement in front of the lovers. What the scene meant I could not imagine, but it seemed to me that Stapleton was abusing Sir Henry, who offered explanations, which became more angry as the other refused to accept them. The lady stood by in haughty silence. Finally Stapleton turned upon his heel and beckoned in a peremptory way to his sister, who, after an irresolute glance at Sir Henry, walked off by the side of her brother. The naturalist's angry gestures showed that the lady was included in his displeasure. The baronet stood for a minute looking after them, and then he walked slowly back the way that he had come, his head hanging, the very picture of dejection.
What all this meant I could not imagine, but I was deeply ashamed to have witnessed so intimate a scene without my friend's knowledge. I ran down the hill, therefore, and met the baronet at the bottom. His face was flushed with anger and his brows were wrinkled, like one who is at his wits' ends what to do.
'Hullo, Watson! Where have you dropped from?' said he. 'You don't mean to say that you came after me in spite of all?'
I explained everything to him: how I had found it impossible to remain behind, how I had followed him, and how I had witnessed all that had occurred. For an instant his eyes blazed at me, but my frankness disarmed his anger, and he broke at last into a rather rueful laugh.
'You would have thought the middle of that prairie a fairly safe place for a man to be private,' said he, 'but, by thunder, the whole country-side seems to have been out to see me do my wooing - and a mighty poor wooing at that! Where had you engaged a seat?'
'I was on that hill.'
'Quite in the back row, eh? But her brother was well up to the front. Did you see him come out on us?'
'Yes, I did.'
'Did he ever strike you as being crazy - this brother of hers?'
'I can't say that he ever did.'
'I dare say not. I always thought him sane enough until to-day, but You can take it from me that either he or I ought to be in a strait-jacket. What's the matter with me, anyhow? You've lived near me for some weeks, Watson. Tell me straight, now! Is there anything that would prevent me from making a good husband to a woman that I loved?'
'I should say not.'
'He can't object to my worldly position, so it must be myself that he has this down on. What has he against me? I never hurt man or woman in my life that I know of. And yet he would not so much as let me touch the tips of her fingers.'
'Did he say so?'
'That, and a deal more. I tell you, Watson, I've only known her these few weeks, but from the first I just felt that she was made for me, and she, too - she was happy when she was with me, and that I'll swear. There's a light in a woman's eyes that speaks louder than words. But he has never let us get together, and it was only to-day for the first time that I saw a chance of having a few words with her alone. She was glad to meet me, but when she did it was not love that she would talk about, and she wouldn't let me talk about it either if she could have stopped it. She kept coming back to it that this was a place of danger, and that she would never be happy until I had left it. I told her that since I had seen her I was in no hurry to leave it, and that if she really wanted me to go, the only way to work it was for her to arrange to go with me. With that I offered in as many words to marry her, but before she could answer down came this brother of hers, running at us with a face on him like a madman. He was just white with rage, and those light eyes of his were blazing with fury. What was I doing with the lady? How dared I offer her attentions which were distasteful to her? Did I think that because I was a baronet I could do what I liked? If he had not been her brother I should have known better how to answer him. As it was I told him that my feelings towards his sister were such as I was not ashamed of, and that I hoped that she might honour me by becoming my wife. That seemed to make the matter no better, so then I lost my temper too, and I answered him rather more hotly than I should, perhaps, considering that she was standing by. So it ended by his going off with her, as you saw, and here am I as badly puzzled a man as any in this county. Just tell me what it all means, Watson, and I'll owe you more than ever I can hope to pay.'
I tried one or two explanations, but, indeed, I was completely puzzled myself. Our friend's title, his fortune, his age, his character, and his appearance are all in his favour, and I know nothing against him, unless it be this dark fate which runs in his family. That his advances should be rejected so brusquely without any reference to the lady's own wishes, and that the lady should accept the situation without protest, is very amazing. However, our conjectures were set at rest by a visit from Stapleton himself that very afternoon. He had come to offer apologies for his rudeness of the morning, and after a long private interview with Sir Henry in his study the upshot of their conversation was that the breach is quite healed, and that we are to dine at Merripit House next Friday as a sign of it.
'I don't say now that he isn't a crazy man,' said Sir Henry, 'I can't forget the look in his eyes when he ran at me this morning, but I must allow that no man could make a more handsome apology than he has done.'
'Did he give any explanation of his conduct?'
'His sister is everything in his life, he says. That is natural enough, and I am glad that he should understand her value. They have always been together, and according to his account he has been a very lonely man with only her as a companion, so that the thought of losing her was really terrible to him. He had not understood, he said, that I was becoming attached to her, but when he saw with his own eyes that it was really so, and that she might be taken away from him, it gave him such a shock that for a time he was not responsible for what he said or did. He was very sorry for all that had passed, and he recognized how foolish and how selfish it was that he should imagine that he could hold a beautiful woman like his sister to himself for her whole life. If she had to leave him he had rather it was to a neighbour like myself than to anyone else. But in any case it was a blow to him, and it would take him some time before he could prepare himself to meet it. He would withdraw all opposition upon his part if I would promise for three months to let the matter rest, and to be content with cultivating the lady's friendship during that time without claiming her love. This I promised, and so the matter rests.'
So there is one of our small mysteries cleared up. It is something to have touched bottom anywhere in this bog in which we are floundering. We know now why Stapleton looked with disfavour upon his sister's suitor - even when that suitor was so eligible a one as Sir Henry. And now I pass on to another thread which I have extricated out of the tangled skein, the mystery of the sobs in the night, of the tear-stained face of Mrs Barrymore, of the secret journey of the butler to the western lattice-window. Congratulate me, my dear Holmes, and tell me that I have not disappointed you as an agent - that you do not regret the confidence which you showed in me when you sent me down. All these things have by one night's work been thoroughly cleared.
I have said 'by one night's work', but, in truth, it was by two nights' work, for on the first we drew entirely blank. I sat up with Sir Henry in his room until nearly three o'clock in the morning, but no sound of any sort did we hear except the chiming clock upon the stairs. It was a most melancholy vigil, and ended by each of us falling asleep in our chairs. Fortunately we were not discouraged, and we determined to try again. The next night we lowered the lamp and sat smoking cigarettes, without making the least sound. It was incredible how slowly the hours crawled by, and yet we were helped through it by the same sort of patient interest which the hunter must feel as he watches the trap into which he hopes the game may wander. One struck, and two, and we had almost for the second time given it up in despair, when in an instant we both sat bolt upright in our chairs, with all our weary senses keenly on the alert once more. We had heard the creak of a step in the passage.
Very stealthily we heard it pass along until it died away in the distance. Then the baronet gently opened his door, and we set out in pursuit. Already our man had gone round the gallery, and the corridor was all in darkness. Softly we stole along until we had come into the other wing. We were just in time to catch a glimpse of the tall, black-bearded figure, his shoulders rounded, as he tip-toed down the passage. Then he passed through the same door as before, and the light of the candle framed it in the darkness and shot one single yellow beam across the gloom of the corridor. We shuffled cautiously towards it, trying every plank before we dared to put our whole weight upon it. We had taken the precaution of leaving our boots behind us, but, even so, the old boards snapped and creaked beneath our tread. Sometimes it seemed impossible that he should fail to hear our approach. However, the man is fortunately rather deaf, and he was entirely preoccupied in that which he was doing. When at last we reached the door and peeped through we found him crouching at the window, candle in hand, his white, intent face pressed against the pane, exactly as I had seen him two nights before.
We had arranged no plan of campaign, but the baronet is a man to whom the most direct way is always the most natural. He walked into the room, and as he did so Barrymore sprang up from the window with a sharp hiss of his breath, and stood, livid and trembling, before us. His dark eyes, glaring out of the white mask of his face, were full of horror and astonishment as he gazed from Sir Henry to me.
'What are you doing here, Barrymore?'
'Nothing, sir.' His agitation was so great that he could hardly speak, and the shadows sprang up and down from the shaking of his candle. 'It was the window, sir. I go round at night to see that they are fastened.'
'On the second floor?'
'Yes, sir, all the windows.'
'Look here, Barrymore,' said Sir Henry, sternly, 'we have made up our minds to have the truth out of you, so it will save you trouble to tell it sooner rather than later. Come, now! No lies! What were you doing at that window?'
The fellow looked at us in a helpless way, and he wrung his hands together like one who is in the last extremity of doubt and misery.
'I was doing no harm, sir. I was holding a candle to the window.'
'And why were you holding a candle to the window?'
'Don't ask me, Sir Henry - don't ask me! I give you my word, sir, that it is not my secret, and that I cannot tell it. If it concerned no one but myself I would not try to keep it from you.'
A sudden idea occurred to me, and I took the candle from the window-sill, where the butler had placed it.
'He must have been holding it as a signal,' said I. 'Let us see if there is any answer.'
I held it as he had done, and stared out into the darkness of the night. Vaguely I could discern the black bank of the trees and the lighter expanse of the moor, for the moon was behind the clouds. And then I gave a cry of exultation, for a tiny pin-point of yellow light had suddenly transfixed the dark veil, and glowed steadily in the centre of the black square framed by the window.
'There it is!' I cried.
'No, no, sir, it is nothing - nothing at all,' the butler broke in, 'I assure you, sir-'
'Move your light across the window, Watson!' cried the baronet. 'See, the other moves also! Now, you rascal, do you deny that it is a signal? Come, speak up! Who is your confederate out yonder, and what is this conspiracy that is going on?'
The man's face became openly defiant.
'It is my business, and not yours. I will not tell.'
'Then you leave my employment right away.'
'Very good, sir. If I must, I must.'
'And you go in disgrace. By thunder, you may well be ashamed of yourself. Your family has lived with mine for over a hundred years under this roof, and here I find you deep in some dark plot against me.'
'No, no, sir, no, not against you!'
It was a woman's voice, and Mrs Barrymore, paler and more horror-struck than her husband, was standing at the door. Her bulky figure in a shawl and skirt might have been comic were it not for the intensity of feeling upon her face.
'We have to go, Eliza. This is the end of it. You can pack our things,' said the butler.
'Oh, John, John, have I brought you to this? It is my doing, Sir Henry - all mine. He has done nothing except for my sake, and because I asked him.'
'Speak out, then! What does it mean?'
'My unhappy brother is starving on the moor. We cannot let him perish at our very gates. The light is a signal to him that food is ready for him, and his light out yonder is to show the spot to which to bring it.'
'Then your brother is-'
'The escaped convict, sir - Selden, the criminal.'
'That's the truth, sir,' said Barrymore. 'I said that it was not my secret, and that I could not tell it to you. But now you have heard it, and you will see that if there was a plot it was not against you.'
This, then, was the explanation of the stealthy expeditions at night and the light at the window. Sir Henry and I both stared at the woman in amazement. Was it possible that this stolidly respectable person was of the same blood as one of the most notorious criminals in the country?
'Yes, sir, my name was Selden, and he is my younger brother. We humoured him too much when he was a lad, and gave him his own way in everything, until he came to think that the world was made for his pleasure, and that he could do what he liked in it. Then, as he grew older, he met wicked companions, and the devil entered into him until he broke my mother's heart and dragged our name in the dirt. From crime to crime he sank lower and lower, until it is only the mercy of God which has snatched him from the scaffold, but to me, sir, he was always the little curly-headed boy that I had nursed and played with, as an elder sister would. That was why he broke prison, sir. He knew that I was here, and that we could not refuse to help him. When he dragged himself here one night, weary and starving, with the warders hard at his heels, what could we do? We took him in and fed him and cared for him. Then you returned, sir, and my brother thought he would be safer on the moor than anywhere else until the hue and cry was over, so he lay in hiding there. But every second night we made sure if he was still there by putting a light in the window, and if there was an answer my husband took out some bread and meat to him. Every day we hoped that he was gone, but as long as he was there we could not desert him. That is the whole truth, as I am an honest Christian woman, and you will see that if there is blame in the matter it does not lie with my husband, but with me, for whose sake he has done all that he has.'
The woman's words came with an intense earnestness which carried conviction with them.
'Is this true, Barrymore?'
'Yes, Sir Henry. Every word of it.'
'Well, I cannot blame you for standing by your own wife. Forget what I have said. Go to your room, you two, and we shall talk further about this matter in the morning.'
When they were gone we looked out of the window again. Sir Henry had flung it open, and the cold night wind beat in upon our faces. Far away in the black distance there still glowed that one tiny point of yellow light.
'I wonder he dares,' said Sir Henry.
'It may be so placed as to be only visible from here.'
'Very likely. How far do you think it is?'
'Out by the Cleft Tor, I think.'
'Not more than a mile or two off.'
'Hardly that.'
'Well, it cannot be far if Barrymore had to carry out the food to it. And he is waiting, this villain, beside that candle. By thunder, Watson, I am going out to take that man!'
The same thought had crossed my own mind. It was not as if the Barrymores had taken us into their confidence. Their secret had been forced from them. The man was a danger to the community, an unmitigated scoundrel for whom there was neither pity nor excuse. We were only doing our duty in taking this chance of putting him back where he could do no harm. With his brutal and violent nature, others would have to pay the price if we held our hands. Any night, for example, our neighbours the Stapletons might be attacked by him, and it may have been the thought of this which made Sir Henry so keen upon the adventure.
'I will come,' said I.
'Then get your revolver and put on your boots. The sooner we start the better, as the fellow may put out his light and be off.'
In five minutes we were outside the door, starting upon our expedition. We hurried through the dark shrubbery, amid the dull moaning of the autumn wind and the rustle of the failing leaves. The night-air was heavy with the smell of damp and decay. Now and again the moon peeped out for an instant, but clouds were driving over the face of the sky, and just as we came out on the moor a thin rain began to fall. The light still burned steadily in front. 'Are you armed?' I asked.
'I have a hunting-crop.'
'We must close in on him rapidly, for he is said to be a desperate fellow. We shall take him by surprise and have him at our mercy before he can resist.'
'I say, Watson,' said the baronet, 'what would Holmes say to this? How about that hour of darkness in which the power of evil is exalted?'
As if in answer to his words there rose suddenly out of the vast gloom of the moor that strange cry which I had already heard upon the borders of the great Grimpen Mire. It came with the wind through the silence of the night, a long, deep mutter, then a rising howl, and then the sad moan in which it died away. Again and again it sounded, the whole air throbbing with it, strident, wild, and menacing. The baronet caught my sleeve, and his face glimmered white through the darkness.
'Good heavens, what's that, Watson?'
'I don't know. It's a sound they have on the moor. I heard it once before.'
It died away, and an absolute silence closed in upon us. We stood straining our ears, but nothing came.
' Watson,' said the baronet, 'it was the cry of a hound.'
My blood ran cold in my veins, for there was a break in his voice which told of the sudden horror which had seized him.
'What do they call this sound?' he asked.
'Who?'
'The folk on the country-side.'
'Oh, they are ignorant people. Why should you mind what they call it?'
'Tell me, Watson. What do they say of it?'
I hesitated, but could not escape the question.
'They say it is the cry of the Hound of the Baskervilles.'
He groaned, and was silent for a few moments.
'A hound it was,' he said at last, 'but it seemed to come from miles away over yonder, I think.'
'It was hard to say whence it came.'
'It rose and fell with the wind. Isn't that the direction of the great Grimpen Mire?'
'Yes, it is.'
'Well, it was up there. Come now, Watson, didn't you think yourself that it was the cry of a hound? I am not a child. You need not fear to speak the truth.'
'Stapleton was with me when I heard it last. He said that it might be the calling of a strange bird.'
'No, no, it was a hound. My God, can there be some truth in all these stories? Is it possible that I am really in danger from so dark a cause? You don't believe it, do you, Watson?'
'No, no.'
'And yet it was one thing to laugh about it in London, and it is another to stand out here in the darkness of the moor and to hear such a cry as that. And my uncle! There was the footprint of the hound beside him as he lay. It all fits together. I don't think that I am a coward, Watson, but that sound seemed to freeze my very blood. Feel my hand!'
It was as cold as a block of marble.
'You'll be all right to-morrow.'
'I don't think I'll get that cry out of my head. What do you advise that we do now?'
'Shall we turn back?'
'No, by thunder, we have come out to get our man, and we will do it. We are after the convict, and a hell-hound, as likely as not, after us. Come on. We'll see it through if all the fiends of the pit were loose upon the moor.'
We stumbled slowly along in the darkness, with the black loom of the craggy hills around us, and the yellow speck of light burning steadily in front. There is nothing so deceptive as the distance of a light upon a pitch-dark night, and sometimes the glimmer seemed to be far away upon the horizon and sometimes it might have been within a few yards of us. But at last we could see whence it came, and then we knew that we were indeed very close. A guttering candle was stuck in a crevice of the rocks which flanked it on each side so as to keep the wind from it, and also to prevent it from being visible, save in the direction of Baskerville Hall. A boulder of granite concealed our approach, and crouching behind it we gazed over it at the signal light. It was strange to see this single candle burning there in the middle of the moor, with no sign of life near it - just the one straight yellow flame and the gleam of the rock on each side of it.
'What shall we do now?' whispered Sir Henry.
'Wait here. He must be near his light. Let us see if we can get a glimpse of him.'
The words were hardly out of my mouth when we both saw him. Over the rocks, in the crevice of which the candle burned, there was thrust out an evil yellow face, a terrible animal face, all seamed and scored with vile passions. Foul with mire, with a bristling beard, and hung with matted hair, it might well have belonged to one of those old savages who dwelt in the burrows on the hill-sides. The light beneath him was reflected in his small, cunning eyes, which peered fiercely to right and left through the darkness, like a crafty and savage animal who has heard the steps of the hunters.
Something had evidently aroused his suspicions. It may have been that Barrymore had some private signal which we had neglected to give, or the fellow may have had some other reason for thinking that all was not well, but I could read his fears upon his wicked face. Any instant he might dash out the light and vanish in the darkness. I sprang forward, therefore, and Sir Henry did the same. At the same moment the convict screamed out a curse at us and hurled a rock which splintered up against the boulder which had sheltered us. I caught one glimpse of his short, squat, strongly-built figure as he sprang to his feet and turned to run. At the same moment by a lucky chance the moon broke through the clouds. We rushed over the brow of the hill, and there was our man running with great speed down the other side, springing over the stones in his way with the activity of a mountain goat. A lucky long shot of my revolver might have crippled him, but I had brought it only to defend myself if attacked, and not to shoot an unarmed man who was running away.
We were both fair runners and in good condition, but we soon found that we had no chance of overtaking him. We saw him for a long time in the moonlight until he was only a small speck moving swiftly among the boulders upon the side of a distant hill. We ran and ran until we were completely blown, but the space between us grew ever wider. Finally we stopped and sat panting on two rocks, while we watched him disappearing in the distance.
And it was at this moment that there occurred a most strange and unexpected thing. We had risen from our rocks and were turning to go home, having abandoned the hopeless chase. The moon was low upon the right, and the jagged pinnacle of a granite tor stood up against the lower curve of its silver disc. There, outlined as black as an ebony statue on that shining background, I saw the figure of a man upon the tor. Do not think that it was a delusion, Holmes. I assure you that I have never in my life seen anything more clearly. As far as I could judge, the figure was that of a tall, thin man. He stood with his legs a little separated, his arms folded, his head bowed, as if he were brooding over that enormous wilderness of peat and granite which lay behind him. He might have been the very spirit of that terrible place. It was not the convict. This man was far from the place where the latter had disappeared. Besides, he was a much taller man. With a cry of surprise I pointed him out to the baronet, but in the instant during which I had turned to grasp his arm the man was gone. There was the sharp pinnacle of granite still cutting the lower edge of the moon, but its peak bore no trace of that silent and motionless figure.
I wished to go in that direction and to search the tor, but it was some distance away. The Baronet's nerves were still quivering from that cry, which recalled the dark story of his family, and he was not in the mood for fresh adventures. He had not seen this lonely man upon the tor, and could not feel the thrill which his strange presence and his commanding attitude had given to me. 'A warder, no doubt,' said he. 'The moor has been thick with them since this fellow escaped.' Well, perhaps his explanation may be the right one, but I should like to have some further proof of it. To-day we mean to communicate to the Princetown people where they should look for their missing man, but it is hard lines that we have not actually had the triumph of bringing him back as our own prisoner. Such are the adventures of last night, and you must acknowledge, my dear Holmes, that I have done you very well in the matter of a report. Much of what I tell you is no doubt quite irrelevant, but still I feel that it is best that I should let you have all the facts and leave you to select for yourself those which will be of most service to you in helping you to your conclusions. We are certainly making some progress. So far as the Barrymores go, we have found the motive of their actions, and that has cleared up the situation very much. But the moor with its mysteries and its strange inhabitants remains as inscrutable as ever. Perhaps in my next I may be able to throw some light upon this also. Best of all would it be if you could come down to us. [In any case you will hear from me again in the course of the next few days.]
Chapter 10 : Extract from the Diary of Dr Watson
So far I have been able to quote from the reports which I have forwarded during these early days to Sherlock Holmes. Now, however, I have arrived at a point in my narrative where I am compelled to abandon this method and to trust once more to my recollections, aided by the diary which I kept at the time. A few extracts from the latter will carry me on to those scenes which are indelibly fixed in every detail upon my memory. I proceed, then, from the morning which followed our abortive chase of the convict and our other strange experiences upon the moor.
October 16th - A dull and foggy day, with a drizzle of rain. The house is banked in with rolling clouds, which rise now and then to show the dreary curves of the moor, with thin, silver veins upon the sides of the hills, and the distant boulders gleaming where the light strikes upon their wet faces. It is melancholy outside and in. The baronet is in a black reaction after the excitements of the night. I am conscious myself of a weight at my heart and a feeling of impending danger - ever-present, which is the more terrible because I am unable to define it.
And have I not cause for such a feeling? Consider the long sequence of incidents which have all pointed to some sinister influence which is at work around us. There is the death of the last occupant of the Hall, fulfilling so exactly the conditions of the family legend, and there are the repeated reports from peasants of the appearance of a strange creature upon the moor. Twice I have with my own ears heard the sound which resembled the distant, baying of a hound. It is incredible, impossible, that it should really be outside the ordinary laws of Nature. A spectral hound which leaves material footmarks and fills the air with its howling is surely not to be thought of. Stapleton may fall in with such a superstition, and Mortimer also, but if I have one quality upon earth it is common sense, and nothing will persuade me to believe in such a thing. To do so would be to descend to the level of these poor peasants who are not content with a mere fiend-dog, but must needs describe him with hell-fire shooting from his mouth and eyes. Holmes would not listen to such fancies, and I am his agent. But facts are facts, and I have twice heard this crying upon the moor. Suppose that there were really some huge hound loose upon it, that would go far to explain everything. But where could such a hound lie concealed, where did it get its food, where did it come from, how was it that no one saw it by day?
It must be confessed that the natural explanation offers almost as many difficulties as the other. And always, apart from the hound, there was the fact of the human agency in London, the man in the cab, and the letter which warned Sir Henry against the moor. This at least was real, but it might have been the work of a protecting friend as easily as an enemy. Where was that friend or enemy now? Had he remained in London, or had he followed us down here? Could he - could he be the stranger whom I had seen upon the Tor?
It is true that I have had only the one glance at him, and yet there are some things to which I am ready to swear. He is no one whom I have seen down here, and I have now met all the neighbours. The figure was far taller than that of Stapleton, far thinner than that of Frankland. Barrymore it might possibly have been, but we had left him behind us, and I am certain that he could not have followed us. A stranger then is still dogging us, just as a stranger had dogged us in London. We have never shaken him off. If I could lay my hands upon that man, then at last we might find ourselves at the end of all our difficulties. To this one purpose I must now devote all my energies.
My first impulse was to tell Sir Henry all my plans. My second and wisest one is to play my own game and speak as little as possible to anyone. He is silent and distrait. His nerves have been strangely shaken by that sound upon the moor. I will say nothing to add to his anxieties, but I will take my own steps to attain my own end.
We had a small scene this morning after breakfast. Barrymore asked leave to speak with Sir Henry, and they were closeted in his study some little time. Sitting in the billiard-room, I more than once heard the sound of voices raised, and I had a pretty good idea what the point was which was under discussion. After a time the Baronet opened his door and called for me.
'Barrymore considers that he has a grievance,' he said. 'He thinks that it was unfair on our part to hunt his brother-in-law down when he, of his own free will, had told us the secret.'
The butler was standing, very pale but very collected, before us.
'I may have spoken too warmly, sir,' said he, 'and if I have I am sure that I beg your pardon. At the same time, I was very much surprised when I heard you two gentlemen come back this morning and learned that you had been chasing Selden. The poor fellow has enough to fight against without my putting more upon his track.'
'If you had told us of your own free will it would have been a different thing,' said the baronet. 'You only told us, or rather your wife only told us, when it was forced from you and you could not help yourself.'
'I didn't think you would have taken advantage of it, Sir Henry - indeed I didn't.'
'The man is a public danger. There are lonely houses scattered over the moor, and he is a fellow who would stick at nothing. You only want to get a glimpse of his face to see that. Look at Mr Stapleton's house, for example, with no one but himself to defend it. There's no safety for anyone until he is under lock and key.'
'He'll break into no house, sir. I give you my solemn word upon that. And he will never trouble anyone in this country again. I assure you, Sir Henry, that in a very few days the necessary arrangements will have been made and he will be on his way to South America. For God's sake, sir, I beg of you not to let the police know that he is still on the moor. They have given up the chase there, and he can lie quiet until the ship is ready for him. You can't tell on him without getting my wife and me into trouble. I beg you, sir, to say nothing to the police.'
'What do you say, Watson?' I shrugged my shoulders. 'If he were safely out of the country it would relieve the taxpayer of a burden.'
'But how about the chance of his holding someone up before he goes?'
'He would not do anything so mad, sir. We have provided him with all that he can want. To commit a crime would be to show where he was hiding.'
'That is true,' said Sir Henry. 'Well, Barrymore-'
'God bless you, sir, and thank you from my heart! It would have killed my poor wife had he been taken again.'
'I guess we are aiding and abetting a felony, Watson? But, after what we have heard, I don't feel as if I could give the man up, so there is an end of it. All right, Barrymore, you can go.'
With a few broken words of gratitude the man turned, but he hesitated and then came back.
'You've been so kind to us, sir, that I should like to do the best I can for you in return. I know something, Sir Henry, and perhaps I should have said it before, but it was long after the inquest that I found it out. I've never breathed a word about it yet to a mortal man. It's about poor Sir Charles's death.'
The baronet and I were both upon our feet.
'Do you know how he died?'
'No, sir, I don't know that.'
'What, then?'
'I know why he was at the gate at that hour. It was to meet a woman.'
'To meet a woman! He?'
'Yes, sir.'
'And the woman's name?'
'I can't give you the name, sir, but I can give you the initials. Her initials were L.L.'
'How do you know this, Barrymore?'
'Well, Sir Henry, your uncle had a letter that morning. He had usually a great many letters, for he was a public man and well known for his kind heart, so that everyone who was in trouble was glad to turn to him. But that morning, as it chanced, there was only this one letter, so I took the more notice of it. It was from Coombe Tracey, and it was addressed in a woman's hand.'
'Well?'
'Well, sir, I thought no more of the matter, and never would have done had it not been for my wife. Only a few weeks ago she was cleaning out Sir Charles's study - it had never been touched since his death - and she found the ashes of a burned letter in the back of the grate. The greater part of it was charred to pieces, but one little slip, the end of a page, hung together, and the writing could still be read, though it was grey on a black ground. It seemed to us to be a postscript at the end of the letter, and it said: "Please, please, as you are a gentleman, burn this letter, and be at the gate by ten o'clock." Beneath it were signed the initials L.L.'
'Have you got that slip?'
'No, sir, it crumbled all to bits after we moved it.'
'Had Sir Charles received any other letters in the same writing?'
'Well, sir, I took no particular notice of his letters. I should not have noticed this one only it happened to come alone.'
'And you have no idea who L.L. is?'
'No, sir. No more than you have. But I expect if we could lay our hands upon that lady we should know more about Sir Charles's death.'
'I cannot understand, Barrymore, how you came to conceal this important information.'
'Well, sir, it was immediately after that our own trouble came to us. And then again, sir, we were both of us very fond of Sir Charles, as we well might be considering all that he has done for us. To rake this up couldn't help our poor master, and it's well to go carefully when there's a lady in the case. Even the best of us-'
'You thought it might injure his reputation?'
'Well, sir, I thought no good could come of it. But now you have been kind to us, and I feel as if it would be treating you unfairly not to tell you all that I know about the matter.'
'Very good, Barrymore, you can go.'
When the butler had left us, Sir Henry turned to me. 'Well, Watson, what do you think of this new light?'
'It seems to leave the darkness rather blacker than before.'
'So I think. But if we can only trace L.L. it should clear up the whole business. We have gained that much. We know that there is someone who has the facts if we can only find her. What do you think we should do?'
'Let Holmes know all about it at once. It will give him the clue for which he has been seeking. I am much mistaken if it does not bring him down.'
I went at once to my room and drew up my report of the morning's conversation for Holmes. It was evident to me that he had been very busy of late, for the notes which I had from Baker Street were few and short, with no comments upon the information which I had supplied, and hardly any reference to my mission. No doubt his blackmailing case is absorbing all his faculties. And yet this new factor must surely arrest his attention and renew his interest. I wish that he were here.
October 17th - All day to-day the rain poured down, rustling on the ivy and dripping from the eaves. I thought of the convict out upon the bleak, cold, shelterless moor. Poor fellow! Whatever his crimes, he has suffered something to atone for them. And then I thought of that other one - the face in the cab, the figure against the moon. Was he also out in that deluge - the unseen watcher, the man of darkness? In the evening I put on my waterproof and I walked far upon the sodden moor, full of dark imaginings, the rain beating upon my face and the wind whistling about my ears. God help those who wander into the Great Mire now, for even the firm uplands are becoming a morass. I found the Black Tor upon which I had seen the solitary watcher, and from its craggy summit I looked out myself across the melancholy downs. Rain squalls drifted across their russet face, and the heavy, slate-coloured clouds hung low over the landscape, trailing in grey wreaths down the sides of the fantastic hills. In the distant hollow on the left, half hidden by the mist, the two thin towers of Baskerville Hall rose above the trees. They were the only signs of human life which I could see, save only those prehistoric huts which lay thickly upon the slopes of the hills. Nowhere was there any trace of that lonely man whom I had seen on the same spot two nights before.
As I walked back I was overtaken by Dr Mortimer driving in his dog-cart over a rough moorland track, which led from the outlying farmhouse of Foulmire. He has been very attentive to us, and hardly a day has passed that he has not called at the Hall to see how we were getting on. He insisted upon my climbing into his dog-cart and he gave me a lift homewards. I found him much troubled over the disappearance of his little spaniel. It had wandered on to the moor and had never come back. I gave him such consolation as I might, but I thought of the pony on the Grimpen Mire, and I do not fancy that he will see his little dog again.
'By the way, Mortimer,' said I, as we jolted along the rough road, 'I suppose there are few people living within driving distance of this whom you do not know?'
'Hardly any, I think.'
'Can you, then, tell me the name of any woman whose initials are L.L.?'
He thought for a few minutes. 'No,' said he. 'There are a few gipsies and labouring folk for whom I can't answer, but among the farmers or gentry there is no one whose initials are those. Wait a bit, though,' he added, after a pause. 'There is Laura Lyons - her initials are L.L. - but she lives in Coombe Tracey.'
'Who is she?' I asked.
'She is Frankland's daughter.'
'What? Old Frankland the crank?'
'Exactly. She married an artist named Lyons, who came sketching on the moor. He proved to be a blackguard and deserted her. The fault, from what I hear, may not have been entirely on one side. Her father refused to have anything to do with her, because she had married without his consent, and perhaps for one or two other reasons as well. So, between the old sinner and the young one the girl has had a pretty bad time.'
'How does she live?'
'I fancy old Frankland allows her a pittance, but it cannot be more, for his own affairs are considerably involved. Whatever she may have deserved one could not allow her to go hopelessly to the bad. Her story got about, and several of the people here did something to enable her to earn an honest living. Stapleton did for one, and Sir Charles for another. I gave a trifle myself. It was to set her up in a typewriting business.'
He wanted to know the object of my inquiries, but I managed to satisfy his curiosity without telling him too much, for there is no reason why we should take anyone into our confidence. Tomorrow morning I shall find my way to Coombe Tracey, and if I can see this Mrs Laura Lyons, of equivocal reputation, a long step will have been made towards clearing one incident in this chain of mysteries. I am certainly developing the wisdom of the serpent, for when Mortimer pressed his questions to an inconvenient extent I asked him casually to what type Frankland's skull belonged, and so heard nothing but craniology for the rest of our drive. I have not lived for years with Sherlock Holmes for nothing.
I have only one other incident to record upon this tempestuous and melancholy day. This was my conversation with Barrymore just now, which gives me one more strong card which I can play in due time.
Mortimer had stayed to dinner, and he and the Baronet played écarté afterwards. The butler brought me my coffee into the library, and I took the chance to ask him a few questions.
'Well,' said I, 'has this precious relation of yours departed, or is he still lurking out yonder?'
'I don't know, sir. I hope to Heaven that he has gone, for he has brought nothing but trouble here! I've not heard of him since I left out food for him last, and that was three days ago.'
'Did you see him then?'
'No, sir, but the food was gone when next I went that way.'
'Then he was certainly there?'
'So you would think, sir, unless it was the other man who took it.'
I sat with my coffee-cup half-way to my lips, and stared at Barrymore.
'You know that there is another man, then?'
'Yes, sir, there is another man upon the moor.'
'Have you seen him?'
'No, sir.'
'How do you know of him, then?'
'Selden told me of him, sir, a week ago or more. He's in 'hiding, too, but he's not a convict, so far as I can make out. I don't like it, Dr Watson - I tell you straight, sir, that I don't like it.' He spoke with a sudden passion of earnestness.
'Now, listen to me, Barrymore! I have no interest in this matter but that of your master. I have come here with no object except to help him. Tell me, frankly, what it is that you don't like.'
Barrymore hesitated for a moment, as if he regretted his outburst, or found it difficult to express his own feelings in words.
'It's all these goings-on, sir,' he cried, at last, waving his hand towards the rain-lashed window which faced the moor. 'There's foul play somewhere, and there's black villainy brewing, to that I'll swear! Very glad I should be, sir, to see Sir Henry on his way back to London again!'
'But what is it that alarms you?'
'Look at Sir Charles's death! That was bad enough, for all that the coroner said. Look at the noises on the moor at night. There's not a man would cross it after sundown if he was paid for it. Look at this stranger hiding out yonder, and watching and waiting! What's he waiting for? What does it mean? It means no good to anyone of the name of Baskerville, and very glad I shall be to be quit of it all on the day that Sir Henry's new servants are ready to take over the Hall.'
'But about this stranger,' said I. 'Can you tell me anything about him? What did Selden say? Did he find out where he hid or what he was doing?'
'He saw him once or twice, but he is a deep one, and gives nothing away. At first he thought that he was the police, but soon he found that he had some lay of his own. A kind of gentleman he was, as far as he could see, but what he was doing he could not make out.'
'And where did he say that he lived?'
'Among the old houses on the hillside - the stone huts where the old folk used to live.'
'But how about his food?'
'Selden found out that he has got a lad who works for him and brings him all he needs. I dare say he goes to Coombe Tracey for what he wants.'
'Very good, Barrymore. We may talk further of this some other time.'
When the butler had gone I walked over to the black window, and I looked through a blurred pane at the driving clouds and at the tossing outline of the wind-swept trees. It is a wild night indoors, and what must it be in a stone hut upon the moor? What passion of hatred can it be which leads a man to lurk in such a place at such a time? And what deep and earnest purpose can he have which calls for such a trial? There, in that hut upon the moor, seems to lie the very centre of that problem which has vexed me so sorely. I swear that another day shall not have passed before I have done all that man can do to reach the heart of the mystery.
Chapter 11 : The Man on the Tor
The extract from my private diary which forms the last chapter has brought my narrative up to the 18th of October, a time when these strange events began to move swiftly towards their terrible conclusion. The incidents of the next few days are indelibly graven upon my recollection, and I can tell them without reference to the notes made at the time. I start, then, from the day which succeeded that upon which I had established two facts of great importance, the one that Mrs Laura Lyons of Coombe Tracey had written to Sir Charles Baskerville and made an appointment with him at the very place and hour that he met his death, the other that the lurking man upon the moor was to be found among the stone huts upon the hillside. With these two facts in my possession I felt that either my intelligence or my courage must be deficient if I could not throw some further light upon these dark places.
I had no opportunity to tell the baronet what I had learned about Mrs Lyons upon the evening before, for Dr Mortimer remained with him at cards until it was very late. At breakfast, however, I informed him about my discovery, and asked him whether he would care to accompany me to Coombe Tracey. At first he was very eager to come, but on second thoughts it seemed to both of us that if I went alone the results might be better. The more formal we made the visit the less information we might obtain. I left Sir Henry behind, therefore, not without some prickings of conscience, and drove off upon my new quest.
When I reached Coombe Tracey I told Perkins to put up the horses, and I made inquiries for the lady whom I had come to interrogate. I had no difficulty in finding her rooms, which were central and well appointed. A maid showed me in without ceremony, and as I entered the sitting-room a lady who was sitting before a Remington typewriter sprang up with a pleasant smile of welcome. Her face fell, however, when she saw that I was a stranger, and she sat down again and asked me the object of my visit.
The first impression left by Mrs Lyons was one of extreme beauty. Her eyes and hair were of the same rich hazel colour, and her cheeks, though considerably freckled, were flushed with the exquisite bloom of the brunette, the dainty pink which lurks at the heart of the sulphur rose. Admiration was, I repeat, the first impression. But the second was criticism. There was something subtly wrong with the face, some coarseness of expression, some hardness, perhaps, of eye, some looseness of lip which marred its perfect beauty. But these, of course, are after-thoughts. At the moment I was simply conscious that I was in the presence of a very handsome woman, and that she was asking me the reasons for my visit. I had not quite understood until that instant how delicate my mission was.
'I have the pleasure', said I, 'of knowing your father.'
It was a clumsy introduction, and the lady made me feel it.
'There is nothing in common between my father and me,' she said. 'I owe him nothing, and his friends are not mine. If it were not for the late Sir Charles Baskerville and some other kind hearts I might have starved for all that my father cared.'
'It was about the late Sir Charles Baskerville that I have come here to see you.'
The freckles started out on the lady's face.
'What can I tell you about him?' she asked, and her fingers played nervously over the stops of her typewriter.
'You knew him, did you not?'
'I have already said that I owe a great deal to his kindness. If I am able to support myself it is largely due to the interest which he took in my unhappy situation.'
'Did you correspond with him?'
The lady looked quickly up, with an angry gleam in her hazel eyes.
'What is the object of these questions?' she asked, sharply.
'The object is to avoid a public scandal. It is better that I should ask them here than that the matter should pass outside our control.'
She was silent and her face was very pale. At last she looked up with something reckless and defiant in her manner.
'Well, I'll answer,' she said. 'What are your questions?'
'Did you correspond with Sir Charles?'
'I certainly wrote to him once or twice to acknowledge his delicacy and his generosity.'
'Have you the dates of those letters?'
'No.'
'Have you ever met him?'
'Yes, once or twice, when he came into Coombe Tracey. He was a very retiring man, and he preferred to do good by stealth.'
'But if you saw him so seldom and wrote so seldom, how did he know enough about your affairs to be able to help you, as you say that he has done?'
She met my difficulty with the utmost readiness.
'There were several gentlemen who knew my sad history and united to help me. One was Mr Stapleton, a neighbour and intimate friend of Sir Charles. He was exceedingly kind, and it was through him that Sir Charles learned about my affairs.' I knew already that Sir Charles Baskerville had made Stapleton his almoner upon several occasions, so the lady's statement bore the impress of truth upon it.
'Did you ever write to Sir Charles asking him to meet you?' I continued.
Mrs Lyons flushed with anger again.
'Really, sir, this is a very extraordinary question.'
'I am sorry, madam, but I must repeat it.'
'Then I answer - certainly not.'
'Not on the very day of Sir Charles's death?'
The flush had faded in an instant, and a deathly face was before me. Her dry lips could not speak the 'No' which I saw father than heard.
'Surely your memory deceives you,' said I. 'I could even quote a passage of your letter. It ran "Please, please, as you are a gentleman, burn this letter, and be at the gate by ten o'clock."'
I thought that she had fainted, but she recovered herself by a supreme effort.
'Is there no such thing as a gentleman?' she gasped.
'You do Sir Charles an injustice. He did burn the letter. But sometimes a letter may be legible even when burned. You acknowledge now that you wrote it?'
'Yes, I did write it,' she cried, pouring out her soul in a torrent of words. 'I did write it. Why should I deny it? I have no reason to be ashamed of it. I wished him to help me. I believed that if I had an interview I could gain his help, so I asked him to meet me.'
'But why at such an hour?'
'Because I had only just learned that he was going to London next day and might be away for months. There were reasons why I could not get there earlier.'
'But why a rendezvous in the garden instead of a visit to the house?'
'Do you think a woman could go alone at that hour to a bachelor's house?'
'Well, what happened when you did get there?'
'I never went.'
'No, I swear it to you on all I hold sacred. I never went.
Something intervened to prevent my going.'
'What was that?'
'That is a private matter. I cannot tell it.'
'You acknowledge then, that you made an appointment with Sir Charles at the very hour and place at which he met his death, but you deny that you kept the appointment?'
'That is the truth.'
Again and again I cross-questioned her, but I could never get past that point.
'Mrs Lyons,' said I, as I rose from this long and inconclusive interview, 'you are taking a very great responsibility and putting yourself in a very false position by not making an absolutely clean breast of all that you know. If I have to call in the aid of the police you will find how seriously you are compromised. If your position is innocent, why did you in the first instance deny having written to Sir Charles upon that date?'
'Because I feared that some false conclusion might be drawn from it, and that I might find myself involved in a scandal.'
'And why were you so pressing that Sir Charles should destroy your letter?'
'If you have read the letter you will know.'
'I did not say that I had read all the letter.'
'You quoted some of it.'
'I quoted the postscript. The letter had, as I said, been burned, and it was not all legible. I ask you once again why it was that you were so pressing that Sir Charles should destroy this letter which he received on the day of his death.'
'The matter is a very private one.'
'The more reason why you should avoid a public investigation.'
'I will tell you, then. If you have heard anything of my unhappy history you will know that I made a rash marriage and had reason to regret it.'
'I have heard so much.'
'My life has been one incessant persecution from a husband whom I abhor. The law is upon his side, and every day I am faced by the possibility that he may force me to live with him. At the time that I wrote this letter to Sir Charles I had learned that there was a prospect of my regaining my freedom if certain expenses could be met It meant everything to me - peace of mind, happiness, self-respect-everything. I knew Sir Charles's generosity, and I thought that if he heard the story from my own lips he would help me.'
'Then how is it that you did not go?'
'Because I received help in the interval from another source.'
'Why, then, did you not write to Sir Charles and explain this?'
'So I should have done had I not seen his death in the paper next morning.'
The woman's story hung coherently together, and all my questions were unable to shake it. I could only check it by finding if she had, indeed, instituted divorce proceedings against her husband at or about the time of the tragedy.
It was unlikely that she would dare to say that she had not been to Baskerville Hall if she really had been, for a trap would be necessary to take her there, and could not have returned to Coombe Tracey until the early hours of the morning. Such an excursion could not be kept secret. The probability was, therefore, that she was telling the truth, or, at least, a part of the truth. I came away baffled and disheartened. Once again I had reached that dead wall which seemed to be built across every path by which I tried to get at the object of my mission. And yet the more I thought of the lady's face and of her manner the more I felt that something was being held back from me. Why should she turn so pale? Why should she fight against every admission until it was forced from her? Why should she have been so reticent at the time of the tragedy? Surely the explanation of all this could not be as innocent as she would have me believe. For the moment I could proceed no farther in that direction, but must turn back to that other clue which was to be sought for among the stone huts upon the moor.
And that was a most vague direction. I realized it as I drove back and noted how hill after hill showed traces of the ancient people. Barrymore's only indication had been that the stranger lived in one of these abandoned huts, and many hundreds of them are scattered throughout the length and breadth of the moor. But I had my own experience for a guide, since it had shown me the man himself standing upon the summit of the Black Tor. That, then, should be the centre of my search. From there I should explore every hut upon the moor until I lighted upon the right one. If this man were inside it I should find out from his own lips, at the point of my revolver if necessary, who he was and why he had dogged us so long. He might slip away from us in the crowd of Regent Street, but it would puzzle him to do so upon the lonely moor. On the other hand, if I should find the hut, and its tenant should not be within it, I must remain there, however long the vigil, until he returned. Holmes had missed him in London. It would indeed be a triumph for me if I could run him to earth where my master had failed.
Luck had been against us again and again in this inquiry, but now at last it came to my aid. And the messenger of good fortune was none other than Mr Frankland, who was standing, grey-whiskered and red-faced, outside the gate of his garden, which opened on to the high road along which I travelled.
'Good-day, Dr Watson,' cried he, with unwonted good humour, 'you must really give your horses a rest, and come in to have a glass of wine and to congratulate me.'
My feelings towards him were far from being friendly after what I had heard of his treatment of his daughter, but I was anxious to send Perkins and the wagonette home, and the opportunity was a good one. I alighted and sent a message to Sir Henry that I should walk over in time for dinner. Then I followed Frankland into his dining-room. 'It is a great day for me, sir - one of the red-letter days of my life,' he cried, with many chuckles. 'I have brought off a double event. I mean to teach them in these parts that law is law, and that there is a man here who does not fear to invoke it. I have established a right of way through the centre of old Middleton's park, slap across it, sir, within a hundred yards of his own front door. What do you think of that? We'll teach these magnates that they cannot ride rough-shod over the rights of the commoners, confound them! And I've closed the wood where the Fernworthy folk used to picnic. These infernal people seem to think that there are no rights of property, and that they can swarm where they like with their papers and their bottles. Both cases decided, Dr Watson, and both in my favour. I haven't had such a day since I had Sir John Morland for trespass, because he shot in his own warren.'
'How on earth did you do that?'
'Look it up in the books, sir. It will repay reading - Frankland v. Morland, Court of Queen's Bench. It cost me £200, but I got my verdict.'
'Did it do you any good?'
'None, sir, none. I am proud to say that I had no interest in the matter. I act entirely from a sense of public duty. I have no doubt, for example, that the Fernworthy people will burn me in effigy to-night. I told the police last time they did it that they should stop these disgraceful exhibitions. The county constabulary is in a scandalous state, sir, and it has not afforded me the protection to which I am entitled. The case of Frankland v. Regina will bring the matter before the attention of the public. I told them that they would have occasion to regret their treatment of me, and already my words have come true.'
'How so?' I asked.
The old man put on a very knowing expression.
'Because I could tell them what they are dying to know, but nothing would induce me to help the rascals in any way.'
I had been casting round for some excuse by which I could get away from his gossip, but now I began to wish to hear more of it. I had seen enough of the contrary nature of the old sinner to understand that any strong sign of interest would be the surest way to stop his confidences.
'Some poaching case, no doubt?' said I, with an indifferent manner.
'Ha, ha, my boy, a very much more important matter than that! What about the convict on the moor?'
I stared. 'You don't mean that you know where he is?' said I.
'I may not know exactly where he is, but I am quite sure that I could help the police to lay their hands on him. Has it never struck you that the way to catch that man was to find out where he got his food, and so trace it to him?'
He certainly seemed to be getting uncomfortably near the truth. 'No doubt,' said I, 'but how do you know that he is anywhere upon the moor?'
'I know it because I have seen with my own eyes the messenger who takes him his food.'
My heart sank for Barrymore. It was a serious thing to be in the power of this spiteful old busybody. But his next remark took a weight from my mind.
'You'll be surprised to hear that his food is taken to him by a child. I see him every day through my telescope upon the roof. He passes along the same path at the same hour, and to whom should he be going except to the convict?'
Here was luck indeed! And yet I suppressed all appearance of interest. A child! Barrymore had said that our unknown was supplied by a boy. It was on his track, and not upon the convict's, that Frankland had stumbled. If I could get his knowledge it might save me a long and weary hunt. But incredulity and indifference were evidently my strongest cards.
'I should say that it was much more likely that it was the son of one of the moorland shepherds taking out his father's dinner.'
The least appearance of opposition struck fire out of the old autocrat. His eyes looked malignantly at me, and his grey whiskers bristled like those of an angry cat.
'Indeed, sir!' said he, pointing out over the wide-stretching moor. 'Do you see that Black Tor over yonder? Well, do you see the low hill beyond with the thorn-bush upon it? It is the stoniest part of the whole moor. Is that a place where a shepherd would be likely to take his station? Your suggestion, sir, is a most absurd one.'
I meekly answered that I had spoken without knowing all the facts. My submission pleased him and led him to further confidences.
'You may be sure, sir, that I have very good grounds before I come to an opinion. I have seen the boy again and again with his bundle. Every day, and sometimes twice a day, I have been able - but wait a moment, Dr Watson. Do my eyes deceive me, or is there at the present moment something moving upon that hillside?'
It was several miles off, but I could distinctly see a small dark dot against the dull green and grey.
'Come, sir, come!' cried Frankland, rushing upstairs. 'You will see with your own eyes and judge for yourself.'
The telescope, a formidable instrument mounted upon a tripod, stood upon the flat leads of the house. Frankland clapped his eye to it and gave a cry of satisfaction.
'Quick, Dr Watson, quick, before he passes over the hill!'
There he was, sure enough, a small urchin with a little bundle upon his shoulder, toiling slowly up the hill. When he reached the crest I saw the ragged, uncouth figure outlined for an instant against the cold blue sky. He looked round him, with a furtive and stealthy air, as one who dreads pursuit. Then he vanished over the hill.
'Well! Am I right?'
'Certainly, there is a boy who seems to have some secret errand.'
'And what the errand is even a county constable could guess. But not one word shall they have from me, and I bind you to secrecy also, Dr Watson. Not a word! You understand?'
'Just as you wish.'
'They have treated me shamefully - shamefully. When the facts come out in Frankland v. Regina I venture to think that a thrill of indignation will run through the country. Nothing would induce me to help the police in any way. For all they cared it might have been me, instead of my effigy, which these rascals burned at the stake. Surely you are not going! You will help me to empty the decanter in honour of this great occasion!'
But I resisted all his solicitations and succeeded in dissuading him from his announced intention of walking home with me. I kept the road as long as his eye was on me, and then I struck off across the moor and made for the stony hill over which the boy had disappeared. Everything was working in my favour, and I swore that it should not be through lack of energy or perseverance that I should miss the chance which Fortune had thrown in my way.
The sun was already sinking when I reached the summit of the hill, and the long slopes beneath me were all golden-green on one side and grey shadow on the other. A haze lay low upon the farthest sky-line, out of which jutted the fantastic shapes of Belliver and Vixen Tor. Over the wide expanse there was no sound and no movement. One great grey bird, a gull or curlew, soared aloft in the blue heaven. He and I seemed to be the only living things between the huge arch of the sky and the desert beneath it. The barren scene, the sense of loneliness, and the mystery and urgency of my task all struck a chill into my heart. The boy was nowhere to be seen. But down beneath me in a cleft of the hills there was a circle of the old stone huts, and in the middle of them there was one which retained sufficient roof to act as a screen against the weather. My heart leaped within me as I saw it. This must be the burrow where the stranger lurked. At last my foot was on the threshold of his hiding-place - his secret was within my grasp.
As I approached the hut, walking as warily as Stapleton would do when with poised net he drew near the settled butterfly, I satisfied myself that the place had indeed been used as a habitation. A vague pathway among the boulders led to the dilapidated opening which served as a door. All was silent within. The unknown might be lurking there, or he might be prowling on the moor. My nerves tingled with the sense of adventure. Throwing aside my cigarette, I closed my hand upon the butt of my revolver, and, walking swiftly up to the door, I looked in. The place was empty.
But there were ample signs that I had not come upon a false scent. This was certainly where the man lived. Some blankets rolled in a waterproof lay upon that very stone slab upon which neolithic man had once slumbered. The ashes of a fire were heaped in a rude grate. Beside it lay some cooking utensils and a bucket half-full of water. A litter of empty tins showed that the place had been occupied for some time, and I saw, as my eyes became accustomed to the chequered light, a pannikin and a half-full bottle of spirits standing in the corner. In the middle of the hut a flat stone served the purpose of a table, and upon this stood a small cloth bundle - the same, no doubt, which I had seen through the telescope upon the shoulder of the boy. It contained a loaf of bread, a tinned tongue, and two tins of preserved peaches. As I set it down again, after having examined it, my heart leaped to see that beneath it there lay a sheet of paper with writing upon it. I raised it, and this was what I read, roughly scrawled in pencil:
'Dr Watson has gone to Coombe Tracey.'
For a minute I stood there with the paper in my hands thinking out the meaning of this curt message. It was I, then, and not Sir Henry, who was being dogged by this secret man. He had not followed me himself, but he had set an agent - the boy, perhaps - upon my track, and this was his report. Possibly I had taken no step since I had been upon the moor which had not been observed and repeated. Always there was this feeling of an unseen force, a fine net drawn round us with infinite skill and delicacy, holding us so lightly that it was only at some supreme moment that one realized that one was indeed entangled in its meshes.
If there was one report there might be others, so I looked round the hut in search of them. There was no trace, however, of anything of the kind, nor could I discover any sign which might indicate the character or intentions of the man who lived in this singular place, save that he must be of Spartan habits, and cared little for the comforts of life. When I thought of the heavy rains and looked at the gaping roof I understood how strong and immutable must be the purpose which had kept him in that inhospitable abode. Was he our malignant enemy, or was he by chance our guardian angel? I swore that I would not leave the hut until I knew.
Outside the sun was sinking low and the west was blazing with scarlet and gold. Its reflection was shot back in ruddy patches by the distant pools which lay amid the Great Grimpen Mire. There were the two towers of Baskerville Hall, and there a distant blur of smoke which marked the village of Grimpen. Between the two, behind the hill, was the house of the Stapletons. All was sweet and mellow and peaceful in the golden evening light, and yet as I looked at them my soul shared none of the peace of Nature, but quivered at the vagueness and the terror of that interview which every instant was bringing nearer. With tingling nerves, but a fixed purpose, I sat in the dark recess of the hut and waited with sombre patience for the coming of its tenant.
And then at last I heard him. Far away came the sharp clink of a boot striking upon a stone. Then another and yet another, coming nearer and nearer. I shrank back into the darkest corner, and cocked the pistol in my pocket, determined not to discover myself until I had an opportunity of seeing something of the stranger. There was a long pause, which showed that he had stopped. Then once more the footsteps approached and a shadow fell across the opening of the hut.
'It is a lovely evening, my dear Watson,' said a well-known voice. 'I really think that you will be more comfortable outside than in.'
Chapter 12 : Death on the Moor
For a moment or two I sat breathless, hardly able to believe my ears. Then my senses and my voice came back to me, while a crushing weight of responsibility seemed in an instant to be lifted from my soul. That cold, incisive, ironical voice could belong to but one man in all the world.
'Holmes!' I cried - 'Holmes!'
'Come out,' said he, 'and please be careful with the revolver.'
I stooped under the rude lintel, and there he sat upon a stone outside, his grey eyes dancing with amusement as they fell upon my astonished features. He was thin and worn, but clear and alert, his keen face bronzed by the sun and roughened by the wind. In his tweed suit and cloth cap he looked like any other tourist upon the moor, and he had contrived, with that cat-like love of personal cleanliness which was one of his characteristics, that his chin should be as smooth and his linen as perfect as if he were in Baker Street.
'I never was more glad to see anyone in my life,' said I, as I wrung him by the hand.
'Or more astonished, eh?'
'Well, I must confess to it.'
'The surprise was not all on one side, I assure you. I had no idea that you found my occasional retreat, still less that you were inside it, until I was within twenty paces of the door.'
'My footprint, I presume?'
'No, Watson, I fear that I could not undertake to recognize your footprint amid all the footprints of the world. If you seriously desire to deceive me you must change your tobacconist, for when I see the stub of a cigarette marked Bradley, Oxford Street, I know that my friend Watson is in the neighbourhood. You will see it there beside the path. You threw it down, no doubt, at that supreme moment when you charged into the empty hut.'
'Exactly.'
'I thought as much - and knowing your admirable tenacity, I was convinced that you were sitting in ambush, a weapon within reach, waiting for the tenant to return. So you actually thought that I was the criminal?'
'I did not know who you were, but I was determined to find out.'
'Excellent, Watson! And how did you localize me? You saw me, perhaps, on the night of the convict hunt, when I was so imprudent as to allow the moon to rise behind me?'
'Yes, I saw you then.'
'And have, no doubt, searched all the huts until you came to this one?'
'No, your boy had been observed, and that gave me a guide where to look.'
'The old gentleman with the telescope, no doubt. I could not make it out when first I saw the light flashing upon the lens.' He rose and peeped into the hut. 'Ha, I see that Cartwright has brought up some supplies. What's this paper? So you have been to Coombe Tracey, have you?'
'Yes.'
'To see Mrs Laura Lyons?'
'Exactly.'
'Well done! Our researches have evidently been running on parallel lines, and when we unite our results I expect we shall have a fairly full knowledge of the case.'
'Well, I am glad from my heart that you are here, for indeed the responsibility and the mystery were both becoming too much for my nerves. But how in the name of wonder did you come here, and what have you been doing? I thought that you were in Baker Street working out that case of blackmailing.'
'That was what I wished you to think.'
'Then you use me, and yet do not trust me!' I cried, with some bitterness. 'I think that I have deserved better at your hands, Holmes.'
'My dear fellow, you have been invaluable to me in this as in many other cases, and I beg that you will forgive me if I have seemed to play a trick upon you. In truth, it was partly for your own sake that I did it, and it was my appreciation of the danger which you ran which led me to come down and examine the matter for myself. Had I been with Sir Henry and you it is evident that my point of view would have been the same as yours, and my presence would have warned our very formidable opponents to be on their guard. As it is, I have been able to get about as I could not possibly have done had I been living at the Hall, and I remain an unknown factor in the business, ready to throw in all my weight at a critical moment.'
'But why keep me in the dark?'
'For you to know could not have helped us, and might possibly have led to my discovery. You would have wished to tell me something, or in your kindness you would have brought me out some comfort or other, and so an unnecessary risk would be run. I brought Cartwright down with me - you remember the little chap at the Express office-and he has seen after my simple wants: a loaf of bread and a clean collar. What does man want more? He has given me an extra pair of eyes upon a very active pair of feet, and both have been invaluable.'
'Then my reports have all been wasted!' My voice trembled as I recalled the pains and the pride with which I had composed them.
Holmes took a bundle of papers from his pocket.
'Here are your reports, my dear fellow, and very well thumbed, I assure you. I made excellent arrangements, and they are only delayed one day upon their way. I must compliment you exceedingly upon the zeal and the intelligence which you have shown over an extraordinarily difficult case.'
I was still rather raw over the deception which had been practised upon me, but the warmth of Holmes's praise drove my anger from my mind. I felt also in my heart that he was right in what he said, and that it was really best for our purpose that I should not have known that he was upon the moor.
'That's better,' said he, seeing the shadow rise from my face. 'And now tell me the result of your visit to Mrs Laura Lyons - it was not difficult for me to guess that it was to see her that you had gone, for I am already aware that she is the one person in Coombe Tracey who might be of service to us in the matter. In fact, if you had not gone to-day it is exceedingly probable that I should have gone to-morrow.'
The sun had set and dusk was settling over the moor. The air had turned chill, and we withdrew into the hut for warmth. There, sitting together in the twilight, I told Holmes of my conversation with the lady. So interested was he that I had to repeat some of it twice before he was satisfied.
'This is most important,' said he, when I had concluded. 'It fills up a gap which I had been unable to bridge, in this most complex affair. You are aware, perhaps, that a close intimacy exists between this lady and the man Stapleton?'
'I did not know of a close intimacy.'
'There can be no doubt about the matter. They meet, they write, there is a complete understanding between them. Now, this puts a very powerful weapon into our hands. If I could use it to detach his wife-'
'His wife?'
'I am giving you some information now, in return for all that you have given me. The lady who has passed here as Miss Stapleton is in reality his wife.'
'Good heavens, Holmes! Are you sure of what you say? How could he have permitted Sir Henry to fall in love with her?'
'Sir Henry's falling in love could do no harm to anyone except Sir Henry. He took particular care that Sir Henry did not make love to her, as you have yourself observed. I repeat that the lady is his wife and not his sister.'
'But why this elaborate deception?'
'Because he foresaw that she would be very much more useful to him in the character of a free woman.'
All my unspoken instincts, my vague suspicions, suddenly took shape and centred upon the naturalist. In that impassive, colourless man, with his straw hat and his butterfly-net, I seemed to see something terrible - a creature of infinite patience and craft, with a smiling face and a murderous heart.
'It is he, then, who is our enemy - it is he who dogged us in London?'
'So I read the riddle.'
'And the warning - it must have come from her!'
'Exactly.'
The shape of some monstrous villainy, half seen, half guessed, loomed through the darkness which had girt me so long.
'But are you sure of this, Holmes? How do you know that the woman is his wife?'
'Because he so far forgot himself as to tell you a true piece of autobiography upon the occasion when he first met you, and I dare say he has many a time regretted it since. He was once a schoolmaster in the North of England. Now, there is no one more easy to trace than a schoolmaster. There are scholastic agencies by which one may identify any man who has been in the profession. A little investigation showed me that a school had come to grief under atrocious circumstances, and that the man who had owned it - the name was different - had disappeared with his wife. The description agreed. When I learned that the missing man was devoted to entomology the identification was complete.'
The darkness was rising, but much was still hidden by the shadows.
'If this woman is in truth his wife, where does Mrs Laura Lyons come in?' I asked.
'That is one of the points upon which your own researches have shed a light. Your interview with the lady has cleared the situation very much. I did not know about a projected divorce between herself and her husband. In that case, regarding Stapleton as an unmarried man, she counted no doubt upon becoming his wife.'
'And when she is undeceived?'
'Why, then we may find the lady of service. It must be our first duty to see her - both of us - tomorrow. Don't you think, Watson, that you are away from your charge rather long? Your place should be at Baskerville Hall.'
The last red streaks had faded away in the west and night had settled upon the moor. A few faint stars were gleaming in a violet sky.
'One last question, Holmes,' I said, as I rose. 'Surely there is no need of secrecy between you and me. What is the meaning of it all? What is he after?'
Holmes's voice sank as he answered - 'It is murder, Watson - refined, cold-blooded, deliberate murder. Do not ask me for particulars. My nets are closing upon him, even as his are upon Sir Henry, and with your help he is already almost at my mercy. There is but one danger which can threaten us. It is that he should strike before we are ready to do so. Another day - two at the most - and I have my case complete, but until then guard your charge as closely as ever a fond mother watched her ailing child. Your mission to-day has justified itself, and yet I could almost wish that you had not left his side - Hark!'
A terrible scream - a prolonged yell of horror and anguish burst out of the silence of the moor. That frightful cry turned the blood to ice in my veins.
'Oh, my God!' I gasped. 'What is it? What does it mean?'
Holmes had sprung to his feet, and I saw his dark, athletic outline at the door of the hut, his shoulders stooping, his head thrust forward, his face peering into the darkness.
'Hush!' he whispered. 'Hush!'
The cry had been loud on account of its vehemence, but it had pealed out from somewhere far off on the shadowy plain. Now it burst upon our ears, nearer, louder, more urgent than before.
'Where is it?' Holmes whispered, and I knew from the thrill of his voice that he, the man of iron, was shaken to the soul. 'Where is it, Watson?'
'There, I think.' I pointed into the darkness.
'No, there!'
Again the agonized cry swept through the silent night, louder and much nearer than ever. And a new sound mingled with it, a deep, muttered rumble, musical and yet menacing, rising and falling like the low, constant murmur of the sea.
'The hound!' cried Holmes. 'Come, Watson, come! Great heavens, if we are too late!'
He had started running swiftly over the moor, and I had followed at his heels. But now from somewhere among the broken ground immediately in front of us there came one last despairing yell, and then a dull, heavy thud. We halted and listened. Not another sound broke the heavy silence of the windless night.
I saw Holmes put his hand to his forehead, like a man distracted. He stamped his feet upon the ground.
'He has beaten us, Watson. We are too late.'
'No, no, surely not!'
'Fool that I was to hold my hand. And you, Watson, see what comes of abandoning your charge! But, by Heaven, if the worst has happened, we'll avenge him!'
Blindly we ran through the gloom, blundering against boulders, forcing our way through gorse bushes, panting up hills and rushing down slopes, heading always in the direction whence those dreadful sounds had come. At every rise Holmes looked eagerly round him, but the shadows were thick upon the moor and nothing moved upon its dreary face.
'Can you see anything?'
'Nothing.'
'But hark, what is that?'
A low moan had fallen upon our ears. There it was again upon our left! On that side a ridge of rocks ended in a sheer cliff, which overlooked a stone-strewn slope. On its jagged face was spread-eagled some dark, irregular object. As we ran towards it the vague outline hardened into a definite shape. It was a prostrate man face downwards upon the ground, the head doubled under him at a horrible angle, the shoulders rounded and the body hunched together as if in the act of throwing a somersault. So grotesque was the attitude that I could not for the instant realize that that moan had been the passing of his soul. Not a whisper, not a rustle, rose now from the dark figure over which we stooped. Holmes laid his hand upon him, and held it up again, with an exclamation of horror. The gleam of the match which he struck shone upon his clotted fingers and upon the ghastly pool which widened slowly from the crushed skull of the victim. And it shone upon something else which turned our hearts sick and faint within us - the body of Sir Henry Baskerville!
There was no chance of either of us forgetting that peculiar ruddy tweed suit - the very one which he had worn on the first morning that we had seen him in Baker Street. We caught the one clear glimpse of it, and then the match flickered and went out, even as the hope had gone out of our souls. Holmes groaned, and his face glimmered white through the darkness.
'The brute! the brute!' I cried, with clenched hands. 'Oh, Holmes, I shall never forgive myself for having left him to his fate.'
'I am more to blame than you, Watson. In order to have my case well rounded and complete, I have thrown away the life of my client. It is the greatest blow which has befallen me in my career. But how could I know - how could I know - that he would risk his life alone upon the moor in the face of all my warnings?'
'That we should have heard his screams - my God, those screams! - and yet have been unable to save him! Where is this brute of a hound which drove him to his death? It may be lurking among these rocks at this instant. And Stapleton, where is he? He shall answer for this deed.'
'He shall. I will see to that. Uncle and nephew have been murdered - the one frightened to death by the very sight of a beast which he thought to be supernatural, the other driven to his end in his wild flight to escape from it. But now we have to prove the connection between the man and the beast. Save from what we heard, we cannot even swear to the existence of the latter, since Sir Henry has evidently died from the fall. But, by heavens, cunning as he is, the fellow shall be in my power before another day is past!'
We stood with bitter hearts on either side of the mangled body, overwhelmed by this sudden and irrevocable disaster which had brought all our long and weary labours to so piteous an end. Then, as the moon rose, we climbed to the top of the rocks over which our poor friend had fallen, and from the summit we gazed out over the shadowy moor, half silver and half gloom. Far away, miles off, in the direction of Grimpen, a single steady yellow light was shining. It could only come from the lonely abode of the Stapletons. With a bitter curse I shook my fist at it as I gazed.
'Why should we not seize him at once?'
'Our case is not complete. The fellow is wary and cunning to the last degree. It is not what we know, but what we can prove. If we make one false move the villain may escape us yet.'
'What can we do?'
'There will be plenty for us to do to-morrow. To-night we can only perform the last offices to our poor friend.'
Together we made our way down the precipitous slope and approached the body, black and clear against the silver stones. The agony of those contorted limbs struck me with a spasm of pain and blurred my eyes with tears.
'We must send for help, Holmes! We cannot carry him all the way to the Hall. Good heavens, are you mad?'
He had uttered a cry and bent over the body. Now he was dancing and laughing and wringing my hand. Could this be my stem, self-contained friend? These were hidden fires, indeed!
'A beard! A beard! The man has a beard!'
'A beard?'
'It is not the Baronet - it is - why, it is my neighbour, the convict!'
With feverish haste we had turned the body over, and that dripping beard was pointing up to the cold, clear moon. There could be no doubt about the beetling forehead, the sunken animal eyes. It was indeed the same face which had glared upon me in the light of the candle from over the rock - the face of Selden, the criminal.
Then in an instant it was all clear to me. I remembered how the Baronet had told me that he had handed his old wardrobe to Barrymore. Barrymore had passed it on in order to help Selden in his escape. Boots, shirt, cap - it was all Sir Henry's. The tragedy was still black enough, but this man had at least deserved death by the laws of his country. I told Holmes how the matter stood, my heart bubbling over with thankfulness and joy.
'Then the clothes have been the poor fellow's death,' said he. 'It is clear enough that the hound has been laid on from some article of Sir Henry's - the boot which was abstracted in the hotel, in all probability - and so ran this man down. There is one very singular thing, however: How came Selden, in the darkness, to know that the hound was on his trail?'
'He heard him.'
'To hear a hound upon the moor would not work a hard man like this convict into such a paroxysm of terror that he would risk recapture by screaming wildly for help. By his cries he must have run a long way after he knew the animal was on his track. How did he know?'
'A greater mystery to me is why this hound, presuming that all our conjectures are correct-'
'I presume nothing.'
'Well, then, why this hound should be loose to-night. I suppose that it does not always run loose upon the moor. Stapleton would not let it go unless he had reason to think that Sir Henry would be there.'
'My difficulty is the more formidable of the two, for I think that we shall very shortly get an explanation of yours, while mine may remain for ever a mystery. The question now is, what shall we do with this poor wretch's body? We cannot leave it here to the foxes and the ravens.'
'I suggest that we put it in one of the huts until we can communicate with the police.'
'Exactly. I have no doubt that you and I could carry it so far. Hullo, Watson, what's this? It's the man himself, by all that's wonderful and audacious! Not a word to show your suspicions - not a word, or my plans crumble to the ground.'
A figure was approaching us over the moor, and I saw the dull red glow of a cigar. The moon shone upon him, and I could distinguish the dapper shape and jaunty walk of the naturalist. He stopped when he saw us, and then came on again.
'Why, Dr Watson, that's not you, is it? You are the last man that I should have expected to see out on the moor at this time of night. But, dear me, what's this? Somebody hurt? Not - don't tell me that is our friend Sir Henry!'
He hurried past me and stooped over the dead man. I heard a sharp intake of breath and the cigar fell from his fingers.
'Who - who's this?' he stammered. 'It is Selden, the man who escaped from Princetown.'
Stapleton turned a ghastly face upon us, but by a supreme effort he had overcome his amazement and his disappointment. He looked sharply from Holmes to me.
'Dear me! What a very shocking affair! How did he die?'
'He appears to have broken his neck by falling over these rocks. My friend and I were strolling on the moor when we heard a cry.'
'I heard a cry also. That was what brought me out. I was uneasy about Sir Henry.'
'Why about Sir Henry in particular?' I could not help asking.
'Because I had suggested that he should come over. When he did not come I was surprised, and I naturally became alarmed for his safety when I heard cries upon the moor. By the way' - his eyes darted again from my face to Holmes's-'did you hear anything else besides a cry?'
'No,' said Holmes, 'did you?'
'No.'
'What do you mean then?'
'Oh, you know the stories that the peasants tell about a phantom hound, and so on. It is said to be heard at night upon the moor. I was wondering if there were any evidence of such a sound to-night.'
'We heard nothing of the kind,' said I.
'And what is your theory of this poor fellow's death?'
'I have no doubt that anxiety and exposure have driven him off his head. He has rushed about the moor in a crazy state and eventually fallen over here and broken his neck.'
'That seems the most reasonable theory,' said Stapleton, and he gave a sigh which I took to indicate his relief. 'What do you think about it, Mr Sherlock Holmes?' My friend bowed his compliments.
'You are quick at identification,' said he.
'We have been expecting you in these parts since Dr Watson came down. You are in time to see a tragedy.'
'Yes, indeed. I have no doubt that my friend's explanation will cover the facts. I will take an unpleasant remembrance back to London with me to-morrow.'
'Oh, you return to-morrow?'
'That is my intention.'
'I hope your visit has cast some light upon those occurrences which have puzzled us?'
Holmes shrugged his shoulders. 'One cannot always have the success for which one hopes. An investigator needs facts, and not legends or rumours. It has not been a satisfactory case.'
My friend spoke in his frankest and most unconcerned manner. Stapleton still looked hard at him. Then he turned to me.
'I would suggest carrying this poor fellow to my house, but it would give my sister such a fright that I do not feel justified in doing it. I think that if we put something over his face he will be safe until morning.'
And so it was arranged. Resisting Stapleton's offer of hospitality, Holmes and I set off to Baskerville Hall, leaving the naturalist to return alone. Looking back we saw the figure moving slowly away over the broad moor, and behind him that one black smudge on the silvered slope which showed where the man was lying who had come so horribly to his end.
'We're at close grips at last,' said Holmes, as we walked together across the moor. 'What a nerve the fellow has! How he pulled himself together in the face of what must have been a paralysing shock when he found that the wrong man had fallen a victim to his plot. I told you in London, Watson, and will tell you now again, that we have never had a foeman more worthy of our steel.'
'I am sorry that he has seen you.'
'And so was I at first. But there was no getting out of it.'
'What effect do you think it will have upon his plans, now that he knows you are here?'
'It may cause him to be more cautious, or it may drive him to desperate measures at once. Like most clever criminals, he may be too confident in his own cleverness and imagine that he has completely deceived us.'
'Why should we not arrest him at once?'
'My dear Watson, you were born to be a man of action. Your instinct is always to do something energetic. But supposing, for argument's sake, that we had him arrested to-night, what on earth the better off should we be for that? We could prove nothing against him. There's the devilish cunning of it! If he were acting through a human agent we could get some evidence, but if we were to drag this great dog to the light of day it would not help in putting a rope round the neck of its master.'
'Surely we have a case.'
'Not a shadow of one - only surmise and conjecture. We should be laughed out of court if we came with such a story and such evidence.'
'There is Sir Charles's death.'
'Found dead without a mark upon him. You and I know that he died of sheer fright, and we know also what frightened him., but how are we to get twelve stolid jurymen to know it? What signs are there of a hound? Where are the marks of its fangs? Of course, we know that a hound does not bite a dead body, and that Sir Charles was dead before ever the brute overtook him. But we have to prove all this, and we are not in a position to do it.'
'Well, then, to-night?'
'We are not much better off to-night. Again, there was no direct connection between the hound and the man's death. We never saw the hound. We heard it, but we could not prove that it was running upon this man's trail. There is a complete absence of motive. No, my dear fellow, we must reconcile ourselves to the fact that we have no case at present, and that it is worth our while to run any risk in order to establish one.'
'And how do you propose to do so?'
'I have great hopes of what Mrs Laura Lyons may do for us when the position of affairs is made clear to her. And I have my own plan as well. Sufficient for to-morrow is the evil thereof, but I hope before the day is past to have the upper hand at last.'
I could draw nothing further from him, and he walked, lost in thought, as far as the Baskerville gates.
'Are you coming up?'
'Yes, I see no reason for further concealment. But one last word, Watson. Say nothing of the hound to Sir Henry. Let him think that Selden's death was as Stapleton would have us believe. He will have a better nerve for the ordeal which he will have to undergo to-morrow, when he is engaged, if I remember your report aright, to dine with these people.'
'And so am I.'
'Then you must excuse yourself, and he must go alone. That will be easily arranged. And now, if we are too late for dinner, I think that we are both ready for our suppers.'
Chapter 13 : Fixing the Nets
Sir Henry was more pleased than surprised to see Sherlock Holmes, for he had for some days been expecting that recent events would bring him down from London. He did raise his eyebrows, however, when he found that my friend had neither any luggage nor any explanations for its absence. Between us we soon supplied his wants, and then over a belated supper we explained to the Baronet as much of our experience as it seemed desirable that he should know. But first I had the unpleasant duty of breaking the news of Selden's death to Barrymore and his wife. To him it may have been an unmitigated relief, but she wept bitterly in her apron. To all the world he was the man of violence, half animal and half demon, but to her he always remained the little wilful boy of her own girlhood, the child who had clung to her hand. Evil indeed is the man who has not one woman to mourn him.
'I've been moping in the house all day since Watson went off in the morning,' said the baronet. 'I guess I should have some credit, for I have kept my promise. If I hadn't sworn not to go about alone I might have had a more lively evening, for I had a message from Stapleton asking me over there.'
'I have no doubt that you would have had a more lively evening,' said Holmes, drily. 'By the way, I don't suppose you appreciate that we have been mourning over you as having broken your neck?'
Sir Henry opened his eyes. 'How was that?'
'This poor wretch was dressed in your clothes. I fear your servant who gave them to him may get into trouble with the police.'
'That is unlikely. There was no mark on any of them, so far as I know.'
'That's lucky for him - in fact, it's lucky for all of you, since you are all on the wrong side of the law in this matter. I am not sure that as a conscientious detective my first duty is not to arrest the whole household. Watson's reports are most incriminating documents.'
'But how about the case?' asked the baronet. 'Have you made anything out of the tangle? I don't know that Watson and I are much the wiser since we came down.'
'I think that I shall be in a position to make the situation rather more clear to you before long. It has been an exceedingly difficult and most complicated business. There are several points upon which we still want light - but it is coming, all the same.'
'We've had one experience, as Watson has no doubt told you. We heard the hound on the moor, so I can swear that it is not all empty superstition. I had something to do with dogs when I was out West, and I know one when I hear one. If you can muzzle that one and put him on a chain I'll be ready to swear you are the greatest detective of all time.'
'I think I will muzzle him and chain him all right if you will give me your help.'
'Whatever you tell me to do I will do.'
'Very good, and I will ask you also to do it blindly, without always asking the reason.'
'Just as you like.'
'If you will do this I think the chances are that our little problem will soon be solved. I have no doubt-'
He stopped suddenly and stared fixedly up over my head into the air. The lamp beat upon his face, and so intent was it and so still that it might have been that of a clear-cut classical statue, a personification of alertness and expectation.
'What is it?' we both cried.
I could see as he looked down that he was repressing some internal emotion. His features were still composed, but his eyes shone with amused exultation.
'Excuse the admiration of a connoisseur,' said he, as he waved his hand towards the line of portraits which covered the opposite wall. 'Watson won't allow that I know anything of art, but that is mere jealousy, because our views upon the subject differ. Now, these are a really very fine series of portraits.'
'Well, I'm glad to hear you say so,' said Sir Henry, glancing with some surprise at my friend. 'I don't pretend to know much about these things, and I'd be a better judge of a horse or a steer than of a picture. I didn't know that you found time for such things.'
'I know what is good when I see it, and I see it now. That's a Kneller, I'll swear, that lady in the blue silk over yonder, and the stout gentleman with the wig ought to be a Reynolds. They are all family portraits, I presume?'
'Every one.'
'Do you know the names?'
' Barrymore has been coaching me in them, and I think I can say my lessons fairly well.'
'Who is the gentleman with the telescope?'
'That is Rear-Admiral Baskerville, who served under Rodney in the West Indies. The man with the blue coat and the roll of paper is Sir William Baskerville, who was Chairman of Committees of the House of Commons under Pitt.'
'And this Cavalier opposite to me - the one with the black velvet and the lace?'
'Ah, you have a right to know about him. That is the cause of all the mischief, the wicked Hugo, who started the Hound of the Baskervilles. We're not likely to forget him.'
I gazed with interest and some surprise upon the portrait.
'Dear me!' said Holmes, 'he seems a quiet, meek-mannered man enough, but I dare say that there was a lurking devil in his eyes. I had pictured him as a more robust and ruffianly person.'
'There's no doubt about the authenticity, for the name and the date, 1647, are on the back of the canvas.'
Holmes said little more, but the picture of the old roysterer seemed to have a fascination for him, and his eyes were continually fixed upon it during supper. It was not until later, when Sir Henry had gone to his room, that I was able to follow the trend of his thoughts. He led me back into the banqueting-hall, his bedroom candle in his hand, and he held it up against the time-stained portrait on the wall.
'Do you see anything there?'
I looked at the broad plumed hat, the curling love-locks, the white lace collar, and the straight severe face which was framed between them. It was not a brutal countenance, but it was prim, hard, and stern, with a firm-set, thin-lipped mouth, and a coldly intolerant eye.
'Is it like anyone you know?'
'There is something of Sir Henry about the jaw.'
'Just a suggestion, perhaps. But wait an instant!'
He stood upon a chair, and holding up the light in his left hand, he curved his right arm over the broad hat and round the long ringlets.
'Good heavens!' I cried, in amazement.
The face of Stapleton had sprung out of the canvas.
'Ha, you see it now. My eyes have been trained to examine faces and not their trimmings. It is the first quality of a criminal investigator that he should see through a disguise.'
'But this is marvellous. It might be his portrait.'
'Yes, it is an interesting instance of a throw-back, which appears to be both physical and spiritual. A study of family portraits is enough to convert a man to the doctrine of reincarnation. The fellow is a Baskerville - that is evident.'
'With designs upon the succession.'
'Exactly. This chance of the picture has supplied us with one of our most obvious missing links. We have him, Watson, we have him, and I dare swear that before to-morrow night he will be fluttering in our net as helpless as one of his own butterflies. A pin, a cork, and a card, and we add him to the Baker Street collection!' He burst into one of his rare fits of laughter as he turned away from the picture. I have not heard him laugh often, and it has always boded ill to somebody.
I was up betimes in the morning, but Holmes was afoot earlier still, for I saw him as I dressed coming up the drive.
'Yes, we should have a full day to-day,' he remarked, and he rubbed his hands with the joy of action. 'The nets are all in place, and the drag is about to begin. We'll know before the day is out whether we have caught our big, lean-jawed pike, or whether he has got through the meshes.'
'Have you been on the moor already?'
'I have sent a report from Grimpen to Princetown as to the death of Selden. I think I can promise that none of you will be troubled in the matter. And I have also communicated with my faithful Cartwright, who would certainly have pined away at the door of my hut as a dog does at his master's grave if I had not set his mind at rest about my safety.'
'What is the next move?'
'To see Sir Henry. Ah, here he is!'
'Good morning, Holmes,' said the baronet. 'You look like a general who is planning a battle with his chief of the staff.'
'That is the exact situation. Watson was asking for orders.'
'And so, do I.'
'Very good. You are engaged, as I understand, to dine with our friends the Stapletons to-night.'
'I hope that you will come also. They are very hospitable people, and I am sure that they would be very glad to see you.'
'I fear that Watson and I must go to London.'
'To London?'
'Yes, I think that we should be more useful there at the present juncture.'
The baronet's face perceptibly lengthened. 'I hoped that you were going to see me through this business. The Hall and the moor are not very pleasant places when one is alone.'
'My dear fellow, you must trust me implicitly and do exactly what I tell you. You can tell your friends that we should have been happy to have come with you, but that urgent business required us to be in town. 'We hope very soon to return to Devonshire. Will you remember to give them that message?'
'If you insist upon it.'
'There is no alternative, I assure you.'
I saw by the Baronet's clouded brow that he was deeply hurt by what he regarded as our desertion.
'When do you desire to go?' he asked, coldly.
'Immediately after breakfast. We will drive in to Coombe Tracey, but Watson will leave his things as a pledge that he will come back to you. Watson, you will send a note to Stapleton to tell him that you regret that you cannot come.'
'I have a good mind to go to London with you,' said the Baronet. 'Why should I stay here alone?'
'Because it is your post of duty. Because you gave me your word that you would do as you were told, and I tell you to stay.'
'All right, then, I'll stay.'
'One more direction! I wish you to drive to Merripit House. Send back your trap, however, and let them know that you intend to walk home.'
'To walk across the moor?'
'Yes.'
'But that is the very thing which you have so often cautioned me not to do.'
'This time you may do it with safety. If I had not every confidence in your nerve and courage I would not suggest it, but it is essential that you should do it.'
'Then I will do it.'
'And as you value your life do not go across the moor in any direction save along the straight path which leads from Merripit House to the Grimpen Road, and is your natural way home.'
'I will do just what you say.'
'Very good. I should be glad to get away as soon after breakfast as possible, so as to reach London in the afternoon.'
I was much astounded by this programme, though I remembered that Holmes had said to Stapleton on the night before that his visit would terminate next day. It had not crossed my mind, however, that he would wish me to go with him, nor could I understand how we could both be absent at a moment which he himself declared to be critical. There was nothing for it, however, but implicit obedience, so we bade good-bye to our rueful friend, and a couple of hours afterwards we were at the station of Coombe Tracey and had dispatched the trap upon its return journey. A small boy was waiting upon the platform.
'Any orders, sir?'
'You will take this train to town, Cartwright. The moment you arrive you will send a wire to Sir Henry Baskerville, in my name, to say that if he finds the pocket-book which I have dropped he is to send it by registered post to Baker Street.'
'Yes, sir.'
'And ask at the station office if there is a message for me.'
The boy returned with a telegram, which Holmes handed to me. It ran:
Wire received. Coming down with unsigned warrant. Arrive five-forty - LESTRADE.
'That is in answer to mine of this morning. He is the best of the professionals, I think, and we may need his assistance. Now, Watson, I think that we cannot employ our time better than by calling upon your acquaintance, Mrs Laura Lyons.'
His plan of campaign was beginning to be evident. He would use the baronet in order to convince the Stapletons that we were really gone, while we would actually return at the instant when we were likely to be needed. That telegram from London, if mentioned by Sir Henry to the Stapletons, must remove the last suspicions from their minds. Already I seemed to see our nets drawing close round that lean-jawed pike.
Mrs Laura Lyons was in her office, and Sherlock Holmes opened his interview with a frankness and directness which considerably amazed her.
'I am investigating the circumstances which attended the death of the late Sir Charles Baskerville,' said he. 'My friend here, Dr Watson, has informed me of what you have communicated, and also of what you have withheld in connection with that matter.'
'What have I withheld?' she asked defiantly.
'You have confessed that you asked Sir Charles to be at the gate at ten o'clock. We know that that was the place and hour of his death. You have withheld what the connection is between these events.'
'There is no connection.'
'In that case the coincidence must indeed be an extraordinary one. But I think that we shall succeed in establishing a connection after all. I wish to be perfectly frank with you, Mrs Lyons. We regard this case as one of murder, and the evidence may implicate not only your friend Mr Stapleton, but his wife as well.'
The lady sprang from her chair. 'His wife!' she cried.
'The fact is no longer a secret. The person who has passed for his sister is really his wife.'
Mrs Lyons had resumed her seat. Her hands were grasping the arms of her chair, and I saw that the pink nails had turned white with the pressure of her grip.
'His wife!' she said, again. 'His wife! He was not a married man.'
Sherlock Holmes shrugged his shoulders.
'Prove it to me! Prove it to me! And if you can do so-!'
The fierce flash of her eyes said more than any words.
'I have come prepared to do so,' said Holmes, drawing several papers from his pocket. 'Here is a photograph of the couple taken in York four years ago. It is endorsed "Mr and Mrs Vandeleur", but you will have no difficulty in recognising him, and her also, if you know her by sight. Here are three written descriptions by trustworthy witnesses of Mr and Mrs Vandeleur, who at that time kept St Oliver's private school. Read them, and see if you can doubt the identity of these people.'
She glanced at them, and then looked up at us with the set, rigid face of a desperate woman.
'Mr Holmes,' she said, 'this man had offered me marriage on condition that I could get a divorce from my husband. He has lied to me, the villain, in every conceivable way. Not one word of truth has he ever told me. And why - why? I imagined that all was for my own sake. But now I see that I was never anything but a tool in his hands. Why should I preserve faith with him who never kept any with me? Why should I try to shield him from the consequences of his own wicked acts? Ask me what you like, and there is nothing which I shall hold back. One thing I swear to you, and that is, that when I wrote the letter I never dreamed of any harm to the old gentleman, who had been my kindest friend.'
'I entirely believe you, madam,' said Sherlock Holmes. 'The recital of these events must be very painful to you, and perhaps it will make it easier if I tell you what occurred, and you can check me if I make any material mistake. The sending of this letter was suggested to you by Stapleton?'
'He dictated it.'
'I presume that the reason he gave was that you would receive help from Sir Charles for the legal expenses connected with your divorce?'
'Exactly.'
'And then after you had sent the letter he dissuaded you from keeping the appointment?'
'He told me that it would hurt his self-respect that any other man should find the money for such an object, and that though he was a poor man himself he would devote his last penny to removing the obstacles which divided us.'
'He appears to be a very consistent character. And then you heard nothing until you read the reports of the death in the paper?'
'No.'
'And he made you swear to say nothing about your appointment with Sir Charles?'
'He did. He said that the death was a very mysterious one, and that I should certainly be suspected if the facts came out. He frightened me into remaining silent.'
'Quite so. But you had your suspicions?'
She hesitated and looked down.
'I knew him,' she said. 'But if he had kept faith with me I should always have done so with him.'
'I think that on the whole you have had a fortunate escape,' said Sherlock Holmes. 'You have had him in your power and he knew it, and yet you are alive. You have been walking for some months very near to the edge of a precipice. We must wish you good morning now, Mrs Lyons, and it is probable that you will very shortly hear from us again.'
'Our case becomes rounded off, and difficulty after difficulty thins away in front of us,' said Holmes as we stood waiting for the arrival of the express from town. 'I shall soon be in the position of being able to put into a single connected narrative one of the most singular and sensational crimes of modern times. Students of criminology will remember the analogous incidents in Grodno, in Little Russia, in the year '66, and of course there are the Anderson murders in North Carolina, but this case possesses some features which are entirely its own. Even now we have no clear case against this very wily man. But I shall be very much surprised if it is not clear enough before we go to bed this night.'
The London express came roaring into the station, and a small, wiry bulldog of a man had sprung from a first-class carriage. We all three shook hands, and I saw at once from the reverential way in which Lestrade gazed at my companion that he had learned a good deal since the days when they had first worked together. I could well remember the scorn which the theories of the reasoner used then to excite in the practical man.
'Anything good?' he asked.
'The biggest thing for years,' said Holmes. 'We have two hours before we need think of starting. I think we might employ it in getting some dinner, and then, Lestrade, we will take the London fog out of your throat by giving you a breath of the pure night air of Dartmoor. Never been there? Ah, well, I don't suppose you will forget your first visit.'
Chapter 14 : The Hound of the Baskervilles
One of Sherlock Holmes's defects - if, indeed, one may call it a defect - was that he was exceedingly loth to communicate his full plans to any other person until the instant of their fulfilment. Partly it came no doubt from his own masterful nature, which loved to dominate and surprise those who were around him. Partly also from his professional caution, which urged him never to take any chances. The result, however, was very trying for those who were acting as his agents and assistants. I had often suffered under it, but never more so than during that long drive in the darkness. The great ordeal was in front of us, at last we were about to make our final effort, and yet Holmes had said nothing, and I could only surmise what his course of action would be. My nerves thrilled with anticipation when at last the cold wind upon our faces and the dark, void spaces on either side of the narrow road told me that we were back upon the moor once again. Every stride of the horses and every turn of the wheels was taking us nearer to our supreme adventure.
Our conversation was hampered by the presence of the driver of the hired wagonette, so that we were forced to talk of trivial matters when our nerves were tense with emotion and anticipation. It was a relief to me, after that unnatural restraint, when we at last passed Frankland's house and knew that we were drawing near to the Hall and to the scene of action. We did not drive up to the door, but got down near the gate of the avenue. The wagonette was paid off and ordered to return to Coombe Tracey forthwith, while we started to walk to Merripit House.
'Are you armed, Lestrade?'
The little detective smiled. 'As long as I have my trousers I have a hip-pocket, and as long as I have my hip-pocket I have something in it.'
'Good! My friend and I are also ready for emergencies.'
'You're mighty close about this affair, Mr Holmes. What's the game now?'
'A waiting game.'
'My word, it does not seem a very cheerful place,' said the detective, with a shiver, glancing round him at the gloomy slopes of the hill and at the huge lake of fog which lay over the Grimpen Mire. 'I see the lights of a house ahead of us.'
'That is Merripit House and the end of our journey. I must request you to walk on tip-toe and not to talk above a whisper.'
We moved cautiously along the track as if we were bound for the house, but Holmes halted us when we were about two hundred yards from it.
'This will do,' said he. 'These rocks upon the right make an admirable screen.'
'We are to wait here?'
'Yes, we shall make our little ambush here. Get into this hollow, Lestrade. You have been inside the house, have you not, Watson? Can you tell the position of the rooms? What are those latticed windows at this end?'
'I think they are the kitchen windows.'
'And the one beyond, which shines so brightly?'
'That is certainly the dining-room.'
'The blinds are up. You know the lie of the land best. Creep forward quietly and see what they are doing - but for Heaven's sake don't let them know that they are watched!'
I tip-toed down the path and stooped behind the low wall which surrounded the stunted orchard. Creeping in its shadow, I reached a point whence I could look straight through the uncurtained window.
There were only two men in the room, Sir Henry and Stapleton. They sat with their profiles towards me on either side of the round table. Both of them were smoking cigars, and coffee and wine were in front of them. Stapleton was talking with animation, but the Baronet looked pale and distrait. Perhaps the thought of that lonely walk across the ill-omened moor was weighing heavily upon his mind.
As I watched them Stapleton rose and left the room, while Sir Henry filled his glass again and leaned back in his chair, puffing at his cigar. I heard the creak of a door and the crisp sound of boots upon gravel. The steps passed along the path on the other side of the wall under which I crouched. Looking over, I saw the naturalist pause at the door of an out-house in the corner of the orchard. A key turned in a lock, and as he passed in there was a curious scuffling noise from within. He was only a minute or so inside, and then I heard the key turn once more, and he passed me and re-entered the house. I saw him rejoin his guest and I crept quietly back to where my companions were waiting to tell them what I had seen.
'You say, Watson, that the lady is not there?' Holmes asked, when I had finished my report.
'No.'
'Where can she be, then, since there is no light in any other room except the kitchen?'
'I cannot think where she is.'
I have said that over the great Grimpen Mire there hung a dense, white fog. It was drifting slowly in our direction and banked itself up like a wall on that side of us, low, but thick and well defined. The moon shone on it, and it looked like a great shimmering ice-field, with the heads of the distant tors as rocks borne upon its surface. Holmes's face was turned towards it, and he muttered impatiently as he watched its sluggish drift.
'It's moving towards us, Watson.'
'Is that serious?'
'Very serious, indeed - the one thing upon earth which could have disarranged my plans. He can't be very long now. It is already ten o'clock. Our success and even his life may depend upon his coming out before the fog is over the path.'
The night was clear and fine above us. The stars shone cold and bright, while a half-moon bathed the whole scene in a soft, uncertain light. Before us lay the dark bulk of the house, its serrated roof and bristling chimneys hard outlined against the silver-spangled sky. Broad bars of golden light from the lower windows stretched across the orchard and the moor. One of them was suddenly shut off. The servants had left the kitchen. There only remained the lamp in the dining-room where the two men, the murderous host and the unconscious guest, still chatted over their cigars. Every minute that white woolly plain which covered one half of the moor was drifting closer and closer to the house. Already the first thin wisps of it were curling across the golden square of the lighted window. The farther wall of the orchard was already invisible, and the trees were standing out of a swirl of white vapour. As we watched it the fog-wreaths came crawling round both comers of the house and rolled slowly into one dense bank, on which the upper floor and the roof floated like a strange ship upon a shadowy sea. Holmes struck his hand passionately upon the rock in front of us, and stamped his feet in his impatience.
'If he isn't out in a quarter of an hour the path will be covered. In half an hour we won't be able to see our hands in front of us.'
'Shall we move farther back upon higher ground?'
'Yes, I think it would be as well.'
So as the fog-bank flowed onwards we fell back before it until we were half a mile from the house, and still that dense white sea, with the moon silvering its upper edge, swept slowly and inexorably on.
'We are going too far,' said Holmes. 'We dare not take the chance of his being overtaken before he can reach us. At all costs we must hold our ground where we are.' He dropped on his knees and clapped his ear to the ground. 'Thank God, I think that I hear him coming.'
A sound of quick steps broke the silence of the moor. Crouching among the stones, we stared intently at the silver-tipped bank in front of us. The steps grew louder, and through the fog, as through a curtain, there stepped the man whom we were awaiting. He looked round him in surprise as he emerged into the clear, star-lit night. Then he came swiftly along the path, passed close to where we lay, and went on up the long slope behind us. As he walked he glanced continually over either shoulder, like a man who is ill at ease.
'Hist!' cried Holmes, and I heard the sharp click of a cocking pistol. 'Look out! It's coming!'
There was a thin, crisp, continuous patter from somewhere in the heart of that crawling bank. The cloud was within fifty yards of where we lay, and we glared at it, all three, uncertain what horror was about to break from the heart of it. I was at Holmes's elbow, and I glanced for an instant at his face. It was pale and exultant, his eyes shining brightly in the moonlight. But suddenly they started forward in a rigid, fixed stare, and his lips parted in amazement. At the same instant Lestrade gave a yell of terror and threw himself face downwards upon the ground. I sprang to my feet, my inert hand grasping my pistol, my mind paralysed by the dreadful shape which had sprung out upon us from the shadows of the fog. A hound it was, an enormous coal-black hound, but not such a hound as mortal eyes have ever seen. Fire burst from its open mouth, its eyes glowed with a smouldering glare, its muzzle and hackles and dewlap were outlined in flickering flame. Never in the delirious dream of a disordered brain could anything more savage, more appalling, more hellish, be conceived than that dark form and savage face which broke upon us out of the wall of fog.
With long bounds the huge black creature was leaping down the track, following hard upon the footsteps of our friend. So paralysed were we by the apparition that we allowed him to pass before we had recovered our nerve. Then Holmes and I both fired together, and the creature gave a hideous howl, which showed that one at least had hit him. He did not pause, however, but bounded onwards. Far away on the path we saw Sir Henry looking back, his face white in the moonlight, his hands raised in horror, glaring helplessly at the frightful thing which was hunting him down.
But that cry of pain from the hound had blown all our fears to the winds. If he was vulnerable he was mortal, and if we could wound him we could kill him. Never have I seen a man run as Holmes ran that night. I am reckoned fleet of foot, but he outpaced me as much as I outpaced the little professional. In front of us as we flew up the track we heard scream after scream from Sir Henry and the deep roar of the hound. I was in time to see the beast spring upon its victim, hurl him to the ground and worry at his throat. But the next instant Holmes had emptied five barrels of his revolver into the creature's flank. With a last howl of agony and a vicious snap in the air it rolled upon its back, four feet pawing furiously, and then fell limp upon its side. I stooped, panting, and pressed my pistol to the dreadful, shimmering head, but it was useless to press the trigger. The giant hound was dead.
Sir Henry lay insensible where he had fallen. We tore away his collar, and Holmes breathed a prayer of gratitude when we saw that there was no sign of a wound and that the rescue had been in time. Already our friend's eyelids shivered and he made a feeble effort to move. Lestrade thrust his brandy-flask between the Baronet's teeth, and two frightened eyes were looking up at us.
'My God!' he whispered. 'What was it? What, in Heaven's name, was it?'
'It's dead, whatever it is,' said Holmes. 'We've laid the family ghost once and for ever.'
In mere size and strength it was a terrible creature which was lying stretched before us. It was not a pure bloodhound and it was not a pure mastiff, but it appeared to be a combination of the two - gaunt, savage, and as large as a small lioness. Even now, in the stillness of death, the huge jaws seemed to be dripping with a bluish flame, and the small, deep-set, cruel eyes were ringed with fire. I placed my hand upon the glowing muzzle, and as I held them up my own fingers smouldered and gleamed in the darkness.
'Phosphorus,' I said.
'A cunning preparation of it,' said Holmes, sniffing at the dead animal. 'There is no smell which might have interfered with his power of scent. We owe you a deep apology, Sir Henry, for having exposed you to this fright. I was prepared for a hound, but not for such a creature as this. And the fog gave us little time to receive him.'
'You have saved my life.'
'Having first endangered it. Are you strong enough to stand?'
'Give me another mouthful of that brandy, and I shall be ready for anything. So! Now, if you will help me up. What do you propose to do?'
'To leave you here. You are not fit for further adventures to-night. If you will wait, one or other of us will go back with you to the Hall.'
He tried to stagger to his feet, but he was still ghastly pale and trembling in every limb. We helped him to a rock, where he sat shivering with his face buried in his hands.
'We must leave you now,' said Holmes. 'The rest of our work must be done, and every moment is of importance. We have our case, and now we only want our man.
'It's a thousand to one against our finding him at the house,' he continued, as we retraced our steps swiftly down the path. 'Those shots must have told him that the game was up.'
'We were some distance off, and this fog may have deadened them.'
'He followed the hound to call him off - of that you may be certain. No, no, he's gone by this time! But we'll search the house and make sure.'
The front door was open, so we rushed in and hurried from room to room, to the amazement of a doddering old manservant, who met us in the passage. There was no light save in the dining-room, but Holmes caught up the lamp, and left no corner of the house unexplored. No sign could we see of the man whom we were chasing. On the upper floor, however, one of the bed-room doors was locked.
'There's someone in here!' cried Lestrade. 'I can hear a movement. Open this door!'
A faint moaning and rustling came from within. Holmes struck the door just over the lock with the flat of his foot, and it flew open. Pistol in hand, we all three rushed into the room.
But there was no sign within it of that desperate and defiant villain whom we expected to see. Instead we were faced by an object so strange and so unexpected that we stood for a moment staring at it in amazement.
The room had been fashioned into a small museum, and the walls were lined by a number of glass-topped cases full of that collection of butterflies and moths the formation of which had been the relaxation of this complex and dangerous man. In the centre of this room there was an upright beam, which had been placed at some period as a support for the old worm-eaten balk of timber which spanned the roof. To this post a figure was tied, so swathed and muffled in sheets which had been used to secure it that one could not for the moment tell whether it was that of a man or a woman. One towel passed round the throat, and was secured at the back of the pillar. Another covered the lower part of the face and over it two dark eyes - eyes full of grief and shame and a dreadful questioning - stared back at us.
In a minute we had torn off the gag, unswathed the bonds, and Mrs Stapleton sank upon the floor in front of us. As her beautiful head fell upon her chest I saw the clear red weal of a whiplash across her neck.
'The brute!' cried Holmes. 'Here, Lestrade, your brandy-bottle! Put her in the chair! She has fainted from ill-usage and exhaustion.'
She opened her eyes again. 'Is he safe?' she asked. 'Has he escaped?'
'He cannot escape us, madam.'
'No, no, I did not mean my husband. Sir Henry? Is he safe?'
'Yes.'
'And the hound?'
'It is dead.'
She gave a long sigh of satisfaction. 'Thank God! Thank God! Oh, this villain! See how he has treated me!' She shot her arms out from her sleeves, and we saw with horror that they were all mottled with bruises. 'But this is nothing-nothing! It is my mind and soul that he has tortured and defiled. I could endure it all, ill-usage, solitude, a life of deception, everything, as long as I could still cling to the hope that I had his love, but now I know that in this also I have been his dupe and his tool.' She broke into passionate sobbing as she spoke.
'You bear him no good will, madam,' said Holmes. 'Tell us, then, where we shall find him. If you have ever aided him in evil, help us now and so atone.'
'There is but one place where he can have fled,' she answered. 'There is an old tin mine on an island in the heart of the Mire. It was there that he kept his hound and there also he had made preparations so that he might have a refuge. That is where he would fly.'
The fog-bank lay like white wool against the window. Holmes held the lamp towards it.
'See,' said he. 'No one could find his way into the Grimpen Mire tonight.'
She laughed and clapped her hands. Her eyes and teeth gleamed with fierce merriment.
'He may find his way in, but never out,' she cried. 'How can he see the guiding wands to-night? We planted them together, he and I, to mark the pathway through the Mire. Oh, if I could only have plucked them out to-day! Then indeed you would have had him at your mercy!'
It was evident to us that all pursuit was in vain until the fog had lifted. Meanwhile we left Lestrade in possession of the house, while Holmes and I went back with the baronet to Baskerville Hall. The story of the Stapletons could no longer be withheld from him, but he took the blow bravely when he learned the truth about the woman whom he had loved. But the shock of the night's adventures had shattered his nerves, and before morning he lay delirious in a high fever, under the care of Dr Mortimer. The two of them were destined to travel together round the world before Sir Henry had become once more the hale, hearty man that he had been before he became master of that ill-omened estate.
And now I come rapidly to the conclusion of this singular narrative, in which I have tried to make the reader share those dark fears and vague surmises which clouded our lives so long, and ended in so tragic a manner. On the morning after the death of the hound the fog had lifted and we were guided by Mrs Stapleton to the point where they had found a pathway through the bog. It helped us to realize the horror of this woman's life when we saw the eagerness and joy with which she laid us on her husband's track. We left her standing upon the thin peninsula of firm, peaty soil which tapered out into the widespread bog. From the end of it a small wand planted here and there showed where the path zig-zagged from tuft to tuft of rushes among those green-scummed pits and foul quagmires which barred the way to the stranger. Rank reeds and lush, slimy water-plants sent an odour of decay and a heavy miasmatic vapour into our faces, while a false step plunged us more than once thigh-deep into the dark, quivering mire, which shook for yards in soft undulations around our feet. Its tenacious grip plucked at our heels as we walked, and when we sank into it it was as if some malignant hand was tugging us down into those obscene depths, so grim and purposeful was the clutch in which it held us. Once only we saw a trace that someone had passed that perilous way before us. From amid a tuft of cotton-grass which bore it up out of the slime some dark thing was projecting. Holmes sank to his waist as he stepped from the path to seize it, and had we not been there to drag him out he could never have set his foot upon firm land again. He held an old black boot in the air. 'Meyers, Toronto', was printed on the leather inside.
'It is worth a mud bath,' said he. 'It is our friend Sir Henry's missing boot.'
'Thrown there by Stapleton in his flight.'
'Exactly. He retained it in his hand after using it to set the hound upon his track. He fled when he knew the game was up, still clutching it. And he hurled it away at this point of his flight. We know at least that he came so far in safety.'
But more than that we were never destined to know, though there was much which we might surmise. There was no chance of finding footsteps in the mire, for the rising mud oozed swiftly in upon them, but as we at last reached firmer ground beyond the morass we all looked eagerly for them. But no slightest sign of them ever met our eyes. If the earth told a true story, then Stapleton never reached that island of refuge towards which he struggled through the fog upon that last night. Somewhere in the heart of the great Grimpen Mire, down in the foul slime of the huge morass which had sucked him in, this cold and cruel-hearted man is for ever buried.
Many traces we found of him in the bog-girt island where he had hid his savage ally. A huge driving-wheel and a shaft half-filled with rubbish showed the position of an abandoned mine. Beside it were the crumbling remains of the cottages of the miners, driven away, no doubt, by the foul reek of the surrounding swamp. In one of these a staple and chain, with a quantity of gnawed bones, showed where the animal had been confined. A skeleton with a tangle of' brown hair adhering to it lay among the débris.
'A dog!' said Holmes. 'By Jove, a curly-haired spaniel. Poor Mortimer will never see his pet again. Well, I do not know that this place contains any secret which we have not already fathomed. He could hide his hound, but he could not hush its voice, and hence came those cries which even in daylight were not pleasant to hear. On an emergency he could keep the hound in the outhouse at Merripit, but it was always a risk, and it was only on the supreme day, which he regarded as the end of all his efforts, that he dared do it. This paste in the tin is no doubt the luminous mixture with which the creature was daubed. It was suggested, of course, by the story of the family hell-hound, and by the desire to frighten old Sir Charles to death. No wonder the poor devil of a convict ran and screamed, even as our friend did, and as we ourselves might have done, when he saw such a creature bounding through the darkness of the moor upon his track. It was a cunning device, for, apart from the chance of driving your victim to his death, what peasant would venture to inquire too closely into such a creature should he get sight of it, as many have done, upon the moor? I said it in London, Watson, and I say it again now, that never yet have we helped to hunt down a more dangerous man than he who is lying yonder' - he swept his long arm towards the huge mottled expanse of green-splotched bog which stretched away until it merged into the russet slopes of the moor.
Chapter 15 : A Retrospection
It was the end of November, and Holmes and I sat, upon a raw and foggy night, on either side of a blazing fire in our sitting-room in Baker Street. Since the tragic upshot of our visit to Devonshire he had been engaged in two affairs of the utmost importance, in the first of which he had exposed the atrocious conduct of Colonel Upwood in connection with the famous card scandal of the Nonpareil Club, while in the second he had defended the unfortunate Mme Montpensier from the charge of murder, which hung over her in connection with the death of her step-daughter, Mlle Carère, the young lady who, as it will be remembered, was found six months later alive and married in New York. My friend was in excellent spirits over the success which had attended a succession of difficult and important cases, so that I was able to induce him to discuss the details of the Baskerville mystery. I had waited patiently for the opportunity, for I was aware that he would never permit cases to overlap, and that his clear and logical mind would not be drawn from its present work to dwell upon memories of the past. Sir Henry and Dr Mortimer were, however, in London, on their way to that long voyage which had been recommended for the restoration of his shattered nerves. They had called upon us that very afternoon, so that it was natural that the subject should come up for discussion.
'The whole course of events,' said Holmes, 'from the point of view of the man who called himself Stapleton, was simple and direct, although to us, who had no means in the beginning of knowing the motives of his actions and could only learn part of the facts, it all appeared exceedingly complex. I have had the advantage of two conversations with Mrs Stapleton, and the case has now been so entirely cleared up that I am not aware that there is anything which has remained a secret to us. You will find a few notes upon the matter under the heading B in my indexed list of cases.'
'Perhaps you would kindly give me a sketch of the course of events from memory.'
'Certainly, though I cannot guarantee that I carry all the facts in my mind. Intense mental concentration has a curious way of blotting out what has passed. The barrister who has his case at his fingers' end, and is able to argue with an expert upon his own subject, finds that a week or two of the courts will drive it all out of his head once more. So each of my cases displaces the last, and Mlle Carère has blurred my recollection of Baskerville Hall. To-morrow some other little problem may be submitted to my notice, which will in turn disposses the fair French lady and the infamous Upwood. So far as the case of the Hound goes, however, I will give you the course of events as nearly as I can, and you will suggest anything which I may have forgotten.
'My inquiries show beyond all question that the family portrait did not lie, and that this fellow was indeed a Baskerville. He was a son of that Rodger Baskerville, the younger brother of Sir Charles, who fled with a sinister reputation to South America, where he was said to have died unmarried. He did, as a matter of fact, marry, and had one child, this fellow, whose real name is the same as his father. He married Beryl Garcia, one of the beauties of Costa Rica, and, having purloined a considerable sum of public money, he changed his name to Vandeleur and fled to England, where he established a school in the east of Yorkshire. His reason for attempting this special line of business was that he had struck up an acquaintance with a consumptive tutor upon the voyage home, and that he had used this man's ability to make the undertaking a success. Fraser, the tutor, died, however, and the school which had begun well, sank from disrepute into infamy. The Vandeleurs found it convenient to change their name to Stapleton, and he brought the remains of his fortune, his schemes for the future, and his taste for entomology to the south of England. I learn at the British Museum that he was a recognized authority upon the subject, and that the name of Vandeleur has been permanently attached to a certain moth which he had, in his Yorkshire days, been the first to describe.
'We now come to that portion of his life which has proved to be of such intense interest to us. The fellow had evidently made inquiry, and found that only two lives intervened between him and a valuable estate. When he went to Devonshire his plans were, I believe, exceedingly hazy, but that he meant mischief from the first is evident from the way in which he took his wife with him in the character of his sister. The idea of using her as a decoy was clearly already in his mind, though he may not have been certain how the details of his plot were to be arranged. He meant in the end to have the estate, and he was ready to use any tool or run any risk for that end. His first act was to establish himself as near to his ancestral home as he could, and his second was to cultivate a friendship with Sir Charles Baskerville and with the neighbours.
'The Baronet himself told him about the family hound, and so prepared the way for his own death. Stapleton, as I will continue to call him, knew that the old man's heart was weak and that a shock would kill him. So much he had learned from Dr Mortimer. He had heard also that Sir Charles was superstitious and had taken this grim legend very seriously. His ingenious mind instantly suggested a way by which the Baronet could be done to death, and yet it would be hardly possible to bring home the guilt to the real murderer.
'Having conceived the idea, he proceeded to carry it out with considerable finesse. An ordinary schemer would have been content to work with a savage hound. The use of artificial means to make the creature diabolical was a flash of genius upon his part. The dog he bought in London from Ross and Mangles the dealers in Fulham Road. It was the strongest and most savage in their possession. He brought it down by the North Devon line, and walked a great distance over the moor, so as to get it home without exciting any remarks. He had already on his insect hunts learned to penetrate the Grimpen Mire, and so had found a safe hiding-place for the creature. Here he kennelled it and waited his chance.
'But it was some time coming. The old gentleman could not be decoyed outside of his grounds at night. Several times Stapleton lurked about with his hound, but without avail. It was during these fruitless quests that he, or rather his ally, was seen by peasants, and that the legend of the demon dog received a new confirmation. He had hoped that his wife might lure Sir Charles to his ruin, but here she proved unexpectedly independent. She would not endeavour to entangle the old gentleman in a sentimental attachment which might deliver him over to his enemy. Threats and even, I am sorry to say, blows failed to move her. She would have nothing to do with it, and for a time Stapleton was at a deadlock.
'He found a way out of his difficulties through the chance that Sir Charles, who had conceived a friendship with him, made him the minister of his charity in the case of this unfortunate woman, Mrs Laura Lyons. By representing himself as a single man, he acquired complete influence over her, and he gave her to understand that in the event of her obtaining a divorce from her husband he would marry her. His plans were suddenly brought to a head by his knowledge that Sir Charles was about to leave the Hall on the advice of Dr Mortimer, with whose opinion he himself pretended to coincide. He must act at once, or his victim might get beyond his power. He therefore put pressure upon Mrs Lyons to write this letter, imploring the old man to give her an interview on the evening before his departure for London. He then, by a specious argument, prevented her from going, and so had the chance for which he had waited.
'Driving back in the evening from Coombe Tracey, he was in time to get his hound, to treat it with his infernal paint, and to bring the beast round to the gate at which he had reason to expect that he would find the old gentleman waiting. The dog, incited by its master, sprang over the wicket-gate and pursued the unfortunate Baronet, who fled screaming down the Yew Alley. In that gloomy tunnel it must indeed have been a dreadful sight to see that huge black creature, with its flaming jaws and blazing eyes, bounding after its victim. He fell dead at the end of the alley from heart disease and terror. The hound had kept upon the grassy border while the baronet had run down the path, so that no track but the man's was visible. On seeing him lying still the creature had probably approached to sniff at him, but, finding him dead, had turned away again. It was then that it left the print which was actually observed by Dr Mortimer. The hound was called off and hurried away to its lair in the Grimpen Mire, and a mystery was left which puzzled the authorities, alarmed the country-side, and finally brought the case within the scope of our observation.
'So much for the death of Sir Charles Baskerville. You perceive the devilish cunning of it, for really it would be almost impossible to make a case against the real murderer. His only accomplice was one who could never give him away, and the grotesque, inconceivable nature of the device only served to make it more effective. Both of the women concerned in the case, Mrs Stapleton and Mrs Laura Lyons, were left with a strong suspicion against Stapleton. Mrs Stapleton knew that he had designs upon the old man, and also of the existence of the hound. Mrs Lyons knew neither of these things, but had been impressed by the death occurring at the time of an uncancelled appointment which was only known to him. However, both of them were under his influence, and he had nothing to fear from them. The first half of his task was successfully accomplished, but the more difficult still remained.
'It is possible that Stapleton did not know of the existence of an heir in Canada. In any case he would very soon learn it from his friend Dr Mortimer, and he was told by the latter all details about the arrival of Henry Baskerville. Stapleton's first idea was that this young stranger from Canada might possibly be done to death in London without coming down to Devonshire at all. He distrusted his wife ever since she had refused to help him in laying a trap for the old man, and he dared not leave her long out of his sight for fear he should lose his influence over her. It was for this reason that he took her to London with him. They lodged, I find, at the Mexborough Private Hotel, in Craven Street, which was actually one of those called upon by my agent in search of evidence. Here he kept his wife imprisoned in her room while he, disguised in a beard, followed Dr Mortimer to Baker Street, and afterwards to the station and to the Northumberland Hotel. His wife had some inkling of his plans, but she had such a fear of her husband - a fear founded upon brutal ill-treatment - that she dare not write to warn the man whom she knew to be in danger. If the letter should fall into Stapleton's hands her own life would not be safe. Eventually, as we know, she adopted the expedient of cutting out the words which would form the message, and addressing the letter in a disguised hand. It reached the Baronet, and gave him the first warning of his danger.
'It was very essential for Stapleton to get some article of Sir Henry's attire, so that, in case he was driven to use the dog, he might always have the means of setting him upon his track. With characteristic promptness and audacity he set about this at once, and we cannot doubt that the boots or chambermaid of the hotel was well bribed to help him in his design. By chance, however, the first boot which was procured for him was a new one, and, therefore, useless for his purpose. He then had it returned and obtained another - a most instructive incident, since it proved conclusively to my mind that we were dealing with a real hound, as no other supposition could explain this anxiety to obtain an old boot and this indifference to a new one. The more outré and grotesque an incident is the more carefully it deserves to be examined, and the very point which appears to complicate a case is, when duly considered and scientifically handled, the one which is most likely to elucidate it.
'Then we had the visit from our friends next morning, shadowed always by Stapleton in the cab. From his knowledge of our rooms and of my appearance, as well as from his general conduct, I am inclined to think that Stapleton's career of crime has been by no means limited to this single Baskerville affair. It is suggestive that during the last three years there have been four considerable burglaries in the West Country, for none of which was any criminal ever arrested. The last of these, at Folkestone Court, in May, was remarkable for the cold-blooded pistolling of the page, who surprised the masked and solitary burglar. I cannot doubt that Stapleton recruited his waning resources in this fashion, and that for years he has been a desperate and dangerous man.
'We had an example of his readiness of resource that morning when he got away from us so successfully, and also of his audacity in sending back my own name to me through the cabman. From that moment he understood that I had taken over the case in London, and that therefore there was no chance for him there. He returned to Dartmoor and awaited the arrival of the Baronet.'
'One moment!' said I. 'You have, no doubt, described the sequence of events correctly, but there is one point which you have left unexplained. What became of the hound when its master was in London?'
'I have given some attention to this matter, and it is undoubtedly of importance. There can be no question that Stapleton had a confidant, though it is unlikely that he ever placed himself in his power by sharing all his plans with him. There was an old manservant at Merripit House, whose name was Anthony. His connection with the Stapletons can be traced for several years, as far back as the school-mastering days, so that he must have been aware that his master and mistress were really husband and wife. This man has disappeared and has escaped from the country. It is suggestive that Anthony is not a common name in England, while Antonio is so in all Spanish or Spanish-American countries. The man, like Mrs Stapleton herself, spoke good English, but with a curious lisping accent. I have myself seen this old man cross the Grimpen Mire by the path which Stapleton had marked out. It is very probable, therefore, that in the absence of his master it was he who cared for the hound, though he may never have known the purpose for which the beast was used.
'The Stapletons then went down to Devonshire, whither they were soon followed by Sir Henry and you. One word now as to how I stood myself at that time. It may possibly recur to your memory that when I examined the paper upon which the printed words were fastened I made a close inspection for the water-mark. In doing so I held it within a few inches of my eyes, and was conscious of a faint smell of the scent known as white jessamine. There are seventy-five perfumes, which it is very necessary that the criminal expert should be able to distinguish from each other, and cases have more than once within my own experience depended upon their prompt recognition. The scent suggested the presence of a lady, and already my thoughts began to turn towards the Stapletons. Thus I had made certain of the hound, and had guessed at the criminal before ever we went to the West Country.
'It was my game to watch Stapleton. It was evident, however, that I could not do this if I were with you, since he would be keenly on his guard. I deceived everybody, therefore, yourself included, and I came down secretly when I was supposed to be in London. My hardships were not so great as you imagine, though such trifling details must never interfere with the investigation of a case. I stayed for the most part at Coombe Tracey, and only used the hut upon the moor when it was necessary to be near the scene of action. Cartwright had come down with me, and in his disguise as a country boy he was of great assistance to me. I was dependent upon him for food and clean linen. When I was watching Stapleton, Cartwright was frequently watching you, so that I was able to keep my hand upon all the strings.
'I have already told you that your reports reached me rapidly, being forwarded instantly from Baker Street to Coombe Tracey. They were of great service to me, and especially that one incidentally truthful piece of biography of Stapleton's. I was able to establish the identity of the man and the woman, and knew at last exactly how I stood. The case had been considerably complicated through the incident of the escaped convict and the relations between him and the Barrymores. This also you cleared up in a very effective way, though I had already come to the same conclusions from my own observations.
'By the time that you discovered me upon the moor I had a complete knowledge of the whole business, but I had not a case which could go to a jury. Even Stapleton's attempt upon Sir Henry that night, which ended in the death of the unfortunate convict, did not help us much in proving murder against our man. There seemed to be no alternative but to catch him red-handed, and to do so we had to use Sir Henry, alone and apparently unprotected, as a bait. We did so, and at the cost of a severe shock to our client we succeeded in completing our case and driving Stapleton to his destruction. That Sir Henry should have been exposed to this is, I must confess, a reproach to my management of the case, but we had no means of foreseeing the terrible and paralysing spectacle which the beast presented, nor could we predict the fog which enabled him to burst upon us at short notice. We succeeded in our object at a cost which both the specialist and Dr Mortimer assure me will be a temporary one. A long journey may enable our friend to recover not only from his shattered nerves but also from his wounded feelings. His love for the lady was deep and sincere, and to him the saddest part of all this black business was that he should have been deceived by her.
'It only remains now to indicate the part which she had played throughout. There can be no doubt that Stapleton exercised an influence over her which may have been love or may have been fear, or very possibly both, since they are by no means incompatible emotions. It was, at least, absolutely effective. At his command she consented to pass as his sister, though he found the limits of his power over her when he endeavoured to make her the direct accessory to murder. She was ready to warn Sir Henry so far as she could without implicating her husband, and again and again she tried to do so. Stapleton himself seems to have been capable of jealousy, and when he saw the baronet paying court to the lady, even though it was part of his own plan, still he could not help interrupting with a passionate outburst which revealed the fiery soul which his self-contained manner so cleverly concealed. By encouraging the intimacy he made it certain that Sir Henry would frequently come to Merripit House, and that he would sooner or later get the opportunity which he desired. On the day of the crisis, however, his wife turned suddenly against him. She had learned something of the death of the convict, and she knew that the hound was being kept in the out-house on the evening that Sir Henry was coming to dinner. She taxed her husband with his intended crime and a furious scene followed, in which he showed her for the first time that she had a rival in his love. Her fidelity turned in an instant to bitter hatred, and he saw that she would betray him. He tied her up, therefore, that she might have no chance of warning Sir Henry, and he hoped, no doubt, that when the whole country-side put down the baronet's death to the curse of his family, as they certainly would do, he could win his wife back to accept an accomplished fact, and to keep silent upon what she knew. In this I fancy that in any case he made a miscalculation, and that, if we had not been there, his doom would none the less have been sealed. A woman of Spanish blood does not condone such an injury so lightly. And now, my dear Watson, without referring to my notes, I cannot give you a more detailed account of this curious case. I do not know that anything essential has been left unexplained.'
'He could not hope to frighten Sir Henry to death, as he had done the old uncle, with his bogie hound.'
'The beast was savage and half-starved. If its appearance did not frighten its victim to death, at least it would paralyse the resistance which might be offered.'
'No doubt. There only remains one difficulty. If Stapleton came into the succession, how could he explain the fact that he, the heir, had been living unannounced under another name so close to the property? How could he claim it without causing suspicion and inquiry?'
'It is a formidable difficulty, and I fear that you ask too much when you expect me to solve it. The past and the present are within the field of my inquiry, but what a man may do in the future is a hard question to answer. Mrs Stapleton has heard her husband discuss the problem on several occasions. There were three possible courses. He might claim the property from South America, establish his identity before the British authorities there, and so obtain the fortune without ever coming to England at all, or he might adopt an elaborate disguise during the short time that he need be in London, or, again, he might furnish an accomplice with the proofs and papers, putting him in as heir, and retaining a claim upon some proportion of his income. We cannot doubt, from what we know of him, that he would have found some way out of the difficulty. And now, my dear Watson, we have had some weeks of severe work, and for one evening, I think, we may turn our thoughts into more pleasant channels. I have a box for Les Huguenots. Have you heard the De Reszkes? Might I trouble you then to be ready in half an hour, and we can stop at Marcini's for a little dinner on the way?'
| i don't know |
In Norse mythology, what type of creature did the dwarf king’s son Fafnir become? | Norse Mythology / Myth - TV Tropes
Adaptation Dye-Job :
A disproportionate amount of modern works depict Thor as having blond flowing hair, most famously Marvel Comics ' The Mighty Thor . Traditionally, he's depicted as red-headed and bearded, reflected in the pic for this page. (Though some older writings do depict Thor as fair-haired and red-beardednote which is actually fairly common among Scandinavians.)
He has been depicted with black hair in the Shin Megami Tensei Franchise.
◊
circa 1872.
The 2011 movie Thor at least gives him the beard back. Ultimate Thor also has the beard, despite still being blond.
Marvel Comics also depict Loki, traditionally a red head also, with black hair, and this has remained constant through most variations, notably the cinematic version.
The Ageless : The Æsir and Vanir are immortal in this way so long as they continue to eat the Golden Apples of Idunn. When the Goddess and her apples were abducted by the Jötunn giant Thjazi, all the Gods aged rapidly... except for Loki , who was forced to go and steal the Goddess and her apples back.
Alternate Continuity :
Was Loki imprisoned for killing Baldur, or was he imprisoned for calling the gods out on crap they were actually guilty of? Depends on which story you read.
In the Gesta Danorum, Baldur and Höder weren't brothers, but romantic rivals. Baldur was a god and Höder human. After Höder beat Baldur in fair combat for the hand of Nanna, Baldur declared that it wasn't fair because he was a god. So in order to keep his bride, Höder had to travel to the underworld to fetch the sword Mistilteinn (Mistletoe), which he used to kill Baldur off for good.
Always Chaotic Evil : Averted. While many of the giants are a source of trouble for the Æsir, many of the Æsir are married to giants or have giants as lovers, and all nine of Heimdallr's mothers (he has no father) are giants, which means that Heimdallr is a giant. Thor himself is half-giant on his mother's side (Jord). Then there's Loki, who is more Chaotic Neutral .
Always Need What You Gave Up : Loki hands Idunn and her golden apples over to a giant to save his own life, forgetting that these apples not only keep him immortal, but are very important to the violent, short-tempered battle gods he lives with. Woopsie-doodle.
Arch-Enemy :
Thor and Jormungand. First, Thor was tricked to lift it in the disguise of giant cat by Utgard-Loki. Thor later caught it while fishing, but Hymir cut his string. Then they are destined to kill each other in Ragnarök.
Loki and Heimdallr. The very first story they costarred in set them against each other. Like Thor and Jormungand, they are also destined to kill each other in Ragnarök.
Tyr and Fenrir, the wolf that bit off his hand.
Many adaptations (probably thanks to Marvel) tend to set up Thor and Loki as arch-enemies. While they butted heads once in a while (Sif's hair was certainly a Berserk Button for Thor), they were more friends than enemies, and often traveled together.
Badass Normal :
In the incident where Thor and his companions are tricked by the giant Utgard-Loki into competing in rigged contests of strength, one of those companions, Thjalfi is a seemingly normal human who does fairly well in a race against a thought from Utgard's mind. Thjalfi also killed a clay giant nine leagues wide across the chest in single combat, and easily at that.
Höder in the Gesta Danorum. A human in love with Nanna, he defeated Baldur for her hand.
Barred from the Afterlife : There's a myriad places for an old Norse's soul, including the best known Valhalla (Odin's hall). The way one gets to which hall is dependent on how one lived one's life and how one died. If an old Norseman wanted to get into a specific hall, such as Valhalla, but did not die a certain way � in the case of Valhalla, that's dying in battle � then they are Barred From The Afterlife They Belong In . Lucky for them, this mythology also has an afterlife of being born again inside one's family .
Völund ( or Wayland
) the Smith is portrayed as more a force of nature than as a man. Consequently, he's less judged for his Roaring Rampage of Revenge than a normal man would be. Also, this was back when killing a man's young sons and raping his daughter was less forbidden than it is now.
Norse mythology in general. Many modern audiences mistake the conflicts as being about good vs. evil, when in fact it's more about order vs. chaos. They're not the same thing, and if you conflate the two, you'll come away with the wrong idea.
Evil isn't even considered a problem, unless you're really horrible. It's more about whether you're honorable. And species that are instinctively evil? They don't get punished because they can't help it.
Boisterous Bruiser : Thor, usually.
Bride and Switch : The below-mentioned wedding caper with Thor in drag as the false bride.
Brother-Sister Incest : The main difference between Æsir and Vanir appears to be this. Freyr and Freyja are widely held to be the product of a union between Njord and his unnamed sister. The Lokasenna
also accuses Freyr and Freyja of having been caught in flagrante at some point.
Cain and Abel :
Not quite straight, but Höder does unwittingly kill his brother Baldur. He's killed for it. In older versions of the myth, Baldur and Höder have an actual rivalry, and so this trope is played a bit straighter.
Thor and Loki become this in Christian retellings of Norse myths (while Loki was Odin's brother in the original myths) as well as in Marvel Comics.
Canis Major : You can't make a wolf much bigger or meaner than Fenrir. He is destined to kill Odin. Meanwhile, Fenrir's two sons � Skoll and Hati � are trying to eat the sun and the moon * (Come Ragnarök, they succeed.). With his mouth wide open, Fenrir's top jaw touches the sky while the bottom jaw scrapes against the ground.
Chekhov's Gun : Frey gives his sword to Skirnir so he could help him win Gerd's heart. It isn't until Ragnarök that this event has a huge impact � Frey fails to stop Surt since he is without weapon, allowing Surt to burn the world. Some translations even imply that it's Frey's own sword that Surt uses to accomplish this.
Chuck Cunningham Syndrome : Loki's first wife Glöd (Glow), and their daughters Eisa (Embers) and Einmyria (Ashes). It is theorized that their absence may be do to really being daughters of Logi, who is often confused with Loki. The Saga of Thorstein Viking's son names them as Logi's children and has little to do with the Aesir. Also, Thjalfi's sister is rarely mentioned.
Clever Crows : Ravens served as Odin's lookouts/messengers (and in some depictions, the Valkyries rode them to collect the dead).
Comedic Sociopathy :
In addition to their love of Volleying Insults , torturing Baldur was apparently a favorite pastime of the Asgardians. What's the point of having someone Nigh Invulnerable around if you don't throw heavy objects at him? In fairness, he was completely immune to everything they threw... except for mistletoe, which was eventually used to kill him.
The Æsir also enjoy screwing over dwarves. One such instance created cursed treasure; another, a pile of headless little bodies. It's even said that Thor kicked a dwarf into Baldur's funeral pyre. No wonder Alberich was such a prick to the gods.
And whenever the gods need to put the blame on someone, they grab Loki and threaten him with torture and death if he doesn't put the situation right. Granted, often Loki was responsible for or at least involved in the thing that went awry in the first place, but still...
Contract on the Hitman : The dwarf Fáfnir turns himself into a dragon to protect his cursed gold from his brother, Regin. So, Regin hires Sigurd to kill Fáfnir, but then Sigurd learns from the birds that Regin plans to kill him, too.
The god Freyr's ship Skidbladnir could fly and fold up to fit in his pocket.
Naglfar, which is made of finger and toe nails of the dead.
Sleipnir, whose eight legs made him really fast.
Sleipnir's father Svadilfari, who is so talented he can build walls.
Helhest, a three legged horse that is associated with Hel that brings death and disease with it.
Cool Sword : Tyrfing ("finger of Tyr"), which never missed a strike and could cut through metal and stone as if through cloth. Extremely useful for cutting down entire armies of Huns. Unfortunately, also a death sentence for anyone standing nearby whenever it was drawn. Not always healthy for its wielders either.
Crapsaccharine World : Played with. Sure, Norse mythology may be filled with supernatural creatures, detailed cosmology, epic battles, and magic everywhere. In essence, the grandpa of all High Fantasy stories. However, while it's delightful to read, the Nordic world isn't necessarily as cool and colorful as it looks. More specifically, there's no inherent "good" or "evil" race , only a bunch of supernatural beings trying to survive by doing what they believe they should do , and "Heaven" is only reserved for the most badass warriors (regardless of how much assholery they committed in life), while the rest were literally sent to Hel. Most gods are fated to die, and they believe there's nothing they can do about it but wait . Sure, they will also kill several other monsters , but unfortunately, Nidhogg , the closest thing the Norse have to a true evil monster , is among the few who will survive Ragnarök . Yep, living in the Norse world is everything but easy!
To be fair, Hel was not a place of suffering but of shadows, and is rather peaceful... That is, unless you had committed crimes and did wrongs that would have earned you Hel's wrath, and you would be punished. Also, if you study the story closely, you realise that Vallhala isn't a eternal paradise of joyful violence; the Gods are simply recruiting an army for Ragnarök.
Several sources indicate the afterlife was more complicated than a simple Valhalla or Hel. Freya claimed half of the dead and it is said young lovers and romantics when to her hall. Same with other gods. Reincarnation itself was sometimes viewed as an option.
Crapsack World : Surprisingly averted, despite the bleak atmosphere, morally grey setting and harsh environment several of the key gods including Thor cared for humans, friends and family were valued, heroism was admired, several afterlives existed with were pretty good, and while everything is destined to die in the end a better world is supposed to emerge from the ashes. So arguably, it's a anti-nihilist mythology.
Cute Monster Girl :
The giantesses are hot enough that gods married them on a regular basis. Frey's wife Gerd was even said to be the most beautiful woman in the world, which makes her more beautiful than Freya, who's already extremely beautiful. But the male giants are described as pretty fugly. Half-giant Loki is an exception, being extremely good-looking (though he is a shape shifter); on the other hand, his children with a giantess are horrible monsters.
In some adaptations or retellings, Hel is quite attractive. In others, she's a rotted corpse. Sometimes she's half and half, either top and bottom or split right down the middle.
Heimdallr's parents (all nine of them) are giantesses, which means that Heimdallr is a giant, and there's no indication that he's ugly. Considering that so many giants turn out not to be ugly, it almost comes off as their alleged ugliness being more trash-talking than truth.
Dark is Not Evil : The dark elves/dwarves originally weren't necessarily all evil, and Hel herself was neutral if not outright good. Hijacking took place, however.
Defrosting Ice Queen :
Freyr fell in love with Gerd, a giantess. He eventually managed to melt her heart, albeit with the help of a lackey threatening her with a magic sword.
In another instance, the frosty giantess Skadi demanded reparations of the Aesir for the murder of her father, asking for his eyes made stars in the heavens, a godly husband for herself, and asked that the gods make her laugh. Only Loki had the keen sense of humor to achieve that last one, resulting in a temporarily melted literally-minded giantess.
Demonic Invaders : Not "demons", but several groups can be substituted well enough. From Jotunheim come giants, who are always looking to invade Asgard and Midgard, and from Ironwood come trolls, who are looking to invade Midgard and apparently, Jotunheim as well as giant wolves. Also, the fire giants from Muspelheim, who will arrive after two of those wolves eat the sun and moon and kick off Ragnarök.
Destroyer Deity : Surtr's job is to end Ragnarok by raining fire down on the land, wiping out everything.
Determined Defeatist : A running theme.
Diabolus ex Nihilo : Surt, the being who will eventually destroy the universe, is never mentioned outside the universe-destroying context, except for some versions which state he had a role in creating the universe.
Disabled Deity : Both Odin and Tyr are missing body parts (an eye and a hand, respectively).
In the post-christian tellings Hel is always deformed in a grosteque manner. Prior, not much is described about her appearence.
In one of the earliest examples, Thor once memorably pretended to be Freya to get his hammer back. The discrepancies between Thor's appearance and that of Freya being provided via hilarious explanations by Loki (such as the psychotic look in his eye being only from lack of sleep in anticipation of the wedding).
This is how Odin learned magic.
Disappeared Dad : It's not recorded who the biological father was of Ull, son of Sif and stepson of Thor.
Divine Conflict : The War between the Aesirs and Vanirs.
Dragon Hoard : Dragons appear frequently as treasure guardians, which is why Old Norse poetry uses "dragon's bed" (dreka beðr) as one of its numerous poetical paraphrases for "gold". The backstory of how dragon and hoard came together can vary, but an idea often encountered is that dragons are former human(oid)s that have permanently changed into dragons so they can guard their riches more effectively.
Dragons Are Demonic : Nidhoggr is a giant dragon that gnaws at the roots of Yggdrasil in hopes of destroying all worlds.
Draw Sword, Draw Blood :
King Högni's dwarf-made sword Dáinsleif. It could not be sheathed until it had drawn blood or taken life.
Tyrfing. Another dwarf-forged sword, it was cursed so that it would kill a man every time it was drawn.
Nidhoggr, a serpent-like dragon that chews on roots of Yggdrasil and human corpses.
Ymir the primeval giant. The world is made from his corpse.
Elemental Embodiment : (Arguably) the jotnar. Just for a few examples, there is an entire class of giants (among them Surtr, Loge and Eldr) that are associated with fire, Laufey with trees, Farbauti with lightning, Jord and Gerd with earth, and Skadi with cold mountain streams.
Elemental Plane : Most of the Nine Realms can be seen as one of these, though their elemental connotations are believed by to be metaphors for the human psyche as they seem to fit planes of the psyche in other religions.
The realms that can be attributed to be elemental planes are Alfheim , home of the Light Alfs; Svartalfheim , home of the Dark Alfs; Muspellheim , home of the Fire Giants; Niflheim , home of the Ice Giants; Vanaheim , home of the Vana Gods (typically seen as marshes or wetlands); and Jotunheim , home of etins (very mountainous).
Elemental Powers : Associated with the rune system . It's more complicated than what most consider to be "the standard four," as each rune in the Elder Futhark can be interpreted to be a building block of The World Tree * the runes we know of are only one set - the set given to human beings - so even comprehending every aspect of the Elder Futhark will not explain everything.
Some runes are attributed to ice , such as Hagalaz or Isa, but even then they are not specifically An Ice Person * Hagalaz is also called the weather event "hail", but is attributed to cycles of destruction and rebuilding, while Isa is also called "ice" and is attributed to barriers between mankind and nature. Others are attributed to water , such as Laguz, but it still is not Making a Splash * again, it is called "lagoon" but is attributed to more than the classical element of "water". This is explicitly seen when one looks at Eihwaz, which could mean "tree" or "plane of existence" or even "travel (between planes of existence)."
Endless Winter : The Fimbulvetr or Fimbulwinter is an especially harsh winter that lasts trice as long as usual and signifies the beginning of Ragnarök .
It's belived that this myth was actually developed as a explanation for a real disaster that occered in the early 6th century due to vulcanic activity which would have caused the sunset to appear bloodred, robbed the sunlight of the power to cause photosynthesis which in turn made it appear that winters came with no summer between. You Can Freak Out Now .
The End of the World as We Know It : Oh, yeah. Big time. Ragnarök (literally meaning "The Final Fate of the Gods," but famously mistranslated as "The Twilight of the Gods" (Ragnarokkr) by Richard Wagner ). When it happens, war and chaos engulf the entire world, a winter three years long will be so cold that life will cease to exist, the sun and the moon will be devoured by wolves, Fenrir the Wolf and Jormugandr the World Serpent will be unleashed, the army of the Underworld will stream forth, all chaotic beings will engage in an epic battle with the gods and the warriors of Valhalla, everyone dies while the fire giant Surt engulfs the world in flames, the burning world will be buried by water, and everything will collapse into Yggdrasil.
Originally, Ragnarök is simply the end of an age and a symbol of the cyclical worldview of germanic paganism much like the giants were leftovers from the age of Ymir. The younger Gods would take upon the roles of their fathers and mothers. Nidhögg whould still be alive, meaning that evil will never vanish. It is belived that the return of Balder and the mighty one that rules over all mentioned in the Eddas is a late addition an an expy for the christian God and Jesus. However, some believe based on phrasings earlier in the text that the mighty is in fact Odin rising from the dead.
Food God : Idunn
was the Norse Goddess of youth and apples.
Friendly War : This is one of the appeals of Valhalla: Party all night, fight all day. Casualties don't matter, they're only temporary. Well, until Ragnarök, anyway.
From Bad to Worse : There will be war, winter, and incest, life as we know it will end on Midgard. Then comes Ragnarök, just because there was not enough misfortune for life as we don't know it and the other eight worlds.
Full-Boar Action : Hildesvini, the Battle Swine. Freya's personal mount whenever she was not using her cat-drawn chariot.
Gaia's Vengeance : When you consider that the jotnar are nature personified, Ragnarök is basically this.
Gate Guardian : Garm was a bloodstained watchdog that guarded the gates of Hel (the Norse land of the dead).
Gender Bender : Loki turned into a mare (and got pregnant!)
Glamour Failure : According to some stories, even though he could change shape, Odin was always one-eyed in every form.
G�tterd�mmerung : Interestingly enough, civilization reaches its height after the fall. It's the Trope Namer, as the above mentioned mistranslation of Wagner "Twilight of the Gods" is Götterdämmerung in German.
Thor and Loki, at least in some stories. In others, not so much.
Odin and Loki, who are blood brothers.
Hijacked by Jesus : It's impossible to tell which myths are hijacked and which are not, since all of them were written down more than 200 years after the turn to Christianity. Even the Poetic Edda is not immune, since the oral stories the book was based on had 200 years to adapt some Christian ideas and values.
Baldur may or may not be treated as a Christ figure. A better world emerges following the chaos immediately after his death. But that may also represent the old Norse people's wish of having their genes survive into the following generations, just as Baldur's rebirth ensured that Odin's, and the Aesir's, genes lived into the new world.
The story of Loki getting Baldur killed is Hijacked by Jesus . Originally (as shown in Poetic Edda), it was only hinted (in an insult of Frigg by Loki himself) that Loki was guilty. It was only when he gravely insulted every single one of the gods that they tied him down and fed him poison. The two stories were then merged and expanded by Snorri Sturluson to make Loki look like a Satan figure.
The myth of Freya's acquisition of the Necklace of the Brisings is recorded only in a Christianized version.
There's also The History of the Danes, which was commissioned of Saxo Grammaticus, stories that depicted the gods merely as cunning wizards who tricked people into thinking they were gods. They were still pretty badass in it, though.
Hel was hijacked by Satan , twice. Originally, Hel's hall in Helheim was not so bad, since most people would end up there anyway. It was not until Valhalla was merged with the Christian Heaven that Hel became, well, Hell. Also, the fire giant Surt conquered Hel during Ragnarök.
Hel herself changes, too. In post-Christianity versions, she becomes a cruel, corpse-like monster, but in older sources, she is described as half pale, half corpse black symbolizing the duality of life and death. She takes care of the souls of sick and aged and treats everyone well. Unless you were a murderer of innocents and such then you would be sent to Nástrand. But that part may also be a Christian addition.
Like Hel, Loki gets associated with Satan. In some myths, he's a contriver of trouble, a trickster, and a total jerkass , but still not all that bad of a guy as he saves the day a few times and once in a great while goes out of his way to be nice. In later, post-Christian stories, he's Handwaved as the cause of anything wicked, with no explanation as to why or how he'd managed it, and then he's the cause of the end of the world.
Some of the myths also speak of Odin sometimes appearing as three beings, which may be an idea influenced or inspired by the Christian Trinity.
The concept of Ragnarök seems to have been adapted (possibly invented whole sale, though that is less likely) after the arrival Christian influence and conversion from a distant prophecy to a metaphor for the decline and end of the native pagan worship. This tends to co-incide with Baldr's conversion into a Christ-like figure, to emphasize a shift in faith. Generally this was likely done to emphasize Norse Mythology as a part of the past which the writer is Chronicling, rather than the author actively endorsing what others might see as Heathenisms. Some versions even state that the Judeo-Christian God replaced the Aesir after Ragnarok.
The Fair Folk were originally, well, the Fair Folk, who weren't really considered either good or evil in the earliest myths. They were increasingly seen as demonic as Germanic societies became Christianised. This is similar to what happened in Celtic Mythology.
Homosexual Reproduction :
Sleipnir is the biological child of Loki and a stallion called Svadilfari. Loki was shapeshifted into the form of a mare (a female horse) at the time. A mare who happened to be in heat, to lure away the stallion. However, getting pregnant had not been part of Loki's plans, and it owned him the nickname of "horse-mother".
The unspecified number of children Odin and Njorth accuse Loki of bearing in the Lokasenna.
Honor Before Reason : When Loki saves Asgard (and the entire world) from the schemes of a giant trying to get his hands on Freya, the sun, and the moon, everyone except Thor rejoices - Thor's too busy being angry over the fact that they broke a vow.
Hostage for MacGuffin :
Inverted: A gang of giants stole the hammer Mjölnir to try to get Freya to marry their leader. It didn't work out too well. (See Disguised in Drag .)
This one happened to Loki a lot, even at the hands of other gods, and caused - among other things, the cursing of Andvaranaut, the creation of Thor's hammer, and later on its theft. Thor even did it to Loki over a cute little prank Loki pulled on Thor's wife.
Mr. Seahorse : Loki, as mentioned above.
The Multiverse - the Nine Worlds, on three levels linked by Yggdrasil: Asgard, Vanaheim, and Alfheim; Jotunheim, Midgard, and Nidavellir/Svartalfheim; Helheim, Muspellheim and Niflheim.
Note that the above list of worlds is artificial. The nine worlds are never specified in the Norse myths themselves and this list was produced by Victorian scholars based on places and races mentioned in the texts and has since become standard through Memetic Mutation . Unfortunately, his list creates some Continuity Snarl as the myths imply that Hel* The proper name of Helheim. "Helheim" was constructed to better fit with the naming scheme of the rest of the worlds. is a place in Niflheim. Some scholars have tried to fix this by removing Hel from the list and putting Glaðsheim in it's place. This however just creates a similar problem as Glaðsheim is often implied to be in Asgard.
And as Snorre states that Odin gave Hel power over Nine Worlds, one can assume there are even more worlds.
Half of Odin's names.
Nidhögg - Malice Striker
Muspelheim can be understood as "Home of the World Blaze" but can also mean "Home of the World Destroyers".
Nigh-Invulnerability : Baldur, except for mistletoe . The gods made a game of hurling sharp and dangerous objects at him.
Nine Beings, One Body : Modern artists usually portray the nine mothers merging into a creature with nine heads in order to give birth to Heimdall.
No Man of Woman Born : Although Baldur's death was foretold, he was given temporary Nigh-Invulnerability by having his mother asking all objects of the earth to swear not to harm her son, thereby allowing the gods to engage in some Comedic Sociopathy by throwing axes and other weapons at Baldur. Unfortunately, the plant mistle was ignored (it wasn't old or important enough), allowing a disguised Loki to have Baldur killed via a mistletoe dart given to Baldur's blind brother.
Noodle Incident : In the Lokasenna, Odin says Loki went around disguised as a milkmaid for awhile, and according to both Odin and Njorth, he's given birth to multiple children. It doesn't get any more elaborate than that.
North Is Cold, South Is Hot : Probably the Ur-example . From the other Wiki : "In the beginning, there were two regions: Muspellsheimr in the south, full of fire, light and heat; and Niflheimr in the north, full of arctic waters, mists, and cold."
Not Me This Time : Loki is the usual suspect when things go wrong in Asgard. Sometimes he isn't responsible, but the other gods tend to assign him the job of solving the problem anyway.
The Old Gods : The Jotnar, the Vanir and Alfar to some extent.
Our Dragons Are Different : The giant serpent Jormungand encircles the world, and is the son of Loki and the giantess Angrboda. The dragon Fafnir was once human, but was transformed by his ruthless greed .
One Steve Limit : Averted with Loki and Utgarda-Loki, and with Vali (Loki's son by Sigyn) and Vali (Odin's son by Rindr).
There's also the Norn/Valkyrie Skuld
and the half-elven princess Skuld
. This page
suggests that Loki's wife Glut was a descendant of Logi and his wife of the same name, and that they named their daughters after the daughters of Logi and Glut.
Our Dwarves Are All the Same : Here's where it all started, though in the earlier depictions, dwarves were quite different than how they are today.
Our Elves Are Better : They're divided into "light elves" and "dark elves" (the latter could be the same thing as dwarves), neither type particularly more pleasant than the other . Originally, elves were considered ambivalent to humans, being neither always good or evil (Tolkien's Elves owe a lot to this original depiction). They came to be seen as more evil once Christianity took hold.
There are some scholars who suggest the svartálfr (black elves) and the dökkálfr (dark elves) may not be the same thing as they could come from different places in the nine worlds, depending on which places are counted as worlds. Those who think they are different will be divided on which group should be regarded as dwarves, all depending on which tale they happen to like the best( find more credible ).
Our Giants Are Bigger : The jotnar, perennial foes of the gods and one of the ur-examples. Their sizes varied considerably, however (though the entire world, Midgard, was made from the body of the dead giant Ymir).
Size was not the only thing that varied. Sometimes the giants (at least the male ones) were hideous, sometimes the implication was that the giant(s) in the story looked about as human as the gods, sometimes the giants and the gods were constant, general enemies, and sometimes the gods had peaceably relations with some of the giants that hadn't managed to become an Asar or Vanir by marriage or adoption...
Jormungand, a snake so long it formed an Ouroboros by stretching around the world and touching its tail.
Pet the Dog : In "Loka Táttur," after Odin and Hönir fail to answer the prayers of a farmer to keep his child hidden from a bad-ass troll, they give up completely. Loki, ever the determinator , succeeds in protecting the kid and slays the troll, and is rewarded by the boy's parents with a big hug. Awww.
Plot-Relevant Age-Up : Odin and Rindr's son Vali grows to adulthood in a single day so he can kill Höder and avenge Baldur.
Primordial Chaos : Ginnungagap was the void between the unbearably hot Muspellheim and the bitterly cold Niflheim in which the world emerged.
Sadly Mythtaken :
As the German states were unified into one nation in late 19th century, they figured that they lacked their own national mythology. So they adapted the Norse mythology while celebrating everything Nordic (which was a reason why "The Twilight of the Gods" was so popular). Eventually, the celebration was bastardized into the unfortunate race ideology that the Nazis was all too glad to adopt. C. S. Lewis and J. R. R. Tolkien , both of whom were very fond of Norse mythology and no fans of the Nazi regime, complained extensively in letters to each other that the Nazis had no idea what the were talking about whenever they talked about Norse myth.
Dungeons & Dragons for whatever reason turns Sif into Weak, but Skilled Action Girl in Deities and Demigods sourcebook. The concept went further that she appears in TV Tropes as BFS wielder at some points.
Scars Are Forever : And when they are the gods, that's really forever. Both Odin and Tyr suffer under this.
Sea Monster : The Kraken is originally from Norse myth, but the standout example is Jörmungandr, the Midgard Serpent - a sea serpent so huge it encircles the whole world.
Serial Escalation : Freya is the most beautiful woman in the world (being a goddess of love is an advantage). Enter Gerd, Frey's jotun wife, who is the most beautiful woman in the world, which should make her more beautiful than Freya. And that is not mentioning Baldur, who was the most beautiful man in the world, being a god of love , and all.
Slasher Smile : Some tellings comment that after having his lips un-sewn, Loki was left with a "Glasgow smile" which in "Loki is evil" stories serves as his Red Right Hand .
Spell My Name with an "S" :
The names of many beings and places typically have two letters that aren't found in the English alphabet. These letters are Þ/þ (thorn)note sounds like the "th" in "thing" and may be transliterated as "th" or "t" and Ð/ð (eth)note the "th" sound in "that" and may be transliterated as "th," "t," "d," or "dh" but other letters, such as the ash (Æ/æ), are also present.
The translations into different languages (e.g. Old Icelandic, Old English/Gaelic, or Norwegian, etc.) further alters name spelling. Odin's name alone could be Ódin, Oðin, or Wóðan.
The Stinger : The last part of Völuspá describes a new world after the resurrection of Balder, which sounds peaceful enough. Then it ends with a description of Nidhoggr with a corpse in its jaws, flying through the air...
Trope Makers :
Most of the standard "dragons and dragonslayers" tropes originally derive from either the V�lsunga saga or Beowulf .
Long after the first occurrences of dragons and their slayers: Smaug is a Norse in-joke. It's also worth noting that the name the Norse gave to the world in which they lived, Midgard, means "Middle Earth" (literally, "Middle Protected Area").
Two-Faced : Hel. In many stories, the left half of her body is beautiful, the right half is either aged and decrepit or skeletal . Could count as Fridge Brilliance as well: the decrepit side could be the "reality of death" aspect, while the beautiful side could be the "nothing to be afraid of" aspect.
The Ugly Guy's Hot Daughter : The hideous Jotnar (giants) occasionally have beautiful daughters. Naturally in stories involving them they get seduced by Norse gods. Odin (or Thor) was the usual culprit. The guy really got around, though not to the same extent as Zeus .
Ugly Guy, Hot Wife : Frey is generally not depicted as pretty, while Gerd is the most beautiful woman in the world.
Vertebrate with Extra Limbs : Odin's horse had eight legs.
Volleying Insults : Two of the Poetic Eddas (Harbardsljoth and Lokasenna) consist of pretty much nothing but this.
The squirrel Ratatoskr spends much of his time running from the top of Yggdrasil to the bottom and back, carrying insults between Nidhogg (who gnaws on the lowest root of the tree) and an un-named eagle who dwells in its uppermost branches.
War Is Glorious : So glorious that fighting for untold ages is considered heaven. It's helped by the fact the warriors are all resurrected every night for drinking and partying. The days of endless fighting served as training for Ragnarök, when the einhärjar would be called upon to do battle with the followers of Surtr.
The Weird Sisters :
The sacred Well of Urd is guarded by the three chief Norns (goddesses of fate) by the names of Urd ("fate"), Verdandi ("happening") and Skuld ("destiny"). The guardians of the Well of Urd are consistently referred to as "maidens", although Prose Edda (in "Gylfaginning") specifies that Skuld is the youngest of the three.
Valkyries , the supernatural women who determine who is going to die in a battle, are distinct from but related to Norns, insofar they too govern a (very specific) kind of fate. Valkyries frequently come in groups of three or multiples of three:
What Happened to the Mouse? : Odin's brothers Vili and Ve helped in creating the world (i.e., killing Ymir) and mankind, then they just disappearnote they are mentioned once ruling in Odin's stead while he was away for a time.
With Friends Like These... : You would think that, after a while, the Aesir would actually figure out that perhaps Loki could use some help. No wonder he turned against them eventually. Though Loki does kind of screw with the other gods a lot, so it's not much of a wonder why they don't.
Wizard Classic : Stories of Odin wandering the lands disguised as a simple traveller serve as an Ur-Example .
You Can't Fight Fate :
As in all myths, every prophecy is inescapable. Mind you, this includes virtually everything that actually happens in the stories, including the forthcoming destruction of the gods .
Some retellings of Loki's role in Baldur's death use this to explain Loki's actions. After devouring the heart of a witch with the power of prophecy, he saw that he was destined to suffer a horrific punishment at the hands of the other gods before dying in Ragnarök. Since Loki knew You Can't Fight Fate , he figured he might as well do something to earn that punishment and make the other gods suffer.
Be honest, though - most of the gods' tragedies are deliberately provoked by themselves. Or else, they justify most of their illogical decisions (like sparing Fenris's life, despite knowing how dangerous he would become), because they believe there's no way to fight their fate, so they never TRY to change it .
Except they do. Odin thrown Jormungand into the sea, imprisoned Fenrir in bindings made of literally impossible things and banished Hel. Unfortunately it resulted in the snake growing so big, gave Fenrir a reason to kill Odin, and allow Hel to create an army of undead. Thor attempted to kill the World Serpent by fishing it, but failed even then. Frigg in fear of his son dying attempted to give him invulnerability but he still died. It is genuine You Can't Fight Fate .
Your Size May Vary : The giants in general. It might just be easiest to say that they come in all of the sizes and be done with it.
:: Indexes ::
| Dragon |
In which US state is Cape Cod? | Norse and German Mythology
Craig Chalquist, MS PhD
Myth is the foundation of life; it is the timeless pattern, the religious formula to which life shapes itself…Whereas in the life of mankind the mythical represents an early and primitive stage, in the life of an individual it represents a late and mature one. -- Thomas Mann
The following list came from a dozen or so sources, including translations of the Eddas. Where applicable comparisons with Greek and Roman deities appear. For a brief discussion of gods and archetypes see my Celtic Deities page.
Those of us with a German or Norse ethnic background have sometimes felt reluctant to look more deeply into our mythologies. In part this is because they are associated with conquest, and in part because the Nazis trashed them in their attempt to regress to the thought patterns of an earlier time. But these, our stories, were never intended for that; and they need reclaiming and dreaming onward for reasons similar to the need for Christians and Muslims to reclaim their spiritual roots from theocrats who wage wars in the name of the Prophet Muhammad or the Prince of Peace. The river of spirit has gotten polluted, but its headwaters remain clear and nourishing.
Very often seekers who abandon Western culture for Eastern or Native American do not realize the depths of what they leave behind. Our stories examine reincarnation, spiritual energy, gift exchange, the vitality of the soul, and the spirit of place. In the old Nordic worldview everything is in flux and begins, balances out from, and ends with polarities akin to yin and yang. Even the gods are subject to this, undergo transformation, and often pay for what they gain with a corresponding loss. Our concept of wyrd directly relates one's actions and intentions to personal and intergenerational consequences similar to karma. But our way of understanding these things reflects our own cultural framework and traditions. Coming home to them often increases respect for those of other cultures while eliminating the desperate drive to uproot and appropriate.
The pagan elements surviving in religious observance have often been taken note of. For uncolonized indigenous people--including the indigenous Celts and Germanics--religion as such did not exist. Native views of spirituality wed it to time and place, land and sea and sky, without need of a corporate hierarchy. And so a conqueror might ransack altars or rewrite the calendar, but the original forces live on--for example as Sun's Day, Moon's Day, Tiw's Day, Woden's Day, Thor's Day, Frigga's Day, Saturn's Day, Yule, Eostre, and All Soul's. Our forbears lived in an enspirited world, and that world abides, as do its animated sacred dimensions. As H. R. Ellis Davidson puts it, "The gods never cease their struggle against the creatures of cold and darkness."
Dedication: to my ancestors: my foremothers and forefathers who danced like furies, lived close to Earth, and held back the night in Britain, France, Germania, Holland, Scandinavia, Spain, Ireland, and Scotland. And what a ruckus in Rome: Diwrnod i'r bren!
Aegir ("AY-ear"): the Norse sea god, master brewer of storms, and husband to Ran, with whom he had nine daughters who personify as waves. Similar to the Greek Poseidon.
Aesir (Icelandic "AY-seer," Swedish "ASS-seer"; singular "Asa"): the chief Norse gods. Similar to the Olympians of Greek myth. More associated with the skyward spirit than the earthy Vanir. The word means "pillars."
Alfar ("OWL-var") : male ancestors. See Disir.
Alfheim: world of the elves.
Alvis ("All-Knowing"): clever dwarf outsmarted by Thor in a verbal contest for the hand of Thor's daughter Thruth ("Might"). The contest lasted so long that the sun came up and turned the would-be groom to stone.
Andhrimnir: the cook for the warriors in Valhalla. His name means "soot in the face." The pot he uses is named Eldhrimnir.
Andvaranaut: a magic ring named after the shape-shifting dwarf Andvari ("Andvari's Gift") and forged by Volund. When Loki stole it to pay a ransom, Andvari cursed it to bring trouble on whomever possessed it. This ring played a key role in Wagner's work and in Tolkein's. It was thought lost in the Rhine, but it resurfaces wherever greed trumps reason or peace.
Angurboda: giant lover of Loki. Her name means "Herald of Sorrow." Their children were the wolf Fenris, the serpent Jormungand, and Hel. The gods took them away from her.
Ari: an underworld giant eagle who scares the dead in Niflheim.
Asgard: the stronghold-world of the gods. It includes Alfheim, where the light elves live, and Vanaheim, where the Vanir live. Asgard is surrounded by a wall built by a giant mason tricked by Loki, who changed into a mare to lure away his stallion so he couldn't finish by winter's end. The Aesir breaking of oaths with the giant--he had asked for Freya, the sun, and the moon, and Loki had agreed for them--paved the way for Ragnarok.
Audhumla (Icelandic "oy-THIM-lah," Swedish "audth-HUM-blah"): a cow formed by the convergence of the ten primal rivers in Niflheim. Her milk fed the giant Ymir. From these two ramified all of existence.
Baldur: bright and wise son of Frigga and Odin, master of the hall Breidablik ("Broad Splendor"), killed by a mistletoe arrow and resurrected. Loki tricked the blind god Hodor into firing it. At his funeral it is said that even earth, stones, trees, and metals wept dew for his passage. A god of harmony, light, reconciliation, and sacred wells (compare Apollo). He will survive Ragnarok, as will Hodor.
Bergelmir: the father of all the giants.
Berserkers ("bearshirts"): warriors who in some stories could turn themselves into dangerous bears. (The bear was so highly prized in Finnish lore that it could not be named.) Chieftains often surrounded themselves with such warriors, some of whom went without mail and others who painted themselves and their weapons black before night fighting. Their battle frenzy was thought to come from Odin, whose name refers to ecstacy or frenzy.
Bestla: frost giant mother of Odin and his brothers. Her mate was Bor, son of Buri.
Bifrost ("BAY-vrurst": "Trembling Roadway") : the flaming, three-strand rainbow bridge that joins Asgard to Midgard and keeps away giants until it breaks under Surt's legions at Ragnarok.
Blot ("bloat"): an animal sacrifice ritual to honor ("To Strengthen") the gods.
Bragi ("BRAH-yee"): eloquent god of poetry ("bragr") and husband of Idunna. Unlike clean-shaven Apollo, Bragi wears a long beard. Often shown with a harp. Patron of minstrels. Loki began with him in an incident where the trickster hurled insults at the assembled Aesir during a lengthy bout of self-congratulating.
Brunhild ("Mailed Warrior"): a shape-shifting Valkarie who fell in love with the hero Sigurd and burned herself to death when he died of treachery.
Buri ("BOO-ree"): son of Audhumla, the primal cow who licked him into life from salty rocks. Grandfather of Odin and father of Bor.
Disir ("DEE-seer"; singular "dis"): female ancestors. See Alfar.
Draugr (plural "draugar"): a powerful undead zombie. Runes were sometimes inscribed on tombstones to keep the undead from rising. The haugbui was a draugr who stayed put but attacked anyone who trespassed near the grave site.
Draupnir: "Dropper," the magic gold bracelet of Odin that creates eight new rings of gold every ninth night.
Dwarves: underground beings associated with craftsmanship. They sprung like maggots from Ymir's body, and many live in Nidavellir ("Dark Fields") below ground. The cardinal directions were sky-supporting dwarves named Austri (East), Sudri (South), Vestri (West), and Nordri (North). Dwarves supplied the magical instruments and weapons of the gods.
Eddas: the collections of stories and poems that constitute the primary early record of Norse and Icelandic mythology. They were penned in the 13th century, the Prose Edda by the Icelandic scholar and poet Snorri Sturluson, who used the thirty-four-poem brew of the Poetic Edda as a source, but they belong to a much more ancient oral tradition. Some of their images go back to the Bronze Age. The original calf-skin vellum on which they were written was lost long ago. "Edda" has been thought to mean "poem" but could refer to Oddi, a settlement in southwestern Iceland, home of Sturluson and the legendary scholar Saemund the Wise. From 1100 on lore collected in Iceland like congealing flows of lava.
Einherjar ("EIN-her-yar"): collective name for the dead warriors gathered in Valhalla. They go out into the couryard and battle by day, recover, and feast in the hall at night.
Eir: a goddess of healing. Compare with the Greek Hygeia.
Elivagar ("Stormy Waves"): the eleven rivers whose dripping venom gave the first giants their fierceness through Ymir. Snorri links them to the Milky Way.
Elves: youthful beings living in forests and near springs. They look like humans and sometimes crossbred. Dark elves were thought to cause diseases. They live in Svartalfheim ("Land of Dark Elves"), whereas bright elves live in Alfheim and Vidblain in heaven. In parts of Sweden the custom is to pour a cup of milk for them and leave it near a tomb.
Eostre, Ostara ("East Shining"): Saxon goddess of springtime and rabbits. Celebrated at the spring equinox, her name gave itself to April. Compare with the Roman goddess Aurora and the Greek Eos.
Etins: giants friendly to the gods, unlike the Jotuns, who aren't.
Fafnir: a gold-hoarding dragon killed by the hero Sigurd.
Faining: a god-honoring ritual that does not involve animal sacrifice.
Fensalir: the "Sea Halls" of Frigga in Asgard.
Fenris, Fenrir: the wolf son of Loki bound by the gods with Tyr's help and sacrifice. He will eat Odin at Ragnarok and be slain by Odin's son Vidar. His slaver forms the river Van ("Hope" or "Expectation").
Folde: Anglo-Saxon goddess of Earth. Also called Fira Modor ("Mother of Men").
Forseti: god of law and justice and overseer of civic assemblies. A son of Baldur, he lives in the silver and golden hall Glitnir ("Shining"). An old story tells that he brought a spring from the earth while giving law to the Frisians.
Freya: golden-haired "Lady" and goddess of love and beauty. Compare with Aphrodite and Venus. Freya's chariot, drawn by cats, bears comparison with Aphrodite's (called Pothos, the fantasy component of love), and she sometimes takes the form of a dove. Both goddesses are connected to sea swells. Freya's fire-jewel necklace Brisingamen ("Fiery Belt") was forged by four dwarves after she spent one night with each. She has eight sisters and a coat that turns the wearer into a falcon. Her hall is Sessrumnir ("Rich in Seats") at Folkvang, the Field of Warriors, where half the slain in battle go. Her disguised lover Hildisvini's name means "Battle Boar"; his human name is Ottar. She taught magic (divinatory witchcraft: see "Seidr" below) to other goddesses and gods. When she cries her tears make red gold. Her daughter with lost Od is Hnoss ("Treasure"). She was one of the Vanir sent to the Aesir to bring peace to both. She can be thought of as the archetypal principle that attracts every opposite, from the cohesion of matter to the gravity between galaxies. Through her intercourse became sacred and healing and ceremonial.
Freyr (Icelandic: pronounce the final "r"): Vanir "Lord" of the elves, husband of the giant Gerd ("Enclosure" or "Field"), and brother of Freya. A god of peace and lusty pleasure and good crops. He sails in the foldable portable ship Skidbladnir ("Wooden-Bladed") and rides the luminously golden boar Gullinbursti ("Golden Bristles"). His magic sword wielded itself until he gave it away to marry Gerd, so he killed the giant Beli with an antler. Brings happiness and is kind to women but is prone to depression. He resembles a mixture of Saturn and Dionysus, with Gerd an echo of Arachne. The legendary Danish king Frodi might be a byform of Freyr. The Anglo-Saxons called him Ing. His messenger is Skirnir ("Bright One").
Frigga ("FREE-yuh"): the Allmother of the Norse and wife of Odin. Goddess of peacemaking, weaving the threads of cosmic order, and holding and keeping political and domestic power. She knows everyone's fate but does not speak it. Her name means "Spinner." Compare with Hera or Juno or the Celtic Morrigan. Her handmaids were Fulla, Gna, and Lin. Friday was considered a good day to get married because it was named after her (for the Germanics, Frija's Day).
Frith: peaceful accord. Arranging a peace is "frith-weaving."
Fulla, Volla: long-haired virgin sister of Frigga and guardian of her treasure. Her name means "Bounty."
Fylgja ("FEEL-gyah"; plural "Fylgjur"): a part of the soul that sometimes shows up as an animal and can live outside the body. The form it takes depends on the inner character of the person it visits. The word means "she who follows."
Garm: the underworld hound of Hel. He is chained in Gnipahellir, the cave entrance of Niflheim, and will die with Tyr at Ragnarok. Similar to Cerberus.
Gefion ("GEF-yon": "She Who Gives"): Vanir crop and field goddess. Compare Demeter/Ceres. When King Gylfi of Sweden mocked the apparently homeless woman before him by giving her all of Zealand she could plow, she turned her giant-sired sons into oxen and plowed the entire expanse. She overlooks agriculture, acquisition, and material wealth. Women who die as virgins accompany her.
Geirröth: the king who unwittingly bound Odin between two fires (he had thought him a common wanderer whom his dogs refused to attack) to torture him for eight nights. His ten-year-old son Agnar was kind to the disguised god and gave him a horn to drink from. When the king realizes his mistake he falls on his sword. Odin teaches his son sacred lore.
Gimli: the gold-roofed hall where the new gods will live after Ragnarok.
Ginungagap: the creative void or chasm from which all things emanated. Within it lie a realm of fire (Muspelheim) and a world of ice (Niflheim) that contained Hvergelmir, the well from which flowed the primal rivers. When the worlds collided into a big bang, the giant Ymir came to be.
Gladsheim ("Place of Joy"): a pleasant dwelling on the plain of Ida and largest building in existence. The twelve gods had seats of honor there.
Gna: messenger of Frigga whose name means "rise high," which she does on the backof Hofvarpnir ("hoof-thrower"). Her name shares roots with "looming."
Grid: the female giant who who loans Thor her staff, iron gloves,and belt of strength so he can kill the giant Geirrod and his two daughters.
Gullinkambi ("Golden Comb"): the cock that awakens the Einherjar warriors of Valhalla to Ragnarok. The cock Fjalar awakens the Giants.
Gullveig ("Gold Might"): the Vanic goddess and seeress whose triple burning by the Aesir offended the Vanir; Odin's casting a spear over their ranks precipitated the war. Gullveig's name might indicate a reason for the burning, but the Aesir might also have feared her powerful magic. She was banished to Ironwood until Ragnarok. Some think her a byform of Freya.
Hamingja: luck, partly inherited from the ancestors and partly modifiable through one's actions.
Heimdal ("HAME-dall," meaning, "One Who Illuminates the World"): the watchful gold-toothed guardian of the rainbow bridge Bifrost. His hall is Himinbjorg ("Heaven's Cliffs") at the end of the bridge Bifrost; his horse is Golltopp ("Gold-Topped"). It is said he gave an ear to Mimir's well to obtain his otherworldly powers of hearing. He successfully fought Loki to regain Freya's necklace after both of them had shapeshifted into seals. His horn Gjall ("Ringing Horn") will announce the final war of Ragnarok, where he and Loki will kill each other. Heimdall's counterpart watchman among the giants is Eggther. Cf. the Greek Argus, who also tangled with a trickster, and shapeshifting Proteus, foreteller of events and guardian of seals.
Hel: the giant goddess of the underworld. She is half black and half white and lives in the hall Eliudnir ("Sprayed with Snowstorms") in Helheim, where she is served by male Ganglati ("Tardy") and female Ganglot ("Tardy"). According to Snorri "her dish is Hunger, her knife is Famine, her slave is Lazy, and Slothful is her woman servant." Her bed is named Sick Bed, and her bed curtains Gleaming Disaster. Compare Persephone.
Helheim: the world of the dead.
Hermod: Asa messenger of the gods. His name means "Fast." It was he who rode Sleipnir to the underworld--leaping over its gate Helgrind--to unsuccessfully plead Hel for Baldur's return. Only the giant Thokk ("Gratitude": Loki in disguise) would not weep for him. Compare Hermes.
Hlin ("Protectress"): she defends and looks after humans liked by Frigga.
Howe: a burial mound. Gateway to the underworld. In Norse and Germanic myth the dead go to one of several places, including the hall of the deity they revered while alive. Kings and poets sometimes sat on the mounds of their dead ancestors for inspiration or dreams.
Hrede: "The Glorious" or "The Victorious" Anglo-Saxon goddess of the chill that falls before spring.
Hreidmar: the farmer whose son Otter was killed by Loki. He trapped Loki, Odin, and Hoenir with magic and demanded a ransom of red gold, which they paid with wealth tricked out of the dwarf Andvari by Loki.
Hrimfaxi ("Frost-Maned"): the horse of Night (Not), which she rides around the world. The horse of Day (Dag, son of Not and Dogling ("Son of the Dew") is Skinfaxi ("Shining-Maned").
Hrungnir: a mountain-sized giant who lost a horse race to Odin and got drunk in Valhalla afterward. He was armed with a magical whetstone that splintered into chunks that buried themselves all over the world for later use by those who seek sharp blades (or sharp minds). Thor cured him of taking Freya for a serving wench by smashing his head.
Huginn ("HYUG-in"): the raven Thought who scouts things out for Odin.
Hugr: soul. The soul was seen as a polycentered, deathless core of selfhood.
Humans: fashioned from an ash and an elm standing on a shoreline into a man (Askr) and woman (Embla) by Odin, who gave breath and soul, silent Hoenir, who gave intelligence, and Lodur, who bestowed senses and form.
Hymir: a giant foolish enough to go fishing with Thor, who was eager for a look at the World Serpent, and still more foolish enough not to share any fishing bait. Thor found his own by ripping the head off Hymir's ox Himinhrjot.
Hyrrokkin: the giant who freed Baldur's stuck boat to carry his dead body out to sea. Four berserkers could not budge it, so the Aesir called for her and she came riding a wolf with a poisonous snake for reins.
Icelandic Sagas: seven hundred prose narratives written down during the thirteenth century by various anonymous authors. Iceland represented a remarkable nexus for Norse and Germanic myth and skaldic poetry from 1000 AD onward.
Innangaro: a sacred social enclosure guarding against the forces of utgaro (destruction). A cultural temenos.
Idunn ("ee-DOO-nuh"): goddess of youth and health, which she bestows on the gods with her apples of immortality kept in a wooden box. Her name means "The Renewer." Loki delivered her to the giant Thjiazi but rescued her again. She is the wife of Bragi. Her Greek counterpart is Hebe the youth goddess.
Iku-turso: an evil Finnish sea monster.
Illmarinen: the Finnish god-smith who forged the dome of heaven and the mysterious Sampo, a kind of horn of plenty. Similar to the Greek Hephaestos and the Roman Vulcan.
Iving: a river that never ices over and marks a boundary between Asgard and the realm of the giants.
Jarnvid: "Ironwood," a land east of Midgard where trolls live.
Jord: Earth, daughter of Night, and mother of Thor. The Norse version of Gaia or Terra. Invoked by women in labor.
Jormungand ("YOR-mun-gand"): the enormous, tail-biting serpent of Midgard. Odin imprisoned it in the sea to get rid of it, but it grew until it embraced all of earth. At Ragnarok it will poison Thor and pollute the sky.
Jötnar ("yötnar"; singular "jötunn): giants. Also called risar (singular "risi"). Those inhabiting icy Niflheim were known as frost giants. Fire giants inhabit Muspelheim.
Jötunheim ("YUR-tun-hame"): the world of the giants. It contains their citadel Utgard and lies somewhere near Midgard, the world of humans.
Kvasir: a wise Vanir formed from the divine spit of the Aesir and Vanir. After two dwarves killed him the mead of poetry was decanted from his blood into the cauldron Odrorir ("Heart-Stirrer") and later stolen by Odin.
Kennings: the naming of people and things with poetic metaphors like "Freya's tears" (gold) and "horse of sea" (ship). Kennings avoided the dull and literal, demonstrated poetic skill, drew on a shared cultural history, exercised the imagination, and kept the images fresh through renewing them with words.
Kobold: a troublesome German sprite or goblin. Some haunt mines or caves.
Lightalfheim: the world of light elves.
Lintukoto: the edge of the world in Finnish mythology. The name means "Home of the Birds."
Lofn ("Comforter"): a giver of hope, she also helps people marry. She and Sjöfn and Snotra bear comparison with the Graces.
Loki: the Trickster god, mother of Odin's horse Sleipnir, and blood brother of Odin. Loki's persuasion after cutting off Sif's hair (to imply promiscuity) resulted in new hair woven of gold, the hammer Mjollnir given to Thor, Odin's deep-piercing spear Gungnir, and Loki's shoes of flight. A trick of his resulted in Baldur's death and resulting survival after Ragnarok. Compare Hermes, Mercury, Prometheus. Loki means "fire." For insulting the Aesir he is bound to three stones by the entrails of his dead son Narfi until Ragnarok. He is disorder personified and shows up whenever things get too ponderous or routine.
Maegen ("MAYG-in"): the vitality aspect of soul. Similar to the Asian "chi" or "ki."
Magni ("Might"): strong son of Thor who with his brother Modi ("Wrath") will receive Thor's hammer after their father dies at Ragnarok.
Mani: the moon god whose chariot is driven by the horse Alsvid ("Very Strong"). A girl (Bil) and boy (Hjuki) go with him.
Merkstave: when a rune drawn for a reading comes up reversed, resulting in a reversal of its meaning. Literally means "dark stick."
Midgard: the world of humans. "Middle Earth."
Mimir ("Remembrer"): god whose head guards the well of wisdom at the base of Yggrasil the World Tree. Possibly uncle to Odin, who gave an eye for a drink. Displeased with Hoenir's silence, the Vanir beheaded Mimir and sent him back to the Aesir, but the peace worked out anyway.
Mjölnir ("MULE-near"): the hammer of Thor, which he needs a metal glove to wield. The dwarves Brokk and Eitri made it. When he throws it the hammer hits its target and comes back into his hand. The word means "masher" and is linked to "milling." The tendency of this flying grindstone to give off lightning also makes it a sort of portable thunderbolt. Lapp shamans struck their drums with hammers that resembled Thor's.
Mundilferi: father of the sun and moon. His name might mean "The Turner."
Muninn: Odin's raven Memory. Given the distortions and gaps of Norse mythology, Odin may have been right to fear losing Memory more than Thought (symbolized by the raven Huginn).
Nanna: wife of Baldur, who threw herself on his funeral pyre in grief as he burned on his ship Ringhorn.
Nehellenia: Dutch goddess comparable to Isis and Demeter; her name might mean "Helpful Coming Close."
Nerthus: Danish goddess of Earth. Similar to the Greek Gaia and the Roman Terra.
Nidhogg: the old dragon who chews on the root of the World Tree. His name means "Dread Biter."
Niflheim ("Misty Hel"): a realm of darkness under one root of the World Tree. At Nastrond ("Shore of Corpses"), the dragon Nidhogg chews on those who were evil in life.
Nine: a key number in Norse myth. Nine worlds, Odin's three triangles and nine magic songs, Heimdall's nine mothers, Hermod's nine-day journey to the underworld, etc. In alchemy the Third referred to a unifying or synthesizing substance derived by combining two others (a duality). In many mythologies nine (three threes) represents the culmination of a cycle.
Njord ("NEEORD"): father of Freya and Freyr and god of ships and trade who lives in Noatun ("Ship's Haven") and calms the seas and winds. His marriage to the giant Skadi failed because she belongs at her father Thjiazi's home Thrymheim ("Home of Thunder") in the mountains and he by the sea.
Nornir: the three wise goddesses, also called the Norns, who sit at the foot of Yggdrasil and weave the web of fate. Urd oversees past actions, Verdandi the present, and Skuld the future. Even the gods must bow to their decisions. Compare with the Greek Fates ("Moira").
Od: lost husband of Freya. When she could not find him she shed tears of gold that turned trees into amber.
Odin ("OHDTH-in"; called Wotan or Woden in Germanic lore): Allfather and shape-shifting husband of Frigga. Lusty god of ecstacy, storm, hunting, poetry, berserk fury, and incantations. His authority is similar to that of Zeus (Greek) and Jupiter (Roman). He sits on the throne Hildskfalf ("hlid-skyalf": "Watch Tower") and likes to go about on Earth disguised as a gray-bearded wanderer in a tall hat and dark blue cloak. It was he whose breath animated the first humans and he who leads the dead on the shamanic Wild Hunt of wandering souls. He subsists on wine and loves knowledge from the depths and will make sacrifices to obtain it, as when he exchanged an eye for a drink from Mimir's well. His seduction of Gunloo to obtain the sacred mead of poetry (Ooroerir) from her Jotun father Suttung resulted in the birth of Bragi, god of poetry. Odin's imagery marks him as a Shaman of shamans. He is unusual in another way: a god actively seeking wisdom and making sacrifices to open pathways to self-development. On memorial stones and urns his emblem appears: the valknut, three interlocked triangles.
Okolnir ("Not Cold"): the warm ground where the hall Brimir will stand after Ragnarok.
Örlög ("UR-lurg") : a person's own strand of fate (wyrd). One's actions can influence its shape.
Ragnarök: often mistranslated as "twilight (rather than "fate") of the gods": an apocalypse in which the old gods and their opposites destroy each other, resulting in heavenly renewal and a new race of human beings. C. G. Jung referred to this mythological dynamic as the transformation of the God-image(s). It begins with a three-year winter (fimbulvetr) and giants storming Asgard by land under Surt and riding in on Naglfar, a ship made of the nails of the dead steered by Hrym and captained by Loki. Odin will be eaten by the wolf Fenris, his wolvish offspring Skoll and Hati will devour the sun and moon, Surt will kill Freyr, the world serpent Jormungand will kill Thor with its breath, the hellhound Garm and Tyr will kill each other, and so will Heimdall and Loki. The World Serpent will turn out the seas onto land and Surt will cast flame over the world that ends, like it began, in a union of fire and water. Afterwards Earth will rise again from the sea and the sun and moon's children Lif and Lifthrasir (Life and Will-to-Live) will repopulate it. Vidar, Vali, Modi, Magni, Baldur, and Hod will come to Idavoll, former site of Asgard, and find the gold playing pieces of the former Aesir.
Axe-time, sword-time, shields are sundered,
Wind-time, wolf-time, ere the world falls;
Nor ever shall men each other spare....
Now do I see the earth anew
Rise all green from the waves again...
Ran ("Robber"): net-wielding wife of Aegir and personification of the sea's danger. The drowned go to her after death.
Rune: a character in a pictographic alphabet held to be of divine origin. The 24-letter Germanic Elder Futhark of the second to the eighth centuries (sometimes simplified into the Younger Futhark of Scandinavia) is often used in rune readings. Runes were often carved into pieces of wood and stained red.
Saga: goddess of history, ancestry, and storytelling (her name means "to tell" or "to speak"). She lives in the hall Sokkvabekk ("Sunken Bank") and often drank there with Odin.
Saehrimnir: the boar eaten by the warriors in Valhalla. They drink mead from the udders of Heithrun, the she-goat who nibbles the leaves of the World Tree.
Seaxnéat/Saxnot: "Sword Friend," a little-known Anglo-Saxon god, possibly a counterpart to Tyr. A seax was a long, single-edged knife.
Seidur ("say-dthur"): magic involving an ecstatic state of divination achieved by a wise woman. A form of witchcraft taught by Freya. This talent, later known as witchcraft, involved ceremony and sometimes erotic practice or imagery.
Sif: seeress wife of Thor and mother of his daughter Thruo ("Strength") and his sons Magni ("Strong") and Modi ("Angry").
Sigyn: wife of Loki; "Woman of Victory." She holds a bowl to catch venom dripped by a poisonous serpent into Loki's face after the giant Skadi and the gods bound him as punishment (compare the story of Prometheus) for arranging Baldur's death. His writhings when she turns away to empty the bowl cause earthquakes.
Sjöfn ("SYUR-fn"): her name means "affection." See Lofn.
Skadi ("Shadow"): the skiing mountain giant who hunted with a bow and could not work things out with Njord, whom she married as compensation for the death of her father Thjiazi. Compare Artemis.
Sleipnir ("SLAYP-near"): the fast steed of Odin, eight-legged and fathered by the stallion Svadilfri, who mated with shapeshifted Loki its mother.
Snotra ("Wise"): the goddess of custom and courtesy. See Lofn.
Sol: the sun goddess whose chariot is pulled by the horses Allsvinn ("Very Fast") and Arvak ("Early Walker").
Surt: "Black" lord giant of fiery Muspelheim, bearer of a flaming sword, and future leader of the forces opposing Odin's at Ragnarok, where he will set the world on fire. Compare Hades/Pluto. His wife may have been Sinmora.
Suttung: the giant from whom Odin tricked the mead of poetry. Suttung pursued Odin back to Asgard as an eagle and almost caught him, but Odin spat the mead into vats. Some of it shot out of his rear as well, and it reappears to stain the air whenever one hears bad poetry.
Svalin: "The Cooling" is a shield that stands in front of the sun. Without its ozone-like protection the world would burn.
Swartalfheim: the world of dark elves.
Syn: gatekeeper of Frigga's hall Fensalir; her name means "Refusal" or "Denial." She is invoked by defendants during trials. Compare Hecate.
Thew: tribal law or custom.
Thor: the mighty red-bearded son of Allfather Odin; the Norse Herakles. Armed with his war hammer Mjollnir and Megingjard the Belt of Strength, he tends to flatten whatever grows inflated beyond natural limits, particularly greedy giants. His chariot is pulled by the goats Tanggniost ("Tooth-Grinder") and Tanngrisnir ("Snarl Tooth"). His hall is named Bilskinir ("bill-skier-near"), "Lightning," and is located in Thrudheim ("Place of Might"). Thor safeguards important demarcations (e.g., the boundaries of Asgard) while breaking open those that unduly block or limit. He recalls the Anglo-Saxon Thunor, the Celtic Tanaros, the Hindu Indra, and the German god Donar.
Thrym: the giant who stole Mjollnir and wouldn't give it back unless the Aesir offered him Freya. Thor showed up for the wedding dressed as her and accompanied by Loki in the guise of a bridesmaid. The disguise wore thin when Thor consumed an ox and eight salmon, but Thrym placed the hammer in "Freya's" lap anyway as a Norse sign of conjugal affection. Mjollnir responded.
Trolls: large, ugly creatures who live in dark or hidden places. Norwegian term for the giant of Sweden or Denmark. Pretty female ones sometimes seduced wayfarers and left them drowned or lost. In stories where Thor is absent sometimes appears a short statement like, "...and Thor was out hammering trolls."
Tuoni: Finnish god of the underworld (called Tuonela).
Tyr ("teer"), Tiwaz: the binder of the wolf Fenris with the deceptively thin dwarf-crafted rope Gleipnir ("Open One"). He bound the wolf (and lost his sword hand to it) because a seeress foretold that the wolf would kill Odin at Ragnarok. He is a god of honorable conduct and direct action and and linked to the arrow-shaped rune Tiewaz. He is sometimes compared to Ares and Mars. His consort may have been Zisa.
Ukko: the Finnish Odin or Zeus; also called the Overgod. His wife was Akka. His weapon was a stone ax.
Ull: archer god of hunting and skiing and duels; his name means "Glory." A son of Sif but not Thor, he lives in Ydalir ("Yew Dale"). A kenning for shields was "ships of Ull."
Urda's ("Urth-ahs") Well: the well of fate at the foot of Yggdrasil. Urda is one of the Norns.
Utgard-Loki: the giant who called himself Skrymir ("Big Fellow") and fooled Thor and his companions Thialfi and Loki by testing them against Elli (Old Age), Logi (Fire), and Hugi (Thought). He and his mansion vanished just before meeting Mjollnir. Such optical tricks are called sjónhverfing ("sight-altering"). Thor having unknowingly drunk up part of the ocean, there are now tides.
Vaettir ("VAY-tear"; singular Vaet): spirits of land and place. Genii loci.
Vafthruthnir: the giant who lost a wisdom contest and his life to Odin.
Valhalla: Odin's great "Hall of the Slain" within Asgard. There he feeds and trains slain heroes for use in the final battle of Ragnarok. The hall is surrounded by the river Thund ("The Roaring"), raftered with spears, roofed with shields, lit by swords, and fitted with benches strewn with breastplates. A wolf and an eagle are carved above the door. A grove of red gold called Glasir stands in front of the doors.
Vali: son of Odin and Rind. He was born to avenge Baldur's death by killing blind Hodor.
Valkaries: the implacable "Choosers of the Slain": warrior women who select who will be slain in battle and transport dead heroes to Valhalla. Descriptions of them often match those of the Furies.
Vanaheim: the world of the Vanir.
Vanir ("VAH-near"; also called the Wanes): an older race of gods similar to the Greek Titans but who continue to interact with the Aesir, with whom they exchanged peace hostages. The earthy Vanir in Norse myth reach far back into pre-Indo-European and indigenous shamanic origins.
Var: goddess of oath-keeping and punisher of those who break promises. Her name means an oath or pledge.
Vidar: Odin's son and avenger of his death at Ragnarok. He wears a shoe assembled from the scraps of all shoes that have ever been, and he uses it to prop open the mouth of Fenriswolf while tearing the beast apart.
Vigrid ("Battle-Shaker"): the 120-league-square Asgard plain where the gods and the giants will destroy each other at time's end.
Vikings: seagoing merchant raiders who sailed and fought between the eighth and eleventh centuries. The name "Rus," or the Swedish Vikings described by Ibn Fadlan, appears in "Russia"; Vikings also founded Dublin, Iceland, Greenland. One of them, Leif the Lucky, not only sighted North America (near Newfoundland) around the year 1001 but stayed there for a few years and might have ventured as far south as New England or Long Island. Their shallow-draft longships allowed them to strike deep inland and made them a terror throughout Europe to as far away as the Mideast. Having witnessed the bloody Christianization of Scandinavia, the Vikings particularly favored attacks on wealthy coastal monasteries. Unlike their enemies they bathed and kept groomed. Their leather and iron battle helmets did not carry horns or wings. An old legend says that goblins originating in France caught a ride with the Vikings to arrive in England.
Vingolf: the goddess' lovely sanctuary in Asgard. "Friendly Quarters."
Vor: a wise, watchful, careful goddess about whom little is known. She investigates things deeply, and nothing can remain hidden from her.
Volsung: the king who gave his name to the saga written down by an unknown author in the thirteenth century. The saga includes Sigmund, the Arthurlike son of Volsung who pulls Odin's sword from the tree Branstock, the sword's breaking and its remaking into sharp Gram, and the story of the dragon-slaying hero Sigurd and his tragic love Brunhild. In the treasure of Fafnir waits the cursed ring of Andvari: "But hearken, for that same gold which I have owned shall be thy bane too." And so it is, dooming him, Brunhild, Sigurd's wife Gudrun, who suffers loss after terrible loss, down to the death of Atli and his clan, when Odin reappears to give their enemies advice. With the theft of the ring Andvaranaut, Loki (and Odin) had set in motion a kind of intergenerational nightmare to bring down a line of proud and once-vital kings who greedily took whatever they wanted by butchery.
NOW MAY ALL EARLS
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Which cabinet position did British MP Andrew Bonar Law hold between 1916 and 1919? | Bonar Law, Andrew | International Encyclopedia of the First World War (WW1)
Citation
1 Background ↑
Andrew Bonar Law (1858-1923) came from an unusual background for a Conservative Party leader in this era. His father was a Presbyterian minister who had emigrated to Canada , but his mother died when he was two years old, and at the age of twelve he went to Scotland to live with his mother’s family, who were wealthy bankers in Glasgow. Bonar Law attended Glasgow High School, and at the age of sixteen took up a position in the family bank. In 1885 he became a partner in an iron merchants, and began a successful business career. In 1891 he married Annie Pitcairn Robley (1866-1909) , and they had six children; it was a happy marriage, and her death in 1909 created an enduring sadness.
2 Pre-war political career ↑
Bonar Law became a Conservative Member of Parliament in 1900. He was an effective debater through his command of facts and figures, and was a strong supporter of tariff reform. He became more prominent after the Conservative defeat in 1906, but was a surprise choice as party leader in the House of Commons in 1911. Between then and the outbreak of the war, Bonar Law led the Conservative opposition to the Liberal government’s plan to give Home Rule to Ireland , and he supported the resistance of Protestant Ulster even to the point of taking unconstitutional action. His stubborn and effective leadership of the Conservatives during this period of bitter political controversy earned him a substantial reserve of loyalty and support within the party, which was to prove invaluable during the strains of the war and immediate post-war periods.
3 Wartime opposition and the Asquith Coalition, 1914-1916 ↑
In July 1914, before the German ultimatum to Belgium , Bonar Law privately informed Herbert Henry Asquith (1852-1928) , the Prime Minister, of the Conservative Party’s support for entry into the war. The next eight months were a difficult time for the Conservative Party, as they had little confidence in the Liberal government but were unable on patriotic grounds to make public criticisms. In May 1915, they entered a coalition government under Asquith, but almost all of the key offices remained in Liberal hands and Bonar Law became Colonial Secretary, a backwater position in wartime. Asquith had always had a dismissive view of Bonar Law’s abilities, and deliberately gave a more important position to his predecessor as Conservative Party leader, Arthur Balfour (1848-1930) . During the next eighteen months, Bonar Law supported the introduction of conscription and gradually lost confidence in Asquith’s capacity as wartime leader. His commitment to support David Lloyd George’s (1863-1945) plan to sideline Asquith was crucial in the latter’s resignation and Lloyd George’s appointment as Prime Minister in December 1916.
4 The Lloyd George Coalition and afterwards, 1916-1923 ↑
For the remainder of the war, Bonar Law worked in a close and harmonious partnership with Lloyd George. His support was the political rock upon which Lloyd George’s position depended, and one of his key roles was the management of the House of Commons. Bonar Law also held the important office of Chancellor of the Exchequer, and launched a series of successful war loans which financed a substantial part of Britain’s war expenditure. He was a member of the small War Cabinet, but did not seek to influence military strategy. At the end of the war, he supported the renewal of the coalition, and was the key figure in maintaining it until his retirement on health grounds in May 1921. After this, policy failures led to a growing revolt from below in the Conservative Party against continuing the coalition under Lloyd George at the next general election, but this feeling was dismissed by Bonar Law’s successor as leader, Austen Chamberlain (1863-1937) . When the situation became critical in October 1922, concern that the Conservative Party would be fatally split prompted Bonar Law’s reluctant emergence from retirement. This was decisive in Lloyd George’s downfall. Bonar Law succeeded him as Prime Minister and won a majority in the general election of November 1922, but the terminal collapse of his health forced his resignation in May 1923. Although he did not live to see them come to fruition, his actions between 1916 and 1923 led to the recovery and consolidation of the Conservative Party’s position as the dominant political force in Britain, and to the establishment of a new two-party system in which the Labour Party displaced the Liberals as the left of centre alternative.
Stuart Ball, University of Leicester
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What is the acidic juice called of crab apples or other sour fruit, such as grapes? | Andrew Bonar Law : Wikis (The Full Wiki)
Andrew Bonar Law
23 October 1922 – 22 May 1923
Monarch
13 November 1911 – 25 May 1915
Monarch
10 December 1916 – 10 January 1919
Prime Minister
25 May 1915 – 10 December 1916
Prime Minister
10 January 1919 – 1 April 1921
Prime Minister
University of Glasgow , United Kingdom (night classes)
Profession
Presbyterian
Signature
Andrew Bonar Law PC (16 September 1858 – 30 October 1923), commonly known as Bonar Law, was a British Conservative Party statesman and Prime Minister . Born in the crown colony of New Brunswick , he is the only British Prime Minister to have been born outside the British Isles . He was also the shortest-serving Prime Minister of the 20th century, spending 211 days in office.
Law was born to a rural preacher and his wife in New Brunswick, where he spent his early life. A few years after his mother's death in 1861, his father remarried, and in 1870 Law moved to Helensburgh , Scotland , to live with his mother's sister Janet and her family, who ran a successful merchant bank. After an education at a preparatory school in Hamilton and the High School of Glasgow , Law left school aged sixteen to gain a "commercial education" at the family firm. A few years later the firm was sold to the Clydesdale Bank , putting Law's career in jeopardy until his uncles loaned him the money to buy a partnership in an iron merchants firm. Through hard work and his business acumen the firm flourished under Law, and by the time he was thirty he was a comparatively rich man.
Law first entered politics in 1897, when he was asked to be the Conservative Party candidate for the seats of Glasgow Bridgeton and then Glasgow Blackfriars and Hutchesontown , accepting Blackfriars. Despite a large Liberal Party majority in his seat, Law campaigned successfully for the 1900 general election and was returned to Parliament. In the House of Commons he became noted for his excellent memory and oratory, and soon gained a position on the Conservative front bench. A strong supporter of tariff reform , Law was made Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade in 1902. The issue of tariff reform split the Conservative Party, and Prime Minister Arthur Balfour resigned, prompting a general election in which the Conservative Party were forced into opposition. In opposition Law continued to argue for tariff reform, both in Parliament and within his party, largely avoiding the constitutional crisis surrounding the People's Budget in 1909. His appointment as a Privy Councillor that year marked him out as a conservative frontrunner, and when it became clear that Arthur Balfour would resign as Leader of the Conservative Party , Law put his name forward. Despite trailing third before Walter Long and Austen Chamberlain Law eventually won the election when the strong possibility of a draw between Long and Chamberlain that would split the party forced both to withdraw.
As Leader of the Conservative Party , Law focused his attentions on two main areas; tariff reform , which he supported, and Irish Home Rule , which he was opposed to. As leader of the opposition he was in no position to make active changes, but his strong campaigning, particularly on Home Rule, turned Liberal attempts to pass the Third Home Rule Bill into a three year struggle eventually halted by the start of the First World War .
Contents
13 External links
Early life and education
Law was born on 16 September 1858 in Kingston (now Rexton ), New Brunswick, to the Reverend James Law, a minister of the Free Church of Scotland with Scottish and Irish ancestry, and his wife Eliza Kidston Law. [1] A common misunderstanding is that Law was born in Canada - this is not the case, as at the time New Brunswick was a separate colony, and Canadian Confederation did not occur until 1867. [1] His mother originally wanted to name him after Robert Murray M'Cheyne , a preacher she greatly admired, but as his older brother was already called Robert he was instead named after the Reverend Andrew Bonar , a biographer of M'Cheyne. Throughout his life he was always called Bonar (rhyming with honour) by his family and close friends, never Andrew. He originally signed his name as A.B. Law, changing to A. Bonar Law in his thirties, and as a result people treated it as a double patronymic and he was referred to as Bonar Law by the public as well. [2]
Bonar Law's home in Canada where he lived until the age of 12. The house overlooks the Richibucto River .
James Law was the minister for several isolated townships, and had to travel between them by horse, boat and on foot. To supplement the family income he bought a small farm on the Richibucto River , which Bonar helped tend along with his brothers Robert, William and John, and his sister Mary. [2] Studying at the local village school, Gilbertfield School, [3] Law excelled at his studies, and it is here that he was first noted for his excellent memory. [4] After Eliza Law died in 1861, her sister Janet travelled to New Brunswick from her home in Scotland to look after the Law children. When James Law remarried in 1870 his new wife took over Janet's duties, and Janet decided to return to Scotland. She suggested that Bonar Law should come with her, as the Kidston family were wealthier and better connected than the Laws, and Bonar would have a more privileged upbringing. [5] Both James and Bonar accepted this, and Bonar left with Janet, never to return to Kingston. [6]
Law went to live at Janet's house in Helensburgh , near Glasgow . Her brothers Charles, Richard and William were partners in the family merchant bank Kidston & Sons, and as only one of them had married (and produced no heir) it was generally accepted that Law would inherit the firm, or at least play a role in its management when he was older. [7] Immediately upon arriving from Kingston, Law began attending Gilbertfield School, [8] a preparatory school in Hamilton . [9] In 1873 when he was fourteen he transferred to the High School of Glasgow , where with his excellent memory he showed a talent for languages, excelling in Greek, German and French. [7] During this period he first began to play chess – he would carry a board on the train between Helensburgh and Glasgow, challenging other commuters to matches. He eventually became an excellent amateur player, and competed with internationally renowned chess masters. [10] Despite his excellent academic record it became obvious at Glasgow that he was better suited to business than to university, and when he was sixteen Law left school to become a clerk at Kidston & Sons. [7]
Business career
At Kidston & Sons, Law was paid a nominal salary, with the intent being that he would gain a "commercial education" from working there that would serve him well as a businessman. [11] In 1885 the Kidson brothers decided to retire, and agreed to merge the firm with the Clydesdale Bank . [12] The merger would have left Law without a job and with poor career prospects, but the retiring brothers found him a job with William Jacks , an iron merchant who was pursuing a parliamentary career. [12] The Kidson brothers loaned Law the money to buy a partnership in Jacks' firm, and with Jacks himself no longer playing an acting part in the company, Law effectively became the managing partner. [13] Working long hours (and insisting that his employees did as well), Law turned the firm into one of the most profitable Iron merchants in the Glaswegian and Scottish markets. [13]
During this period Law became a "self-improver"; despite his lack of formal university education he sought to test his intellect, attending lectures given at Glasgow University and joining the Glasgow Parliamentary Debating Association, [12] which adhered as closely as possible to the layout of the real Parliament of the United Kingdom and undoubtedly helped Law hone the skills that would serve him so well in the political arena. [11]
By the time he was thirty Law had established himself as a successful businessman, and had time to devote to more leisurely pursuits. As well as his chess and work with the Parliamentary Debating Association, Law also took up golf, tennis and walking. [14] In 1888 he moved out of the Kidson household and set up his own home at Seabank, with his sister Mary (who had earlier come over from Canada) acting as the housekeeper. Two years later he met Annie Robley, a 24-year-old daughter of a Glaswegian merchant Harrington Robley. [15] They quickly fell in love, and were married on 24 March 1891. Little is known of Law's wife, as most of her letters have been lost. It is known that she was much liked in both Glasgow and London, and that her death in 1909 hit Law hard; despite his relatively young age and prosperous career, he never remarried. [15] The couple had five sons and two daughters, although the first son was stillborn . the second son was Richard Law , later Baron Coleraine, [15] the third Charlie Law, who as a soldier with the King's Own Scottish Borderers was killed at the Second Battle of Gaza . [16] His eldest son, a pilot with the Royal Flying Corps , was shot down and killed on 21 September of that year, and the deaths made Law even more melancholy and depressed than before. [17]
Entry into politics
In 1897 Law was asked to become the Conservative Party candidate for the parliamentary seat of Glasgow Bridgeton . Soon after he was offered another seat, this one in Glasgow Blackfriars and Hutchesontown , which he took instead of Glasgow Bridgeton. [18] Blackfriars was not a seat with high prospects attached; a working-class area, it had returned Liberal Party MPs since it was created in 1884, and the incumbent, A.D. Provand, was highly popular. [18] Although the election was not due until 1902, the events of the Second Boer War forced the Conservative government to call a general election in 1900 , later known as the khaki election . [19] The campaign was unpleasant for both sides, with anti- and pro-war campaigners fighting vociferously, but Law distinguished himself with his oratory and wit. When the results came in, Law was returned to Parliament with a majority of 1,000, overturning Provand's majority of 381. [20] He immediately ended his active work at Jacks and Company (although he retained his directorship) and moved to London. [21]
Bonar initially became frustrated with the slow speed of Parliament compared to the rapid pace of the Glasgow iron market, [21] and Austen Chamberlain recalled him saying to Chamberlain that "it was very well for men who, like myself had been able to enter the House of Commons young to adapt to a Parliamentary career, but if he had known what the House of Commons was he would never had entered at this stage". [22] He soon learnt to be patient, however, and on 18 February 1901 made his debut speech. Replying to anti-Boer War MPs including David Lloyd George , Law used his excellent memory to quote sections of Hansard back to the opposition which contained their previous speeches supporting and commending the policies they now denounced. [21] Although lasting only fifteen minutes and not a crowd- or press-pleaser like the debut speeches of F.E. Smith or Winston Churchill , it attracted the attention of the Conservative Party leaders. [23] [24]
Tariff reform
Joseph Chamberlain
Law's chance to make his mark came with the issue of tariff reform . To cover the costs of the Second Boer War , Lord Salisbury 's Chancellor of the Exchequer ( Michael Hicks Beach ) suggested introducing import taxes or tariffs on foreign metal, flour and grain coming into Britain. Such tariffs had previously existed in Britain, but had been abolished in the 1870s because of the free trade movement. [25] The issue became "explosive", [25] dividing the British political world, and continued even after Salisbury retired and was replaced as Prime Minister by his nephew, Arthur Balfour . Law took advantage of this, making his first major speech on 22 April 1902, in which he argued that while he felt a general tariff was unnecessary, an imperial customs union (which would put tariffs on items from outside the British Empire, instead of on every nation but Britain) was a good idea, particularly since other nations such as Germany and the United States had increasingly high tariffs. [26] Using his business experience, he made a "plausible case" that there was no proof that tariffs led to increases in the cost of living, as the Liberals had argued. Again his memory came into good use — when William Harcourt accused Law of misquoting him, Law was able to precisely give the place in Hansard where Harcourt's speech was to be found. [26]
As a result of Law's proven experience in business matters and his skill as an economic spokesman for the government, Balfour offered him the position of Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade when he formed his government, which Law accepted, [27] and he was appointed on 8 August 1902. [28] As Parliamentary Secretary his job was to assist the President of the Board of Trade , Gerald Balfour . At the time the tariff reform controversy was brewing, with the Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain , an ardent tariff reformer who "declared war" on free trade, leading. [27] After returning from a speaking tour of South Africa in 1903, Chamberlain found that the new Chancellor of the Exchequer ( C.T. Ritchie ) had removed the tariff reforms suggested by Hicks Beach from the budget. [27] Angered by this, Chamberlain spoke at the Birmingham Town Hall on 15 May without the government's permission, arguing for an Empire-wide system of tariffs which would protect Imperial economies, forge the British Empire into one political entity and allow them to compete with other world powers. [29]
The speech and its ideas split the Conservative Party into two wings — the Free-Fooders, who supported free trade , and the Tariff Reformers, who supported Chamberlain's tariff reforms. Law was a dedicated Tariff Reformer, but for more mundane and worldly reasons than Chamberlain; while Chamberlain dreamed of a new golden age for Britain, Law focused on more practical results, such as a reduction in unemployment. [29] L.S. Amery said that to Law, the tariff reform program was "a question of trade figures and not national and Imperial policy of expansion and consolidation of which trade was merely the economic factor". [29] Keith Laybourn attributes Law's interest in tariff reform not only to the sound business practice that it represented but also that because of his place of birth "he was attracted by the Imperial tariff preference arrangements advocated by Joseph Chamberlain". [30] Law's constituents in Blackfriars were not overly enthusiastic about tariff reform — Glasgow was a poor area at the time that had benefited from free trade. [29] In Parliament itself Law worked exceedingly hard at pushing for tariff reform, regularly speaking in the House of Commons and defeating legendary debaters such as Winston Churchill , Charles Dilke and Herbert Henry Asquith , former Home Secretary and later Prime Minister. [31] His speeches at the time were known for their clarity and common sense; Sir Ian Malcolm said that he made "the involved seem intelligible", and L.S. Amery said his arguments were "like the hammering of a skilled riveter, every blow hitting the nail on the head". [31] Despite Law's efforts to forge consensus within the Conservatives, Balfour was unable to hold the two sides of his party together, and resigned in December 1905. [31]
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In opposition
The new Prime Minister, a Liberal named Henry Campbell-Bannerman , immediately dissolved Parliament and forced a general election in which, despite strong campaigning and a visit by Arthur Balfour , Law lost his seat. [32] This was part of a wider loss; the Conservative Party lost 245 seats, leaving them with only 157 Members of Parliament who were themselves divided into two factions. [33] Despite his loss, Law was at this stage such an asset to the Conservatives that an immediate effort was made to get him back into Parliament. The retirement of Frederick Rutherfoord Harris , MP for the safe Conservative seat of Dulwich , offered him a chance. [34] As the Conservative candidate he was returned to Parliament in the ensuing by-election , also increasing the Conservative majority to 1,279. [33]
The party was struck a blow in July 1906, when two days after a celebration of his seventieth birthday, Joseph Chamberlain suffered a stroke and was forced to retire from politics. [35] He was succeeded by Austen Chamberlain , Joseph's son, who despite previous experience as Chancellor of the Exchequer and enthusiasm for tariff reform was not as skilled a speaker as Law. [36] As a result Law joined Balfour's Shadow Cabinet as the principal spokesman for tariff reform. [36] The death of Law's wife on 31 October 1909 led him to work even harder as a coping strategy, and as a result he saw his political career not only as a job but as a cure for his loneliness. [36]
The Peoples' Budget and the House of Lords
Edward Carson , who along with Law was one of the only non-representatives to be aware of the "Truce of God".
Campbell-Bannerman resigned as Prime Minister in April 1908 and was replaced by Herbert Henry Asquith . [37] In 1909 he and his Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George introduced the People's Budget , a budget which through tax changes and tariffs sought to redistribute wealth and fund social reform programs. [38] By parliamentary convention financial and budget bills are not challenged by the House of Lords , but in this case the predominately Conservative Lords rejected the bill on 30 April, setting off a constitutional crisis. [38] The Liberals called a general election in January 1910 , and Law spent most of the preceding months campaigning up and down the country for other Conservative candidates and MPs, sure that his Dulwich seat was safe, and when the results came in he held an increased majority of 2,418. [39] The overall result was more confused; while the Conservatives had gained 116 seats, bringing their total to 273, this was not enough to overturn the Liberal majority, and produced a hung parliament . [39] The Liberals formed a temporary coalition government with the Irish Parliamentary Party , and the budget passed through the House of Lords a second time without significant problems. [39]
This created a constitutional question — should the House of Lords be able to overturn bills passed by the House of Commons? The Liberal government introduced a bill in February 1910 which would prevent the House of Lords vetoing finance bills, and would force them to pass any bill which had been passed by the Commons in three sessions of Parliament. [39] This was immediately opposed by the Unionists, and both parties spent the next several months in a running battle over the bill. [39] The Conservatives were led by Arthur Balfour and Lord Lansdowne , who headed the Conservatives in the House of Lords, while Law spent the time concentrating on the continuing problem of tariff reform. [39] The lack of progress had convinced some senior Conservatives that it would be a good idea to scrap tariff reform altogether, which Law disagreed with, successfully arguing that tariff reform "was the first constructive work of the [Conservative Party]" and that to scrap it would "split the Party from top to bottom". [40]
With this success, Law returned to the constitutional crisis surrounding the House of Lords. The death of Edward VII on 6 May 1910 prompted the leaders of the major political parties to secretly meet in a "truce of god" to discuss the Lords. The meetings were kept almost entirely secret — outside of the party representatives, the only people aware were F.E. Smith , J.L. Garvin , Edward Carson and Bonar Law. [41] The group met approximately twenty times at Buckingham Palace between June and November 1910, with the Conservatives represented by Arthur Balfour , Lord Cawdor , Lord Lansdowne and Austen Chamberlain . [40] The proposal presented at the conference by David Lloyd George was a coalition government with members of both major parties in the Cabinet and a program involving Home Rule , poor law reforms, imperial reorganisation and possibly tariff reforms . [41] The interesting element of the Home Rule proposal was that it involved devolution — the idea that the United Kingdom could become a federal system, with "Home Rule all around" for Scotland, Ireland and England and Wales. [41] In the end the plans fell through — Balfour told Lloyd George on 2 November that the proposal would not work, and the conference was dissolved a few days later. [41]
December 1910 general election
With the failure to establish a political consensus after the January 1910 general election , the Liberals called a second general election in December . The Conservative leadership decided that a good test of the popularity of the tariff reform program would be to have a prominent tariff reformer stand for election in a disputed seat. [42] They considered Law a prime candidate, and after debating it for a month he guardedly agreed, enthusiastic about the idea but worried about the effect of a defeat on the Party. [42] Law was selected as the candidate for Manchester North West , and became drawn into party debates about how strong a tariff reform policy should be put in their manifesto. [43] Law personally felt that duties on foodstuffs should be excluded, something agreed to by Alexander Acland-Hood , Edward Carson and others at a meeting of the Constitutional Club on 8 November 1910, but they failed to reach a consensus and the idea of including or excluding food duties continued to be something that divided the party. [43]
During this period, the idea of using general elections as referendums for particular policies came into play. [43] After a sarcastic suggestion by Lord Crewe , Arthur Balfour announced to a crowd of 10,000 at the Royal Albert Hall that the coming election would be used as a referendum on tariff reform , something he described as "Bonar Law's proposal" or the "Referendum Pledge". [44] The suggestion was no more Law's than it was any of the other dozens of conservatives who had suggested this to Balfour, and his comment was simply an attempt to "pass the buck" and avoid the anger of Austen Chamberlain , who was furious that such an announcement had been made without consulting him or the party. [44] While Law had written a letter to Balfour suggesting that a referendum would attract wealthy Conservatives, he said that "declaration would do no good with [the working class] and might damp enthusiasm of best workers". [45]
Parliament was dissolved on 28 November, with the election to take place and polling to end by 19 December. [45] The Conservative Party as a whole gained the largest seats of any one party, but with the support of the Irish Nationalists the Liberal Party formed a government. Law called his campaign in Manchester North West the hardest of his career; his opponent, George Kemp, was a war hero who had fought in the Second Boer War and a former Conservative who had joined the Liberal party because of his disagreement with tariff reform. [46] In the end Law narrowly lost, with 5,114 votes to Kemp's 5,559, but the election turned him into a "genuine [Conservative] hero", and he later said that the defeat did "more for him in the party than a hundred victories". [47] In 1911, with the Conservative Party unable to afford him being out of Parliament, Law was elected in a by-election for the safe Conservative seat of Bootle . [47] In his brief absence the Liberal suggestions for the reform of the House of Lords were passed as the Parliament Act 1911 , ending that particular dispute. [48]
Leader of the Conservative Party
Arthur Balfour , who preceded Law as Leader of the Conservative Party .
On the coronation of George V on 22 June 1911, Bonar Law was made a Privy Councillor on the recommendation of the new Prime Minister and Arthur Balfour . [49] Within the Conservative Party, Privy Councillorship was evidence of party seniority and importance. [49] Balfour had been becoming increasingly unpopular as Leader of the Conservative Party since the 1906 general election; tariff reformers saw his leadership as the reason for their electoral losses, and the "free fooders" had been alienated by Balfour's attempts to tame the zeal of the tariff reform faction. [50] Balfour refused all suggestions of party reorganisation until a meeting of senior Conservatives led by Lord Salisbury after the December 1910 electoral defeat issued an ultimatum demanding a review of party structure. [51]
The defeat on the House of Lords issue turned a wing of the Conservative Party led by Henry Page Croft and his Reveille Movement, against Balfour. [51] Leo Maxse began a Balfour Must Go campaign in his paper the National Review , and by July 1911 Balfour was contemplating resignation. [52] Law himself had no problem with Balfour's leadership, and along with Edward Carson attempted to regain support for him. [53] By November 1911 it was accepted that Balfour was likely to resign, with the main competitors being Law, Carson, Walter Long and Austen Chamberlain . [53] When the elections began Long and Chamberlain were the frontrunners, Chamberlain commanding the support of many tariff reformers and Long the leader of the Ulster Unionists. [53] Carson immediately announced that he would not stand, and Law eventually announced that he would run for Leader, the day before Balfour resigned on 7 November. [54]
At the beginning of the election Law held the support of no more than 40 of the 270 Members of parliament; the remaining 130 were divided between Long and Chamberlain. Although Long believed he had the most MPs, his support was largely backbenchers and most of the whips and frontbenchers preferred Chamberlain. [54] With Long and Chamberlain almost equal they called a meeting on 9 November to discuss the possibility of a deadlock. Chamberlain suggested that he would withdraw if this became a strong possibility, assuming Long did the same. Long, now scared that his weak health would not allow him to survive the stress of party leadership, agreed. [55] Both did so on 10 November, and on 13 November 232 MPs assembled at the Carlton Club , where Law was nominated to be leader by Long and Chamberlain. With the unanimous support of the MPs, Law became Leader of the Conservative Party despite never having sat in Cabinet. [56]
As Leader, Law first "rejuvenated the party machine", selecting newer, younger and more popular whips and secretaries, elevating F.E. Smith and Robert Cecil to the Shadow Cabinet and using his business acumen to reorganise the party, resulting in better relations with the press and local branches, along with the raising of a £671,000 "war chest" for the next general election that was almost double that available at the previous one. [57] On 12 February 1912 he finally unified the two branches of the party (Conservatives and Unionists) into the awkwardly named National Unionist Association of Conservative and Liberal-Unionist Organisations. From then on all were referred to as "Unionists" until the ratification of the Anglo-Irish Treaty in 1922, after which they became Conservatives again. [58]
In Parliament, Law introduced the so-called "new style" of speaking, with harsh, accusatory rhetoric, that dominates British politics to this day. [59] This was as a counter to Arthur Balfour, known for his "masterly witticisms", because the party felt they needed a warrior-like figure. Law did not particularly enjoy his tougher manner, and at the State Opening of Parliament in February 1912 apologised directly to Asquith for his coming speech, saying "I am afraid I shall have to show myself very vicious, Mr Asquith, this session. I hope you will understand". [60] Law's "warrior king" figure helped unify the divided Conservatives into a single body, with him as the leader. [61]
Social policy
During his early time as Conservative leader, social policy was the most complicated and difficult to set up. In his opening speech as leader he said that the party would be one of principle, and would not be reactionary, instead sticking to their guns and holding firm policies. [62] Despite this he left things such as womens suffrage alone, leaving the party unwhipped and saying that "the less part we take in this question the better". [63] In terms of social reform (legislation to improve the conditions of the poor and working classes) Law was similarly unenthusiastic, believing that the area was a Liberal one that they could not successfully compete in. [63] His response to a request by Lord Balcarres for a social program was simply "as the [Liberal Party] refuse to formulate their policy in advance we should be equally absolved". [64] His refusal to get drawn in may have actually strengthened his hold over Conservative MPs, many of whom were similarly uninterested in social reform. [64]
In his first public speech as leader at the Royal Albert Hall on 26 January 1912 he listed his three biggest concerns; an attack on the Liberal government, for failing to submit their ideas for Home Rule to a referendum, tariff reform and the Conservative refusal to let the Ulster Unionists be "trampled upon" by an unfair Home Rule bill. [65] Both tariff reform and Ulster dominated his political work, with Austen Chamberlain saying that Law "once said to me that he cared intensely for only two things: Tariff Reform and Ulster; all the rest was only part of the game". [65]
More tariff reform
Lord Lansdowne , Law's primary speaker for the repeal of the Referendum Pledge.
After further review with members of his party, Law changed his initial beliefs on tariff reform and accepted the full package, including duties on foodstuffs. On 29 February 1912 the entire Conservative parliamentary body met at Lansdowne House, with Lord Lansdowne chairing. [66] Lansdowne argued that although the electorate might prefer the Conservative party if the dropped food duties from their tariff reform plan, it would open them to accusations of bad faith and "poltroonery". [66] Law endorsed Lansdowne's argument, pointing out that any attempt to avoid food duties would cause an internal party struggle and could only aid the Liberals, and that Canada, the most economically important colony, would never agree to tariffs without British support of food duties. [66]
Lord Salisbury , who opposed food duties, wrote to Law several weeks later suggesting they separate foodstuffs from tariff reform for the referendum. If the electorate liked food duties, they would vote for the entire package; if not, they did not have to. [67] Law replied arguing that it would be impossible to effectively do so, and that with the increasing costs of defence and social programs it would be impossible to raise the necessary capital except by comprehensive tariff reform. He also argued that a failure to offer the entire tariff reform package would split the Conservative Party down the middle, offending the tariff reform faction, and that if such a split took place "I could not possibly continue as leader". [67] Law held off on withdrawing the "Referendum Pledge" of a tariff reform referendum into 1912 because of the visit of Robert Borden , the newly elected Conservative Prime Minister of Canada , to London planned for July. [67] Meeting with Borden on his arrival, Law got him to agree to make a statement about the necessity of Imperial tariff reform, promising reciprocal agreements and saying that failure by London to agree tariff reform would result in an "irresistible pressure" for Canada to make a treaty with another nation, most obviously the United States. [68]
Law decided that the November party conference was the perfect time to announce the withdrawal of the Referendum Pledge, and that Lord Lansdowne should be the one to do it, firstly because he had been leader in the House of Lords when the pledge was made and secondly because of his relatively low profile during the original tariff reform dispute. [69] When the conference opened the British political world was a jittery one; on 12 November the opposition had narrowly defeated the government on an amendment to the Home Rule Bill, and the next evening Asquith attempted to introduce a motion reversing the previous vote, something met with hysterical shouting from the opposition. As the MPs filed out at the end of the day Winston Churchill began taunting the opposition, and in his anger Ronald McNeil hurled a copy of Standing Orders of the House at Churchill, hitting him on the head. [69] Law refused to condemn the events, and it seems apparent that while he had played no part in organising them they had been pre organised by the party Whips. [69] As party leader, he was most likely aware of the plans even if he did not actively participate. [69]
The conference was opened on 14 November 1912 by Lord Farquhar , who immediately introduced Lord Lansdowne. [70] Lansdowne revoked the Referendum Pledge, saying that the government had completely failed the agreement to submit Home Rule to a referendum, and that the agreement that tariff reform would also be submitted was null and void. Lansdowne promised that when the Unionists took office they would "do so with a free hand to deal with tariffs as they saw fit". [70] Law then rose to spoke, and in line with his agreement to let Lansdowne speak for tariff reform mentioned it only briefly when he said "I concur in every word which has fallen from Lord Lansdowne". [70] He instead promised a reversal of several Liberal policies when the Unionists came to power, including the disestablishment of the Church of Wales , land taxes and Irish Home Rule. [70] The crowd "cheered themselves hoarse" at Law's speech. [70]
The reaction from the party as a whole was not a positive one, however, despite the speeches warm reception at the conference. Law had failed to consult the constituencies and the local parties about his plan, and several important constituency leaders led by Archibald Salvidge and Lord Derby planned for a meeting of the Lancashire party, the centre of discontent, on 21 December. [71] Law was preoccupied with the problem of Irish Home Rule and was unable to give the discontent his full attention. Despite it he continued to believe that his approach to the problem of tariff reform was the correct one, and wrote to John Strachey on 16 November saying that "it was a case of a choice of two evils, and all that one could do was to take the lesser of the two, and that I am sure we have done". [71] Speaking to Edward Carson , F.E. Smith , Austen Chamberlain and Lord Balcarres in December after two weeks of receiving negative letters from party members about the change, Law outlined that he would not be adverse to a return to the previous policy considering the negative feelings from the party, but felt that this would require the resignation of both Law and Lansdowne. [71]
James Craig , who helped draft the January Memorandum.
Despite this offer of a return, Law again wrote to Strachey saying that he continued to feel this policy was the correct one, and only regretted that the issue was splitting the party in a time when unity was needed to fight the Home Rule problem. [71] At the meeting of the Lancashire party the group under Derby condemned Law's actions and called for a three week party recess before deciding what to do about the repeal of the Referendum Pledge. [72] This was an obvious ultimatum to Law, giving him a three-week period to change his mind. [72] Law believed that Derby was "unprincipled and treacherous", particularly since he then circled a questionnaire among Lancashire party members with leading questions such as "do you think the abandonment of the referendum will do harm?" [72] Law met the Lancashire party on 2 January and ordered that they must replace any food tariff based resolutions with a vote of confidence in him as a leader, and that any alternative would result in his resignation. [73]
After a chance meeting at which Edward Carson learnt of Law and Lansdowne's acceptance of possible resignation, he was spurred to ask Edward Goulding to beg Law and Lansdowne to compromise over the policy and remain as leaders. [74] The compromise, known as the January Memorial, was settled on by Carson, James Craig , Law and Lansdowne at Law's house between 6–8 January, affirmed the support the signers had of Law and his policies, noting that his resignation was not wanted. [75] Within two days 231 of the 280 Conservative MPs had signed it; 27 frontbenchers had not been invited, neither had five who were not in London, seven who were ill, the Speaker and a few others who could not be found — only eight MPs actively refused to sign. [75] Law's official response took the form of an open letter published on 13 January 1913, in which Law offered a compromise that food duties would not be placed before Parliament to vote on until after a second, approving election took place. [76]
Irish Home Rule
The January and December elections in 1910 destroyed the large Liberal majority, meaning they relied on the Irish Nationalists to maintain a government. [77] As a result they were forced to consider Home Rule , and with the passing of the Parliament Act 1911 which made the Commons superior to the Lords, the Conservative Party became aware that unless they could dissolve Parliament or sabotage the bill it would most likely become law by 1914. [77]
As the child of an Ulster family who had spent much time in the area (his father had moved back there several years after Law moved to Scotland), Law understood the gap between Ulster Unionism and Irish Nationalism, and believed it could never be crossed. Despite this he said little about Home Rule until the passing of the Parliament Act in 1911, calling it the "Home Rule In Disguise Act" and saying it was an attempt to change parliamentary demographics so as to allow Home Rule "through the back door". [78] After the passing of the Act he made a speech in the Commons saying that if the Liberals wished to pass a Home Rule Bill they should submit it to the electorate by calling a general election. His elevation to the leadership of the Conservative Party allowed him a platform to voice his opinion to the public, and his speeches (culminating with the January 1912 speech at the Royal Albert Hall ) were centred around Home Rule as much as they were around tariff reform. [78] Law was supported by Edward Carson , leader of the Ulster Unionists. [78] Although Law sympathised with the Ulster people politically he did not agree with the religious intolerance shown to Catholics. [78]
Third Home Rule Bill
The 1912 session of Parliament opened on 14 February with a stated intent by the Liberal Party in the King's Speech to introduce a new Home Rule Bill. [79] The bill was to be introduced on 11 April, and four days before that Law travelled to Ulster for a tour of the area. The pinnacle of this was a meeting on 9 April in the grounds of the Royal Agricultural Society near Balmoral, attended by seventy Unionist MPs, the Primate of All Ireland and topped by "perhaps the largest Union Jack ever made" - 48 feet by 25 feet on a flagpole 90 feet high. [80] At the meeting both Law and Carson swore to the crowd that "never under any circumstances will we submit to Home Rule". [80] Finding a way to succeed in this venture was difficult, however; the Parliament Act and the government majority made such a victory against the Bill unlikely unless the government could be dissolved. [81] A second problem was that not all Unionists opposed Home Rule to the same degree; some were hardcore anti-Home Rulers who would oppose any attempt at home rule, others thought it inevitable that the Bill would pass and were simply trying to get the best deal possible for Ulster. The spectre of civil war was also raised — the Ulstermen began to form paramilitary groups such as the Ulster Volunteers , and there was a strong possibility that if it came to fighting the British Army would have to be sent in to support the underfunded and understaffed Royal Irish Constabulary . [81]
The argument of Law and the Unionists between 1912 and 1914 was based on three complaints. Firstly, Ulster would never accept forced Home Rule, and made up a quarter of Ireland; if the Liberals wanted to force this issue, military force would be the only way. Law thundered that "Do you plan to hurl the full majesty and power of the law, supported on the bayonets of the British Army, against a million Ulstermen marching under the Union Flag and singing 'God Save The King'? Would the Army hold? Would the British people — would the Crown — stand for such a slaughter?". [82] A second complaint was that the government had so far refused to submit it to a general election, as Law had been suggesting since 1910. Law warned that "you will not carry this Bill without submitting it to the people of this country, and, if you make the attempt, you will succeed only in breaking our Parliamentary machine". [82] The third complaint was that the Liberals had still not fulfilled their obligations under the Parliament Act 1911 , the preamble of which said that the purpose was "to substitute for the House of Lords as it present exists a Second Chamber constituted on a popular instead of a hereditary basis". [83] The Unionist argument was that the Liberals were trying to make a massive constitutional change while the nature of Parliament itself was unresolved, suspending the constitution. [83]
Blenheim Palace , where the anti-Home Rule factions held their meeting on 27 July 1912.
In July 1912 Asquith travelled to Dublin (the first Prime Minister to do so in over a century) to make a speech, ridiculing Unionist demands for a referendum on the issue via an election and calling their campaign "purely destructive in its objects, anarchic and chaotic in its methods". [84] In response the Unionists had a meeting on 27 July at Blenheim Palace , the birthplace of Winston Churchill , one of Asquith's ministers. [84] More than 13,000 people attended, including over 40 peers. In Law's speech he said "I said so to [the Liberals] and I say so now, with the full sense of the responsibility which attaches to my position, that if the attempt be made under present conditions, I can imagine no length of resistance to which Ulster will go, in which I shall not be ready to support them, and in which they will not be supported by the overwhelming majority of the British people". [85] This speech was more known and criticised than any others; it implied both he and the British people would support the Ulstermen in anything, including armed rebellion against the Crown. [85]
Despite the conflict and fierce resistance, the Bill continued its passage through Parliament. It moved to its second reading on 9 June, and the Committee stage on 11 June, where it became fraught in controversy after a young Liberal named Thomas Agar-Robartes proposed an amendment excluding four of the Ulster counties from the Irish Parliament. [86] This put Law in a delicate situation, since he had previously said that he would support a system allowing each county to remain "outside the Irish Parliament", at the same time saying that he would not support any amendment that didn't have Ulster's full cooperation. [86] If he accepted the amendment, he would be seen as abandoning the Irish Unionists, but on the other hand if the amendment was carried it might disrupt the government by causing a split between the Liberals and Irish Nationalists, dissolving Parliament. [87] If the Unionists wished to win the ensuing election they would have to show that they were willing to compromise. In the end the amendment failed, but voting on it saw the Liberal majority reduced by 40, and when a compromise amendment was proposed by another Liberal MP the government Whips were forced to trawl for votes. Law saw this as a victory, as it highlighted the split in the government. [87] Edward Carson tabled another amendment on 1 January 1913 which would exclude all nine Ulster counties, more to test government resolve than anything else. While it failed, it allowed the Unionists to portray themselves as the party of compromise and the Liberals as stubborn and recalcitrant. [87]
The Unionists in Ulster itself proved to be committed to independence from any Irish Home Rule. They secretly authorised a Commission of Five to write a constitution for "a provisional Government of Ulster... to come into operation on the day of the passage of any Home Rule Bill, to remain in force until Ulster shall again resume unimpared citizenship in the United Kingdom". [88] On 28 September 1912, Carson led 237,638 of his followers in signing (some in their own blood) a Solemn League and Covenant saying that Ulster would refuse to recognise the authority of any Parliament of Ireland arising from Home Rule. [88] When Parliament resumed in October after the summer recess, the Home Rule Bill was passed by the Commons. As expected, the House of Lords rejected it 326 to 69, and under the provisions of the Parliament Act it could only be passed if it was passed twice more by the Commons in successive Parliaments. [89]
Second passage
George V of the United Kingdom , who, after pressure from the Unionists, requested that the Liberals put home rule to the test of a general election.
The end of 1912 saw the end of a year of political struggle for Law. As well as the problem of Home Rule, there were internal party struggles; supporters of the Church of England or military reform lambasted Law for not paying attention to their causes, and tariff reformers argued with him over his previous compromise on food duties. Despite this, most Conservatives realised that as a fighting leader, Law could not be bettered. [90] The results of by-elections throughout 1913 continued to favour them, but progress on the Home Rule Bill was less encouraging; on 7 July it was again passed by the Commons, and again crushed by the Lords on 15 July. [91] Parliament rose for the summer recess on 15 August, and Law and the Unionists spent the summer trying to convince the King to voice an opinion on the issue. Their first suggestion was that he should withhold the Royal Assent on it, something that horrified Law's constitutional law advisor A.V. Dicey . The second was more reasonable — they argued that the Liberals had put the King in an impossible position by asking him to ratify a bill that would infuriate half of the population. [91] His only option was to write a memo to Asquith saying this and requesting that the problem of home rule be put to the electorate via a general election. After thinking on this, the King agreed, and handed a note to Asquith on 11 August requesting either an election or an all-party conference. [91]
Asquith responded with two notes, the first countering the Unionist claim that it would be acceptable for the King to dismiss Parliament or withhold assent of the Bill to force an election, and the second arguing that a Home Rule election would not prove anything, since a Unionist victory would only be due to other problems and scandals and would not assure supporters of the current government that Home Rule was truly opposed. [91] The King instead pressed for a compromise, summoning various political leaders to Balmoral Castle individually for talks. Law arrived on 13 September and again pointed out to the king his belief that if the Government continued to refuse an election fought over Home Rule and instead forced it on Ulster, the Ulstermen would not accept it and any attempts to enforce it would not be obeyed by the British Army. [92]
By early October the King was pressuring the British political world for an all-party conference. Fending this off, Law instead met with senior party members to discuss developments. Law, Balfour , Smith and Long discussed the matter, and other than Long all were favourable of a compromise with the Liberals. [93] Long represented the anti-Home Rule elements in Southern Ireland, and from this moment onwards Southern and Northern attitudes towards Home Rule began to diverge. [93] Law then met with Edward Carson , and afterwards expressed the opinion that "the men of Ulster do desire a settlement on the basis of leaving Ulster out, and Carson thinks such an arrangement could be carried out without any serious attack from the Unionists in the South". [93]
On 8 October Asquith wrote to Law suggesting an informal meeting of the two party leaders, which Law accepted. [94] The two met at Asquith's house, Cherkley Court , on 14 October. [95] The meeting lasted an hour, and Law told Asquith that he would continue to try and have Parliament dissolved, and that in any ensuing election the Unionists would accept the result even if it went against them. [96] Law later expressed his fear to Lansdowne that Asquith would persuade the Irish Nationalists to accept Home Rule with the exclusion of four Ulster counties. [96] Carson would not accept this, requiring all six counties to be excluded, and such a move might split the Unionists. [96] Law knew that Asquith was unlikely to consent to a general election, since he would almost certainly use it, and that any attempt to pass the Home Rule Bill "without reference to the electorate" would lead to civil disturbance. [97] As such, Asquith was stuck "between a rock and a hard place" and was sure to negotiate. [97]
Asquith and Law met for a second private meeting on 6 November, [98] at which Asquith raised three possibilities. The first was one suggested by Sir Edward Grey , and consisted of "Home Rule within Home Rule" - Home Rule covering Ulster, but with partial autonomy for the Ulster region. [99] The second was that Ulster would be excluded from Home Rule for a number of years before becoming part of it, and the third was that Ulster would be excluded from Home Rule for as long as they liked, with the opportunity of joining when they wished. [99] Law made it clear to Asquith that the first two options were unacceptable, but the third may be accepted in some circles. [99] The leaders then discussed the problem of the geographical definition of Ulster. It was technically nine counties, and was usually considered to be at least six, but the number varied. Carson always referred to the nine counties of Ulster, but Law told Asquith that if an appropriate settlement could be made with a smaller number Carson "would see his people and probably, though I could not give any promise to that effect, try to induce them to accept it". [99]
The third meeting was on 10 December and Law, angry that Asquith had not yet presented a concrete way to exclude Ulster, made little progress. [100] Law brushed aside Asquith's suggestions and insisted that only the exclusion of Ulster was worth considering. [101] He later wrote that "My feeling, however, is that Asquith has no hope whatsoever of making such an arrangement and that his present idea is simply to let things drift in the meantime.. I do not understand why he took the trouble of seeing me at all. The only explanation I can give is that I think he is in a funk about the whole position and thought that meeting me might keep the thing open at least". [101]
With the failure of these talks, Law accepted that a compromise was unlikely, and from January 1914 onwards returned to the position that the Unionists were "opposed utterly to Home Rule". [102] The campaign was sufficient to bring the noted organiser Lord Milner back into politics to support the Unionists, and he immediately asked L. S. Amery to write a British Covenant saying that the signers would, if the Home Rule Bill passed, "feel justified in taking or supporting any action that may be effective to prevent it being put into operation, and more particularly to prevent the armed forces of the Crown being used to deprive the people of Ulster of their rights as citizens of the United Kingdom". [103] The Covenant was announced at a massive rally in Hyde Park on 4 April 1914, with hundreds of thousands assembling to hear Milner, Long and Carson speak. By the middle of the summer Long claimed over 2 million people had signed. [103]
Army Annual Act
Law was not directly involved in this campaign as he was focusing on a practical way to defeat the Home Rule Bill. His first attempt was via the Army Annual Act, something that "violated a basic and ancient principle of the constitution". [104] Since the Glorious Revolution , Parliament had passed an Act every year which fixes the number of soldiers in the British Army. If the Act was rejected by Parliament it would cause a constitutional crisis and technically make the British Army an illegal institution. [104] Lord Selborne had written to Law in 1912 to point out that vetoing or significantly amending the Act in the House of Lords would force the government to resign, and such a course of action was also suggested by others during 1913 and 1914. [104] Law believed that forcing Ulstermen away from the union with Britain and under a Dublin-based government they did not recognise was itself constitutionally damaging, and that amending the Army Annual Act to prevent the use of force in Ulster (he never suggested vetoing it) would not violate the constitution any more than the actions the government had already undertaken. [104]
By 12 March he had established that, should the Home Rule Bill be passed under the Parliament Act 1911 , the Army Annual Act should be amended in the Lords to stipulate that the Army could not "be used in Ulster to prevent or interfere with any step which may thereafter be taken in Ulster to organise resistance to the enforcement of the Home Rule Act in Ulster nor to suppress any such resistance until and unless the present Parliament has been dissolved and a period of three months shall have lapsed after the meeting of a new Parliament". [104] The Shadow Cabinet agreed that it would be necessary to consult a panel of legal experts, who after deliberation agreed wholeheartedly with Law's suggestion. [104] Although several members expressed dissent, the Cabinet decided "provisionally to agree to amendment of army act. but to leave details and decisions as to the moment of acting to Lansdowne and Law". [105] In the end no amendment to the Army Act was offered, though; many backbenchers and party loyalists became agitated by the scheme and wrote to him that it was unacceptable - Ian Malcolm , a fanatical Ulster supporter, told Law that amending the Army Act would drive him out of the Party. [105]
World War I
On 30 July 1914, following the outbreak of the First World War , Law met with Asquith and agreed to temporarily suspend the issue of Home Rule to avoid domestic discontent during wartime. By the following day both leaders had convinced their parties to agree to this move. On 3 August Law spoke openly in the House of Commons, saying that "the Government already know, but I give them now the assurance on behalf of the party of which I am leader in this House, that in whatever steps they think it necessary to take for the honour and security of this country they can rely upon the unhesitating support of the Opposition". The following night, Germany rejected British demands for a withdrawal from Belgium, and Britain declared war. [106]
Over the coming months, the Liberal, Labour and Conservative whips worked out a truce suspending confrontational politics until either 1 January 1915 or until the end of the War. On 4 August both Asquith and Law made speeches together at the Middlesex Guildhall, and uncomfortably socialised with each others parties. On 6 August, the Conservatives learnt that Asquith planned to put the Home Rule Bill on the statute books; Law wrote an angry letter to Asquith, the response of which was that Asquith could either pass the bill immediately, suspending it for the duration of the conflict, or make it law with a six month delay and with a three year exclusion for Ulster. Law responded with a speech in the Commons, saying that "the Government have treated us abominably... but we are in the middle of a great struggle. Until that struggle [is] over, so far as we are concerned, in everything connected with it there would be no parties, there would openly be a nation. In regard to this debate I have made protest as well as I could, but when I have finished we shall take no further part in the discussion". The entire Party then left the Commons silently, and although a strong protest (Asquith later admitted that "it was unique in my or I think anybody's experience") the bill was still passed, although with a suspension for the duration of the War. [107]
The Conservatives soon began to get annoyed that they were unable to criticise the Government, and took this into Parliament; rather than criticising policy, they would attack individual ministers, including the Lord Chancellor (who they considered "far too enamoured of German culture") and the Home Secretary , who was "too tender to aliens". [108] By Christmas 1914 they were anxious about the war; it was not, in their opinion, going well, and yet they were restricted to serving on committees and making recruitment speeches. At about the same time, Law and David Lloyd George met to discuss the possibility of a coalition government. Law was supportive of the idea in some ways, seeing it as a probability that "a coalition government would come in time". [109]
Coalition Government
Background and formation
The crisis which led to a coalition government forming was twofold; first the Shell Crisis of 1915 , and then the resignation of Lord Fisher , the First Sea Lord . The Shell Crisis arose because of the failure to fully organise British industry into a state of total war , and the matter was raised in Parliament on 21 April 1915. Asquith tried to ward off the criticism the day before the debate, praising the government efforts and saying that "I do not believe that any army has ever either entered upon a campaign or been maintained during a campaign with better or more adequate equipment". The Conservatives, whose sources of information included officers such as Sir John French , were not put off, and instead became furious. [110]
Over the next few days the Conservative backbenchers threatened to break the truce and mount an attack on the government over the munitions situation. Law forced them to back down on 12 May, but on the 14th an article appeared on The Times blaming the British failure at the Battle of Neuve Chapelle on the lack of munitions. This again stirred up the backbenchers, who were only just kept in line. The Shadow Cabinet took a similar line; things could not go on as they were. The crisis was only halted with the resignation of Lord Fisher. Fisher had opposed Winston Churchill over the Gallipoli Campaign , and felt that he could not continue in government if the two would be in conflict. Law knew that this would push the Conservative back bench over the edge, and met with David Lloyd George on 17 May to discuss Fisher's resignation. Lloyd George eventually agreed that "the only way to preserve a united front was to arrange for more complete cooperation between parties in the direction of the War". [111]
Lloyd George reported the meeting to Asquith, who agreed that a coalition was inescapable. He met with Law in the Cabinet Room at 10 Downing Street , and after a quarter of an hour they came to an agreement to form a coalition government . [112]
Law's next job, therefore, was to assist the Liberal Part in creating a new government. In their discussions on 17 May, both Law and Lloyd George had agreed that Lord Kitchener should not remain in the War Office, and removing him became top priority. Unfortunately the press began a campaign supporting Kitchener on 21 May, and the popular feeling that this raised convinced Law, Lloyd George and Asquith that Kitchener could not be removed. In order to keep him and at the same time remove the munitions supply from his grasp to prevent a repeat of the "shells crisis" the Ministry of Munitions was created, with Lloyd George becoming Minister of Munitions. [113]
Law eventually accepted the post of Colonial Secretary , an unimportant post in wartime; Asquith had made it clear that he would not allow a Conservative minister to head the Exchequer, and that with Kitchener (whom he considered a Conservative) in the War Office, he would not allow another Conservative to hold a similarly important position. Fearing for the integrity of the coalition, Law accepted this position. [114] Outside of Law's position, other Conservatives also gained positions in the new administration; Arthur Balfour became First Lord of the Admiralty , Austen Chamberlain became Secretary of State for India and Edward Carson became Attorney General . [115]
Colonial Secretary
During Law's time as Colonial Secretary, the three main issues were the question of manpower for the British Army , the crisis in Ireland and the Dardanelles Campaign . Dardanelles took priority, as seen by Asquith's restructuring of his War Council into a Dardanelles Committee. Members included Kitchener, Law, Churchill, Lloyd George and Lansdowne, with the make-up divided between political parties to defuse tension and provide criticism of policy. The main discussion was on the possibility of reinforcing the forces already landed, something Law disagreed with. With Asquith and the Army in support, however, he felt that he was ill-equipped to combat the proposal. Five more divisions were landed, but faced heavy casualties for little gain. As a result Law led a strong resistance to the idea at the next Committee meeting on 18 August. The idea only avoided being scrapped thanks to the French promise to send forces in in early September, and the arguing became an immense strain on the government. [116]
Law entered the coalition government as Colonial Secretary in 1915, his first senior Cabinet post, and, following the resignation of Prime Minister and Liberal Party leader Asquith, was invited by King George V to form a government, but he deferred to Lloyd George , Secretary of State for War and former Minister of Munitions, who he believed was better placed to lead a coalition ministry. He served in Lloyd George's War Cabinet, first as Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons . His promotion reflected the great mutual trust between both leaders and made for a well co-ordinated political partnership; their coalition was re-elected by a landslide following the Armistice. Law's two eldest sons were both killed whilst fighting in the war. In the 1918 General Election, Law returned to Glasgow and was elected as member for Glasgow Central .
Post-war and Prime Minister
Bonar Law
At war's end, he gave up the Exchequer for the less demanding sinecure office of Lord Privy Seal , but remained Leader of the Commons. In 1921, ill health forced his resignation as Conservative leader and Leader of the Commons in favour of Austen Chamberlain . His departure weakened the hardliners in the cabinet who were opposed to negotiating with the Irish Republican Army , and the Anglo-Irish War ended in the summer.
By 1921-2 the coalition had become embroiled in an air of moral and financial corruption (e.g. the sale of honours). Besides the recent Irish Treaty and Edwin Montagu's moves towards greater self-government for India , both of which dismayed rank-and-file Conservative opinion, the government's willingness to intervene against the Bolshevik regime in Russia also seemed out of step with the new and more pacifist mood. A sharp slump in 1921 and a wave of strikes in the coal and railway industries also added to the government's unpopularity, as did the apparent failure of the Genoa Conference, which ended in an apparent rapprochement between Germany and Soviet Russia. In other words, it was no longer the case that Lloyd George was an electoral asset to the Conservative Party.
Lloyd George, Birkenhead and Winston Churchill (still distrusted by many Conservatives) wished to use armed force against Turkey (the Chanak Crisis ), but had to back down when offered support only by New Zealand , but not Canada , Australia or South Africa ; an anonymous letter appeared in "The Times" supporting the government but stating that Britain could not "act as the policeman for the world", and it was an open secret that the author, "A Colonial", was in fact Bonar Law. At a famous meeting at the Carlton Club , Conservative backbenchers, led by the President of the Board of Trade Stanley Baldwin and influenced by the recent Newport by-election which was won by a Conservative from the Liberals, voted to end the Lloyd George Coalition and fight the next election as an independent party. Austen Chamberlain resigned as Party Leader, Lloyd George resigned as Prime Minister and Bonar Law returned on 23 October 1922 in both jobs.
Many leading Conservatives (e.g. Birkenhead, Arthur Balfour , Austen Chamberlain, Robert Horne) were not members of the new Cabinet, which was contemptuously referred to as "the Second Eleven". Although the Coalition Conservatives numbered no more than thirty, they hoped to dominate any future Coalition government in the same way that the similarly sized Peelite group had dominated the Coalition Government of 1852-5 - an analogy much used at the time.
Parliament was immediately dissolved, and a General Election ensued. Besides the two Conservative factions, the Labour Party were fighting as a major national party for the first time and indeed became the main Opposition after the election; the Liberals were still split into Asquith and Lloyd George factions, with many Lloyd George Liberals still unopposed by Conservative candidates (including Churchill, who was defeated at Dundee nonetheless). Despite the confused political arena the Conservatives were re-elected with a comfortable majority.
Questions were raised about whether the elderly Conservative Party Treasurer, Lord Farquhar , had passed on to Lloyd George (who during his premiership had amassed a large fund, largely from the sale of honours) any money intended for the Conservative Party. The Coalition Conservatives also hoped to obtain Conservative Party money from Farquar. Bonar Law found Farquar too "gaga" to properly explain what had happened, and dismissed him.
One of the questions which taxed Bonar Law's brief government was that of inter-Allied war debts. Britain owed money to the USA, and in turn was owed four times as much money by France , Italy and the other Allied powers, although under the Lloyd George government Balfour had promised that Britain would collect no more money from other Allies than she was required to repay the USA; the debt was hard to repay as trade (exports were needed to earn foreign currency) had not returned to prewar levels. On a trip to the USA Stanley Baldwin, the inexperienced Chancellor of the Exchequer, agreed to repay £40 million per annum to the USA rather than the £25 million which the British government had thought feasible, and on his return announced the deal to the press when his ship docked at Southampton , before the Cabinet had had a chance to consider it. Bonar Law contemplated resignation, and after being talked out of it by senior ministers, once again vented his feelings in an anonymous letter to The Times.
Resignation and death
Bonar Law was soon diagnosed with terminal throat cancer and, no longer physically able to speak in Parliament, resigned on 22 May 1923. George V sent for Baldwin, whom Bonar Law is rumoured to have favoured over Lord Curzon . However Law did not offer any advice to the King. [117] Bonar Law died later that same year in London at the age of 65. His funeral was held at Westminster Abbey where later his ashes were interred.
Bonar Law's estate was probated at £35,736 (approximately £1,510,000 as of 2010). [118]
Bonar Law was the shortest serving PM of the 20th century. He is often referred to as "the unknown Prime Minister", not least because of a biography of that title by Robert Blake ; the name comes from a remark by Asquith at Bonar Law's funeral, that they were burying the Unknown Prime Minister next to the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier.
A tiny hamlet (unincorporated village) named Bonarlaw is named after the British Prime Minister. It was formerly known as "Big Springs" and then "Bellview" and is located in the municipality of Stirling-Rawdon, Ontario , Canada. The high school in Bonar Law's birthplace, Rexton, New Brunswick , Canada, is also named in his honour.
Bonar Law's Government, October 1922 - May 1923
For a full list of Ministerial office holders, see Conservative Government 1922-1924
^ UK CPI inflation numbers based on data available from Measuring Worth: UK CPI .
Bibliography
Adams, R.J.Q. (1999). Bonar Law. John Murray (Publishers) Ltd. ISBN 0719554225.
Birkenhead, Frederick E. (1977). Contemporary Personalities. Ayer Publishing. ISBN 0836900618.
Eccleshall, Robert (1998). Biographical dictionary of British prime ministers. Routledge. ISBN 0415108306.
Ensor, Robert (1936). England 1870 - 1914. Clarendon Press. OCLC 400389 .
Kendle, John (1992). Walter Long, Ireland and the Union, 1905-1920. McGill-Queen's Press. ISBN 0773509089.
Laybourn, Keith (2001). British political leaders: a biographical dictionary. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1576070433.
Mackintosh, John Pitcairn (1981). The British Cabinet (3rd ed.). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0416313809.
Malcolm, Ian Zachary (1977). Vacant thrones. Ayer Publishing. ISBN 0836906721.
Mowat, Charles Loch (1978). Britain between the wars: 1918-1940 (2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 041629510X.
Pugh, Martin (1974). "Asquith, Bonar Law and the First Coalition". The Historical Journal (Cambridge University Press) 17 (4). ISSN 0018-246X .
Raymond, E. T. (2007). Uncensored Celebrities. Read Books. ISBN 1406773972.
Sforza, Carlo (1969). Makers of modern Europe: portraits and personel impressions and recollections. Ayer Publishing. ISBN 0836910648.
Smith, Jeremy (1993). "Bluff, Bluster and Brinkmanship: Andrew Bonar Law and the Third Home Rule Bill". The Historical Journal (Cambridge University Press) 36 (1). ISSN 0018-246X .
Taylor, Andrew (2006). Bonar Law. Haus Publishing. ISBN 1904950590.
Taylor, A.J.P (1965). English History 1914-1945. Clarendon Press. OCLC 174762876 .
Turner, John (1988). Britain and the First World War. Routledge. ISBN 0044451091.
Popular Culture
Bonar Law plays a supporting, if off-screen, role in Upstairs, Downstairs . He is even said to have recommended family patriarch, Richard Bellamy, to be offered a seat in the peerage.
External links
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Which forest features in the Shakespeare play ‘As You Like It’? | SparkNotes: As You Like It: Themes, Motifs & Symbols
Themes, Motifs & Symbols
Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary work.
The Delights of Love
As You Like It spoofs many of the conventions of poetry and literature dealing with love, such as the idea that love is a disease that brings suffering and torment to the lover, or the assumption that the male lover is the slave or servant of his mistress. These ideas are central features of the courtly love tradition, which greatly influenced European literature for hundreds of years before Shakespeare’s time. In As You Like It, characters lament the suffering caused by their love, but these laments are all unconvincing and ridiculous. While Orlando’s metrically incompetent poems conform to the notion that he should “live and die [Rosalind’s] slave,” these sentiments are roundly ridiculed (III.ii.142). Even Silvius, the untutored shepherd, assumes the role of the tortured lover, asking his beloved Phoebe to notice “the wounds invisible / That love’s keen arrows make” (III.v.31–32). But Silvius’s request for Phoebe’s attention implies that the enslaved lover can loosen the chains of love and that all romantic wounds can be healed—otherwise, his request for notice would be pointless. In general, As You Like It breaks with the courtly love tradition by portraying love as a force for happiness and fulfillment and ridicules those who revel in their own suffering.
Celia speaks to the curative powers of love in her introductory scene with Rosalind, in which she implores her cousin to allow “the full weight” of her love to push aside Rosalind’s unhappy thoughts (I.ii.6). As soon as Rosalind takes to Ardenne, she displays her own copious knowledge of the ways of love. Disguised as Ganymede, she tutors Orlando in how to be a more attentive and caring lover, counsels Silvius against prostrating himself for the sake of the all-too-human Phoebe, and scolds Phoebe for her arrogance in playing the shepherd’s disdainful love object. When Rosalind famously insists that “[m]en have died from time to time, and worms have eaten them, but not for love,” she argues against the notion that love concerns the perfect, mythic, or unattainable (IV.i.91–92). Unlike Jaques and Touchstone, both of whom have keen eyes and biting tongues trained on the follies of romance, Rosalind does not mean to disparage love. On the contrary, she seeks to teach a version of love that not only can survive in the real world, but can bring delight as well. By the end of the play, having successfully orchestrated four marriages and ensured the happy and peaceful return of a more just government, Rosalind proves that love is a source of incomparable delight.
The Malleability of the Human Experience
In Act II, scene vii, Jaques philosophizes on the stages of human life: man passes from infancy into boyhood; becomes a lover, a soldier, and a wise civic leader; and then, year by year, becomes a bit more foolish until he is returned to his “second childishness and mere oblivion” (II.vii.164). Jaques’s speech remains an eloquent commentary on how quickly and thoroughly human beings can change, and, indeed, do change in As You Like It. Whether physically, emotionally, or spiritually, those who enter the Forest of Ardenne are often remarkably different when they leave. The most dramatic and unmistakable change, of course, occurs when Rosalind assumes the disguise of Ganymede. As a young man, Rosalind demonstrates how vulnerable to change men and women truly are. Orlando, of course, is putty in her hands; more impressive, however, is her ability to manipulate Phoebe’s affections, which move from Ganymede to the once despised Silvius with amazing speed.
In As You Like It, Shakespeare dispenses with the time--consuming and often hard-won processes involved in change. The characters do not struggle to become more pliant—their changes are instantaneous. Oliver, for instance, learns to love both his brother Orlando and a disguised Celia within moments of setting foot in the forest. Furthermore, the vengeful and ambitious Duke Frederick abandons all thoughts of fratricide after a single conversation with a religious old man. Certainly, these transformations have much to do with the restorative, almost magical effects of life in the forest, but the consequences of the changes also matter in the real world: the government that rules the French duchy, for example, will be more just under the rightful ruler Duke Senior, while the class structures inherent in court life promise to be somewhat less rigid after the courtiers sojourn in the forest. These social reforms are a clear improvement and result from the more private reforms of the play’s characters. As You Like It not only insists that people can and do change, but also celebrates their ability to change for the better.
City Life Versus Country Life
Pastoral literature thrives on the contrast between life in the city and life in the country. Often, it suggests that the oppressions of the city can be remedied by a trip into the country’s therapeutic woods and fields, and that a person’s sense of balance and rightness can be restored by conversations with uncorrupted shepherds and shepherdesses. This type of restoration, in turn, enables one to return to the city a better person, capable of making the most of urban life. Although Shakespeare tests the bounds of these conventions—his shepherdess Audrey, for instance, is neither articulate nor pure—he begins As You Like It by establishing the city/country dichotomy on which the pastoral mood depends. In Act I, scene i, Orlando rails against the injustices of life with Oliver and complains that he “know[s] no wise remedy how to avoid it” (I.i.20–21). Later in that scene, as Charles relates the whereabouts of Duke Senior and his followers, the remedy is clear: “in the forest of Ardenne . . . many young gentlemen . . . fleet the time carelessly, as they did in the golden world” (I.i.99–103). Indeed, many are healed in the forest—the lovesick are coupled with their lovers and the usurped duke returns to his throne—but Shakespeare reminds us that life in Ardenne is a temporary affair. As the characters prepare to return to life at court, the play does not laud country over city or vice versa, but instead suggests a delicate and necessary balance between the two. The simplicity of the forest provides shelter from the strains of the court, but it also creates the need for urban style and sophistication: one would not do, or even matter, without the other.
Motifs
Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, or literary devices that can help to develop and inform the text’s major themes.
Artifice
As Orlando runs through the forest decorating every tree with love poems for Rosalind, and as Silvius pines for Phoebe and compares her cruel eyes to a murderer, we cannot help but notice the importance of artifice to life in Ardenne. Phoebe decries such artificiality when she laments that her eyes lack the power to do the devoted shepherd any real harm, and Rosalind similarly puts a stop to Orlando’s romantic fussing when she reminds him that “[m]en have died from time to time, and worms have eaten them, but not for love” (IV.i.91–92). Although Rosalind is susceptible to the contrivances of romantic love, as when her composure crumbles when Orlando is only minutes late for their appointment, she does her best to move herself and the others toward a more realistic understanding of love. Knowing that the excitement of the first days of courtship will flag, she warns Orlando that “[m]aids are May when they are maids, but the sky changes when they are wives” (IV.i.125–127). Here, Rosalind cautions against any love that sustains itself on artifice alone. She advocates a love that, while delightful, can survive in the real world. During the Epilogue, Rosalind returns the audience to reality by stripping away not only the artifice of Ardenne, but of her character as well. As the Elizabethan actor stands on the stage and reflects on this temporary foray into the unreal, the audience’s experience comes to mirror the experience of the characters. The theater becomes Ardenne, the artful means of edifying us for our journey into the world in which we live.
Homoeroticism
Like many of Shakespeare’s plays and poems, As You Like It explores different kinds of love between members of the same sex. Celia and Rosalind, for instance, are extremely close friends—almost sisters—and the profound intimacy of their relationship seems at times more intense than that of ordinary friends. Indeed, Celia’s words in Act I, scenes ii and iii echo the protestations of lovers. But to assume that Celia or Rosalind possesses a sexual identity as clearly defined as our modern understandings of heterosexual or homosexual would be to work against the play’s celebration of a range of intimacies and sexual possibilities.
The other kind of homoeroticism within the play arises from Rosalind’s cross-dressing. Everybody, male and female, seems to love Ganymede, the beautiful boy who looks like a woman because he is really Rosalind in disguise. The name Rosalind chooses for her alter ego, Ganymede, traditionally belonged to a beautiful boy who became one of Jove’s lovers, and the name carries strong homosexual connotations. Even though Orlando is supposed to be in love with Rosalind, he seems to enjoy the idea of acting out his romance with the beautiful, young boy Ganymede—almost as if a boy who looks like the woman he loves is even more appealing than the woman herself. Phoebe, too, is more attracted to the feminine Ganymede than to the real male, Silvius.
In drawing on the motif of homoeroticism, As You Like It is influenced by the pastoral tradition, which typically contains elements of same-sex love. In the Forest of Ardenne, as in pastoral literature, homoerotic relationships are not necessarily antithetical to heterosexual couplings, as modern readers tend to assume. Instead, homosexual and heterosexual love exist on a continuum across which, as the title of the play suggests, one can move as one likes.
Exile
As You Like It abounds in banishment. Some characters have been forcibly removed or threatened from their homes, such as Duke Senior, Rosalind, and Orlando. Some have voluntarily abandoned their positions out of a sense of rightness, such as Senior’s loyal band of lords, Celia, and the noble servant Adam. It is, then, rather remarkable that the play ends with four marriages—a ceremony that unites individuals into couples and ushers these couples into the community. The community that sings and dances its way through Ardenne at the close of Act V, scene iv, is the same community that will return to the dukedom in order to rule and be ruled. This event, where the poor dance in the company of royalty, suggests a utopian world in which wrongs can be righted and hurts healed. The sense of restoration with which the play ends depends upon the formation of a community of exiles in politics and love coming together to soothe their various wounds.
Symbols
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Brooklyn, Graveyard and Turkey are terms used in which sport? | Shakespeare's 'As You Like It'- Forest vs Court Setting
Shakespeare Expert
By Lee Jamieson
As You Like It is set in a forest, but it is difficult to be clear about the As You Like It setting. Some argue that it is the Forest of Arden that once surrounded Shakespeare’s hometown of Stratford-upon-Avon; others believe that the As You Like It setting is in Ardennes, France.
Forest Vs Court
The forest is presented in a more favourable light in that the “goodies”, Duke Senior and his court, reside there. All of the good characters in the court are banished or exiled to the forest at the start of the play.
Duke Senior describes the court as “painted pomp…the envious court”. He goes on to say that in the forest the dangers are real but natural and are preferable to those in the court “The …churlish chiding of the winter’s wind… even till I shrink with cold, I smile and say This is no flattery” (Act 2, Scene 1).
He suggests the harsh conditions of the forest are preferable to the pomp and false flattery in the court: That at least in the forest, things are honest.
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This could be compared to the Courtly love between Orlando and Rosalind and the bawdy, primitive but honest love between Touchstone and Audrey.
There are also reflections of Robin Hood and his merry men in the lives of Duke Senior and his supporters: “…there they live like the old Robin Hood of England” (Charles; Act 1, Scene 1).
This reinforces the positive depiction of the forest as opposed to the negative portrayal of the court. When the evil characters enter the forest they have a sudden change of heart as discussed – suggesting the forest has healing properties. There is therefore a sense of foreboding at the end of the play when the characters are to be restored to the court…we hope that they will bring some of the natural qualities of forest life with them when they return.
In this Shakespeare may be suggesting that there needs to be a balance between forest and court; living with nature and using your senses should be balanced with living in an ordered, political world where education and social politeness is necessary. If one is too close to nature they may turn out like Touchstone and Audrey but if they are too political they may become more like Duke Frederick.
Duke Senior has struck a happy balance – being educated and gentlemanly having the ability to manage people but also appreciating nature and its offerings.
Class and Social structures
The struggle between forest and court also sheds light on the class struggle at the core of the play.
Celia disguises her nobility to become a poor woman Aliena in the forest. She does this in order to protect herself, presumably from those who would try and steal from her. This gives her a freedom she has never enjoyed. Oliver falls for her dressed as Aliena and we know as a result, that his motives are honourable – he is not after her money. This is important in that previously, Oliver’s motives have been questionable.
Touchstone and Audrey are seen as more lowly characters but as discussed, are possibly perceived as more honest as a result, they are unable to social climb and therefore don’t need to flatter and lie their way to the top. Duke Senior is happier in the forest without the trappings of his dukedom.
Shakespeare may be suggesting in As You Like It, that just because you are considered to be ‘high class’ it is not necessarily reflected in your nature – or that in order to social climb one needs to lie and flatter and therefore people at the top of society are the worst kind of people.
However, at the end of the play when the Duke is restored to the court we are led to believe that the court will be a better place but perhaps because he has witnessed first hand what it is like to be poor. He is compared to Robin Hood and as such is considered ‘of the people’.
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In Russia, what is a kazachok? | Kazachok | Define Kazachok at Dictionary.com
kazachok
[kuh-zahch-kee] /kə zɑtʃˈki/ (Show IPA)
1.
a lively, Slavic folk dance for a solo male dancer, marked especially by the prisiadka.
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1925-30; < Russian kazachók or Ukrainian kozachók, equivalent to kazák, kozák Cossack + -ok diminutive suffix
Dictionary.com Unabridged
British Dictionary definitions for kazachok
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a Russian folk dance in which the performer executes high kicks from a squatting position
Word Origin
Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition
© William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins
Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012
| Folk dance |
What does the Latin phrase ‘ab initio’ translate to in English? | Kazachok | Article about Kazachok by The Free Dictionary
Kazachok | Article about Kazachok by The Free Dictionary
http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Kazachok
Also found in: Dictionary , Wikipedia .
Kazachok
a folk dance (for example, the Ukrainian, Kuban’, and Terek kazachoks) written in 2/4 time, the most popular of which is the Ukrainian kazachok —a lively, gay improvised dance performed in pairs. The Polish lutist and composer S. Dusiecki (early 17th century) is credited with the first musical adaptation of the kazachok Its melody first appeared in Russian manuscripts of the second half of the 18th century. The kazachok began appearing in French ballets and was particularly popular in the 1820’s, after Russian troops were stationed in Paris. In the early 19th century it was performed in Russia as a ballroom dance. In 1864 A. S. Dargomyzhskii composed The Little Russian Kazachok for symphony orchestra.
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The former gold-mining region of Cariboo is in which country? | Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Region (British Columbia, Canada) - TRAVEL & TOURING GUIDE by Cariboo Chilcotin Coast_British Columbia, Canada - issuu
Travel & Touring Guide www.landwithoutlimits.com
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LEAVE YOUR TRACKS British Columbia is the home of the Prince George 2015 Canada Winter Games; the most important event young athletes compete in to become our Canadian champions. Come now to experience our hospitality and get a taste of the welcome we're preparing for 2015. Choose your path, leave your tracks, and journey with us as we host the nation.
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Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
Welcome to the Cariboo Chilcotin Coast
Contents
the Cariboo Rolling Hills, Rivers & Lakes
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the Chilcotin Great High Plateau — Frontier Spirit
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the Coast Mountains, Old-Growth Forests & Inlets
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For accommodation reservations and travel information visit:
www.helloBC.com
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For travel information, contact Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Tourism Association:
1-800-663-5885 | www.landwithoutlimits.com ©2014 – Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Tourism Association (the “Region”). All rights reserved. Unauthorized reproduction is prohibited. This Guide does not constitute, and should not be construed as, an endorsement or recommendation of any carrier, hotel, restaurant or any other facility, attraction or activity in British Columbia, for which neither Destination BC Corp. nor the Region assumes any responsibility. Super, Natural British Columbia®, Hello BC®, Visitor Centre and all associated logos/trade-marks are trade-marks or Official Marks of Destination BC Corp. Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Tourism Association© and all associated trade-marks and logos are trade-marks or official marks of the Region. Admission fees and other terms and conditions may apply to attractions and facilities referenced in this Guide. Errors and omissions excepted. 1-800-663-5885
Agritourism & Cuisine
| www.landwithoutlimits.com
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Cariboo Chilcotin Coast British Columbia’s Land Without Limits What is “A Land without Limits”? It is a region of British Columbia comprised of 117,000 km² of breathtaking beauty, ruggedness, incredible wildlife and outdoor adventure opportunities that will ensure you are actively enjoying nature throughout this great land. Your imagination will run wild and your opportunity to explore is truly limitless. This is a place where Aboriginal culture and contemporary lifestyles exist harmoniously, and where ancient traditions and modern life have each carved out their place in a vast, dramatic environment. Turn these pages for a brief glimpse into this diverse world of distinctive landscapes – alpine mountains and glaciers, deciduous woodlands and forests, deserts and sandstone canyons, evergreen timberlands, ocean fjords and inlets. All of which provide the perfect foundation for the physical and cultural activities and experiences to be found in the Cariboo Chilcotin Coast. Our physical land draws people to its overpowering radiance and we love showcasing this part of our character. Many resorts, guest ranches, festivals and events take advantage of an exciting wild west past that includes the history of our First Nations peoples, the fur trade, the gold rush and ranching. Imagine a coastline with thousands of kilometers of secluded coves, fjords, inlets, pristine beaches and rocky shores where you’ll find what’s arguably the world’s best saltwater fishing and eco-adventures, providing up-close experiences with sea birds, bears, whales, dolphins and sea lions. First Nations villages along the central coast are rich in heritage and they take pride in sharing their stories. If your timing is right, you can witness one of nature’s most remarkable feats when the salmon miraculously migrate back to their birthplace to spawn each year in the many rivers and streams throughout the region.
Mountain bikers, skiers, hikers, snowmobilers, golfers, campers, photographers, fishermen and sailors all thrive in the region’s varied topography. This region of small cities, towns, and villages is the perfect place to enjoy these activities and outdoor adventures, while exploring our cultural history.
John Zada
While we proudly embrace and present our open skies and a rustic edge, we are so much more. We also offer sophisticated resorts and spas, championship golf courses, and a wide range of cultural, intellectual, and adventure experiences.
So, come share ‘your adventures’ with us and experience our hospitality as you explore our remarkable “Land Without Limits”.
Enter our Land Without Limits . . . 4
Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
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Rolling hills, rivers, and lakes inspire both adventurers and historians to follow the original Cariboo Wagon Road on the Gold Rush Trail, bordered by pioneer cabins, groves of aspen, clusters of Indian paintbrush and troutfilled waters. Discover historic sites, saddle up at a ranch, experience First Nations culture, head out on a mountain bike, explore welldeveloped trail networks, don snowshoes and cross-country skis in winter, experience the spine-tingling call of a loon and seek out the region’s abundant wildlife. Welcome!
Chris Harris
the Cariboo
On this great plateau, full of frontier spirit, discover a world where people are scarcer than wildlife and the landscape is larger than life. Stretching west beyond the Fraser River, a burnished golden plateau meets the peaks of the Coast Mountain Range. Explore our backcountry, fish in tranquil, isolated lakes, reach high alpine with a packhorse trek and raft churning whitewater. Remote and geographically diverse, the Chilcotin boasts incredible wildlife and natural phenomena in a land rich in First Nations culture and pioneering spirit. Welcome!
Kim Culbert/www.kimculbert.com
the Chilcotin
Mountains, old-growth forests and a myriad of inlets entice as a jumble of deep fjords and a scattering of emerald islands enchant. Welcoming First Nations villages, rich in heritage, speckle the coast. Beaches and isolated hot springs remain as pristine as they were centuries ago. Giant cedars grace mountainsides and rim wide valleys in this outdoor-adventure mecca. Fish the rivers, heli-ski the mountain peaks, don your hiking boots and be astounded by the mystical tranquility. Welcome!
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Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
Gordon Baron
the Cariboo
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xplore networks of biking, hiking and walking trails; hear the mystical call of a loon and seek out the region’s abundant wildlife; or enjoy a winter escape on snowshoes, cross-country skis and snowmobiles. Pay a visit to guest ranches with European trained chefs, who prepare a variety of tempting cuisines unknown to early cowboys and gold miners, or visit one of our Northern Secwepemc (shi-HUEP-muh-k) communities. Enjoy one of the many festivals that embrace a variety of cultural celebrations in our lively cities and towns. Cariboo country stretches from Lillooet and Cache Creek in the south, north to Hixon and Stoner, and is bordered by the Cariboo Mountains in the east and the Fraser River to the west. The region, named after the once abundant woodland caribou, was the first part of the B.C. Interior to be settled by nonindigenous people, playing a significant role in early European settlement of the province. Follow the original Cariboo Wagon Road along the Gold Rush Trail, sprinkled with pioneer cabins, groves of aspen, clusters of Indian paintbrush and trout-filled waters. In the 1860s, much of this region was the centre of a huge gold rush that brought gold seekers from all corners of the world. Mining towns and roadhouses sprung up almost overnight from Lillooet northward. Today, the legends from that
era are still alive in ghost towns, some of which have been revived and recreated. Although the great Cariboo Gold Rush ended many years ago, the sense of frontier adventure is alive and well in the pioneering spirit of the people who are proud to call this region home. The Cariboo consists of three distinct sections; South, Central and North. The heavily forested North Cariboo, where the major goldfields were once located, is sparsely populated today but was once the most settled and powerful district in B.C.’s Interior. The Central Cariboo, home to the region’s largest community, Williams Lake, has a geography ranging from dense forests, inland rainforests and mountain lakes to arid, lava formed canyons and open plains. The diverse landscape of the South Cariboo consists of rolling grasslands, open meadows, pine and aspen forests, semi-arid desert viewscapes, tranquil lakes and granitewalled river gorges. All three sub-regions are linked by the Cariboo Highway (Hwy 97), the majority of which parallels the legendary Gold Rush Trail. Many communities en route are named according to their distance from Lillooet (Mile 0) as one journeys north along the Cariboo Wagon Road. Evidence of this raucous heritage endures in delightful places like the roadhouses at historic Hat Creek Ranch, 108 Mile Ranch, Cottonwood House, and in Barkerville, a National Historic
Site, where the Cariboo Gold Rush is re-created in full 1860s detail. Outdoor recreational opportunities abound in the Cariboo, renowned for its incredible mountain biking, hiking and fishing, as well as for geocaching, wildlife-viewing, boating, Nordic skiing, downhill skiing, and snowmobiling. Wild West fans will enjoy many famous cattle and guest ranches, the B.C. Cowboy Hall of Fame and a busy circuit of amateur and professional rodeos, including one of Canada’s largest and most famous, the annual Williams Lake Stampede.
The South Cariboo
The story of the South Cariboo is written in the numbers signposted along Highway 97’s original roadhouse towns. About every 21km/13mi along this historic 644km/400mi route, a roadhouse was located. Travellers could journey its entire length by stagecoach in four days, providing they could afford $130 for a one way ticket. Today, Hat Creek Ranch is one of the Cariboo’s largest surviving roadhouses, just 11km/7mi north of Cache Creek amid rolling, sagebrush hills at the junction of Highways 97 and 99. This B.C. Heritage Site marks the crossroads where all major threads of the South Cariboo’s compelling history - fur trading, ranching, First Nations culture and gold - intersect. Most of the roadhouses are long gone, while a few have evolved into villages and towns where modern-day travellers can still trace
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Staff Favorites Hunting with my camera, fishing rods and rifle in the fall when the Cariboo back roads and highways are a visual feast of fall colors and natural flavours. The fish are firm and fat, and you have opportunities to put the healthiest of wild meat in your freezer while the bounty of local growers supplement your “supermarket” diet. – Geoff Moore I recently had the pleasure of working on an event in Wells. I met some amazing people and was able to enjoy fabulous food at a couple of unique restaurants. This funky town retains its flavor from an era gone by and is extremely colorful! – Linda MacInnis
I love discovering those surprise drink spots! My favorites in the Cariboo are all about a good ‘cup’ – Clinton Coffee House, Granville’s Coffee in Quesnel, Hotel DeOro for a cup of java and Ft Berens for a divine wine at day’s end in Lillooet. – Amy Thacker
I enjoy riding the Williams Lake River Valley Trail on mountain bikes with my kids, as well as tackling the many incredible mountain trail networks around the Cariboo with friends. The options and skill levels are almost endless! – Brad McGuire
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Michael Bednar
A great family event that I enjoy annually is the Green Lake Gymkhana, held the second weekends of July and August. They are fun days of horses and then a better time of tubing and water skiing in the clear, clean turquoise colored lake. – Beverly Evans
Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
Lillooet, located 225km/140mi north of Vancouver via Whistler on the Sea to Sky Highway or via Lytton through the Fraser Canyon, and 270km/168mi south of Williams Lake, offers a variety of restaurants and affordable lodging, including B&Bs and campsites, making it a great spot for a romantic weekend getaway or a quick day trip out of the city for family adventures. Easy access for mountain biking, backpacking, boating, and other fun activities make Lillooet a perfect playground in spring, summer and fall, while winter boasts unprecedented ice climbing, heli-skiing and snowmobiling. Lillooet embraces
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Lillooet “Guaranteed Rugged” describes the mountainous terrain around Lillooet and the lifestyle enjoyed by its actively engaged people. The landscape is rugged, rocky, steep, and challenging in a fun kind of way. Roads are carved out of the mountainsides overlooking the Fraser River. People here experience the thrill of feeling alive, living life to its fullest and enjoying every second of it!
the Cariboo
the region’s gold rush past through a landscape that appears airlifted out of an old western. The rolling grasslands of the South Cariboo remain firmly rooted in cowboy culture, with a plethora of guest ranches offering daytrips and getaways for riders of all skill levels. Significant wilderness assets lure adventurers and wildlife lovers, while those who feel most complete with rod and reel in hand find nirvana along the legendary Fishing Highway 24, as 100-plus lakes loaded with rainbow trout, lake trout and kokanee are within an hours’ drive.
culture and traditions of the St’át’imc (stat-lee-um) First Nation. Take a cultural tour with Xwisten Tours (hoysh-ten) to experience authentic St’át’imc history, traditions and food. The Lillooet Apricot Tsaqwen Festival (cho-com) celebrates local culture and is a huge hit with visitors and locals every July. If treasure hunting sounds more your style, try geocaching in Lillooet. Search out over 100 different geocaches in the area to find hidden secrets. Pick up one of the local Hiking Guidebooks, and get up close and personal with nature while travelling the trails. For the less extreme, play a round of golf at the Lillooet Sheep Pasture Golf Course, complete with hazards like live resident sheep, or take a rock hounding stroll along the banks of the mighty Fraser.
way to Seton Portage; the same tracks used by the internationally renowned Rocky Mountaineer. Visit the Miyazaki House, built in the 1890s, and view its historic architecture and Dr. Miyazaki’s original office. This is also the place to be Friday nights in July and August for the summer concert series. For wine connoisseurs, a visit to Fort Berens Estate Winery is a must!
Enjoy jade sculptures on the Jade Walk along Main Street. Take a ride on the Kaoham rail shuttle on Fridays as it skirts the pristine waters of Seton Lake on its
An alternate route from Vancouver brings you north on Highway 1 up the Fraser Canyon. Visit Hells Gate (54km/33.5mi north of Hope) and ride
Lillooet has plenty to offer the adventure seeker, while the stories of the 1860s Gold Rush ensure that the culturalhistorian will also be entertained and inspired. Plan a visit to the Museum and Visitor Centre located in an old Anglican Church, where you can learn about notable characters and fascinating stories of the Cariboo Gold Rush.
The perfect stop for a relaxing lunch or high tea, in an historic spot in BC.
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Festivals & Events New Year’s Polar Bear Swim – A Williams Lake Rugby Club fundraiser. Hearty souls of all ages dress in wacky costumes while jumping from the ice into the lake. Scout Island. January 1 Gold Rush Trail Sled Dog Mail Run – Sled Dog teams travel wilderness trails between Quesnel and Wells carrying the mail over several days. Also open to skijorers, cross country skiers, snowshoers, kick-sledders and runners. January 24 – 26 Cariboo Goldrush X-Country Marathon – A competitive and fun event for all ages & skill levels. 10 km recreational up to 50 km full marathon. 99 Mile Ski Trails. February 8 The Wells Snowman Gourmet Ski Event - A non-competitive cross-country ski tour. Ski various routes enjoying internationally inspired ethnic cuisine served at various “pit stops. Wells. February 15 Western Heritage Week – Go western and celebrate our gold rush past with a fancy dress Clinton May Ball (held annually since 1868), a parade, Rodeo, Dinner & Dance, Old Timers‘ Tea Party and more! Clinton. May 17 – 26 Father’s Day Pow-Wow – Hand drumming contest, Princess Pageant and ceremonial feast. Williams Lake. June 14 – 15 Williams Lake Stampede – Pro rodeo events, parade, street party and tons of family fun. Williams Lake. June 27 – 30 Arts on the Fly Music & Dance Festival – Top performers in jazz, indie folk and punk rock and other genres. Horsefly. July 11 - 12 ArtsWells Festival– Four day infusion of over 100 musical performers, independent film screenings, workshops, live theatre and more! Wells. August 1 – 4
markhobson.com
Beer & Wine Festival - Taste local beer, wine and BBQ beef at Fort Berens Winery. Live music, horse-and-buggy rides in the vineyard, arts and crafts, kids entertainment. Lillooet. September 13 Old-Fashioned Victorian Christmas – Sleigh rides, caroling, hot drinks, delicious baking and Christmas gift shopping in a stunning setting. Barkerville. December 6 – 8 14
Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
Michael Bednar
Clinton The village of Clinton is an outdoor adventure hub, providing active experiences in a landscape noted for its wildlife and unique geological variations, such as the ‘Grand Canyon of the North’ located in the backcountry west of Clinton along the Fraser River, and nearby Chasm Provincial Park, created by glacial melt cutting into lava flows. This 8km/5mi long, 300m/984ft deep box canyon features rock layers in spectacular shades of orange, pink, yellow and lavender. The name Clinton was officially adopted on June 11th, 1863, replacing the previous name, “The Junction”. Visit the museum for local history and visitor information. In the 1870s, Clinton was a cattle-ranch town, a soap-soda and Epsom salts distributor in the early 1900s, and a bush and sawmill town in the 1950s. Today, Clinton continues many of its original traditions and exudes a charming character. Tour local heritage buildings, explore nearby provincial parks, wander antique shops, or enjoy one of the nearby guest ranches where you can ride the range, cross-country ski, pan for gold and be pampered by exquisite cuisine and spa treatments. 2013 marked a milestone for Clinton; 150 years since its official
the Cariboo
the aerial tramway down to the crashing waters of the Fraser River as it rushes through the narrow 35m/110ft gorge. This area is one of the best places in Canada for white-water river rafting. Further north, at the confluence of the Fraser and Thompson Rivers, is the community of Lytton and the junction of Highway 12. For a scenic trip following the Fraser River take Highway 12 through the ‘Big Slide’ northwest to Lillooet.
naming, and 50 years since this historic village was incorporated. A favorite event is the Clinton Annual Ball, now in its 147th year! Stop and stay awhile in Clinton to learn about its history and play in its great outdoors. 70 Mile House 70 Mile House caters to travellers journeying the historic Gold Rush Trail along Highway 97. It is also a key turnoff point for the Green Lake Recreation Area - one of the most popular destinations in the South Cariboo for water sports of all kinds and, along with nearby Watch Lake, a habitat for thriving waterfowl and raptor populations. When 70 Mile House was established in 1862 as a hostel for Cariboo Wagon Road work crews, the
residents probably had no idea that in the next 150 or so years, the area would become one of the Cariboo’s major guest ranch areas. Several family-run ranches continue the tradition of guest-house hospitality, offering a wide selection of outdoor activities that include hiking, horseback riding, fishing, snowmobiling, mountain biking and canoeing. Interlakes / The Fishing Highway Highway 24, stretching from 93 Mile House to Little Fort between the junctions of Highways 97 and 5, is renowned as “The Fishing Highway”. Hundreds of lakes are nestled in the Interlakes tranquil, scenic settings where the day’s catch might include rainbow trout, lake trout and kokanee.
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“Fans and Followers” Got the opportunity to go to the Cariboo this summer with our trailer. Stayed at Horse Lake, and absolutely loved it, fishing, watching lightening showers and listening to the loons on the lake in the evenings. We will be back. – Cindy S. I just enjoy hiking in your beautiful nature - and horseback riding! – Elke S Beautiful BC! I don’t dislike flying, I just really prefer to be “down to earth”, feel the surroundings, sniff the atmosphere, meet the locals, see wildlife and so forth. – Peter E. My daughter travelled from Alberta to go with me to Barkerville. We try to make it a yearly trip. We arrived after the August long weekend rush - still extremely busy! lol! It was awesome to see other families and couples dress up in period costume (as we do)! – Rhonda D. The ArtsWells Festival in Wells is so cool! Great people from all walks of life who come together to enjoy all of the fine arts (among other things) in such a glorious setting… I can’t wait until next years event! – Joslyn T.
As a little kid in the Netherlands, I saw the TV series ‚Grizzly Adams’ in the 70’s and since then, Canada was the promised land for me. I call the lake COWOBE because it is my dream to see 3 majestic animals in the wild (coyote – wolf – bear) before I leave this earth. – Marco Kolleppel, Eysden, Netherlands
✸ See Map page 59 16
Thomas Drasdauskis
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Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
100 Mile House With a population of roughly 2,000, it claims a couple of lofty titles, including “Handcrafted Log Home Capital of North America” and is the self-proclaimed “International Nordic Ski Capital”, boasting the world’s tallest pair of cross-country skis at the Visitor Centre, and has one of B.C.’s most active Nordic clubs. Enjoy an easy stroll along the paved, wheelchair accessible walkway of the 100 Mile Marsh Wildlife Sanctuary - depart from the Visitor Centre, and keep an eye out for various bird species throughout the year. 100 Mile House was originally a fur trading station on the Hudson’s Bay Company Brigade Trail (Kamloops to Fort Alexandria), and was an important stagecoach stop on the Gold Rush Trail by the early 1860s. Cattle ranching and the forestry industry sustained 100 Mile House after the gold rush ended, and today it is the main service centre for outlying communities and industries. One of the area’s popular attractions is the 108 Mile Ranch Historic Site, a collection of lakeside heritage buildings including the largest log barn of its kind left in Canada. The site features a museum, stone sculptures, refurbished log buildings and period implements and tools, and is a great picnic stop along your journey.
The Central Cariboo
Adrenaline junkies are lured by the trails snaking through the hillsides around Williams Lake, an area Bike Magazine dubbed “the Shangri-La of mountain biking”. To the east, wonderful fishing and kayaking can be found in the Horsefly area. Time it right and you can spot grizzlies fishing riverside for salmon. The salmon migrate by the millions up the Quesnel River to spawn in the Horsefly and Mitchell rivers. Although forestry, mining and tourism may be the most important financial drivers in the region, cowboy culture is still king here.
the Cariboo
It’s also ranch country, popular for trail riding. Near the west end of Highway 24 is Lone Butte, a peaceful little village named for the solitary volcano plug that rises skyward. Enjoy an invigorating hike up the “butte,” or research the community’s historic past. Lone Butte is a great home base for touring and exploring the restaurants, cafés, shops, lakes, resorts and guest ranches spanning the length of “The Fishing Highway”.
Prospectors and merchants ventured here in 1859 after the news of a big gold strike on the Horsefly River, 65km/40mi east of Williams Lake. The following year, William Pinchbeck, a tough police constable from Victoria, arrived to keep law and order; juggling jobs as lawyer, judge, and jailer while building a homestead and rest house with restaurant, saloon, general store and race-horse track. Race days attracted hundreds of spectators, including one memorable contest in 1861 when the stakes were a whopping $100,000. Pinchbeck was a busy man, his roadhouse, already famous for its White Wheat Whiskey (from his own distillery at 25 cents a shot), suffered no lack of business and he came to own almost the entire Williams Lake River Valley. Pinchbeck’s grassy gravesite above his former ranch is one of the most famous in the Cariboo, overlooking the Williams Lake Stampede Grounds.
Canim Lake Canim Lake is 35km/22mi northeast of 100 Mile House and is one of the largest lakes in the Cariboo at 37km/23mi long. It is surrounded by meadows, mountains and forested hills, with resorts dotting its shoreline and a vast pebble beach that is a remnant of the glacial age. Summertime offers hiking, horseback riding, canoeing, boating and fishing against a backdrop of magnificent waterfalls, volcanic cones near Spanish Creek, and ancient pictographs and pit houses at Deception Creek. Winter fun includes snowmobiling, ice fishing, backcountry skiing and snowshoeing. Lac la Hache The village has been dubbed “the longest town in the Cariboo” for how its fishing resorts, ranches and vacation homes dot the lake’s 19km/12mi long shoreline. Long before the lure of wealth brought fur traders to this area, the Secwepemc (shi-HUEP-muh-k) and Chilcotin (chilko-teen) First Nations moved through the region. The Secwepemc established pit houses near present-day Lac la Hache, and the Chilcotins named the lake Kumatakwa, Queen of the Waters. Today, Lac la Hache is one of the most popular lakes along Highway 97, particularly with anglers, power boaters and water-skiers. In winter, the typically crisp and clear sunny days are perfect to enjoy a day of ice fishing on the lake, or to head for the slopes of nearby Mt. Timothy for a day of skiing and snowboarding.
Genuine hospitality, delicious meals and grand outdoor adventure!
Clinton BC // 1-877-655-2333
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150 Mile House When Thomas Davidson, owner of the first ranch established in the Williams Lake area, went looking for a larger piece of property in 1861, he moved 22km/14mi east to build his large, two storey roadhouse and lucrative business selling produce and hay to the gold-mining settlement of Quesnelle Forks. When the Cariboo Wagon Road came through in 1863, the site became the 150 Milepost from Lillooet. 150 Mile House is an important junction for travellers heading east to the resort lakes around Horsefly and Likely, or for those following the historic Gold Rush Trail. Today, roughly 1,300 residents live mostly on small acreages and ranch holdings along Highway 97.
Amy Thacker
Horsefly Outdoor lovers head here for camping, hiking, fishing, kayaking, mountain biking and backcountry skiing. Horsefly, the gateway to Quesnel Lake, Horsefly Lake, Crooked Lake and the Cariboo Mountains, hosts entertaining events, including a May Day long-weekend celebration, July’s Arts on the Fly Music Festival, the September Salmon Festival, Fall Fair and Horsefly Follies Theatrical Review. Visit the Pioneer Museum, which also serves as the area’s Visitor Info Booth. The first gold discovery of the Cariboo Gold Rush was in the Horsefly River in 1859, three years before Billy Barker made his big strike on Williams Creek. The prospectors, led by American Peter Dunlevy, were guided by native Long Baptiste and the gold was easily visible, having been exposed by sockeye salmon during gravel churning spawning. The party picked up 2,835g/100oz of nuggets in a week - and so began the great gold rush of 1859 into B.C.’s Interior. Those easy-to-find gold nuggets are long gone, leaving the area’s approximately 1,000 residents to work in forestry, ranching, mining and tourism. Likely Likely, originally known as Quesnelle (kwe-nel) Dam in 1898 when a dam was built to mine the Quesnel River, changed its name in 1923 to commemorate popular prospector, John “Plato” Likely. Located about 86km/54mi northeast of 150 Mile House at the west end of Quesnel Lake, the deepest fjord lake in North America, Likely’s economy is driven by mining and forestry. Intriguing evidence of past mining ventures exist at Cedar Point Provincial Park, home to the Cedar City Mining Museum. Once a rendezvous point for the Hudson’s Bay Fur Brigade, the park campground accesses a network of old mining trails. Likely provides one of the park’s main access points, with tourist information, a public boat launch to Quesnel Lake, and driving access to Quesnelle Forks. Quesnelle Forks Quesnelle Forks is a hauntingly striking ghost town accessible to the public by a dirt road from Likely, just 9km/5.5mi away. Visitors can wander through original log cabins and a heritage graveyard, the only evidence of the past residents who lived here in the late 1800s. There are no entrance fees or employees, no souvenir shops or cafés, just compelling glimpses and fragments of the past. In the early 1860s, gold fever was rampant at the confluence of the Quesnel and Cariboo Rivers. “The Forks” quickly became
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Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
But, cowboys and rodeos are not the city’s only attraction. It’s a mountain biking mecca, with three dedicated areas: Westsyde Ridge, Desous Mountain and Fox Mountain being major attractions. With all three featuring tracks ranging from double-track beginner to epic cross-country and steep, gnarly
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Williams Lake Named after Chief William, a Secwepemc (shi-HUEP-muh-k) chief from the area, the city is located at the junction of Highways 97 and 20, and has been one of the Cariboo Chilcotin’s major crossroads since the turn of the 20th century. Even prior to the arrival of the first white settlers, the area was a meeting place for the Secwepemc First Nation. This “Hub City of the Cariboo” is the largest in the region (11,200 residents within city limits) and a market-area population close to 30,000. Its distinctive western-frontier personality shines brightly when it hosts the Williams Lake Stampede during the Canada Day long weekend (July 1). Professional rodeo stars from around the globe compete for big-purse money in traditional rodeo and unique home-grown events.
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a rowdy camp with 5,000-plus residents. After the gold seekers moved farther north, the community’s key location made it a major entryway to the goldfields and it remained a busy hub. When the Cariboo Wagon Road was completed in 1865 the community was bypassed, and fell into decline. By the mid-1870s, most of the residents had left, though a thriving community of Chinese prospectors and merchants temporarily remained to support a widely dispersed mining community.
down-hills, many riders are spreading the word that the area offers the best wilderness biking in British Columbia. Williams Lake also boasts excellent wildlife-viewing opportunities. Birders make a beeline for Scout Island, a nature sanctuary at the west end of the lake. In addition to a beach area, nature house, picnic ground, and boat launch, this nature sanctuary for birds and small wildlife is laced with trails. Enjoy a walk downtown among quaint shops, retail stores and art galleries, some featuring local art and First Nations gifts. A variety of restaurants are found on nearly every side street. The city boasts three golf courses (one 18 hole championship course and two 9 hole courses), a magnificent log Tourism Centre, the B.C. Cowboy Hall of Fame, and the very popular River Valley Trail, spanning 12km/7.5mi from downtown to the historic Fraser River.
McLeese Lake The small resort community of McLeese Lake, situated 30 minutes north of Williams Lake, was originally known as Mud Lake and was renamed in honor of a resident from nearby Soda Creek in the 1880s. Robert McLeese owned a
June 27 to 30, 2014
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sternwheeler, hotel and store and was the postmaster of nearby Soda Creek for 25-plus years. Modern-day travellers come for outdoor adventures. Water sports and fishing are popular, along with hiking, camping, and off-roading in the surrounding hills. In winter, hiking trails become snowmobile and cross-country ski routes while the lake is transformed into an outdoor skating rink and idyllic ice-fishing hot spot.
The North Cariboo
The Cariboo Gold Rush of the 1860s came to an end about a decade after its start, and its prospectors fled. With paddle-wheelers plying the Fraser River and interior lakes, and a major railway to come, the region’s newly settled farmers and ranchers stayed on. Soon a new wave of modern-day adventurers followed, seeking their own golden dreams in the North Cariboo, a region as rich in untapped wilderness as it once was in gold. Just east of Quesnel in the Cariboo Mountains, is Bowron Lake Provincial Park; one of the world’s top five canoe circuits spread over 10 glacial lakes connected by channels, rivers and short portages. By hard-core water-rat standards, the route is a slam-dunk in terms of difficulty, one of the big reasons some 65,000 paddlers a year tackle it.
Mike Hawkridge/Hidden Lake Guest Ranch
West of Quesnel about 100km/62mi, the waters of Nazko Lake Provincial Park buoy the rare and endangered American White Pelican. To the northeast, the Blackwater River is the most outstanding dry fly-fishing destination in North America, with virtually every pool or riffle nurturing hard-fighting rainbow trout. The Blackwater is also the eastern entry point of the Nuxalk-Carrier Grease Trail (Alexander Mackenzie Heritage Trail). Extending 420km/261mi westward to the Pacific, this historic trail was once the Nuxalk (nu-halk) and Carrier First Nations’ primary trade route. Here in 1793, famed explorer Alexander Mackenzie traced its unmapped terrain to become the first European to reach the Pacific Ocean by land. Although few of today’s intrepid explorers tackle the entire route, which takes three weeks to complete, many follow sections either by foot, on horseback or by ATV.
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Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
Quesnel’s “living history” is on display during its famous Billy Barker Days, commemorating the rowdy era of the 1860s. The 150-plus events over four days include pie-eating duels, stage shows, free outdoor concerts, stock-car racing, colourful parade, children’s festival and the sights and sounds of the Quesnel Rodeo, the largest amateur rodeo in B.C.. Nazko Nazko is a small First Nations community 100km/62mi west of Quesnel where the main draw is the surrounding valley, lakes and rivers. The valley lies within the traditional territory of the Carrier people, who once traded widely with neighbouring tribes, exchanging eulachon oil, dried meats, and obsidian along the Nuxalk-Carrier Grease Trail. Here in 1793, explorer Alexander Mackenzie was guided by the Carrier on an epic journey that made him the first European to reach the Pacific Ocean
Thomas Drasdauskis
European settlers flocked by the thousands into this city that served as the gold seekers’ supply depot during the Cariboo Gold Rush. Today, the North Cariboo’s main urban centre is popularly known as the “Gold Pan City,” a claim to fame written large across the 5.5m/18ft high Gold Pan at the town’s northern entrance. Many intriguing reminders of the city’s gold rush heyday are scattered throughout downtown’s 30 heritage sites including the original 1862 Hudson’s Bay Company Trading Post. More historical curiosities can be viewed at the Quesnel and District Museum and Archives (at the Visitor Centre), rated one of the top community museums in B.C., with one of North America’s most significant collections of Chinese artifacts.
the Cariboo
Quesnel Quesnel is ideally situated at the confluence of the Fraser and Quesnel rivers, a launch point for outdoor adventures, including mountain biking, camping, fishing, and snowmobiling getaways with wide-open trail touring. Ever-growing urban green spaces include Alex Fraser Park, the “Petunia Mile” and the Heritage Rose Garden’s 200-plus floribunda and tea roses. Enjoy a healthy lifestyle with your own personal walking guide visiting these and other sites - ask about it at the Visitor Centre.
by land. The first permanent European homesteader settled locally in 1903, and by the 1920s, trading posts had been built in Nazko, Kluskus and Ulkatcho for trading furs and dry goods with the Carrier, homesteaders and ranchers. Hixon Hixon Creek is named for prospector Joseph Foster Hixon, who found gold in the Fraser near the community in 1866. Situated 60km/37mi north of Quesnel on Highway 97, Hixon offers travelers accommodation and supplies for various outdoor adventures, including nearby Hixon Falls and Three Sisters Provincial Park at Stone Creek. Watch for the August car show and shine!
Wells The mountain town of Wells, an 82km/51mi drive east of Quesnel, was built as a company town for Fred Wells’ Gold Quartz Mine, when the promise of more gold in the Cariboo gave many an opportunity to escape the unemployment of the depressed 1930s in what was then northern B.C.’s largest community and cultural centre. Fast-forward some 80 years. While there are now fewer than 300 year-round residents, many heritage buildings have been restored, including the Wells Hotel and the Sunset Theatre. Other architectural landmarks sport bright rainbow colours in a nod to the
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Bowron Lake Provincial Park Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
Barkerville Although many boom towns sprung to life during the Cariboo Gold Rush, Barkerville, a ramshackle collection of buildings squeezed against the bank of a mountain creek, was the largest and most resilient. By 1958, when the provincial government declared it a B.C. Heritage site, the town had been virtually deserted, and the last residents were relocated as work began on restoring the town’s “heyday splendour.” Now one of Canada’s National Historic Sites, it is B.C.’s best known heritage destination and the largest historic site in western North America, full of colour and vitality, with
The
Drummond Lodge Williams Lake, BC, Canada
250-392-5334 or 800-667-4555
stagecoach rides, live theatre, saloons serving quaffs of sarsaparilla, a photo studio, café and bakery, a well-preserved 19th-century Chinatown and interesting cemetery tours. Families love to visit and enjoy interpreters roaming the streets as historical characters, greeting newcomers as if they’d just arrived on a Barnard Express stagecoach. 120 restored buildings are on display as “locals” set off to work at the mine or otherwise bring a bygone era to life. See and hear what it was like to be a blacksmith, a school teacher, a seamstress - or a precocious child - 150+ years ago.
the Cariboo
town’s vibrant arts scene. The Island Mountain Arts Society’s celebrated arts school offers classes in visual, literary and performing art, while the wildly popular ArtsWells Festival of All Things Art is held annually the first weekend in August. The region’s outdoor adventures include the popular 7 Summits Bike & Hike Trek that lures mountain bikers from across the globe. The area has hundreds of kilometres of stunningly scenic trails to suit all users; hiking, mountain biking, crosscountry skiing and snowmobiling – accessible right from town! Nearby Jack O’Clubs Lake boasts tranquil canoeing. In winter, try hut-to-hut cross-country adventures in the Mount Murray Area, sled dog adventures and the renowned Gold Rush Trail Sled Dog Mail Run. Straddling the Trans Canada Snowmobile Trail, the Wells network of “sledder” trails links you to Quesnel, Likely and the Prince George snowmobile clubhouse.
Bowron Lake Provincial Park It is big, covering 121,000hec/298,997ac, as are the snow-capped Cariboo Mountains that rim this wilderness expanse. But it is the park’s most unusual physical feature that is the key to its popularity - a rectangular-shaped water-system and wildlife sanctuary that forms a 116km/72mi canoe circuit unique in North America. Where else can you paddle for 10 days without backtracking and end where you began? No other canoe circuit boasts the same combination of mountain scenery, lakes and diverse wildlife. The former home of the southern Carrier, Athapaskan and Dene Nations, who built kekulis (kik-will-ees), or pit houses, close to where Kibbee Creek flows into Bowron Lake, is now an international attraction - one so popular that canoeists must reserve their “paddle slots” well in advance. ♦
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Quesnel Visitor Centre
Quesnel & District Museum and Archives
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Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
Billy Barker Days July 17-20, 2014
Quesnel Farmers' Market
Gold Pan City Car Show & Shine
BC's Largest Free Family Festival
Every Saturday May-Oct, 8:30 - 1pm
3 Day Event August, 2014
billybarkerdays.ca
the Chilcotin
Y
ou’re invited to British Columbia’s living ‘wild west’! The outdoor adventure possibilities here are spectacular and endless, from aerial sightseeing over the expansive Homathko Ice field (south of Tatlayoko Lake), to heli-skiing the deep powder of the southern Chilcotin Mountains, to multiday loop treks through the rugged beauty of Ts’yl-os (sigh-loss) and Tweedsmuir Provincial Parks. Thrill seekers charge down the fast-moving Chilcotin River, rated among the most challenging of white-water rivers in North America. The Chilko River, a tributary of the Chilcotin that flows from Chilko Lake, is equally famed for its rapids, most notably a section called the White Mile. Providing one of the world’s most exciting rafting adventures, it is the longest continuous stretch of class 3-plus white-water on the continent. Of course, for those with less time - and perhaps less courage - there are “softadventure” white-water excursions available as well. Meanwhile anglers head for the lakes of the west Chilcotin, where float planes can be chartered for fly-in adventures to remote beauty that many travellers only dream about. Superior fly fishing is also found on the Blackwater River in the region’s north and on the Upper Dean River near Anahim Lake. Hikers love the Charlotte Alplands area around Charlotte Lake; a crystal clear high elevation lake
with incredible sweeping mountain views and awesome wildlife, also popular with photography enthusiasts. The Chilcotin’s vast, open, spectacular landscape is located between the Coast Mountains and the Fraser River. Unlike the Cariboo, the Chilcotin was never invaded by swarms of gold crazed prospectors, so developed much differently. It’s a world of few roads, little industry and pockets of people, the majority being First Nation. It has an impressive diversity of wildlife, including Canada’s largest population of bighorn sheep, rare white pelicans, trumpeter swans, bears, lynx, wolves, mountain caribou and hundreds of wild horses. This makes it the perfect place for anyone wanting to explore the pristine Canada of their imagination. While the majority of the Chilcotin is accessed off Highway 20, the South Chilcotin is most easily approached from Vancouver via Lillooet off Highway 99 past Whistler to the Bridge River Valley; or by Highway 12 from Lytton and the Fraser Canyon. The communities of Dog Creek and Alkali Lake have backcountry access via Big Bar-Jesmond out of Clinton, or various points along Highway 97. Those with a serious thirst for adventure can follow the Fraser River north from Lillooet via a series of back roads through amazing country to the Chilcotin’s Highway 20, or east via the Big Bar ferry
to Highway 97. Or head westward to the Bridge River Valley communities of Gold Bridge, Bralorne or nearby Tyaughton Lake, for spectacular South Chilcotin adventure possibilities. Before you journey off the main highways into the vast backcountry of the Chilcotin, it is recommended you have sufficient fuel and accurate maps for safety and peace of mind while journeying into the unspoiled wilderness. The Chilcotin’s vastness is linked to B.C.’s Interior by Highway 20, which crosses the Chilcotin Plateau and Coast Mountains stretching 456km/283mi from Williams Lake to Bella Coola. Highway 20, or “The Freedom Highway”, connects wildly different landscapes ranging from grassy plateaus and vast meadows to dramatic canyons and high mountain peaks. Not a single traffic light breaks its entire length, though there may be brief stops for free range cattle and wandering moose or bears. Roads off the highway provide access to excellent views of the Coast Mountain Range, as well as to significant backcountry lakes, fishing resorts and specialty lodges. Much of the region is composed of the high-elevation 50,000km2/19,305mi2 Chilcotin Plateau where thousands of cattle roam. There is tremendous geographical diversity here, from hot, dry grasslands to ice-covered heights of more than 4,000m/13,123ft, where glaciers descend to azure-blue
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Staff Favorites Hiking in the Chilcotin with family; near Siwash Bridge there is a nice place to hike and picnic beside the stream. A five-day trail ride on horseback with Tsilhqot’in band members from Alexis Creek to Williams Lake for the rodeo is also a truly memorable experience. – Beverly Evans The Chilcotin is vast, with many activities to explore. The beauty, solitude and serenity kayaking the remote lakes is what makes me love living a rural lifestyle. Till Lake, with its lack of development and calm waters, is one of my favorites on a warm, sunny day. – Brad McGuire I’m drawn to the Chilcotin in the spring with the fresh valley greens and crisp white peaks of the Coast Mountains as the setting. The brilliant aqua colors of the lakes accent this masterpiece. Off-road, motorcycling and ATV’ing are one of my favourite activities in the spring. – Geoff Moore
A trip along the Freedom Highway is not complete without a stop at the Nimpo Bakery & Cafe, traditional home baked breads, treats, cinnamon buns and the best breakfast sandwiches you have ever tasted! – Amy Thacker
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Chris Harris
Recently, I had the pleasure of flying in a four-seater plane to an event on the Central Coast. While up in the air, I was in awe at the vastness of the Chilcotin! I now plan to explore more extensively on land to see all its’ beauty close up. – Linda MacInnis
Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
Elisabeth Kent
the Chilcotin
lakes. Towering above those glaciercarved valleys is Mount Waddington, the highest peak that lies entirely within B.C. at 4,016m/13,176ft. Three major river systems, the Homathko, Klinaklini and Dean, run westward through the Coast Mountains, while the southeast is drained by the great Chilko, Chilcotin and Fraser river systems. The grassland canyons found on the Chilko and Fraser are desert landscapes similar to those seen in the south-western United States. Nothing reflects the spirit of the region more than the completion of Highway 20, at one time known as the Freedom Road, because its completion freed up access to the central coast. Until 1953, the road ended at Anahim Lake, 137km/85mi short of Bella Coola on the coast because the provincial government refused to extend it claiming the mountainous terrain was too difficult. So, local volunteers working from opposite ends with two bulldozers and supplies purchased on credit finished the job. This determination and independent spirit remains in the fabric and character of the Chilcotin and Coastal residents today. The
rustic road was not really considered a highway when first completed, but it was enough to convince the government to take over maintenance and improvements in 1955. Today, the “Freedom Highway”, or Highway 20 links a world-renowned circle tour. Those who settled this isolated region had to be tough - like Nellie Hance, who, in 1887, became the first white woman to travel into the Chilcotin by journeying 485km/301mi riding side saddle on horseback to reach her husband Tom’s trading post near Lee’s Corner (also known as Hanceville).
to prosperity. His descendants are still ranching in the Chilcotin today. The communities of the Chilcotin are strung along Highway 20 like jewels on a necklace, each one with its own story and general store. These hospitable and historic stores continue to play an important role in the region as community centres and meeting hubs while functioning as multi-purpose shops. A good example is the A.C. Christensen General Store in Anahim Lake, which claims, “If we don’t have it, you don’t need it!”
Others were not only tough but, perhaps, a little crazy. Rancher Norman Lee, after whom Lee’s Corner was named, set out from his spread in May 1898 with 200 head of cattle on a 2,500km/1,553mi trek to the Klondike goldfields. None of his cattle survived the journey, but Lee did, arriving in Vancouver five months later with a roll of blankets, a dog and one dollar. Borrowing enough money for the train to Ashcroft and a horse to ride home, Lee was soon ranching again and by 1902 was well on the way back 1-800-663-5885
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Festivals & Events New Year’s Ice Party – Ice bar, rink sports, bonfire and fireworks. Nimpo Lake. December 31 – January 1 Tatla Lake Ski Day and Taste of Tatla – A fun fundraising event for active, winter folk. Join together for a winter relay, or ski solo. Tatla Lake. February 1 Bridge River Valley Winterfest is family-friendly. Birch Curling Bonspiel, pond hockey tournament, cross country ski races, snow sculptures, snowmobile scavenger hunt, BBQ snack shack, bonfire and more! Little Gun Lake. February 18 Nimpo Lake Poker Run - Anyone with a snowmobile is welcome. Family friendly, well-marked trails. Nimpo Lake. March (weather dependant) Dean River Canoe Races – Paddlers battle it out from Nimpo Lake to Anahim Lake. May 11 (or, after ice off - weather dependant) Tatla Lake Gymkhana – Events include barrels, poles, scurries, keyhole, stakes, games, lemonade, hangman, potato, ribbon races. Tatla Lake. June. 14-15 Anahim Lake Stampede - Fun with rodeo events, a gymkhana, parade, beer garden, dances & barbecue. Anahim Lake. July 4 - 6 Puntzi Lake Fishing Derby – A fun event in the heart of summer, open to all! Puntzi Lake. July 4 - 6 Nemiah Valley Rodeo – The Mountain Race, a breakneck plunge down Mount Nemiah’s steep face, is not to be missed! Nemiah. August 1 - 3 Redstone Rodeo — Local hometown favorites are always in the hunt to win the popular and exciting Flat Race. Hosted by the Alexis Creek First Nations. Alexis Creek. August 16 - 17
Julia Haseloff
Tatla Lake Fall Fair – Animals, a farmers market, food concessions, scarecrow contest and more fun for the kids too. Tatla Lake Community Hall. September 6
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Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
AboriginalBC.com
the Chilcotin
As white settlers arrived, most of the First Nation Chilcotin chiefs were friendly and cooperative, particularly when treated with equality and respect. Many of the First Nations worked with settlers as ranch hands, cowboys, packers and guides. Others started their own freight companies using teams and wagons, or homesteaded ranches while their wives sewed and sold moccasins and gloves made from tanned deer and caribou hides, and robes made from marmot fur. Today, Stetsons, cowboy boots, and fancy belt buckles are standard apparel in the Chilcotin, a land where the cowboy still rules. The region’s first cattle spreads - such as the Gang Ranch in the southeast, the largest cattle ranch in North America in its heyday and now owned by a Saudi sheik - were established to provide beef for Cariboo goldrush towns in the early 1860s. Today, ranching remains a key economic driver. Tourism is also an important mainstay, and in many cases both go hand in hand with numerous working ranches, some hosting vacation adventures, pack trips, and trail rides. Seton Portage Once the site of a unique railway system, Seton Portage is a historic rural community located 25km/15.5mi by boat (78km/48mi by road over Mission Mountain) west of Lillooet, between Seton and Anderson Lakes. During the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush of 1858 to 1860, nearly 30,000 prospectors, following what was then known as the “Lakes
A LW AY S T H E S M A R T C H O I C E
GREAT LOCATIONS IN THE CARIBOO CHILCOTIN COAST So Many Reasons to Stay: Centrally located | One-bedroom & Executive Suites | Complimentary high-speed Internet | Shark Club Bar & Grill | Denny’s 24 Hour Restaurant | Room service | Indoor pool & whirlpool | Fitness facilities | Meeting & banquet facilities | Complimentary parking *Amenities vary at each location
Quesnel | Williams Lake | 1 800 SANDMAN (726 3626) 1-800-663-5885
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“Fans and Followers” Fishing Sapeye Lake in the Chilcotin is my way to get away from it all and get back to nature (and great fishing too!) – Thomas B. Wow! Where are these Rainbow Mountains… such an amazing photo!! Oh, I so want to be there! – Rino G. Last month had the most amazing experience ever… I was flightseeing over these same Chilcotin mountains and glaciers!!! I so wish I could move away from the city and find a way to live life in this incredible landscape! Truly remarkable experience that is worth every penny – highly recommend! – Lawrence U. Beautiful picture!!! Chilko Lake is the most beautiful place in the world! – Helga B. Looks like the center of the universe. Beautiful! – Cheryl W.
Ist die Welt nicht schön? Diese Ruhe kann man körperlich spüren. (Is not the world beautiful? This rest can physically feel) – Manuela L.
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Tom Ryan/Destination BC
Rodeo may not be for “everyone”… but for this gal, it’s tradition and history, and paying homage to the men and women that risk life and limb out there raising our food !!! It’s a darn good time too ! SA-LOOT to all the competitors and their stock. – Gina M.
Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
Gordon Baron
the Chilcotin
Route” from the Lower Mainland, swept through the narrow strip of land and a wooden rail link that was built connecting the two lakes, as they pushed north to the gold fields. Besides fishing, hiking, and boating, Seton Portage’s main attraction is the Kaoham Shuttle train, winding along the shores of turquoise-coloured Seton Lake through the thirdlongest tunnel on the CN Rail line and past the nearby Bridge River hydroelectric development, which in 1948 was the largest power project ever undertaken in British Columbia. Gold Bridge Nestled in the Bridge River Valley among the towering peaks of the South Chilcotin Mountains, 105km/65mi west of Lillooet, Gold Bridge sprang to life during the Great Depression with the opening of a large gold mine in nearby Bralorne in 1932. The Bralorne Pioneer Mine produced more than four million ounces before it closed in 1971, making it the richest gold mine in Canadian history and prompting the construction of a town, with schools, churches, post office, houses, recreation halls, and hunting lodges. The mine, abandoned for many years, reopened in 2011 due to high gold prices and is producing gold once again. History buffs enjoy poking around old ghost towns and abandoned mines, while those more inclined to explore the outdoors appreciate the valley’s fishing, hunting, rock hounding, 1-800-663-5885
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Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
Chris Harris
the Chilcotin
and rugged mountain beauty. Nearby lakes have resorts along their shores and heli-biking is a popular activity. Snowmobiling on spectacular glaciers is an irresistible draw for winter enthusiasts and the phenomenal heli-skiing keeps backcountry skiers coming back for more. Alkali Lake While geographically located in the Cariboo, the communities of Alkali Lake and Dog Creek, which between them embrace several fishing lakes, are linked to the Chilcotin by proximity and landscape. It’s also the location of one of the most touching stories in B.C. For more than 35 years, the Esketemc (es-ket-em) First Nation People have invited Alcoholics Anonymous members from around the world, to their annual Pow Wow Arbor for a rodeo and conference to share inspirational stories. Alcohol addiction almost destroyed the Esketemc a half-century ago. How they saved themselves and how the community took control of their lives and created an atmosphere of dignity and hope, was made into a film in 1985. The film, The Honour of All, is still shown at international festivals. B.C.’s oldest ranch was established in this attractive valley by a German-born settler named Otto Bowe, who, in 1858, built a “stopping house” alongside the river trail that made its way through the Cariboo to the northern goldfields. Bowe married a daughter of the Alkali Band Indian Chief and had four children with her. Bowe’s 10,117hec/25,000ac ranch stayed in the family until 1908, when it was purchased by Englishman Charles N. Wynn-Johnson. He was the grandfather of Charles N. “Chunky” Woodward, who later became the multimillionaire owner of B.C.’s iconic Woodward’s department store chain and a world-champion cutting-horse
rider. At the peak of its operation, the Alkali Lake spread had more than 4,000 head of cattle and horses and employed dozens of working cowboys. The ranch, now 14,973hec/36,999ac, continues as a working ranch. Riske Creek Just south of Riske Creek near the confluence of the Fraser and Chilcotin rivers on Farwell Canyon Road is Junction Sheep Range Provincial Park, a 4,573hec/11,300ac preserve that shelters approximately 500 California bighorn sheep. Come here to see the bighorns amongst hoodoos, watching them scale the steep sandstone riverbanks in their natural setting. Black bears, coyote, foxes and cougar also roam the surrounding area. Farwell Canyon’s desert-dry limestone and sandstone walls feature hoodoos and other intriguing watercarved formations. Hikers can view ancient pictographs on the cliff faces and experience the thrill of watching First Nation fishermen dip-netting for salmon in the late summer. Riske Creek is a small community set amidst sweeping grasslands on the eastern border of the Chilcotin, 47km/29mi west of Williams Lake. The town is named after Polish pioneer and settler L.W. Riske, who built a saw mill and flour mill during the 1860s from which he sent supplies and produce to the Cariboo goldfields. The history of the area can be re-lived by visiting Historic Chilcotin Lodge. Built in 1940 as a hunting lodge, the pioneer-style log building is one of the last remaining authentic lodging facilities in the Chilcotin. Hanceville About 50km/31mi west of Riske Creek, a roadside plaque describes the legendary Yukon cattle drive of Norman Lee, who, as mentioned earlier, set out from his Chilcotin 1-800-663-5885
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Robert Semeniuk
ranch in 1898 with 200 head of cattle on his disastrous 2,500km/1,553mi trek to Dawson City. Lee wrote a chronicle of the misadventure (which later became a book entitled Klondike Cattle Drive) and set up shop at Lee’s Corner. Today, Lee’s “town” is known as Hanceville, though Lee’s Corner Store & Restaurant still bears his name. Travellers can take a couple of interesting trips from the community, venturing southwest to the Nemiah Valley or Taseko Lake. Taseko Lake is a fourseason playground offering camping, hiking, wildlife viewing and snowmobiling. Big Creek South of Hanceville, on a popular circle tour to Riske Creek through Farwell Canyon, sits the unincorporated community of Big Creek. Once home to the Chilcotin district post office from 1907 to 1975 you will find little evidence of a town today. Lodges and guest ranches offer revitalization and adventures for those looking to get off the beaten path. And nearby Fletcher Lake is an excellent fishing destination with a healthy population of Rainbow Trout, the attraction that fills this small campground on long weekends. Nemiah Valley The Nemiah Valley lies in the traditional territory of the Xeni Gwet’in (honey-koteen) First Nation and is home to one of the last remaining herds of wild horses found in North America. The results of recent DNA tests suggest these mustangs are genetically linked to the horses brought to the American continent hundreds of years ago by the Spanish. Though there are no official tours, local guest ranches and B&Bs can assist with coordinating wild horse adventures. 38
Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
The remote pristine valley, not connected to the rest of the Chilcotin by road until 1973, is home to members of the Xeni Gwet’in First Nation and assorted ranchers, with a number of wilderness hunting and fishing lodges throughout the area. The scenery in this area is truly spectacular and awe inspiring. Alexis Creek The community, 20km/12.5mi west of Hanceville, is named after Chief Alexis of the Tsilhqot’in (tseelh-coht-een), who was chief during the time of the Chilcotin War. Nearby are Bull Canyon and Battle Rock, the sites of fierce intertribal battles fought between the Chilcotin and invading Shuswap and Bella Coola tribes. Before heading out on your journey west or into the backcountry along the glacial green waters of the Chilcotin River, stop into Alexis Creek for basic snacks, supplies and travel information at the popular tourist info booth which also provides full washroom facilities. Redstone and Puntzi Lake Redstone is a small First Nations community 36km/22mi west of Alexis Creek on Highway 20 where the Redstone store is a key stop for fuel and supplies on your Highway 20 journey. Part of the Chilcotin tour series, the Redstone rodeo held annually in August is a excellent opportunity to visit with local community members. Well known for biking and hiking trails, canoeing, kayaking, fishing, and hunting, Puntzi Lake (60km/37mi west of Alexis Creek and 11km/7mi off the highway at Chilanko Forks) is also a major draw for bird watchers. The American White Pelican uses the lake as a food source in early spring and throughout the summer, while Trumpeter Swans feed
Chris Harris
the Chilcotin
in the fall until the lake freezes over. Several fishing resorts and serviced RV campsites are located around the lake. Activities here are typically spring, summer and fall focused, so the lake’s kokanee and rainbow trout get a reprieve during winter snowmobiling season. Tatla Lake Located on the western edge of the Chilcotin grasslands, 108km/67mi west of Alexis Creek, Tatla Lake is where Irish settler Robert Graham started the area’s ranching legacy. After purchasing the Tatla Lake place from Benny Franklin in 1902, the Grahams built a fine new house and, in 1930, a store. The house is now the Graham Inn, located next to the Tatla Lake Manor, and specializes in cooking up excellent meals. The community provides access to excellent mountain hikes, Nordic ski trails and several resort and guiding operations in the area. Tatla Lake is also the gateway to three major mountain valleys: West Branch, Chilko and Tatlayoko, which extend south via secondary roads. As well, nearby Bluff Lake is a fixed-wing flightseeing and helicopter tour access point
for several wilderness destinations including the massive Homathko Ice Field and Mount Waddington, the highest peak in the Coast Range. Another popular side trip is sprawling Ts’yl-os (sigh-loss) Park, located 60km/37mi south of Tatla Lake. Bounded by the rugged peaks of the Coast Mountains to the west and the Interior Plateau to the east, the park’s natural wonders include 80km/50milong glacier-fed Chilko Lake, the largest natural high-elevation lake in Canada, a popular windsurfing destination. Prominent fishing includes nice rainbow trout and Dolly Varden, with several lodges offering wildlife viewing. Kleena Kleene This tiny settlement is just 31km/19mi west of Tatla Lake on Highway 20. Nearby Clearwater Lake is a departure point for float plane flights into remote fishing lakes and rivers and for exploring the region’s alpine wilderness. Travellers can enjoy fabulous views from the lookout point of Perkins Peak (2,819m/9,249ft), hike to beautiful Klinaklini Falls, ride ‘hidden’ trails or heli-hike the breathtaking Pantheon Range. Remote Big Stick Lake, Clearwater Lake and One Eye Lake all
offer excellent canoeing and fishing. Hunters can embark on fly-in guided expeditions for moose, bear, mountain goats and wolves. Charlotte Lake Located 11km/6.8mi east of Nimpo Lake, Charlotte Lake provides terrific fishing for trophy rainbow trout in the pristine waters of this 16km/10mi long lake. Besides great fishing, the Charlotte Lake Alplands also offer numerous trails for hiking and mountain biking into the alpine, and sledding in winter. You might also enjoy a day or multi-day trail ride on horseback into the Alplands; be sure to bring your camera to photograph rare wild flowers, and an incredible diversity of wildlife. There are several lodges, B&Bs and guides in this area which are recommended to enhance your wilderness experience. Nimpo Lake Known as “the float plane capital of British Columbia,” Nimpo Lake is a major launch point for aerial sightseeing tours and fishing fly-ins to the West Chilcotin’s pristine wilderness lakes and rivers. From here, adventurers can access isolated cabins nestled in scenery that is unmatched for its dramatic
1-800-663-5885
Fly Fishing Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
John Wellburn
the Chilcotin
settings. Back-dropped by towering Mount Kappan, Nimpo Lake also features terrific rainbow trout fishing. For day-hikers, numerous trails combine a good workout with excellent bird-watching and other wildlifeviewing opportunities. Nearby ranches offer riding tours, pack trips, hiking and fly-in fishing, plus yoga and organic homegrown meals. In winter, the entertainment options include sleigh rides, snowshoeing, skating, cross-country skiing, and a great base camp for stellar snowmobiling adventures. Anahim Lake Located 135km/84mi east of Bella Coola, this is the site of a longestablished Chilcotin settlement that expanded in the 1940s and 1950s when the Carrier Peoples moved here from their remote villages. The community is the eastern gateway to the southern portion of Tweedsmuir Provincial Park and its phenomenal wilderness recreation opportunities. Anahim Lake hosts the Chilcotin’s main airport, with regularly scheduled flights connecting to Vancouver. Local lodges and resorts cater to both guided and self-guided fishers, hunters and hikers as well as those who prefer
organized pack trips and mountain helirides. Float planes can be chartered for a myriad of nearby wilderness adventures, while guided horseback and hiking treks can easily be arranged to explore the surrounding backcountry of the Itcha and Ilgachuz Mountains and dramatic Rainbow Range of Tweedsmuir Provincial Park, where peaks of eroded lava and fragmented rock display a spectrum of vivid red, orange, lavender and yellow.
LEAVE CIVILIZATION BEHIND & GET INTO THE WILD
The town’s most famous attraction is the Anahim Lake Stampede – a rodeo staged every July since 1938. The rodeo’s most notable resident celebrity is Carey Price, star goaltender of the NHL’s Montreal Canadiens.
Adventure with us!
A local curiosity is Anahim Peak, a spectacular pillared cone of volcanic rock rich in obsidian, an important trading commodity for the Chilcotin people, who once used obsidian extensively for weapon making. First Nations history permeates the fabric of this region. Visitors are encouraged to seek out remnants of this interesting past, such as viewing the remains of large wooden “culla culla” houses at Ulkatcho on Gatcho Lake, and also at Natsadalia Point on Anahim Lake. ♦ 1-800-663-5885
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the Coast
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his area’s remote solitude and wild beauty has long drawn artists, photographers, naturalists and travellers looking for big adventures and the freshest of seafood. Whether you want to fish, hike, bike, ocean kayak, take a wildlife eco-tour, or just enjoy the natural splendour of this part of our region, you will be treated to many wonders and adventure opportunities that are found few places on earth. The Norwegian explorer, Thor Heyerdahl, became famous for his expeditions in and across the South Pacific. But, well before this fame, he explored British Columbia’s central coast extensively, researching the lifestyles and origins of the indigenous people who live here. As a result of his investigation, he was later able to theorize about similarities among the British Columbian First Nations people and those who lived on far-removed Pacific islands. That gave rise to his theories - and later explorations - about indigenous peoples around the Pacific having related roots. Even though his theories were never accepted by anthropologists, Heyerdahl’s life’s work began in the inlets, islands, and mainland of this craggy coastline and directly led to his legendary explorations. While time has changed some ways of life along the mist-shrouded fjords of B.C.’s central coast, the same mystical elements that drew Heyerdahl still call
out to the casual visitor today. Of course, Heyerdahl wasn’t the first non-native person to explore these shores. In 1793, an intrepid 29-year old Scotsman named Alexander Mackenzie - accompanied by seven French Canadian voyageurs and two First Nations porters - paddled into the Dean Channel near present-day Bella Coola. That event completed the first crossing of North America to the Pacific. Before returning east, the explorer scrawled an inscription on a rock using a reddish mixture of bear grease and vermilion: “Alex Mackenzie, from Canada, by land, 22nd July, 1793.” That rock still bears his words, permanently inscribed by surveyors who followed. Mackenzie could not have picked a better spot to conclude his epic journey to the Pacific Ocean. The mist-draped coastline is lined with towering, snow-crowned peaks, massive ice fields and some of the world’s longest fjords. Old-growth stands of cedar and spruce cover the land, and rich salmon streams weave through the valley bottoms, providing food for the magnificent creatures that inhabit the coast - killer whales, eagles, wolves and bears, including the mysterious white Spirit Bear, or Kermode. Great Bear Rainforest The landscape northwest of Bella Coola is some of the most isolated in the province. Across a 3,000,000hec/7,413,160ac area that lies
within the Great Bear Rainforest, the largest remaining tract of unspoiled temperate rainforest left in the world. Several ancient First Nations cultural sites can be found here, as well as a striking array of wildlife. The ocean harbours killer whales, porpoises, humpback whales, seals, sea lions, and dozens of seabird species. The forests are alive with black-tailed deer, wolves and bears - grizzly, black and the Kermode (or Spirit Bear), a rare, whitecoated variation of the black bear that is sacred to B.C.’s First Nation people. The main haunt of the Spirit Bear, or Kermode, is Princess Royal Island, a primordial expanse of wilderness accessible only by boat or air. Aside from the Tsimshian (sim-SHE-an), who once inhabited a coastal village here; few humans ever entered the island’s inland rainforest. Today, that has changed as guided tours offer kayakers and boaters a privileged, close-up view and a chance to see the majestic, powerful grizzly. Take a guided tour to drift through the grizzly’s backyard while experienced guides provide interpretation. Also off the beaten track is the Fiordland Conservancy, a provincial marine park set deep in the inner channels northeast of Klemtu. The preserve encompasses Kynoch and Mussel inlets, two glacially gouged fjords where sheer granite cliffs rise more than 1,000m/3,281ft; pristine beaches, including some particularly
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Staff Favorites Escaping to the white sandy beaches and the remote natural hot springs of the Central Coast is my family’s favorite vacation. Topped off with amazing halibut, prawns, shrimp and crab this is my recharge holiday! – Amy Thacker
I love driving the Freedom Highway across the Chilcotin plateau, through Tweedsmuir Park and down “The Hill” to the lushgreen valley. Last July, I attended the Bella Coola Music Festival; camping with my kids enjoying the variety of music and amazing people was remarkable. A ‘must do’ family-friendly experience! – Brad McGuire
Winter or summer, the Coast calls to me. Summer on the Coast is a cornucopia of activities, flavours, colors and cultures. Heli skiing and fishing the rivers in late winter on the Coast is pretty unique, and for some, a dream. Good thing I live where dreams come true! – Geoff Moore
Touring the Coast by boat is like a dream. The stop that left a big impression on me was Ocean Falls. The first thing that came into view was this massive, but sadly decaying hotel. Walking through town and around its waning infrastructure, I could almost envision what it was like in its’ hey day! – Linda MacInnis
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Gordon Baron
Trekking into a great fishing spot along the Atnarko River in the Bella Coola Valley is awesome. Not only do you enjoy the beautiful scenery, you also get the opportunity to experience catching “the big one”! – Beverly Evans
Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
the Coast
scenic spots near Lady Douglas Island, dot the area. Higgins Passage is an intricate waterway with traditional First Nations sites amidst a multitude of maze-like islands, twisting passageways and cascading waterfalls.
To the south, just 10km/6mi west of Namu, the 123,000hec/303,940ac Hakai Luxvbalis (looks-bal-ease) Conservation Area is considered one of the finest kayaking playgrounds on the coast. Paddlers find twisting passages to explore, intriguing island clusters, and white sandy beaches perfect for strolling and camping. To the southwest, fishing enthusiasts flock to luxurious lodges along Rivers Inlet and Knight Inlet, two notable sport fishing destinations in British Columbia with an impressive history of producing some of the largest chinook salmon in the world. Trophy coho are in the 9kg/20lb range; consistent catches of steelhead, pink, chum, and sockeye salmon provide further variety. Giant halibut weighing up to 91kg/200lb cruise the floor of the inlet; and near the reefs, ling cod weighing up to 27kg/59.5lb can be caught. North from Knight Inlet to Klemtu are names that echo with fishing enthusiasts as world class destinations, enticing places such as Hakai Pass, Milbanke Sound and Shearwater. Long before white explorers arrived in the Great Bear Rainforest, First Nations of the central coast thrived, living off both land and ocean and trading with interior tribes. Today, approximately two thirds of British Columbia’s central Coast population is First Nation. In the Bella Coola area, the Nuxalk (nu-halk) are well known for carvings, masks and paintings that can be seen throughout the valley.
Michael Wigle
The ocean and inlets around Bella Coola offer unforgettable sea kayaking and wildlife viewing adventures. Paddlers can depart from numerous coastal locations, including Bella Bella, or pre-arrange to be dropped via “wet launch” from BC Ferries Discovery Coast passage, to spend a week or so exploring the tiny coves and narrow passageways of the central coast.
Explorers from Russia, Britain, France, and Spain also came to this region in the last quarter of the 18th century, motivated by the chance of trade, although Spain was here to protect its then territorial waters. Getting here by ship is much easier now than in either Mackenzie or Heyerdahl’s time. BC Ferries has a passenger and vehicle run from Port Hardy on northern Vancouver Island to Bella Coola with stops at communities along the way. It passes through dramatic and spectacular fjords. The vessel, the Queen of Chilliwack, has a small licensed lounge, a gift shop, and pay showers. Service is friendly, and a staff member is there to help with travel plans. There are no overnight cabins, but the ship does have reclining seats. Those travelling
with a small tent can set it up on the outer decks with approval from a crew member. Ports of call along the route may include Bella Bella, McLoughlin Bay, Shearwater, Klemtu, Ocean Falls, and
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Your Guide to the Great Bear Rainforest for over 30 years Private Log Cabins at Resort Hotsprings and Glacial Fjord Tours Wilderness Wildlife Tours Ocean Fishing Charters
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Festivals & Events Tweedsmuir Ski Marathon – A 25-km X-country ski event held in the stunning Rainbow Range. Bring something to add to the potluck lunch afterwards. Tweedsmuir Provincial Park. March 2nd Bella Coola Valley Festival of the Arts – Collection of various artisan mediums showcased for locals and visitors alike. Bella Coola. April 3 Farmers Market – Growers and buyers connect over fresh, locally produced fruit, vegetables locally harvested seafood. Bella Coola. Sundays, June 1 – September 29 29th Annual Bella Coola Valley Rodeo – A great pro-rodeo. Bull riding, bronc busting, wild cow milking, “cow pattie bingo” and more. Hagensborg. June 27 – 29 Bella Coola Music Festival – This family-friendly, multi-cultural weekend will have you grooving to rock, blues, jazz, folk and more, all back-dropped by stunning Bella Coola Valley scenery. Hagensborg. July 18 - 20 5th Annual BC Outdoors Magazine Fish-In Derby – Join magazine editor Mike Mitchell and his crew for the most spectacular saltwater sportfishing on BC’s Central Coast. Shearwater. July 25 – 28 Valley Ridge Riders Gymkhanas – Equestrian events in Snootli Creek Park. Bella Coola Valley. Summer/monthly events. Nuxalk Potlaches – Stories, song, dance, ancient readings, as well as guided wildlife, cultural and hiking tours. Locations TBA. Summer season Ocean Falls Salmon Derby – Live music, tall tales and prizes for the biggest catch. Ocean Falls. August 23
Michael Wigle
Bella Coola Valley Fall Fair - A down-home, family event for locals and visitors alike. Enjoy horseshoes, ring toss, bingo, games and a train ride for the kids and the popular logger sports - axe throwing, anyone? Hagensborg. September 7
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Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
Michael Wigle
the Coast
the Hakai Pass area – all of which have their own stories to tell. Continuing the “Discovery Coast” route along B.C.’s “Coast Cariboo Circle Tour”, from Bella Coola, Highway 20 heads up ‘The Hill’ and leads across the Chilcotin Plateau to the Cariboo, and beyond. One major advantage of this trip is that you do not require a four-wheel drive vehicle. Entering the central Coast region from the east, by road, is an entirely different experience. Highway 20 descends from Heckman Pass down ‘The Hill’ along a 30km/19mi stretch of hairpin turns and switchbacks with grades of up to 18 percent - but that’s just the dramatic stuff. In reality the road only narrows on the hairpins and most of it is quite wide offering good sightlines.
• Spacious Mountain View Rooms • Grizzly Bear Viewing Tours • Eco-Rafting & Hiking with Local Biologists • Licensed Dining, Local , Organic Cuisine & Espresso Bar
www.bcmountainlodge.com [email protected] 1-866-982-2298 1900 Hwy 20, Bella Coola Valley, BC
At the bottom of the infamous “Hill”, one can access 980,000hec/2,421,632ac Tweedsmuir Provincial Park. Aside from its outstanding scenery, Tweedsmuir is a magnet for outdoor recreationists, offering fishing, hiking, heli-skiing, horseback riding via wilderness trails, camping and canoeing the Turner Lake Chain. Hunlen Falls, Canada’s third highest freefalling waterfall, at the north end of Turner Lake, is another major attraction, plunging 260m/853ft to disappear in a cloud of spray before entering the Atnarko River. Though the outdoor recreational opportunities in Tweedsmuir are almost unlimited, this is a true wilderness park - and only the heartiest of adventure seekers should venture into the park’s backcountry. Anyone exploring the back country
might want to employ the services of a professional guide to make their experiences truly memorable. The park contains stunning terrain, notably the multi-hued peaks of the Rainbow Range with an astonishing spectrum of reds, oranges, yellows and lavenders created by the area’s heavily mineralized volcanic lavas and sands. The weathering effects of glaciers on these volcanic mountains combined with the warm and wet influence of the Pacific has also resulted in lush alpine meadows and a tremendous abundance of wildflowers. The highway through the Bella Coola Valley parallels the ancient trading route, or “grease trail”, taken by Alexander
15th Annual
July 18-20, 2014 Bella Coola, BC an intimate, multi-cultural, family-focused experience
www.bellacoolamusic.org 1-800-663-5885
July 18-20, 2014
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“Fans and Followers” The Bella Coola Valley is such an amazing place on earth, and so exciting getting there – the trip down ‘The Hill’ was exhilarating! – Marie Z. I love the central coast! Beautiful, peaceful, and majestic! – Sebastian W. Pacific spot prawns caught right here on the central coast…freshest and best sushi, peel and eat raw, right on the boat! – Jeanie M. Greatest childhood upbringing and memories connected to this area!! Loved the Bella Coola Indians and the amazing fresh Salmon they would trade with us!! – Christall L. Great article with the history, the people and the geography. Should boost tourism. As for the Sasquatch......keep the myth alive! – Ian B. Wow!! Do I miss these Views!!! But they are Embeded in my Mind and Heart Forever!! Coming back some day soon! – Christall L.
I would name this beautiful mountain “Sasquatch Mountain” because in the region around Klemtu, in the late 1960s, several sightings of Sasquatch occurred. As the sightings were made by Klemtu villagers, it went to a legend of that area. – Elke Schlotmann, Worpswede, Germany
✸ See Map page 59 50
Michael Wigle
Name Your Mountain Facebook Contest Winner Comments:
Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
In 1894, approximately one hundred Norwegian colonists from Minnesota moved to the Bella Coola Valley founding a settlement called Hagensborg, located on Highway 20, just 16km/10mi east of Bella Coola. They chose the area because the landscape reminded them of their Norwegian homeland, with its long fjords snaking to the sea. The region’s farming, lumber and fishing industries began shortly thereafter, and the town’s first school was opened in a large communal tent in 1895.
Gordon Baron
Hagensborg The two main towns in the Bella Coola Valley - Hagensborg, a community settled by Norwegians from Minnesota in 1894, and Bella Coola, the service hub for the area - are located 17km/10.5mi apart at the west end of Highway 20. The valley is home to ancient petroglyphs, historic hiking trails, a salmon hatchery, art galleries specializing in West Coast native art, and outdoor adventure companies offering grizzly bear tours, river drifts, and flight-seeing excursions. The Bella Coola Valley is also the heart of a farming revival spearheaded by the Bella Coola Community Supported Agriculture Project. At the immensely popular farmers’ market on Sundays, June to September, visitors can mingle with the locals, purchase regional specialties (including “new” heritage fruits and veggies, local honey, and homemade jams and jellies) and find a sampling of the outstanding arts and crafts available in the valley. Several local farms also welcome visitors for specialty tastings and educational tours, while throughout the coast, world-class seafood - including giant prawns, Dungeness crab, several species of salmon, halibut, Pacific cod, and tuna - lure foodies off the beaten track.
the Coast
Mackenzie on his way to the sea in 1793. Long before Mackenzie’s arrival, the Nuxalk (nu-halk) people thrived here alongside the salmon-filled rivers. The valley was part of a trade corridor between coastal and interior native groups, where furs and leather were exchanged for salmon and eulachon (oolick-an) oil. The oil was obtained from the rendered fat of the small herring-like fish that was valued for its calories and vitamin content. It was then transported along the so-called “grease” trails.
Gnome’s Home R/V Park & Campground
BELLA COOLA’S BEST ACCOMMODATION AND GRIZZLY BEAR VIEWING
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Hosts: Karl & Susan Osmers Located in downtown Hagensborg: 1875 Highway 20 Close to all amenities: Shopping Centre, Gas Station, School, Play Ground Public Swimming Pool, Sani-Station and lots of wilderness 45 sites: 15 full service, 10 electrical & 20 camping 18 kms from the BC Ferry Terminal, 16 kms from Bella Coola Rates $18.00 to 20.00, pet friendly
250-982-2504 e.mail: [email protected] www.gnomeshome.ca
Tweedsmuir Park Lodge is located in one of the healthiest concentrations of Grizzly Bears in North America! TripAdvisor Certificate of Excellence Fantastic Grizzly Bear Viewing Private Wildlife Viewing Platform Scenic River Drifts Interpretive Nature Hikes Guided Fly-Fishing Adventures Heli-Hiking and Heli-Sightseeing
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1-800-663-5885
Bear Viewing on the Central Coast Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
Geoff Moore
the Coast
Some of that Norwegian heritage is still visible today in Hagensborg’s Norwegian Heritage House (now housing the valley’s Visitor Centre). Built at the turn of the 20th century by settler Andrew Svisdahl, it’s a time capsule from the past, furnished in traditional Norwegian fashion and displaying the household tools of that time. Augsburg United Church, built in 1904 as a Norwegian Evangelical Lutheran Church, still welcomes parishioners, and its cemetery relates the poignant history of the Norwegians who journeyed so far to this unknown valley from the United States. The area surrounding Hagensborg offers a number of hiking trails, including the Lost Lake Trail on the north side of the Bella Coola River that leads hikers to tiny Lost Lake and its picnic site with its great views of the valley and Nusatsum Mountain. The well-marked and wheelchair-accessible Saloompt Interpretive Trail follows the Bella Coola River to an old-growth forest with picnic tables and benches. The Bella Coola Airport, located at Hagensborg, provides chartered and daily scheduled flights from Vancouver, as well as to local glaciers, fishing areas and coastal destinations. Bella Coola Rich in clean air, glacier-fed rivers, fresh mountain streams, and magnificent wildlife, Bella Coola - the name of both the small town and the valley - is a favourite destination of naturalists, artists, explorers and photographers. The town waterfront boasts an eclectic collection of fishing and pleasure boats, 1-800-663-5885
| www.landwithoutlimits.com
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Cindy Phillps
cannery sites, and tidal flats. The historic Kopas Store has a delightful folksy ambience along with a wide selection of British Columbia books, First Nations jewellery and art, fishing licences, marine charts and maps, plus goods and giftware. Don’t miss Clayton Falls, accessible from the road on a short walking trail, has striking hard granite formations worn by the water. It is also a gathering place for salmon in a major spawning year.
Situated at the western edge of the valley across from towering 2,438m/8,000ft high Mount Nusatsum, Bella Coola was once the site of a Hudson’s Bay fur trading post. The Nuxalk Nation lived throughout the valley for centuries. However, in the late 1860s, after a smallpox epidemic decimated the population, survivors gathered on land close to the mouth of the river and the Hudson’s Bay post that now comprises the non-reserve part of town.
A few minutes east along Highway 20 is the Nuxalk (nu-halk) community of 4 Mile. Styled after the traditional long house, and with stately totem poles erected in front, the 4 Mile School is close to the highway and its design is an innovative three-dimensional work of art.
Today’s population of roughly 900 thrives on fishing, logging, and growing tourism, and has become a fullservice hub for the area. Bella Coola harbour is the grand entrance to the 64,000km2/24,710mi2 Great Bear Rainforest and is the only port between Vancouver and Prince Rupert providing road access to the Interior of B.C.
Also within this community you will find several art galleries, gift shops and the entrance to the expansive petroglyph site, which has ancient rock carvings depicting the cultural and mythical beliefs embedded in the Nuxalk culture. Local guides are available to share these legends. Some locals are descendants of those original settlers who lived in the community that Alexander Mackenzie dubbed “the friendly village” at the end of his grand journey. 54
Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
Just east of Bella Coola is Snootli Creek Park, bordering Walker Island Park just off Hwy 20, and provides visitors the opportunity to connect with nature trails, meandering through an ancient cedar grove. Here, interlocking branches of massive, ancient cedars form an almost impermeable forest canopy over the park’s four “easy” 200m/656ft to 2km/1.2mi trails. Walkers stay relatively dry even when it rains!
Namu Looking for a ghost town? Well, maybe not all that many ghosts can be found in the region, but, there is a sense of past cultures and industries inhabiting the land. One of those stories of boom and bust can be found in this small, now mostly abandoned community. At the confluence of the Burke Channel and Fitz Hugh Sound, 95km/59mi southwest of Bella Coola, the town of Namu (a Heiltsuk (hel-sic) First Nations word that means “whirlwind”) stands as a reminder of past success and misplaced optimism. Between the 1930s and 1980s, when B.C. Packers operated a cannery here, Namu was a hub of activity for commercial fishing along the central coast and boasted a population of up to 400 cannery workers, fish processors, maintenance personnel and their families. However, high transportation costs and low fish prices in the 1980s forced the shift from canning to fish processing with the fish being shipped south to Vancouver and west to Japan for canning. When B.C. Packers sold Namu, in the early 1990s, an unsuccessful attempt was made to establish a resort here. Alas, it failed. Today the town-site continues to be visited and used as a stopover point by
the Coast
Bella Bella The large eagle head painted on its Native Cultural Centre marks the fishing and forestry community of Bella Bella. Also known as Waglisla, the town is the former site of the Hudson’s Bay Company’s Fort McLoughlin established in the 1830s. Home to the Heiltsuk (hel-sic) First Nation, population of 1,400, it is the largest First Nations community on B.C.’s west coast. The village is located on Campbell Island, about 3km/2mi north of McLoughlin Bay where B.C. Ferries’ Queen of Chilliwack docks. The town’s services include a bank, large general store, police station and the only hospital and pharmacy on the island. Their only general store suffered a devastating fire in July 2013 and the community is now rebuilding this vital infrastructure, with donations always gladly accepted. Shearwater Approximately 60 full-time residents live in Shearwater, located on Denny Island, 5km/3mi from Bella Bella. The current town-site was developed for an anti-submarine bomberreconnaissance unit in 1941. The unit was disbanded in 1944, and the site was later purchased and developed into a fullservice marina and fishing resort.
Michael Wigle
coastal travellers and fishermen, and the ancient shell midden (a midden is a mound containing shells, animal bones and other refuse that indicates the site of a human settlement) makes it a continuing source of curiosity for archaeologists who have discovered local evidence of cultures dating back nearly 10,000 years. Research shows that Namu is one of the earliest radiocarbon-dated sites on the B.C. coast.
Today, all that remains of the original air force base is the hangar, the airstrip and a few bunkers. In addition there is now a fish plant, bed-and-breakfast accommodations, resort lodgings, fishing-charter operators, moorage for pleasure boaters, a grocery store, post office and regular water taxi service to Bella Bella. Sport fishing is the community’s major asset. Surrounded by calm, protected waters, Shearwater is home to all five species of salmon. The local chinook top 32kg/70lb, while coho can reach 9kg/20lb. Abundant local bottom fish include ling cod, red snapper and rockfish, with halibut weighing up to 91kg/200lb. Shearwater also now provides excellent eco-adventure tours. Hakai Pass South of Bella Bella, the pristine waterways of Hakai Pass are known for trophy sportfishing. Here, anglers find some of the biggest catches on the B.C. coast: huge runs of chinook, coho, sockeye, chum and pink salmon churn through the currents. Fishers can drop a line for halibut, snapper and ling cod. The wildlife parade is just as impressive: orcas, humpbacks, grey whales, dolphins and eagles all make stops at Hakai Pass. Wildlife lovers may even spot sea lions, seals, wolves and deer along the shore. The resorts and floating lodges host excellent guided wildlife-viewing tours and fishing packages, with accommodations ranging from rustic to luxurious.
w w w. s p i r i t b e a r. c o m Spirit Bears, Grizzly Bears and First Nations Culture in BC’s Great Bear Rainforest
250-339-5644
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Cael Cook
Ocean Falls Ocean Falls is noted for its abundance of rain - about 4,390mm/172.8in annually, and it is sometimes referred to as the “Land of the Rain People”. The Heiltsuk (hel-sic) First Nations people have inhabited the coastal region surrounding Ocean Falls for more than 9,000 years. The town is remote and only accessible by private boat, B.C. Ferries, or floatplane. It is situated around a waterfall from Link Lake straight into the head of Cousins Inlet, 88km/55mi northwest of Bella Coola. Ocean Falls maintains a small residential community and social network of former residents remaining a popular stop with boaters and travellers on the Discovery Coast and Inside Passage BC Ferries routes. In recent years, the area around Ocean Falls has emerged as an eco-adventure hub, with terrific hiking, wildlife viewing, freshwater and saltwater fishing. Accommodation is available, but early reservations are recommended. This community was once the site of the largest pulp and paper mill in the province. However, today much of the history has been lost with many of the original buildings in decay. The mill, operated from 1912 to 1980, supported a thriving town with a population of close to 4,000, its own school system, an orchestra, a musical and dramatic society, a hospital, one of the province’s largest hotels and a swimming pool where several champions trained. In fact, the town’s swimming club sent seven swimmers to the Olympic Games from 1948 until the 1960s, with resident Ralph Hutton winning silver in the 400 metre freestyle at the 1968 Mexico City games. The swim club also won the Canadian National Men’s Championship 56
Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
four consecutive years between 1962 and 1965. The closing of the mill ended all that with most of the townsfolk leaving to begin new lives. Downtown has a good-sized government dock, fresh water for boaters and plenty of interesting nooks and crannies ashore to explore. In summer B.C. Ferries’ Queen of Chilliwack docks on its Port Hardy to Bella Coola route, doubling the town’s population. As the ferry nears the dock, you can see the impressive size of the now deteriorating grand Hotel and other businesses along the main street, as well as the large hydro-electric dam. Visitors can’t help but wonder what it must have been like to live here during the bustling, recent past of Ocean Falls. Klemtu Klemtu is an isolated community located in a pristine cove on Swindle Island, 228km/142mi northwest of Bella Coola. Enclosed by the Great Bear Rainforest, the village sits on the doorstep of Princess Royal Island, home of the legendary white Spirit Bear, the Kermode. Klemtu’s population of 420 is composed of two First Nations groups who speak completely different languages: the Kitasoo (kit-ah-soo), the southernmost tribe of the Tsimshian (sim-SHE-an) First Nation, and the Xai’xais (hay-hace), the northerly branch of the Heiltsuk (hel-sic) First Nation. By 1875, the population of the two groups had declined so precipitously that they joined together to establish a settlement nearer the region’s main shipping routes. The new community
Michael Wigle
the Coast
underwrote its economy with money from cutting cordwood for coastal steamers, for which Klemtu became a refuelling stop. The community’s key economic driver is fishing, and most residents live along the waterfront and its wooden boardwalk - the longest in North America when it was built in the 1960s. Commercial activities are centered around the public Transport Canada wharf, where services include a wellequipped general store, café, post office, modern fuel facility (with a full range of marine and auto fuels) and community health clinic.
Klemtu’s monumental “Big House” is constructed of red cedar and emblazoned with the village’s clan emblems (raven, eagle, wolf and killer whale) and used for celebrations, traditional dances and memorials that allow residents to reconnect with their past and bring ancient traditions alive. The area abounds with incredible scenery, superb wildlife-viewing opportunities, and the local waterways are ideal for both fishing and kayaking. Experienced paddlers rent kayaks or bring their own for independent exploring through the surrounding labyrinth of scenic inland fjords. One local tour company, owned and operated by the local First
Nations band, has opened the stunning, modern Spirit Bear Lodge to house visitors while offering eco-cultural and wildlife-viewing tours that include trips to Princess Royal Island and the Fiordland Conservancy marine park. Visit with a hereditary chief as you ply the rich ocean waters and learn the coastal story of creation. Klemtu’s Swindle Island is inaccessible by road, however B.C. Ferries services the town on the Discovery Coast Passage Route. Check BC Ferries website for current schedules. Pacific Coastal Airlines also offers convenient flights to Klemtu from Vancouver and Port Hardy. ♦
Backcountry wilderness on the remote Central Coast.
Ask about our Central Coast packages including ferry travel, accommodation, tours and activities.
Client:
BC Ferries
Three easy ways to book: · bcferries.com/vacations · BC Ferries Vacations™Centre at the Fairmont Pacific Rim · 1-888-BC FERRY Ext.3 1010 Canada Place, Vancouver, BC
Date:
Sept 24 2013 - 11:45 am
BC Reg. 48839.
Ranchlands and Rivers Circle Tour
(* Includes: B.C. Ferries travel) Distance (complete route): 1,835 km (1,140 mi.)
Distance (complete route): 725 km (450 mi.)
Distance (CCC section): 720 km (447 mi./lane portion only)
Distance (CCC section): 300 km (180 mi.)
Time (complete route): 7 to 10 days
Time (complete route): 4 to 6 days
Highlights: Grasslands, volcanic mountains, coastal villages, First Nations, wildlife, Gold Rush Trail, Coastal Ferry travel
Highlights: Ranches, rivers, deserts, grasslands, Gold Rush Country, The Fishing Highway
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T
epart from Port Hardy on a BC Ferries sailing to Bella Bella, and transfer to a smaller intimate vessel sailing to Bella Coola, stopping in communities such as Shearwater and Ocean Falls. View ancient petroglyphs, and fish for salmon and crab. Take an optional side-trip to Klemtu, traditional home of the Xais’Xais (hayhace) and Kitasoo (kit-AH-soo), and seek out a rare, white Kermode in the Kitasoo Spirit Bear Conservancy. Travel the celebrated “Freedom Highway” (Hwy. 20) through the Coast Mountains and Tweedsmuir Provincial Park, B.C.’s largest, to explore the colorful, volcanic Rainbow Mountains. Outdoor adventures abound: camping, fishing, canoeing, hiking, mountain biking, outstanding river drifts and wildlife viewing.
he gateway to the Cariboo Chilcotin Coast on this tour that begins in Hope, is Lillooet, on the banks of the mighty Fraser River. This is true desert country. Take the Jade Walk through town. Learn about local traditional First Nations fishing methods. Lillooet is ‘Mile 0’ of the “Cariboo Wagon Road”, where gold panners once fanned out in search of nuggets. Even today, what you find, you keep!
Next up is the town of Tatla Lake, gateway to Chilko Lake, the largest high-elevation freshwater lake on the continent — followed by Alexis Creek. At Riske Creek, detour to Farwell Canyon to see hoodoo rock pillars, then on to Junction Sheep Range Provincial Park to photograph California bighorn sheep. It’s then east again, to Williams Lake, site of the Williams Lake Stampede and B.C.’s Cowboy Hall of Fame.
Head north on Hwy. 97 and the town of Clinton is next; a community renowned in part for hosting the Annual May Ball; the longest continually running event of its kind in Canada, featuring western-style dancing in true cowboy fashion. Just up the road a piece, make time to see Chasm Provincial Park and its deep box canyon created by glacial melt cutting into lava flows, featuring rock layers in stunning shades of orange, pink, yellow and purple. This is Guest Ranch country. Opt for luxurious resort ranches with pools, spas and exquisite cuisine, or stay at a more rustic working cattle ranch and help out with the chores – riding, roping and herding. Enjoy a trail ride across a pristine landscape that is home to moose, bears, wolves and beaver.
Got your mountain bike? Local trails include Ridge Bypass, Comer Drop and Missioner Loop, plus Pit Drop and Brake Check for more advanced riders. No bike? No problem, rentals are available. River raft the Chilcotin, Chilko or Fraser rivers and get that adrenaline flowing. Then drive south on Highway 97 to 100 Mile House and perhaps visit a local rock carver, before continuing on to the cowboy village of Clinton, that celebrated its 150th anniversary in 2013. Explore interesting antiques of a bygone era. Finally, continue south toward Lillooet, Mile 0 on the Gold Rush Trail, to explore the many outdoor experiences offered in this area that’s branded “guaranteed rugged,” then on to Whistler to begin exploration of the Vancouver, Coast & Mountains region.
Drive northeast on Hwy. 99 toward Cache Creek and stop for a visit at Historic Hat Creek Ranch to ride an original stagecoach, listen to cowboy poetry, and experience what life was once like for the area’s indigenous peoples at the onsite Shuswap Village.
Further north, just south of 100 Mile House, head east on Hwy. 24, the legendary “Fishing Highway” that accesses more than 100 lakes teeming with trout, all within an hour’s drive! Guest ranches and backcountry lodges here offer cozy accommodations and insider fishing tips. At the junction of Hwy. 5, turn north to explore Wells Gray Park, or continue along south to visit Sun Peaks Resort, Kamloops and the grasslands of the Thompson Okanagan region. Circle Tours — Destination B.C. 1-800-663-5885
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First Nations
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province’s interior tribes. The oil, from a small, herring-like fish, was transported in cedar boxes and the trail got its name from the oils dropped along the route.
Native residents were essential to early explorers and European settlers from the 1700s through 1800s, providing canoes, food, guides, translators and information. As an example, Alexander Mackenzie would not have successfully completed his historic 1793 trek if the indigenous peoples did not direct him along the Nuxalk-Carrier Grease Trail through the northern Cariboo to the Pacific shores near Bella Coola. This route was used for centuries by coastal natives trading valuable eulachon oil with the
Fur Trading and Gold Fur-trading companies built the first forts in the region in the early 1800s to trade supplies for natural resources with local bands. But even before these trading posts were built, First Nations in the Interior participated in the fur trade by bartering pelts with natives on the Coast – who, in turn, traded them to Europeans arriving by sea. After the forts were established, local First Nations brought their furs directly to the trading posts to bargain for goods and supplies. With the start of the gold rush and influx of European settlement in the region, the fur trade era was coming to an end by the mid-1800s, and relations between the two cultures were greatly altered. Smallpox epidemics and other European diseases devastated the native population, resulting in a loss of control of much of their traditional lands. Still, there was surprisingly little bloodshed and the few conflicts that occurred were short-lived. Several Chilcotin communities were eventually named after local chiefs, including Anahim Lake, Alexis Creek and the Nemiah Valley. Local natives also became involved in early industries, particularly with ranching in the Chilcotin and southern Cariboo, where their horsemanship and wilderness survival skills were highly
or thousands of years, this Cariboo Chilcotin Coast region has been home to several different and interdependent aboriginal societies. Tribal groups of the interior include the Tsilhqot’in (tseelh-coht-een), whose traditional territory is the high-altitude plateau of the Chilcotin (chil-ko-tin); the St’at’imc (stat-lee-um), from southwest of the Fraser; the Carrier, who occupied the sub-boreal northern parts of the Cariboo Chilcotin; and the Secwepemc (shi-HUEP-muh-k), whose historical territory lay east of the Fraser River. On the Pacific Coast, the major First Nations groups are the Nuxalk (nu-halk) of the Bella Coola Valley, the Tsimshian (sim-SHE-an) of the outer coast and the Heiltsuk (hel-sic) in the coastal area near Bella Bella. Although the local First Nations played a major role in the province’s development, little of their centuries-long history of habitation in the region has been recorded.
prized. Today, many continue to work in ranching and are key participants on the local rodeo circuit, including Anahim Lake’s Stampede and the Bella Coola, Redstone and Nemiah Valley rodeos.
Highlights Cruise the Fraser River by JetBoat – Through rapids and past unusual hoodoo rock formations. Guides share traditional First Nations knowledge about medicinal plants and local lore, while exploring ancient village sites, pictographs, petroglyphs and more. Take home Aboriginal Artwork – Several galleries throughout the region offer hand-made First Nations products for sale. One such example is the Petroglyph Gallery in Bella Coola with a selection of prints, paintings, masks, carvings, clothing and other Nuxalk artwork. Visit a National Award-Winning Heritage Village – Take an interactive tour and hear traditional stories from Secwepemc Nation elders. Also, stay in authentic accommodation in a teepee or pit house, set along the banks of the Fraser River, at Xatśūll Heritage Village 20 minutes north of Williams Lake. Book in advance and meals will be provided.
1-800-663-5885
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First Nations
Near Williams Lake, in a completely different landscape, jet boats travel where roads can’t go; through rapids and past bizarre hoodoo rock formations as aboriginal guides share ancient knowledge about medicinal plants, flora and fauna and local lore during explorations of ancient village sites, 8,000 - 10,000 years old pictographs and petroglyphs, traditional fishing spots and abandoned mining sites. On the last weekend of July, catch the Nemiah Pow Wow and enjoy a colorful display of regalia and dancing in one of the many occurring Pow Wows year round. Or, join the Xeni Gwet’in (honey ko-teen) at the annual summer elders gathering, where elders and youth come together to teach and learn traditional games, stories, hunting and gathering.
Michael Bednar
The Heiltsuk Cultural Education Centre at Bella Bella is the place to delve into the research and preservation of the language and culture of the Heiltsuk (hel-sic). They, along with other coastal peoples such as the Kitasoo (kit-ah-soo) and Xai’xais (hay-hace) at the village of Klemtu on Swindle Island, grew rich and powerful on the bounty of the sea. In the Thorsen Creek Valley near Bella Coola, ancient petroglyphs honouring the power and mystery of nature are still visible on rock faces near waterfalls and caves, where
AboriginalBC.com
Today’s First Nations The aboriginal tourism sector in B.C. is the most developed of its kind in Canada and considered to have huge growth potential. Modern-day aboriginal groups remain highly involved in the region’s fishing, logging, transportation and tourism industries. One Aboriginal tourism success story can be found at the award-winning Xatśūll (hats-ull) Heritage Village just north of Williams Lake, situated on a grassy bench above the Fraser River canyon. Here members of the Secwepemc (shi-huep-muh-k), or Shuswap First Nation, share storytelling by village elders, cleansing sweat lodge ceremonies, educational wilderness walks, salmon lunches and overnight accommodation under the stars in pit houses and teepees. Contact Xatśūll ahead of time with your reservation to assure a complete, traditional experience.
guided tours are now offered by the Nuxalk (nu-halk). Though a visit is not usually on tourist itineraries, the Acwsalcta (ex-sals-ta) grade school is a showcase for indigenous arts, including a magnificent totem pole carved by a teacher and three students. When erected in 2002, it was the first Nuxalk totem pole raised here in 38 years. If indigenous art interests you, plan a visit to Bella Coola’s Petroglyph Gallery for works by world-famous Silyas “Art” Saunders and his son Skip. Appointments can be booked at the visitor centre to meet with Art in his workshop at the Silyas Gallery, located just east of town. The Petroglyph Gallery also sells prints, paintings, carvings, clothing and other Nuxalk and First Nations artwork and gifts, and visitors can book workshop visits with renowned local carver and hereditary chief Noel Pootlass. Meanwhile, hikers with historical interests traverse the ancient NuxalkCarrier Grease Trail, also known as the Alexander Mackenzie Heritage Trail. Three weeks are required to trace the entire route, but various sections can be accessed for shorter jaunts; the scenic 80km/50mi portion across Tweedsmuir Provincial Park reportedly takes less than a week. For more detailed information, refer to the In the Steps of Alexander Mackenzie Heritage Trail Guidebook, found at popular bookstores and some visitor centres. Some 100km/62mi northwest of Bella Coola, in the wilds of the Great Bear Rainforest, KitasooXai’xais (kit-ah-soo-hay-hace) First Nation guides lead multiday boat and kayak tours of this spectacular, remote area complete with lodge accommodations. 1-800-663-5885
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Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
Going to a Pow Wow? Attending a Pow Wow is an opportunity to share a unique and memorable First Nations experience. Watch for highway signboards and local event postings during your next visit, for upcoming opportunities. These inclusive events are welcoming of all! The positive energy of a Pow Wow rejuvenates and inspires. When attending, please be respectful of this time-honoured spiritual celebration and experience its First Nation traditions with an open heart and mind. Tips • Listen to the host and follow instructions. • Stand and remove head coverings during the grand entry, flag ceremonies, invocation and closing ceremonies. • Request permission before taking photographs. • Do not make recordings of drumming without the consent of the head singer. • Refer to the dancers’ clothing as regalia; it is not a costume. • Refrain from touching the dancers’ regalia. • Do not turn down an invitation to participate, particularly an invitation from an elder. • No alcohol or drugs are permitted.
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GotNewsNetwork
In the Chilcotin, no fewer than 11 different communities make up the St’at’imc Nation (stat-lee-um) in the southern area, whose traditional territories were located in and around the ancient gathering place now known as Lillooet. Here, Xwisten (hoysh-ten) Experience Tours offer award-winning guided tours that include walks along the banks of Fraser to view “fishing rocks” and their traditional wind-dried method of preserving salmon. Your tour guide may also take you to explore the extensive archaeological site’s 80 pit houses, dating back thousands of years. The neighbouring Cayoose Creek Band offers interpretive walks of the beautifully restored Lower Seton spawning channel, while just five minutes from downtown Lillooet is the site of a traditional s7istken (shesh-ken), or pit house, built by the T’it’q’et (teetqwet). Built from earth and timber, such structures may house up to 20 people and featured two entrances: one on ground level, one in the roof (which also released smoke from cooking fires). Also not to be missed is the Seton Lake Band’s Kaoham Shuttle: a travelling window into the past and a convenient way to view local wildlife. The train is available on Friday, with a scheduled double run skirting the shores of Seton Lake past numerous historical sites including a First Nations cemetery balanced precariously between the tracks and crystalline shores of the lake. In the northern Chilcotin, the Nazko lands are known for the work of celebrated Carrier First Nation artists (particularly with leather and beadwork, watercolours, wood art, stained glass and cross-stitch). ♦
experience the largest historic site in
western north america
barkerville authenticity since 1862. 1-888-994-3332 • www.barkerville.ca • A NATIONAL hIsTOrIc sITE of cANAdA
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Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
Norm Dove/Echo Valley Ranch Quesnel and District Museum & Archives
Thomas Drasdauskis
Cariboo Gold Rush
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ust over 150 years ago, the lure of ‘gold’ changed the face of British Columbia forever. The magnificence of the province’s interior was revealed to the world when on August 17, 1862, prospector Billy Barker found a major gold deposit at Williams Creek in the northern Cariboo. Gold fever spread like an epidemic when news of the strike filtered out, bringing excited hordes of fortune seekers from around the world into this remote wilderness.
The wood-planked town of Barkerville sprang up near the creek, joining Richfield and Camerontown, where mining crews toiled around the clock to haul golden ore from the earth. By 1865, a wagon road connected the south with the goldfields, and Barkerville’s population reached 10,000, one of the largest settlements in western Canada, and at the time the largest community west of Chicago and north of San Francisco! Many of the region’s early miners were Chinese immigrants, who worked white prospectors’ abandoned mines and tailings by washing sand and gravel from rocks that were then neatly piled on the Fraser River’s shores. These “Chinese rocks” are still visible today. By the mid1860s, thousands of Chinese lived in Barkerville and several other gold rush towns, including Stanley, Van Winkle, Quesnel, Antler, Quesnelle Forks and Lillooet, where Chinese miners took millions out of Cayoosh Creek. Mining
was not these immigrants’ only labour; they also operated stores, laundries, lodging houses and worked as cooks. Though only a handful of prospectors struck it rich, the Gold Rush completely changed the face of British Columbia. Roads and bridges were built, stores and mills opened and ranches were founded. In the Chilcotin Mountains, another gold rush followed in the 1930s and the Bralorne-Pioneer Mine near Gold Bridge became the richest gold claim in Canada. Bralorne, and other mine sites in the region, can still be visited today including sites in Wells, once a company town of the Cariboo Gold Quartz Mine. The historic “Gold Rush Trail” has many places along its route to stop, explore, and get a feel of what it was like back then as you retrace the steps of the oxen carts and stagecoaches. Many of today’s communities along this route have historical connections to the gold rush era. Some began as roadhouses where stagecoaches stopped, travellers could overnight and horses would feed and water. One of the era’s last surviving Barnard Express stagecoaches is displayed in 100 Mile House. Clinton, which celebrated its 150th Anniversary in 2013, showcases its lovely museum in a colorful red brick building which once served as a schoolhouse and later as a courthouse. At the 108 Mile Ranch Historic Site, pioneer buildings include a 1908 log barn which was built to house a herd of 200 Clydesdale horses.
The former gold rush supply centre of Quesnel hosts Billy Barker Days, a fourday festival in mid-July commemorating the region’s most famous gold seeker. The Gold Rush Trail’s terminus is the restored heritage town of Barkerville, now recognized as a Canadian National Heritage Site, where guided tours bring the lore of gold rush years to life. Period interpreters roam the streets dressed as historical characters; Judge Matthew Begbie (known in his time as the “hanging judge”) hands out frontier justice. Visitors can also pan for gold, enjoy delicious food at local eateries, be entertained by the colorful antics in the Theatre Royal’s live musicals, and stay the night in a local hotel or B&B. Barkerville is a great place for families to reconnect with Canada’s amazing history. ♦
Highlights Visit one of the last remaining roadhouses – Cottonwood House Historic Site, provided provisions to travellers on their journey along the Cariboo Wagon Road, offers guided tours, carriage rides and exploration of heritage buildings. Your stay needs a visit the Candy Shop and Gift Store! Panning streams and rivers could make for a most “precious” vacation! Pick up a copy of the Guidelines and Regulations for Recreational Gold Panning in British Columbia at one of our Cariboo Visitor Centres.
1-800-663-5885
Forestry & Mining
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n the 1860s, the commercial logging industry earnestly began in the Cariboo, with sawmills needed to produce lumber for gold-rush boomtowns. However, one could argue that forestry had been around much longer on the Central Coast, for this is where B.C.’s First Nations developed a system for peeling planks from giant, stillstanding cedar trees to construct their “longhouses.” Examples of these “culturally modified trees” can be seen around Klemtu and the Bella Coola valley. Today, our resource extraction companies are leaders in innovation and the implementation of sustainable, environmentally responsible practices. Value added industries like the successful log home building industry create employment and a stable economy in the Cariboo Chilcotin Coast. Movie stars, internationally recognized politicians and Internet moguls have all had log homes built to their personal tastes by this region’s highly esteemed log home builders. Their innovative homes are in demand on every continent. Products from our many log home building companies, such as Pioneer Log Homes (featured HGTV Canada’s Timber Kings), dot the globe. In fact, the world’s largest “complete log structure building” (at 114,000sq.ft and costing $28 million), is now showcased in Colorado, owned by a publishing and Internet multimillionaire. Today, abundant high-grade
spruce, pine and fir products make the region one of the largest lumberproducing areas in Canada, and though the recent infestation of the mountain pine beetle has had a significant impact, imaginative ways have been developed to use the “blue, or denim pine.” When it comes to sustainable forestry practices, the region boasts the largest biomass power plant in North America. Each year the Williams Lake Power Plant consumes more than 544,310 tonnes of wood waste from local sawmills, generating 67 megawatts of electricity. It is important to note that it was mining that started the rush to this region, with the discovery of gold in the Cariboo in the mid-1800s. Modern-day prospectors still live the dream panning for nuggets in creeks and streams throughout the region. Gold Bridge, near Lillooet, is a favourite with the amateur panand-swish crowd. Numerous regional museums also offer fascinating ways to relive the storied past of both local mining and forestry, with excellent archives illustrating the pioneering spirit of those early days. Some of the world’s largest open-pit operations are found here, including the second largest in Canada; Taseko’s Gibraltar copper mine near McLeese Lake. The Mount Polly gold mine near Likely has an estimated one million ounces of gold to be extracted, albeit
with methods more sophisticated than Billy Barker’s 150 years ago. Recently, more gold has been unearthed in the Chilcotin Mountains’ Camelsfoot Range, and gold placer-mining claims are located along the Fraser River and throughout much of the Cariboo Chilcotin. Visitors can also tour working mines and forestry operations throughout the region. Check with local chambers of commerce and visitor centres for updated lists of what will be open and when. Avid rock hounds in search of jade, and other semi-precious stones, are attracted to the South Chilcotin and specifically Lillooet, home to B.C.’s first jade mines. And for a touch of what gold panning was like during the gold rush, try your luck near Barkerville where gold panning adventure tours are popular. ♦
Highlights Walk the Walk – Lillooet is the site of the first Jade mine in the province. Stunning jade boulders mark stopping points along the popular “Jade Walk”. A perfect stroll while exploring downtown shops and the superb museum. Hike historic mining trails and forest service roads near Likely. The old Bullion Pit Mine is an astonishing manmade 3 klm long and 120 metre deep canyon. Nearby, the Quesnelle Forks ghost town is also interesting to wander through, at your own pace.
1-800-663-5885
Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
Quesnel and District Museum & Archives
Steve Harkies/CCCTA
Museum of the Cariboo Chilcotin
Quesnel and District Museum & Archives
Rocky Mountaineer
Cowboys & Railroads
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ritish Columbia bred cowboys are said to combine a Mexican vaquero’s skills, equipment and clothes; a U.S. frontiersman’s grit and resourcefulness; a First Nations’ respect for nature; and a British gentry’s sense of manners, law and order — all topped off with a cowboys’ unique brand of humour. The description may sound more like that of a mythical figure than real-life flesh and blood, but there is no doubt that the cowboy, as a romantic icon, is deeply entangled in the local history and culture. The first white settlers spread across the region in the 1860s, when cowboys worked as “drovers,” driving herds of cattle north from the U.S. to supply hungry miners in the goldfields around Barkerville. Some of these hardy souls quickly realized it made more sense to raise cattle closer to market and stayed on to establish great, sprawling ranches on the grassy rangelands near the Fraser River. More than one third of B.C.’s beef cattle are raised in this area today. Most of the drovers and cowboys in these frontier days were First Nation, many of whom were related to Caucasian ranchers through marriage. The natives were superb horsemen and knew the territory better than any outsider. Because at the time both ranchers and natives spoke Chinook, the trade language perfected during fur-trade times, communication was not an issue.
Unlike most other ranching areas in North America, B.C.’s natives were treated as equals and key partners in the cattle industry. The same holds true today. Ranchers struggled in the years after the gold rush, but the industry was reborn when railway tracks were laid in 1919. Ranch owners in the Cariboo and Chilcotin now had easier access to the more heavily populated southern markets and were encouraged to increase their herds. Communities such as Williams Lake, then a sleepy backwater, suddenly boomed when the Pacific Great Eastern Railway (now CN Rail) established a local train station. Seemingly overnight the town became a central shipping point with stockyards that could hold up to 2,400 head of cattle at a time. That same train station now houses a delightful art gallery. Williams Lake was the end of the line until the railway pushed north to Quesnel in 1921 and Prince George in 1952. Ranching continues to thrive in the Cariboo Chilcotin, but it’s a tough business and the cowboys who work these ranches, like their frontier descendants, are a hardy breed wearing a mantle of freedom and independence barely diminished over time. That aura of romance has only grown in recent years with the increasing popularity of cowboy poetry and music, art forms showcased at festivals organized by B.C.’s Cowboy Heritage Society. The rich
cowboy heritage and lifestyle is also celebrated in several TV programs and books, including those of local cowboy Rich Hobson who recounts his days pioneering in the area. As for what is thought to be the first formal rodeo in B.C., it was an impromptu event staged in Williams Lake by local cowboys showcasing their horsemanship to celebrate the construction of the railroad in 1919. Today, the Williams Lake Stampede is the cornerstone of the region’s thriving rodeo and festival circuit, attracting thousands of visitors each summer to watch professional competitors from Canada, the U.S.A., and as far away as Australia. ♦
Highlights B.C.’s early history was carved out of sheer wilderness by thousands of hard working and forgotten cowboys. Visit the BC Cowboy Hall of Fame at Williams Lakes’ Museum of the Cariboo Chilcotin, where memories of these living legends are captured and stories shared. All Aboard! Travel the rails between Whistler and Jasper, overnighting in Quesnel, on the Rocky Mountaineer “Rainforest to Gold Rush” route. Enjoy stunning views of coastal rainforests, desert landscapes, ranchlands, and impressive Mount Robson.
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Ranches & Rodeos
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his ‘land without limits’ aims to make your childhood fantasies of living the life of a cowboy or cowgirl come true. From Cache Creek in the south, to north of Quesnel, and west into the Chilcotin wilderness, you’ll find an adventure-land of rodeos, rustic guest ranches and resort-style luxury. Our ranches and lodges are eager to immerse you into cowboy life in whatever fashion you choose. Bunk down in an old-fashioned log cabin, or listen to cowboy tales around a crackling campfire. Relax with a massage after a long day’s ride, or visit a rodeo and marvel at the skills and courage of both riders and animals. Or, treat your sweetheart to an amazing glamping experience for a distinctive ranch escape. The Cariboo Chilcotin Coast is home to more than half of British Columbia’s guest ranches. Some have gourmet restaurants, swimming pools, hot tubs, glamping accommodations and full service spas; while others provide a more rustic Canadian experience. Gratify your inner cowboy by riding the Tchaikazan-Yohetta Valley Loop or the Chilcotin’s Potato Range, camping at a secluded trailside lake to reel in a fat trout for the supper fry pan. Aspiring cowhands can bunk at genuine working ranches, riding and roping, branding and herding. Horse enthusiasts won’t want to miss a ‘horse
whispering’ session, where you have the opportunity to learn how to speak your horse’s language and create the ultimate bond between man and animal. Take a 14-day expedition into the mountains of the Itcha Ilgachuz Provincial Park, where an archaeological site of particular importance to the Carrier people has been identified near one of the obsidian quarries. Guide herds from winter feedlots to summer pasture in spring, or back again in the fall. It’s the stuff cowboy dreams are made of – poetry, guitars and singing around the fire, sleeping under the stars in a snug bedroll, waking at dawn to the howl of a distant coyote and the aroma of coffee, beans and bacon crisping over an open flame. No matter your dream, ranch hands here are experts at matching horses to riders of all abilities; from family friendly, low-impact trail rides through aspen and jack pine forests, to multi-hour saddle treks to hoodoo pinnacles with vistas stretching as far as your eye can see. For those keen to learn about cowboy history here in Canada’s final frontier, a visit the Museum of the Cariboo Chilcotin in Williams Lake is a must! Home to the ‘BC Cowboy Hall of Fame’, this museum hosts exhibits dedicated to preserving and honoring our cowboys and cowgirls of the past, and present. Cowboys and cattlemen truly tamed British Columbia’s wild west. The annual inauguration into
the Hall of Fame occurs at the Williams Lake Indoor Rodeo in April, providing an opportunity to meet the ranching and rodeo pioneers of British Columbia. July’s Williams Lake Stampede is a sanctioned ProRodeo showcase event which draws contestants and spectators
“The first time, it’s a vacation. After that, it’s coming home.”
Just 4 hours north of Vancouver 1-800-553-3533 www.sundanceguestranch.com [email protected]
1-800-663-5885
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Highlights Trail ride through alpine meadows near Anahim Lake in Tweedsmuir Provincial Park’s remote Rainbow Range, or hook up with an experienced guide to take you on a pack trip through this incredibly beautiful mountain paradise. Dust of your Stetson, Boots and Bolo Tie – You’re invited to rodeo’s throughout the region. Enjoy unique events like the awesome Mountain Race at the Nemiah Valley Rodeo, the Grand Finale Bullarama at the Bella Coola Rodeo and Wild Cow Milking at the Williams Lake Stampede.
Over 60% of B.C.’s Guest Ranches are here! – With such a great selection of guest ranches, from historically rustic to casual luxury, what are you waiting for? Bring the kids and enjoy a true, western frontier family vacation that will generate memories to ride off into the sunset with. 80
Julia Haseloff
Cowgirl and Cowboy Work-theRanch Vacations. Action packed multi-day getaways are offered by a few Chilcotin operators. Help out and learn to rope, pack a horse, herd cattle and then be ready for the camp cook-offs. Ride the range and live a little, or a lot!
Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
Laureen Carruthers
Ranches & Rodeos
from around the world. Featured events include bull riding, bareback riding, saddle bronc, team roping, steer wrestling and barrel racing. BC Rodeo Association events are held throughout British Columbia, with several rodeos staged in this region including 100 Mile House, Clinton, Ashcroft, Bella Coola, Williams Lake, Anahim Lake, Interlakes, Nemiah, Redstone, and Quesnel; the latter complemented by the city’s Billy Barker Days, when townsfolk parade about in their finest 1860s garb amidst many festival activities. Each rodeo offers a unique local flavor. Bella Coola’s feature attraction tempts you to try your luck at cow pattie bingo. Anahim Lake and Redstone are true First Nations rodeo events. The remote Nemiah Valley August rodeo marquee attraction is its Mountain Race, a breakneck dash down a mountain on horseback to the rodeo grounds. Williams Lake kicks off the season with the indoor rodeo in April and Clinton’s May extravaganza also features a Western Heritage Week, with cowboy poetry readings and western musical performances. Quesnel hosts the year-end B.C. Rodeo Association Finals event every September. Meanwhile, children are the stars of the Little Britches Rodeo in 100 Mile House in May (featuring mutton busting, goat tying and dummy roping). Rodeo dances are common throughout this region featuring those famous cowboy manners. Most feature traditional western music for the square dancing & two-stepping crowd, while some also offer modern country-pop for the young at heart who know really how to kick up their heels. So, you can be assured that the fun doesn’t end when the sun goes down. 1-800-663-5885
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Biking & Hiking
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any in the mountain biking community consider this region the “unofficial mountain biking capital of Canada”, with unlimited riding for leisure bikers and adventure seeking free-riders. The spectacular terrain and quality trail systems here offer distinct riding experiences with hoodoos, river valleys, rugged canyons, logging roads, steeps, ramps, and single-track ridges. You could spend an entire summer here without setting a wheel in the same place twice. Red Bull’s 2012 feature film “Where the Trail Ends” showcases the world’s top free ride mountain bikers, including Williams Lakes’ own James Doerfling, as they search for un-ridden terrain in five countries around the globe, including the amazing cliffs and canyon walls of the Fraser and Chilcotin rivers right here in our Cariboo Chilcotin Coast region. Quesnel biking buffs call the local “Pins” route a “flowy” ride, with spectacular views of Baker Creek and the hoodoos littering the valley floor. Quesnel’s Adventure Skills Bike Park has a freestyle section, pump track, kid’s area and features to challenge beginner, novice, experienced and highly skilled riders. The Wells-Barkerville area offers some of the most extraordinary trails in B.C., loaded with Gold Rush history. From gentle boardwalk trails through quiet wetlands to day-long epic mountain expeditions in stunning alpine terrain, this trail network has it all.
Bike magazine recently referred to Williams Lake as North America’s “Shangri-La of mountain biking”. The 200-plus tracks around the city provide the choice of tackling technical loops; try “Aflo”, the Lakecity’s most popular trail with awesome, flowy banked turns, or choose hours of exploring on many easy riding trails. Downtown’s Boitanio Bike Park covers over 4hec/10ac, and is the largest of its kind in B.C.’s interior, with 6 major jump lines, pump track, drop zone, flow trails and log work. The 100 Mile House vicinity has hundreds of kilometres of marked and unmarked backcountry trails criss-crossing the plateau. Trails are accessible around the 108 Mile Ranch, and from downtown 100 Mile House. The trails beginning at Centennial Park take you up an old ski hill, and with plenty of old roads and tracks in the area you have easy access onto trails in the nearby hills. On the 99 Mile trails south of town, choose to stay on the trails, or venture off onto single track for more amazing riding. In the South Chilcotin, Spruce Lake has epic grassland riding through alpine and sub-alpine meadows, skirting freshwater lakes. The classic 26km/16mi single-track Gun Creek Route gains elevation through a conifer forest mixed with aspen and cottonwood. Also popular are the South Tyaughton Lake’s 28km/17mi Taylor-Pearson loop
Highlights Hike or Bike – The Spruce Lake Protected Area, 10 km west of Gold Bridge, is a backcountry preserve boasting a remarkable 150 km network of interconnected trails catering to hikers, mountain bikers and horseback riders. Your heart and lungs will thank you. Ice Climbers come from far and wide for an awesome climbing experience in Marble Canyon, with relatively easy access off Hwy 99, just north of Lillooet. Plan a waterfall hiking tour in the South Cariboo, where several beautiful waterfalls can be accessed via moderately easy trails. Visit the 100 Mile House Visitor Centre for more details. Hiking and walking tours on the trail network in the Bella Coola Valley are a great way to exercise while enjoying the magnificent beauty of this coastal rainforest playground. Trails Galore! - Visit Williams Lakes’ Tourism Discovery Centre and ‘biking hub’ located in a magnificent log-building to learn more about over 300 km’s of trails for all skill levels in the surrounding hills and valleys of the city.
1-800-663-5885
South Tweedsmuir Park, Panorama Ridge Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
John Wellburn
Biking & Hiking
and the 44km/27mi High Trail Loop into wide-open Windy Pass. Adventurous backcountry mountain-bikers can opt for float plane and helicopter entries or packhorse-assisted and guided tours. The Snooka Trail System, in our Central Coast area, sports leisurely riding through second growth rainforest, with spectacular alpine views the reward for reaching the network’s Purgatory Lookout. A series of trails between Bella Coola and Hagensborg provide various levels of difficulty and scenery. The East Loop Trail is an easy grade circle route of 5.5km/3mi with only a 50m/164ft elevation gain, while the West Trail is more challenging with an elevation gain of 500m/1640ft on its over 3.8km/2.4mi one-way trek. The trails also connect you to other wilderness routes that lead deeper into the temperate backcountry of the Bella Coola Valley. This region is also a delight for hikers and walkers! In the Cariboo, Lillooet is base to a variety of scenic hiking trails, many of which have historic significance along the Fraser River, where in the mid-1800s Chinese miners processed millions of dollars in gold. Amateur geologists use topographic quadrangle maps (topos) in the Marble Range near Clinton, an area notable for limestone karsts, wooded groves and alpine ridges. The 11.3km/7mi Sepa Lakes Trail near 108 Mile Ranch meanders past bays and lagoons filled with waterfowl. Canim Lake offers three majestic and photogenic waterfalls. Whale Lake boasts good fishing at the end of a 4km/2.5mi hiking trail. Williams Lakes’ family-friendly hikes include the popular River Valley Trail, while the same is true about Quesnel’s delightful Riverfront Trail. The Mount Agnes Trail network, near Barkerville and Wells, follows the original ‘Cariboo Waggon Road’ into beautiful wildflower-strewn alpine meadows below Summit Rock.
In the Chilcotin, the 12km/7.5mi Tchaikazan-Yohetta Trail connects the Tchaikazan and Yohetta valleys via Spectrum Pass and picture perfect Dorothy Lake. History buffs with a high fitness level can stroll the 420km/261mi Nuxalk-Carrier Grease/Alexander Mackenzie Heritage Trail in Tweedsmuir Provincial Park, with a suggested hiking time of 25-30 days. Urban area climbers are now discovering the untrammelled local mountaineering scene. Three hot spots include Williams Lake, where the Esler Bluffs alone boast 44 routes. Hunlen Falls is generating enormous excitement with the rope-andrack set including heart-pumping routes, bouldering, and single-pitch climbs ranging in difficulty from “no sweat” (5.6) to “sweat and nothing but” (5.11+). Bella Coola boasts such multi-pitch classics as the nine-pitch Airport Wall (5.9-10+). Popular heli-assisted hikes and climbs can be arranged by many operators. Mountaineers come from around the world to tackle the 3,000m/9,842ft-plus peaks of the Coast Range, including 4,016m/13,176ft Mount Waddington, B.C.’s highest peak. Ice climbers seek out the frozen falls at Marble Canyon Provincial Park, between Lillooet and Cache Creek, where popular routes include Car Wrecker Gully, The Diehedral and spectacular five-pitch Tokkum Pole. Ice climbing is also common west of Lillooet along the D’Arcy-Anderson Lake Road that stretches 33km/21mi along the west side of Anderson Lake from Seton Portage. The Cariboo Mountain Bike Consortium (Ride the Cariboo), actively promotes all of the wonderful mountain biking trails in and around Wells, Quesnel, Williams Lake and 100 Mile House. With the excess of trails and skill levels around these communities alone, you will think you’ve arrived in biking paradise. (See page 112 for biking sector websites). ♦ 1-800-663-5885
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Wildlife & Eco-Tours
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odiac touring in Pacific estuaries, birding at a wildlife sanctuary, snorkelling with salmon in the Atnarko River, 4x4 touring for mountain goats, pack-horse treks, canoe safaris, and more – take your pick! The Cariboo Chilcotin Coast is like a zoo without cages, featuring a constantly changing menagerie — an awesome bounty that defines this vast region as one of the greatest outdoor shows on earth. From the Cariboo’s mountain goats to the Coast’s orcas and the Chilcotin’s bighorn sheep, the diversity and density of wildlife is astounding.
and Atnarko rivers where songbirds congregate and otter, mink, fox and deer forage. Amateur and professional ornithologists can join guided birdwatching tours into the Cariboo Mountains, home to wetland species such as kingfishers, hawks, owls, warblers, and woodpeckers. Scout Island Bird Sanctuary at Williams Lake, on the Pacific Flyway, features rare white pelicans, swans, ducks and songbirds. Alpine mule trekking is a low-impact way to explore game trails blazed by caribou and mountain goats, wolves and wolverines.
How and when do you find those moose and caribou? Is spotting a hungry grizzly foraging along a riverbank just luck, and is it dangerous? Our eco-tour guides and outfitters are not only experts on where and when to find specific species, they are also gifted naturalists with extensive rosters of unique wildlifeviewing options featuring a range of accommodations. Their key mandate is to respect and protect wildlife and habitats while ensuring everyone has a good time — and gets home unscathed.
The Yohetta Wilderness area in the Chilcotin could serve as the model for the legend of Shangri-La. Wild and remote, it not only shelters mountain goats, bighorn sheep, bobcats and wolverines but also a remaining wild horse herd. The southern Cariboo around Lillooet is desert country, where the contrast between the Coast and northern Cariboo could not be more profound. Etched by the wind, scorched by the sun, this is a land of rattlesnakes and prairie dogs, a place where eagles soar in search of prey.
Ours is a place where wildlife safaris feature luxurious waterfront lodges and the only drive-by traffic is a parade of eagles, wolves, dolphins and whales. Local biologists lead interpretive ecoraft adventures on the Bella Coola
Fascinated by bears? Sign up with a bear viewing guide in the Cariboo or Chilcotin Mountains in search of grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis) and their black bear cousins (Ursus americanus). Learn about the bears’ social hierarchy,
habitat and body language. The Bella Coola area offers a variety of operators ready to drift you down a river in search of grizzly families dining on salmon. And the coast’s Great Bear Rainforest is the only place in the world to see the legendary white Kermode, or Spirit bear, if you’re lucky. ♦
Highlights B.C. is well known as one of the world’s top grizzly viewing destinations. Experienced guides take visitors past gaping fjords and inlets, and along remote riverbanks. View grizzlies up close in their natural habitats on the coast and in the Cariboo Mountains, or be lucky enough to see the legendary Spirit Bear (Kermode) in the Great Bear Rainforest. Birding: Trumpeter swans and American white pelicans visit during their annual migration. Other species include the pied-billed grebe, green-winged teal, blue-winged teal, ruddy duck, spotted sandpiper, northern flicker, and yellowheaded blackbird. Bella Coola’s River Estuary, Chilanko Forks Wildlife Area, Williams Lakes’ Scout Island, and the 100 Mile Marsh Wildlife Sanctuary are four of the many popular birding areas. Experience incredible wildlife in its natural habitat via eco-friendly, horseguided pack trips in the Chilcotin.
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Touring & Camping
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eel the ground under you while tenting in beautifully remote backcountry locations. Or travel in a luxurious RV with all the comforts of home. Whatever ‘your’ preference, this area delivers plenty to see and do. Truly, the best way to experience each of the three distinct sub-regions, Cariboo, Chilcotin and Coast, is a camping or RV trip along a driving route where possibilities are ripe for exploration. Four of B.C.’s popular Circle Routes intersect in this stunning region (see page 61 for two examples). Tweedsmuir Provincial Park, situated in the Coast Mountain range, is the heart of Nuxalk and Carrier First Nations territory. The park is vast, and boasts four distinct vegetation zones, two vehicle access sites and remote wilderness camping. The Central Coast’s 15,000km/9,320mi of pristine coastline features several ecological reserves, conservancies and no less than six marine parks. For instance, Codville Lagoon on King Island in Fitz Hugh Sound (80km/50mi west of Bella Coola) is a Heiltsuk heritage site with a white, sandy beach perfect for tenting and kayaking. At Hagensborg in the Bella Coola Valley, the spectacular mountains will captivate you. One imaginative operator makes exploring easy for all ages by maintaining a nature conservancy trail for RV guests. In the Chilcotin, on the banks of the glacier-blue Chilcotin River, Bull Canyon
offers shallow caves to explore just off the Chilcotin River Interpretive Trail. Ts’yl-os Provincial Park is a postcardlike world of mountains, glaciers, alpine meadows and waterfalls, where magnificent Chilko Lake features two lakeside campgrounds. Nimpo and Anahim lakes have established reputations as terrific fishing locations stuffed with rainbow trout. RV parks and fishing lodges also coordinate very popular guided flight-seeing tours to Hunlen Falls, the Monarch Icefields, the Rainbow Mountains and other spectacular sites. The Puntzi Lake area also offers camping; set up at a popular forestry campsite, or mingle with anglers at a fishing resorts’ RV campsite or cabin. Excellent camping is found at the Cariboo’s iconic Green Lake, 16km/10mi northeast of 70 Mile House off Hwy. 97, where clear, warm summer waters provide great swimming and water sports. Lac la Hache offers provincial and private campgrounds with lake access from Hwy. 97, the Gold Rush Trail. Seeking tranquility? Hideaway resorts and RV parks on isolated lakes include Hathaway Lake near Lone Butte and Horsefly and Quesnel Lakes east of Williams Lake. Approximately 65 private and public campgrounds and RV parks in unique settings include a few near Barkerville too, with easy access to the gold rush town. Dramatic Cariboo Mountain views are found at Bowron Lake sites, where canoe and kayak rent-
als provide access to the Cariboo Falls. Prefer more unique access? Outfitters lead horseback-camping expeditions, and float plane service is available for fly-in backcountry adventures. Geocaching is a great way to uncover hidden gems while touring. Geocache treasure-hunting is played worldwide by adventurers with GPS devices. Locate hidden containers, called geocaches – then, share the experience online. One cache in the region contains “trade items” such as a fishing lure, all cleverly hidden on the Chilcotin plateau where rare white pelicans gather. Another contains only a metal cylinder with logbook and pencil hidden at Clayton Falls near Bella Coola. In Likely a recent “cacher” stashed “treasures fit for a kid” in the same place that trappers gathered and historic mining machinery is displayed. Perhaps the most creative geocaches are Gold Country’s GeoTourism program with caches that can be found in Lillooet and the South Cariboo. Also, a new Freedom Highway series of caches is ready in the West Chilcotin. ♦
Highlights Fall touring provides access to a diversity of fall colors to fill the budding photographer’s lens. An abundance of family-friendly waterfront camping options offer perfect multi-day vacations to explore the regions’ vastly different topography.
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Geoff Moore
www.huntdriftwood.com
The Cariboo and Chilcotin are known for their healthy populations of mule deer, moose and bear. Whatever the needs of the outdoor adventurer, skilled and experienced outfitters provide a host of backcountry adventure options to suit your needs. Fish for all species of salmon, huge halibut, giant prawns and more on the Central Coast, widely considered by seasoned anglers as the best saltwater fishing area found anywhere in the world! Many world class fishing lodges in this area offer an abundance of fish in un-crowded waters — the experience of a lifetime! Plan a fly-in, or horse-pack hunting trip. The Chilcotin offers outstanding fishing and hunting opportunities that can be explored on your own, or perhaps best experienced in the company of seasoned local guides and outfitters. Tall tales shared at no extra charge.
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David Jacobson
Trout fishing is amazing April through September throughout this vast region, while autumn’s spectacular salmon migration in streams and rivers is also a sight to behold. Plan a visit to one of several hatcheries around the region.
Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
www.huntdriftwood.com
Fishing & Hunting
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o you seek big fish and big game? Fishing and hunting are more than casual experiences here. It’s a way of life, part of our culture and something that many enjoy sharing with others. Imagine fishing a new interior lake or at a new spot along the central coast every day for the rest of your life. Or, during hunting seasons, trekking into the wilderness with the aid of experienced guides to harvest mule deer, moose, California bighorn sheep, mountain goat, black bear, cougar, lynx, bobcat, wolf or coyote. In the Cariboo Chilcotin Coast sound fishing and hunting practices are designed to produce results for hunters and fishers alike. This is a place where certified guides and outfitters are as knowledgeable about wildlife habitats and conservation as they are about big-game tracking and bear-attack prevention. Some local guides are First Nations, and all have an intimate relationship with the landscape and its wildlife. Wilderness skills and knowledge of local species and habitat are based on an understanding of the complexities of the natural world and represent a special opportunity for visitors to experience the region and its wildlife in profound ways. To maximize both hunting and wildlife viewing opportunities in the Cariboo Chilcotin Coast, visitors often access the services of the region’s experienced,
highly knowledgeable guides and outfitters, who subscribe to the highest environmental and wildlife conservation standards. Throughout the region, services and accommodations range from full-service, luxury four-season lodges with all the amenities, to roughand-ready backcountry camps catering to outdoor adventurers yearning for genuine B.C. wilderness hunting and fishing experiences. Big Fish Fishing is not just a pastime here, it’s a passion. The Cariboo Chilcotin Coast boasts more than 8,000 lakes and 17,000km/10,563mi of rivers and streams famous for rod-bending rainbow trout, cunning cutthroat and steel-hearted steelhead. The nutrient rich waters of the rugged Pacific coast yield succulent salmon, enormous halibut, prawns and buckets of fresh-and-lively Dungeness crab and several varieties of shrimp. While staying at a remote resort, a boutique property or a luxury offshore ocean floating camp, travelers can be a few minutes away from exceptional waters. The Cariboo’s unlimited expanse of rivers and lakes includes a stretch of “road” from Little Fort (at the eastern border of the Cariboo on the Yellowhead Highway 5) to 93 Mile House (at the western terminus of Highway 24), a “road” enthusiastically referred to in angling circles as “The Fishing Highway”.
Spring-fed Sheridan Lake is stocked annually and is famous for its rainbow trout up to 9kg/20lb. Bridge Lake is close by, with numerous bays and islands and crystal-clear waters teeming with rainbow and lake trout (char), kokanee
Rejuvenate and recharge in BC’s finest wilderness
250-243-2433 [email protected]
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Dennis Pingre/Shearwater
and burbot. With 100-plus lakes typically within an hour’s drive of one another, the Interlakes area really is a fishing paradise. Check annual stocking reports for recent updates. Meanwhile, fly fishing enthusiasts congregate on the Horsefly River, nursery for three-quarters of the rainbow trout found in nearby Quesnel Lake. In the fall its waters swell with millions of sockeye and chinook salmon en route to their spawning grounds. Near Quesnel, cattails and bulrushes line the banks of jewel-like Dragon Lake, filled with trophy trout. In the Chilcotin, Charlotte Lake, at the foothills of the spectacular Coast Mountains, is renowned for its trophy-sized rainbow trout. Fly fishing is king at nearby Nimpo Lake, where charter air services offer many fly-in options to neighbouring lodges and remote fishing camps. Then there’s the legendary Blackwater River, renowned for its gentle, canoe-friendly grade and numerous insect hatches feeding prolific populations of trout, whitefish and squawfish. Rainbow trout and Dolly Varden churn up the cerulean-blue waters of the Chilko River where it leads into massive Chilko Lake, as pretty as it is productive. Locals know to concentrate on the creek mouths where trout gather for their evening meal — and sometimes become one. Puntzi Lake is also a popular, easily accessible lake that provides fishing for the whole family. 94
Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
The Coast region is also crisscrossed by lakes and streams, though it is the salt waters that bring travellers and nature lovers to this ecologically diverse part of the world. Here, the salmon rules, and numerous lodges and camps, from budget to luxury high-end, cater to an international clientele of fly-in customers dreaming of “the big one.”These fishing expeditions often begin in the town of Bella Coola, and venture out to the many inlets and islands. B.C. Ferries and Pacific Coastal Airlines services make the central coast highly accessible to all. Though it may look like an obscure stretch of shoreline on a map of B.C., the central Coast boasts names that fishing enthusiasts from around the world speak of with reverence; like Rivers Inlet, and Hakai Pass, where millions of salmon make first landfall after battling northern Pacific currents in search of their natal streams. Along the way, these salmon pass some of the most famous fishing holes on the coast; including Odlum Point, the Gap and Barney Point, where gentle back eddies provide rest and feeding areas for salmon. This provides outstanding fishing opportunities for anglers and orcas alike. Steelhead hunters – “fishing” is too tame a word to describe the landing of these pugnacious sea-run trout – are equally well rewarded by a pilgrimage to the Dean River, better known as “steelhead central.” Some outfitters on the river provide a base camp for exciting expeditions, known to be gloriously full of fish and mercifully free of bugs.
Michael Bednar
Fishing & Hunting
Big Game This land without limits provides no shortage of wildlife and hunting experiences. Plentiful populations of Cervidae (mule deer, whitetail deer, caribou and moose), Ursidae (bears), Canidae (wolves and coyote) and Felidae (cougars, bobcats and lynx) attract avid outdoorsmen throughout the seasons. Outfitters in the region provide varieties of hunting excursions depending on the game species, terrain and season. Catering to abilities of every level, outfitters offer a wide range of accommodations and limit group sizes. Passion for wildlife, conservation, and a connection to the land is a strong cultural thread woven throughout this region. Many family operations are multi-generational, providing rare insights on much more
than wildlife – pioneers, history, ranching, culture, cuisine and more. Hearty meals cooked in camp kitchens or over the open fire offer warm comfort at days’ end. Hunters join outfitters with exclusive guide territories where they can choose their own method of travel — ATV, horseback, 4x4, riverboat, old-fashioned “foot” and can even snowmobile in the Blackwater River region. Find regional information by visiting B.C.’s guide & outfitter websites (see page 110). Choose a season that best suits your hunting or fishing style. No matter your choice, we offer the landscape, wildlife and expertise that will make your ultimate fishing and hunting experiences unforgettable. ♦
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Golf, Spas & Lakes
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atersports, soothing spa escapes, and leisurely golf. Welcome to summer in the Cariboo Chilcotin Coast. With the highest concentration of lakes and rivers in Canada, it’s no surprise this region is a haven for swimmers, water skiers, wake boarders, canoeists and anyone who loves to hop into a boat or play in the water. The south Cariboo’s Green Lake is a popular retreat for swimmers and water skiers. Consistent afternoon thermals on the Chilcotin’s Tatlayoko Lake mean paradise for sailors and windsurfers. Ocean kayakers paddle with whales and dolphins in the protected waters off Bella Coola, Shearwater and Klemtu. White-knuckle white-water rafters and kayakers pick and choose from a multitude of torrents in the Cariboo and Chilcotin — while the Bowron Lake Canoe Circuit is one of the world’s most spectacular wilderness water adventures. Although the Cariboo Chilcotin Coast is renowned for our sheer wilderness expanse, we also have luxurious day spas and wellness centres. One working ranch specializes in custom therapeutic, assessment and spa services. At another mountain-valley site, guests journey to the Far East via authentic Thai spa treatments. Other remote retreats specialize in yoga, fitness and healing escapes. Rejuvenate at day spas found in many of the communities in this region, with treatments from around the
world - Japanese Sumishi to Thai stem massage to Indian Ayurveda treatments, all often combined with yoga, fitness and nutritional services. Many inns, remote lodges and resorts also offer massage and a variety of wellness or fitness programs, all designed to help keep mind and body in balance while enjoying your holiday travels.
overlooking the south end of Williams Lake. At Lillooet’s farmland gem, golfers get a free mulligan if their shot is blocked by sheep! ♦
Imagine your perfect golf experience in a natural setting of sage and rolling hills, with fairways that gently flow along contoured canyons and water accents, greens that run true and spectacular views augmenting both challenging and serene designs. Imagine no more. We have three championship 18-hole courses that will delight you, and your pocketbook. The 6,340 yard Quesnel Golf Course, spread out in a former heritage orchard, is a valley-based design with a wide-open front-nine and shorter, but demanding back that will hone your swing. The Stan Leonarddesigned 108 Golf Resort is 6,800 yards of tree-lined fairways and rolling greens that will certainly challenge your game. The scenic Williams Lake Golf & Tennis Club’s 6,272 yard layout is set against the rolling Cariboo hills and plays out over undulant terrain with spectacular views overlooking both the lake and city’s downtown core. Unique familyfriendly nine-hole courses are found throughout the region too, including the newest, Coyote Rock, a First Nations developed course set above Highway 97
The Bowron Lakes Canoe Circuit is world renowned with paddlers flocking here by the thousands, year after year to experience stunningly beautiful canoeing vacations. Booking and planning early is a must!
Highlights
Treat your body and sooth your mind at one of many day spas and wellness facilities in the region, or book a stay at one of several guest ranches offering unparalleled and unique massage, spa and yoga experiences. Golf vacations in the Cariboo. Tee up at wonderful courses in Quesnel, Williams Lake and 100 Mile House, all within a 2 ½ hour scenic drive of each other! For a fun and unique experience, stroll the fairways dodging sheep, near Lillooet. Windsurfing & Kiteboarding. Catch the wind at Tatlayoko Lake. Taylayoko means “lake of the big winds” in the Chilcotin language.Stiff breezes can make open waters sometime hazardous for boaters, but are an irresistible draw for wind-surfers and kiteboarders.
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Winter Experiences
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ne of Canada’s best attributes is our four distinct seasons. As this is something we hold especially dear to our hearts in the Cariboo Chilcotin Coast region of B.C., we aim to please our visitors, no matter what season you visit. Our air in winter is spectacularly fresh and our sunsets are magical. No other B.C. region offers the same vast, variety of rolling hills, backcountry lakes and forests, resorts and ranches, brilliant sunshine, deep powdered snow and choice of activities.
where roadside icefalls are some of the most accessible in western Canada. Snowmobiling? Sled-hounds flock here from across North America for the wideopen spaces, abundant hill-climbs, and extensive trail networks, some of them linking historic towns that are sprinkled about like gold nuggets.
Heli-skiing, sleigh rides, snowshoeing, and ice fishing – they are all in abundance here. Cross-country and downhill skiing, snowmobiling, hockey, tobogganing, dog sledding and curling make winter the time to get outside and have fun in our backyard, where the snow is dry and deep, skies are clear and blue, and winter activities are almost endless.
Imagine yourself in a comfortable sled as a team of dogs takes you gliding silently through the forests and over frozen lakes. The region is unique in offering amateur mushers the chance to experience the exhilaration of sled dog travel, a great way to explore the backcountry in a pristinely fresh environment. Add to that winter camping, kicking back in a snow-banked hot tub, or swapping stories around a crackling fire at a cozy lodge and you begin to understand why we claim to have it all.
Skiing? Take your pick; from a variety of groomed Nordic trails and wilderness cross-country and backcountry skiing options, to family-focused downhill resorts, to the most awesome deep powder heli-skiing adventures found in the world! Don’t forget your skates, either. Fun skating parties are a way of life here when lakes freeze and pond hockey games begin, with visitors always welcome. Ice climbing? It’s park ‘n climb at Marble Canyon Provincial Park at the Pavilion Mountain Range near Lillooet,
At one time, when the snow was deep, the only way to get around the Cariboo Chilcotin Coast was via sled dog. Today, this unique way of travel has been revived at the competitive level and as a truly memorable interactive experience for visitors, with both amateur and experienced mushers answering the call of the wild with guided tours, one-on-one workshops and multiday adventures. Outfitters specialty options have also emerged: some boasting Inuit-only
sled dogs while others swear by the legendary Alaskan malamute. The Gold Rush Trail Sled Dog Mail Run, held every January, is popular for those with their own dog team. Participants are issued special hand cancelled envelopes of mail in Quesnel that they swear an oath to deliver to the town of Wells, 100km/62mi away along a route that traces the historic Cariboo Wagon Road. The emphasis is on fun and fellowship, but first prize still counts for bragging rights at the local pub. Cross-country skiers and backcountry aficionados find peace and tranquility here. As Rob Bernhardt, president of British Columbia’s Nordic Ski Society puts it, “Everything about this region, from the stable weather and ideal snow conditions to the vibrant culture and stunning natural environment, makes it ideal for Nordic activities. It helps, too, that meticulously groomed trails are maintained by resorts, clubs and communities in pretty much any direction you point your ski poles.” Novice Nordic skiers can easily cover the 8km/5mi route between Wells and Barkerville, or other trails that loop around the area. Mount Agnes, near Barkerville, has 23km/14mi of trails leading through heavily forested countryside. Hallis Lake near Quesnel is renowned for its vistas and viewpoints, while an hour south near Williams
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Highlights Ice fishing is cold comfort. Many lakes in the region are fruitful, but the experience is particularly special at Raven Lake in the east Chilcotin, with waters clear enough to see into your fishing hole as fish swim by, or get hooked! Dog sledding – a unique winter experience! Cariboo operators offer multi-day or hourly packages that help you learn about mushing culture and their incredible dogs, while taking in the crisp, fresh air and beautiful scenery. Glide through Coast Mountain powder. Our heli-skiing operators fly into spectacular coast mountain range glaciers, where the heli-skiing experience is second to nowhere else in the world!
Steve Ogle
Foodies meet X-Country! Each pitstop of the Wells Snowman Gourmet Ski Tour serves ethnic cuisine like Russian borscht, Spanish tapas, Indian masala wraps and more! Prizes are awarded for best ancestral attire and goofy costume. It wraps up at the Bear’s Paw Café for Scandinavian dessert and international beverages. Skiers and Snowshoers both welcome!
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Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
Ted Hlokoff
Winter Experiences
Lake, the lure is the 28km/17.5mi of groomed trails at Bull Mountain, some of them dog friendly and evening lit. Near 100 Mile House the pole-and-push crowd get stoked on an enormous 150km/93mi trail inventory, also including sections for night skiing. The gold-rush-themed Cariboo Marathon, staged by the 100 Mile Nordic Club, comes complete with 50km/31mi, 30km/18.5mi, 20km/12.5mi and 10km/6mi events. The Clinton Snow Jockey Club maintains 60km/37mi of marked trails which are also suitable for hiking and biking in summer and Mount Timothy Ski Area, known as a family-friendly downhill destination east of Lac la Hache, also has groomed Nordic trails. Downhillers and snowboarders flock to Mount Timothy, and Troll Ski Resort, both offering family friendly atmosphere. But it’s this region’s many mountains and soft, dry powder that draw heli-skiers from all over the world. These mountain daredevils inhabit a world of absolute stillness, a place of virgin beauty and dramatic settings where there’s nothing in front of you but thousands of vertical feet of the finest skiing on earth. The sport was invented in the Cariboo Mountains by mountaineering legend Hans Gmoser, known as “The Father of Heli-skiing”. The Central Coast and Southern Chilcotin mountains also beckon, as they are premier, world renowned heli-skiing destinations offering soaring 3,000m/9,850ft peaks receiving as much as 15m/49ft of snow annually. Local Cariboo outfitters keep your body fit by offering multiday hut-to-hut tours of the Bowron Lake canoe circuit, where the lakes’ frozen surface is broken only by the speckled tracks of fox, hare and ever-wary timber wolves. In the Chilcotin, Tatla Lake boasts 40km/25mi of groomed trails plus January’s Tatla
Lake Ski Challenge and Fun Day that comes with an outdoor barbecue and enough good cheer to warm even the coldest winter day. Nearby Nimpo Lake’s wilderness lodges serve as a perfect base camp for ski touring in the wilds of Itcha Ilgachuz Provincial Park. As for those who believe slow and easy wins the day, low-cost snowshoeing guarantees backcountry winter-trail access to anyone capable of putting one foot in front of the other anywhere there’s a patch of snow. For many winter buffs, snow exists simply for responsible snowmobiling. The result: sledders trek by trail across untracked wilderness throughout the region, or up and down mountainous terrain renowned for adrenaline-rush hill climbing. Excitement is also growing with the development of the Gold Rush Snowmobile Trail — a thrill-packed work in progress that, when completed, will offer 350km/217mi of stunningly picturesque and well-signed touring from Clinton to Barkerville. Check first with local clubs and visitor centres for trail updates and amenities en route, before you head out. Gold Bridge and Bralorne in the Bridge River Valley have long been popular snowmobile havens, with the Mineshaft Pub being sledder central for many events. Favorite rides are the Lone Goat Trail and Slim Creek, where the distance travelled is limited only by the amount of fuel saddle-bagged in. For some, ice fishing is cold comfort. However, hauling a big rainbow trout out of a hole in a frozen lake warms an avid fisher’s blood. Need a little pointing in the right direction? Area outfitters may offer all-inclusive ice-fishing adventures with cozy accommodations; portable shelters and “whopper” tales at no extra charge. ♦ 1-800-663-5885
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Highlights Catch a Live Show! – Wells’ recently restored Sunset Theatre, built in 1934 as a movie house and community hall, now hosts music, dance and professional theatrical performances. Attend one of their upcoming events in the 2014 summer season in this funky, artsy town.
Thomas Drasdauskis
Visit and photograph totem poles and other cultural landmarks, including Nuxalk petroglyphs in the Bella Coola Valley.
Richard Wright
Michael Bednar
Thomas Drasdauskis
A banjo built for you! – Have your very own banjo custom designed and built by Jason and Pharis Romero of Horsefly, B.C. Their small company is a growing supplier of custom-made banjos for the world market.
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Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
Michael Wigle
Arts & Culture
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t is a land of striking contrasts…a land that drew me like a magnet into its soul.” Author Richmond P. Hobson wrote these words in his classic book Grass Beyond the Mountains. So, it is no wonder that the culture and landscape of this vast region is reflected in our local art. After all, the First Nations people have been singing, drumming, and dancing around campfires for thousands of years. In the visual arts, Emily Carr roamed the region by cowpony in 1909 and was inspired to paint its landscape vistas. She wrote, “I can never love the Cariboo enough for all she gave me.” The Group of Seven’s A.Y. Jackson was equally infatuated, touring in 1914 and returning in the 1940s to produce works now displayed in galleries worldwide. Today, B.C. artist Mark Hobson is inspired by stunning Chilcotin landscapes, and also paints in central coast locations such as Calvert Island, to raise awareness about keeping our coastline pristine for generations to come. He and over fifty of Canada’s celebrated artists have published a book entitled Canada’s Raincoast at Risk: Art for an Oil-Free Coast. You’ll want to experience many of the region’s galleries, such as the Quesnel Art Gallery, one of central B.C.’s most exquisite hidden gems. Sometimes art galleries themselves are the display. Williams Lakes’ Station House Gallery is a restored 1920s railway station showcas-
ing pottery and weaving, among other visual arts. The Central Cariboo Arts Centre now houses several artisan groups in a decommissioned fire hall. Williams Lake also hosts its annual Artwalk, each August to September.
throughout the West — as does Frank Gleeson, the “Fastest Cowboy Poet of the West” and official cowboy poet of Williams Lake. ♦
Wells is a renowned artist retreat with galleries set amid heritage buildings and has a celebrated art school where vacationers can enroll in folk-art and music classes. The restored Sunset Theatre offers an array of professional theatre, music, film and retreats and itself has a remarkable story. Built originally in 1934, the Sunset Theatre showed movies, held town hall meetings and dances, and was once used as a morgue during the 1950s.
WELLS:
Quesnel’s ARTrium hosts workshops with nationally recognized artists, as does Wells in late July during the popular Artswells Festival of All Things Art. Barkerville’s Theatre Royal features costumed interpreters so convincing one might have stepped into the 1860s. Williams Lake’s Studio Theatre Society has staged live theatre (October to June) for the past 58 years! Horsefly’s Arts on the Fly Festival presents music, dance, food and fun in equal measure, while Clinton’s War is a weeklong costume pageant dedicated to re-creating the Middle Ages “as they ought to have been.” The Cariboo is also home to “Camel” Dave Howell, who performs at festivals
more than just a pretty façade
Arts, History & Adventure in the Cariboo Goldfields 1-877-451-9355 www.wellsbc.com 1-877-451-9355 www.wells.ca
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Highlights Sit down to an organic pastureto-plate steak, or artisan sausages – courtesy of all that hard work by local cowboys. Chilcotin ranchers continue to pioneer in the North American cattle industry with humane livestock management and sustainable ranching practices that replenish grazing lands while protecting wildlife and natural habitats.
Cindy Phillips
Wine lovers rejoice! Sample from a variety of award-winning wines found at Fort Berens Winery in Lillooet and Bonaparte Winery in Cache Creek. Trust us; you won’t leave without a bottle, or two! Pack your picnic hampers with delectable local honey, cherries, apples, plums and other goodies from the Bella Coola Farmers Market, held each Sunday, June through September.
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Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
Brad McGuire/CCCTA
Brad Kasselman/CoastPhoto.com
Michael Bednar
Birch Syrup? Take home this unique tasting specialty from Quesnel area producers. It’s a scrumptious topping for cheesecake, ice cream and tantalizing glaze for spare ribs, fish and vegetables. Your summer barbeque will be a hit with Birch BBQ Sauce too!
Michael Bednar
Agritourism
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aising cattle, bison, sheep, llamas, alpacas and growing crops is a sacred trust here. Local ranchers, farmers and specialty producers welcome visitors to share in the art, science and dedication of raising livestock and growing crops. Though not a major wine region, fertile soil and a hot south Cariboo climate creates ideal growing conditions for flavourful grapes, with two wineries to tempt the palate. The vines at Lillooet’s Fort Berens Estate Winery dig deep into soil enriched by 150 years of melon, tomato and alfalfa. Fort Berens won gold, silver and bronze at five 2012 international wine competitions including the Los Angeles International Wine and Spirits Competition. Cache Creek’s Bonaparte Bend Winery produces delightful aromatic fruit wines on a ranch founded by a young Irishman in 1862. Eating locally grown and raised food is vital to our health and well-being, especially when traveling, and it also helps to sustain the environment by avoiding long distance shipping of our food. Two north Cariboo organic producers invite you to experience the sweet and unique culinary taste of birch syrup tapped fresh from the tree! The birch syrup BBQ sauce is also an amazing delight. In the Chilcotin River Valley, overnight on a 1,600hec/3,954ac spread yielding organic produce and grass-fed meats from the ranch’s own abattoir.
Sample regional tastes at agricultural fairs, festivals and farmers’ markets. At Quesnel’s Fall Fair the atmosphere is entertaining; be warned, the chili and beer-can chicken competitions are fierce. In late August, amateur chefs compete in the Master Garlic Chef CookOff at the South Cariboo Garlic Festival in Lac La Hache, where sampling tasty garlic treats is a must as foodies line up for garlic poutine, panini, gyoza, and more, while enjoying family fun and live music. Many local fairs also showcase youth 4-H competitions highlighting the importance, and rewards, of raising livestock, growing crops and acquiring life skills. Many communities host weekly Farmers’ Markets, often offering local arts and crafts. For example, visitors to Bella Coola’s market mingle with locals, stock up on fresh produce and sample regional specialties such as honey, giant prawns, Dungeness crab and salmon. Gourmands should keep their eyes peeled for farm gate offerings of sweet Walla Walla onions; tangy Russian red garlic and sun-loving Kentucky wonder yellow beans. Other operators around the region, including Bed & Breakfasts, open their barn doors so visitors can appreciate the fine art of “farming with the season” while sampling and purchasing local delicacies. Some also offer “Bed and Bale” if travelling with your equine companions.
Restaurants and eateries here range from popular brand-name food chains along Gold Rush Trail routes, to more sophisticated dining options scattered throughout the region offering sumptuous meals made with fresh, indigenous ingredients. ♦
Lillooet
Award winning VQA wines Tasting room open daily www.fortberens.ca LILLOOET’S FIRST WINERY
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Passenger Buses for Adventure & Sightseeing Tours, Group Travel, Tradeshows Events & Special Occasions
Adventure charters
84A Broadway Ave., Williams Lake, BC 250.305.2251 [email protected] www.adventurecharters.ca
Your premiere outdoor adventure destination for
Moose, Mule Deer, Black Bear, Grizzly Bear & Wolves
C A R I B O O M O U N TA I N OUTFITTERS Family owned & operated for over 30 years 778-786-0847 • 250-991-9233 Box 4010, Quesnel, BC V2J 3J2 E-mail: [email protected] www.cariboomountain.com
D LAKE RESORT CROOKEHorsefl y, BC
Destination resort and casual dining on Quesnel Lake, the deepest fjord lake on earth, in the heart of the Cariboo Mountains. Full-service marina with self-guided or fully-guided trophy rainbow trout fishing. Cabins, guest rooms & RV sites. Affordable excellence. Drive in or fly in. 250.243.2433 [email protected] www.elysiaresort.com
A Rustic Cariboo Adventure
Guided ATV wilderness tours fishing • hunting • boating • photography and more Fully Serviced Cabins • RV Sites • Tenting Home Cooked Meals Available 1-866-614-1690 [email protected]
Step back in time to the 1860s Gold Rush!
Historic Roadhouse Tours • Native Interpretation Site Stagecoach Rides • Gold Panning • Archery Guided Trail Rides • Licensed Restaurant • Gift Store Scenic RV and Tent Sites; cozy cabins, kekuli and teepees Open daily May through September Junction of Highways 97 & 99, 11 km north of Cache Creek
Red Willow Guest Ranch
Riding without limits in the Cariboo.
We offer hours of undisturbed riding with or without a wrangler. Come try our hopsitality, horses and food.
See you at the campfire!
Lone Butte, BC phone: 1.250.395.3017 / cell 1.250.945.4715
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Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
www.hatcreekranch.ca
Coast
Cariboo Spring Lake Ranch
A beautiful and affordable guest ranch near 100 Mile House. Log cabins, scenic trail rides for beginners and the more experienced. 10,000 aces of range surrounding a private lake. Open year round. 15 km from HWY 97 at 111 Mile. 5770 Spring Lake Rd. 1-877-791-5776 or 250-791-5776 info@springlakeranchcom www.springlakeranch.ca Close to nature. Far from crowds.
15th Annual
July 18-20, 2014 Bella Coola, BC an intimate, multi-cultural, family-focused experience
www.bellacoolamusic.org
directory ad
Spring Lake ranch The Wells Hotel A heritage country inn, pub and café near Barkerville & Bowron Lake with Wifi & Hot Tub PO Box 39 Wells BC V0K 2R0 1-800-860-2299 wellshotel.com [email protected]
Kopas Store
A beautiful and affordable guest ranch
near 100 Mile House.
Log cabins, scenic trail rides for beginners and the more experienced.
Chilcotin
10,000 aces of range surrounding a private lake. Open year round.
15 km from HWY 97 at 111 Mile. 5770 Spring Lake Rd. 1-877-791-5776 or 250-791-5776 info@springlakeranchcom www.springlakeranch.ca
Close to nature. Far from crowds. 1/4 page ad “Horse Riding ~ Hiking ~ History ~Home Cooking ~ Art Studio/Gallery ~ with Chilcotin Hospitality
Tatlayoko’s
Homathko River Inn B&B The Inn is located 3 hours west on Hwy 20, when at the Tatla Junction, turn south down Tatlayoko Road. Connie Bracewell 250 476 1131 or e-mail [email protected]
Listings Canyon Creek Campground & RV Park 39035 Hwy 97 South, PO Box 390, Hixon, B.C., VOK 1S0 P: 250-998-4384 E: [email protected] W: www.canyoncreekcampground.com Cheryl Chapman – Aboriginal Affects ‘Building & Sharing Connections’ P: 250-267-8063 E: [email protected] Moosehaven Resort 7563 Pettyjohn Road, Lone Butte, B.C., V0K 1X3 P: 250-593-2300 TF: 1-888-744-2271 E: [email protected] W: www.moosehavenresort.com Ponderosa Resort PO Box 32, Canim Lake, B.C., V0K 1J0 P: 250-397-2243 E: [email protected] W: www.ponderosaresort.com Ramada Ltd. 100 Mile House 917 Alder Avenue, 100 Mile House, B.C., V0K 2E0 P: 250-395-2777 TF: 1-877-395-2777 E: [email protected] W: www.ramanda.com
1-800-663-5885
Regional Tourism Information Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Tourism Association 1-800-663-5885 www.landwithoutlimits.com www.Facebook.com/ CaribooChilcotinCoast Twitter: @CarChiCoa www.youtube.com/theCCCTA
Cariboo www.cariboord.bc.ca www.southcaribootourism.com www.tourismwilliamslake.com www.tourismquesnel.com www.wellsbc.com www.exploregoldcountry.com www.lillooetbc.ca www.village.clinton.bc.ca www.fishinghighway24.com
Chilcotin www.visitthewestchilcotin.com www.chilcotin.bc.ca
Provincial Hello BC Destination BC Consumer Website www.helloBC.com Aboriginal Tourism BC www.aboriginalbc.com
General Information
Weather Info www.weatheroffice.gc.ca BC Driving Conditions www.drivebc.ca 1-800-550-4997 BC Wildfire Travel Advisories www.bcwildfire.ca BC Provincial Park Info www.env.gov.bc.ca/bcparks
B.C. visitor centres provide friendly service from professionally trained staff with local knowledge. Get accurate information about attractions, activities and events to help you make informed travel plans. They also assist with reservations for accommodations and sightseeing tours and provide current travel advice for your area of visitation. Camping & Touring Info Lillooet Visitor Centre www.camping.bc.ca 790 Main Street, Lillooet www.sitesandtrailsbc.ca P: 1-250-256-4308 www.campingrvbc.com E: [email protected] www.travelbritishcolumbiacanada.com W: www.lillooetbc.ca www.northtoalaska.com 100 Mile House Visitor Centre 155 Airport Road, 100 Mile House Fishing, Hunting, Wildlife Info TF: 1-877-511-5353 www.goabc.org E: [email protected] www.bcfroa.ca W: www.southcaribootourism.com www.fishing.gov.bc.ca Williams Lake Visitor Centre www.gofishbc.com 1660 South Broadway, Williams Lake www.bearaware.bc.ca/bears TF: 1-877-967-5253 www.env.gov.bc.ca/fw/wildlife/ E: [email protected] W: www.tourismwilliamslake.com More Sector-Specific Websites www.ridethecariboo.com www.wellsbarkervilletrails.com www.marketplacebc.com www.rodeobc.com www.bcheritage.ca/cariboo www.GoldRushTrail.ca www.bcgeocaching.com www.geocaching.com www.bcguestranches.com www.bcbackcountry.ca www.canadatrails.ca/bc
Quesnel Visitor Centre 703 Carson Avenue, Quesnel TF: 1-800-992-4922 E : [email protected] W : www.tourismquesnel.com Wells Visitor Centre 11900 Hwy 26, Box 123, Wells TF: 1-877-451-9355 E: [email protected] W: www.wellsbc.com
Neighboring Region Visitor Centres Kamloops Visitor Centre 1290 West Trans Canada Hwy TF: 1-800-662-1994 E: [email protected] W: www.tourismkamloops.com
Thomas Drasdauskis
Prince George Visitor Centre 1300 First Avenue, Prince George TF: 1-800-668-7646 E: [email protected] W: www.tourismpg.com
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Port Hardy Visitor Centre 7250 Market Street, Port Hardy TF: 1-866-427-3901 E: [email protected] W: www.ph-chamber.bc.ca Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
Travel Information International Visitors to Canada International visitors to Canada (not U.S. citizens or U.S. permanent residents) must carry a valid passport and, if required, a visa. Visit the Citizenship and Immigration Canada website www.cic.gc.ca for a complete listing of countries whose citizens require visas to enter Canada. All other visitors should contact their Canadian consulate or embassy to learn what documents are required. To learn more about Canadian customs regulations, visit the Canada Border Services Agency website www.cbsa.gc.ca. or visit www.goingtocanada.gc.ca for more information. Bus Travel Greyhound offers scheduled services for communities along Hwy 97. The company also has connections to cities and towns throughout Canada and the U.S. www.greyhound.ca | TF: 1-800-661-8747 Ferry Travel Schedules for Inside Passage service routes to Central Coast communities and Prince Rupert in Northern British Columbia were unknown at press time due to recent and significant scheduling changes in BC Ferry services. For current route schedules, please check with BC Ferries. www.bcferries.ca | TF: 1-888-223-3779 Rail Travel The Rocky Mountaineer’s Rainforest to Gold Rush route travels from Whistler to Jasper, Alberta, through the historic Cariboo Gold Rush region, with an overnight stop in Quesnel. www.rockymountaineer.com | TF: 1-877-460-3200
Visitor Info Booths Gold Bridge Tourist / Visitor Info Booth 104 Haylmore Ave, Gold Bridge P: 1-250-238-2534 E: [email protected] W: www.bridgerivervalley.ca Cache Creek Tourist / Visitor Info Booth 1270 Stage Road, Cache Creek TF: 1-888-457-7661 E: [email protected] Horsefly Tourist / Visitor Info Booth Jack Lynn Memorial Museum on Boswell Street P: 1-250-620-0544 (Seasonal) or 1-250-620-3440 (winter) E: [email protected] W: www.horsefly.bc.ca Likely Tourist / Visitor Info Booth Cedar Point Provincial Park, Likely P: 1-250-790-2207 or 1-250-790-2459 E: [email protected] W: www.likely-bc.ca Alexis Creek / Visitor Info Booth Hwy 20 in Alexis Creek P: 1-250-394-4900 (Seasonal: May – September)
Air Travel Pacific Coastal Airlines services Williams Lake, Anahim Lake, Bella Coola, Klemtu and Bella Bella and Shearwater. www.pacificcoastal.com | TF: 1-800-663-2872 Central Mountain Air services Williams Lake and Quesnel. www.flycma.com | TF: 1-888-865-8585
Tatla Lake / Visitor Roadside Kiosk Hwy 20, Tatla Lake
Firearms in Canada For information regarding the importation of firearms to Canada, contact the Canadian Firearms Centre TF: 1-800-731- 4000 from anywhere in Canada or the U.S. P: 1-506- 624-5380 from other locations www.cfc-cafc.gc.ca.
Anahim Lake / Visitor Roadside Kiosk Hwy 20, Anahim Lake
Watercraft Regulations All Canadians must have proof of operator competency on board at all times. For more information visit Transport Canada’s Office of Boating Safety online or call the safe boating line. www.tc.gc.ca | TF: 1-800-267-6687 Recreational Vehicle Operation Operators of recreational vehicles in B.C. are required to comply with evolving provincial regulations. To ensure you are aware of current updates and requirements in your area, review websites regularly. www.tti.gov.bc.ca/tourism/orv | TF: 1-250-356-0104
Nimpo Lake / Visitor Roadside Kiosk Hwy 20, Nimpo Lake
Bella Coola Tourist / Visitor Info Booth Norwegian Heritage House, 1881 Hwy 20, Hagensborg TF: 1-866-799-5202 (Seasonal: June – September) E: [email protected] W: www.bellacoola.ca
Emergency Information Drive B.C. - Highway information 1- 800-550-4997 Emergency: Police, Fire, Ambulance 911* Bella Coola Ambulance 1-800-461-9911 Bella Coola Police 1-250-799-5363 Poison Helpline 1-800-567-8911 Provincial Emergency Preparedness 1-800-663-3456 Report a Forest Fire 1-800-663-5555 Report All Poachers and Polluters 1-877-952-7277 (*not accessible in remote backcountry areas, dial “0” for operator)
1-800-663-5885
| www.landwithoutlimits.com
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Glossary Cariboo • Cariboo A region of British Columbia set along a plateau that stretches from the Fraser Canyon to the Cariboo Mountains. The name is derived from a mountain species of caribou once numerous in the region. • Central Cariboo The area of the Cariboo that extends from Lac la Hache in the south to north of McLeese Lake, and from the Fraser River Bridge west of Williams Lake to the Cariboo Mountains east of Likely and Horsefly. • South Cariboo The area of the Cariboo that extends from the height of land west of Hwy. 5’s Little Fort to the Fraser River west of Clinton, and from Hwy. 99 at Lillooet in the south to Lac la Hache on Hwy. 97 in the north. • North Cariboo The area extending from south of Quesnel near Kersley to Hixon on Hwy. 97, and from the Nazko and Blackwater rivers in the west to the goldfields of the Cariboo Mountains and the Bowron Lake chain in the east. • Carrier The Carrier language is a northern Athabaskan language. It is named after the Dakelh First Nations of the central Interior of B.C., for whom Carrier is the usual English name. • Lac la Hache There are many stories to explain how this lake was named. According to one account, it is named after a French-Canadian trapper who lost his only hatchet when chopping a hole in the frozen lake.
• Lillooet Adapted from the proper name for the Lower St’at’imc (statlee-um) people, the Lil’wat of Mount Currie. Lil’wat means “wild onions.” • Quesnel (kwe-nel) This city name is the legacy of Jules Maurice Quesnelle, a lieutenant on Simon Fraser’s epic 1808 portage-cum-whitewater exploration of the Fraser River. • Xatśūll (hats’ull) The Soda Creek/Deep Creek Band of the Secwepemc Nation, located in the Cariboo. In the Shuswap language, Soda Creek is called Xatśūll , while Deep Creek is Cmetem. Xatśūll means “on the cliff where the bubbling water comes out”.
Chilcotin • Chezacut “Birds without feathers” in the Chilcotin language. • Chilcotin The name refers to the Chilcotin region, which the Chilcotin First Nation traditionally inhabited and still numerically dominate; this territory largely consists of a plateau set between the Coast Range in the west and the Fraser River in the east. • Oolichan (or eulachon) A small type of B.C. smelt valued by First Nations because they are the first fresh food source to return to native communities after the long winter. Oolichan oil is also used as a medicine. • Tatlayoko (tatlahco) This lake is also called Talhiqox Biny (“biny lake”) by the Tsilhqot’in peoples of Xeni. • The Tsilhqot’in (tseelh-coht-een), along with the Chilcotin, Tsilhqut’in, Tsinlhqot’in, Chilkhodin, Tsilkótin and Tsilkotin, are the most southern
Growing Tourism
of the Athabaskan-speaking aboriginal peoples in B.C. The name Tsilhqot’in means “people of the red-ochre river.” • Tsy?los (SYE-loss) Ts’il?os is the official B.C. Parks designation for this provincial park, though sometimes it is written as Ts’il-os, Ts’yl-os or Tsylos. The “?” in the name represents a glottal stop. The park is part of the traditional territory of the Xeni’ Gwet’in First Nation. • Xeni’ Gwet’in (honey-ko-teen) The First Nation of the Nemiah Valley is one of six Tsilhqot’in communities.
Coast • Coast The B.C. Coast is Canada’s western continental coastline on the Pacific Ocean. For the purpose of this guide, we are referring to the area from Rivers Inlet in the south to the southern half of Princes Royal Island in the north, and from the eastern boundary of Tweedsmuir Provincial Park and west to Queens, Milbanke, Loredo and Caamano sounds. • Heiltsuk (hel-sic) The First Nations descendants of tribal groups who came together in Bella Bella in the 19th century, after which they became popularly known as the Bella Bella Indians. • Bella Bella An adaption of the Heiltsuk First Nation name for its own people. • Bella Coola The former name of the local First Nation; these indigenous peoples now call themselves Nuxalk (nu-halk). • Klemtu, from the Coast Tsimshian word klemdoo-oolk, meaning “impassable”.
2014 Tourism Summit & AGM Hosted by the City of Quesnel
An event not to be missed! Save the dates
October 3-5, 2014 www.landwithoutlimits.com [email protected]
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Cariboo Chilcotin Coast Travel & Touring Guide
1-800-663-5885
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Which is the only planet in our solar system to rotate clockwise? | Cariboo | Cariboo Chilcotin Coast | Travel British Columbia
Home / Cariboo Chilcotin Coast / Cariboo
Cariboo
The true Cariboo runs South to North and is best explored via Highway 97 known as the Gold Rush Trail with side trips along the way that includes Highway 24, "The Fishing Highway", Highway 20,
"Chilcotin Freedom Highway" and Highway 26 to Wells/Barkerville.
Highway 97 follows the gold-rush trail through the towns of 70 Mile House, 100 Mile House, 108 Mile House, and 150 Mile House. The towns were named after the mile-marking roadhouses patronized by prospectors and settlers headed north to the goldfields.
The Cariboo truly begins in the south with the town of Clinton, which was originally Mile 47, and the junction of the Cariboo Waggon Road and the original Gold Rush Trail. Clinton is a delightful blend of history and horses. Ranches are dotted around the area including Jesmond, Big Bar and Hat Creek Ranch. The Hat Creek Ranch was a roadhouse and stopping place for the BX Stage and is now a BC Heritage Site dating back to 1861. The Ranch is at the junction of Highway 97 and 99.
Heading North along Highway 97 from Clinton 70 Mile House is the next community of note. Construction of the Cariboo Waggon Road in the 1860s resulted in a number of new towns springing up throughout the southern Cariboo. One of many towns established along this historic route, and one of the first stopping places along the Cariboo Wagon Road, the town of 70 Mile House began as a mere roadhouse. Eventually, some of the travelers passing through this junction decided to stay and put down roots. 70 Mile House marks the turnoff to Green Lake Provincial Park , once a by-way for the fur trade.
Before reaching 100 Mile House the traveler can detour East along Highway 24 "The Fishing Highway". The actual turning is at 93 Mile House and the 97 km connector route to Highway 5 is a very scenic drive. Highway 24 follows the historic bridge trail, originally used by the Shuswap people as a trade route and was later developed by the Hudson's Bay Company in the early 1800s' to bring furs from northern BC out to Fort Kamloops and the Columbia River.
The area locally known as the Interlakes community has well over 100 fishing lakes before you reach Little Fort and the junction of Highway 5. Whether you fly fish or troll, the fishing for rainbow, brook, lake trout, burbot and kokanee is excellent. Some lakes of note are Fawn Lake, providing trout up to 12 lbs; Sheridan Lake known for its trophy fishing, produces many rainbows 3 - 5lbs; Bridge Lake produces lake trout up to 20lbs and kokanee to 4lbs.
Highway 24 also provides access to many good secondary roads, which extend north to Mahood Lake and Wells Gray Park and south to the Green-Bonaparte Lakes area.
100 Mile House was a stopping place 100 miles from Lillooet on the Cariboo Waggon Road. In the 100 Mile area in the winter, you'll enjoy snow shoeing, dog sledding, downhill skiing, and some of the most outstanding cross country ski trails in the world. Winter events to plan for are the Cariboo Classic/Jack Hawthorn Memorial Dog Sled race, held the third weekend in January, and the Cariboo Marathon, a cross-country skiing event held the first weekend in February.
If you enjoy canoeing or kayaking try a 12-lake, two-day circuit in the Moose Valley Provincial Park, just west of 100 Mile House. This rustic, wilderness park is a wonderful place to bird watch. You can find owls, hawks, grouse, woodpeckers, loons, grebes, sandhill cranes, and a wide variety of songbirds, among others. As this park conserves wildlife habitat, you'll enjoy nature at its best.
The small, friendly community of Lac la Hache 15 miles North of 100 Mile House describes itself as the Longest Town in the Cariboo. Highway 97 skirts the entire 19-kilometre shoreline of this beautiful lake in its rolling Fraser Plateau setting, which has many fishing lodges, guest ranches and vacation homes sprinkled along its perimeter. The town is said to be named after a luckless French Canadian fur trader who lost his axe here while ice fishing. One of the prettiest lakes in the Cariboo, Lac La Hache Lake is especially famous for its kokanee and trophy sized lake trout fishing. Ice fishing is popular in winter.
50 miles north of 100 Mile House is 150 Mile House and the turnoff east for communities of Likely and Horsefly. In 1859, local Indians showed gold seekers the location of gold deposits in now historic Horsefly, sparking the great Cariboo Gold Rush. Located 60 kilometres east of 150 Mile House, on the south branch of the Old Gold Rush Trail, Horsefly today is a forestry centre and the gateway to fabulous camping, hiking and fishing in the surrounding area. Horsefly Lake is 50 kilometres long and 650 feet deep, with crystal-clear, clean water. You can fish for the large rainbow or lake trout that Horsefly Lake is renowned for.
Located in a picturesque setting on the mouth of the Quesnel River, at the west end of Quesnel Lake, the town of Likely is one of the few remaining old gold rush settlements. Originally known as Quesnel Dam, the town was renamed in honour of John A. Likely, who was connected with the bullion mine. Relive the ghost town of Quesnelle Forks, 5 km northwest of Likely or marvel at one of the Twin Giants, huge steam shovels purchased in 1906 to dig a canal from Spanish Lake to the Bullion Mines.
The largest city in the Central Cariboo is British Columbia's Stampede Capital - Williams Lake. This is a city that blends history and frontier flair with new millennium events, businesses, and culture. It is also the gateway to the Cariboo Chilcotin coast town of Bella Coola. Williams Lake is best known for its Stampede that captures all the rodeo spirit of the Cariboo Chilcotin. For a week in early July, the city displays its wild and colourful western hospitality. Bull riding, steer-wrestling and bareback events draw cowboys and crowds from across North America. The fairgrounds and midway are always a hootin' hollerin' good time.
From Williams, Lake Highway 97 follows the Fraser River up to Quesnel, a bustling, flower-filled city on the fork of the Quesnel and Fraser Rivers. Visitors shouldn't miss the Quesnel and District Museum and Archives, with Mandy, the famous haunted doll. The Arts and Recreation Centre has a pool, art gallery, and gym. A new attraction, the Antique Machinery Park, houses interesting old machinery. There is a fun ski hill Troll Ski Resort between Quesnel and Wells.
The Barkerville Historic Site is a world-renowned historic park and a place to relive the dreams of those who moved here from all over the globe in the 1860s. Today, the town is restored and vibrant. During your stay in Barkerville, you can pan for gold, enjoy a show in the Theatre Royal, take a town tour, or listen to a specialized talk. You can also make your way to the Richfield Courthouse to hear Judge Begbie's stories of goldfield justice. Costumed historic interpreters will make your visit amusing, authentic and interesting.
Nearby Wells is an inviting out-of-the-way retreat for artists, vacationers, and sportspeople. Your trip to these jewels will take you away from it all, to countless treasures. Majestic mountains, lakes and streams surround these communities, so you'll enjoy the beauty however you make your way here. Expand your mind and artistic side at the Island Mountain Arts school; take a class in music, writing, or visual arts. You can choose an indoor program or combine the great outdoors with photography or painting.
Join adventurers from around the world as you paddle the unique Bowron Lakes, one of the world's top 10 outstanding canoe trips. Bowron Lake Provincial Park offers a unique paddling opportunity that may be quiet and peaceful, but no less an adventure. The Bowron Lake circuit takes 7-10 days, traverses 116 km of lakes and rivers, returning back to the starting point. Surrounded by wildlife, mountains and crystal clear water, this is a wilderness experience the likes of which are hard to find anywhere else in Canada. BC Parks rents canoes, but travellers are responsible for their own food, whether they pack it or fish along the way.
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Who won the 2011 Spanish Formula One Grand Prix? | Spain
FORMULA 1 GRAN PREMIO DE ESPAÑA PIRELLI 2015
Spain
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1:21.670 by Kimi Räikkönen (2008)
Fri 08 – Sun 10 May 2015
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Nico Rosberg (GER) Mercedes AMG F1 W04 leads at the start of the race. Formula One World Championship, Rd5, Spanish Grand Prix, Race Day, Barcelona, Spain, Sunday 12 May 2013.
Race winner Sebastian Vettel (GER) Red Bull Racing celebrates on the podium with Peter Prodromou (GBR) Red Bull Racing Head of Aerodynamics. Formula One World Championship, Rd 5, Spanish Grand Prix, Race, Barcelona, Spain, Sunday, 22 May 2011. © Sutton Motorsport Images
Race winner Michael Schumacher (GER) Ferrari F310 takes the adulation of his team from the pit wall at the end of the race. Spanish Grand Prix, Barcelona, Spain, 2 June 1996.
Race winner Nigel Mansell (GBR) Williams FW14 (left) and Ayrton Senna (BRA) McLaren MP4/6 drive wheel to wheel whilst fighting for the lead. Formula One Championship, Rd14, Spanish Grand Prix, Barcelona, Spain, 29 September 1991.
Fernando Alonso (ESP) Renault, second place. Formula One World Championship, Rd5, Spanish Grand Prix, Race Day, Barcelona, Spain, 8 May 2005.
The Formula One teams are no strangers to the Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya (formerly known as the Circuit de Catalunya); not only have they raced there every year since 1991, they also conduct extensive testing at the venue.
Familiarity does not, however, lessen the challenge for car or driver. Barcelona's mix of high- and low-speed corners, plus its abrasive and rather bumpy track surface, makes for a physically and mechanically taxing race.
Tyre wear is particularly high and the varying winds that cut across the circuit mean an optimum set-up can be hard to find.
For spectators Elf corner is among the best places to watch, as it is one of the track's few overtaking opportunities. For the drivers it is the final two turns, known collectively as New Holland, which provide one of the biggest challenges of the season. A fast exit is essential in order to maximise speed down the start-finish straight into Elf.
2014 marked the 24th time Barcelona has hosted the Spanish Grand Prix. Michael Schumacher has been the most successful driver at the circuit, with a total of six victories. Among the current drivers, Kimi Raikkonen, Fernando Alonso, Sebastian Vettel, Lewis Hamilton and Felipe Massa have all won there.
| Sebastian Vettel |
A millipede has how many legs on each segment of its body? | Toto Wolff feels like both Mercedes drivers won Spanish Grand Prix | Daily Mail Online
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Toto Wolff was left feeling as if both of his Mercedes drivers had won the Spanish Grand Prix after Lewis Hamilton overcame a number of obstacles to finish second to team-mate Nico Rosberg.
Having won three out of the opening four races of the season, reigning champion Hamilton was powerless to stop Rosberg sealing a dominant victory from pole position.
That leaves him 20 points clear of the German in the standings but, having suffered with a poor start and being held up with a left-rear tyre issue during his first stop, Wolff was happy to complete a third one-two of the year for the dominant Silver Arrows.
Nico Rosberg celebrates victory at the Spanish Grand Prix while Lewis Hamilton finished second
German Rosberg celebrates his first victory in the 2015 season with his wife (left)
Rosberg claimed his first win of the season to close the gap on Hamilton in the championship
'I want to point out one thing; the result feels like P1 and P1,' he said.
'On a three-stop, with a compromised start and a compromised pit-stop, P2 is really great driving from Lewis. Both of them were faultless in the race and that is extremely satisfying that we can pull it out even though things are not running perfectly.'
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With Rosberg chalking up his first win of the campaign, Wolff also feels the pendulum of momentum now will be swinging towards the 29-year-old as he heads to Monaco looking for a third successive win on the streets of the principality.
Rosberg lets the champagne flow on the podium at the Circuit de Catalunya after his victory on Sunday
Mercedes chief Toto Wolff (right) says he feels like both drivers won the race
F1 DRIVERS STANDINGS
1. Lewis Hamilton (Mercedes) - 111
2. Nico Rosberg (Mercedes) - 91
3. Sebastian Vettel (Ferrari) - 80
4. Kimi Raikkonen (Ferrari) - 52
'They are both mentally very strong,' the Mercedes head of motorsport added.
'They come out very strong even after a bad weekend or a defeat after the debrief is over they concentrate on the next one. You saw it last year - Nico went on a run and the balance swung to him now and I think you are going to see the same this season.
'(They are) two drivers who are matching each other, trying to out-perform each other and for the team it's a good situation because it lifts the performance of the whole team and it is the best case.'
Hamilton's decision to switch to a three-stop strategy helped him secure second place
Technical director Paddy Lowe labelled Hamilton's display as 'extraordinary' as the 30-year-old maintained a 12-race record of finishing in the top two.
'Lewis' pace on the prime tyre and then again on the second set of options was extraordinary,' he said.
'This enabled him to break free enough to avoid an overtaking situation before the third stop, making it a much more comfortable second place that it could have been.'
VIDEO Hamilton and Moss talk all things F1
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Julia and Alfred were the names of parents of which member of British pop band The Beatles? | The Beatles Biography - the beginning, the rise, and the aftermath of the greatest band on earth
THE BEATLES BIOGRAPHY
Please visit freelance writer: John Bardinelli .
The Beatles Biography
The Beginning
How do you begin a biography of the Beatles? I mean honestly, what can you say that can summarize such a spectacular revolution, not only in music but in world consciousness? Their scope of influence stretches from music to film and even dabbles in politics and the art of friendship. Their story is inspiring, sparking many to get up out of their chairs and try something new. The Beatles pioneered so much in their short time together, changing the world for generations to come.
It all began in 1957, Liverpool England, the second most unlikely place in the world to give birth to stardom (the first being Demorest, Georgia). John Lennon had learned the banjo at a young age, moving quickly to the guitar and then starting his own band. Dubbed "The Quarry Men", this high school skiffle group played around Liverpool, changing members more frequently than they changed socks. Soon, a young Mr. Paul McCartney sauntered up to John in between concerts. After hearing him play the guitar, John said "Hey. Join me band, we?ll become the most popular group in the world." Not wanting to appear anxious, Paul waited a day before saying "Alright, sure." The famous Lennon-McCartney duo was born.
Eight months later Paul had a suggestion for a new recruit. Three years their junior, George Harrison was nonetheless a wizard on the guitar. John was hesitant to allow such a young person into the band, but George won him over. Two weeks before his 15th birthday, George officially became a member of the band. I don�t know about you, but my fifteenth birthday wasn�t nearly as productive as his�
The Quarry Men continued to play in and around Liverpool. Their name went through several changes over the coming months. After using and discarding the Quarry Men label, Johnny and the Moondogs enjoyed a brief stint, followed by The Nerk Twins. Finally, John hit upon something when he conjured "The Beatals" as their new official title, wanting an insect reference similar to Buddy Holly�s "The Crickets", the whole beetle theme continued through their next five names: The Silver Beetles, The Silver Beats, The Beatles, The Silver Beatles. At last, after going through more metamorphoses than a caterpillar, the �silver� was dropped (again), leaving the short and sweet, ultra catchy and very rememberable, The Beatles.
Some phenomenal changes were in the air as the universe began to stitch together the group that would spark so much change throughout the world. Though they didn�t know it at the time, but this group of young men were setting their foundation for their climb to the top of the world. All they needed was a big break.
The Ride to the Top
The Beatles did not immediately jump out to stardom. In fact, their climb was somewhat like a roller coaster, a slow clanking to the top, the suspense building and waiting for that first plunge over the hill. For months they toured Liverpool and the surrounding towns trying to build a fan base. Eventually they made their way Hamburg, playing to a particularly rowdy crowd. The boys were forced to rev-up their performance for the demanding audience, teaching them how to become true showmen. Upon returning to Liverpool, they discovered some of their fame had preceded them.
Brian Epstein, a record store owner in Liverpool, got wind of the Beatles about this time. His interest was piqued, so he went to watch them perform one night. At first glance, they appeared like most young Liverpudlians at the time: uncouth hair, leather jackets and dark trousers. But when they played, their synthesis created something marvelous. Something about their energy when together inspired Brian to become their manager. He pulled some strings and got the boys a few auditions. Sadly, they were unfruitful. This didn�t dampen their resolve, however, and Epstein continued lobbying for the band until he finally secured an audition with George Martin at Parlophone records.
Martin, as it turns out, loved their sound. He, too, was an early victim of the Beatles� undeniable charm and catchy beats, succumbing to their charismatic energy like Bugs Bunny to a carrot. He cleaned them up, put them in tailored suits and gave them a resounding thumbs-up (It was Brian Epstein who suggested they wear suits). The only part of the package he didn�t seem to like was their drummer, Pete Best. In a move that still raises eyebrows to this day, Epstein was asked to replace Pete before the deal would be complete. Richard Starkey, our beloved Ringo Starr, would take his place, completing the rock and roll quartet. The Beatles were complete.
Being the superstar producer like he was, Martin decided these lanky Liverpudlians should take over the world. After consulting history books and noting that marching over mountains with elephants was not successful, he decided to take the musical route. After several mildly-successful singles released in the UK, the album Please Please Me
was recorded in a 12-hour studio session and released in March of 1963. It was a hit, topping the charts for over 6 months. Not too shabby for one day�s worth of work; much nicer than minimum wage.
I Want To Hold Your Hand hit the enterprising shores of America at the end of 1963, floating to number one like a rubber ducky. Their new look was also a big hit. Teens loved their off-kilter appearance, collarless suits, mop-top hair and quirky personalities. The Beatles quickly became known for their plucky sense of humor and constant silliness. In an interview conducted in February 1964, a reporter informed the Beatles that Detroit University had a �Stamp out the Beatles� movement. The boys nodded, and Paul replied with his characteristic head bob "We�ve got a Stamp out Detroit movement!" After laughing, the interviewer continued. "They think your haircuts are un-American." John retorted, "Well, it was very observant of them because we aren't American, actually." Such flippant and unrestrained joy in life was infectious, only increasing their charm and lovability.
The Beatles then hopped on a boat and sailed over to the U.S. (via jet plane) for their famous appearance on the Ed Sullivan show. In what was the highest rated program to that date, the famous words "Ladies and gentlemen, the Beatles!" introduced the rag-tag bunch to the television world. They hopped, they sang, they played, they laughed. People loved it. The souls of the world were opening up to a new era of thought, instigated by the quartet of young clowns from Liverpool. Their songs were simple but touching, the tunes catchy and enjoyable. America fell for the Beatles�, and their success was only beginning.
I Can See My House from Here (or "being on the top)
A sure-sign of being "on the top" would be having a lunchbox with your image on the front. Or a pencil sharpener. Or a pair of socks. Or bubblegum. Or all of the above and much more. Beatlemania settled upon the world, nestling us in the warm winged comfort of the four boys from Liverpool. Their timing couldn�t have been better to start their ascent up the pedestal of stardom. The world was on the verge of an enormous change, and the Beatles, with their budding creativity, would foster the revolution.
As any comic book teaches us, good never comes without evil. Critics reared their ugly heads and had their say, proclaiming the Beatles were nothing but a fad that would die as soon as the next group of cute guys with guitars came along. Shortly after being proved embarrassingly wrong, the same critics tucked their tails and ran, beginning lives of insurance salesmen to retain a shred of their dignity.
The Beatles� answer to the critics: make a movie. Nothing short of borrowing Santa�s magic sleigh could allow the group to tour every city on earth, so, A Hard Day's Night
was created, sending their images to even the smallest towns and earning them a world-wide reputation for being the happy-go-lucky fab-four they were. Accompanying the movie was an album of the same name, a soundtrack of sorts, launching their career even higher into orbit as thousands of teenage girls watched the movie and swooned.
On the personal side, the band members were molding together in an even tighter knit than before. They were growing up and growing together, stepping into their own personalities more deeply than before. A Hard Day�s Night was the first Beatles album written entirely by the band, showcasing their creativity and ingenuity even this early in their career. John and Paul flexed their lyric-writing muscles in preparation for the records to come.
Since becoming household names, John, Paul, George and Ringo had unwittingly become workaholics. Touring schedules were hectic, hopping the boys across cities, states and countries in a matter of months. And being stars comes with its fair share of responsibility; now they had fans to attend to, those loyal people who could never get enough Beatlemania. The first few years of their success gave them little time to relax and enjoy the fruits of their labors. Beatles for Sale
was released in early December 1964, but contained only a handful of original songs. By the end of 1964, the consensus was clear�-slow down and concentrate on the music.
With a bigger budget and more explorative souls, the Beatles produced another movie/album combo six months later. Help!
was released to glowing fans, featuring Ringo as the "Starr" of the show. (Yes, that was a bad joke, but I had to!) The album featured more original hits by the Lennon-McCartney duo, including the most-covered song in the history of music, Yesterday. This record also showed off John�s vocal abilities and range, his heart rising and falling with his voice to enchant everyone.
The Beatles were only getting better. They established a pattern of constantly pushing the limits of both society and themselves (and the music industry) and setting ever-higher standards for their work. Each successive album built upon the last as they continued to mesh as a group, their personalities growing more integrated by the day. The universe had stitched them together as if they were destined to be, now they just had to grow as a group to become a whole. Much like a ball of yarn becomes a sock, actually.
Rubber Soul
has been called the first true Beatles album, symbolizing their break from traditional love songs and moving into a more eclectic form of songwriting. Every tune was an original, and a few were more original than others. In My Life has been called the greatest song ever written, giving haunting memories of that ruggedly familiar feeling of nostalgia explicated so poetically by John. Norwegian Wood featured an instrument unfamiliar to most western ears, the sitar, played by George Harrison. Such a blending of cultures and sounds was indicative of the group�s collective charm and charisma as well as the budding movement of non-violence and love growing throughout the world.
Never satisfied with milking old formulas, the experiments continued. After Rubber Soul came Revolver
, a veritable fruit smoothie of melody, harmony, love, traditional style and something very new. If Rubber Soul was a single step into originality, Revolver was a full game of hopscotch. Songs such as Eleanor Rigby, Yellow Submarine and Tomorrow Never Knows showcased the talent waking up from a long winter�s nap within the group. Fully comfortable with themselves, with each other, and with their music, the Beatles had shoved their sticks in the ground and were preparing to pole vault across the lines of normality even farther.
The renaissance of culture and consciousness was in full-swing at this point. Hippies, those free-willed 15-25 year olds with a penchant for peace, were leaving their homes and striking out on their own, rejecting the old and forging into the new. The Beatles were doing similar things at this time, releasing the traditional styles of music and breaking into their own style. Were the Beatles a catalyst for this movement of change or did they just ride the universal waves? The answer is, undoubtedly, a little bit of both.
After turning up the creativity in exponential notches for their previous albums, the Beatles did their most creative work to date with Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band
. The brainchild of Paul, the name was a nom de plume of sorts for the Beatles, giving them an excuse to wear crazy outfits. The album features many musical firsts, as per the usual Beatles� style. Each song blends smoothly into the next, creating the impression that the whole album is one grand concert, complete with applause and screaming fans.
Sgt. Pepper was also the "coming-out" album for the Beatles. Although they had been innovative on their previous recordings, Sgt. Pepper proved they were never out of fresh ideas to experiment with. Their voices can really be heard on this album; they sound more aware, more grown up and more settled in their roles as world musicians. At this time, psychedelic drugs were in full swing in many countries around the world, and the Beatles experimented with their effects as well. While many say this was the source of their creativity in the later years, at best it only contributed to their inherent innovation. Still, Sgt. Pepper was inventive and fresh, becoming an instant hit and long-term inspiration for many.
The Beatles� were about to embark upon a gauntlet of changes beginning in 1967. Paul sketched out a plan for a new movie, this one completely unscripted. The idea was that a group of actors would be placed on a bus with the Beatles and taken for a ride through their imagination. A "magical mystery tour" of sorts. Work began on the album and movie in the spring of �67, but was interrupted by several major events. Their manager since the beginning, the man who discovered the Beatles, Brian Epstein, passed away. This was not only an emotional blow to the group, having lost a trusted companion and friend, but a work-related strain as well. Without a manager to handle the business details of the band, the work fell onto the members. Paul had a very proactive attitude toward the process, immediately taking responsibility and encouraging the others to do so as well. John and George had very different opinions, and Ringo didn�t seem to mind either way. The first internal strain had begun to form, one that would, in combination with many other factors, lead to the eventual breakup of the Beatles.
The Beatles also visited Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, the man becoming famous in America for bringing an ancient Indian technique of meditation to the world. Seeking spiritual knowledge just as we all were, the Beatles traveled to India with the hopes of gaining enlightenment. Each band member had a different experience there, creating a larger rift between them. They came back unfulfilled on one level but full of creativity on another. Magical Mystery Tour
was finished shortly after, releasing both the movie and the album before the end of the year.
The tension created by the loss of their manager and by the varied experiences in India was taking its toll. This combined with John�s insistence on having his new love interest Yoko Ono present at the studio (despite his band-mate's wishes) made the situation more harrowing. At one point, Ringo actually left the group. The Beatles were far from through with their creative streak, however, as their very next album would show.
In stark contrast to their previous two works, the The Beatles (The White Album)
featured a simple white cover with "The Beatles" inconspicuously written on the front. Its simplicity was a foil to the complex music found within. Over two dozen songs filled the inside of this plain white wrapper, each more different than the last. From crazy psychedelic songs such as Wild Honey Pie to somber melodies in Julia, Blackbird and I Will, the White Album would become famous for containing more musical styles than many artists had dabbled with in their entire careers. Such was the nature of the Beatles� free spirit and inventiveness, the four personalities melding together to allow the freedom and ingenuity for the various styles to come forward.
The band owed United Artists another movie (thanks to those fun things called �contracts�), so it was decided to make an animated movie based on the song Yellow Submarine (Songtrack)
previously released on Revolver. The soundtrack by the same name featured only four new songs by the Beatles, George Martin creating the orchestral pieces and arranging the other songs.
The Breakup
Unfortunately, the band felt they were running out of steam. Tensions had grown and the overall feeling was that the Beatles were near their end. A final album was planned, but even the details of it could not be agreed upon. The producer favored Paul�s ideas, causing John to withdraw from many sessions in resentment. George and Ringo felt unneeded and refused to show up at many rehearsals. Though the band�s problems were increasing, their music did not seem to suffer the same fate. Abbey Road
, planned as a farewell album, featured tight vocals, haunting harmonies and the famous You Never Give Me Your Money medley, pulling many songs together in one long enjoyable ride. Abbey Road was released in the fall of 1969, but the Beatles still were not done with the world, or so it seemed.
Paul tried to convince the others to do a handful of concerts to re-establish their core group of fans. John and George were against the idea. What resulted was the famous rooftop concert staged in London. At its conclusion, John said the famous line "I'd like to say thank you on behalf of the group and ourselves, and I hope we passed the audition!". They still had their magic. Songs recorded here were combined with other Beatles material and mixed by Phil Spector. Let It Be
(recorded before Abbet Rd) was pieced together and released to the world, an unintended finale to the Beatles� tromp through the world.
Their end officially came on December 29, 1970. The Beatles, the world�s most influential group of musicians, had been through it all. From rising from obscurity to a serendipitous beginning, they floated on the waves of fame and rode them all the way to America. There they delighted fans and critics alike, awing them with their playful sense of life and harmonious music. They had merchandise, millions of fans, and even a mass album burning in the mid 60�s when John stated they were "more popular than Jesus". Up and down, side to side, the Beatles traversed it all. It was the symbolic end of an era the Beatles had helped create. The world was changed because of them, and it would never be the same. As John said at the conclusion of the rooftop concert, "I'd like to say thank you on behalf of the group and ourselves, and I hope we passed the audition!"
Post-Beatles:
The four men went their separate directions. John became known for his political activism and his own music career, often combining efforts with wife Yoko Ono. His most famous post-Beatles song, Imagine
(from the album of the same name), encouraged unity and peace between nations. It was a ballad for world harmony, encouraging everyone to imagine a world free from war, united as one.
Though his career after the Beatles was successful, it did not reach the height of what he had accomplished in the band. His final album was released in late 1980, rising straight to number one almost everywhere in the world. In December of the same year, John Lennon was tragically murdered by a gunman outside his Manhattan apartment. The world cried collectively when they heard the news, as one of the greatest revolutionary songwriters had moved on from this world and to the next. His work would live on, affecting the lives of billions of people throughout time.
George Harrison, often referred to as the "quiet Beatle", slowly came into his own after the breakup of the band. He released several albums and singles sporadically, including rock�s first triple album, All Things Must Pass
. He had a growing interest in Hinduism and eastern meditation techniques spurred by his meetings with Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. Throughout the 90�s he fought a battle with lung cancer, one that would eventually take his life in November of 2001. This gentle soul, one who was forever advocating love and spirituality, was cremated, his ashes rumored having been spread on the holy river Ganges in India.
Paul enjoyed a successful solo career after the splitting of the Beatles, continuing to produce albums to this day. Ringo released an album that topped the charts in the late 80�s but was otherwise not very active in the music industry. In the mid 1990�s, coming together for the closest thing to a Beatles� reunion possible, Paul, George and Ringo agreed to allow a three volume six CD Beatles� Anthology 1
, Anthology 3
(with accompanying television shows) to be produced, containing unreleased recordings, demos, and two new songs. Free as a Bird and Real Love, originally written by John but re-recorded from his demo tapes. It was both a tribute and a retrospection for the Beatles, reminding the world and a new generation that they were the most influential band ever to grace our globe.
John Lennon once said in reference to the Beatles� popularity, "We were just a band that made it very very big, that�s all." In some ways he�s correct. The Beatles was a band, four men from Liverpool, that rose to fame as any band would. When they made it to the top, the world was ready for change. The combined energies of these four created something spectacular, something undeniably unique. This allowed for unmatched creativity and ingenuity, the pinnacle of human potential expressed in their group. Their message is timeless, their songs unique and dear to everyone�s heart. They are sure to delight and inspire listeners for the rest of time.
| John Lennon |
In humans, madarosis is the loss of what? | John Lennon - IMDb
IMDb
17 January 2017 2:03 PM, UTC
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Soundtrack | Producer | Director
John Winston (later Ono) Lennon was born on October 9, 1940, in Liverpool, England, to Julia (Stanley) and Alfred Lennon, a merchant seaman. He was of Irish, and some Welsh and English, ancestry. In the mid-1950s, he formed his first band, The Quarrymen (after Quarry Bank High School, which he attended) who, with the addition of Paul McCartney and ... See full bio »
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Won 1 Oscar. Another 15 wins & 9 nominations. See more awards »
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Filmography
2017 Jinek (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Episode #5.10 (2017) ... (writer: "With a little help from my friends")
- Episode dated 5 April 2016 (2016) ... (writer: "All You Need Is Love")
2013-2016 Mike & Mike (TV Series) (writer - 35 episodes)
- El último programa (2016) ... (writer: "In My Life")
2016 Come Together: A Fashion Picture in Motion (Short) (performer: "Happy Xmas (War Is Over)" - uncredited) / (writer: "Happy Xmas (War Is Over)" - uncredited)
2016 Gilmore Girls: A Year in the Life (TV Mini-Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Fall (2016) ... (writer: "With a Little Help from My Friends" - uncredited)
Hitlåtens historia (TV Series documentary) (performer - 1 episode, 2016) (writer - 1 episode, 2016)
- Week Seven (2016) ... (writer: "Help!" - uncredited)
2016 Final Score (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Episode #16.21 (2016) ... (writer: "Hey Jude" - uncredited)
2016 Treat, Not Trick (Video short) (writer: "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds.")
2016 Sing (writer: "Golden Slumbers", "Carry That Weight")
2012-2016 The Voice (TV Series) (writer - 7 episodes)
- Blind Auditions 7 (2016) ... (writer: "With A Little Help From My Friends")
- The Superbattles (2015) ... (writer: "Across the Universe", "Jealous Guy")
- Das letzte Morgenmahl (2016) ... (writer: "I Feel Fine" - uncredited)
- Die Wandlung (2000) ... (performer: "Imagine" - uncredited) / (writer: "Imagine" - uncredited)
- Episode #1.6 (2016) ... (writer: "Imagine")
2016 Hola y adiós (TV Series documentary) (writer - 1 episode)
- Episode #1.11 (2016) ... (writer: "Blackbird")
La gent normal (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode, 2016) (writer - 1 episode, 2016)
- Pares adoptants, i ara, què? (2016) ... (performer: "Beatuiful Boy") / (writer: "Beatuiful Boy")
2016 Acció política (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Episode #1.15 (2016) ... (writer: "Golden Slumbers")
Ochéntame... otra vez (TV Series documentary) (writer - 6 episodes, 2014 - 2016) (performer - 3 episodes, 2014 - 2015)
- Soy rebelde (2016) ... (writer: "All You Need Is Love")
- ¡Más música, por favor! (2016) ... (writer: "Get Back")
- Somos rumberos (2016) ... (writer: "Obladí Obladá (Ob-La-Di, Ob-La-Da)", "All My Loving")
- Cuando un amigo se va... (2015) ... (performer: "Give Peace a Chance") / (writer: "Give Peace a Chance")
- ¡Elige al primero! (2016) ... (writer: "Come Together")
- Episode #3.19 (2014) ... (writer: "Can't Buy Me Love")
- Episode #3.18 (2014) ... (writer: "With a Little Help from My Friends")
2016 Music Moguls: Masters of Pop (TV Mini-Series documentary) (writer - 1 episode)
- Melody Makers (2016) ... (writer: "Sgt Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band", "A Day in the Life", "Strawberry Fields Forever" - uncredited)
2016 The Great Everything & the Nothing (writer: "All You Need Is Love / Across The Universe")
Retrohelmet (TV Series) (lyrics - 1 episode, 2015) (writer - 1 episode, 2015)
- Jouluspecial (2015) ... (lyrics: "Happy christmas") / (writer: "Happy christmas")
Dolezal Backstage (TV Series documentary) (lyrics - 1 episode, 2015) (performer - 1 episode, 2015)
- Das Weihnachts-Special (2015) ... (lyrics: "Happy Xmas (War Is Over)", "Mim Griskind wos rauchn" (uncredited))
- Episode #2.2 (2015) ... (performer: "Imagine")
2015 For the Birds (Short) (writer: "Good Night", "The Fool On The Hill", "Eleanor Rigby")
2015 Els dies clau (TV Series documentary) (writer - 1 episode)
2015 U2: Innocence + Experience, Live in Paris (TV Movie documentary) (writer: "Mother")
2015 The Beatles: 1 (Video) (writer: "Love Me Do", "From Me to You", "She Loves You", "I Want to Hold Your Hand", "Can't Buy Me Love")
2015 Scream Queens (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
2015 Oh Happy Day (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Oh TV3 (2015) ... (writer: "Hi ha eleccions (Let It Be)")
2004-2015 The X Factor (TV Series) (writer - 18 episodes)
- Auditions 3 (2015) ... (writer: "All My Loving")
- Live Final Results (2012) ... (writer: "Let It Be" - uncredited)
- Live Show 1 (2012) ... (writer: "With a Little Help from My Friends", "Imagine" - uncredited)
- Auditions 4 (2012) ... (writer: "Come Together" - uncredited)
- Auditions 6 (2010) ... (writer: "Let It Be")
2015 Lucifer (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Pilot (2015) ... (writer: "Fame" - uncredited)
The Brink (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode, 2015) (writer - 1 episode, 2015)
- Half-Cocked (2015) ... (performer: "Instant Karma! (We All Shine On)", "Instant Karma! (We All Shine On) [2010 - Remaster]") / (writer: "Instant Karma! (We All Shine On)", "Instant Karma! (We All Shine On) [2010 - Remaster]")
2015 Minions (writer: "Love Me Do", "Got To Get You Into My Life", "Revolution")
2015/I Guitar Man (Documentary) (writer: "You Can't Do That")
Pop Gold (TV Mini-Series) (performer - 1 episode, 2015) (writer - 1 episode, 2015)
- Record Breakers (2015) ... (performer: "Imagine (Live)") / (writer: "Imagine (Live)")
2015 Biggest Band Breakups and Make Ups (TV Movie documentary) (writer: "Love Me Do", "She Loves You", "Tomorrow Never Knows", "We Can Work It Out" - uncredited)
2015 Danny Collins (performer: "Working Class Hero", "Whatever Gets You Through the Night", "Imagine", "Hold On", "Beautiful Boy", "Nobody Told Me", "#9 Dream", "Cold Turkey", "Love", "Instant Karma") / (writer: "Working Class Hero", "Whatever Gets You Through the Night", "Imagine", "Hold On", "Beautiful Boy", "Nobody Told Me", "#9 Dream", "Cold Turkey", "Love", "Instant Karma")
Todd's Pop Song Reviews (TV Series documentary) (performer - 1 episode, 2015) (writer - 1 episode, 2015)
2015 An Evening with Alice Cooper (TV Movie) (writer: "Revolution")
De wereld draait door (TV Series) (writer - 9 episodes, 2008 - 2015) (performer - 2 episodes, 2011 - 2012)
Show all 10 episodes
2014 Katimavik (Documentary) (writer: "With A Little Help From My Friends")
2014 Britain's Most Dangerous Songs: Listen to the Banned (TV Movie documentary) (writer: "A Day in the Life")
2014 The Sixties (TV Mini-Series documentary) (writer - 1 episode)
- The British Invasion (2014) ... (writer: "She Loves You" (uncredited), "I Want to Hold Your Hand" (uncredited), "Some Other Guy", "Can't Buy Me Love" (uncredited), "I Saw Her Standing There", "A Hard Day's Night" (uncredited), "You Can't Do That", "Help!", "Yesterday" (uncredited), "Norwegian Wood", "In My Life", "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band", "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds", "A Day in the Life", "All You Need Is Love" (uncredited))
2014 Howard Stern Birthday Bash (Video) (writer: "Blackbird")
2014/V Shelter (Short) (performer: "Bring On The Lucie (Freeda People)") / (writer: "Bring On The Lucie (Freeda People)", "Ticket To Ride")
2014 Brows Held High (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)
- Anonymous (2014) ... (performer: "Imagine")
2014 Tenacity and Gratitude: The Frank Cotolo Story (Documentary) (writer: "Not A Second Time")
2014 Foxcatcher (writer: "Fame")
2014 2014 Billboard Music Awards (TV Special) (writer: "Lucy in the Sky With Diamonds")
Independent Lens (TV Series documentary) (writer - 2 episodes, 2011 - 2014) (performer - 1 episode, 2011)
- Gin Ga (2014) ... (writer: "Hold On")
2014 The Night That Changed America: A Grammy Salute to the Beatles (TV Special) (writer: "All My Loving", "Ticket To Ride", "We Can Work it Out", "In My Life", "Don't Let Me Down", "Yesterday", "Revolution", "Hey Bulldog", "The Fool on the Hill", "Let it Be", "Yellow Submarine", "Birthday", "Get Back", "I Saw Her Standing There", "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band", "With a Little Help From My Friends", "Hey Jude")
2014 Mr. Peabody & Sherman (performer: "Beautiful Boy (Darling Boy)") / (writer: "Beautiful Boy (Darling Boy)")
Criminal Minds (TV Series) (lyrics - 1 episode, 2014) (music - 1 episode, 2014)
- 200 (2014) ... (lyrics: "Blackbird" - uncredited) / (music: "Blackbird" - uncredited)
2010-2014 Dancing on Ice (TV Series) (writer - 3 episodes)
- Week 4 (2014) ... (writer: "In My Life")
- Week 3: The Skate-Off (2014) ... (writer: "Help!" - uncredited)
- Episode #5.22 (2010) ... (writer: "In My Life")
2014 Alive Inside (Documentary) (writer: "Blackbird", "I Want to Hold your Hand", "Hey Jude")
Welcome to the Basement (TV Series) (performer - 2 episodes, 2013 - 2014) (writer - 2 episodes, 2013 - 2014)
2013 Kirstie's Crafty Christmas (TV Movie) (performer: "Happy Xmas (War Is Over)" - uncredited) / (writer: "Happy Xmas (War Is Over)" - uncredited)
2013 Daily Ukulele (TV Series short) (writer - 2 episodes)
- I Wanna Hold Your Hand - The Beatles (2013) ... (writer: "I Want to Hold Your Hand")
2013 Rising Star (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Episode #1.7 (2013) ... (writer: "Imagine")
2013 The Dognapper (performer: "Imagine") / (writer: "Imagine")
2009-2013 Glee (TV Series) (writer - 7 episodes)
- Tina in the Sky with Diamonds (2013) ... (writer: "Revolution", "Get Back", "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band", "Hey Jude", "Let It Be" - uncredited)
- Love, Love, Love (2013) ... (writer: "Yesterday", "Drive My Car", "Got to Get You into My Life", "You've Got to Hide Your Love Away", "Help!", "A Hard Day's Night", "I Saw Her Standing There", "All You Need Is Love" - uncredited)
- Goodbye (2012) ... (writer: "In My Life" - uncredited)
- Tubthumping by Chumbawumba (2012) ... (writer: "Let It Be")
2013 Dampfnudelblues (writer: "She loves you", "Come together")
2013 Abbey Road Acoustic Sessions with Absolute Radio (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Beady Eye (2013) ... (writer: "Cry Baby Cry")
The Tonight Show with Jay Leno (TV Series) (writer - 22 episodes, 2010 - 2013) (music - 1 episode, 2011) (performer - 1 episode, 2011)
- Episode #21.134 (2013) ... (writer: "Got to Get You into My Life" - uncredited)
- Episode #21.111 (2013) ... (writer: "Got to Get You Into My Life" - uncredited)
- Episode #21.89 (2013) ... (writer: "Come Together" - uncredited)
- Episode #21.49 (2012) ... (writer: "Happy Xmas (War Is Over)" - uncredited)
- Episode #21.22 (2012) ... (writer: "Got to Get You into My Life" - uncredited)
Levenslied (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode, 2013) (lyrics - 1 episode, 2011) (music - 1 episode, 2011)
- Episode #2.2 (2013) ... (writer: "Good Night" - uncredited)
- Episode #1.7 (2011) ... (lyrics: "Got to get you into my life" - uncredited) / (music: "Got to get you into my life" - uncredited)
- Fito Páez (2012) ... (writer: "Love")
2013 Good Ol' Freda (Documentary) (writer: "I Saw Her Standing There", "Love Me Do", "I Feel Fine", "I Will")
2013 When Albums Ruled the World (TV Movie documentary) (writer: "A Day in the Life", "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band" (uncredited), "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (Reprise)" (uncredited))
2013 Mulheres Ricas (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Episode #2.4 (2013) ... (writer: "Imagine" - uncredited)
2013 Muscle Shoals (Documentary) (writer: "Hey Jude")
Californication (TV Series) (writer - 2 episodes, 2012 - 2013) (performer - 1 episode, 2013)
- The Unforgiven (2013) ... (performer: "Instant Karma! (We All Shine On)") / (writer: "Instant Karma! (We All Shine On)")
- Hell Ain't a Bad Place to Be (2012) ... (writer: "A Day In The Life")
2012 Divorce (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Episode #1.3 (2012) ... (writer: "Let It Be")
2012 Bank Roll (writer: "Fame")
2012 Timeshift (TV Series documentary) (writer - 1 episode)
- The British Army of the Rhine (2012) ... (writer: "Komm, Gib Mir Deine Hand" (German version of "I Want to Hold Your Hand") - uncredited)
2012 Cirque du Soleil: Worlds Away (writer: "Blackbird", "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds", "Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite", "Get Back", "All You Need is Love")
2012/I Flight (writer: "With a Little Help From My Friends")
2012 The X Factor Philippines (TV Series) (writer - 2 episodes)
- Top 10 Results (2012) ... (writer: "I Saw Her Standing There")
- Top 11 Performance Night (2012) ... (writer: "Got to Get You into My Life")
2012 Derrick J's Victimless Crime Spree (Documentary) (performer: "Give Peace a Chance") / (writer: "Give Peace a Chance")
2012 Vatertag (TV Movie) (writer: "Penny Lane" - uncredited)
2012 Retail Therapy (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Fall Back (2012) ... (writer: "A Day in the Life")
2012 Case Sensitive (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
2012 Caiga quien caiga - CQC (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Episode #16.17 (2012) ... (writer: "Drive My Car")
Show all 19 episodes
2012 Pan Am (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Secrets and Lies (2012) ... (writer: "Do You Want to Know a Secret (Pan Am Soundtrack)", "Do You Want to Know a Secret?" - uncredited)
2011 Lettres de suicide (Short) (writer: "A World Without Love")
2011 Britain's Favourite Christmas Songs (TV Movie documentary) (performer: "Happy Xmas (War is Over)" - as John) / (writer: "Happy Xmas (War is Over)")
2011 RocKwiz (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- 2011 Christmas Special (2011) ... (writer: "Happy Xmas (War Is Over)")
2011 Vago (Video short) (writer: "Because")
2011 Weekend Weekend (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Episode #1.8 (2011) ... (writer: "Strawberry Fields Forever", "Flying" - uncredited)
Late Show with David Letterman (TV Series) (writer - 9 episodes, 2009 - 2011) (music - 1 episode, 2011)
- Episode #3.30 (2009) ... (writer: "Imagine")
- Episode #1.10 (2007) ... (writer: "With a Little Help from My Friends", "Yesterday")
Willkommen Österreich (TV Series) (writer - 2 episodes, 2009 - 2010) (performer - 1 episode, 2010)
- Episode #1.103 (2010) ... (performer: "Imagine" - uncredited) / (writer: "Imagine" - uncredited)
- Episode #1.71 (2009) ... (writer: "Come Together" - uncredited)
Volver con... (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode, 2010) (writer - 1 episode, 2010)
- Episode #1.10 (2010) ... (performer: "Imagine") / (writer: "Imagine")
2010 The 82nd Annual Academy Awards (TV Special) (writer: "In My Life" - uncredited)
Live from Studio Five (TV Series) (writer - 2 episodes, 2009 - 2010) (performer - 1 episode, 2009)
- Episode #1.111 (2010) ... (writer: "With a Little Help from My Friends")
- Episode #1.64 (2009) ... (performer: "Happy Xmas (War is Over)") / (writer: "Happy Xmas (War is Over)")
2010 Hope for Haiti Now: A Global Benefit for Earthquake Relief (TV Movie documentary) (writer: "Let It Be")
2009 Hitchhiker Munchkins (Short) (writer: "I'm Looking Through You")
2009 The Royal Variety Performance 2009 (TV Movie) (writer: "In My Life")
2009 Krauses Kur (TV Movie) ("Let it be")
2009 Stealing Time (writer: "Golden Slumbers", "Carry That Weight", "The End")
2009 Nowhere Boy (performer: "Mother") / (writer: "Hello Little Girl", "Mother")
The Choir: Unsung Town (TV Mini-Series) (lyrics - 1 episode, 2009) (music - 1 episode, 2009)
- Episode #1.4 (2009) ... (lyrics: "In My Life" - uncredited) / (music: "In My Life" - uncredited)
2009 ...Sings The Beatles (TV Movie documentary) (writer: "Can't Buy Me Love", "If I Fell", "Day Tripper/Ticket to Ride", "With a Little Help from My Friends", "Help!", "Hey Jude", "Sgt. Peppers Lonely Hearts Club Band", "Norwegian Wood", "She's a Woman", "I Saw Her Standing There", "Yesterday", "Dear Prudence", "Back in the USSR", "Strawberry Fields Forever", "I Am the Walrus", "Lady Madonna")
- Episode #1.61 (2009) ... (writer: "Birthday" - uncredited)
2009 The Beatles: Rock Band (Video Game) (lyrics: "A Day in the Life", "A Hard Day's Night", "Abbey Road Medley", "All You Need is Love", "And Your Bird Can Sing", "Back in the U.S.S.R.", "Because", "Being For the Benefit of Mr. Kite", "Birthday", "Boys", "Can't Buy Me Love", "Come Together", "Day Tripper", "Dear Prudence", "Dig A Pony", "Do You Want To Know A Secret", "Don't Let Me Down", "Drive My Car", "Eight Days A Week", "Fixing A Hole", "Get Back", "Getting Better", "Girl", "Golden Slumbers/Carry That Weight/The End", "Good Morning Good Morning", "Hello Goodbye", "Helter Skelter", "Her Majesty", "Hey Bulldog", "I Am The Walrus", "I Feel Fine", "I Saw Her Standing There", "I Wanna Be Your Man", "I Want To Hold Your Hand", "I Want You (She's So Heavy)", "I'm Looking Through You", "I've Got A Feeling", "In My Life", "Lovely Rita", "Lucy In The Sky With Diamonds", "Maxwell's Silver Hammer", "Michelle", "Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)", "Nowhere Man", "Oh Darling", "Paperback Writer", "Polythene Pam/She Came In Through The Bathroom Window", "Revolution", "Run For Your Life", "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (Reprise)", "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band/With A Little Help From My Friends", "She's Leaving Home", "Sun King/Mean Mr. Mustard", "The End", "The Word", "Think For Yourself", "Ticket To Ride", "Wait", "What Goes On", "When I'm Sixty-Four", "Within You Without You/Tommorrow Never Knows", "Yellow Submarine", "You Never Give Me Your Money", "You Won't See Me")
2009 The Beatles on Record (TV Movie documentary) (writer: "I Am the Walrus", "She Loves You", "A Hard Day's Night", "Ticket to Ride", "Let It Be")
2009 Der Mann auf der Brücke (TV Movie) (writer: "I am the walrus")
2009 Cheap Trick: Sgt. Pepper Live (Video) (writer: "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band", "With a Little Help from My Friends", "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds", "Getting Better", "Fixing a Hole", "She's Leaving Home", "Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!", "When I'm Sixty-Four", "Lovely Rita", "Good Morning Good Morning", "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (Reprise)", "A Day in the Life", "Medley: Golden Slumbers/Carry That Weight/The End")
2009 Bustin' Down the Door (Documentary) (writer: "Fame")
2009 Funny People (performer: "Watching the Wheels (Acoustic)") / (writer: "Real Love", "Watching the Wheels (Acoustic)")
2009 Oasis @ Melt! (TV Movie) (writer: "I Am the Walrus" - uncredited)
2009 Imagine That (writer: "Got to Get You into My Life", "All You Need Is Love", "Nowhere Man")
2009 Oasis Ao Vivo (TV Movie) (writer: "I Am the Walrus")
2009 53 premis Sant Jordi de cinematografia (TV Special) (writer: "She Loves You", "All My Loving")
2009 Cold Case (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)
- Mind Games (2009) ... (performer: "Beautiful Boy", "Imagine", "Mind Games", "#9 Dream", "Nobody Told Me", "Watching the Wheels" - uncredited)
2008 D'un any 8 a un any 9 (TV Movie) (writer: "Més que ningú", "T'estima", "No es ven l'amor")
2008 Game Boys (writer: "With a Little Help from My Friends")
2008 WWE Tribute for the Troops (TV Special) (performer: "Happy Xmas (War Is Over)") / (writer: "Happy Xmas (War Is Over)")
2008 Eli Stone (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Help! (2008) ... (writer: "Help!" - uncredited)
2008 Yes Man (writer: "Can't Buy Me Love")
The Choir: Boys Don't Sing (TV Mini-Series) (lyrics - 2 episodes, 2008) (music - 2 episodes, 2008)
- Episode #1.3 (2008) ... (lyrics: "With a Little Help from My Friends" - uncredited) / (music: "With a Little Help from My Friends" - uncredited)
- Episode #1.2 (2008) ... (lyrics: "A Hard Day's Night", "With a Little Help from My Friends" - uncredited) / (music: "A Hard Day's Night", "With a Little Help from My Friends" - uncredited)
2008 Tommy Emmanuel: Center Stage (TV Movie) (writer: "When I'm 64", "Lady Madonna", "Day Tripper")
2007 Da Lintsi -koodi (TV Movie) (lyrics: "Hey Jude") / (writer: "Hey Jude")
2007 Holiday Festival on Ice 2007 (TV Movie) (writer: "Imagine")
2003-2007 Australian Idol (TV Series) (writer - 12 episodes)
2007 American Gangster (writer: "Why Don't We Do It in the Road" (1968))
2003-2007 Idols (TV Series) (writer - 3 episodes)
- Top 24: Group 4 (2005) ... (writer: "Let It Be")
- Top 5: Lennon & McCartney (2003) ... (writer: "Ob-La-Di, Ob-La-Da", "Imagine", "Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)", "In My Life", "Yesterday", "Let It Be", "With a Little Help from My Friends", "Woman", "A Hard Day's Night", "From Me to You")
2007 Two Faces (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Episode #1.1 (2007) ... (writer: "Yesterday")
2007 Across the Universe (writer: "Girl", "Helter Skelter", "Hold Me Tight", "All My Loving", "I Want To Hold Your Hand", "With A Little Help From My Friends", "It Won't Be Long", "I've Just Seen A Face", "Let It Be", "Come Together", "Why Don't We Do It in the Road?", "If I Fell", "I Want You (She's So Heavy)", "Dear Prudence", "Flying", "I Am The Walrus", "Being For The Benefit Of Mr. Kite", "Because", "Oh! Darling", "Strawberry Fields Forever", "Revolution", "Happiness Is A Warm Gun", "Blackbird", "Hey Jude", "Don't Let Me Down", "All You Need Is Love", "Lucy In The Sky With Diamonds", "A Day In The Life", "Across The Universe", "And I Love Her")
2007 The Other Side of Rick Wakeman (Video documentary) (writer: "Help/ Eleanor Rigby")
2007 American Masters (TV Series documentary) (writer - 1 episode)
2004-2006 Cesko hledá SuperStar (TV Series) (writer - 3 episodes)
- Páté finále: Abba vs. Beatles (2006) ... (writer: "All My Loving", "She Loves You", "Michelle", "Yesterday", "A Hard Day's Night")
- Ctvrté finále: 60. léta (2004) ... (writer: "A Hard Day's Night")
- Episode #1.17 (2004) ... (writer: "Let It Be")
2006 Happy Feet (writer: "Golden Slumbers", "The End")
2006 Los Bunkers: Vida de Perros (Video documentary) (writer: "Sgt. Peppers Lonely")
2006 Sorelle (writer: "Girl")
2006 The Departed (performer: "Well Well Well" (1970)) / (writer: "Well Well Well" (1970))
2006 Breaking and Entering (lyrics: "She Loves You") / (music: "She Loves You")
2006 Children of Men (lyrics: "Tomorrow Never Knows" - as Lennon) / (music: "Tomorrow Never Knows" - as Lennon) / (performer: "Bring on the Lucie") / (writer: "Bring on the Lucie")
2006 Accepted (writer: "Eleanor Rigby")
2006 Headline Country (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Episode dated 19 August 1997 (1997) ... (writer: "Yesterday" - uncredited)
2006 Kupetzky (TV Series) (writer - 3 episodes)
- Kupetzkys letzte Schicht (2006) ... (writer: "With A Little Help From My Friends" - uncredited)
- Kriegsverletzungen (2006) ... (writer: "Hey Jude" - uncredited)
- Die Blue-Moon-Boys (2006) ... (writer: "Yesterday" - uncredited)
Uvolnete se, prosím (TV Series) (lyrics - 1 episode, 2006) (music - 1 episode, 2006)
- Episode dated 12 May 2006 (2006) ... (lyrics: "Fame") / (music: "Fame")
2006 Zeldman (Short) (writer: "Do The Oz") / (writer: "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band" - as Lennon)
The Simpsons (TV Series) (writer - 4 episodes, 1994 - 2006) (performer - 1 episode, 2006)
- Million Dollar Abie (2006) ... (performer: "Nobody Loves You") / (writer: "Nobody Loves You")
2005 Saturday Night Live: The Best of John Belushi (TV Special) (writer: "With a Little Help from My Friends" - uncredited)
2004 Idool 2004 (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Idool 2004 Tribute Show (2004) ... (writer: "With a Little Help from My Friends", "Imagine")
2004 Joan of Arcadia (TV Series) (writer - 2 episodes)
- P.O.V. (2004) ... (writer: "Across the Universe")
- Jump (2004) ... (writer: "Across the Universe" - uncredited)
2004 Hamina Tattoo (TV Movie documentary) (writer: "Yellow Submarine")
2004 Singapore Idol (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Spectacular Show 1 - Parents' Choice (2004) ... (writer: "Come Together")
2004 Oasis: Definitely Maybe (Video documentary) (writer: "I Am the Walrus" - uncredited)
2004 Little Black Book (writer: "Beautiful Boy (Darling Boy)")
2004 Canadian Idol (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
2003 The Cat in the Hat (writer: "Getting Better")
2003 Radio (writer: "We Can Work It Out" (1966))
2003 Cuéntame (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Paraísos y purgatorios (2003) ... (writer: "She's Leaving Home")
Skeppsholmen (TV Series) (lyrics - 2 episodes, 2003) (music - 2 episodes, 2003) (performer - 1 episode, 2003)
- Episode #3.2 (2003) ... (lyrics: "Jealous Guy") / (music: "Jealous Guy") / (performer: "Jealous Guy")
- Episode #3.1 (2003) ... (lyrics: "Drive My Car") / (music: "Drive My Car")
The Blues (TV Series documentary) (performer - 1 episode, 2003) (writer - 1 episode, 2003)
- Red, White and Blues (2003) ... (performer: "Yer Blues") / (writer: "Lady Madonna", "Yer Blues")
2003 Berlin Blues (writer: "Across the Universe")
2003 Love Actually (as Lennon, "All You Need Is Love" (1967))
2003 Legally Blonde 2: Red, White & Blonde (performer: "Power to the People") / (writer: "Power to the People")
2003 Spy Sorge (performer: "Imagine" (instrumental version)) / (writer: "Imagine" (instrumental version))
2003 Liquid Assets (TV Series documentary) (writer - 1 episode)
- Oasis's Million$ (2003) ... (writer: "I Am the Walrus" - uncredited)
2003 Lea Salonga Live (Video documentary) (writer: "Imagine")
2002 3.z (TV Movie documentary) (writer: "Revolution", "Imagine")
2002 Midori no kurisumasu (TV Movie) (performer: "Happy Xmas (War Is Over)")
2002 Back in the U.S. (TV Special documentary) (writer: "Hello, Goodbye", "All My Loving", "Blackbird", "We Can Work It Out", "Here, There, and Everywhere", "Eleanor Rigby", "The Fool on the Hill", "Getting Better", "Back in the USSR", "Let it Be", "Hey Jude", "Can't Buy Me Love", "Lady Madonna", "The Long and Winding Road", "Yesterday", "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band" / "The End", "I Saw Her Standing There")
2002 Jos sais kerran (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Episode #1.7 (2002) ... (writer: "In My Life")
2002 Everwood (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- The Doctor Is In (2002) ... (writer: "Golden Slumbers")
2002 Trautmann (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Das letzte Hemd hat keine Taschen (2002) ... (writer: "Two of Us")
2002 Sparkhouse (TV Mini-Series) (1 episode)
- Episode #1.2 (2002) ... ("So This is Christmas", uncredited)
2002 Art That Shook the World (TV Series documentary) (writer - 1 episode)
- The Beach Boys: Pet Sounds (2002) ... (writer: "Being for the Benefit of Mr Kite", "I Want to Hold Your Hand" - uncredited)
2002 Party at the Palace: The Queen's Concerts, Buckingham Palace (TV Movie documentary) (writer: "The Long And Winding Road", "With A Little Help From My Friends", "Her Majesty", "Blackbird", "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (reprise)", "The End", "All You Need Is Love", "Hey Jude")
2002 Bowling for Columbine (Documentary) (writer: "Happiness Is a Warm Gun" (1968))
ER (TV Series) (writer - 4 episodes, 1995 - 2002) (performer - 1 episode, 2002)
- On the Beach (2002) ... (performer: "Imagine" - uncredited) / (writer: "Imagine" - uncredited)
2002 Music Planet 2Nite (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Oasis (2002) ... (writer: "I Am the Walrus" - uncredited)
2002 10 Minutes of Noise & Confusion: Part 1 (Video documentary short) (writer: "Revolution" - uncredited)
2002 Student's Hearts (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
2002 Desejos de Mulher (TV Series) (writer: "Minha Vida")
2002 Border (Short) (writer: "Imagine")
Livshunger (TV Series) (music - 1 episode, 2002) (performer - 1 episode, 2002)
- Episode #1.5 (2002) ... (music: "WORKING CLASS HERO") / (performer: "WORKING CLASS HERO")
2001 Elton John: One Night Only - Greatest Hits Live (TV Movie documentary) (writer: "Come Together")
2001 I Am Sam (writer: "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds", "Two of Us", "Across the Universe", "I'm Looking through You", "Strawberry Fields Forever", "Golden Slumbers", "You've Got To Hide Your Love Away", "Blackbird", "Mother Nature's Son", "Nowhere Man")
2001 George Harrison - Der sanfte Beatle (TV Short documentary) (writer: "She Loves You", "GET BACK", "FREE AS A BIRD")
2001 The Bomber (performer: "Happy Xmas (War is over)")
2001 Oasis: 10 Years of Noise & Confusion (TV Movie) (writer: "I Am the Walrus")
2001 The Royal Tenenbaums (performer: "Look At Me") / (writer: "Hey Jude", "Look At Me")
2001 Chelsea Walls (writer: "Jealous Guy" (1971))
Barend en Van Dorp (TV Series) (writer - 2 episodes, 2000 - 2001) (performer - 1 episode, 2000)
- Episode dated 8 December 2000 (2000) ... (performer: "Woman" - uncredited) / (writer: "Woman" - uncredited)
2001 Poor Prince (TV Series) (lyrics: "I Wanna Hold Your Hand") / (music: "I Wanna Hold Your Hand")
2001 Shining Stars: The Official Story of Earth, Wind, & Fire (Video) (writer: "Got to Get you Into My Life")
Lukas (TV Series) (performer - 2 episodes, 1998 - 2001) (writer - 2 episodes, 1998 - 2001)
- Rückspiegel (2001) ... (performer: "Give Peace A Chance" - uncredited) / (writer: "Give Peace A Chance" - uncredited)
- Unter Strom (1998) ... (writer: "All You Need Is Love" - uncredited)
- Romeo und Julia (1998) ... (performer: "Give Peace A Chance" - uncredited)
Top of the Pops (TV Series) (writer - 20 episodes, 1965 - 2001) (performer - 12 episodes, 1980 - 2000)
- The Departure (2001) ... (writer: "Blackbird")
2001 Moulin Rouge! (writer: "Elephant Love Medley")
2001 Heartbreakers (performer: "Oh My Love") / (writer: "Back In The U.S.S.R", "Oh My Love")
2001 Gilmore Girls (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)
2001 15 Minutes (writer: "Fame")
2001 Jump Tomorrow (performer: "Instant Karma") / (writer: "Instant Karma")
2001 Top of the Pops: The True Story (TV Movie documentary) (writer: "I Wanna Be Your Man", "I Want to Hold Your Hand" - uncredited)
2000 The British Invasion Returns (Video) (writer: "Bad To Me")
2000 Okupas (TV Mini-Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Miguel (2000) ... (writer: "Because" - uncredited)
2000 Backdoor (writer: "The Word", "Lucy In The Sky With Diamonds")
2000 Shine On (TV Special) (writer: "Revolution", "Tomorrow Never Knows", "Instant Karma!" - uncredited)
2000 Cássia Eller: Com Você Meu Mundo Ficaria Completo - Ao Vivo (Video) (writer: "Woman is the Nigger of the World", "Come Together")
2000 The New Vault (TV Series) (writer: "Can't Buy Me Love")
2000 Hollywood Rocks the Movies: The Early Years (1955-1970) (TV Movie documentary) (writer: "A Hard Day's Night", "And I Love Her", "Help!", "With a Little Help From My Friends")
- Episode #1.1 (2000) ... (writer: "Girl" - uncredited)
2000 The Linda McCartney Story (TV Movie) (writer: "I want to hold your hand", "Please, please me")
2000 Purely Belter (performer: "HAPPY XMAS (WAR IS OVER)") / (writer: "HAPPY XMAS (WAR IS OVER)")
2000 The '70s (TV Movie) (performer: "Instant Karma" - uncredited) / (writer: "Instant Karma", "Whatever Gets You Thru The Night" - uncredited)
2000 Net All Nighter (TV Movie) (writer: "Helter Skelter" - uncredited)
2000 Anke (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
2000 Steal This Movie (writer: "Power to the People")
2000 Wonder Boys (performer: "Watching the Wheels") / (writer: "Watching the Wheels")
2000 Paul Is Dead (writer: "Strawberry Fields Forever", "Happy Xmas (War is over)", "Sgt. Peppers Lonely Hearts Club Band", "I Am The Walrus")
2000 Dawson's Creek (TV Series) (1 episode)
2000 Next Friday (writer: "Fame")
Aleph, lectures contades (TV Series documentary) (performer - 1 episode, 2000) (writer - 1 episode, 2000)
1999 American Beauty (writer: "Because")
1999 The Out-of-Towners (performer: "(Just Like) Starting Over") / (writer: "(Just Like) Starting Over")
1999 Never Been Kissed (performer: "Watching the Wheels") / (writer: "Watching the Wheels")
1990-1999 Stars in Their Eyes (TV Series) (writer - 6 episodes)
- Episode #10.3 (1999) ... (writer: "All My Loving")
- Episode #8.5 (1997) ... (writer: "Let It Be")
- Christmas Special 1994 (1994) ... (writer: "With a Little Help from My Friends")
- Episode #4.8 (1993) ... (writer: "The Long and Winding Road")
- Episode #4.1 (1993) ... (writer: "With a Little Help from My Friends")
1999 The Mod Squad (writer: "Messin' Around")
1999 The '60s (TV Movie) (writer: "I Want to Hold Your Hand")
1999 Providence (TV Series) (writer: "In My Life")
1999 Eglimata (TV Series) (performer: "Little Child") / (writer: "Little Child")
1999 Regine: R2K (Video documentary) (writer: "The Long and Winding Road")
1997 Mr. Jealousy (writer: "Jealous Guy")
1997 The Drum (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Oasis Special (1997) ... (writer: "I Am the Walrus (Live at Earls Court)" - uncredited)
1997 MTV Rockumentary (TV Series documentary) (writer - 1 episode)
1997 BBC Six O'Clock News (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Episode dated 21 August 1997 (1997) ... (writer: "All You Need Is Love", "I Am the Walrus" - uncredited)
1997 Rayearth (TV Mini-Series) (writer: "All You Need is Love")
1997 Bean (writer: "Yesterday")
1997 Egos & Icons (TV Series documentary) (writer - 1 episode)
- Oasis (1997) ... (writer: "Come Together" - uncredited)
1997 Gun (TV Series) (lyrics: "HAPPINESS IS A WARM GUN") / (music: "HAPPINESS IS A WARM GUN")
1996 Eli's Coming (lyrics: "Give Peace A Chance") / (music: "Give Peace A Chance")
1996 Michael (writer: "All You Need Is Love" (1967))
1996 Love Can Seriously Damage Your Health (writer: "Let It Be", "Imagine")
1996 My Entire Life (writer: "With a Little Help from My Friends")
1995 Hatulan Bilibid Boys 2 (performer: "Imagine") / (writer: "Imagine")
1994 With... (TV Series documentary) (writer - 1 episode)
- Oasis (1994) ... (writer: "We Can Work It Out" - uncredited)
1994 Takin' Over the Asylum (TV Mini-Series) (writer - 3 episodes)
- You Always Hurt the One You Love (1994) ... (writer: "Don't Let Me Down", "Day Tripper", "I Want To Hold Your Hand" - as Lennon)
- Fly Like an Eagle (1994) ... (writer: "Can't Buy Me Love", "A World Without Love" - as Lennon)
- Hey Jude (1994) ... (writer: "Hey Jude", "Help!" - as Lennon)
1994 Lassie (writer: "In My Life")
1994 The Adventures of Brisco County Jr. (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Stagecoach (1994) ... (writer: "Let It Be" - uncredited)
1994 My Girl 2 (writer: "All My Loving")
1994 Florida Lady (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
1994 Ritmo de la noche (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Charly García (1994) ... (writer: "There's a Place")
1993 Chameleon of Pop: David Bowie Story (TV Movie documentary) (writer: "Fame 90")
1993 Heartbeat (TV Series) (writer - 2 episodes)
- Bringing It All Back Home (1993) ... (writer: "We Can Work It Out" - uncredited)
- An American in Aidensfield (1993) ... (writer: "With a Little Help from My Friends" - uncredited)
1993 Kansanhuvit (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
1992 Shindig! Presents British Invasion Vol. 1 (Video short) (writer: "A World Without Love")
1992 The Leaving of Liverpool (TV Movie) (performer: "Working Class Hero") / (writer: "Working Class Hero")
1992 Secrets (writer: "LOVE ME DO", "I SAW HER STANDING THERE", "Do You Want to Know a Secret", "It Won't Be Long", "I Wanna Be Your Man", "Helter Skelter", "She Came in Through the Bathroom Window", "Can't Buy Me Love", "All My Loving", "She Loves You", "Revolution", "I Feel Fine", "Lucy in the Sky With Diamonds", "Dear Prudence", "Eight Days a Week", "She's Leaving Home", "Hold Me Tight", "With a Little Help from My Friends", "This Boy", "A Hard Day's Night")
1992 Pilkkuja ja pikkuhousuja (writer: "Hey Jude")
1992 Mr. Saturday Night (lyrics: "I Want to Hold Your Hand") / (music: "I Want to Hold Your Hand")
1992 Goodbye, Trainmen (writer: "With a Little Help From My Friends")
1992 Die Hausmeisterin (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
1992 Noises Off... (writer: "With a Little Help from My Friends")
1992 Perigosas Peruas (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
1992 The Golden Girls (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- The Commitments (1992) ... (writer: "She Loves You")
1992 A Bit of Fry and Laurie (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Episode #3.3 (1992) ... (writer: "Hey Jude" - uncredited)
- Episode dated 31 December 1991 (1991) ... (writer: "All My Loving")
1991 The Beatles: The First U.S. Visit (Video documentary) (writer: "All My Lovin", "From Me To You", "I Saw Her Standing There", "I Wanna Be Your Man", "I Wanna Hold Your Hand", "It Won't Be Long", "Love Me Do", "Please, Please Me", "She Loves You", "This Boy")
1991 Grand Canyon (writer: "She's Leaving Home")
1991 Ai monogatari (TV Mini-Series) (writer: "I Want to Hold Your Hand")
1991 We zijn weer thuis (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Komen en gaan (1991) ... (writer: "Do you want to hear a secret" - uncredited)
1988 The Prince's Trust Rock Gala (Documentary) (writer: "With a Little Help from my Friends")
1988 Rain Man (writer: "I Saw Her Standing There" (1963))
1988 Full House (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- D.J.'s Very First Horse (1988) ... (writer: "Good Day, Sunshine")
1988 Moonwalker (writer: "Come Together")
1988 U2: Rattle and Hum (Documentary) (writer: "Helter Skelter")
1965-1988 Doctor Who (TV Series) (writer - 3 episodes)
- The Evil of the Daleks: Episode 1 (1967) ... (writer: "Paperback Writer")
- The Executioners (1965) ... (writer: "Ticket to Ride")
1988 Imagine: John Lennon (Documentary) (writer: "A Day in the Life", "Across the Universe", "All You Need Is Love", "Ballad of John & Yoko", "Come Together", "Don't Let Me Down", "Give Peace a Chance", "Help", "In My Life", "I've Got a Feeling", "Julia", "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds", "Nowhere Man", "Revolution", "Strawberry Fields Forever", "God", "Hold on John", "How?", "How Do You Sleep?", "Mother", "Beautiful Boy", "Happy Xmas (War Is Over)", "Imagine", "Jealous Guy", " (Just Like) Starting Over", "Oh Yoko", "Woman", "From Me to You", "Love Me Do", "Real Love", "Two Virgins")
1988 License to Drive (writer: "DRIVE MY CAR")
1988 Tiikerihai (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Vihaava rakkaus, rakastava viha (1988) ... (writer: "Can't Buy Me Love")
1988 Track 29 (lyrics: "Mother") / (music: "Mother")
1988 7T3 (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Episode #1.23 (1988) ... (writer: "With a Little Help from my Friends")
1988 Uncle Lenin Lives in Russia (Documentary) (writer: "Working Class Hero")
1988 Tommys Hollywood Report (TV Movie) (writer: "Drive My Car" - uncredited)
1987 Legacy of the Hollywood Blacklist (TV Movie documentary) (lyrics: "GIVE PEACE A CHANCE") / (music: "GIVE PEACE A CHANCE")
1987 Five Corners (lyrics: "In My Life") / (music: "In My Life")
1987 Can't Buy Me Love (writer: "Can't Buy Me Love")
1987 Disorderlies (writer: "Baby You're a Rich Man")
- All You Need Is Yuk (1987) ... (writer: "All You Need is Yuk")
1987 Concrete Angels (writer: "She Loves You", "Love Me Do", "From Me To You", "Misery", "P.S. I Love You", "A Hard Day's Night", "I Saw Her Standing There")
1987 Whispering Jack: In Concert (Video) (writer: "Help")
1986 Lovedolls Superstar (writer: "Give Peace a Chance")
1986 Something Wild (writer: "Fame")
1986 The A-Team (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
1986 Irgendwie und sowieso (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Ringo (1986) ... (writer: "Penny Lane" - uncredited)
1986 Growing Pains (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Jason and the Cruisers (1986) ... (writer: "If I Fell" (1964) - uncredited)
Miami Vice (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode, 1986) (writer - 1 episode, 1986)
- When Irish Eyes Are Crying (1986) ... (performer: "Imagine" - uncredited) / (writer: "Imagine" - uncredited)
1986 Jimi Plays Monterey (Documentary) (writer: "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Heart's Club Band")
1983 Cool Cats: 25 Years of Rock 'n' Roll Style (Video documentary) (writer: "She Loves You" - uncredited)
1983 A Pattern of Roses (TV Movie) (writer: "We Can Work It Out")
1983 Transport (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- De Afspraak (1983) ... (writer: "Good Day Sunshine" - uncredited)
1983 Testament ("All My Loving" (1963))
1983 Fantastica SEI! (writer: "A HARD DAY'S NIGHT")
1983 Emu's World (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Episode #4.1 (1983) ... (writer: "Yellow Submarine" - uncredited)
1983 Alfresco (TV Series) (writer - 2 episodes)
- Episode #1.3 (1983) ... (writer: "Yesterday", "Hey Jude", "Let It Be", "When I'm 64")
- Episode #1.2 (1983) ... (writer: "Yesterday" - uncredited)
De weg (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode, 1983) (performer - 1 episode, 1983)
- We zijn nog jong (1983) ... (writer: "Love me do", "She Loves You" - uncredited)
1982 The Disappearance of Harry (TV Movie) (writer: "Yellow Submarine" - uncredited)
1982 Jekyll and Hyde... Together Again (lyrics: "WITH A LITTLE HELP FROM MY FRIENDS") / (music: "WITH A LITTLE HELP FROM MY FRIENDS")
1982 Ritorno all'amore (writer: "THE LONG AND WINDING ROAD")
- Confessions of a Train Spotter (1980) ... (writer: "And I Love Her", "When I'm Sixty-Four")
1980 Rockshow (Documentary) (writer: "Lady Madonna", "The Long and Winding Road", "I've Just Seen A Face", "Blackbird", "Yesterday" - uncredited)
1980 Barbara Mandrell and the Mandrell Sisters (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Episode #1.1 (1980) ... (writer: "Can't Buy Me Love")
1980 Where the Buffalo Roam (writer: "Lucy In The Sky With Diamonds)
1980 Little Darlings (performer: "Oh My Love") / (writer: "Oh My Love")
1980 De Mike Burstyn show (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Episode #2.3 (1980) ... (writer: "When I'm sixty-four")
1978-1980 Derrick (TV Series) (writer - 2 episodes)
- Ein Lied aus Theben (1980) ... (writer: "Can't buy me love", "Michelle", "Yesterday" - uncredited)
- Der Spitzel (1978) ... (writer: "A Hard Day's Night")
1976-1980 The Muppet Show (TV Series) (writer - 3 episodes)
- Lynda Carter (1980) ... (writer: "With a Little Help From my Friends" - uncredited)
- Vincent Price (1977) ... (writer: "I'm Looking Through You")
- Twiggy (1976) ... (writer: "In My Life")
1979 Intikam kadini (writer: "Penny Lane" - uncredited)
1979 The Dick Emery Special (TV Movie) (writer: "Eleanor Rigby")
1979 Birth of the Beatles (writer: "I Saw Her Standing There", "Love Me Do", "Ask Me Why", "I Want To Hold Your Hand", "Please Please Me", "She Loves You")
1979 You Can't Do That on Television (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Malls: Hangouts ... (writer: "Can't Buy Me Love", "You've Got to Hide Your Love Away" - uncredited)
1978 Citizen Smith (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Working Class Hero (1978) ... (writer: "Carry that Weight" - uncredited)
1978 Good Old Days Part II (TV Special) (writer: "I Want to Hold Your Hand", "A Hard Day's Night")
1978 Do You Remember Vietnam (TV Movie documentary) (writer: "Yesterday")
1978 Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (lyrics: "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band", "Getting Better", "I Want You (She's So Heavy)", "Good Morning, Good Morning", "Nowhere Man", "Polythene Pam", "She Came In Through The Bathroom Window", "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band" (Reprise), "Mean Mr. Mustard", "She's Leaving Home", "Lucy In The Sky With Diamonds", "Oh! Darling", "Maxwell's Silver Hammer", "Because", "Strawberry Fields Forever", "Being For The Benefit of Mr. Kite", "You Never Give Me Your Money", "Got To Get You Into My Life", "When I'm 64", "Come Together", "Golden Slumbers", "Carry That Weight", "The Long And Winding Road", "A Day In The Life", "Get Back", "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band" (Finale)) / (music: "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band", "Getting Better", "I Want You (She's So Heavy)", "Good Morning, Good Morning", "Nowhere Man", "Polythene Pam", "She Came In Through The Bathroom Window", "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band" (Reprise), "Mean Mr. Mustard", "She's Leaving Home", "Lucy In The Sky With Diamonds", "Oh! Darling", "Maxwell's Silver Hammer", "Because", "Strawberry Fields Forever", "Being For The Benefit of Mr. Kite", "You Never Give Me Your Money", "Got To Get You Into My Life", "When I'm 64", "Come Together", "Golden Slumbers", "Carry That Weight", "The Long And Winding Road", "A Day In The Life", "Get Back", "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band" (Finale)) / (writer: "With A Little Help From My Friends", "Fixing A Hole")
1978 Yesterday the Beatles (Short) (writer: "Yesterday", "The Long and Winding Road" - as Lennon)
1978 Ringo (TV Movie) (writer: "I Am The Greatest", "Yellow Submarine" - uncredited)
1978 I Wanna Hold Your Hand (writer: "I Want to Hold Your Hand", "Please, Please Me", "I Saw Her Standing There", "Thank You Girl", "Misery", "Love Me Do", "P.S. I Love You", "From Me to You", "There's a Place", "I Wanna Be Your Man", "She Loves You")
1978 Dubbelleven (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Jaap Dolder, nooit van gehoord (1978) ... (writer: "Fool on the Hill" - uncredited)
1978 The Rutles: All You Need Is Cash (TV Movie) (arranger: "Number One") / (writer: "Hold My Hand", "I Must Be In Love", "With A Girl Like You", "O-U-C-H!", "Love Life", "Good Times Roll", "Doubleback Alley", "Another Day", "Cheese And Onions", "Piggy In The Middle", "Let's Be Natural", "Get Up And Go", "Between Us (Made For Each Other)", "Goose-Step Mama", "It's Looking Good")
1978 Sextette (writer: "Honey Pie")
1978 Coming Home (writer: "Hey Jude" (1968), "Strawberry Fields Forever" (1967))
1976 Christmas 76 (TV Special) (writer: "We Can Work It Out")
- Episode #2.12 (1976) ... (writer: "Yesterday")
- Episode #2.7 (1976) ... (writer: "Two Of Us / We Can Work It Out")
- Episode #2.3 (1976) ... (writer: "You Won't See Me")
- Episode #1.4 (1976) ... (writer: "Got To Get You Into My Life")
1976 Carpenters Very First Television Special (TV Special) (lyrics: "Sing / Close To You / For All We Know / Ticket To Ride / Only Yesterday / I Won't Last A Day Without You / Goodbye To Love" - Hits Medley '76)
1976 Pauline's Quirkes (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Episode #1.4 (1976) ... (writer: "She's Leaving Home", "Can't Buy Me Love")
1976 A Special Olivia Newton-John (TV Special) (writer: "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" - uncredited)
1976 All This and World War II (Documentary) (writer: "Maxwell's Silver Hammer", "Strawberry Fields Forever", "Magical Mystery Tour", "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds", "Golden Slumbers / Carry That Weight", "I Am the Walrus", "She's Leaving Home", "Lovely Rita", "When I'm Sixty Four", "Get Back", "Let it Be", "Yesterday", "With a Little Help From My Friends / Nowhere Man", "Because", "She Came in Through the Bathroom Window", "Michelle", "We Can Work it Out", "The Fool on the Hill", "Hey, Jude", "Polythene Pam", "Sun King", "Getting Better", "The Long And Winding Road", "Help", "A Day in the Life", "Come Together", "You Never Give Me Your Money")
1971-1976 The Two Ronnies (TV Series) (writer - 3 episodes)
- Episode #5.4 (1976) ... (writer: "Good Day Sunshine")
- Episode #5.1 (1976) ... (writer: "We Can Work It Out")
- Episode #1.6 (1971) ... (writer: "Got to Get You into My Life")
1976 You Must Be Joking! (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Episode #2.3 (1976) ... (writer: "Can't Buy Me Love")
1976 Helter Skelter (TV Movie) (writer: "Helter Skelter", "Revolution")
1976 Dolly (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Episode #1.3 (1976) ... (writer: "Yesterday/For The Good Times/Help Me Make It Through The Night/Bridge Over Troubled Waters" Medley)
1976 Gulp (writer: "Come Together" - uncredited)
1975 What's Behind the Groupies? (writer: "Hey Jude" - uncredited)
1975 Oriental Blue (writer: "Hey Bulldog" - uncredited)
1975 Shampoo (writer: "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band" (1967), "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" (1967), "Yesterday" (1965) - uncredited)
1974 Double Header (writer: "She Loves You" - uncredited)
1974 Ape Over Love (writer: "Come Together" - uncredited)
1974 Braverman's Condensed Cream of the Beatles (Documentary short) (writer: "Cry Baby Cry", "Love Me Do", "I Wanna Hold Your Hand", "A Hard Day's Night", "She Loves You", "All My Loving", "Ticket to Ride", "Yesterday", "Help!", "Her Majesty", "We Can Work It Out", "Eleonor Rigby", "Paperback Writer", "Yellow Submarine", "Penny Lane", "A Little Help From My Friends", "A Day in the Life", "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band", "Strawberry Fields Forever", "Magical Mystery Tour", "Revolution", "Blackbird", "Hey Jude", "Come Together")
1972 De Fred Haché Show (TV Series) (writer - 2 episodes)
- Episode #1.5 (1972) ... (writer: "Michelle", "Penny Lane" - uncredited)
- Episode #1.2 (1972) ... (writer: "Yesterday", "Michelle" - uncredited)
1972 The Special London Bridge Special (TV Movie) (writer: "Got to get you into my life/ He loves me")
1972 Huset på Christianshavn (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Gode vibrationer (1972) ... (writer: "Power to the People" - uncredited)
1971 Satans Lust (writer: "I Wanna Hold Your Hand", "Good Day Sunshine", "Yellow Submarine" - uncredited)
1971 The Young Hitchikers (writer: "Lady Madonna" - uncredited)
1971 Millhouse (Documentary) (writer: "Give Peace a Chance" - uncredited)
- Episode dated 25 September 1971 (1971) ... (writer: "Yesterday" - uncredited)
1971 The Neon Palace (writer: "A Day in the Life")
1971 UFO (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Ordeal (1971) ... (writer: "Get Back")
1971 Mad Dogs & Englishmen (Documentary) (writer: "She Came in Through the Bathroom Window", "Let It Be", "With a Little Help from My Friends")
1971 Big Hair Romp (writer: "I Want to Hold Your Hand", "Strawberry Fields Forever", "Ob-La-Di, Ob-La-Da" - uncredited)
1971 Room for Rent (writer: "Ob-La-Di, Ob-La-Da", "Blackbird" - uncredited)
1971 Sexual Therapist (writer: "Hello Goodbye" - uncredited)
1971 Snatched Women (writer: "Hey Jude" - uncredited)
1970 Elvis: That's the Way It Is (Documentary) (writer: "Little Sister"/"Get Back" Medley)
1970 Armchair Theatre (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Wednesday's Child (1970) ... (writer: "Get Back", "Don't Let Me Down")
1970 This Is Tom Jones (TV Series documentary) (writer - 1 episode)
- Episode #3.5 (1970) ... (writer: "Let It Be")
1970 The Other Reg Varney (TV Movie) (writer: "Got To Get You Into My Life")
1970 See You at Mao (Documentary) (writer: "Hello, Goodbye")
1970 Let It Be (Documentary) (writer: "Two of Us", "Dig A Pony", "Across the Universe", "Maxwell's Silver Hammer", "Dig It", "Let It Be", "I've Got a Feeling", "One After 909", "Don't Let Me Down", "The Long and Winding Road", "Get Back")
1970 Jimmy Durante Presents the Lennon Sisters (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Episode #1.21 (1970) ... (writer: "Golden Slumbers" - uncredited)
1970 Movin' (TV Movie) (writer: "Hey Jude", "Come Together")
1970 NBC Experiment in Television (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Music! (1970) ... (writer: "Hey Jude")
The Ed Sullivan Show (TV Series) (writer - 6 episodes, 1964 - 1970) (performer - 4 episodes, 1964 - 1965) (lyrics - 1 episode, 1965) (music - 1 episode, 1965)
- Episode #23.22 (1970) ... (writer: "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band", "Yesterday")
- Episode #19.1 (1965) ... (lyrics: "We Love You" - uncredited) / (music: "We Love You" - uncredited) / (performer: "I Feel Fine" (uncredited), "I'm Down", "Act Naturally", "Ticket to Ride", "Yesterday", "Help!") / (writer: "I Feel Fine" (uncredited), "I'm Down", "Ticket to Ride", "Yesterday", "Help!")
- Episode #17.33 (1964) ... (writer: "You Can't Do That")
- Episode #17.21 (1964) ... (performer: "Twist and Shout", "Please Please Me", "I Want to Hold Your Hand" - uncredited) / (writer: "Please Please Me", "I Want to Hold Your Hand" - uncredited)
- Episode #17.20 (1964) ... (performer: "She Loves You" (uncredited), "This Boy" (uncredited), "All My Loving" (uncredited), "I Saw Her Standing There" (uncredited), "From Me to You" (uncredited), "I Want to Hold Your Hand") / (writer: "She Loves You" (uncredited), "This Boy" (uncredited), "All My Loving" (uncredited), "I Saw Her Standing There" (uncredited), "From Me to You" (uncredited), "I Want to Hold Your Hand")
- The Politician (1966) ... (writer: "Help!" - uncredited)
1968 Love Love Love (Short) (writer: "All You Need is Love")
1968 The Movie Orgy (Documentary) (writer: "She Loves You")
1968 The Ann-Margret Show (TV Special) (writer: "With a Little Help from My Friends" - uncredited)
1968 Head (music: "Strawberry Fields Forever" (1966) - uncredited)
1968 Omnibus (TV Series documentary) (writer - 1 episode)
- All My Loving (1968) ... (writer: "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds", "Yellow Submarine")
1968 The Bob Hope Show (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Episode #19.2 (1968) ... (writer: "Hey Jude" - uncredited)
1968 Rondom het Oudekerksplein.... (Documentary) (writer: "And I love Her" - uncredited)
1968 Yellow Submarine (writer: "Yellow Submarine", "Hey Bulldog", "Eleanor Rigby", "All Together Now", "Lucy In The Sky With Diamonds", "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band", "With A Little Help From My Friends", "Baby You're A Rich Man", "All You Need Is Love", "When I'm Sixty-Four", "Nowhere Man", "A Day In the Life")
1968 Andy Williams' Kaleidoscope Company (TV Movie) (writer: "With a Little Help From My Friends")
1968 Petula (TV Special) (writer: "We Can Work it Out")
- Episode #5.26 (1968) ... (writer: "Lady Madonna")
- Episode #4.22 (1967) ... (writer: "Strawberry Fields Forever", "Penny Lane")
1968 The Monkees (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Mijacogeo (1968) ... (writer: "Good Morning, Good Morning" - uncredited)
1968 The Prisoner (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Fall Out (1968) ... (writer: "All You Need Is Love" - uncredited)
1968 Yesterday (Documentary) (writer: "Yesterday")
1967 The Emperor (Documentary short) (writer: "Strawberry Fields Forever" - uncredited)
1967 Magical Mystery Tour (TV Movie) (performer: "Five Little Dickie Birds" - uncredited) / (writer: "Magical Mystery Tour", "The Fool on the Hill", "Flying", "I Am the Walrus", "Your Mother Should Know", "She Loves You", "All My Loving", "Hello Goodbye" - uncredited)
1967 The Firemen's Ball (writer: "From Me to you" - uncredited)
1967 Billion Dollar Brain (writer: "A Hard Day's Night" - uncredited)
1965-1967 The Beatles (TV Series) (writer - 38 episodes)
- Wait/I'm Only Sleeping (1967) ... (writer: "Wait", "Penny Lane", "Eleanor Rigby", "I'm Only Sleeping" - uncredited)
- Tomorrow Never Knows/I've Just Seen a Face (1967) ... (writer: "Tomorrow Never Knows", "She Said She Said", "I've Just Seen A Face" - uncredited)
- Taxman/Eleanor Rigby (1967) ... (writer: "Got To Get You Into My Life", "Here, There And Everywhere", "Eleanor Rigby", "I Feel Fine" - uncredited)
- Good Day Sunshine/Ticket-to-Ride (1967) ... (writer: "Good Day Sunshine", "Little Child", "Strawberry Fields Forever", "And Your Bird Can Sing", "Ticket To Ride" - uncredited)
1967 How I Won the War (performer: "How I Won The War", "Aftermath" - as Musketeer Gripweed and The Third Troop)
1967 Hoepla (TV Series documentary) (writer - 2 episodes)
- Bont, snel, flitsend (1967) ... (writer: "Baby you're a rich man" - uncredited)
- Episode #1.4 ... (writer: "Hello, Goodbye" - uncredited)
1967 Our World (TV Movie documentary) (writer: "All You Need Is Love")
1967 Katzenzungen (TV Movie) (writer: "Help")
1967 Wavelength (writer: "Strawberry Fields Forever")
1967 Bon Appetit (Short) (writer: "Yesterday" (instrumental), "Michelle" (instrumental) - uncredited)
1967 David Holzman's Diary (writer: "A Day in the Life")
1967 Free and Easy (Documentary) (writer: "Strawberry Fields Forever", "Penny Lane")
1966 Not Only... But Also (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Episode #2.1 (1966) ... (writer: "If I Fell")
1964-1966 Shindig! (TV Series) (writer - 24 episodes)
- Episode #2.34 (1966) ... (writer: "We Can Work It Out", "Michelle")
- Episode #2.33 (1966) ... (writer: "Pop Goes the Workers")
- Episode #2.25 (1965) ... (writer: "Yesterday", "You've Got to Hide Your Love Away", "I Call Your Name")
- Episode #2.14 (1965) ... (writer: "Help", "I'm Down")
- Episode #2.12 (1965) ... (writer: "I'm a Loser" - uncredited)
1965 Blackpool Night Out (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Episode #2.7 (1965) ... (writer: "I Feel Fine", "I'm Down", "Ticket to Ride", "Yesterday", "Help!" - uncredited)
1965 Help! (writer: "Help!" (1965), "You're Going to Lose That Girl" (1965), "You've Got to Hide Your Love Away" (1965), "Ticket to Ride" (1965), "A Hard Day's Night" (1964), "I'm Happy Just to Dance with You" (1964), "You Can't Do That" (1964) - uncredited)
1965 Go-Go Bigbeat (Documentary) (writer: "Please Please Me", "From Me To You", "She Loves You")
1965 Go Go Mania (writer: "She Loves You", "A World Without Love")
1964 The T.A.M.I. Show (Documentary) (writer: "I'll Keep You Satisfied", "Bad to Me", "From a Window")
1964 Coronation Street (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
- Episode #1.421 (1964) ... (writer: "She Loves You" - uncredited)
1964 UK Swings Again (Short) (writer: "Like Dreamers Do")
1964 A Hard Day's Night (music: "This Boy (Ringo's Theme)" (1963) - uncredited) / (performer: "Rule Britannia" (1740) - uncredited) / (writer: "A Hard Day's Night" (1964), "I Should Have Known Better" (1964), "I Wanna Be Your Man" (1963), "All My Loving" (1963), "If I Fell" (1964), "Can't Buy Me Love" (1964), "And I Love Her" (1964), "I'm Happy Just to Dance with You" (1964), "Tell Me Why" (1964), "She Loves You" (1963) - uncredited)
1964 Locked In! (Documentary) (writer: "She Loves You")
1963 Beat City (TV Short documentary) (writer: "There's a Place")
1963 Drop In (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
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Sabadell Airport is in which European country? | Private Jet Charter Sabadell Airport (LELL) | Victor
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Sabadell Airport (LELL)
Sabadell Airport is a local private jet airport located in Catalunya, Spain suitable for a variety of private jets and its International Air Transport Association code is QSA.
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Which land animal is known as an urchin? | Sabadell, Spain: Classical music flashmob.
Sabadell, Spain: Classical Music Flashmob.
Jul 4, 2012
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As a little girl approaches a street musician holding a cello, she puts a coin in his hat and the man starts to play. Slowly, more musicians appear seemingly out of nowhere, all joining in a performance of Beethoven's "Ode To Joy".
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Under what names were Janet and John books sold in the US? | BBC NEWS | UK | Magazine | This is Janet. This is John... all over again
This is Janet. This is John... all over again
By Finlo Rohrer
BBC News Magazine
Forget the modern updates, this Christmas you may find yourself getting a little literary slice of the 1950s.
Once upon a time, everybody learnt to read with Janet and John.
This apparently middle-class nuclear family featured Father - slicked hair, grey slacks, blank expression - and Mother - surprising Hepburn-esque cropped hair and primary colour clothes.
Then there was Janet - blonde hair in bunches, typically seen in a dress or a skirt - and John - curly reddish hair and always in shorts.
It was easy to imagine Father managing a small-town branch of Barclays, while Mother churned out jam for the WI. Over the years they have been wickedly parodied by Terry Wogan and others, and provided the backdrop for more inclusive views of family structure, such as Jenny lives with Eric and Martin.
Janet and John were not health and safety-obsessed
Enlarge Image
In 2001, when the books were "updated" for the modern generation, the perceived social stereotyping was toned down and more [ie any] ethnic minority characters were added.
But now the unashamedly middle England, middle 20th Century originals are back in print, and they are part of a major trend in publishing towards nostalgic facsimile editions of old favourites.
"They don't make 'em like they used to." It's been a recurring sentiment in British culture for a long time. All the way back to the industrial revolution and beyond, people have been yearning for a time when standards, both of conception and construction, were supposedly better.
The proof of the ubiquity of this sentiment may arrive in your Christmas stocking in a few weeks time.
The wave of nostalgia that has gripped the publishing industry follows the success of Conn and Hal Iggulden's Dangerous Book for Boys. Published in 2006, it looked as though it could have been published in 1956.
Retro chic
As well as similar retro-styled modern adventure almanacs, publishers are scrabbling for books, particularly children's stories, from the 1950s and beyond, to lovingly reprint them in facsimile editions. Failing that they are taking modern content and giving it a 50s feel with foil lettering and retro design as is the case with Buster Books' boys annual, girls annual and How to Be the Best at Everything.
Scottish nostalgia-ites are also catered for
It's the literary equivalent of the fad for 70s Adidas trainers, says Graeme Neill, of the Bookseller magazine.
"If we look at the publishing industry it has been behind popular culture by a number of years. People have wanted retro."
And it is clear - for the facsimile reprints if not the adventure annuals - that many of the books will be bought by adults, for adults. The Janet and John reprints are labelled "humour" as if to get the message across.
It's perhaps not just a case of reminiscing about one's own childhood, but also a harking back to the social and cultural values of another age. In a recent survey, respondents longed for old-fashioned sweet shops, bobbies on the beat, village fetes, district nurses, red telephone boxes, bus conductors and everything else 1950s.
And whether or not that world ever existed, there are many adults who want to hold its cultural embodiment in their hands.
Whether it's the reissued Janet and John books, Rupert Bear annuals from the 50s, Oor Wullie and the Broons from earlier, or Jackie annuals from later, adults everywhere are buying children's books with no thought of giving them to children.
Rupert also presents some problems for modern publishers
Some are trying to capture the spirit of an age they associate with innocence and imagination, says John Beck, honorary secretary of the Followers of Rupert.
"It's nostalgia publishing. People remember it from the past with happy memories. They are probably going to be in their 40s, 50s, 60s. To see it again to relive those times. They were probably happier times.
"There were no muggings or shooting or other problems that one has these days. It is that security that they remember from their youth."
And just as the Dangerous Book for Boys tapped a zeitgeist that is increasingly exasperated by what they see as an overprotective health and safety culture, so these books from decades ago reflect a more buccaneering spirit.
Sense of adventure
In the Janet and John books, the children ride on horseback across rivers and climb trees, once normal activities that would now probably not make it past a typical risk assessment form.
Tintin in the Congo enjoyed hefty sales after it was branded racist
"There are children climbing trees. Now they say we can't do this we can't do that, you can't play conkers, children aren't allowed out," says Alastair Williams, managing director of Summersdale, the publishers reprinting the Janet and John books.
He agrees that it is the power of the idealised remembrance of the 50s that drives adults to buy these books for each other.
"It's a lot like going up into the attic and finding something from your past like an old television. It can evoke rose-tinted memories. Something like 70% of the population learnt to read with Janet and John. It's almost part of our cultural heritage, something that is instantly recognisable."
But while these facsimile reprints offer commercial opportunities for publishers, they can also threaten a political minefield.
Take books from six decades ago and you are reaching back to an era of different social mores, including a very different attitude to racial epithets.
Negative depictions
The recent reprinting of Tintin in the Congo sparked a furore because of its stereotypical depiction of Africans. The publisher, Egmont, was unrepentant, having printed the book with a foreword discussing the issues of racism and changing cultural norms. Perhaps not surprisingly, the book sold heavily off the back of the negative publicity.
JANET AND JOHN
Made UK debut in 1949
Published in US as Alice and Jerry
It is claimed 70% of UK adults learned to read with them
Revised stories in 2001
Alistair Spalding, of Egmont, says: "Context is extremely important. It is a very difficult issue." But he insists there could be no question of censoring the book and therefore invalidating its status as a facsimile reprint.
Many publishers take this position. The reissue of the pre-war comic strip the Broons by Aurum Press drew criticism for another - by modern standards - negative depiction of a black character.
Rupert, also from Egmont, again offers a major challenge, but Beck suggests the publishers will not reprint some of the annuals for this very reason.
For Mr Beck, with certain exceptions, it is wrong to bow to political correctness. Instead the change in attitudes should be highlighted as part of a context that opens up a debate on how much society has changed.
"It would open up that debate rather than just editing it all out. It's important these things are remembered. They should try and make it as real as possible. If you start altering it, it's no longer a facsimile."
And that is what readers want from these reproductions - an accurate window back into their childhoods.
Below is a selection of your comments.
When I was at primary school, I had Nicholas Stuart Gray's Down In The Cellar out from the library for a whole year. I loved that book. Now I'm in my 40s, I recently found a copy on Amazon, and enjoyed it as much as I did 35 years ago. Wonderful.
Mike Smith, Leeds
I have never been ashamed of reading books which I have kept from my childhood. I've even made a point of going out to buy some which got lost along the way. Five years ago, I made a special trip to the fabulous Hay-on-Wye to buy the Famous Five series because it had to be the versions I had read when I was nine, not the latest reprints where they all wear jeans instead of shorts. Last Christmas, I bought my 38-yr-old fiance a copy of the Roy of the Rovers annual he'd had when he was a kid and to say he was over the moon would be a total understatement. There really is nothing to beat a good bit of nostalgia, especially when it comes in the shape of books. Long may it continue.
Donna Chisholm, Staffs, UK
I remember Janet and John with loathing. I can understand the success of Boys Own type escapist adventures, a genre abolished for nearly a generation by politically correct "quality" children's literature, but I can't see any real appeal in the deadly dull Janet and John, Fortunately my children used the much more lively Oxford Reading Tree scheme.
Robert Hardy, Cambridge
Nostalgia? These wooden parodies of an ideal middle class existence went hand in hand with a suffocating repressive social order mired in class and taboo. Abortion illegal, minority rights non-existent, and in some cases discriminated against in law. Faith espoused as a good thing, with horrific child abuse associated these days with churches, scout groups etc, all unreported - and unreportable. Seeing these things again makes me feel sick.
Gio Bellini, Bournemouth
I collect Biggles books, which can sometimes make me wince to say the least. And I'm a merchant seaman - a group hardly known for liberated views. Still I put what I read into the period of time it comes from. Whilst there is racism in the books, it's not deliberate - it's just how it was. You can try and censor this or prevent selling or publication, but then you are getting into revisionist history and burning book piles. And that's just plain scary. One should always look at the past and the evidence it presents with the simple viewpoint of what it is - a snapshot in time. You may not like it but it's a fair bet that your favourite grey-haired granny is a hardline racist - and it's purely because of the age she was born into.
Mark Chisholm, Dereham, UK
I had never heard of Janet & John until I moved to London - reading in 1960's Liverpool was via Dick & Dora (with dog & cat, Nip & Fluff). The retro trend however is a longing for certainty and values (often phrased as "innocence") as against the moral relativism that now prevails.
Steve Mac, London, England
I remember a great sense of achievement in moving from the Janet & John red book (number one I think) to the blue book, aged about six or seven at my primary school in north London. I was as fascinated with the typeface as with the illustrations; the beginning of a lifelong love of reading and creative writing. Interestingly though, my schooling was interrupted by a family move to Scotland for 18 months. When I returned to my primary school in the last year before going to secondary school, my reading and writing ability - according to the teachers - far exceeded those of my classmates. And I don't recall reading Janet & John books in Edinburgh.
Michael, Welwyn, UK
Re Janet and John being "published in the US as Alice and Jerry" - was alliteration out of fashion on the other side of the Atlantic at the time?
Laurie, Reading, UK
I'm now thinking of "investing" in a few sets of Oxford Reading Tree books. No doubt in 2050 they will be worth a mint as my own children's' generation are falling over themselves to recapture the adventures of Biff, Chip, Kipper and Floppy the dog. Does anyone else look out for the spectacles and dog's bone when they are reading these books with their kids, or is it just me?
Dave, Guisborough, UK
At 26, I have recently purchased one of my favourite books of all time, The Very Hungry Caterpillar by Eric Carle. I bought the book for myself, and loved reading it again. I was however very disappointed to find that my fingers do not fit through the holes in the pages as they did many years ago.
Claire, Cardiff
I recently found a bookshop in Alresford, Hampshire, selling copies of The Adventures of Little Black Sambo. I loved this book as a child so I purchased a copy. My son aged eight and daughter aged four now also love the stories. There is probably no way this book would be published today, but there is nothing wrong with the book in any way.
Nick Grace, Southampton
John, John, look.
Look, John, look.
That was the first page I read for my Infant teacher in 1955. At the time it didn't occur to me that I was able to read before then.
Maggie, Paris
Because my Dad was in the services, we moved around a lot and the few books that my brother and I owned ended up being given away. I have since spent my adulthood hunting around second-hand bookshops and more lately the internet replacing these long lost friends - embraced with tears and great emotion.
Annemarie Riggs, Shrewsbury, Shropshire
| Alice and Jerry |
Which is the only letter of the alphabet that does not appear in the name of any of the states of America? | Juvenile & Children`s Books: Janet and John Books, original printing, school parents
Juvenile & Children`s Books
Juvenile & Children`s Books/Janet and John Books
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Expert: Clare Washbrook - 9/25/2006
Question
Hello, I�m writing my illustration dissertation on the history and culture of �Janet and John� books as a learning tool for children! (Having had a set passed down from my mum to me)
I was wondering if you could provide any information or thoughts on any of the following areas� or even anything at all relevant? If not best wishes and thank you very much for taking the time to read this.
Do you possibly have information on the history of the original books, or the new books for example anything on the writers and illustrators� so far all I have is names and dates of birth as I have been to find little else� also any information on the original printing methods, history of the original company?
What were the ideals/culture you felt the old books promoted? (Example for me originals where very much about middle class and nuclear family life)
Which of these did you feel would be seen as negative in today�s society and why?
Do you think this style of learning is helpful, boring or patronizing and why?
What were the pictures, scenes and colours like? Where they basic or did you consider them to be of a decent quality?
Did you think they were helpful? Aka did they aid the text?
What did you think of the characters and situation?
Do you think children would want to be like them? Or do you think they might have trouble relating to them?
What other type of children�s readers where around at the time?
How did Janet and John compare to them? Both in story and style? Quality of pictures ect?
How did Janet and John�s lives and world compare that of real children and the real world at the time?
How and where were they available? Aka school parents?
How many children had them and at what ages?
Where they expensive/a luxury or where there fairly cheap and common?
Do you remember what happened to them?
Did you know they where discontinued in the 60�s as they were considered sexist, politically incorrect and out of date?
Knowing that would upon reflection you agree on any of those points? If so which ones and why? Aka specific imagery scenes ect
Do you know that they Star kids have re-vamped the series for modern children, updating it to reflect modern day life/families and situations� aka multicultural -ustraions being more comic like?
What do you think of that idea?
Have you seen any of the modern books books? What are your thoughts if so?
Anything at all you can add? Any information on either the old of new books is incredibly useful and valuable!!! Thank you again so much for taking the time to read this! Yours sincerely Gemma
P.s. if it jogs your memory at all: Janet and John were a series of children�s readers introduced to Britain in the 1930's and spanning till the 1970's. published by James Nisbet and co they were adapted from a similar series of children�s books in America (Alice and Jerry) they were written by Mabel O'Donnel and Rona Muru (from new Zealand) and illustrated by Florence Jane Hoopes and Margaret Campbell Hoopes Later extended readers for older children (over the hill, over the sea ect)
Featured an extra illustrator, Christopher Sanders R.A.
The books consist of teaching phonetics using simple phrases that are reinforced by the obvious and clear illustrations. (Aka look and say "see spot run" said Janet and picture of Janet watching dog run) It features the everyday activities of two middle class white children from a traditional nuclear family.
Answer
Gemma,
I think it says three times on my page that I don't do picture books. It isn't that I am being ornery or awkward, it is that I have never studied them. This is outside my area of expertise.
The opinions below are based on my knowledge of language acquisition, social history and my own memories. Please do not negatively rate me for lack of knowledge, as I do clearly state that I am not an expert in picture books.
I do remember the books. I used them myself. With my children I used the Ladybird "Read with Me" series, featuring the more modernly named Kate and Tom. The series is very closely based on the Janet and John books. Most learning to read series now follow this format, including the Magic Key/Biff and Chip series used in Primary schools. So, in this respect they were ahead of their time, especially in the use of phonics which has only (relatively) recently been adopted into English Primary schools.
I can give you an opinion on some of your questions.
1) No information on the history, sorry. Have you considered contacting the publishers/copyright holder?
2)I don't think the books actively promoted any kind of life. At the time there was an accepted way of living which was considered the norm (or aim). They were meant to represent the average child and average life (just as advertising targets the average person). This isn't necessarily as sinister as "promotion" would make it sound - it was just the way things were. Any older book could be seen to "promote" a particular kind of life - they occurred before the advent of PC, en masse familial breakdown, the de-Godding of the masses and the breakdown of traditional morality - it paints a different picture but it isn't necessarily selling it - they didn't need to sell it, the choice was not that apparent.
3) I think anything which assumes a normal stable life is seen as potentially offensive these days because Political Correctness asserts that everyone should feel happy about who and where they are no matter how horrific, deprived, under-educated and under-achieving they are. One cannot make the child whose parents have six marriages between them and regular ASBOs feel that they are any less "normal" than the child whose parents are still together and have traditional middle class jobs. Such an attitude can be confusing and undermine teaching value systems. So whether it is negative or not depends on whether one ascribes to Political Correctness or nor.
What may be negative, is the lack of reference to modern life! Which is why they waned in popularity and were eventually revamped.
4) I think that it is both helpful and boring. Children need simple words and repetition. It is difficult to make that interesting. A parent "ought" to be tailoring the influences and reading challenges to their own child. Mothers actually raised their own children in the times we are talking about. The idea of the mother of a one year old going out to work was not common in the fifties. So these books were meant to help, not provide everything a child needs to learn to read - multiple stimuli are needed. They make a good focus for short practices but they are definitely too boring to be the sole focus of learning to read. There is no way to combat this until they get to the level where they can read "rocket", "dinosaur", "dragon" and "princess".
5) The pictures (as I remember them) were simple matt watercolours (or possibly inks). The colours were dull but they were recognisable as the same colours used in books for older children at the time. They were well done for the type of drawing that they were. One can find more complex versions of the same style in collections of boys/girls stories in the big chunky 1950s anthologies. There are precendents for the style and colouring.
6) Pictures always aid a text for young readers. Children do not learn by words alone, they learn by association and they can often work out a word which they are stuggling to be sure of by looking at the picture. Pre-readers in primary schools train the children to decode pictures so that they can use them when they move on to books with words. They also engage a child - a picture captures the attention.
7) I do recall a lot of balls and Janet didn't do anything that I considered interesting. The modern 'derivative' versions have a variety of stories rising in complexity through the various series and moving into genres such as very basic fantasy and mystery. Mostly though - everyday events which the child will recognise and not be confused about. Something which they already have knowledge of, so it is only the words which they have to learn.
8) I think that the situations are so recognisable that the child relates to such an extent that they would not need to consider whether or not they would wish to be like them. They seem to be designed to appear that they ARE them, or at least similar.
9) Ladybird had various series for early readers, banded for different difficulties and reading abilities. This included non-fiction as well as fiction. I have one on "Tea" which is very "empire"!
10) They worked as a progression. Start with Janet and John and then move on to the early reader, young readers, "on my own" readers etc.
11) Janet and John remained relevant until the end of the fifties and then began to degrade in relevance due to massive social change.
12) Primary schools (by individual choice - pre National Curriculum), libraries and bookshops.
13)80% of children between 1960 and 1970. The official line is that 10 million children learnt to read using them.
They were aimed at 4-7 year olds but I had finished with them by three and a half, my brother by five, my son finished with the modern equivalents by the age of four and my daughter (aged five) hasn't yet mastered them - it all depends on the child! 2-7 realistically.
14) Money was not as free flowing as it is now but they wouldn't have been as widespread as they were if they weren't afforable. The oldest one I have is priced two shillings and sixpence, the newest cost fifty pence. You will have to check the price of milk and bread across the timespan of the books to decide about "cheapness". This may have been a lot for the time, the ones I bought for my children cost �1.50 and the new Janet and John's cost �3.99. Fifty pence seems a lot in comparison.
15) I am not aware that they stopped being published, they just fell out of favour during the eighties and with Thatcherism on the rampage, profits were everything. They were still popular in South Africa during the 1980s but were barely used here. The daughter of the original writers sold the rights to Star Kids and they employed 100 artists and writers to modernise them. The new version was launched in 2001.
16) 1960s - the hemline on Mother's dress rose. I have never heard that story about the 1960s - I would suggest checking it on Urban Legends sites before including it in a University level piece of work. You need some proof for that statement. A press release would suffice - coverage in a Newspaper or Teacher's Union magazine.
17) If it is true then no, it doesn't alter my perspective of the books. The 1930s and the 1960s were completely different worlds with different concerns. The writers did not have to consider the issues which people may have raised in the sixties because a) this was the way things were and b) there was no campaign/justification culture - which was a big focus in the sixties. The sixties wanted to rip the world to shreds and rebuild it with more thought, heart and the beginnings of PC - they wanted to burn Mother's stay-at-home apron just as much as their bras. That doesn't mean that they were right or that the writers were wrong; it illustrates a difference in the concerns and considerations of the different time periods. One must take them in their contextual framework, not according to the objections of a society that did not exist for another thirty years after they were written.
18) I think that it was a good idea because they were the original upon which many "learn to read" series are now based. I don't think that they are anything exceptional. The format works - parents can choose which of the many they go for. It is good that the originator is still involved in the market. I don't like the illustrations because they have no charm but that is an adult perspective and as such, is far from the purpose.
19) The world changes and if a book is a learning guide then it needs to change with the world. One can be nostalgic about these things but common sense has to win out. Recognition of the world within the books and relation to the characters as a form of self are essential to the way in which the books work. If the world is alien then the child has something else to worry about and learn; keeping them up to date bolsters the viability of the format.
You state that your focus is on the illustrations, so I am not sure how helpful these thoughts are. For context (which I assume you need) I would suggest that you need to understand and be able to reference the social climate at the various important dates in the history of the books. You also need to understand language acquisition (Primary School Key Stage One Learning Strategies and National Curriculum guidelines for "Reading" and "Speaking and Listening" may be of help and a National Curriculum approved text on language acquisition) and learning to read. I can offer even less assistance regarding illustrations, that is illustrative art and again, is outside my stated expertise.
I hope that was of some help.
Smiles,
Clare Washbrook
Expertise
I can answer any questions on CLASSIC Children`s Literature across the ages. I can answer questions on Literature that was not originally for children but is now classified as such. I can help with concerns and questions regarding the current (UK) English Curriculum texts. I CANNOT IDENTIFY PICTURE BOOKS! I CANNOT IDENTIFY NON-BRITISH BOOKS! I CANNOT VALUE YOUR BOOKS FOR YOU! I WILL REJECT ALL QUESTIONS ABOUT HARRY POTTER VALUES!
Experience
The Poetry Society
Publications
The Radio Times, Books by Dogma, "SO" Magazine, NUS publications, Other Poetry, OED, Publications by PTS others
Education/Credentials
BA (HONS) Literature (Theatre minor), MA (current accreditation)
Awards and Honors
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According to the Bible, Jesus was baptised in which river? | What Does the Bible Say About Baptism? - AN OUTLINE OF BIBLICAL BAPTISM
What Does the Bible Say About Baptism?
Matthew 28:18-20
"And Jesus came and spake unto them, saying, All power is given unto me in heaven and in earth. Go ye therefore, and teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost: Teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded you: and, lo, I am with you alway, even unto the end of the world. Amen."
Introduction: In the Bible, baptism is first introduced in Matthew 3:2-12 when John the Baptist began his ministry as the forerunner of Jesus Christ. John preached a simple message to the Jews that they were to repent of their sins in preparation for the coming of the Kingdom, which meant the appearance of the Messiah. Matthew 3:13-17 records that Jesus came down to the Jordan River and was baptized by John.
The Gospel of John records John the Baptist's proclamation of Jesus as the Messiah:
"The next day John seeth Jesus coming unto him, and saith, Behold the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sin of the world. This is he of whom I said, After me cometh a man, which is preferred before me: for he was before me. And I knew him not: but that he should be made manifest to Israel, therefore am I come baptizing with water. And John bare record, saying, I saw the Spirit descending from heaven like a dove, and it abode upon him. And I knew him not: but he that sent me to baptize with water, the same said unto me, Upon whom thou shalt see the Spirit descending, and remaining on him, the same is he which baptizeth with the Holy Ghost. And I saw, and bare record that this is the Son of God." (John 1:29-34)
John's baptism was a baptism of repentance for Jews. It was clear that the word "baptizo" means that John immersed those he baptized in water. In Matthew 3:16 the New Testament records, "And Jesus, when he was baptized, went up straightway out of the water: and, lo, the heavens were opened unto him, and he saw the Spirit of God descending like a dove, and lighting upon him." The description is clear that John and Jesus were in the River Jordan and when as John lifted Jesus up from being immersed, the Holy Spirit descended on Him. This account gives no room for sprinkling as a means of baptism.
Prior to Jesus' ascension back into heaven, He gave the command to His disciples to baptize in the name of the Father, Son, and the Holy Spirit. This instituted what is referred to as believer's or Christian baptism. The disciples and those who followed them in preaching the Gospel were thus commanded to teach or disciple people of all nations and to baptize them.
Believer's baptism is taught in the New Testament as being a symbol or a picture of what has happened in the life of the person who, by faith, has believed in Jesus Christ and been saved by His grace. It is an illustration of what that has taken place in the new believer's heart, which cannot be outwardly observed when a person is saved. Salvation is followed by a public testimony of a person�s belief in Jesus Christ. Paul states:
�That if thou shalt confess with thy mouth the Lord Jesus, and shalt believe in thine heart that God hath raised him from the dead, thou shalt be saved. For with the heart man believeth unto righteousness; and with the mouth confession is made unto salvation. For the scripture saith, Whosoever believeth on him shall not be ashamed. (Romans 10:9-11)
Note that the person who believes �confesses� with their mouth, being audibly of their faith in Christ. The salvation that is confessed with one�s mouth is authenticated by that person truly believing in their heart that God hath raised him from the dead . Their faith is in the risen Savior. Baptism is a further outward testimony by which the new Christian gives a public testimony that they have believed in Jesus Christ and have been born again. Through baptism the new convert is joining, identifying themselves as Christians, and becomes a member of a local New Testament church. There are several aspects of baptism:
BAPTISM IS A "PICTURE" OF THE GOSPEL THAT PICTURES
THE DEATH, BURIAL AND RESURRECTION OF JESUS CHRIST.
"Moreover, brethren, I declare unto you the gospel which I preached unto you, which also ye have received, and wherein ye stand; By which also ye are saved, if ye keep in memory what I preached unto you, unless ye have believed in vain. For I delivered unto you first of all that which I also received, how that Christ died for our sins according to the scriptures; And that he was buried, and that he rose again the third day according to the scriptures." (1 Corinthians 15:1 4)
Being immersed in water pictures the death of Jesus Christ dying for our sins. Being raised from the water is a portrayal of Jesus' resurrection in which He conquered sin and death. Thus, being baptized by immersion the believer visually shows the spiritual death, burial, and resurrection of the believer's life. Baptism emphasizes to the new believer, and to those who witness the baptism, that as a Christian and a child of God the Christian now is to live a godly life, resisting sin, and not giving it a place in their lives.
The picture of baptism is emphasized in Romans 6:
"What shall we say then? Shall we continue in sin, that grace may abound? God forbid. How shall we, that are dead to sin, live any longer therein? Know ye not, that so many of us as were baptized into Jesus Christ were baptized into his death? Therefore we are buried with him by baptism into death: that like as Christ was raised up from the dead by the glory of the Father, even so we also should walk in newness of life." (Romans 6:1-4) [underlined added]
Baptism always follows belief in Jesus Christ as one's Savior and baptism is not necessary for a person to be saved and born again. It is not an act that one does to obtain salvation and no one in the New Testament was baptized who did not first believe and put their faith in Jesus Christ. After a person is saved �. . . By grace are ye saved through faith; and that not of yourselves: it is the gift of God: through faith.� Therefore salvation is not merited by any ritual or work. Thus the only candidate for baptism is one who has already been saved. The Bible does not refer to baptism as a sacrament, which supposedly has saving properties, or as a part of salvation. It is a public testimony of salvation. For more information that explains why baptism is not necessary for salvation please read the article at http://bible truth.org/BaptismNotNecessary.html .
Baptism by immersion beautifully pictures the death, burial and resurrection of Jesus Christ. (Romans 6:3-4) Putting a person under the water strikingly emphasizes the burial of Christ, being raised out of the water symbolizes Christ's resurrection and the believer's new life in Christ.
"Therefore if any man be in Christ, he is a new creature: old things are passed away; behold, all things are become new." (2 Corinthians 5:17)
In Romans 6:4, God accentuates the burial when it says, ". . . Therefore we are buried with him by baptism into death." Baptism is a visual testimonial that our sins are forgiven by symbolizing they are buried with the Lord after he suffered and died for our sins on the Cross. As Romans 6:2, states the believer is dead to sin. Colossians adds that believers are alive unto Christ with God. "For ye are dead, and your life is hid with Christ in God." (Col. 3:3)
THE AUTHORITY AND COMMAND TO BAPTIZE IS GIVEN TO HIS DISCIPLES
AND AFTERWARD TO EACH LOCAL BIBLE BELIEVING NEW TESTAMENT CHURCH.
"Go ye therefore, and teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost: Teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded you: and, lo, I am with you alway, even unto the end of the world. Amen." (Matthew 28:19 20)
Acts 2 records that baptism is an ordinance of the local church and was begun on the Day of Pentecost. Those who believed and repent of their sins, were baptized and added to the church in Jerusalem.
"Then they that gladly received his word were baptized: and the same day there were added unto them about three thousand souls. . . .Praising God, and having favour with all the people. And the Lord added to the church daily such as should be saved." (Acts 2:41, 47)
Jesus commanded His disciples to disciple all nations (peoples), and to baptize those that believe as a picture and testimony of their faith in Christ. Baptism was not given to a particular church, but to all Bible believing New Testament churches alike. There is no example or mention of any particular church or church hierarchy having the sole authority to baptize. A baptism that is scriptural is one that is done in a Bible believing church. False and doctrinally unbiblical churches, nor any cult have any authority to baptize. There beliefs and practices including baptism amount to blasphemy. By their false teaching and practice they show they do not believe God's word and therefore are not approved or recognized by God. Blasphemy against the Holy Ghost ( Mt 12:31-32 ; Mr 3:28-29 ; Luke 12:10 ) is regarded by some as a continued and obstinate rejection of the gospel, and hence is an unpardonable sin, simply because as long as a sinner remains in unbelief he voluntarily excludes himself from pardon. (M. G. Easton, Easton�s Bible Dictionary, Thomas Nelson, 1897) Therefore their baptism is attesting to accepting false teaching and not upholding one�s belief in God�s word alone. As stated earlier Acts 2:41-47 records that when the church was formed those that believed were baptized, continued shedfastly in the apostle�s doctrine, and "added to the church" (local ekklesia assembly).
In all the extant Greek manuscripts of the New Testament, the equivalent of the English word "church " is never found. The New Testament emphatically knows nothing of a universal or catholic church. The word in the Greek New Testament is "ekklesia "and always means a called out local assembly or congregation. According to the New Testament there is not one worldwide church, but rather many autonomous local assemblies. The Roman, Eastern, Protestant, denominational "churches "including the cults such as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints are not biblically organized nor do they believe and accept the Bible as the only authority for faith and practice. Consequently, they have no authority to exercise any control over local congregations or to represent God.
For example, the meaning of the word in Acts 19:32, the word translated "assembly" is the Greek word "Ekklesia." Here it refers to a group of idol makers. This shows us the word simply means a meeting. The word must have a modifier to reveal the identity of those meeting. You cannot translate the English word "church" back into Koine Greek. There is no word in Koine Greek like the English word "church." The modern Greek word "church" it is "ky-ria-kon" which is a Medieval Anglo-Saxon word that did not come into use until the 1500's. The word church means �god�s house.� A ekklesia is not a house, but an assembled group of people. The word has nothing to do with the structure the assembly meets in. The word "ekklesia" is found 115 times in the New Testament. It is correctly translated three times "assembly" in Acts 19. The word simply means "assembly."
For example, it is used to refer to the assembly at Corinth, ("Unto the church "ekklesia" of God "theos" which "o" is "wv" at "ev" Corinth "Korinthos"). This is the same use of the word when referring to the "ekklesia" at Antioch, Jerusalem, Ephesus, the assembly that met at Aquila and Priscilla's house and assemblies meeting in other people's homes. In referring to the Macedonian and Asia assemblies the word is always plural, meaning assemblies... not one assembly made up of a number of smaller churches. For an article that explains the mistranslation of the word "ekklesia" and why the word "church" was used instead of "assembly" in the English word "church"go to http://bible-truth.org/Ekklesia.html . If you wish to read an article that explains what is a true biblical New Testament church as the Lord Jesus Christ instituted it.
Please read the article at http://bible-truth.org/BIBLICALBASISOFANEWTESTAMENTCHURCH.html titled "The Biblical Basis of a New Testament Church."
BAPTISM DOES NOT SAVE NOR IS NECESSARY FOR SALVATION.
God says plainly that works, rituals, and ceremonies do not save.
"For by grace are ye saved through faith; and that not of yourselves: it is the gift of God: Not of works, lest any man should boast." (Ephesians 2:8 9)
The Lord emphatically teaches that salvation is given by God's grace when a person by faith believes. The New Testament stresses that salvation is not merited by any work which would include baptism. Baptism is an act, a ritual, or work and the New Testament teaches that rituals and works do not save or have any saving merit. (Also see Romans 4:5, Titus 3:5).
Baptism, church membership, nor any good works does not merit or impart salvation. Salvation is an act of God's grace which means unmerited favor. Salvation is received when one by faith accept the free gift of salvation. A performed work offered to God for Him to accept for our salvation is in fact, asking God to accept our works not Christ's sacrifice for sin on the cross. Christ died on the cross and paid the sin debt of the world (1 John 2:2). The debt is already paid by Christ and He is offering to forgive our sins if we believe and put our trust in His provision of our salvation. No man is righteous and has no righteousness to offer for his sins.
"As it is written, There is none righteous, no, not one: There is none that understandeth, there is none that seeketh after God. They are all gone out of the way, they are together become unprofitable; there is none that doeth good, no, not one." (Romans 3:10 12)
Saying that baptism saves or has saving properties is saying that we are adding to what Christ did in suffering for our sins and providing in part our own salvation. Of course man is a sinner and cannot offer anything for his sin. God's word says,
"Being justified freely by his grace through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus: Whom God hath set forth to be a propitiation through faith in his blood, to declare his righteousness for the remission of sins that are past, through the forbearance of God; To declare, I say, at this time his righteousness: that he might be just, and the justifier of him which believeth in Jesus." (Romans 3:24 26)
The Apostle Paul explained this to the Colossians saying,
"Buried with him in baptism, wherein also ye are risen with him through the faith of the operation of God, who hath raised him from the dead. And you, being dead in your sins and the uncircumcision of your flesh, hath he quickened together with him, having forgiven you all trespasses; Blotting out the handwriting of ordinances that was against us, which was contrary to us, and took it out of the way, nailing it to his cross; And having spoiled principalities and powers, he made a shew of them openly, triumphing over them in it." (Colossians 2:12 15)
A man who believes in Jesus Christ by faith is accepting Christ's suffering and sacrifice for his sins. It is Jesus who paid for sins and only He can justify the man lost in his sins and trespasses. No church or religion can add to the finished work of Jesus Christ on the cross.
Some believe that baptism imparts some special status with God. That too is not found in the Bible and is a false belief. Baptism is a prerequisite for church membership in a local congregation. By submitting to believer's baptism and joining the local assembly the new convert is publicly showing they have put their faith and trust in Jesus Christ as their Savior, Further, they are showing they are in agreement with the word of God that their assembly believes and practices.
Some churches practice infant baptism. Yet in the Bible there is no record or mention of anyone being baptized who had not already professed Jesus Christ as their Lord and Savior. No infants were ever baptized according to God's word. Every example of baptism in the New Testament plainly states those that were baptized had first believed in Jesus Christ. An infant has no capacity to believe. This false practice comes from the unbiblical idea that their church is the means of salvation. In other words, you have to join, and be a member of their church to be saved and go to heaven. Infant baptism, then makes a child a member of that church, thus the church asserts that the child is now under the protection of that church and is assured they will eventually go to heaven. That simply is not taught anywhere in the Bible. A true New Testament "church" is an assembly of baptized believers who join together and meet worship, be taught God's word, and to honor the Lord.
There are many serious problems with Pedro or infant baptism.
1. An infant cannot understand the Gospel nor can they believe in Jesus Christ. Their minds are not mature enough to comprehend sin or salvation.
2. Infant baptism is by sprinkling, and sprinkling is not the biblical mode of true baptism. The word "baptizo" means one thing and that is to immerse or dip.
3. One is saved by faith and trust in Jesus Christ alone and no church is given the authority to impart God's blessing on anyone or to convey any special status with God. Salvation is a personal matter between a person and God. A church is to proclaim the Gospel and God's truth, but it is up to the individual as to whether they believe it or not. On saved scripturally baptized persons can become the legitimate members of a church.
4. In actually a baptized infant is not a Christian unless when they become mature exercise saving faith in Jesus Christ. Their baptism is not the baptism taught in God's word and it signifies a false concept that baptism conveys salvation and that sprinkling an infant initiates it into salvation.
5. The New Testament is clear that God's word says to "Repent and be baptized." (Acts 2:38) Infants cannot repent because they have no ability to understand sin.
6. Infant baptism forces on a child something they cannot understand, comprehend, or accept, and that is repentance for sin and belief and trust in Jesus Christ.
7. Most of all.... infant baptism is not found in God's word. The verses such as Acts 16:30-32 specifically state that those who were baptized believed. They exercised saving faith in Jesus Christ and afterwards were baptized. These passages do not state any infants were present, nor were baptized.
Believers are baptized into His death (Rom. 6:4). It is Christ's sole act of redemption in dying for sin that saves. Christians are a part of his death.
"Forasmuch then as the children are partakers of flesh and blood, he also himself likewise took part of the same; that through death he might destroy him that had the power of death, that is, the devil; And deliver them who through fear of death were all their lifetime subject to bondage." (Hebrews 2:14 15)
1 Corinthians 10:2, states that the children of Israel were all baptized unto Moses in the cloud and in the sea. ( Read verses 3-4) They were identified with Moses, who was a servant of God. Because of their belief in God, they went down into the Red Sea and their action of following Moses showed their faith. It was their faith in God and the miracle of God's parting the Red Sea that saved them.
WHO SHOULD BE BAPTIZED? WHO IS THE PROPER CANDIDATE?
Only a saved man should be baptized. That means one who has believed on Jesus Christ and by faith has received Him as their personal Savior.
Acts 8:26-39, the Eunuch asked to be baptized. When the Eunuch desired to be baptized Philip said to him, "If thou believeth with all thine heart, thou mayest." The eunuch confessed he did believe and was then baptized. Note that in V38, they left the chariot and went down into the water and after the Eunuch was baptized by immersion they came up out of the water. Clearly this is baptism by immersion. (More will be said on that a little further)
If a lost man is baptized, then it is a picture of a lie. If a lost man who has not believed in Jesus Christ and is baptized the symbolism is saying he is confessing he believes in Jesus Christ as his Savior when in fact he does not. No one should be baptized who does not have a clear testimony of believing in Jesus Christ alone for their salvation.
The Biblical mode of Baptism is to be immersed. Sprinkling, pouring, etc. are not biblical modes of baptism. These practices do not picture the death, burial and resurrection of Christ. The Greek word is "baptizo" means to immerse and has no other meaning. When the Bible was being translated the translators were told to translate the word "baptizo "in a neutral way so as not to offend the Catholics who sprinkled or the New Testament churches that immersed. So the translators compromised and transliterated the word baptizo into new English word "baptism." However, the Greek text is emphatic that the word means to immerse or dip into the water. Sprinkling is not baptism. God is very clear on this.
Any other mode of baptism makes light of the death and resurrection of Christ. Those that practice these false methods of baptism have not obeyed the first commandment of their professed Lord. God choose the method of baptism to be a picture of the Gospel the person who is being baptized is identifying himself with Christ.
Baptism is to be done in the name of God the Father, Son and Holy Spirit. Matt. 28:19-20. In this passage, called the "Great Commission" Jesus commanded that believers were to go into the world and preach the Gospel and baptize them in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit. Both the evangelism of the world and baptism were to be done in the name of the Trinity. Biblical baptisms are those that are done by true Bible believing assemblies that follow the New Testament as its sole rule and authority for its faith and practice. God has not given any church or individual the right to change what He put in place and instructed.
Some false modern churches baptize in Jesus' name only. That is a violation of God's word and denies the Trinity. The reason these false churches baptize in Jesus' name only is that they do not believe in the Trinity and thus are false churches believing and practicing a false religion. They are a false church preaching a false Gospel and baptism.
The New Testaments examples of baptism:
- The 3000 at Pentecost (Acts 2:41)
- The Eunuch. (Acts 8:36-38)
- Cornelius and his household who believed and were saved. After they were saved, they were baptized. (Acts 10:47-48) The Philippians Jailer. (Acts 16:31)
- New converts were commanded to be baptized by Peter. (Acts 10:47-48)
- John the Baptist's disciples when they heard that Jesus Christ the Messiah, believed and were received believer's baptism (Acts 19:3-5).
Baptism is the first act of submission or obedience to Christ after one is saved. (Matt. 28:19-20) Those who recognized themselves to be sinners and by faith in Jesus Christ believe the word of God.... are saved, have their sins forgiven and receive eternal life.
"That if thou shalt confess with thy mouth the Lord Jesus, and shalt believe in thine heart that God hath raised him from the dead, thou shalt be saved. For with the heart man believeth unto righteousness; and with the mouth confession is made unto salvation. For the scripture saith, Whosoever believeth on him shall not be ashamed." (Romans 10:9 11).
A true believer will not be ashamed of being a child of God. They love the Lord and want to do as He says and thus they willingly and eagerly submit to believer's baptism by immersion. Baptism is a public declaration of being saved and identifying oneself with their Savior. Whatever the circumstance a true believe will obey the Lord and not be ashamed or hide their salvation.
Then the second thing a new convert is to do in obedience to the Lord, is to submit to believer's baptism which is a public testimony of their now being a Christian and join a local church which is God's plan for his children to fellowship, serve Him, carry the Gospel and learn about Christ. The New Testament knows nothing of believers serving the Lord apart from being in a local assembly. The local assembly was instituted at Pentecost as Acts 2 records. Baptism places the person who is saved into the local church or congregation. Acts 42, says those that were saved continued steadfastly in the apostle's doctrine and fellowship, and in the breaking of bread and prayers. Verse 46 explains that the early church continued in one accord.. Verse 47, states the Lord added to the church daily such as should be saved.
BAPTISM IN GOD'S PLAN FOR THE BELIEVER
God's plan for the believer is to join a local assembly of believers and their fellowship, worship, show his thankfulness to the Lord in giving tithes and offering, and work with other believers in carrying on the Lord's work in that area. Baptism is the symbol of our common bond and shows our commitment to the Lord first and to each other.
SHOULD A TRUE BIBLE BELIEVING BAPTIST CHURCH
ACCEPT THE BAPTISM OF A CHURCH IN DOCTRINAL ERROR?
Through baptism a new convert joins and become a member of a church. By baptism the he further identifies himself with the beliefs of the assembly he is joining. If the beliefs of the assembly that baptizes the new convert are in error, then the person being baptized is identified with that error and his baptism does not picture biblical truth. The baptism of a false or doctrinally unsound church is improper and not biblical believer's baptism.
Ephesians 4:5 says there is "One Lord, one faith, one baptism." Through Paul God commanded the Corinthian church saying, "Now I praise you, brethren, that ye remember me in all things, and keep the ordinances, as I delivered them to you." (1 Corinthians 11:2) An assembly (church) of believers is not at liberty to change or alter the clear commands of God's word. Jesus Christ is the head of the believer and the local assembly. (Eph. 5:23) Pastors and churches are to be stewards of the Lord teaching and practices without compromise or error His inerrant word. All the true assembly of Jesus Christ does it to be as He has left it to us.
Often Christians coming from other assemblies present themselves for membership in a Bible believing Baptist church. The question first must be answered is are they truly saved and have biblically believed and received Jesus Christ as their Savior? If the person presenting themselves for membership has as clear testimony that they have believed and are trusting in Jesus Christ and His shed blood alone for their salvation, then the next question is to determine if they received a true scriptural baptism.
The validity of their baptism rests on the validity of the assembly that baptized them. If the church that baptized them is in doctrinal error in teaching or practice, then their baptism was not scriptural. Some people are saved when they hear the Gospel and join church that are in error in their teaching and practice. Their baptism, then identified them with the teaching of that assembly. They then should submit to baptism in the Bible believing New Testament church to identify themselves with God's truth this new church is upheld.
For something this presents a problem because they do not understand the importance of baptism nor in the need to identify with God's uncompromised truth. Being baptized in the new church is a testimony of their agreement with the teachings of that church. It furthers shows one's desire to always stand for truth. Paul said "And whatsoever ye do in word or deed, do all in the name of the Lord Jesus, giving thanks to God and the Father by him." (Colossians 3:17)
In Jude the Lord instructs the child of God states, "Beloved, when I gave all diligence to write unto you of the common salvation, it was needful for me to write unto you, and exhort you that ye should earnestly contend for the faith which was once delivered unto the saints." (Jude 3)
No true child of God should be offended at an assembly who wishes to uphold God's truth to the lost and dying world. This is the kind of church a Christian should want to be a part of and should willing honor the Lord in submitting to being baptized into the membership and fellowship with these fellow believers. (For an article on Alien Baptist go to http://bible-truth.org/AlienBaptism.html )
HOW DOES A PERSON RECEIVE SALVATION?
1. First, recognize ourselves as the sinners we are. Rom. 3:10, 23; Isa. 64:6
2. The wages of sin is death, but the gift of God is eternal life. Rom. 6:23.
3. Ephesians 2:8-9, tell us that the grace of God that saves, because we believe.
4. Romans 10:9-10, Tell us confession of your faith is made with our mouths that we believe Christ's death burial and resurrection. It is with the heart that we believe. If we are ashamed of the Lord, He will be ashamed of us.
5. John 3:16. "For God so loved the world that he gave his only begotten Son that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have everlasting life".
6. Romans 5:8, "For God commenth His love towards us, in that, while we were yet sinners Christ died for us."
7. 2 Peter 3:9 "The Lord is not slack concerning his promise, as some men count slackness; but is longsuffering to us-ward, not willing that any should perish, but that all should come to repentance."
8. Revelation 22:17 "And the Spirit and the bride say, Come. And let him that heareth say, Come. And let him that is athirst come. And whosoever will, let him take the water of life freely.�
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In the the tv cartoon series ‘The Simpsons’ what is Grandpa Simpson’s first name? | scripture
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CHAPTER 3
The Preaching of John the Baptist. * a 1In those days John the Baptist appeared, preaching in the desert of Judea * 2[and] saying, “Repent, * for the kingdom of heaven is at hand!” b 3 * It was of him that the prophet Isaiah c had spoken when he said:
“A voice of one crying out in the desert,
‘Prepare the way of the Lord,
make straight his paths.’”
The Baptism of Jesus. * 13 i Then Jesus came from Galilee to John at the Jordan to be baptized by him. 14 * John tried to prevent him, saying, “I need to be baptized by you, and yet you are coming to me?” 15Jesus said to him in reply, “Allow it now, for thus it is fitting for us to fulfill all righteousness.” Then he allowed him. 16 * j After Jesus was baptized, he came up from the water and behold, the heavens were opened [for him], and he saw the Spirit of God descending like a dove [and] coming upon him. 17And a voice came from the heavens, saying, “This is my beloved Son, * with whom I am well pleased.” k
* [ 3:1 – 12 ] Here Matthew takes up the order of Jesus’ ministry found in the gospel of Mark, beginning with the preparatory preaching of John the Baptist.
* [ 3:1 ] Unlike Luke, Matthew says nothing of the Baptist’s origins and does not make him a relative of Jesus. The desert of Judea: the barren region west of the Dead Sea extending up the Jordan valley.
* [ 3:2 ] Repent: the Baptist calls for a change of heart and conduct, a turning of one’s life from rebellion to obedience towards God. The kingdom of heaven is at hand: “heaven” (lit., “the heavens”) is a substitute for the name “God” that was avoided by devout Jews of the time out of reverence. The expression “the kingdom of heaven” occurs only in the gospel of Matthew. It means the effective rule of God over his people. In its fullness it includes not only human obedience to God’s word, but the triumph of God over physical evils, supremely over death. In the expectation found in Jewish apocalyptic, the kingdom was to be ushered in by a judgment in which sinners would be condemned and perish, an expectation shared by the Baptist. This was modified in Christian understanding where the kingdom was seen as being established in stages, culminating with the parousia of Jesus.
* [ 3:3 ] See note on Jn 1:23 .
* [ 3:4 ] The clothing of John recalls the austere dress of the prophet Elijah ( 2 Kgs 1:8 ). The expectation of the return of Elijah from heaven to prepare Israel for the final manifestation of God’s kingdom was widespread, and according to Matthew this expectation was fulfilled in the Baptist’s ministry ( Mt 11:14 ; 17:11 – 13 ).
* [ 3:6 ] Ritual washing was practiced by various groups in Palestine between 150 B.C. and A.D. 250. John’s baptism may have been related to the purificatory washings of the Essenes at Qumran.
* [ 3:7 ] Pharisees and Sadducees: the former were marked by devotion to the law, written and oral, and the scribes, experts in the law, belonged predominantly to this group. The Sadducees were the priestly aristocratic party, centered in Jerusalem. They accepted as scripture only the first five books of the Old Testament, followed only the letter of the law, rejected the oral legal traditions, and were opposed to teachings not found in the Pentateuch, such as the resurrection of the dead. Matthew links both of these groups together as enemies of Jesus ( Mt 16:1 , 6 , 11 , 12 ; cf. Mk 8:11 – 13 , 15 ). The threatening words that follow are addressed to them rather than to “the crowds” as in Lk 3:7 . The coming wrath: the judgment that will bring about the destruction of unrepentant sinners.
* [ 3:11 ] Baptize you with the holy Spirit and fire: the water baptism of John will be followed by an “immersion” of the repentant in the cleansing power of the Spirit of God, and of the unrepentant in the destroying power of God’s judgment. However, some see the holy Spirit and fire as synonymous, and the effect of this “baptism” as either purification or destruction. See note on Lk 3:16 .
* [ 3:12 ] The discrimination between the good and the bad is compared to the procedure by which a farmer separates wheat and chaff. The winnowing fan was a forklike shovel with which the threshed wheat was thrown into the air. The kernels fell to the ground; the light chaff, blown off by the wind, was gathered and burned up.
* [ 3:13 – 17 ] The baptism of Jesus is the occasion on which he is equipped for his ministry by the holy Spirit and proclaimed to be the Son of God.
* [ 3:14 – 15 ] This dialogue, peculiar to Matthew, reveals John’s awareness of Jesus’ superiority to him as the mightier one who is coming and who will baptize with the holy Spirit ( Mt 3:11 ). His reluctance to admit Jesus among the sinners whom he is baptizing with water is overcome by Jesus’ response. To fulfill all righteousness: in this gospel to fulfill usually refers to fulfillment of prophecy, and righteousness to moral conduct in conformity with God’s will. Here, however, as in Mt 5:6 ; 6:33 , righteousness seems to mean the saving activity of God. To fulfill all righteousness is to submit to the plan of God for the salvation of the human race. This involves Jesus’ identification with sinners; hence the propriety of his accepting John’s baptism.
* [ 3:16 ] The Spirit…coming upon him: cf. Is 42:1 .
* [ 3:17 ] This is my beloved Son: the Marcan address to Jesus ( Mk 1:11 ) is changed into a proclamation. The Father’s voice speaks in terms that reflect Is 42:1 ; Ps 2:7 ; Gn 22:2 .
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In Greek mythology, what is the name of the giant watchman with 100 eyes, also adopted as the name of a UK retail chain? | General Knowledge #5 - StudyBlue
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General Knowledge #5
What does the legal term �caveat emptor� mean?
Let the buyer beware
Which Russian author wrote the novel A Month in the Country?
Ivan Turgenev
What do the initials UNICEF stand for?
United Nations International Children�s Emergency Fund.
Who was the last king of Rome?
Tarquin the Proud.
Which opera was composed by Verdi for the opening of the Suez Canal?
Aida
Which important religious building contains the Kaaba?
Great Mosque at Mecca
Which French dramatist wrote Tartuffe and Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme?
Moli�re
By what name was William Joyce known in World War II?
Lord Haw-Haw
A covey is the group name for what type of bird?
Partridge
Which English poet lived with his sister at Dove Cottage, Grasmere in the English Lake District?
Wordsworth
What is the medical name for short-sightedness?
Myopia
What name is given to the magical beliefs and practices associated particularly with Haiti?
Voodoo
Which fortified palace on a rocky hill in Granada is an outstanding example of Moorish architecture?
Alhambra
Which female aviator established records with solo flights to Australia, Tokyo and the Cape of Good Hope in the 1930s?
Amy Johnson,
In which year did Hillary and Tenzing become the first mountaineers to reach the summit of Mount Everest?
1953
What is the English name for the movement in French cinema called �nouvelle vague�?
New Wave
Who was the first president of the French Fifth Republic?
Charles De Gaulle
From which country did Iceland win total independence in June 1944?
Denmark
Which North American aquatic rodent is also known as a musquash?
Muskrat
What was the name of the raft used by Thor Heyerdahl on his 1947 expedition?
Kon-tiki,
Who sailed around the world in the yacht Gipsy Moth IV?
Sir Francis Chichester
In which Middle Eastern country is the Roman city of Jerash?
Jordan
On which mountain in Ireland (also known as The Reek) did St Patrick fast for 40 days and nights in 441AD?
Croagh Patrick
On which island is the poet Rupert Brooke buried?
Skyros
In which US state is the Spurr Volcano?
Alaska
Who was the first British-born astronaut to walk in space?
Dr Michael Foale
Which is the world�s second largest desert?
Australian Desert,
Which flower has the Latin name Bellis perennis?
Common daisy,
The Ligurian Sea is an arm of which body of water?
Mediterranean Sea
Mossad is the secret service of which country?
Israel
In Greek mythology, who was the giant watchman with one hundred eyes?
Argos
Orly airport serves which city?
Paris
What �R� is the active form of vitamin A found in margarines, oily fish and dairy fats?
Retinol
Which South African surgeon performed the world�s first successful heart transplant?
Dr Christiaan Barnard.
In which 1981 film do Jeremy Irons and Meryl Streep say farewell?
The French Lieutenant�s Woman,
Named after a town in north-east India, which high quality tea with a delicate taste is known as the �Champagne of teas�?
Squid
What is the name of the dish, originating from North Africa, that consists of steamed semolina?
Couscous
Which great circle may be terrestrial or celestial?
The Equator,
What meat-derived foodstuff did Kenneth Daigneau famously give a name to in 1937
Spam
What name is given to members of the United Society of Believers in Christ�s Second Appearing?
The Shakers
Which Roman historian wrote a history of Rome in 142 volumes?
Livy,
Lake Taupo is the largest lake in which country?
New Zealand
Of which republic in the Caribbean is Port au Prince the capital?
Haiti,
Who succeeded James A Garfield as US president in 1881?
Chester A Arthur,
In which year was Pompeii destroyed by Vesuvius?
79AD
Which studio album by Queen first featured the song We Will Rock You?
News of the World,
Which is the second largest mountain system in North America?
Appalachians,
Which is the only seal that feeds on penguins?
Leopard seal
Which creature of Australia and New Guinea is also called a spiny anteater?
Echidna
Guernsey, Jersey and Sark are part of which island group?
The Channel Islands,
In which US state is the Yosemite National Park?
California,
Which country administers the Aleutian Islands?
USA,
In the Old Testament, who was the second son of Adam and Eve?
Abel
What is the name given to the study of the composition and formation of rocks?
Petrology
Which flower of Greek legend was said to cover the Elysian Fields?
The asphodel
A luge is a type of what?
Racing toboggan
Who wrote the one act play Salom�, produced in Paris in 1896?
Oscar Wilde
What was the name of the London restaurant launched by models Claudia Schiffer, Naomi Campbell and Elle MacPherson?
Fashion Caf�
Which ancient Greek city was the site of the most famous oracle of Apollo?
Delphi,
Which system of healing is based on the belief that disease results from a lack of normal nerve function?
Chiropractic,
What was the popular name for the gallows which stood close to the present-day site of Marble Arch in London?
Tyburn Tree
Which tree�s leaves provide the staple diet of koala bears?
Eucalyptus
Which Jewish initiation ceremony takes its name from the Hebrew for �son of the Commandment�?
Bar mitzvah,
What was the name of the royal dynasty of France from 1328 to 1589?
Valois,
Which sugar is also known as dextrose or grape sugar?
Glucose
Which eye disease is marked by increased pressure within the eye?
Glaucoma
What name is given to the dried excrement of fisheating birds, used as a fertilizer?
Guano
In which country are the Apennine Mountains?
Italy
Lake Titicaca lies in which two South American countries?
Bolivia and Peru,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania stands on which river?
Ohio
Which sign of the zodiac governs the period from 23 July to 22 August?
Leo
Which medical condition was formerly known as King�s Evil?
Scrofula (or tuberculosis).
Which Chilean island, famous for its giant stone sculptures, is also called Rapa Nui?
Easter Island
Which rare Indonesian monitor lizard is the largest living lizard?
Komodo dragon
Of which Shakespeare play is Imogen the heroine?
Cymbeline
Which is the only chess piece that cannot be taken?
The king
Which North American river is the chief tributary of the Mississippi?
Missouri
In which former Crown Colony did EOKA fight for independence from Britain?
Cyprus,
In which sport do riders compete on dirt-tracks using motorcycles without brakes?
Speedway
By what name are the Royal Botanic Gardens in Surrey, England, known?
Kew Gardens
Which constellation includes Sirius, the brightest star in the night sky?
Canis Major
What is the most southerly point of South America?
Cape Horn
What is the name of the brown pigment made from the ink of cuttlefish?
Sepia
Which US awards are given annually in the fields of journalism, literature and musical composition?
Pulitzer Prizes
In which US state is the city of Omaha?
Nebraska
In which garden near Jerusalem was Jesus betrayed by Judas Iscariot?
Gethsemane
Which novel by H G Wells is partly set in the year 802701?
The Time Machine,
Which arm of the Mediterranean Sea lies between Italy and the Balkan Peninsula
The Adriatic Sea
In 1845, who invented a process which revolutionised the production of steel?
Henry Bessemer
Chisinau is the capital of which former Soviet republic in south-east Europe?
Moldova
What name did pop singer Alvin Stardust use when he led the group The Fentones?
Shane Fenton
Who played Blofeld in the 1971 film Diamonds are Forever?
Charles Gray,
Which is the oldest university in the USA?
Harvard
Which symbol of Joan of Arc was adopted by the Free French forces leader, Charles de Gaulle in 1940?
Cross of Lorraine
Which city hosted the 1980 Olympic Games?
Moscow
Who played the young starlet in the original King Kong film?
Faye Wray,
Which London park contains the Serpentine, Rotten Row and Speakers� Corner?
Hyde Park,
Santa Fe is the capital of which US state?
New Mexico
Which London landmark came from Heliopolis in Egypt?
Cleopatra�s Needle
Ren� Goscinny and Albert Uderzo were the creators of which famous French cartoon character hero?
Asterix
Of what is malocology the scientific study?
Molluscs
S A Waksman received a Nobel prize in medicine for his discovery of which antibiotic?
Streptomycin
What name is given to any animal without a backbone?
Invertebrate
In which Australian state are the towns of Alice Springs and Darwin?
Northern Territory
For which vinyl resin is PVA an abbreviation?
Polyvinyl acetate
In which year did electronic digital computer Colossus first become operational?
1943
Which England Test cricket captain was known as The Champion?
W G Grace
Which British financial institution was founded in 1694?
Bank of England
What was the name of the programme of social reform pursued by President Harry S Truman?
Fair Deal
Of which territory of Canada, associated with a famous gold-rush, is Whitehorse the capital?
Yukon
Which London street, associated with government offices, contains The Cenotaph?
Whitehall
The painter Domenikos Theotokopoulos is better known by which name?
El Greco
In which European country is the city of Antwerp?
Belgium,
How is the River Granta, which flows through the English city of Cambridge, otherwise known?
The Cam
What was the nationality of the actress Sarah Bernhardt?
French
By what name were supporters of the Youth International Party known?
Yippees
Who wrote the 1975 novel The Eagle Has Landed?
Jack Higgins
In which European country is the seaport of Kotka?
Finland,
What job would be performed by a fossarian?
Gravedigging,
Into which lake does the Hay River of Alberta, Canada flow?
The Great Slave Lake
What is carbon-14 also called?
Radiocarbon
What sort of creature is a loon?
Bird
�Sausage dog� is an informal name for which animal?
Dachshund,
Which English conductor founded the Academy of St Martin-in-the-Fields?
Neville Marriner
Who wrote The Last of the Mohicans?
James Fenimore Cooper
In which country is the port of Mocha, which gives its name to a type of coffee?
Yemen
Which US vocalist had a 1966 UK No 1 hit with These Boots are Made for Walking?
Nancy Sinatra
Is a �brach� a male or female hunting hound?
Female,
To which former British coin does the slang term �tanner� refer?
Sixpence
Of which Australian state is Sydney the capital?
New South Wales.
In which Lloyd Webber musical do Pearl, Dinah, Rusty, Greaseball, Electra and Poppa appear?
Starlight Express,
What type of creature is a grampus
Killer whale
Margaret of Anjou was queen to which English king?
Henry VI
Which fictional character made his first appearance in the novel The Little White Bird?
Peter Pan
In which year was John F Kennedy elected US president?
1960
On which Hawaiian island is Pearl Harbor?
Oahu
What is the meaning of the Latin phrase �ut supra�?
As above,
In which European country is the Furka Pass?
Switzerland,
What type of creature might have a �banged� tail?
A horse
What is the name of the fielding position in cricket between cover and mid-off?
Extra cover.
What type of creature is a taipan?
A snake
What sort of plant is a �lady�s slipper�?
An orchid,
Who wrote the 1882 play An Enemy of the People?
Henrik Ibsen,
In the Old Testament, which beast is said to have �limbs like bars of iron�?
Behemoth
Against which disease can the BCG vaccination offer protection?
Tuberculosis,
Which US director made the films Carrie, Scarface and The Untouchables
Brian De Palma
How many dogs take part in a greyhound race in Britain?
Six,
What is the name given to the South African coin containing one troy ounce of gold?
Krugerrand
What is the capital of Sierra Leone?
Freetown
Which US retail chain was founded by Sam Walton in 1962?
Wal-Mart
What form of exercise was popularised by Bill Bowerman in a 1967 book?
Jogging
In which country are the Magyars the largest ethnic group?
Hungary http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?word=magyars&submit=Submit
Which peninsula of Western Asia forms the greater part of the Asian portion of Turkey?
Anatolia
In which city did Anne Frank write her famous diary while hiding from the Germans?
Amsterdam,
On which Spanish �costa� is the resort of Torremolinos?
Costa del Sol
According to Alexander Pope �a little learning is�� what?
��a dangerous thing
In showjumping, what name is given to a competition that tests a horse�s ability to jump large fences?
Puissance
Which US ragtime composer wrote The Entertainer and Maple Leaf Rag?
Scott Joplin
Paphos is an ancient city on which Mediterranean island?
Cyprus
Which much-criticised policy of the European Union is abbreviated to CAP?
Common Agricultural Policy
Which apostle and martyr was originally known as Saul of Tarsus?
St Paul
To which saint is the fourth book of the New Testament ascribed?
St John
Who wrote The Tenant of Wildfell Hall and Agnes Grey?
Anne Bront�
What word for �killer� is derived from the Arabic for �hashish-eaters�?
Assassin
What is the name of the substance released by body tissues in allergic reactions?
Histamine
Which German city, famous as the site of the Krupp steelworks, is the administrative centre of the Ruhr?
Essen
Who wrote The Ballad of Reading Gaol?
Oscar Wilde
Of which country did Hosni Mubarak become president in 1981?
Egypt
Which green vegetable features in the Indian dish of sag aloo?
Spinach
Which country is the world�s largest producer of cheese?
USA
Mimas is a moon of which planet?
Saturn
How many humps has a bactrian camel?
Two http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camel
Which four letters often appear on the representation of the cross in Christian art?
INRI
Who became king of France in the July revolution of 1830?
Louis Philippe
Which famous cowboy actor and singer was associated with the horse Trigger?
Roy Rogers
What was the nickname of US bank robber Charles Floyd?
Pretty Boy Floyd
Who sailed in a voyage of discovery on the Santa Maria?
Christopher Colombus,
Who wrote the Pathetique symphony?
Tchaikovsky
Which is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea?
Sicily
In Greek mythology, who was the muse of comedy?
Thalia
Which waterway linking the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans was completed in 1914?
Panama Canal
Which naturally occurring protein that helps to fight viruses was discovered by British virologist Alick Isaacs in 1957?
Interferon
What is the SI unit of intensity of illumination?
Lux
Of which country is the shekel the basic monetary unit?
Israel
Which Canadian city is the capital of Ontario?
Toronto
Who was president of the Soviet Union from 1977 to 1982?
Leonid Brezhnev
What does the �G� stand for in the name of the film company MGM?
Goldwyn
DCL are the Roman numerals for what number?
650
What name is given to a score of one over par for a hole in golf?
Bogie
Which British author wrote Three Men in a Boat?
Jerome K Jerome
By what name was US-born soprano Maria Anna Kalageropoulos better known?
Maria Callas
Which famous Russian ballet company was established in Moscow in the late 18th century?
Bolshoi
Of which southern US state is Montgomery the capital?
Alabama
Which Venetian artist was famous for his paintings of Venice and London?
Canaletto
On what date is All Saints� Day?
01-Nov
In Greek mythology, which legendary king of Corinth was condemned to roll a boulder to the top of a hill?
Sisyphus
Who wrote the novel The Devil Rides Out?
Dennis Wheatley
The shooting of which seabird leads to a curse on the Ancient Mariner in Coleridge�s famous poem?
Albatross
Which group of related African languages includes Swahili, Xhosa and Zulu?
Bantu
What sort of creature is a barbel?
Fish
Whose art studio was known as The Factory?
Andy Warhol�s
In which field was physicist William Henry Fox Talbot a pioneer?
Photography
Which plant is St Patrick said to have used to explain the Holy Trinity?
Shamrock
Of which landlocked African country is Kigali the capital?
Rwanda
Zog was the last king of which European country?
Albania
Which is the largest city in Canada?
Toronto
According to the proverb, where do all roads lead to?
Rome
After oxygen, which is the most abundant element in the Earth�s crust?
Silicon
In which year was the London Marathon first held?
1981
Name the Egyptian astronomer and geographer who lived in the 2nd century AD and who produced his Geographa Hyphegesis, and extensive guide to geography
Ptolemy
Which English novelist wrote The Cruel Sea?
Nicholas Monsarrat
In Shakespeare�s A Midsummer Night�s Dream, who is the Queen of the Fairies?
Titania
Bartlett, Comice and Conference are types of which fruit?
Pear
Which alloy of tin and lead was originally used for making plates and mugs?
Pewter
Which Frenchman wrote: �If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him�?
Voltaire
Name the mongoose in Kipling�s Jungle Book.
Rikki Tikki Tavi,
Which city in Cilicia was the birthplace of St Paul?
Tarsus
What name is given to the three wars fought between Rome and Carthage?
The Punic Wars
Name the German architect who was director of the Bauhaus School of Design from 1919 to 1928.
Walter Gropius
On 6 December 1917, several munitions ships exploded in the harbour of which Canadian port, killing over 1,500 and making 20,000 people homeless?
Halifax
Which was the last country in Europe (as late as 1984) to give votes to women?
Liechtenstein
Cape Agulhas is the southernmost point of which continent?
Africa
What is the more common name for Hansen�s Disease?
Leprosy
In 1888, who patented the pneumatic bicycle tyre?
John Boyd Dunlop,
In which South American country are the ports of Concepci�n, Valpara�so and Antofagasta?
Chile
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APPROACHING THE ANCIENT WORLD THE USES OF GREEK MYTHOLOGY Also available as a printed book see title verso for ISBN details The Uses of Greek Mythology The Uses of Greek Mythology offers an overview of Greek mythology - what it is like, where it comes from, and where it fits in Greek history and landscape. Ken Dowden outlines the uses Greeks made of myth and the uses to which myth can be put in recovering the richness of their culture. This book begins by considering the nature of Greek myth and goes on to show the diversity of the ways the Greeks used myth. 'Greek mythology' forms a virtually closed system, and Dowden considers how it was formed and who its creators were. Special emphasis is given to the way the Greeks themselves viewed their mythology and the way they did not quite distinguish it from history. The investigation sheds light on many aspects of Greek history and culture: prehistory, including the supposed Trojan War; ethnic identity and the rival claims of cities; the importance of cult-sites; the language and practices of initiation; the meaning of gods, heroes, monsters and legendary kings; the rejection of matriarchy and the establishment of the boundaries of sexual behaviour. Ken Dowden is Lecturer in the Department of Classics, University of Birmingham. Approaching the Ancient World Series editor: Richard Stoneman The sources for the study of the Greek and Roman world are diffuse, diverse and often complex, and special training is needed in order to use them to the best advantage in constructing a historical picture. The books in this series provide an introduction to the problems and methods involved in the study of ancient history. The topics covered will range from the use of literary sources for Greek history and for Roman history, through numismatics, epigraphy and dirt archaeology, to the use of the legal evidence and of art and artefacts in chronology. There will also be books on statistical and comparative method, and on feminist approaches. The Uses of Greek Mythology Ken Dowden Art, Artefacts, and Chronology in Classical Archaeology William R. Biers Ancient History from Coins Christopher Howgego Reading Papyri, Writing Ancient History Roger S. Bagnall The Uses of Greek Mythology Ken Doxvden * London and New York First published 1992 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005. "To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge's collection of thousands of eBooks please go to http://www.ebookstore.tandf.co.uk/." Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 © 1992 Ken Dowden All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue reference for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN 0-203-13857-0 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-17759-2 (Adobe e-Reader Format) ISBN 0-415-06134-2 (hbk) ISBN 0-415-06135-0 (pbk) Contents Preface vii Abbreviations viii Part I Attitudes to myth 1 Myth and mythology 2 2 How myths work: the theories 16 3 Greeks on myth 28 Part II Myth and the past 4 Myth and prehistory 41 5 Myth and identity 53 Part III Myth and religion 6 Arrival at the cult-site 68 7 Myth and initiation ritual 73 Part IV The world of myth 8 The world of myth 86 9 Mythic society 107 Conclusion: what Greek myth is 120 Notes 122 Topic bibliography 127 General bibliography 134 Index of ancient authors 138 Index of modern authors 144 Index of peoples, characters and places 147 Index of topics and themes 160 Preface I make no apologies for this book: it has been enjoyable to write, I think it will be interesting to read, and it is rather different from previous books on the subject. There are plenty of books to retell Greek mythology: a Greek, Apollodoros, wrote a useful one himself and I have put references to his account into this book wherever possible. The business of this book is not the telling of myths, though naturally some, particularly the more obscure, are outlined: I have envisaged readers who can turn to their own handbooks (see the Topic bibliography) and who want to know more about Greek myth. Equally, though I consider methodology and theory more important than some previous English writers, I have tried not to act as a salesman for a particular brand of ideas. Or at least not too much. I have tried to write a book which will give a sense of what Greek myth is like, where it comes from and where it fits in Greek history and landscape. But I have paid particular attention to the various uses which Greeks made of myth (and which moderns think they made, consciously and unconsciously), above all the use of myth in place of early history - where it performed much better at defining the basis of the present order than a real history would have done. The result, I hope, is that we gain a better idea of how we ourselves may use Greek myth to uncover areas of Greek history, culture and experience. A glance at the contents page will show my attempt to redefine the subject so that we can say practical, interesting and admittedly 'speculative' things about it. But the book cannot possibly deliver a complete account: such a project would be beyond the scope of any single volume and maybe any single author (certainly the present one). Nevertheless, I have tried to make it more than just a random sample ('Aspects of...') and to stimulate a larger sense of what mythology does. I hope that even those with quite different priorities will not feel that what they consider important has been totally overlooked. At the same time, I have tried to keep close to the actual myths and the localities to which these traditions belonged, whilst retaining some sensitivity to issues of ambience and cultural significance. Mythology is a complex and interwoven subject and, though I have imposed a degree of organisation on this book, it will become apparent to the reader that each topic in mythology presupposes a knowledge of every other topic and that organisation at times is little more than sleight of hand. Here I hope the indexes will be found more than usually useful - because more than usually necessary. I had originally intended to include some illustrations of myth in Greek art but felt that after the appearance of Carpenter's (1991) beautifully illustrated and easily accessible volume, I had ample justification to devote more space to words instead. Greek mythology is most naturally, though not exclusively, studied by classicists, whose sense of international community is strong. For those who will venture beyond the English language into continental Europe, there are some outstanding works of scholarship to explore. I have not hesitated to include these in the bibliography. The rest is up to the reader. The University of Birmingham Spring 1992 Abbreviations Ancient authors Ap Apollodoros (Ep. - the Epitome, or abridgement); see pp. 8-9. P Pausanias; see p. 17. Works of reference CAH3 Cambridge Ancient History, 3rd edn, Cambridge, 1970- date. FGH F. Jacoby (ed.), Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker; see p. 173. KIP Der Kleine Pauly: Lexikon derAntike, Munich, 1975. OCD Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd edn, Oxford, 1970. Other abbreviations follow the usual classical practice, as found in tables of abbreviations in J. Marouzeau, Annee Philologique (for periodical titles), the Oxford Latin Dictionary and H.G. Liddell and R. Scott, Greek-English Lexicon, 9th edn: AC Antiquite classique CQ Classical Quarterly CW Classical World HR History of Religions JHS Journal of Hellenic Studies LCM Liverpool Classical Monthly PCPhS Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society REG Revue des etudes grecques SSR Studi storico-religiosi ZPE Zeitschrift fur Papyrologie und Epigraphik Parti Attitudes to myth Chapter 1 Myth and mythology 1.1 WHAT IS MYTH? It says here: 'Peppino is a myth in the world of Italian song'. He looks real enough to me. Perhaps they meant a 'legend'. (Terry Wogan, commentator on the 1991 Eurovision Song Contest) A lie? If it's a myth, it's untrue. That is what we mean today - or part of what we mean. But a myth is also enticing: it lures not just a stray, mistaken individual, but whole groups and societies into believing it. Perhaps superior courage or skill was the key to the defeat of the Luftwaffe by the Royal Air Force in the Battle of Britain. Or is that just the myth of Britain's 'most glorious hour'? Was it in fact more about intelligence derived from the breaking of enemy codes (the 'Ultra' intelligence - Cave Brown 1976:36-38). If so, the 'myth' brought great satisfaction to the (undeniably courageous) participants in the battle, to a nation on the brink of defeat, and to the post-war nation adjusting to a reduced position in the world. Few would welcome the rejection of this myth, if myth it is. This is the paradox of myths. They are not factually exact: they are false, not wholly true, or not true in that form. But they have a power which transcends their inaccuracy, even depends on it. I do not think this is just a fact about modern use of the word 'myth'. It lies at the heart of all myths and in particular of ancient myths: myths are believed, but not in the same way that history is. Those who, let us say, 'subscribe to' a myth may well express their acceptance of it by asserting its 'truth'. Certainly they will not wish to call it 'false'. A Christian who denies that the virgin birth actually happened will not say that it is 'false', but rather that it has some valuable meaning, that it has its own 'truth'. As we follow myth in Greek history, we should be sensitive to the variable meaning of 'truth'. Language is an approximate tool. Myth and mythology 3 A Greek word 'Myth' goes back to the Greek word mythos. Like any other word, its meaning has shifted over the centuries. Back in the days of Homer, at the beginning of Greek literature (c. 725 BC), a mythos was not necessarily false. Here is a servant replying to Hektor's question about the whereabouts of his wife Andromache: 'To him then the trusty stewardess spoke her mythos in return: "Hektor, since you really tell me to mytheisthai the truth" ' (Homer, Iliad 6.381-2). The woman proceeds to give an account, as asked - this is her mythos, a worked out string of ideas expressed in sentences. I suppose it amounts to a 'speech' here. So, in Iliad 9, when the delegation has tried to recall Achilles to the battle and he has given devastating expression to his rejection of the request, the three envoys sit silent, 'in wonderment at his mythos' (9.431). Only after some time does aged Phoinix reply, referring to Achilles' father's instructions that he, Phoinix, should teach Achilles to be effective in war and in assembly, 'to be a speaker of mythoi and a doer of deeds' (9.443). These are the twin competences of the Homeric hero: to kill efficiently and to persuade through impressive mythoi. The earliest Greek literature had been in verse. Prose only arrived in the mid-6th century BC and was part of the deeper penetration of writing into what was still very much an oral culture. Logos, the noun corresponding to the verb legem (T speak'), was the word chosen to describe prose. It covered both the verbal expression ('speech') and the enhanced possibilities inherent in committing prose to writing ('rational account', 'discourse'). Early writers frequently refer to their book as a logos, including our first historian: T must tell [legem] what people tell, but I am not at all obliged to believe it - and this principle can be taken as applying to my whole logos'. (Herodotos, 7.152.3). Indeed, Thucydides refers to all early historians as logographoi ('logos- writers', 1.21), a term which has passed into modern handbooks on these Togographers'. This development of the word logos to cover extended utterances, pushed back the frontiers of the mythos. Though fifth-century tragedians, in their archaic way, might preserve something of its original application, by now mythos was usually applied to fiction - the sort of material associated with the early verse writers. The predominant contrast is no longer between mythoi and battle-action, but between mythoi and logoi, a word now close to the heart of the new enlightenment. Thucydides, implicitly distinguishing himself from his predecessor Herodotos, asserts the scientific value of his work at the cost of lessening its entertainment value: it does not appeal to to mythodes ('the mythos-quality'). A mythos may have retained its sense of a developed utterance, a whole narrative, but it has become a mere 'story', a 'tale' (Burkert 1985:312 with 466 n.4). This was the crucial development in the history of the word. Since then, it has changed less: it has always been able to apply to the inherited stock of Greek traditional stories ('Greek myths'). This view of mythos is, for instance, passed on in the mid-80s BC by a Latin rhetorical author: 'fabula ["story", Latin for mythos] is defined as including matters which are neither true nor probable, for instance those handed down in the tragedies' (Anon. ('Cicero'), Rhetorica ad Herennium 1.13). Changes in its meaning since antiquity The Uses of Greek Mythology 4 have only reflected our changes in attitude to that stock of stories - and all stories which are told and enjoyed in spite of the fact that they are 'false'. 'Myth', 'history' and other terms History is what myth isn't. What history tells is true or else it would not be history, only failed history. What myth tells is in some way false or else it would be history. Yet within mythology there are gradations of credibility. To take an example: there is a myth that Athene was born from Zeus' head. It is wholly false: Zeus never existed, neither did Athene, and no one has ever been born from anyone else's head. On the other hand, many believe that history underlies the myth of Agamemnon's expedition against Troy (though see chapter 4.3). On that view the 'Trojan War' is partly historical, if not in the form we have it (if Homer's Iliad were literally true, it would be an historical record and not a version of myth). To many writers it is important if there is an historical dimension, and they like to reflect this in their choice of terminology, distinguishing between various types of traditional story: saga and legend, on the one hand, and myth and folk-tale on the other. Broadly, these terms have the following implications: Saga, is applied to myths supposed to have a basis in history. So, for instance, Rose (1928:13) thought that 'The Homeric account of the Trojan War is one of the best possible examples.' 'Saga' is an Icelandic term and was originally applied to supposedly true histories of families/clans or of kings. Perhaps it is best restricted to myths which tell the history of a family. Legend: originally traditional stories about saints that were 'worth reading' (Latin: legenda). As stories about saints rarely have much historical value, the term is applied to any myth with only a kernel of truth or historicity. Folk-tale: this term was invented during the early nineteenth century (like 'folklore' and 'folk-song'), to serve as a translation of the German word Marchen. This was when scholars such as Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm (1785-1863, 1786-1859) imagined, and persuaded their readers, that they were collecting traditional tales which ordinary folk used as a sort of moralising entertainment. Some think their motifs derive from long lost myths (as the Brothers Grimm did). 1 Others think that all nations have always had folk-tales for their entertainment. In any case, European literary sources have been found for some of these supposedly oral tales. In content the tales of the Brothers Grimm are not always easy to distinguish from what people class in other societies as myths. Maybe they tend to contain types rather than individuals. Bettelheim (1976:39-41) accounts for this psychoanalytically by distinguishing the roles of myth and folk-tale: folk-tales are about everyman, 'facilitating projections and identifications' and resolving anxieties, whereas myths 'offer excellent images for the development of the superego'. You may believe this if you like, but folk-tales can be just as vague about locations. Perhaps, too, there is some delight in the magical and rather an obsession with princely courts - as one might expect from that period in German history. But in any case the unthinking application of the term 'folk-tale' to the oral traditions of other nations has obscured the difference (if there is one) between myth and folk-tale and trivialised those Myth and mythology 5 traditions. Merely to register a tradition as folk-tale too easily evades their specific social and historical context and leaves only their motifs to be classified. We will be looking at analysis of heromyths by motif in chapter 8.3. Fairy story is often used as a variant for 'folk-tale', but is rather useless for Greek culture (low on fairies). Interestingly, however, when used in a derogatory sense, it captures something of the contempt which Greek thinkers could occasionally feel for 'myth'. Myth is often reserved for tales which do not fall into the above categories, which perhaps have a clear involvement of gods or a clear religious or philosophical purpose. 2 I have tried to be less discriminatory. It seems to me that attempts to distinguish between these terms have failed and that it is best simply to allow all Greek non-historical narratives to be 'myths'. Otherwise we will suffer from terminological difficulties of our own invention and prejudge the nature of each of these narratives, with its own identity and its own history. However, I should mention that there is a school of thought which recognises a regular pattern of 'degeneration' of myth: stage 1: the myth is associated with religious ritual and that is its function; stage 2: the myth has become 'history'; stage 3: the 'history' has turned into folklore; stage 4: the folklore is turned to literary purposes. 3 There are some problems of detail in the application of this scheme to Greek mythology: it is not clear (and most scholars will refuse to believe) that all myths began as partners for ritual. In classical Greece, as we shall see, the myth has indeed largely turned to history, but it also has something of the entertainment value of folklore about it and most certainly the literary artists are busy with it. Nevertheless, the reader may find this a useful pattern to hold against the shifting role of Greek mythology from prehistoric to Roman and modern times. 1.2 GREEK MYTHOLOGY Greek Mythology, a total system It is one thing to decide what will count as Greek myths, another to know what 'Greek Mythology' is. 'It is a matter above all of written material, of texts' (Brelich 1977:6). There is no doubt that we access Greek Mythology above all through texts and that even in ancient times texts, read or performed, were instrumental in forming the Greeks' own sense of mythology. But texts were not the only medium for mythology (unless you have a very broad definition of 'text'). 4 Myths may be told orally, without reproducing a particular author's account - it is simply 'how the story goes'. Art too displayed myths and in both senses offered a view of them. We think of the surviving remnants of sculpture and vase-painting, but of course there were wall-paintings too — now lost but for their reflection in the humbler art of vase-painting. All of these are media through which Greek Mythology was presented and, by being presented, reinterpreted. The Uses of Greek Mythology 6 In fact Greek Mythology is a shared fund of motifs and ideas ordered into a shared repertoire of stories. These stories link with, compare and contrast with, and are understood in the light of, other stories in the system. Greek Mythology is an 'intertext', because it is constituted by all the representations of myths ever experienced by its audience and because every new representation gains its sense from how it is positioned in relation to this totality of previous presentations. In this book I will use the term Greek Mythology, with capital letters, to denote this (evolving) total system. Today handbooks play a special part in communicating Greek Mythology. It is their job, sometimes alphabetically, more often chronologically, to lay out before us a tapestry of Greek myths. At the beginning: the origin of the gods (and the world). At the end: the aftermath of the Trojan War. We need collections of stories to help us know them. The Greeks, however, were brought up on their mythology and it is only relatively late that we find a collected Greek Mythology. The first surviving collection, and the best, dates from the first century AD. It is by an 'Apollodoros' (so the manuscripts claim, perhaps thinking wrongly of the scholar Apollodoros of Athens), and is headed The Library, to mark its comprehensiveness. The end is missing, but we also possess an abridgement, the Epitome, which is complete. Apollodoros is of great importance to us, and as he is the most useful single source for Greek Mythology I have included where possible in my text references to his tellings of stories I am discussing. He does not actually tell all Greek myths — there were so many in every Greek hamlet — or include all details, but he does give some account of most of the myths that had come to matter beyond local city-state boundaries. It is his interpretation of what counts that has above all shaped our present, relatively frozen, idea of Greek Mythology. Presently I will sketch the contents of Greek Mythology as in Apollodoros. But first we should look at how this system of myths came to be formed. Formation: archaic texts As we shall see (chapter 4.1), the Greeks had always had myths. But in order to form a national Greek Mythology, local stories must cluster with the stories of other localities. This is what provides the characteristic geographical range in Greek Mythology. This clustering could only occur in a time of good communications and shared culture, when the entertainers of the age, epic poets, found an audience in any major Greek centre. This was possible during the Mycenaean Age and it clearly became possible once again as prosperity was restored during the Dark Age. So what we find when the darkness recedes is that the manufacture and maintenance of national mythology is in the hands of poets — and two types in particular, epic poets and genealogical poets. In epic we think immediately of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, but the slow narrative pace, unusual originality and wilful silences of these texts make them less important from our point of view than other more routine and more action-packed epics, now lost — though a detailed summary of their plots survives. These works of Homer's successors (mainly seventh century) enshrined the stories of epics composed by his contemporaries and predecessors. Their authors are referred to as the Cyclic poets, because the epics in their final form, together with the Iliad and Odyssey, made up an omnibus edition or 'epic cycle', telling the complete story of the Trojan War with its preliminaries and aftermath. By contrast, the Iliad itself covers a mere fortnight. Other epic poets, however, were Myth and mythology 7 telling the tales of Thebes — particularly the tale of the 'Seven against Thebes' (chapter 4.3) — of the voyage of the first ship, Argo, with its complement of Argonauts and of many other parts of the mythology. So these epic poets can be viewed as transmitting various cycles of myth often associated with heroes, military campaigns and other adventures. We have no good information on how these individual cycles came to be put together, but they are clearly ready, in place, and in general circulation by the end of the Dark Age. I should mention at this point a problem in approach to our limited evidence. One pattern of scholarly thought upholds what may be viewed as high standards in the acceptability of evidence: thus no myth can be proved to have existed until the date of our first evidence for it. In itself this sort of proposition seems obvious enough, but it perhaps makes too little allowance for the large gaps in our evidence for mythology. A story which first appears in Apollodoros (first century AD) or Pausanias (second century AD) or even Nonnos (fifth century AD) need not on that account be a late invention. We should not overlook the obvious corollary that no myth can be proved not to have existed before a certain date simply because that is when it is first attested. Associated with this difficulty is the difficulty in establishing the degree of inventiveness of authors at certain periods. It used regularly to be supposed that the Cyclic poets had improvised freely around Homer, but increasingly it is being recognised that the problem may often lie in the character of Homer, who is a deliberately omissive and selective author. Equally, it is hard to be confident about the extent to which tragedians modified individual myths. The other strand which emerges from the Dark Age is genealogy. The most important work, of which many fragments survive and more have been recovered this century, was one ascribed to the Boiotian poet Hesiod, though it was probably set down in its final form in Athens in the sixth century BC (West 1985:164-71). This was the Catalogue of Women, also known as the Ehoiai ('Or-likes') because the transitions to new subjects were made by that formula and stuck out like a sore thumb: Pindar got the story from an Or-like of Hesiod, which begins thus: 'Or like her who dwelt in Phthia, with the beauty of the [Graces, By the water of Peneios, fair Kyrene.' (Hesiod, fr. 215: Scholiast on Pindar, Pyth. 9.6) This work was of major importance, as it used mythic women to draw together the genealogies and mythologies of most of Greece. The dreariness for modern audiences of 'catalogue poetry', which lists names and of which we see a reflection in Homer's Catalogue of Ships (Iliad 2.484-877), and genealogical poetry, which organises names and family trees, is exceeded only by its fascination in its living context. Genealogy must have mattered to the well-born in the Dark Age: it stated their place in the world and linked their famous ancestors to the famous ancestors of others. This has the effect of systematising not only family trees but also the internationally famous mythic adventures of the past. But it goes deeper than this too. The concern of mythgenealogists is to map a world and its people. To write a genealogy is to make a series of links between names enshrining peoples and places, assigning each their position. Using the model of family relationships, something The Uses of Greek Mythology 8 immediate, accessible and powerful to close-knit pre-industrial society, statements are made about affiliation (closer or more distant) and seniority. Thus genealogy, though limited by facts of history of which its audience is securely aware and by traditions which the audience generally accepts, is by nature ideological. This was not something whose interest and effect died out with the Dark Age or Archaic period. It continued to matter to Arcadians whether they could endorse a genealogy by the poet Asios (sixth century BC?) and whether a Pausanias could be persuaded to accept it (p. 72 below). And it mattered to a Pausanias what the answers were, for otherwise the map was deficient and terra incognita was left: I was especially keen to find out what children were born to Polykaon by Messene. So I read through the Or-likes and the Naupaktia epic and, in addition, all the genealogical works of Kinaithon and Asios. However, on this subject they had written nothing. (Pausanias 4.2.1) The achievement of epic and genealogical poetry has been to create cycles of stories clustered around particular heroes or events, to establish the family relationships between the heroes of different stories well enough to arrange the stories in sequence, and as a result to develop a sense of mythical chronology. There is even a saga aspect: we can follow the fates of some families in successive generations. Thus Greek Mythology now unfolds like the history it can never be: it is a para-history, a proto-history, a phase in the development of the world and of man. And the 'Theogonies' ('births of gods') written by Hesiod and other authors plug the gap that could all so easily have existed at the beginning of the world. Myth and art before 500 BC We are not able to identify with any certainty scenes from myth on Mycenaean vases. And after the end of Mycenaean civilisation, pottery decoration became increasingly a matter of mere patterns — hence the description of this period as the 'Geometric' Age. It is only in the mid-seventh century that scenes from myths appear on vases — the 'Archaic' Age has begun. So, for instance, an Attic vase of around 660 BC shows Herakles' defeat of the centaur Nesos (Ap 2.7.6). This vase was intended to be used, as so many of these were, to mark a grave. Another of this painter's works showed Herakles releasing Prometheus. To about the same time belongs a vase from Eleusis depicting Odysseus blinding the Cyclops Polyphemos and Perseus dashing away from two Gorgons — in hot pursuit after his murder of their sister Medousa. Artists of the Archaic period thought Gorgons specially striking. The last example shows something important about how artistic depictions work. Perseus is not only shown killing Medousa the Gorgon, but also with the Gorgon's head, being chased by other Gorgons — bringing home his slaughter rather better than the mere scene of beheading. Because art cannot narrate, but only offer still photographs, it must choose 'telling' moments. Wrestling with the Nemean Lion, though often uncomfortably like a tango, displays Herakles' imminent lion-skin on its original owner. Up on the east pediment of the temple of Zeus at Olympia (c. 460 BC), we are at the line up for the Myth and mythology 9 chariot race between Pelops and Oinomaos, a moment pregnant with all that will ensue, a frozen scene of deceptive stillness — as the Seer must know. Likewise, when Exekias paints Achilles and Ajax playing draughts, it is not just a jolly idea, but contrasts with the fury of the battlefield and, in particular, looks forward to those other scenes that relate the two heroes: Ajax's recovery of Achilles' dead body from the battlefield and his devastating loss of the contest with Odysseus for the arms of Achilles, leading to his suicide. It is beyond the scope of this book to give a detailed history of myth in art, so let us make quick progress. By 600 BC Corinthian pottery was displaying an enthusiasm for decorative features imported from the Near East and is therefore described as 'Orientalising'. This increases the range of mythic creatures without necessarily increasing the range of myths: amongst exotic animals we find rather a lot of sphinxes and griffins. This decorative use of mythic creatures shows the greatest distance from our notion of myth as narrative - only the Oedipus story involves a sphinx and only the weird epic of Aristeas of Prokonnesos (chapter 8.2) involves griffins. Also around 600 BC, the black-figure technique of vase-painting was being developed, a technique which was practised above all at Athens until around 500 BC. The distribution of mythical subjects in this period has been conveniently summarised by Boardman (1974: ch. 13; ch. 11 for monsters). Overall, Herakles is consolidating his hold on the artistic imagination in this period. His feats are more popular than those of any other hero and even than scenes from the Trojan Cycle. These latter scenes are less often from the Iliad than we may expect: other parts of the Trojan story, told in the Epic Cycle, were more action-packed, telling for instance how Achilles ambushed the boy Troilos - a son of Priam who would have guaranteed Troy's survival had he himself lived to the age of 20 (i.e. to the age of the warrior, p. Ill below), but Achilles outran his horse (hence Achilles' epithet, 'swift-footed') and slew him. The sculptures that decorated the pediments and metopes of archaic Greek temples share the early interest in Gorgons and constant interest in Herakles. In addition, the battle of the gods and Giants, the 'Gigantomachy', catches just the right monumental tone (as we shall see in chapter 9.2). Formation: the Classical Age 500 BC is a watershed. In written texts, the change-over from verse to prose (beginning amongst thinkers in the sixth century) reaches accounts of myth, and we find ourselves in a new world of para-historians giving a logos of the mythic period. We call them 'mythographers', and the major names are Akousilaos in Argos (c. 500-490 BC) and Pherekydes in Athens (c. 460-450 BC). But their work continued with Herodoros of Herakleia (c. 400 BC). We will take a look at these writers in chapter 3. Simultaneously the age of monsters and omnipresent Herakles is over in the decorative arts. In Athens, where so much of our evidence comes from, there was a limited transfer of interest from Herakles (promoted, art historians claim, by the Peisistratids) to Theseus as a symbol of the new democracy of 509 BC. This may be especially true of public, monumental sculpture, where Herakles' appearances are no longer a matter of propagandist routine. Even at the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, the The Uses of Greek Mythology 10 metopes of Herakles' labours furnish the subject for the metopes for reasons of local tradition — this son of Zeus founded the Olympic Games. The sequence Table 1.1 Themes in architectural sculpture to 500 BC Date Location: building Theme Plaque: mother and baby griffin Plaque: Medousa and Chrysaor Pediment: Medousa, birth of Chrysaor, Gigantomachy, Neoptolemos kills Priam? Metope: Herakles steals Apollo's tripod, and other stories Metope: Europa and the Bull Metopes: scenes from voyage of Argo, hunt of the Calydonian Boar, Europa and the Bull Pediment: Herakles, Iolaos and Hydra Pediment: Herakles fights Triton Pediment: Herakles fights Triton (again), monster(s) with three human tops and snake bottoms 550- Athens: Temple of Pediment: Gigantomachy 525 Athene Polias 540 Selinous: Temple Metope: Herakles and Kerkopes C 540- Assos, nr Troy: Metopes: centaur, sphinxes, Europa and the Bull, 520 Temple of Athena Herakles steals Apollo's tripod Frieze: Herakles and Tritons, Herakles and Centaurs 525 Delphi: Treasury Frieze: Gigantomachy, including Herakles? of Siphnians E Pediment: Herakles steals Apollo's tripod and other stories 520- Delphi: Temple of Pediment: Gigantomachy 510 Apollo 510 Eretria: Temple of Pediment: Theseus and Amazonomachy Apollo 510- Delphi: Treasury Pediment: Gigantomachy 500 of Megarians 500- Delphi: Treasury Metopes: deeds of Theseus, Amazonomachy, deeds of 490 of Athenians Herakles 500- Aigina: Temple of W Pediment: Trojan War 480 Aphaia E Pediment: Herakles' Trojan War Late Olympia 7th Syracuse cent. 600- Corcyra: Temple 580 of Artemis 575- Paestum: Temple 550 of Hera 560 Selinous: Temple Y 560 Delphi: Treasury of Sikyonians 560- Athens: Temple 550 550 Athens: Temple Myth and mythology 1 1 of labours of Herakles on metopes of the Hephaistieion at Athens (maybe designed earlier than the Parthenon), seen by Boardman as old-fashioned (1989:170), may be needed to add importance by association to the sequence of deeds of Athenian Theseus. But on the Parthenon there would be no interest in Herakles. 5 The reduced importance of Herakles in (Athenian) red-figure pottery may again be associated with the ending of the world in which his ideology had been important, but in a broader sense — Theseus is not overwhelmingly common either. There is a wider, almost more 'democratic', spread of interest across mythological and divine themes on vases — he extent that it serves no purpose to put together the sort of list I present above for the Archaic period. The fifth century was, however, a golden age of myth (Boardman 1975:223). The work of the old poets found new expression in the mythographers. A broader band of myths was now depicted on vases and presumably on the mural paintings that they often imitated. The great temples — for instance, those of Aphaia on Aigina (completed after the Persian Wars), of Zeus at Olympia and the Parthenon — were lavishly decorated with scenes from myth. And mythology, as understood in the light of the mythographers, was almost the exclusive source of plots for the tragedians in Athens (the big three, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, successively dominating the stage from 484 to 406 BC). The practicalities of theatre and the increasing social awareness of tragedians naturally affected their selection and projection of mythology. They focus on the human crises that prevail in the Greek Mythology that has reached us. Of course there had been others who added to the intertext of Greek Mythology: one may think, for instance, of the lyric poet Stesichoros (c. 550 BC) or the post-archaic 14-book epic on Herakles by Herodotos' uncle, Panyassis or the suggestive hints of Pindar in his lyric poems (written 498-438 BC). But overwhelmingly the tragedians, the mythographers and the early poets of epic and genealogy were the suppliers of myth to later generations and art, ancient and modern, has accepted their definition of Greek Mythology. Formation: Hellenistic and Roman Ages We can briefly mention the tendencies of the Hellenistic Age (323 BC to Roman times). It was notably a learned age. Even in poetry, Callimachus (writing c. 275-240 BC) showed a path for new writing which depended heavily on reference books full of fresh, local mythical colour which had not previously found a place in Greek Mythology. And this was the material that the prose-writers of local histories, now sadly lost, uncovered and recorded. New methods of sorting the mythology too could produce interesting aesthetic results, whether in Boio's Ornithogonia (presumably a 'theogony' of birds), Nicander's Metamorphoses (changes in shape) or the Catasterisms (becoming stars and constellations) of Eratosthenes — all three lost. Perhaps, too, these principles of selection led to a proliferation of the material to suit them: so, if you are confronted by several variants of a given myth, you will suspect the one in which the hero(ine) turns into a star of being a Hellenistic development. It is not necessarily so: way back (600 BC?), 'Hesiod' had written an Astronomia. 6 Nevertheless, metamorphosis and catasterism are particularly prevalent in the Hellenistic version of Greek Mythology — together with pastoral themes and tales of unhappy or forbidden love. Some idea of the pathetic development of Hellenistic myths is given by the second century AD prose collection of stories from Hellenistic poets, the Metamorphoses of Antoninus Liberalis. The Uses of Greek Mythology 12 This more sentimental mythology had little influence on Apollodoros, and would probably have had little influence on us were it not for the alluring epic of Ovid, the Metamorphoses. This 15-book 'epic' presents a mythology of its own from the creation to his own day. Ovid is much more interested in ethos than in local detail, making his work a difficult and often not very useful source for the study of Greek myth, religion and society, despite its aesthetic and imaginary triumphs. But his account has been hugely popular from Roman antiquity, through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, down to modern times. It has been the European artists' first port of call for mythological subjects in painting and sculpture and it has been many people's first introduction to the whole subject of Greek mythology. We no longer have the work of the Hellenistic prose-writers — not just local historians, but also people like Dionysios Skytobrachion, who in the second century BC wrote books on Amazons and on the Trojan saga. But this was the work which led to important sources who do survive and who transmit local mythical information which is particularly valuable to a realistic study of Greek mythology. One surviving source is the geography of Strabo (writing around 20-7 BC). Even more important for us is Pausanias (writing around AD 160-80), whose Periegesis of Greece is a lavish guided tour to Greece's landscape, towns, monuments and traditions. Apollodoros' information, however, is a canonisation of the work of earlier writers of the Archaic and Classical Ages. The nadir of the mythographical tradition is reached with the mindless work, or summary of a work, of Julius Hyginus, the Fabulae (or Genealogiae — of perhaps the second century AD), which consists of a sequence of genealogies, of stories about particular individuals and finally a Guinness Book of Records conclusion: lists of the first people to build temples for the gods (225), people nourished on the milk of animals (252), record-holders for piety (254), for friendship (257), famous inventors (274) and so on. Hyginus largely got his information from a Greek source — though he did not understand Greek too well. To deal in mythology is to put yourself in touch with ancient classical tradition. Fulgentius, in the fifth century AD, outlined its myths and their (suspiciously Neoplatonic!) meanings, notably in his Mythologiae. The ancient world was by now passing away and Fulgentius belongs with people like Servius who wrote the most influential commentary on Vergil, Proclus who wrote with massive erudition on Plato as the Christian world closed in, and with Boethius who a century later preserved Greek learning (for instance on music) for the Latin Middle Ages. Presently the mythology would be laid to rest during the dark era of the church, only to spring back into life in the writing and art of the Renaissance. Boccaccio in his Genealogie would take up where Fulgentius had left off 900 years before, renewing the west's subscription to antiquity. Contents of Greek Mythology Nine-tenths of Greek myths are of a quite different type [from the cosmogonical-philosophical]. They play in the particular landscapes of Greece and tell of the earliest men who lived there, of the descent and the adventures of local heroes and suchlike. (Muller 1825:72) Myth and mythology 13 So Greek Mythology, as frozen in Apollodoros, is a construct and above all a literary construct — a body of privileged and arranged Greek myths, known widely wherever Greek culture ranged, and constantly alluded to in the work of poets and artists. Meanwhile, myths continued to live more locally and miscellaneously. Not only would locals point out the very place where famous myths had occurred: there were also the myriad also-rans of Greek mythology — those that never made it to the national corpus, though ambitious locals might try to tie them in. Such, for instance, was a tale of Poimandros, the founder of Tanagra, who had been besieged for not wishing to take part in the Trojan War, and such was a tale of Embaros (chapter 7.1) at Mounichia on the outskirts of Athens, who gained a priesthood for his family by (only nominally) sacrificing his daughter. What, then, does Greek Mythology contain? Frazer divided the work of Apollodoros into 16 sections, 7 which I abbreviate as follows: 1 Beginnings. Birth of Titans and monsters from Sky and Earth. Births of the gods ('Theogony'). Offspring of the gods. The gods defeat various enemies — Giants, Python, Typhon, Orion. Persephone seized by Pluto. 2 Family of Deukalion. Creation of man, and the Flood. Beginnings of the Greek tribes. Various tales, based mainly in northern Greece: Meleager and the Calydonian Boar, the prophet Melampous, the voyage of the Argonauts. 3 Family of Inachus. The Argolid: Io turned into a cow, the daughters of Danaos murder their Egyptian husbands, Bellerophon and Pegasus, Perseus and the Gorgon, Perseus and Andromeda, the Labours of Herakles, the return of the Heraklids. 4- Family of Agenor. 5 Crete: Zeus as bull carries off Europa; King Minos, the birth of the Minotaur. Thebes: founded by Kadmos; Aktaion killed by his dogs; arrival of Dionysos; Niobe turned to stone; Oedipus; the failed expedition of the Seven against Thebes; the success of their 'descendants' (the Epigonoi). 6 Family of Pelasgos. Arcadia: Zeus kills Lykaon and his sons for impiety; Kallisto turned into a bear, gives birth to Arkas the first Arcadian; the trials of Auge, priestess at Tegea; the virgin Atalante defeated in running thanks to a golden apple. 7 Family of Atlas. Arcadia: Hermes' early feats. Thessaly: death of Apollo's son Asklepios; Apollo herdsman for a year. Sparta: Helen up to marriage with Menelaos; Kastor and Polydeukes. Troy: foundation and famous names before the Trojan War. 8 Family of Asopos. Salamis: Telamon and his son Aias. Thessaly: Peleus and the centaur Chiron, marriage to Thetis, early history of Achilles — and Patroklos. 9- Athens. 10 Kings before Theseus, such as earth-born Kekrops and Erichthonios. The tribute to The Uses of Greek Mythology 14 the Minotaur. Theseus: his feats, marriage to an Amazon, descent to hell; his son Hippolytus dies from an overdose of chastity. Lapiths and Centaurs. 11 Family of Pelops. Pelops wins chariot-race by deceit — and the Peloponnese. The polluted actions of Atreus and Thyestes. Agamemnon marries Clytemnestra and Menelaos Helen. 12 The Trojan War up to the start of Homer's Iliad. Judgment of Paris, theft of Helen, mustering of the Greek forces, including Odysseus (pretending madness) and Achilles (hiding among the girls at Skyros). Fleet gathers at Aulis. Sacrifice of Iphigeneia. Preliminary tales around Troy, e.g. Achilles' slaughter of Priam's son Troilos. 13 Homer's Iliad. Achilles withdraws from the fighting. Achilles comes back, kills Hektor. Priam recovers Hektor's body. It's only a matter of time now. 14 The Trojan War after Homer. Death of Achilles. The contest of Aias and Odysseus for his armour. Death of Paris. Theft of the Palladion (statue of Pallas Athene). The trick of the Wooden Horse. Sack of Troy. Ajax rapes Kassandra. 15 The 'Returns' (Nostoi) of the heroes from Troy. Storm, death of Ajax. Various catastrophes, in particular the murder of Agamemnon. Orestes' revenge and madness. 16 The Odyssey and its sequels. Adventures and return of Odysseus. Slaughter of his wife's 'suitors'. Stories about Telegonos, a son of Odysseus who kills him, marries Penelope and is packed off to the Isles of the Blest by Circe. Meanwhile Penelope has born Pan to Hermes. What immediately emerges is the crucial role of the Trojan War in Greek mythology — is this in which mythic 'history' culminates — and the crucial role of the greatest Greek author, Homer, amidst this ultimate heroic event. This is the citadel from which he dominates Greek culture. Sections 13 and 16 are designed to accommodate him. Sections 12-16 are needed for Trojan and related material. Sections 7, 8 and 11 are designed to lead into the Trojan material. Sections 9-10 are intrusions to accommodate Athens — because our Greek cultural tradition has been transmitted via Athens. By contrast, the beginnings, dealing with creation, origins of things and gods (section 1), are very slight by the standards of the mythologies of other nations. The message is clear: Greek Mythology is fundamentally about men and women, it is a 'historical' mythology. For the most part it is not the participation of gods, talking animals or magic that makes Greek myth mythical; rather, it is the participation of men and women who lived in illo tempore ('yon times'), 8 the times before recorded history began and beyond reliable oral tradition, in the para-history or protohistory. They may be referred to as 'heroes', because if their 'graves' are known they will be receiving worship — hero-cult. In Homer, they are even aware that they are heroes and, especially in the nostalgic Odyssey, are approvingly addressed as 'Hero' — unlike men of our day. 9 Of course these are not just any men and women of the remote past: as Aristotle pronounced (Problems 922b), 'Only the leaders of the ancients were heroes — the people were just men.' In between the section on gods and origins and the sections on the Trojan War come myths which are sorted genealogically, by descent from famous heroes, but which in fact Myth and mythology 15 largely represent the traditions of the different areas of Greece — because so many heroes are designed to project places. This reinforces the lesson that myths are presented mostly as local prehistory, rather than as stories about enduring human concerns (however much they may in fact have to tell about such concerns). They fit tightly into local culture and require a historian's attention. Chapter 2 How myths work: the theories All universal theories of myth are automatically wrong. (Kirk 1977:293) The Nemesis of disproportion seems to haunt all new discoveries. (Max Muller 1873:252) What are Greek myths for? Not to tell history, only to masquerade as history. Not just to entertain: they have too much cultural significance for that. Do they, then, serve a religious purpose? If so, we must beware of thinking of them as scriptures. Greeks did not turn to mythology for guidance on what to believe and how to live. They did not turn to their religion for morals and creeds, either. Of course the Greeks had ideas about the gods and man, and of course they found a reservoir of such ideas in myth and its purveyors (Homer, the tragedians), but these were not articles of faith. Myth is not there to state what must be believed: myth is not dogmatic. Greek myths are also different from ancient Near Eastern mythologies (Brelich 1977:7): they were not, at least in the form we have them, propagated by priests. The Greeks did not even have a specialist caste or profession of priests. Their mythology, for all the difficulty that scholars have in relating it to Indo-European tradition (chapter 4.1), at least is faithful to the Indo-European predilection for a rather secular pseudo-historical mythology. Perhaps the closest relatives of Greek mythology are the Sanskrit epics of India, Mahabharata and RamayaU a — though the brahmin caste and its reflective overlay needs to be subtracted. If not history, not entertainment, not religion, then what? This is the impasse from which the different theories of myth would rescue us. Greek mythology is both enriched and bedevilled by the attempts of modern writers to persuade us of a particular view of myth. Yet there is no escaping from this dilemma. Kirk (in the epigraph to this chapter) is no doubt right that no one theory will explain all Greek myths. But without consciously adopting at each point a theory, understanding what it may achieve and where it might fail, we simply do not know what we are doing. There is no theory-free approach to myth and it is mere illusion to suppose that myths, any more than any other type of empirical data, will somehow, with enough patient research, deliver their own explanations. All explanations are hypotheses, floated in the hope that they will help one's understanding of the world. Of no subject is this more clearly true than mythology. A book on changing approaches to Greek mythology should be written. But this is not it. Instead, this chapter offers a very brief review of some styles of explanation that have been tried. I hope it catches the flavour of sometimes complicated ideas. How myths work: the theories 17 2.1 OLD APPROACHES Historicism On this view, myth is actually history, merely damaged and distorted by the passage of time. It is not so much a theory as a mistake to which beginners and those who make only occasional use of myth as evidence are very susceptible. It is also the pre-dominant ancient Greek view, as we shall see in chapter 3. This view is seen quite often in discussions of tribal migrations, where prehistorians frequently mistake the ways in which myth works, supposing it to speak more directly than generally it does. 1 I give a few examples below: 1 Danaos (Ap 2.1.4) can be viewed simply as an historical person who really came from Egypt. But one can be more sophisticated without escaping the historicist fallacy. The myth can be thought to tell of the wanderings of the Danaoi tribe actually in and from the Near East; they are then connected with the 'Denyen' (one of the mysterious 'Sea- Peoples', about whom too much has been written) in an Egyptian inscription of 1186 BC, and with the tribe of Dan in Genesis 35 and Judges 18 (Roller), or with Danaoi in an Egyptian inscription of c. 1380 BC (Faure). 2 2 Melampous the (legendary) prophet actually introduced the cult of Dionysos (Rohde). 3 3 Schlieman identified the death-mask of Agamemnon and the jewels of Priam. I have been shown (and doubtless other tourists also have) the actual bath in which Agamemnon was murdered. 4 Gilbert Pilot established the actual route that Odysseus took in the Odyssey. 4 5 Hyllos, leader of the Herakleidai clan, was killed at the Isthmus in single combat c. 1220 BC (Hammond: see p. 73 below). Allegory Myth is disguised philosophy or theology, concealing its deep secrets from those who do not understand its allegories. This view prevailed amongst ancient thinkers who attempted above all to defend Homer. It was inherited by the Renaissance and last flowered in the immense, influential and wholly mistaken work of F.Creuzer, his Symbolik (1st edn, 1810-12) in which he argued that Greek mythology contained deliberately concealed eastern wisdom. The following sample is taken from a work of the first century AD which seeks to justify Homer through allegorisation: Overall, the wandering of Odysseus, if one cares to look at it in detail, will be found to be an allegory. Homer has taken Odysseus as a sort of tool for every virtue and used it to philosophise, since he detested the vices that feed on human life. Take for instance pleasure, the country of the Lotus- Eaters, which cultivates a strange enjoyment: Odysseus exercises his restraint and sails past. Or the savage spirit in each of us: he incapacitated it with the branding instrument of his verbal advice. This is called the 'Cyclops', that which 'steals away' [hypoklopon] our rationality.... The Uses of Greek Mythology 18 Wisdom goes down as far as Hades so that no part even of the world below should be uninvestigated. Who, again, listens to the Sirens, if he has learnt the breadth of experience [referring to Odysseus' epithet 'much- experienced'] contained in the accounts of every age? And 'Charybdis' is a good name for lavish wastefulness, insatiable in its desire for drink. Skylla is his allegory for the shamelessness that comes in many shapes: hence she is not without good reason equipped with the dogs' heads that comprise rapacity, outrage, and greed. And the cattle of the sun are restraint of the stomach — he counts not even starvation as a compulsion to wrongdoing. (Pseudo-Herakleitos, Homeric Problems 70, extracts) Though it is in the nature of ancient allegory to be wilful, it cannot be denied that this particular passage of moral allegory, though rather mechanical, validly accounts for some of the resonance of Homer's Odyssey (Books 9-12). And Aristotle may well have been right that Homer's 350 cattle of the Sun (Odyssey 12.129-30) represent the days of the twelve lunar months (Eustathios on Odyssey 12.130ff.) But as ancient philosophy developed, the authentic connection with the meaning of a myth in Homer's hands weakened. The philosopher seeks an image to explain his thought and finds one in Homer; Homer is just too authoritative in Greek culture for him not to be credited with the idea as well as the illustrative image. Thus Homer may be perceived as depicting in Kalypso and Circe the pleasures that detain the heaven-bound soul in this material world (Plotinos, Enneads 1.6.8). Natural allegory and comparative mythology Natural allegory is allegory of events in nature. This view is today associated with F.Max Miiller (1823-1900), the son of the romantic poet Wilhelm Miiller. He became a formidable scholar in the early days of critical work on Sanskrit literature and, in particular, on the very ancient body of hymns known as the Rig Veda ('Correctness- Knowledge'). Oxford created a chair of Comparative Philology specially for him in 1868 and he stayed there for the rest of his life. His influence was considerable, extending even to Queen Victoria, though his ideas were part of a general climate in which scholars propounded various forms of natural allegory. Max Miiller's view of myth was most fully expressed at the outset in his substantial 1856 essay, 'Comparative Mythology'. On this view, myth resulted from the attempts of primitive man to conceptualise the religious awe he felt before natural phenomena — the dawn, the sun and the clouds. Naturally he personalised these abstract qualities, but as language changed the original myths ceased to be understood and their sense could only be recovered by identifying the original meanings of the myths and of the names of the participants in the myths. Comparative philology, the study of (in this case) related Indo- European languages (see chapter 4.1 ), enables us to reconstruct these original meanings. The Greeks themselves had, of course, lost the original sense of these myths, through — and this was his catchphrase — 'disease of language', though he later emphasised that T have never said that... all mythology is a disease of language' (1873:252, cf. 259). How myths work: the theories 19 Let us start with an example where Max Miiller is looking at the celebration of the deeds of the god Indra in Rig Veda 4.30 (1898:98-102). Indra, on Max Muller's reading, is the 'chief solar deity of the Veda' and in this passage the dawn flees from his embrace; elsewhere too the sun follows her — or she is carried away in triumph by the Asvins (to whom we will return in chapter 4.1). But once in the Veda the word for dawn is Ahana and you sometimes get a variant form of words with a d- (dasru, 'tear', = asm). A form Dahana would clinch a connection with Germanic words for 'day' and the Sanskrit root for 'burn'. If now we translate, or rather transliterate, Dahana into Greek, Daphne stands before us, and her whole history is intelligible. Daphne is young and beautiful — Apollo loves her — she flies before him, and dies as he embraces her with his brilliant rays. (Max Miiller 1898:100) The reader should, incidentally, be warned that Apollo was wholly unconnected with the sun before mystic inventive speculation of the fifth century BC. It does not always emerge from descriptions of Max Muller's interpretation of mythology that it was much more than a dry philological game conducted with arbitrary etymologies. At times it rose to a level of romantic splendour admirable for all its dubiety. Here, for instance, are the last moments of Herakles (Ap 2.7.7): From thence Herakles crosses over to Trachys and then to Mount Oeta, where his pile is raised, and the hero is burnt, rising through the clouds to the seat of the immortal gods — himself henceforth immortal and wedded to Hebe, the goddess of youth. The coat which Deianeira sends to the solar hero is an expression frequently used in other mythologies [Max Miiller cites, second-hand, a passage of the Bhagavat-PuraU a calling dawn 'the clothing of the god with the great strides']; it is the coat which in the Veda, 'the mothers weave for their bright son' — the clouds which rise from the waters and surround the sun like a dark raiment. Herakles tries to tear it off; his fierce splendour breaks through the thickening gloom, but fiery mists embrace him, and are mingled with the parting rays of the sun, and the dying hero is seen through the scattered clouds of the sky, tearing his own body to pieces, till at last his bright form is consumed in the general conflagration, his last-beloved being Iole - perhaps the violet-coloured evening clouds - a word which, as it reminds us also of ios, poison (though the i is long), may perhaps have originated the myth of a poisoned garment. (Max Miiller 1898:97) This type of theory is now wholly abandoned for Greek mythology, though it is rather disconcerting that it appears still to be defensible in Sanskrit and maybe Roman mythology 5 and that the thought of Max Miiller appears less preposterous when not read through the words of others. The Uses of Greek Mythology 20 Cambridge myth-ritual In the beginning were two formative works. One was W. Robertson Smith's Lectures on the Religion of the Semites (1st edn, London, 1889), a seminal work much interested in rituals and particularly in the communal sharing of a 'sacramental' meal - eating the god. The other was Sir J.G.Frazer's Golden Bough (1st edn, London, 1890), a massive (and therefore incontrovertible) collection of rituals and customs from around the world, flimsily related to the alleged custom of killing a sacred king so that a new one might replace him and 'fertility' (his commonest leitmotif) be renewed. In later editions, he also pegged to this work an evolutionary theory of the progressive displacement of magic by religion and of religion in turn by science, which shows something of the cosy primitivism with which myth would be viewed. Both writers were based at Cambridge. From our perspective the interest lies in what Jane Harrison made of Frazer and in particular in her Themis (1912). From Frazer sprang her 'year-god' (eniautos daimon was the Greek term that Harrison coined), requiring annual renewal and to be discovered for instance (1912: ch. 1) in the worship of the new-born Zeus in Crete and the associated mythology (Ap 1.1.6). At times she thought (1912:328) that myth was, or had originally been, the words (legomena - 'things spoken') which go with the ritual (dromena - 'things performed'). All myths are apparently to be accounted for in this way. But her thinking included a rather different view, in which myth was not so much derived from ritual as a representation of the same concerns as the ritual (1912:16), and at the same time her attention shifts from rituals concerned with 'fertility' — Frazer's obsession — to social rituals such as initiation, reflecting the sociological view of religion propounded by E. Durkheim. 6 Though she was at times rather too imaginative and excessive in her conclusions (and also personally difficult for her era), it is increasingly recognised that seeds for later work, however spurned, lay here. Even the at first rather deviant and implausible construction of a year-god looks forward in a way to the intermittent focus on renewal festivals by Burkert, Graf and others, though I doubt if any of us reached this position as a result of Harrison's work. The same, more importantly, may also be said of her interest in the relationship between mythology and initiation. Other writers in this Cambridge 'school' included F.M. Cornford, A.B. Cook, and (at Oxford) Gilbert Murray. Cook's major work was the multi-volume Zeus, following Frazer in both bulk and, to some extent, theoretical apparatus. Cornford was closer to Harrison, for instance arguing that comedy originated in a New Year ritual (The Origin of Attic Comedy, London, 1914, reprinted Cambridge, 1934); and, similarly, Murray added to Harrison's Themis an excursus claiming detailed ritual origins and structure for Greek tragedy. Perhaps the Cambridge school was more a set of friends, a clique with shared interests and views, than a lasting revolution in thought. This might explain why the positions of value which were held by its members tend to be reinvented rather than inherited. How myths work: the theories 21 2.2 SURVIVING SYSTEMS New comparative mythology Georges Dumezil, from around 1920, saw himself as restoring the comparative study of Indo-European religions after it had become discredited through the excesses of Max Miiller and those he influenced. In theory it should be possible to reconstruct Indo- European myths just as one can reconstruct Indo-European words (see chapter 4.1) and this is in effect how Dumezil proceeded, though etymology became less significant than it had been in Max Miiller and structure of myths more significant. By 1938 Dumezil had made his most notable discovery - a fundamental division of Indo-European society into three 'functions' or ideological areas: that of the priest/ruler, of the warrior and of the productive (this is then where both fertility and farmers belong). For Dumezil Indo- European mythologies are concerned to project this tripartition, though others, appreciative of DumeziPs insights, see something less ideological: a social stratification in Indo-European society, naturally reflected in its mythology. Others again find DumeziPs theory exaggerated, but the principal difficulty for us is that, as Dumezil himself has admitted, for some reason the method only works on the rarest occasions for Greek myth, despite many plausible examples in other Indo-European mythologies (Dumezil 1953:25). Here are some samples of the three functions at work in Greek myths: 1 The Judgment of Paris (Ap Ep. 3.2) is a choice between the three functions: Hera - ruler, Athene - warrior, Aphrodite - productive (e.g. Puhvel 1987:133)7 Troy then falls because the choice of Paris has disturbed the hierarchy of the functions. 2 'The Titans are tied to sovereignty; the Giants to war; the Kouretes preside over armed dances and the initiation of youths; centaurs, who also feature as the educators of princes, take part in seasonal masquerades which later became mythical battles; Kyklopes and Telchines are smiths - the former faithful assistants of the Sovereign of the Gods, the latter busy with more workmanlike tasks and playing the role of village magicians' (Vian 1963:237 f.). 3 Dazzling, if not wholly credible as presented, is DumeziPs account of Herakles (1970: ch. 5). This epitome of 'the warrior function', in his cycle of stories commits a sin against each of the three functions, corresponding to sins committed by what may be identified as his Indian equivalent, Indra, and an old Danish equivalent, Starcatherus: (i) he hesitates to accept Zeus' command to perform the labours (at least in Diodoros 4.10-11) and as a result goes mad: he has rejected the sovereign of the gods, and lost the control of his mind. (ii) he treacherously kills his guest Iphitos (Ap 2.6.2), thus violating the warrior's code. As a result he loses his physical well-being (or should - I cannot find this in the sources). (iii) his lust for two women, Astydameia and Iole, leads to his death by the poisoned cloak of the Centaur unwittingly given to him by his wife Deianeira (Diodoros 4.37- 8). 8 He has given way to 'sexual concupiscence' and loses his life. The Uses of Greek Mythology 22 Psychoanalysis 'Psychoanalysis' is the study and treatment of the human mind, as laid down by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Indeed, in the strictest sense, the term refers exclusively to Freud's method. In this approach, dreams possess a special importance because they can disclose the hidden operations of the unconscious mind. Psychoanalysts must understand the ways in which dreams condense and displace unconscious ideas, using symbolism, decomposition or projection. But one can advance from dreams to myths: It seems quite possible to apply the psychoanalytic views derived from dreams to products of ethnic imagination such as myths and fairy tales.... [Psychoanalytic study] cannot accept as the first impulse to the construction of myths a theoretical craving for finding an explanation of natural phenomena or for accounting for cult observances and usages which have become unintelligible. It looks for that impulse in the same psychical 'complexes' in the same emotional trends which it has discovered at the base of dreams and symptoms. (Freud 1913:185) At this point two problems arise. First, who will take it upon themselves to psychoanalyse classical myths? Psychoanalysts are rarely well equipped: they tend to be amateur classicists (as a sequence of errors in their writings has in fact shown). Equally, classicists are scarcely better - less because they are only amateur psychoanalysts than because they have been hostile to new ideas (an allegation not without some truth) and deaf to the need for psychoanalytical interpretation. The second problem is deeper. You can't psychoanalyse unless there's a psyche to analyse: if you attempt a psychoanalytic interpretation of a Greek myth, whose psyche is it anyway? A repeated and naive error of psychoanalytic interpreters has been to analyse characters in myth as though they were real, pathological patients on a couch. Can one psychoanalyse a fiction created by an author ignorant of psychoanalysis? The character after all has no life history other than that stated - to think otherwise is to commit the fallacy of 'interpretive supplementation'. 9 There are only two ways around this latter problem. First, the myth is regarded as a sort of dream of its author. This runs into the difficulty that the force of myth obviously lies in its preservation and value from person to person and time to time. So we reach finally the only tenable position: psychoanalytic interpretation of myth can only work if it reveals prevalent, or even universal, deep concerns of a larger cultural group of human beings ('ethnic imagination' as Freud expresses it above). It is not clear to me whether this would mean just 'the Greeks' (whoever they were) or whether it might extend to us as well, because I do not know how far unconscious anxieties vary from culture to culture. In any case, this idea tends to be dressed up in a rather romantic, mystical way in the notion of not just an individual's unconscious, but a whole 'collective unconscious' (as though we all shared in a single mind - which some may even want to believe). If then psychoanalytic interpretation of myth is possible in some way, the final question is: are the particular interpretations offered acceptable? It is here that one notices with dismay the whole battery of themes and symbols which interpreters have received like some Holy Grail from Freud. It is rare indeed that a Freudian interpretation is offered How myths work: the theories 23 for evaluation: his themes and symbols are too often truths in which neophytes must have faith - the system is not open to challenge, despite Caldwell's claim that the theory is a 'very tentative' model of how the human mind works. 10 But if we were to challenge it, we would have to explain why Freudian psychoanalysis has appeared to work in the social conditions of the twentieth century. I do not have the leisure to do this (though I think others may have done so successfully), 11 but I suspect that there are possible explanations for its success other than that the themes and symbols proposed by Freud are absolutely true, scientifically proved and binding. There is surely life beyond childhood psychosexuality. Freud did not write at length on Greek mythology, unlike Jung (see below), but he is of course responsible for the 'Oedipus complex', the identification of the boy's fear and rivalry of his father and wish to supplant him in his mother's affections. Implicitly this must be the supposed meaning of the myth. The followers of Freud have however turned the Freudian perception of the subconscious to the task of interpreting mythology and a number of examples are given in the course of this book. Like any other religion, that of Freud has had its measure of heretics and apostates. I mention here only Carl Jung, who developed the 'collective unconscious' by positing a whole series of 'archetypal images' (divine child, mother and daughter...) which emerge from the preconscious psyche and find expression in myth. These are collectively possessed and inherited by all of us, just as the shape of our limbs is inherited and common to us all. These shared images may, however, be differently realised in different cultures. Interpretation is in fact rather a limited task, because the core of meaning cannot be laid bare, only reexpressed: 'the most we can do is to dream the myth onwards and give it a modern dress' (Jung and Kerenyi 1949:79; italics in original). This limit is severe and results in a very slight impact on our understanding of particular myths, despite the occasional insights in the voluminous, rambling and erratic studies of Greek myth and religion by C. Kerenyi, who collaborated with Jung during the 1940s. The most that may be achieved, if there is any validity in the theory, is that we recognise just how fundamental and deep-seated are the images that surface in myth. That is all that is left of Freud's revelation of the real processes of the human mind. But it is perhaps philosophically more sound that we have no language in which we can think what lies behind thought. Structuralism I do not think Levi-Strauss has proved anything. (Burkert 1979:11) Claude Levi-Strauss, too, sought to uncover the workings of the human mind. 'The structural study of myth' goes back to an essay of that title which he published in 1955, and which was reprinted in his Structural Anthropology (English translation, 1963). Though his main work had been on South American Indian cultures, he chose the Oedipus myth to demonstrate the application of a structuralist method based on linguistics to the study of myth. Why the Oedipus myth? Perhaps because it was well known and culturally prevalent (largely as a result of Freud). The Uses of Greek Mythology 24 Myth for him was a sort of language which raised cultural problems and alleviated them. The myth is assembled in all its versions - whoever told them, wherever or whenever. It is then broken down into its elements (motifs, I suppose). The elements stand in some relationship to each other, and by this structure suggest issues. Thus in the Oedipus myth, 'Oedipus marries his mother', like 'Antigone buries her brother contrary to Creon's edict', shows the over-rating of blood relationships; whereas, 'Oedipus kills his father' and 'Eteokles slaughters his brother Polyneikes' show the opposite. The myth proceeds, as structuralist myths tend to, by antithesis, by the presentation of opposite poles ('binary opposition'). In the end the presentation of opposites leads to some sense of resolution. In their most 'scientific' form structuralist discussions can easily be identified by the construction of diagrams reminiscent of algebra or formal logic in order to represent the intersection of different pairs of opposites ('logical quadrangles'). Beyond this, it becomes almost impossible to state what should be understood by the term 'structuralism' in the study of Greek mythology. 'Structuralism' itself became a buzz-word in the 1960s and 1970s, understood in different ways by different workers in different fields (linguistics, in particular, adopted the term). Levi- Strauss' own application of the method to the Oedipus myth (back in 1955) became in retrospect not entirely satisfactory, even to those who generally admired his work, and his methods certainly became more refined in later work, which however was not concerned with Greek mythology. Thus, on the one hand, critics attacked Levi-Strauss for a part of his output which had been overtaken by later developments, and, on the other hand, in order to view a revised, corrected structuralism, one had to believe that successors to Levi- Strauss were applying his method to Greek mythology both faithfully and better than he had himself. A truly scientific way of interpreting myths has been the target of mythological alchemists (and most of us are) since K.O. Miiller's Prolegomena zu einer wissenschaftlichen Mythologie ('Prolegomena to a Scientific Mythology') (1st edn 1825). Levi-Strauss's approach was particularly alluring in this respect, even for those whom one might have expected to oppose it. E. Leach, in criticising the method, in fact extended it to other examples (1974:68-83). And GS. Kirk, doyen of Anglo-Saxon empiricism, deployed something rather like it on his own account - if not too much (1970: ch. iv, 'Nature and culture'). Levi-Strauss on principle disregarded chronological and strictly historical factors and included in his analysis all motifs of a myth, no matter when or where attested. Perhaps because of our training, classical scholars have found this hard to accept and the rejection of this aspect of Levi-Strauss' approach has been a noticeable feature of the digestion of his thought. In any case it is a general, if not invariable, characteristic of Greek myths to name their location (Brelich 1977:9) and therefore to invite a more specific treatment than Levi-Strauss was prepared to allow. 2.3 MODERN TENDENCIES Now that we have scanned a range of nineteenth- and twentieth-century approaches, we can see that a number of different directions remain possible. With the exception of the comparative mythologists, the trend now is towards an eclecticism, slightly differently How myths work: the theories 25 balanced in different groups of scholars. At this point I highlight the following strands: (1) the acknowledgement of the usefulness of specific and distinctive historical data, thus rejecting part of the Levi-Strauss view; (2) the sensitive and systematic exploration of themes and their place in the map of Greek culture, thought or ideology; (3) the confrontation of myth with ritual. Modern myth-ritual Some myths are tied by their motifs to local rituals, especially initiation-rituals. Harrison had in effect reached this position, but it is hopefully by now better grounded. What is striking is the convergence of scholars of different traditions towards the recognition of this type of interpretation. In France, Jeanmaire as long ago as 1911 (in the age of Frazer) had written a careful article identifying the Spartan Krypteia as an initiation-ritual; and in 1939 he used his deep ethnographical knowledge to advance to a larger study of boys' initiation rituals (Couroi et Couretes). This embraced a particular view of the relationship of myths, for instance of Theseus, to this type of ritual. The major amplification of this approach came with Brelich's 'Rome school' (see below) work of 1969. Meanwhile, the work of Burkert had begun, leading to his provocative exploration of the significance of ritual in his 1972 Homo Necans. The prevalence of interest in myth-ritual matters independent of the scholar's academic tradition has led to some astonishing instances of mutual ignorance of each other's work: Brelich and Burkert were unaware of each other around 1969-70, for all their many similarities in method; and Pierre Brule and I, as he has said (if rather in jest), practically wrote the same book as each other. Perhaps I should cite the words of Calder in a different case: 'A conclusion that is independently reached by two expert investigators working without knowledge of each other is far more than twice as certain to be correct.' 12 Several examples of this type of interpetation will be found above all in chapter 7. But an initial example may help: Burkert, in an article that has proved something of a watershed (1970), argued that the murder of their husbands by the women of Lemnos (Ap 1.9.17) corresponds to a ritual separation of the sexes in a New Year festival which must have been held on Lemnos. The arrival of the Argonauts corresponds to the ritual arrival of a ship bringing new fire, and denotes the restoration of the state of marriage. Incidentally, the foul smell of the Lemnian women may correspond to a ritual chewing of garlic such as we find at the Athenian Thesmophoria. The principal limitation of the method is that it delivers explanation at an antiquarian level, but does not always explain the continuing interest and force of the myth in, for instance, classical Greek society. 'Rome school' This term has been applied to those scholars of the history of religions that work or worked in the Istituto di Studi storicoreligiosi at the University of Rome. In Greek mythology one thinks immediately of Brelich and, too slowly, of those whose work has not readily reached the English-speaking market: D. Sabbatucci, G. Piccaluga, M. Massenzio, I. Chirassi-Colombo. The Uses of Greek Mythology 26 Brelich (1977:5) identified two principles which these scholars had learnt from the founder of the Institute, R. Pettazzoni: (1) the importance of comparing information from different fields, in particular, 'ethnological' information - i.e. information from traditional cultures around the world; and (2) the need to set religion in an historical context. They look at particular myths and myth-types and seek to identify various layers relating to specific historical, social and religious data. Brelich (1977:16 f.) offers the following example. One version of the error of the great hunter Orion was excessive enthusiasm for slaughtering animals. 13 The error of Agamemnon was his boast over the slaughter of a deer (Ap Ep. 3.21). These errors reflect necessities in the life of pre-agricultural, hunting peoples (ethnology!) and have their roots in an unusually ancient layer of Greek myth and society (history!), which nevertheless, to judge by the amount of hunting in Greek myth, remains extensive. The style and area of discussion will depend greatly on the strata being examined. So, for instance, where the data pertain to religious ritual, modern myth-ritual conclusions will emerge: one of Brelich's major works, Paides e parthenoi (1969), links myths to initiation rituals, having carefully established the ethnological background for comparison. But Piccaluga's Lykaon (1968), though considering the linkage between myth of Lykaon and cult of Zeus Lykaios important, regards cult alone as an insufficient basis for understanding the myth. So she looks, for example, at the place of the unsavoury Lykaon in the intertext of Greek Mythology, evoking such figures as Busiris (Ap 2.5.11) and Tereus (Ap 3.14.8), and explores the ambivalent theme of water- water as deluge and water as a necessity for agriculture after the rupture of relations between man and god. Her view becomes all-embracing: botany, animal-life and meteorology all find their place. This influx of data from usually discrete fields is perhaps what Brelich meant to derive from Pettazzoni. Yet Brelich was reluctant to identify an unduly distinctive 'Rome school', and in practice the emphasis on history or varied cultural data is obviously not exclusive to their work. Brelich himself was a good deal more eclectic than his reluctant description suggests and it is surprising that his careful and humane scholarship was so little understood at the time in the Anglo-Saxon world. 'Paris school' The term 'Paris school' refers above all to J. -P. Vernant, P. Vidal Naquet and M. Detienne. The crisis for them has been to state their relationship to the work of Levi- Strauss. In effect, they stand much closer to concrete historical data and thereby close the gap between 'structuralism' and other approaches, though they may be tarred with the 'structuralist' brush, despite their protests: 'People christen us "structuralists" without my knowing exactly what they mean by the term when they stick this label on our backs' (Vernant in Gentili and Paioni 1977:398). In any case, it is clear that Vernant's approach owes more to the historical, anthropological approach of L. Gernet than to Levi-Strauss. On the other hand, Detienne has been prepared to view himself as deploying the method that Levi-Strauss really intended. If there is anything that these scholars have in common, other than being French, it is perhaps a great sensitivity to the issues, ambiences and tensions expressed in myth and the ability to construct a picture piece by piece. Thus, though Vidal Naquet's analysis of How myths work: the theories 27 the Athenian ephebeia - initiation-ritual and myths - in terms of its propositions and conclusions could have been written by Burkert or Brelich, a feeling, for instance, for the role of the colour black or for the meaning of hunting by oneself and with nets is evoked over and above the need to drive home an explicit ritual or social conclusion. This is even more evident in the case of Detienne's work on Adonis, where, for example, the sexual ambience of perfumes and the frigidity of lettuce contribute not only to a systematic understanding of the mythical environment of the Adonis myth and cult, but also to its place in the Athenian - and Greek - imagination. Vernant could never be mistaken for Burkert. His essays explore, realise possibilities, capture the feel and the imagination, but defy summary. Here he is concluding a study of themes of lameness, tyranny and incest in the Oedipus mythology and in the stories about the tyrants of Corinth, Kypselos and Periander: Despising the rules which preside over the ordering of the social fabric and which, through the regular inter-crossing of sons, determine the positions of each in relation to the others - or, as Plato puts it more crudely, ready to kill his father, sleep with his mother, eat the flesh of his own children - the tyrant, at once equal to the god and equal to a ferocious beast, incarnates in his ambivalence the mythic figure of the lame man, with his two opposing aspects: a gait beyond the human because in rolling, faster and more agile in all directions at once, he transgresses the limitations to which walking straight must submit; but also this side of the normal mode of locomotion because mutilated, unbalanced, vacillating, he advances limping in his singular fashion all the better to fall in the end. (Vernant 1982:34) We can all drift towards thinking that our approach solves all problems and displaces all others. Yet it is obvious enough that many of these approaches are mutually compatible. A myth may trace something of its construction to history, may be used in a superficial way to explain a ritual, may, when more deeply probed, tell us something about that ritual, may - viewed together with other myths - form part of a systematic, even unconscious, way of dividing up and thinking about the perceived world. Historicism, myth-ritual, structuralism all have their dangers, but they lie chiefly in exaggeration. I must confess to greater doubts about the role of psychoanalysis, though these relate more to how it should be applied and what sort of statements might validly result than to whether there is a valid role at all. It is fascinating that Caldwell has recently produced a structuralist look-alike of the psychoanalytic approach with tables that would do credit to Levi- Strauss. 14 We live in syncretistic times. Chapter 3 Greeks on myth 3.1 THE SIXTH AND FIFTH CENTURIES Greek culture valued its traditions. There is little sign in Homer or Hesiod of criticism of myth - except when Hesiod allows that the Muses could on occasion tell plausible lies (Theogony 27). Criticism only begins with two intellectual developments of the period 550-450 BC. The first, and earlier, was the emergence of philosophical and scientific thought in a series of individualists today generally labelled the 'Presocratic' philosophers (i.e. those before Socrates). On both scientific and moral grounds these thinkers found it difficult to continue to accept traditional theology and myth. The second development was the beginning of geographical, ethnographical and historical writing, which resulted from an increase in travel - and better observation. Yet, though much enthusiasm has been expended on these developments, neither really had much impact on the public at large. The thought of the Presocratics perhaps seeped through the cautious theology of the tragedians to mass audiences, but a much greater pressure was exerted by tradition, ritual and the poems of Homer. Historians and travellers may to an extent have improved the range of knowledge before audiences, but, as we shall see (e.g. chapter 8.2 ), they created mythologies of their own and often served only to move the ends of the earth or the times of legend a little further away. In addition, our view of history-writing suffers from the iceberg fallacy: we see Herodotos and Thucydides, but they are part of a larger prose tradition which as a whole was very receptive to traditional myth and even their relationship to this body of traditional knowledge is something which divides them from our notion of what it is to be an historian. Some Presocratic thinkers Any speculation about the nature of god is liable to lead sooner or later to the abandonment of literal belief in mythical pictures. Yet few Greeks felt ready simply to jettison their cultural heritage. It was not until around 500 BC that Xenophanes ridiculed the idea that gods were man-shaped - oxen would have an ox-shaped god, he observed. But he is less dismissive than he seems: he, too, names a shape for his special god - spherical. And even this rotund god, though apparently single, remains 'one god amongst gods and men', confusing modern monotheists who cannot easily understand why ancients with all the materials ready for monotheism persist in accommodating Greeks on myth 29 polytheism. He proceeds, however, to reject (fr. 14) the idea that gods are born (the basic motif of theo-gonies, 'births of gods') and, in particular, challenges the morality of myth: Homer and Hesiod have ascribed to the gods Everything all the disgraces and shame that mortals have - stealing, adultery, and cheating each other. (Xenophanes, fr. 11) Thus the traditional presentation is false and improper: as with the shape of god, it needs correction. Xenophanes' contemporary Herakleitos similarly does not wholly reject the name Zeus, commenting with characteristic obscurity that 'the Wise in its unity is alone not prepared and is prepared to be called by the name of Zeus' (fr. 32). But all the same he thought 'that Homer was fit to be thrown out of the games and beaten' (fr. 41). The very fact that Xenophanes and Herakleitos can see any way of keeping in touch with traditional religious concepts must mean that they can envisage a relationship between a traditional, mythically conceived world and the new philosophical-scientific world. Others began a more methodical defence of traditional myth, and, in particular, of Homer by supposing that what Homer said was not literally meant but allegorical. This method begins, we are told, with one Theagenes of Rhegion around 525 BC, as a method of finding an acceptable interpretation of Homer for the new age. An ancient commentator on Homer refers to Theagenes in explaining what is meant by Homer's battles between gods which so shocked thinkers: In fact, they say that it is [i.e. represents] the dry fighting the moist and the hot fighting the cold and the light fighting the heavy. Furthermore, water is what quenches fire and fire is what dries out water. And in the same way all the constituent elements of the universe display conflict and to an extent simply suffer destruction, whilst all remain eternally. He [Homer] laid out battles, calling fire 'Apollo' and 'Helios' and 'Hephaistos', water 'Poseidon' and 'Scamander', moon 'Artemis', the air 'Hera' and so on. Similarly on occasion he applies the names of gods to dispositions - 'Athene' to good sense, 'Ares' to insanity, 'Aphrodite' to desire, and 'Hermes' to reason - and makes them conform to these. This kind of defence, a very old one which goes back to Theagenes of Rhegion who first wrote about Homer, is based on diction. (Scholiast B on Homer Iliad 20.67 (= Theagenes 8T2)) It should not be thought that every equation here goes back to Theagenes, but some of them will, and a sort of common interpretation gradually builds up, which, for instance, will be dear to the hearts of Stoic philosophers in the Hellenistic Age. This is physical allegory - the figures of myth represent facts of what we would call science. This type of physical allegory is evidently being drawn on by Empedokles in the middle of the fifth century. He represents the four elements by god names: Zeus is fire (though in some places Hephaistos serves just as well), Hera is air, Aidoneus (i.e. Hades) is earth and an idiosyncratic 'Nestis' ('Starvation') is water. However, as is the way with The Uses of Greek Mythology 30 physical allegory, these have become mere physical elements and the real work in Empedokles' universe is done by two counterbalancing principles - Philotes ('Love') and Neikos ('Strife'). Around the same time, Anaxagoras is credited with an important development, if it is true. According to the second-century AD polymath and hermaphrodite Favorinus, Anaxagoras (59A1 para. 11) was the first to state that Homer's poetry was about virtue and morality. This would be the beginning, then, of moral allegory, of which we saw a sample in chapter 2.1 (p. 24). His follower Metrodoros of Lampsakos, on the other hand, took to a more physical allegory of sophistic bravado, but little plausibility: Agamemnon was the aether, Achilles the sun, Helen the earth, Alexandros (Paris) the air, Hektor the moon and the others were named on the same lines as these. As for the gods, Demeter was the liver [i.e. as a seat of emotions], Dionysos the spleen, and Apollo the bile. (Metrodoros (61T4) reported by Philodemos) Response to traditions These avant-garde thinkers were in no sense typical even of writers. A much more conventional and mainstream tradition is represented by Akousilaos of Argos, who in his Genealogies of around 500 BC retold the traditional accounts that most later authors knew from Hesiod. Sometimes he added an Argive perspective, telling, for instance, the tale of the First Man in local Argive tradition, Phoroneus (FGH 2F23). 1 Sometimes he improved on Hesiod by producing more 'knowledgeable' variants of these traditions (T6). So, for example, when Ouranos (Heaven) was castrated, the drops of semen that fell to earth begat not giants but the Phaiakians - for Odysseus to meet in the Odyssey (F4); Iris (Rainbow) is the messenger not just of Zeus, or alternatively of Hera, but of all the gods (F9); and all biting creatures come from the blood of Typhon, Zeus' most dangerous enemy (F14). Beyond this, there are a number of revisions to genealogical chains for reasons rarely apparent to us. Akousilaos displays no historical sense: he does not reach beyond Greek mythology (i.e. any later than the Trojan War) and his sense of accuracy is restricted to corrections, for instance, of the genealogy of 'legendary' Argive kings. Disbelief is simply suspended. Yet the historical character of Greek mythology can create special problems for those Greeks more concerned with historical accuracy. On the one hand, they can see as plainly as we can that the traditions about, for example, Pelops and Agamemnon are on a different footing from recorded history. But, on the other hand, these are the only traditions relating to times which otherwise would be blank - only myth can fill the historical vacuum. The compromise position generally reached is that myth is indeed historical evidence, but it is rather special or distorted. Those that are particularly scrupulous or confident will adjust myths to make historical sense. This adjustment is known today as 'rationalisation'. 'Rationalisation of myth' usually conjures up the name of Hekataios of Miletos, a politician active, as we can see from Herodotos (5.36, 125f., 6.137), during the failed revolt of the Ionians from Persia (499-494 BC). A contemporary, maybe, of Akousilaos, he was as interested in tradition as in geography and ethnography and he wrote a Greeks on myth 3 1 Genealogies of his own about the origins of Greek (and other) tribes and places. A distinctive critical attitude is the keynote of his opening: 'Hekataios of Miletos gives this account [mytheisthai, archaically?]: I write this in the way which seems true to me - because the accounts [logoi] of the Greeks are, as they seem to me, numerous and laughable' (Hekataios, FGH 1F1). One's expectations should not be unduly raised. He tells a story of the origins of wine in Aitolia: a pregnant bitch gives birth to a rooted vine-stock; Orestheus, the son of Deukalion (the Greek Noah), orders it buried; and that is where grapes come from (F15). Or take the story of how the ram with the golden fleece (Ap 1.9.1) actually spoke to Phrixos, urging him to escape on its back: 'the story that the ram spoke is in Hekataios' (F17). It was left to others to rationalise this one: Phrixos sailed off in a boat with a ram- shaped prow, or perhaps, as Dionysios Skytobrachion thought (32F2, second century BC), 'Ram' was the name of the slave who had brought him up and this man sailed with him to Kolchis. Herakles' fight with the Hydra of Lerna is especially disappointing: Aelian gives 'poets and composers of ancient myths' a licence to tell this story 'and Hekataios the logos-writer belongs with them' (1F24). So what of the rationalisations of Hekataios? He had traced the actual route of the Argonauts (F18) - a persistent fascination of misguided books down to our own days. He knew the tale of the Danaids and how the sons of Aigyptos pursued them to Argos: 'Aigyptos himself did not come to Argos - only his children. There were 50 of them according to Hesiod but to my mind less than 20' (Hekataios, FGH 1F19). Geryon and the cattle Herakles stole were nothing to do with Spain and that region, but belonged to north-west Greece (F26). And Herakles did not bring the dog Kerberos from Hades: he brought back a fearsome snake which lived at Tainaron, the reputed entrance to the underworld, and the snake was called 'dog of Hades' because its bite was so deadly (F27). So Hekataios makes adjustments to these traditions to allow for distortions in the course of transmission. There is no notion that these traditions were never designed to tell a literal truth; they have simply gone wrong and the damage time has done, man can repair. Akousilaos was perhaps the dominant influence on Pherekydes of Athens in a rather more extensive genealogical work which was apparently entitled Histories (meaning, as in Herodotos, 'Researches'). He wrote uncomfortably late (maybe 460-450 BC) for those who wish the Greeks to advance from Mythos to Logos ('more primitive impression... practically no fundamental myth-criticism', remarks Nestle (1941:141)), and serves to demonstrate how utterly the Greeks remained committed to myth despite enlightenments. His is the path that ultimately leads to Apollodoros. At much the same time as Pherekydes, or possibly a little later, Hellanikos of Lesbos was himself writing rather thorough genealogy-mythology (up to and including the Trojan War). But he is also the first 'universal historian', i.e. the first man to attempt to write a total history from the beginning. His framework for this is a chronology supplied by the list of the priestesses at Argos, which of course went back indiscriminately to the times of myth, and he used the list to specify the events during each priesthood. His book was far from historical, being full of population movements led by fictional bearers of tribal and local names: 'Nisaia [one of Megara's ports] was captured by Nisos son of Pandion [king of Athens] and by Megareus from Onchestos' (Hellanikos, FGH 4F78). He is, however, the first to put dates on myths - for instance dating the Trojan War in The Uses of Greek Mythology 32 relation to other events that did not happen. A characteristic passage is reported as follows: The author who put together the Priestesses in Argos and what was done under each priestess says that Aeneas came from the Molossians to Italy and became, together with Odysseus, the founder of the city, naming it 'Rome' after one of the Trojan women. (Hellanikos, FGH 4F84) Tagging this sort of event to a particular priesthood makes it history, for in Hellanikos' mind there was no difference between myth and history. In fact it must be said that despite the impression given by many books, there is precious little historical writing or sense in Hellanikos. According to Thucydides (1.97.2), he touched briefly and inaccurately on the Athenian rise to power in the period 479-432 BC in his work on Attica, but this is an exception, if an important one: his was the first in a very popular genre of Athenian local histories, of which little remains today. As in his other local histories, in this case too he was interested in places, institutions and mythical colour, laying the foundations for Pausanias in the second century AD and the Michelin Guides Verts in the twentieth. Such writers do, however, differ in their propensity for 'improving' myth. One who was very much so inclined was Herodoros of Herakleia, who around 400 BC wrote a number of works devoted to mythological subjects. One was on the Argonauts, one a Pelopeia (matters connected with Pelops), one on Orpheus and Mousaios (famous prophets both), but the most influential was the work on Herakles in a staggering 17 books. He was clearly a virtuoso in precision, if he could actually put a name to the boy (Eunomos) that Herakles accidentally cuffed to death (FGH 31F3). Or you might learn that Herakles taking over the pillars of the world from Atlas signified the acquisition of knowledge of the heavens by learned study (F13), or that there were in fact eight Herakleses (and two Orpheuses) - to account for what legend tells of them (F14, F42). I call this last process, so popular amongst Greek scholars and biographers ('n of the same name'), differentiation. Herodoros' moral allegory could be elaborate: to win the three apples of the Hesperides Herakles had to kill the dragon of desire with the club of philosophy, clothed in the lion-skin of noble spirit. And the three apples? - refraining from anger, money-grubbing and the life of pleasures (F14). 'Historians' History is the priestess of Truth. (Dionysios, On Thucydides 8) It is against the background of these writers that we should understand other writers that we (but not the Greeks of the time) starkly distinguish with the label of 'historian'. Traditionally the label is first applied to Herodotos, maybe a younger contemporary of Hellanikos. His focus is on the great achievements and interest of men of the past: if he does not register them, then they are likely to be forgotten (1.1). So his primary task is Greeks on myth 33 actually the preservation of worthwhile tradition. Greek Mythology is by his time in no danger of being forgotten: his subject is therefore later and for that single reason historical. His achievement is to understand that we can learn as much from more recent tradition as from the ancient mythical traditions that everyone knew and could read about. His opening pages appear neatly to separate myth from history. First we see myth. Io, who in the Greek myth wandered cow-shaped over the earth from Argos to Egypt thanks to the lust of Zeus and its detection by Hera, is given a new, rationalised story: now, implausibly, it is studious (logioi - Detienne 1986:56) Persians who tell how Io was an Argive princess abducted by Phoenician merchants. There follow the abductions of Medea, and of Helen (with recriminations between east and west) - and the Trojan War, with which myth ends. Constant rationalisation, with competing accounts from Persians and from Greeks, gives the illusion of history. It is hard to tell whether Herodotos means us to take it seriously - it is certainly a good story. Then he draws the distinction: Personally, on this subject I am not going to say it happened in one way or the other. Rather, I will proceed with my logos by indicating the man I know for myself to have been the first to begin unjust action towards the Greeks. (Herodotos 1.5.3) This is Kroisos, the last king of Lydia, who lost his kingdom to the Persians in 547 BC. But Herodotos' distinction is not ours: for us, Io, Medea and Helen are myth, Kroisos history. For Herodotos, Io, Medea and Helen are the distorted remnants of history, where one cannot say that it happened this way or that: the evidence only becomes strong enough for personal assurance with Kroisos. Interestingly, Io is where history begins for Hellanikos too: she is the first Priestess at Argos. Not even Thucydides seems to know the difference between myth and history: Before the Trojan War Hellas [Greece] clearly did nothing jointly: in my opinion, it did not yet have this name as a whole: before Hellen ['Greek'] son of Deukalion [= Noah] this name did not exist at all... but when Hellen and his sons gained power in Phthiotis [part of Thessaly] and people invited them in to the other cities for assistance, group by group they now gradually were called Hellenes by association. (Thucydides 1.3.2) In this section of his history, the so-called 'archaeologia', Thucydides recovers as far as he can the style and scale of earlier expeditions, in particular the Trojan War, in comparison with his own subject, the Peloponnesian War. Yet for all its insights, brilliant arguments and ingenious hypotheses, Thucydides is writing another rationalisation of myth. Hellanikos did not hesitate to talk of Nisos founder of Nisaia and Megareus of Megara; nor does Thucydides flinch at 'Greek, son of Noah' who with his 'sons' gave the Greeks their name. Thucydides' Homer is rather a documentary writer too: There is no reason to be distrustful... one must accept that this expedition [the Trojan War] was the greatest hitherto, though small by modern The Uses of Greek Mythology 34 standards, if one can trust the poetry of Homer on this point - where in all likelihood, being a poet, he exaggerated for effect. (Thucydides 1.10.3) Is this really so different from Hekataios reducing Hesiod's estimate of the number of the sons of Aigyptos from 50 to 20 minus? Thucydides displays superb handling of evidence, but not even he challenges the basic historicity of myth. 3.2 PLATO ON MYTH It is natural that Plato (428-348 BC) reacted adversely to what were accepted as facts about the gods and heroes when he came to envisage education and society in his Republic. He does not specially object to myth as fiction, though this is not a point in its favour as Greek uses the same term, pseudos, to cover both fiction and falsity: 'At first we tell myths to children. This, as a general rule I suppose, is pseudos ['false/fictional'], though there is truth in amongst it' (Plato, Republic 377a). However, there are good and bad myths and most of the present myths, says Socrates, must be rejected (377c). Homer and Hesiod are particularly culpable because they misrepresent the nature of 'gods and heroes' (377e). It is not so much that what they say is false as that they are bad fictions, and Plato cites the castration of Ouranos by Kronos (Hesiod, Theogony 180-1) and that area of the mythology altogether (378a). Likewise, Plato cites the long-criticised battles and conspiracies of the gods against each other; and he specifically rejects the allegorical solution because the young are in no position to make that adjustment (378d). Plato's replacement mythology would stress how gods are responsible for all that is good in the world but for none of the evil (379c), how they are consistent and unchanging even down to their physical appearance (382e). When it comes to heroes, the basic rule is that they must be represented in a way which will support, and not undermine, the cardinal virtues. So the expedition of Theseus and Peirithoos to abduct Helen is intolerable (391b-d) and so is Achilles' behaviour in dragging Hektor's corpse around Patroklos' tomb (condemned even by Homer, Iliad 22.395). Plato's condemnation of existing myth is instigated by its educational context, but it is scarcely restricted to that context. Because these myths provide clearly unacceptable models of behaviour, they fail absolutely. Whilst it is true that he offers no opinion about the general validity of allegorical interpretation, he does leave the impression that the works of the poets are false/ fictional anyway and that allegory is therefore pointless. Yet he still recognises a place for myth, both within his proposed educational system and - in a new development - as a form of presentation of ideas in his own literary works. For one thing, he envisages a replacement mythology within the educational system. Then there is what is traditionally translated as the 'noble lie' - though the word at issue is again our fiction/falsity word (pseud-, 414c) and Plato casts it as a mythos (415a). In any case this perpetuates Plato's proposed caste system by viewing individuals as having various metals - gold, silver, bronze, iron - in their make-up, carrying forward Hesiod's metaphor of the progressive degradation of successive generations from the Golden Age to the Age of Iron (Works and Days, 109-76). Finally there is that most glorious of inventions, the extended myth used in Plato's works when ordinary language Greeks on myth 35 and reasoning can carry him no further. This is where he turns to stories of the soul and what happens after death in the manner of the Pythagoreans. In this use lies an extraordinary recognition of the possibilities of understanding that lie beyond ordinary language and that are accessible through a medium which is the bearer of a different truth. Ironically, the approach of some modern scholars to the traditional mythology supposes it to be nearer Plato's heart than he thought. Plato's view of his own myths is a mystic one and was taken up by more erudite mystics throughout antiquity. For such intellectuals the problem of the old mythology remained, though few followed Plato in wishing its abolition. Instead the path of allegorical reinterpretation, begun by Theagenes, was blended with Platonic ideology and produced in the fullness of time the notion of Homer the Theologian. This is what we find in Pseudo-Herakleitos (from whom we cited a passage on p. 24) and in the middle Platonic and Neoplatonic tradition, but that leads us too far from our more grass-roots concerns. Plato is the prism through which the light of the Presocratics is refracted into the schools of philosophy that dominated the Hellenistic and Roman ages. In mythology perhaps myths about conflicts between gods would never be quite the same again. But in the case of heroic myths the tragedians were every bit as persuasive as Plato feared. 3.3 THE FOURTH CENTURY AND BEYOND Universal history A generation younger than Plato, Ephoros (c. 405-330 BC) wrote antiquity's most celebrated universal (i.e. complete), history. He made an interesting decision: 'He dispensed with the telling of the ancient myths and adopted as the starting-point for his history an account of events after the Return of the Herakleidai' (Diodoros of Sicily, Historical Library 4.1.3). The 'Return of the Sons of Herakles' is of course itself a myth, defining the populations and dialect structure of historical Greece. It may reflect an actual arrival in mainland Greece of the Dorian and north-west Greeks at the beginning of the Dark Age, though this is disputed (chapter 4.4). Regardless of whether it does, this alleged movement of peoples opens the next chapter after Greek Mythology, which had finished on the Trojan War and its aftermath, and in some way Ephoros recognised this. Diodoros, writing his own universal history during the stormy transition of Rome from Republic to Principate (c. 50-30 BC), viewed Ephoros' decision as resulting from practical difficulties. I paraphrase: 1 The time gap: the modern writer is too far removed from these events. 2 Dates cannot be established accurately and readers find this irritating. 3 In practical terms it is very difficult to organise the details of all those heroes, demigods, men. 4 Above all, there is no consensus in existing authors on 'the most ancient deeds and myths'. These are the concerns of historians with difficult, but historical sources, recalling Herodotos' decision to start with Kroisos. Diodoros himself, interestingly, is undaunted, The Uses of Greek Mythology 36 showing perhaps an increased dependence of later writers on a sense of tradition and antiquity and a corresponding weakening of the historical spirit which we attribute to a Herodotos or Ephoros: In fact, an enormous number of major deeds have been accomplished by the heroes, demigods and many other fine men. Because of the benefit society has derived from their actions, later generations have introduced worship, with sacrifices, to some as gods and to others as heroes. And the record of history has hymned them all with appropriate praise for all time. (Diodoros of Sicily, Historical Library 4.1.4) For Diodoros, as for most Greeks, the heroes of the past were real and so, if somewhat distorted, were the stories about them. Perhaps there had in fact been more than one Dionysos (the method of Herodoros has taken off), but no one would doubt his reality. Amongst Diodoros' sources was a curious writer of around 300 BC, one Euhemeros. This man had composed a fiction, the Hiera Anagraphe 'Sacred Record', in which a column recorded the achievements of notable kings of the past - Zeus, Kronos, Ouranos - who, by a distortion of memory, were thought of as gods. This was the ultimate historicism and is known today as 'Euhemerism'. The shock of Euhemerism is that it reduces even the most distanced mythology to history: Zeus becomes a man just like Achilles or Perikles. This should alert us to the gradations in reality which Greeks, or at least some Greeks, were capable of perceiving in mythology. This is outstandingly revealed in Artemidoros' second-century AD book on dream-interpretation, which dissects myths as closely as all the other things we dream of: But remember that you [i.e. the dream-interpreter] must only pay attention to stories that are believed to be wholly true on the basis of extensive valid evidence, e.g. the Persian Wars and, before that, the Trojan War etc. In these cases you can see their quarters, the locations of their lines of battle, the sites of their camps, places where cities were founded and altars erected and everything else that goes along with this. Also, you should pay attention to stories which are constantly told and believed by most people, e.g. about Prometheus and Niobe and the various heroes of tragedies - because even if these were not so, all the same because they are accepted by most people, they turn out in accordance with their outlines [i.e. once dreamed, they offer a basis for prediction]. But as for all the faded stories, full of nonsense and rubbish, like the Gigantomachy business [Ap 1.6.1] and the Sown Men in Thebes [Ap 3.4.1] and again in Kolchis [Ap 1.9.23] etc., either they will not turn out accurately or as we were saying above they nullify every rationale and defy expectation; they suggest vain and empty hopes, except insofar as any of these mythic elements allows physical allegory. (Artemidoros, Dream Interpretation 4.49) Tablets of stone Greeks on myth 37 Finally, it may help our understanding of the historical view of myth to see it written in tablets of stone - and that is just what the so-called Marmor Parium ('Marble of Paros') provides. This remarkable inscription records one man's chronological table of history from the first king of Athens, Kekrops (chapter 5.6), to his own day, namely 264 BC. In the table below I have made a selection and paraphrased a little: 2 Table 3.1 A selection from the Marmor Parium 1581 Kekrops becomes king and names the country Kekropia - it had BC previously been called Aktike after Aktaios the autochthon [for autochthony see p. 75 below]. 1528 Deukalion's flood. BC 1531 Contest between Ares and Poseidon over the future 'Areopagos' ['Hill of BC Ares'] at Athens. 1520 Hellen ['Greek'] becomes king. BC 1510 Arrival of Danaos from Egypt in the first ever pentekontoroi ['50-oared' BC ships]. 1505 Erichthonios becomes king. Panathenaia festival first held. BC 1462 Minos [the elder] becomes king of Crete. Iron is discovered on Ida by the BC Idaian Dactyls. 1397 BC First mysteries at Eleusis. 1259 BC Theseus brings about the synoikism of the 12 cities into one Athenian state and introduces democracy. 1256 BC Campaign of the Amazons against Athens. 1251 BC Campaign of the Seven against Thebes. 1218 BC Trojan War begins. 1209 BC Troy captured, on the seventh day of the waning moon of the month Thargelion. 1208 BC Orestes acquitted at the Areopagos. 1077 BC Neleus founds Miletos and other places in Ionia. 937 BC The poet Hesiod emerges. 907 BC Homer emerges. ? 790 BC Archias founds Syracuse. 683 BC Archonship annual. 645 BC Terpander revises the musical modes. 605 BC Alyattes becomes king of the Medes. 603/596 Sappho escapes to Sicily. BC The Uses of Greek Mythology 38 581/562 Establishment of the comic chorus at Athens. BC 561 BC Peisistratos becomes tyrant at Athens. 490 BC Battle of Marathon. 485 BC Aeschylus' first victory (in the tragedy contest), Euripides born. 324 BC Death of Alexander the Great. Although this is only a selection, I should emphasise, even in the complete text, a sudden loss of detail after Orestes in 1208 Until then there had been 25 entries; it only takes a further seven entries to get from 1208 to 683 BC. There are two reasons for this phenomenon, both of which are revealing: first, real historical information just peters out in the Dark Age and the quantity of what precedes is a measure of the success with which myth masquerades as history of the prehistoric period. But second, this period of beginnings, firsts and legend has a magic aura about it, luring the Greeks into their mythology. That is what it is for. 3.4 THE CULTURAL PREVALENCE OF MYTH Myth was deeply embedded in Greek culture. Most factual writers in all ages, even whilst questioning details, accepted the claim of myth to report a past era. It is not hard to understand this. Today, we have the consolation of a long literary tradition and of a well- developed science of archaeology to compensate for man's lost history and to free Christians from the over-dependence on the genealogies of the Old Testament that shackled centuries not so distant from our own. The Greeks had nothing but their mythology. Nor were they exceptional: it was the fate of several Indo-European mythologies to be or become viewed as history. Persian 'history' contains a whole mythic dynasty of kings, the Kayanids (Puhvel 1987: 122f.). And in Rome, traditional stories preserved by Livy and others as its history are probably largely mythological to the fall of the Kingdom ('509 BC). The stories of the early Republic, too, must often be viewed with great suspicion, even if the Roman annalist historians can assign events to years - giving an even better illusion of historicity than by assigning them to priesthoods in Argos. Meanwhile, Greek poets, who so often avoided the individual, the personal and the contemporary, lived from the beginning to the end of antiquity in a world of myth: Homer and Hesiod at the beginning, Nonnos' 48-book epic celebrating Dionysos at the end. And understandably: Greeks were taught myths from the cradle by their mothers and nannies - a practice which Plato had identified as one which it was necessary to subvert in the interests of the propaganda of morality - and they were educated to regard Homer and the Tragedians as closer to the Bible than to Shakespeare. Wherever they turned, expensive works of art in public and prestigious places reinforced the lesson that mythology was at the heart of their culture and its values. Wherever a Pausanias sought explanation of a landscape or its customs, mythology was at hand. And whenever it was time for serious theatre, not just in classical Athens, but throughout antiquity, the old myths were there to be recycled. Greeks on myth 39 During the Empire it became a matter of social one-upmanship to know utterly obscure mythical names or to have views on what the names might be - even for Romans. And Roman poets signed up for cultural recognition by retelling and alluding to the mythology of the Greeks (for they had none left to call their own). In Petronius' Satyricon, Trimalchio, an appalling upstart and nouveau riche, reveals his inadequacy through his disgraceful failure to command the facts of mythology. This would disgrace him by the standards of culture which the court of Nero might recognise and for which Petronius was a trend-setter. Nero himself subscribed to this Greek culture by his devotion to their mythological art: had he not, muttered the disaffected aristocrats, sung his very own Fall of Troy as Rome burned? Part II Myth and the past Chapter 4 Myth and prehistory 4.1 THE WELL OF THE PAST Very deep is the well of the past. Should we not call it bottomless? (Thomas Mann, Joseph and his Brothers, trans. H.T. Lowe-Porter) Does human society evolve? Are its various features and aspects organisms like man himself, that are born and grow till they are what we see today? Maybe, but to think so is to surrender to a metaphor. Perhaps the metaphor is useful for political systems or the history of engineering, but other aspects are so deeply ingrown in human nature that their beginnings seem untraceable or even implausible. The origins of religion fascinated speculators in the nineteenth century, but no evidence takes us to a time before men became religious. Equally, few theories are more entertaining than those which tell how language first developed, but there is no evidence for a Homo sapiens who did not speak. If, then, we cannot reach a time when man was without religion or speech and if we cannot find societies so primitive that they have no traditional stories, how can we believe that mythology had a beginning which we can conceive? The well of mythology is to all intents bottomless. We cannot imagine, either, that Greek mythology was invented as a whole new set of stories to replace what had gone before and I do not think that, in so traditional a society, stories were constantly being invented and discarded. The Greek mythology that is known to us is a late stage in a millennia-long series of adjustments. Not evolution, not development, just change - in reaction to social environment. The Greek language, as we know beyond reasonable doubt, descends in large part from an earlier language, which we call Indo-European (purists like to call it 'Proto-Indo- European'). This language was perhaps spoken in the fourth millennium BC across a wide area north of the Black Sea. Indo-European has left no undisputed remains except the languages and cultures derived and descended from it. These include most of the languages of Europe (e.g. Latin, Russian, German, English, Welsh) and others further east (e.g. Sanskrit, Persian, Hittite). They exclude, for instance, Hungarian and Finnish (Finno-Ugrian group), Akkadian in Babylon, Phoenician, Hebrew and Arabic (Semitic group), and Old Egyptian (Hammitic, related to Semitic). Different nations may share similar words and similar myths because they have inherited them from their common ancestors; they may also share similar words or myths because their different ancestors The Uses of Greek Mythology 42 came into contact during the course of history and one learnt from the other. So both words and myths may be either (a) inherited, or (b) taken over from other cultures. I do not have room in this book to deal with the borrowing of myths, though it is of particular importance in the study of Hesiod's mythology. There, connections with Near Eastern myths look strong and lead readily to the supposition of borrowing during the Dark Age. However, it is worth reflecting that it is the early use of writing in Near Eastern cultures which allows these discussions. To our joy, their writings - unlike the dreary account-tablets of Mycenaean Linear B - include strange and captivating mythology. Though Greeks must have shared myths with other cultures (perhaps Phrygians, or Illyrians), we are only going to discover examples when they are actually written down. Hence discussion of borrowing will privilege the connections of Greek myth with the Near East. 1 Inherited myths are less easily identified than inherited words. A word combines a meaning or application with a sequence of arbitrary and quite complicated sounds, whose development is sufficiently regular for us to state almost scientific 'laws' of sound- change. For instance, our word 'daughter' can be identified as the same word in origin as the Greek 'thygater' and Sanskrit 'duhitar-', which allow the reconstruction of an Indo- European *dhugH 2 ter, delivering more or less what is expected in each language where it survives. Myths, however, are narratives consisting of sequences of often obvious motifs, which can be found the world over in traditional stories ('folk-tales', see chapter 7.3). So it is hard to say that this or that myth is sufficiently distinctive and sufficiently like another to derive from a common ancestor. Yet it does happen on occasion. One example, which has been thoroughly tested for coincidence by Ward (1968: chapter 1), is the Indo-European myth of horsemen twins who must rescue their sister/wife. In the Sanskrit tradition, the twin Asvins ('horsemen'), Divo napata ('sons/descendants of Dyauh'), jointly woo and marry Surya, daughter of the Sun Surya. Meanwhile, in Latvian songs, two or more horsemen, Dieva deli ('sons of Dievs'), woo Saules meita ('the sun's daughter', sometimes just Saule herself). The comparison is the more interesting for the fact that the Indo-European sky god, *Dyeus, the principal god of the Indo-Europeans, like his Greek manifestation, Zeus, has lost his significance in both these cultures. We do not, however, have to go far to find the corresponding Greek twins: the Dioskouroi ('sons of Zeus'), the twin horsemen Kastor and Polydeukes (Castor and Pollux in Latin). The figure corresponding to Surya/Saule, the sun maid, is almost as clearly their sister Helen, whose name might just, as Puhvel has argued, be related to helios ('sun') and that in turn to 'Surya' and 'Saule' (Puhvel 1987:59f., 225f., 141-3). In general, ancients turned to the Dioskouroi for rescue - especially if they were mariners in distress; but myth presents them as the rescuers of Helen, seized (in one descendant of this Indo-European myth) by Theseus. But there is another, more familiar, descendant of this Indo-European myth. It obviously lies behind the twin Atreidai, Agamemnon and Menelaus, going to recover Menelaus' wife - Helen - from Troy. The story of the Trojan War is not quite as historical as it seems. This is a rare example of the visibility of Indo-European myth in Greek myth. 2 Greek myth, like Greek religion, is very hard indeed to associate with other Indo-European cultures. The names of Greek gods, with the exception of Zeus and his faded feminine counterpart Dione (replaced by Hera), cannot readily be compared with those of other Myth and prehistory 43 nations. What can be responsible for this alienation from the Indo-European inheritance? The answer must lie amongst the non-Indo-European nations whose cultures some Indo- Europeans absorbed on their way to becoming the Greeks that we know. Scholars used to talk freely of a substratum, a 'layer underneath', implying that the Greeks themselves were a superstratum (a 'layer on top'). But these are antiseptic images: they belie the merging of cultures which took place over a period of time in ways which are not easy for us to understand. Apart from mute archaeological remains, we have little useful knowledge of the cultures which preceded the 'Greeks' in Greece (and even less of what cultures these embryonic Greeks met on the way to Greece). Indeed we do not even know for a fact when the 'Greeks' arrived in Greece or whether we should talk of anything so definite as an 'arrival'. Changes in pottery styles suggest an emergence around 1900 BC, but no one has refuted Palmer's view that 1600 BC is the more likely moment. 4.2 MYTHOLOGY AND THE MYCENAEAN AGE The Mycenaean world What is clear, however, is that the Mycenaean Age of Greece, the age of the great palaces, played a decisive role in the formation of Greek Mythology. This was first clearly seen by Nilsson (1932), long before the decipherment of the Linear B tablets (in the 1950s) proved that the Mycenaeans were Greeks. In The Mycenaean Origin of Greek Mythology Nilsson argued that 'the mythical importance of a town corresponds to its importance in the Mycenaean age and civilisation' (1932:130). This thesis, of course, has a corollary too: 'the great mythical cycles also which are attached to the Mycenaean centers go back into the Mycenaean age' (1932:34). The importance of this thesis cannot be overstated: there was a cultural continuity from the Mycenaean Age to the Historical Age, regardless of the disturbances and silences of the archaeological record. Nilsson's thesis can easily be illustrated, whether we turn to Eurystheus of Mycenae sending Herakles on his labours or to Proitos of Tiryns, whose walls the Kyklopes built. Whichever Pylos Nestor ruled over (I do not believe it was the one in Messenia, despite modern enjoyment of its remains - Dowden 1989:97f.; Nilsson 1932:83f.), it was uninhabited by historical times. Despite a few problems, as we shall see, the basic theory must be accepted. It may even be true in a more systematic sense than Nilsson contemplated. Greek Mythology, as organised by location, tribe and genealogy at the end of the Dark Age, at some level represented, mapped, registered, even justified Greece at the end of the preceding age - at the time when it had last been settled and, if you like, authentic. It also expressed the passing of this world, mythologically deconstructing it through the stories of the Theban and Trojan Wars. Was the mythology, maybe, an expression of insecurity in the face of changes in tribal distribution and dislocation of populations during the Dark Age? Did it mediate between the equally impossible alternatives of acceptance and rejection of the new order? In any case, this was the version of the mythology that went on the record thanks to the epic tradition. And epic was strong amongst those who had migrated from a disturbed world to Asia Minor whilst clinging to the traditions (and even place names - Dowden 1989:56 and n.13) of the mainland. It was The Uses of Greek Mythology 44 a version of mythology with which historical 'Dorians' would find it difficult to cope: Kleomenes of Sparta, when the priestess of Athene barred him from the inner shrine on the Athenian acropolis in 508 BC, was driven to the remark, 'Madam, I am not a Dorian: I am an Achaian' (Herodotos 5.72.3). 3 Any state endorsed by myth must be ruled by a king. In the historical period kings were few and political power was more a matter, on however restricted a basis, of community and solidarity, rather than of autocratic direction. Myth, however, is a prehistory and the Greeks thought (rightly, so far as we can see) that 'there were kingdoms everywhere in Greece in ancient times, not democracies' (P 9.1.2). So from our point of view, myth shadows the Mycenaean palace-based societies and indeed is often sited in their centres. But kings also make effective heroes of stories, and because they personally direct events have more explanatory power. Aetiology is therefore likely to privilege them regardless of the political institutions prevailing at the time (see further chapter 9.1). So it is an open question whether the prevalence of kings leads us straight into the institutions of Mycenaean Greece (Brelich 1977:20). And it may have been a rather different kingship from that which people of classical times might envisage. The Mycenaean kings ruled from palaces which presupposed a different economic and social landscape. Nor can their rule have been as tidily absolute as myths would lead-us to believe: the seeds of the later oligarchies must already have been planted by the dependence of kings on the consent of other leaders of clans and groups. Myth does not present us with a Mycenaean wanax - the institution of the great 'lord' running his palace economy is displaced by a projection of a classical image of autocrats. Mycenaean history There is of course no Mycenaean history. There is Mycenaean archaeology and there is Greek Mythology. Archaeology has its limits as an historical tool: I do not think we can use it to distinguish between various Greek tribes; and we certainly cannot discover much about named important individuals of the past. There is no narrative. Greek Mythology purports to tell about the remote past, which must on chronological grounds be set in the Mycenaean age, but to believe it is to misunderstand its purpose (chapter 2.1, pp. 23-4), however desperate we may be for such information. Myth is treacherous because its accounts of peoples and individuals are usually designed to construct identities and make statements, as we shall see in chapter 5. Indeed, given the propensity of myth for creating eponyms, figure-heads and persons on whom to focus key events in 'history', I think it is not going too far to say that there is not a single individual in mythology in whose actual existence we can believe. Apart from names of purely administrative importance on Linear B tablets (and maybe, in the Hittite archives, a certain Eteokles disrupting Hittite foreign policy at Miletos - if that is what lies under the name Tawagalawos) 4 we know nothing about any Greek until 'Homer' and Hesiod themselves. Even Lykourgos at Sparta and Theseus at Athens are, I think, myths (pp. 112, 88 below). On the other hand, myth embeds material which may result from the actual history and self-definition of the Mycenaean Age. Myth may teach us something worthwhile about places and peoples, though it must always be cross-questioned for its motives in doing so. Myth and prehistory 45 Following up Nilsson's thesis, we can view myth as confirmatory evidence for the prominence of some centres. It was worth looking for Mycenae, if not for Agamemnon's death-mask or Atreus' personal treasury. Tiryns, Argos and a 'Pylos' mattered, and so did Sparta, Orchomenos, Thebes and Iolkos. The importance of Ithaka has been inflated by Homer's focus on Odysseus and someone's mysterious decision to site him there (Nilsson 1932:99) - his association with Penelope in fact belongs in the southern Peloponnese. Conversely, the indisputable palace at Gla (on Lake Kopais in Boiotia) seems to have sunk without trace in the mythology, and Midea in the Argolid is almost as bad. Nilsson (1932:128f.) put this down to the relatively short period for which these sites were occupied; evidently, they did not survive long enough into the Dark Age to secure their place in the mythological tradition. More accurately, the absence of a major site in Arcadia is matched by the absence of any major centres in the mythology. Other places can be discerned as late arrivals: Corinth only gets in by a spurious identification with a rather minor town of 'Ephyre' somewhere 'in a corner of Argos' (Iliad 6.152 - that is where Bellerophon came from). Argos was hyped during the Dark Age, taking over the authority that had been Mycenae's, and so was Athens, a very minor place in traditional myth. Places like Mantinea in Arcadia, or Tanagra in Boiotia (was it perhaps Homer's 'Graia', Iliad 2.498 - and would it matter anyway?) are nowhere. Beyond the mainland, one feels the presence of Crete, maybe in the form of Knossos or the cave on Mt Dikte, or maybe in the person of King Minos. Out in the Aegean islands, it is curious that Homer is interested in Aeolic sites like Skyros, Lesbos, Tenedos, Lemnos and, of course, Troy, but not in Ionian Chios or Samos (Nilsson 1932:54). Perhaps not quite a question about mainstream mythology, but interesting anyway, is how closely Homer's Catalogue of Ships (Iliad 2.484-760) reproduces the geography of Mycenaean Greece at such a distance in time (400-500 years). Certainly Hope Simpson and Lazenby have demonstrated a surprising degree of accuracy. 5 But here we become aware that Homer filters Greek tradition and that Nilsson's thesis only works because the oral traditions propagated above all by the epic poets were concerned to preserve a particular Mycenaean map. My guess is that the epic preserved the traditions of Aeolic Greece - of old Thessaly, Boiotia, Argos, Triphylia (Pylos), maybe even Lakonia - and of the Aeolic migration towards the Troad. All these sites are places where history happened, though (apart from archaeological clues to destructions and depopulations) we do not know what that history was. Beyond sites, however, we can also discern peoples and in particular tribes who have disappeared or faded in the face of the population movements and the social changes that brought about the historical Greece that we know. One case is the Danaoi. So important was this tribe that Homer uses their name to denote 'Greeks' in general in the Trojan War, yet by historical times the tribe has vanished. Its eponym has not, however: the tomb of Danaos was sited where only the tombs of founders might be, in the centre - of Argos. He had founded the Argive acropolis, and displaced the Pelasgians. 6 Argos is where he and his daughters, the Danaids (prototype maidens for the community of the Danaoi), 'arrived', pursued by 'Egyptians' (Ap 2.1.4). Clearly Pausanias was right to state that 'Danaoi' had been the particular (local tribal) name of Achaioi at Argos (P 7.1.7). But the name is also found in the feminine as Perseus' mother Danae and Perseus appears to be based in Mycenae (Dowden 1989:112, 117). Another scene again is supplied by the tradition that the The Uses of Greek Mythology 46 Danaids founded the temple of Athene Lindia on Rhodes - on their way from Egypt of course (ibid.: 149-51). So once we dismiss the idea that myth is telling us directly about the movements of historical persons, we can see that it implies the existence of the Danaoi tribe and institutions at Argos and Mycenae, and also at Rhodes. If we then ask what genuine historical explanation can account for this distribution, we will surely speculate that Rhodes is a Mycenaean colony from the Argolid - and we will discover a tradition reported by Strabo (14.2.6) that colonists set out for Rhodes from Argos and Tiryns. Similarly, we can perceive something of the Minyai, another tribe which had disappeared by historical times - except for some living near Olympia who were dispossessed by the people of Elis during Herodotos' own lifetime (4.148). But, for myth, the major associations of the tribe are with sites further north. Minyas himself is the 'founder' of Orchomenos in Boiotia, rather echoing the role of Danaos at Argos (though Danaos arrives bearing identity for a town already in existence). Like Danaos he is kitted out with daughters, though these 'Minyads' form only the customary trio. In addition, the Argonauts are described as 'Minyai' and their base, Iolkos, is either founded from Orchomenos or vice versa. Once again, behind these patterns we can glimpse the distribution of a real tribe. Perhaps, following the general north- south progress of Greek migrations, they descend from the port of Iolkos in Thessaly to Orchomenos in Boiotia and, as population expands or as they are pressed by new waves of migration from the north, some move south to the Peloponnese. In Arcadia we find another Orchomenos, and Minyas is specified as a grandfather of Arcadian Atalante (Ap 3.9.2 - there was a Boiotian Atalante too). A final group reaches out of Arcadia into Triphylia, the land around Olympia. This is, of course, only the mainland and the existence of a port and a mythical voyage seem made for a distribution of Minyai further afield - Teos, Lemnos, maybe Thera, Kyrene. Myth is just one part of the evidence we can use to follow their movements. 7 So myth gives us some clues to the centres and populations of the Mycenaean Age and tells us something about population movement. Does it tell us anything about the events of the Mycenaean Age? 4.3 MYTHIC WARS The Trojan War did not take place Perhaps we, too, are tempted by the romance of discovering where myth actually happened. Where did Argo actually sail? Where did Noah's ark actually reach land? Where did Atlantis sink? Where was King Arthur's castle, and where was Homer's Troy? We have got to recognise that there is a deep yearning in us to make contact with the world of myth, as we can see from the Turin Shroud, the countless fragments of the True Cross and the multiple heads of St Peter. Clearly there was a city which we may refer to as 'Troy'. The excavations of (and demolition of much of) Troy by Schliemann at least showed it existed. We know that it was inhabited from the early third millennium BC up to the sixth century AD, maybe continuously. We know also that in the earliest historical times it was inhabited by Myth and prehistory 47 Aeolian Greeks, a branch of the Greeks who had been expanding eastwards at least since their settlement of Lesbos maybe as early as 1400 BC. 8 The correct name of the city is in fact Ilion (earlier Wiliori), its inhabitants are Troes ('Trojans'), named naturally after Tros (compare Danaos and the Danaoi) and its territory is theirs, the Troia or Tro(i)as (Troad). It looks as though these names occur in Hittite records. In the records of King Tudhaliyas I (c. 1440-1410 BC), we find names which could be those of a town or a district and could be realised as Troisa and Wilusiya, apparently referring to places which could well be in this region of Asia Minor. In addition, in a later record of King Muwatallis (1296- 1272 BC), we find a kingdom Wilusa being ruled by one Alaksandus, and this instantly recalls the other name of Priam's son Paris - Alexander. 9 This is heady stuff for those who wish to convert myth to history, but it really does not add up to much. At most the epic tradition has preserved, in Greek dress, the real name of a ruler or rulers of pre- Greek Troy. What is perhaps more interesting is the instability of western Asia Minor in Hittite records in the thirteenth century and the involvement of some Greeks. If the Hittite word Ahhiyawa refers to the land of the Achaian Greeks, then it is plain that there is a lot of trouble in the Miletos area, over which the Achaian king is thought able to exercise control. The same king and the Hittite King Hattusilis also appear (c. 1250) to be in dispute over Wilusa. Meanwhile a former subject of the Hittites, one Piyamaradus, appears to be getting support from the Achaians in Miletos and even to have attacked Lazpas (Lesbos?). What we seem to be seeing is an encroachment of the Greeks and an extension of their influence. Looking from the other side of the Aegean, we would talk about Mycenaean colonisation of western Asia Minor in the face of opposition from natives and from those who consider the natives to be in their power-block. In this unstable context, it is no surprise that Troy was massively fortified and suffered a number of destructions, though as often from earthquakes as at the hands of invaders - it can be difficult to tell. Greek tradition, as we can see from Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, asserts that Mycenaean Greece united behind the Lord of Mycenae, Agamemnon, to wage a just war against the Trojans, which ended after 10 years in the capture of Troy. This of course plays up the righteousness of the defeat of Troy and plays down the wider context, making it seem that this was a single, exceptional expedition after which Troy is left a blazing ruin and everybody goes home again. The few glimpses we get of the wider context are, of course, presented as diversions which happened during the expedition, heroes enjoying a weekend off from the siege to go and sack a few neighbouring cities - something which Thucydides (1.11), rationalising, puts down to the need to obtain provisions. One of these obiter victa is Lesbos (Iliad 9.129-30). The Agamemnon, Menelaus, Helen framework is an Indo-European myth (p. 59 above). Individual instances of combat in Homer (and elsewhere) are plainly not historical evidence and sometimes belong to traditions located elsewhere than at Troy: Tlepolemos of Rhodes fighting Glaukon of Lykia points to a local tradition of conflict between these two neighbouring areas; the Pelasgians from Larisa that figure in the Catalogue of Ships (Iliad 2.840-1) on the Trojan side are surely just a transposition from the Larisa in Thessaly, even if there is a Larisa in the Troad (cf. Sakellariou 1977: 152f.). The tomb of Hektor at Thebes (Boiotia) is believed by some (including myself) to indicate that he began as a mainland hero. The tale of Troy has acted as a magnet for The Uses of Greek Mythology 48 traditional combats and conflicts and Homer's exceptionally huge Iliad offers 'everything under one roof. The Wooden Horse is clearly mythical (though I doubt if it is yet fully understood). And Achilles, in my opinion, is a conquering hero that follows Aeolian Greeks wherever they go - for instance to Lesbos, taken over as much by Aeolian Greeks as by Achilles. The Trojan War is a shell. The very unity of the Greek world in attacking Troy is a mythic construct, perhaps correctly interpreted by Herodotos as comparable with the Greek v. Barbarian conflict perceived in the Persian Wars of 490-480 BC - more than a little mythological themselves, as can be seen both in Herodotos' epic polarisation of the world between Greek and Barbarian and in the Parthenon's sculptures of Lapiths and Centaurs (chapter 9.2). The Catalogue of Ships in Iliad 2 is central to this Trojan myth, because later Greeks were desperate to have been involved in the united force of Agamemnon: the mention in this Catalogue (2.546-58) of Athens and Salamis, for instance, is a heavy- handed Athenian addition. In effect the campaign defines Greekness in a positive, warlike way and justifies its encroachment on mainland Asia Minor. There is no wonder that this was a major myth for the bardic culture of the Greek colonists of Asia Minor, both the earlier Aeolic colonists and the later Ionian colonists. Its message is to justify them and that seems to me to be the reality of the myth's relationship to history. Perhaps indeed Troy fell to a Greek force: for a fact, Greeks at some point took it over. Perhaps, even, a substantial party did set out from Aulis, traditionally (Strabo 9.2.3) the embarkation point for Aeolic colonists. But I doubt if Aulis was where an Agamemnon of distant, southerly, Mycenae collected his forces. In any case we should beware of thinking that a stable Mycenaean world suddenly broke up and splintered into countless migrations. Obviously, migrations may occur out of desperation and displacement, but they also occur when economies are strong and when the land can no longer support this prosperous, increased population. De Polignac has shown how the colonisation at the beginning of the historical period was the outcome of the economic turn-around of the later Dark Age. The Mycenaean Age had already had its own colonisations, for instance in Lesbos, Miletos and Rhodes. The Trojan War, despite its sense of endgame, reflects that continuing process. Is Troy anything more than just a representative of all those towns and hamlets that fell to the Greek colonists? Maybe it was, or once had been, more remarkable than average and maybe its scaling-up is not quite as inaccurate as the amplification by the Song of Roland of a defeat of Charlemagne's rearguard at Roncesvalles. The Theban War did not take place, twice Back on the Greek mainland similar problems of historicity arise in the case of two mythical campaigns against Thebes. These are: (a) the story of the Seven against Thebes, the principal mainland battle epic (Ap 3.6); and (b) the successful attack on Thebes 10 years later by the 'Epigonoi' ('descendants', sons in fact of the original Seven - Ap 3.7). A historicist approach might easily draw on archaeological data: a rather reduced palace in Thebes replaced an earlier one destroyed by fire in the mid-fourteenth century (the Seven?) and was itself destroyed around 1300 BC (the Epigonoi?). With that destruction the importance of Thebes came to an end and Thebes is as a result absent from the Catalogue of Ships. Myth and prehistory 49 Yet there remains the nagging doubt that the second campaign is a duplication of the first, contains figures no less mythical and is separated from the first by the Trojan and initiatory interval of 10 years (see p. 111). A duplication also exists in the case of the Trojan War, though we tend only to remember Homer's. Had not Herakles, cheated of the immortal horses promised by King Laomedon, led his own expedition against Troy? This Troy is as guilty as the Troy that harboured Paris, and Laomedon's sons are all killed, just like Priam's, save only one, Podarkes - left to change his name and become 'Priam' for the next bout (Ap 2.6.4). So far no clubs or lion-skins have been found in the deposits of Troy VI. Returning to the Seven against Thebes, Burkert has shown it to be stridently mythical, whatever the Cambridge Ancient History may say. 10 The seven heroes are required in order to attack the seven gates of Thebes, but there is not the slightest sign that the real Thebes had or could have had seven gates. What is more, the principal characters apparently have what Germans call redende Namen ('speaking names'): the twin who holds Thebes is called Eteokles ('True-glory'); the twin who invokes foreign help to take Thebes is called Polyneikes ('Much-strife'). So the story is originally told from the Theban point of view, which fits a tale of how the city is not captured - rather an odd subject for an epic, one might think, in comparison with Troy. The force is led by the king of Argos, Adrastos ('Inescapable'), who rides the divine horse Arion (P 8.25), and in whose party is Tydeus, who is found later in the story eating a fallen opponent's brains. This is talking some other language than history. Burkert has even suggested that what is represented is an attack by demons and he has found some Akkadian (i.e. Babylonian) material offering tempting comparisons, for instance an eighth-century tale of an attack of seven demons of plague and death on mankind, aborted after much suffering. He has also found in an Akkadian exorcism a motif of conflicting twins involved in an attack of seven demons. Personally, I am not convinced that this story is borrowed from the Near East at a late date, as Burkert thinks: borrowings from the Near East are dated too automatically to the late Dark Age period and the Theban legend has roots which seem too deep. The story seems to require that it is initially told in Thebes and in a Thebes which has sufficient influence for the story to gain currency. This is admittedly not a strong argument, but it points, for what it is worth, to a date before 1300 BC. It is impossible to say what its original purpose was, though it became in the context of Greek mythology a demoralising venture showing the fabric of the mythological world under stress, in some ways the beginning of the end. All we can say for certain is that it is nothing to do with history. And because it tells how nothing after all happened (Thebes remained untaken and Adrastos flew back on a magic horse), it cannot be archaeologically confirmed - until we find the crater where Zeus' thunderbolt hit Kapaneus. Conclusion: mythology tells us nothing of value about wars in the Mycenaean period. Even if it is based on a kernel of truth (Troy was taken, Thebes destroyed), it adds nothing to that kernel. It is simply not what myth was for. The Uses of Greek Mythology 50 4.4 ACCOMMODATING THE DORIANS The Dorian Greeks stand, largely ignored, on the fringes of Greek Mythology. The traditional view amongst scholars, echoing the Greek myth of the 'Return of the Herakleidai' (see below), is that though in historical times the Dorians were notable for their occupation of much of the Peloponnese, they had only entered the Peloponnese at the beginning of the Dark Age. Like all other Greeks, they had arrived from the north, and in fact the little area of Doris (north of Delphi, south of Thermopylai) owes its name to them - or they owe theirs to it. They had been geographically and culturally marginal to the Mycenaean world - like the later Macedonians. More recently (see the Topic bibliography, p. 182) it has been suggested that the Dorians were in the Peloponnese all along, though subjected to Mycenaean overlords (rather like Norman barons). This view marginalises them socially rather than geographically. It is then envisaged that, for instance, in the wake of the economic collapse of the Mycenaean world they overthrew their masters and asserted their native culture. So the 'Return of the Herakleidai' becomes even more purely metaphorical and mythical - and it is a neat thought of Chadwick's that the subjugation of their hero Herakles to Eurystheus reflects that of the Dorians to their Mycenaean masters (though in fact Herakles was not a Dorian at all). 11 There are indeed difficulties with the traditional view, but personally I am convinced that in some form it is the right view, and I feel that much of the impetus to the second view results from unrealistic demands that archaeology should be able to identify a Dorian arrival by new styles of remains, the failure to find such remains and the dubious deduction that there had therefore been no arrival. In what follows I take the traditional view and leave readers who judge differently to make their own adjustments. The mythology concerning the Dorians is complicated and remarkably propagandist. Overall, it is designed to legitimate their power in mainland Greece through association with Herakles. At the beginning of the story (Diodoros 4.37.3) we see Aigimios, a pale man without significance for Greek mythology, as king of the Dorians in Hestiaiotis (north-west Thessaly). The systematic genealogies will tell us that Aigimios is son of Doros (Diodoros 4.58.6), the eponym of the Dorians, and that Doros, son of 'Greek' (Hellen), had established the Dorians there (Herodotos 1.56). The Dorians start, then, in their proper Mycenaean place: outsiders to civilised tradition, confined where they belong, far off in northern Greece. They have no impact on Greek mythology except to come into existence as a branch of the Greeks. They have no cities (chapter 5.3). But now in Diodoros' story there is trouble: a neighbouring tribe, the Dryopes (if Greek, evidently belonging to a pre-Dorian group such as the Aeolian), is fleeing southward from this region and the Dorians, Herodotos (1.56) reveals, are occupying their land. But Herakles is responsible and in any case, the Dryopian king Phylas had done something awful at Delphi, disqualifying him from sympathy. Now, however, King Aigimios fights the Lapiths, people of mythological standing and of only mythical existence, unlike the poor Dryopes. It is hard fighting mythical tribes, but fortunately Herakles comes to Aigimios' assistance, gaining as his reward a third of the Dorian kingdom for his son Hyllos - eponym of one of the Dorian tribes, the Hylleis. The other Myth and prehistory 5 1 two eponyms are sons of Aigimios: Pamphylos of the Pamphyloi - 'All-tribes', perhaps originally designed to mop up the rest - and Dymas of the Dymaneis (Ap 2.8.3). Thus, tentatively, the Dorians acquire a 33 per cent stake in mainstream Greek mythology. It is tentative because only one eponym gains any validity and that through an outsider: Aigimios is no son of Herakles or Apollo - and Doros son of 'Greek' is a routine invention to deal with an empty tradition. Herakles, on the other hand, was a good choice for a tribe which had in fact ousted the traditional rulers of the Argolid. Not only is he an important hero there, he is also an enemy of the established ruler of the land - Eurystheus of Mycenae - and one who has been cheated of the kingship. Furthermore, it is a question no longer of Dorians invading land that is not theirs, but of the sons of Herakles returning. This propagandist presentation, originally invented in Argos, ensures that what we might refer to as the 'Dorian invasion' is known to myth, and therefore to Greek history, as the 'Return of the Herakleidai'. 12 The story that follows is, however, peculiarly contorted. The Dorian invasion, though propelled by slights on Herakles, cannot safely take place until after the 'Trojan War', because (a) that (in a sense) is when the invasion actually occurred and (b) there are no blank slots in the myth-history of the Argolid till then. So we must wait while Eurystheus dies, Atreus takes over, Atreus' son Agamemnon rules, campaigns at Troy, returns and is murdered, Agamemnon's son Orestes returns, rules (acquiring Sparta and most of Arcadia (P 2.18.5), usefully for Dorian territorial claims) and dies, and his unprestigious son Teisamenos comes into existence, in order to be expelled. To cover this gap there is nothing to match an ambiguous Delphic oracle: Hyllos is told the Herakleidai must wait for the third crop before they return (Ap 2.8.2). Mistakenly he returns in the third year, only to be killed in single combat at the Isthmos (Herodotos 9.26). In fact the return was to be in the third generation: this is when Temenos, great-grandson of Hyllos, and Kresphontes, with the aid and deaths of Pamphylos and Dymas (prodigiously old, one would have thought, by now), must complete the task. Argos, Sparta and Messenia are now Dorian and by right. By right? Will anyone believe this sort of myth? Listen to Pausanias: As for Argos and the throne of Argos in my opinion they [Temenos and company] were absolutely correct in their claims, because Teisamenos was [only] a descendant of Pelops [father of Atreus], whereas the Herakleidai are ultimately descendants of Perseus [earliest known king at Mycenae, offspring of Zeus]. (Pausanias 2.18.7) Pausanias also accepts the claims on Sparta and Messenia, exhibiting once again the inability of the Greeks to reject myth as history. The same is shown when Herodotos (9.26-7) presents the Tegeans and the Athenians arguing over who should command one wing at Plataia by appeal to the role they played in these mythical events: it was a leader of Tegea who killed Hyllos in single combat at the Isthmos; it was the Athenians who received the Herakleidai and assisted them in battle against Eurystheus. These myths filled gaps and were designed to be believed. There was nothing else to believe. The Uses of Greek Mythology 52 And what of us? Can we find history in these myths? Maybe, to an extent. The myths relate to a real enough Greek tribe, the Dorians, and their real movements from northern Greece, 13 doubtless including Hestiaiotis, to the Peloponnese - though we will need evidence beyond myth if we are not to follow the more recent view in rejecting the Dorian migration as mere historicism. But if it is accepted, the expulsion of the Dryopes is plausible and looms large enough to receive an explanation mitigating the guilt of displacing them. Shall we, then, construct from the story of Hyllos and his defeat in single combat at the Isthmus an initially successful repulse of the Dorians from the Peloponnese by the Mycenaean Greeks? It is not impossible and could make sense of the well-known Mycenaean wall across the Isthmus. But it is also, as I have observed, a mytho-chronological necessity to separate the Return of the Herakleidai by some generations from the immediate son of Herakles - Hyllos. It is, however, unwise to believe in the named characters of these stories too much: In the previous generation the Heracleidae, a clan of Achaean stock, originally native to the Argolid but then in exile, had been the ruling power in Epirus, and members of the clan had led settlers overseas to Rhodes and the Dodecanese. The head of the clan, Hyllus, had led a large force against the Peloponnese but had been killed in single combat c. 1220 BC. (Hammond 1976:141) I fear that this type of writing does fail to understand how mythology works and regresses to primitive Greek standards of understanding the remote past. Even the distribution of lands between rulers in these myths may reflect no historical situation. Yet these secondary myths, which are products of the Dark Age, not of 'Mycenaean origin', are historical in a particular sense: they are all too visibly tied to historical changes and shamelessly attempt to justify them. Chapter 5 Myth and identity Myth establishes people, places and things. More than that, it identifies them and gives them some sort of conceptual place, by associations or by contrasts. Indeed the whole of Greek Mythology may be viewed as an enormous text in dialogue with that other text, the world in which we live. It has, after all, no other function than to address the task of existing in the real world in its various oblique and suggestive ways. 5.1 THE ORIGIN OF TOWNS To establish an entity, myth often turns to the eponym - the person after whom something is named. Take, for instance, the following explanation of towns in Arcadia: In the opinion of the Arcadians, Thyrea in the Argolis and the 'Thyrean Gulf got their names from this [man] Thyraios. Mantineus and Tegeates and Mainalos founded the following: Mainalos founded Mainalos, in ancient times the most famous city in Arcadia; Tegeates and Mantineus founded Tegea and Mantinea. And Kromoi was named after Kromos and Charisia had Charisios as its founder and Trikolonoi was founded by Trikolonos and Peraitheis by Peraithos and Asea by Aseates. (Pausanias 8.3.3-4) This splendidly dreary list supplies eponymous heroes, so that towns may simultaneously gain names and existence. We should not, perhaps, underrate the magic in a name for a pre-critical age and the power of a poem, such as that of Asios, listing this type of information. Yet Pausanias can tire of eponyms and we can see that they are hollow shells until placed in a context. In this case, the vital detail is that this is a list of the sons of Lykaon. And his significance in turn emerges from the following passage: 'Lykaon, the son of Pelasgos, introduced all the following - things cleverer than his father did: he founded the city Lykosoura on Mt Lykaion and he named Zeus 'Lykaios' and established the Lykaian games' (Pausanias 8.2.1). Lykaon is the key figure in southern Arcadia. He is an original figure, but not too primeval: he is the son of Pelasgos (chapter 5.5), not Pelasgos himself. In this story, Pelasgos' achievements are half-measures, surpassed (as Pausanias notes) by Lykaon. Lykaon founds Lykosoura, the world's first city (P 8.38.1). The Uses of Greek Mythology 54 The mountain which bears his name affords a view (supposedly) of the whole Peloponnese (P 8.38.7), thus beginning to look like some world-mountain at the centre of the earth. On this mountain Lykaon introduces the region's major cult and its associated games, which unite all the local cities, just as their eponyms are united in being 'sons' of Lykaon. Solidarity is thus expressed through participation in ritual and through kinship in myth. The tribal cohesion is maintained despite the division of the tribe into autonomous cities. 5.2 THE ORIGIN OF GREEK TRIBES AND PEOPLES Mythology personalises: an eponym supplies a personal version of a more abstract entity; a founder focuses the elements of civilisation on himself. The eponym may even be the founder: Danaos at Argos, eponym of the Danaoi (chapter 4.2), founded the key temple of Apollo Lykeios, introduced writing, built the first ship - and so on. King Minyas, eponym of the Minyai (chapter 4.2), founded Orchomenos. Accounting for tribes by eponym had clearly once had significant currency. The Dryopes, scattered around Greece by the movements and expansion of other tribes, remained locally identifiable and distinctive. The focus of their identity was naturally the eponymous hero Dryops. For Dryopes in southern Thessaly, Dryops was the son of the River Spercheios. To be the son of a river is a statement of autochthony, of belonging to the land from the beginning and therefore having full rights to the land (such a person is an autochthon and the adjective is 'autochthonous'). Other instances are the Argive first man, Phoroneus, who is the son of the River Inachos and (P 7.2.7) 'Ephesos' the son of the River Kaystros. But in Arcadia Dryops was an Arcadian who married a daughter of Lykaon (so expressing affiliation with the southern Arcadians) and it was one of his daughters in turn that bore the god Pan to Hermes. Asine in the Argolid, turned into a ghost town by the Argives, had been a settlement of Dryopes (Strabo 8.6.13) and Asine in Messenia, founded by the refugees, honoured Dryops in cult - because he reminded them who they were. And to judge by the word drys, they were the Men 'of Oak'. Enough tribal names end in -opes (plural) to make it worth wondering about any hero in Greek myth whose name ends in -ops (singular). Dolops was a brother of the centaur Cheiron (who lived in a cave on Mt Pelion) and was a hero good enough to receive cult in Magnesia. No prizes for realising there were Dolopes - who lived in southern Thessaly, reaching the fringes of Epeiros in the west and reaching past Magnesia to Skyros in the east. But what of disreputable Pelops, father of Atreus, with his criminal trickery in chariot races? A trickster (chapter 7.2) would not be out of place at the beginning of a tribe, obviously the 'Pelopes' (as suggested by West 1985:157-9), though there is no trace of them in historical times: did they live incognito as citizens of one of our well- known city-states? Quite different are our final -opians, the 'Blazing' Men in the remotest south, the purely mythical Aithiopes (Ethiopians), though increasing geographical knowledge made it difficult for them to stretch from the real Ethiopia to India as had been hoped. The name of Lykaon may point this way too: perhaps he is the 'Wolf-man, in reference to his myth - and to the ancient Indo-European wolf-pack (chapter 7.2). But Myth and identity 55 perhaps too the -aon ending should be compared with area names in -aonia and we should think of a former tribe of Lykaones, el 'Wolf-tribe (Dowden 1989:101, 192). 5.3 TRIBES, PEOPLES, PALACES AND TOWNS These examples come largely from tribes that have disappeared or fallen by the wayside of Greek culture. A pivotal example is that of Argos, where it can seem that the death- knell of local, tribal mythology was sounded during the Dark Age and archaic period: in historical times there were no Danaoi, only inhabitants of Argos. Whether this resulted from new additions to the local population during the Dark Age (Argos comes out speaking the new-wave, Doric dialect) or from economic and social changes, their new sense of themselves as a city extending its power over their neighbours leads to a propagandist mythology. Figures called 'Argos' now appear. One Argos (P 2.16) enters mythology as the grandson of Phoroneus, the Argive 'first man'. This Argos is the eponym and his descendants (and therefore juniors) include: 1 Peirasos (or Peiras), a hero responsible for the key religious symbol at Tiryns, the pearwood statue of Hera; 2 Iasos, apparently a figure once of tribal importance, maybe in origin an eponym; 3 Iasos' daughter, Io, the first priestess at the Argive Heraion, a temple used by Argos as the focus of its domination of the Argolid; 1 4 Danaos (of course); 5 the warring twins Akrisios (of Argos) and Proitos (of Tiryns), between whom the Argolid had been divided. Perhaps, too, one should add in Perseus, son of Danae, grandson of Akrisios, who seems to be specially linked with Mycenae (P 2.16.3; cf. Dowden 1989:117). The effect of this genealogy is to subordinate other powers in the Argolid to Argos himself and itself. This direct control of the Argolid parallels Sparta's direct control of Lakonia and Messenia. Beyond that, both had to tread more gently and Arcadia was crucial. Sparta took to shifting bones to remind Arcadians of Orestes' rule over them (chapter 5.7 below). But Argos found that another hero 'Argos', the same it seems as the many-eyed watchman over Io, had (switching to Herakles/Theseus mode) killed a bull that ravaged Arcadia and killed some Satyros or other who 'committed crimes against the Arcadians' (Dowden 1989:137). The story invites the acceptance by Arcadians of Argos' watchful eye. The arrival of a po//s-based mythology was not unprepared. The very word polis can be found in other Indo-European languages (Sanskrit pur, Lithuanian pills) showing that some sense of fortified settlement goes back to Indo-European times. There is a tendency to project our (mythological?) ideas of evolution on to prehistory and create wandering, pastoral Indo-Europeans and unsettled, migrating Greeks. Neither is wholly real. The Indo-European language had its words for 'field' and 'plough', had its social structure with king and head of household, had households which were sufficiently extended to produce words for 'village' in some descendant languages but 'house' in Greek (olkos) and it had the polls word for a settlement. Even the backward Aitolians in north-west The Uses of Greek Mythology 56 Greece, who are revealed by Thucydides as possessing a political structure based on 'villages' (komai) rather than the polis, had cities to their name - Kalydon and Pleuron. The issue here is the degree of centralisation and unification of the state. We think in terms of Athens and Sparta, cities holding undisputed power over their territories. Other such city-states obviously existed: Argos, Corinth, Megara, Miletos and so on. But in classical times there was also a significant number of states where power was more evenly spread and where the focus of identity was more on a population (ethnos) than on a single city (polis). Examples include Arcadia, Achaia, Aitolia, Thessaly and, in a rather more precarious sense (as Thebes struggled for the single-city model), Boiotia. These are the states that produce leagues or federations in the fullness of time. 2 Mythology should cope with both models, but there is a considerable leaning towards the single-city model. This has a historical origin in Mycenaean culture, where the palaces, readily understood and operated by incoming Greeks, clearly concentrated a territory's wealth and power, and in so doing created the economic conditions for the celebration of their traditions in poetry. Thus another reason emerges for the Mycenaean imprint on Greek Mythology. This balance of mythological power is summed up in the Aitolian case: the Aitolians have relatively little impact on mythology, but their (Mycenaean) city of Kalydon finds its place comfortably in the index of Apollodoros. The Arcadians are not so very different. They were confined to the mountainous centre of the Peloponnese by population movements at or after the end of the Mycenaean age. Though well enough endowed with towns, Arcadia displays no sign of any depth of local history or any great, Mycenaean centre. The exception is Tegea, which figures in myth as the place where Kepheus rules (but he and his army are killed by Herakles - Ap 2.7.3) and as the site of the temple of Athene Alea where the story of Auge begins (Ap 2.7.4) - in whose vicinity there are Mycenaean remains. Otherwise Arcadia is about people not cities: their identities are shaped globally by their common ancestor Arkas, born to Kallisto, and, in the more southerly part by the ensemble of myth and cult which we have seen surrounding Lykaon and Mt Lykaion. 5.4 TRIBAL GROUPINGS It was part of their view of themselves that Greeks of the historical period belonged to tribal groups. These followed the major dialect divisions (Dorian-Aeolic-Ionian) and found their place in mythology, though it must be said that, like Greek political practice, Greek Mythology has much more interest in parochial boundaries than these large-scale affiliations. The groupings are presented, as might be expected, through eponyms: The sons of Hellen ['Greek'] the war-loving king were Doros, Xouthos and Aiolos enjoyer of horsemanship. (Hesiod, Catalogue of Women fr. 9 M-W) The sons of Hellen and the nymph Othreis were Doros, Xouthos and Aiolos. (Apollodoros, Library, 1.7.3) After Hellen died the other sons of Hellen expelled Xouthos from Thessaly, alleging that he had misappropriated some of his father's Myth and identity 57 belongings. He fled to Athens and was thought fit to take the daughter of Erechtheus in marriage. He had his sons Achaios and Ion by her.... During the reign of Ion, the Eleusinians were at war with the Athenians and the Athenians invited Ion to command them in the war, but he met his fate in Attica and there is a tomb of Ion in the deme Potamos. But the descendants of Ion ruled over the Ionians until they too and their people were driven out by the Achaians. Then it was the Achaians' turn to be driven out of Sparta and Argos by the Dorians. (Pausanias 7.1.2, 7.1.5) The genealogies tell us that Dorians, Aeolians, Ionians and Achaians are to be regarded as part of one big Greek family, but that the Ionians and Achaians are to be regarded as closer to each other than to the rest. This analysis cannot and perhaps should not be falsified, but it does leave some questions, in particular about the Arcadians, who are excluded from this genealogy. Their Lykaon is less distanced from autochthonous, primeval Pelasgos than one might expect; and generally Greek myth and genealogy grants them special rights to autochthony. This may be worth taking seriously: our conception of the Dark Age leads too readily to a division of Greeks into those who arrived before and those who invaded after; but Greek mythology more realistically stresses the multiplicity of conflicts and arrivals. On that model, Arcadians are there first; Achaians, even before they are displaced by Dorian arrivals, are displacing Ionians. Some facts of history, however general, may underly this mythology. There are lessons, too, in how these stories are fleshed out. On a matter of detail, misappropriation of paternal property may seem a feeble narrative motivation for a population movement, but it is conditioned by the genealogical ambience in which inheritance is important. But more important, the tomb of Ion looks like a feature of the cultic landscape which has been drawn into the story. This would have its origins in an identity which Athenians wished to display, maybe in order to enhance claims to rights over land. And the version of Hesiod (fr. 10a) had evidently received some Athenian touches: Xouthos was the father of Achaios and Ion, but their mother was Kreousa, daughter of autochthonous Erechtheus (chapter 5.6 below), thus asserting Athenian primacy over both Achaians and Ionians (Parker 1087:206). Indeed Euripides, as Parker (ibid.: 207) notes, appears in his Ion to have developed the myth in an even more patriotic way: Ion becomes the son of Apollo imposed upon Xouthos, whilst Achaios and Doros become sons of the mere mortal Xouthos himself. The tribal groupings are themselves subdivided; the Dorians, for instance, into Hylleis, Dymanes and Pamphyloi. These tribes do not play an important role in myth, suggesting that by the time of Greek Mythology as we know it their significance was limited - as indeed the reforms of Kleisthenes at Athens (509 BC), if not those of his grandfather Kleisthenes at Sikyon (Herodotos 5.66), would suggest. The three Dorian tribes obtain rather transparent, late eponyms, as we have seen, of which the most substantial is Hyllos son of Herakles. The Aigikoreis, Hopletes, Geleontes and Argadeis of the Ionians have no significant mythology. 3 The Uses of Greek Mythology 58 5.5 PRE-PEOPLES Greek Mythology did not restrict itself to Greek populations. But it is extremely dangerous to suppose that its account of non-Greek peoples conveys genuine information about them. Non-Greek peoples, just like centaurs and giants, are there to speak about hypothetical, alternative orders of things, by contrast with which the essence of the Greek culture may be understood. This way of thinking still pervades Herodotos' account of barbarian customs - or that of his sources. And it will not die out, even today, until 'foreigner' becomes a mere objective term. Foreigners in Greek myth exist in order to define Greekness and are usually found in the slot of the earlier population, the pre- people. Greeks used several terms to describe previous, non-Greek speaking, inhabitants of Greece, the islands and Asia Minor, above all 'Leleges' and 'Pelasgoi'. Obviously there were tribes in Greece before the speakers of what became Greek arrived, but the Greeks themselves had no accurate or carefully defined idea of who these tribes were and how they differed from each other. Thus references to Leleges and Pelasgoi are, in our terms, at best casual and at worst imaginative and as a result any attempt to discover where either 'tribe' lived is doomed to failure - and so is the attempt to demonstrate whether 'they' were speakers of an Indo-European language (though some of the pre-Greek peoples may indeed have been). The word 'Leleges' looks like an onomatopoeic word to describe those who speak unintelligibly (like the - later? - term barbaroi) - el similar term, lulahi, is used in Luvian, a language of western Asia Minor, to denote just that. 4 Most appearances of the 'Pelasgoi' too serve mythical rather than directly historical purposes. It is true that the term sometimes appears more substantial: something lies behind the region 'Pelasgiotis' in eastern Thessaly, 'Pelasgic Argos' - a place or a plain somewhere in Thessaly (Iliad 2.681), and Zeus 'Pelasgikos' - so addressed by Achilles (Iliad 16.233). Yet the freedom with which the term is applied suggests that it denotes 'foreign tribe', like the shifting Germanic term which appears now as 'Welsh', now as 'Vlach', now as 'Volcae' according to where it freezes. I suspect it may even be the Greek version of that term. 5 In that case it has simply frozen at the point of entry for Greeks into a settled culture, namely the Thessaly that is so prominent in their myths, where their 'Olympos', home of the gods, is frozen too. In the Spartan genealogy reported by Pausanias (P 3.1; cf. Calame 1987), all begins with an autochthonous king, Lelex, the eponym of the land's first inhabitants, the Leleges. This is a world of which we learn nothing, it is a pre-world, before known features are established. His son Myles, whose name points to the corn 'mill' that he invented (P 3.20.2), thus begins civilisation. Meanwhile, his brother Polykaon exists solely to marry Messene, in effect laying down Sparta's claim to Messenia. Myles' son, Eurotas, drains the plain, creating the river of that name, blending civilising achievement with the creation of the known landscape. Eurotas marries Sparta, their son is Amyklas - and two more towns, Sparta and Amyklai, are placed on the map. Only with Tyndareus, some generations later, do we reach mythic characters of flesh and blood. Lelex and the Leleges, whatever their historical significance, have acted as a blank sheet on which to Myth and identity 59 draw Lakonia and all it means. They appear elsewhere too: the Lokrians too had had their Leleges - the people who grew from the soil, from the stones which Deukalion sowed; only later did their leadership pass to 'Lokros'. 6 In Arcadia it is Pelasgos and Pelasgians that begin the story, in Pausanias' source, Asios of Samos (c. 600 BC, if genuine): Godlike Pelasgos on the high-leafed mountains The black earth yielded, so that the human race might exist. (Asios fr. 8 Kinkel, in Pausanias 8.1.4) He is an autochthon and, like the generations immediately succeeding Spartan Lelex, makes certain basic, if limited, steps towards settled civilisation. He invents huts, the wearing of sheepskins and the eating of acorns of the edible oak. All are half measures (huts not houses, skins not clothes, acorns not corn). This blank sheet land was of course called Pelasgia. The great leap forward comes with his son Lykaon, as we have seen. 7 This sort of mythology appears also in the puzzling passage of Herodotos (2.52) in which he reports that, according to the authorities at Dodona, the Pelasgians had not yet heard of naming gods. They certainly worshipped (so, limited first steps), but the divine apparatus (which identifies Greeks as Greeks) had not yet been installed. Yet Pelasgos is also perceived as making some use of the land which is so specially his. At Argos he is even credited with the invention of bread, 8 which of courses civilises the product (raw corn) of settled agriculture. Meanwhile, in Thessaly he is responsible for a festival in which the normal barriers of society between free and slave, between native and foreigner, are suspended: 9 masters serve their slaves. This is, of course, a suspension of the defined society by Pelasgos, the personification of the pre-society. At Athens, the equivalent festival is the Kronia, equally attached to a displaced figure of prehistory, Kronos, whose reign came to an end with the arrival of the definitive world-order of Zeus. These festivals implicitly dismantle the social order which has been superimposed upon the land and its produce. Pelasgos, himself yielded like a plant (Sakellariou 1977:110) by the earth, is associated with acorns or even bread, but that is only a beginning, a foundation, for society. As Diller (1937:37) observes, 'The Aeolians, the Athenians, the Arcadians, the Ionians in the Peloponnesus, all the pre-Doric Peloponnesians, were originally called Pelasgians.' Diller draws this information from Herodotos and traces it to his inventive predecessor, Hekataios. But I think that Hekataios was building on a fairly widespread use of the label 'Pelasgian' to fit the mythological moment before Greek identity is fully assembled. The Pelasgoi, when real, seem to belong around Thessaly or not too far from it. But already Asios (if our fragment above is genuine) has Pelasgos in Arcadia. Karians are intermittently associated with Leleges by ancient writers. Philippos of Theangela, writing a work On Karians and Leleges (FGH 741, third century BC), claimed that the Leleges were the serfs of the Karians (which sounds too specific to be true), whilst Herodotos (1.171) had simply stated that Leleges was an old name for them (which of course fits the mythic slot of preidentity and is therefore of doubtful historical value). However this may be, we know the Karians as a real non-Greek people, known for instance to the Persians by this name. They lived in historical times in south-western Asia Minor (including Halikarnassos), but they could once have been more broadly The Uses of Greek Mythology 60 spread across both Greece and Asia Minor. If the Greeks had encountered them in mainland Greece, it would explain how the mythical founder of raw, pre-Greek, pre- political Megara could be named Kar (son of Phoroneus, the first man) and how Athenians could expel 'Keres' (= 'Karians'?) at the end of the Anthesteria. The story at Megara reinforces the time-depth by including not only Kar, but - in the twelfth generation after him - Lelex, whose arrival from 'Egypt' turns the (Karian) Megarians into Leleges (P 1.39.6). The founder of the real Megara, by contrast, is Alkathoos, son of Pelops. 10 Something similar to this Greek way of thought is found in our own discernment of earlier stages of our civilisation in 'primitive' cultures (the term 'primitive' itself indicating that they are at the first stages and we have moved on). Foreigners had strange un-Greek, pre-Greek customs - like promiscuity and, as we shall see in the case of the Lykians (p. 152 below), matrilinearity. These foreigners also made up the substratum (chapter 4.1) beyond which Greek culture had developed. Thus to these foreign and prehistoric populations are ascribed the negatives of Greek culture. Our version consists of remote tribes, preferably living in a jungle, clad in skins, consulting witch-doctors, recreating the life of Stone Age man, who lived in caves, hunted and, strangely, wasn't contemporary with dinosaurs. For 'Pelasgian', read 'in the Stone Age'. The Thracians are less different than one might hope. Writers allege (we cannot tell whether it is true or false) that there had been Thracians in Greece in prehistoric times. Ephoros said they had been in Boiotia (though this same account has Leleges, Pelasgians and Phoenicians wandering around there for good measure) and told a strange story about a treacherous Thracian attack at night, a prophetess who is a Pelasgian sympathiser recommending sacrilege (and being burnt alive) and a finely-balanced conflict between judges of different sexes on the acquittal of those (Greek) Boiotians who burnt her alive (Strabo 9.2.4). This is not an historical record or an allegory of tribal movements. There has got to be a ritual behind this story: here is a nocturnal event with typical inversion of normal rules of behaviour, prominence of pre-people (reversion to Stone Age), crisis over the division of duties between the sexes and resolution through trial. The women of the story are classed with the pre-people (as in the Roman myth of the 'Rape of the Sabine Women' or in the Women of Lemnos), not with the Greeks: only men, it seems, can define Greek identity and avoid chaos. Something, if not much, of a ritual survives: the Boiotians must annually by night steal a tripod dedicated in a shrine (where?) - just as in another, nearby, myth Herakles steals the Delphic tripod (Ap 2.6.2). The Boiotians send their tripod to Dodona, and, uniquely, it is men, not women, who deliver oracles to Boiotians at Dodona. So what of the Thracians? They are mythical shadows of the Pelasgians, enmeshed in a partner-myth for a ritual. It just shows how careful we must be before supposing that Greek mythical reports of for example, Thracians in Boiotia should be taken as genuine. In Athens there is a puzzling case of Thracians (Diller 1937:51f.). The distinguished prophet Eumolpos, ancestor to the hierophants at Eleusis, is presented as a Thracian - and even invades Attica with an army of Thracians to challenge Erechtheus (e.g., Ap 3.15.4). Here lies a key. Eleusis is to be absorbed into the Athenian state, but the myth first disqualifies its independence by associating its resistance to absorption with 'Thracians', so confining Eleusinian autonomy to a preliminary and incomplete stage of development. We will discover a further reason for Eumolpos' Thracian nationality below, but in our Myth and identity 6 1 present context, the disqualified state might as well have been Karian, Lelegian or Pelasgian. Other Athenian stories also include Thrace: Boreas who snatches Oreithyia from the banks of the Athenian River Ilissos, as befits a north wind, lives in Thrace. And Tereus in the tale of Prokne and Philomela (Ap 3.14.8) is king of Thrace, though maybe only by association of his name with Teres, name of several real kings of Thrace. The scene for this story is apparently set in Phokis in any case. Mythology's most famous Thracian is of course Orpheus. Graf (1987b: 99-101) has asked why he was depicted as a Thracian. Music and poetry hold an answer: they come from outside into the daily life of the Greek polis; and these mythical religious poets have a quality of otherness. Other singers are Thracians too: Thamyris, Musaios, even maybe Eumolpos whose name at least means 'Good-singer'. But Orpheus also exists in Thrace in order to be killed there by manic Thracian women (whose behaviour has displaced their nationality) and so that his head may arrive, floating, from Elsewhere to found his oracle in Lesbos. So the account of pre-Greek tribes in Greek mythology is not objective or historical. Its purpose is to define those tribes relative to a sense of Greek identity. They therefore play the only role they can: to have existed, once; to have preceded the things that make Greece Greek; to have had a worrying right to the land through having always been there (from the point of view of those who newly arrive) - a right which needs to be transferred somehow to the Greeks; perhaps to have made some initial progress as a result of being settled on the land; but otherwise, to have made little valued or lasting distinctive contribution to culture - that needs Greeks (whose presence must be justifiable and who must be content with their part in things). 5.6 ATHENS Now a case history: Athens, as always an exception. There is no hero 'Athen' - they have the goddess Athene for that, and for once they may be right: Athens could be named after the cult of Athene. Pausanias does not roll out an extended genealogy at the beginning of this, his first, book, perhaps because he has not yet defined his method, or maybe because his old genealogical authors had not assembled the traditions of Athens. 11 But Athens did have a mythological setting. Athens' story starts with a double dose of autochthony, because the traditions of different clans have been merged. First there is Kekrops (eponym of the clan Kekropidai), born from the soil like Arcadian Pelasgos, but half-man half-snake. The snake again points to autochthony (cf. p. 122), but it is also a recurring theme at Athens, appearing in a chest with the baby Erichthonios and in cult as the sacred snake in the Erechtheion. Later tradition, based on the work of fourth-century antiquarians, maintains, as in the case of Pelasgos, a sense of half-formed achievements (Parker 1987:197). He worships Zeus the Highest with cakes, rejecting blood-sacrifice; he co-ordinates Attic identity, in the fight against land-based Boiotians and ship-based 'Karians' (Strabo 9.1.20), but only as far as the 'dodecapolis', a sort of federation of 12 towns (notably including the actually disputed Eleusis), but not as far as synoikism; and in any case he is only half a man! But in his reign, all the same, comes the invention of marriage (ending primal promiscuity) 12 and, above all, the identity-creating dispute between Poseidon and The Uses of Greek Mythology 62 Athene, with primal flood (Poseidon's revenge). Athene's success names the city and establishes its principal cult (just as Inachos, the River-Father of first man Phoroneus, created the cult of Hera Argolis and Lykaon created the cult of Zeus Lykaios). Kekrops, like any good founder, has his tomb in the heart of the city, in the Erechtheion. Erechtheus (eponym of the clan Erechtheidai) is a shortened form of 'Erichthonios' and both mean 'Very earth(born)'. There is a fluidity between the two, one the grandfather (usually 'Erichthonios'), the other the grandson (always 'Erechtheus'). As the name suggests, the first (under whatever name) is born from the earth, as lines found in our text of the Iliad recognise (2.547-9), and he is nursed by Athene herself. In essence, Athene is his mother - and the story, at least in historical times, was that the seed from which he sprang was that of Hephaistos, fended off by the virgin goddess. The Athenians thus, as Parker has observed (1987:195), have it both ways: their race is autochthonous, but they also are the children of gods. But details of the deeds of either this Erichthonios (did he found the Panathenaia, putting Athens' major festival on the map, as they said in the fourth century?) or the other Erechtheus (did he sacrifice his own daughter to win his battle against the Eleusinians?) are sparse, as with any of these remote figures in genealogy (take, for instance, the Spartan Eurotas). They are flat, one-dimensional, for whom it is enough to exist at a certain point in genealogy, caught in a snapshot. Local genealogy is the illusion of a continuing story, but in fact it is the description of a static situation, how it is now. Incidentally, this snapshot of the stage before true identity is not unique to Athens: Erechtheus is also the name of the father of Thespios (of Thespiai in Boiotia - P 9.26.6) and Erichthonios of the father of Tros (eponym of the Trojans - Ap 3.12.2). Somewhere in this early mythology, sandwiched maybe between Erichthonios and Erechtheus stands Pandion, who having married the daughter of the king of Megara was expelled from Athens and fled there: he died in Megara and his tomb is there too; but his children returned from Megara to Athens (P 1.5.3-4). One of Pandion's sons, Nisos, becomes king of Megara and gives his name to its port Nisaia. Athens always resented Megara's independence and had bitter disputes with it, in early times over Salamis, and maybe Eleusis; in later times one has only to think of the Megarian Decree that began the second Peloponnesian War. I do not claim to know precisely what this myth of Pandion sets out to do, but it does both register the hostility of Megara and Athens and in some way attempt to resolve or deny it. Pandion's other son, Aigeus, becomes king of Athens but is overshadowed by his son Theseus. In origin he must, like Aigeus son of Oiolykos ('Lone Wolf) at Sparta (Herodotos 4.149), be the eponym of the Aigeidai - a tribe or clan found at Thebes, Sparta, Thera and going back perhaps to Mycenaean, non-Dorian times. 13 The Aigeidai have faded away at Athens, leaving behind only their eponym, positioned in the genealogy at a suitable time-depth. Kekrops and Erechtheus/Erichthonios belong to pre-mythology, like Lelex and Pelasgos. 'To pass from Cecrops or even Erichthonios to Theseus is to breathe another air' (Harrison 1912:316). Theseus organised the unification of the Attic state, the synoikism. Synoikism, the centralisation of power in a single city, sometimes even a new one, is something which happens during the course of recorded Greek history and which was supposed to have happened earlier in some other states. It is not clear to me that it is anything more than mythical in the case of Athens, but in any case its attribution to Theseus is a way of entrenching the unity of Attica in the Athenian identity. As time Myth and identity 63 progresses he becomes to an unusual extent a model of Athenian character: he saves Oedipus and his daughters from Kreon's Theban army; he defeats the same army to recover the bodies of the Seven against Thebes; he limits the authority of kingship (Aristotle, Constitution of the Athenians fr. 4, 41.2) and asserts the values of the free city against presumptuous foreign heralds (Euripides, Suppliants 404f.). In Pausanias' day there are even paintings of Theseus, Democracy and Demos - facing Zeus of Freedom... and the Emperor Hadrian (P 1.3.3). Theseus and Peirithoos the Lapith are a paragon of friendship, and meanwhile he defeats the Amazons, keeping dangerous women in their place (chapter 8.3). Simultaneously he is the Athenian Herakles, with a set of labours ridding the world of trouble - notably around the Isthmus. Presumably its inhabitants, such as Megarians, were meant to be as grateful to Theseus as the Arcadians were to Argos, the Argive bull- and satyr-slayer (p. 77 above). And when, in the wake of the Persian Wars, Athens' vision of her influence grew larger, it was good to retrieve the bones of Theseus from Skyros (c. 475 BC). Transparent eponyms existed at Athens as elsewhere. Mounichos founded Mounichia with its temple of Artemis Mounichia. Not much here. Phaleros founded Phaleron. He was an Argonaut, the Athenians allege, and Phaleron was their port before the Peiraieus (P 1.3.4). Aktaios was the first (eponymous?) king in Attica (P 1.2.6) and Kekrops married his daughter. Which Kekrops? The earth-born snake? Someone has been improvising here. But look, here is Aktaios' granddaughter Atthis - and she, it turns out, is the eponym of Attica (P 1.2.6)! It is obviously difficult to say how far any of these inventions go back, but we can see that they had their uses in the culture of a Greece interested in its heritage, the Greece of the Atthidographers (writers of local history of Attica) and of widespread literacy. More striking than these are the 'Eponyms' ('for that is what they call them' - P 1.5.2), chosen for the 10 new tribes that replaced the original four in 508 BC. Supposedly 100 names were put to the Delphic oracle and 10 chosen. This reform of local government was clearly concerned to present a traditional face to the world and the 'eponymous heroes', as they are generally called in modern books, served that function. Thus the tribe Erechtheis was named after Erechtheus (II) and others were named after Aigeus, Oineus (bastard son of Pandion), Akamas (son of Theseus), Kekrops, Pandion (Pausanias does not know which Pandion or Kekrops!). This eponymous way of thinking did not die out. In a new interpretation, favoured kings could be given the standing of the heroes of legend: Attalos of Pergamon and one of the Ptolemies of Egypt were chosen to be eponyms of new tribes - and so, in Pausanias' own time, was the Emperor Hadrian (P 1.5.5). Heroes were also chosen as founders for the new demes of 508 BC. These were to be the necessary focus of each one's identity, though the extent to which they caught on was rather variable and many were perhaps as shadowy to the demesmen as they are to us. The Athenian authorities, however, found eponyms a most useful device. They even had a cycle of 42 years, each with its own eponymous hero, under whose name you were registered as at the age of 18 you became an ephebe. After 42 years of eligibility for military service the eponym of your year passed to the incoming 18 year olds (Aristotle, Constitution of the Athenians 53.4, 53.7). It is probably thanks to this sort of Athenian enthusiasm that we have the word 'eponym' at all. Overused, however, they are spread thin and mythless - and cease to be of interest to us. The Uses of Greek Mythology 64 5.7 ARGUING WITH MYTHOLOGY No matter how fictional or artificial local myth seems to us, it is always capable of being treated as strict history by interested parties. Myth, like propaganda, is worthwhile because people will believe it. Enemies must be prepared to counter it within the rules of the game it establishes. Mythic argument is accorded the same respect as historical argument would be in our day - that is, it is persuasive within the limits allowed by the more pragmatic concerns of self-interest and practical politics. On the road from Eleusis to Megara are graves of those who fell in the mythic war of the Seven against Thebes (P 1.39.2-3). The Seven (cf. chapter 4.3) were Thebes' enemies and they had come from Argos. Kreon of Thebes sought to deny them burial. Adrastos of Argos had approached (good) King Theseus of Athens, who fought the Thebans and recovered the bodies, burying them in the territory of Eleusis (also, Herodotos 9.27.3). Bodies produce a visible monument, the grave. The message is of unreasonable, maybe impious, behaviour by Thebans and of principled Athenian intervention. Athens' hostility with Thebes underlies the tale, as does a claim to the friendship of an Argos perceived (to the exclusion of Sparta?) as the prime power of the Peloponnese. These long-standing views can be seen, for instance, in the history of the Peloponnesian Wars. It is interesting that this demonstration of Athenian beneficence is sited in the land of Eleusis, over which Athens had not always exercised undisputed control, and like other, more personal, feats of the hero Theseus seems designed to justify expanded borders. Meanwhile, how seriously is this taken by those whose interests are at variance with Athens'? Will the Thebans denounce the fiction? 'The Thebans say they voluntarily granted the recovery of the bodies and deny that they joined battle', notes Pausanias. I do not know which Thebans Pausanias refers to, but their attitude amply reveals the literal-mindedness of Greeks towards myth. The Argolid is a principal site of Greek Mythology and Argos itself was clearly pressured by an inherited mythic view of its importance. The Argos of historical times, after all, had no access to real knowledge of the Mycenaean period, only to what mythology told. Yet that was enough. Invited to join the Greeks against Persia, Argos demanded, according to Herodotos (7.149), a 30-year truce with Sparta (a pragmatic concern) and joint leadership of the campaign, claiming that technically Argos was entitled to sole leadership. This claim, related to Herodotos by Argives, can only be based on the mythology that fossilises the non-Dorian world. No less interesting is a different version ('told throughout Greece' - Herodotos 7.150) in which the Persians claimed kinship with the Argives because of their descent from Perses, son of the famous Perseus and Andromeda. At first sight, real Persians seem as unlikely to have propounded this view as to have told how Io was seized by Phoenician sailors from Argos (Herodotos 1.1). But Greeks who can regard their myth as history and therefore not culture-specific do not see why Persians should not so argue. Furthermore, if Persians understood their Greeks, then might they have felt free to argue according to Greek rules? Their own view of myth was probably little different. If Argos was strong in myth, Dorian Sparta might seem weak. 14 We have seen King Kleomenes of Sparta claiming he was an Achaean not a Dorian (p. 61 above). In the Spartan king list, some remedial action is taken. After a run of eponyms (Eurotas, Lakedaimon, Amyklas) and one Oibalos, Tyndareus (accredited grandson, on his Myth and identity 65 mother's side, of Perseus) only gains his throne through the intervention of Herakles (P 3. Iff.). The throne passes to Menelaos and then to Orestes. Orestes' son Teisamenos is then (as we have seen) displaced by the 'Return of the Herakleidai', who are themselves descended from Perseus. By a mixture of good work and blue blood, the Herakleidai - or Dorians as we call them in the real world - are established. The weak point is clearly the succession after Orestes and this casts interesting light on events, apparently, of the 550s BC. At this time the Spartans were attempting to extend their power over Arcadia and were having difficulty overwhelming the first major city in their path, Tegea. An oracle told them that what they needed was the bones of Orestes and a further oracle, so the story goes, told them where to find the bones: Tegea (Herodotos 1.67). The bones are then by trickery removed from Tegea and Sparta's military difficulties are overcome. It is a good story, but it may also be based on real policies. Scholars have connected it with the revised, less confrontational policy (attributed to the ephor Chilon, 556/5 BC) on which Sparta now based the expansion of her influence over the Peloponnese. The Peloponnesian League led by Sparta replaces military conquest. The bones of Orestes then make a necessary ideological statement about entitlement to leadership, marked by his new grave in Sparta (P 3.11.10), and their removal from Tegea reflects a transfer of authority. To this period, too, must surely belong the amplification of mythology, according to which Orestes the son of Agamemnon held Argos, and, living nearby, though his father had not ruled them, he added most of the Arcadians and acquired the throne of Sparta, constantly having at hand an allied contingent from the Phokians ready to assist. (Pausanias 2.18.5) This allied contingent from Phokis, a Doric homeland, is plainly the Dorians transfigured. Perhaps, too, we should remember Orestes' stay in Phokis and his Phokian friend Pylades. This is the man who stands at his side as he kills his mother in the three tragedians and who, in an Athenian painting, slaughters sons of Nauplios (eponym of Nauplion) as they attempt to aid Aigisthos (described at P 1.22.6). 15 Orestes is more than just a figure of tangential importance in Greek mythology and is often commemorated in the landscape. He was tried for the murder of his mother at the Athenian Areopagos (Aeschylus Eumenides, P 1.28.5); at Troizen is the Tent of Orestes where he underwent cleansing (P 2.31.8) and the Holy Stone on which nine men of Troizen purified Orestes of matricide (P 2.31.4); half a kilometre out of Gytheion was the unwrought stone of Zeus Kappotas ('downfaller', presumably a meteor) on which Orestes sat and was released from his madness (P 3.22.1); at Keryneia in Achaia is a temple of the Eumenides founded by Orestes (P 7.25.7); the influence of his name changed one-time Oresthasion in Arcadia to Oresteion (P 8.3.2); 1.5 km out of Megalopolis, heading towards Messene, is a place called after its goddesses, the Maniai ('Madnesses') - here Orestes was seized with madness as a result of his matricide, bit off a finger (view now the Tomb of the Finger), and adjoining is a place Ake ('Cure') where, yes, he was cured (P 8.34); and the Tegeans show the Tomb of Orestes (whence the Spartans stole the body - P 8.54.4). His influence even seems somewhat disproportionate The Uses of Greek Mythology 66 and may go back to an earlier age when this 'Mountain-man' (Ores-means 'mountain') had not yet been associated with the house of Atreus and displayed wildness in his locale and behaviour. Part III Myth and religion Chapter 6 Arrival at the cult-site Cult-sites need to be accounted for even more than landscape, towns and peoples. Here the sacred intrudes into an otherwise profane world and disrupts the uniformity of the land and its people. The explanation is a logos ('account') and in particular a hieros logos ('sacred account'). They tell us the circumstances which led to the cult-site's foundation, they give its 'reason', its aition, and are therefore said to be aetiological. The hieroi logoi I look at in this chapter talk about the 'arrival' of various gods in order to achieve this explanation, but as they are not historical accounts we may find that in telling us how the site was supposedly founded they tell us something of what the site is actually about. 6.1 ARRIVAL AT DELPHI: APOLLO AND PYTHON Our first site is Delphi - in poetry also known as 'Pytho'. Strange though an alias is, even Pausanias tires of invoking genealogy to explain it: 'Those that like to genealogise everything consider that Pythes was the son of Delphos and that it was as a result of his reign that the city got the name [Pytho]' (Pausanias 10.6.5). In fact this name (as well as the name of Apollo's priestess at the oracle, the 'Pythia') must go with the root pyth- ('ask questions'). But as we shall find with the winding River Snake (chapter 8.1), the prosaic explanation is not enough. Various stories are told, but much the most influential in later times is the tale of the monstrous snake known since Ephoros (fourth century BC) as Python. Originally Gaia ('Earth') or Themis ('Correctness', in a religious sense) had owned the oracle and it was guarded by the huge snake which Apollo kills to win ownership of the oracle. One way or another the snake gives the name: in earlier writers its body 'rotted' (pythesthai) hence the place 'Pytho' ('Homer', Hymn to Apollo, P 10.6.5). Later, the name 'Python' becomes established, blending Pytho, place of 'rotting', with Zeus' opponent Typhon (chapter 8.3). There are several ways to approach this myth, but one must be ruled out immediately: this is not an historical account of changes of ownership of the oracle. The purpose of the myth is not to deliver factual information to the effect that before the cult of Apollo at Delphi there was a cult of Gaia or Themis. Rather, we should read it in the light of the genealogies we have explored. Earth and snake stress autochthony and land-rights, the intimate association of the oracle with the place and its authority from being there since the beginning; Themis stresses its absolute standards in a different way. However, like the autochthons Pelasgos, Lelex and even Kekrops, the initial autochthonous regime is Arrival at the cult-site 69 there to be overwritten by something mapping the detailed sense of the phenomenon dissected by myth. Apollo is the defining stage and arrives with the supreme strength of male youth (which will also be seen in Delphi's Pythian Games), turning back the monstrous, female, undefined. The myth can also be viewed in the light of 'divine succession myths', the sort that tells how one god replaced another in control of the world and which is found not only in Hesiod's Theogony but also in several Near Eastern mythologies. Here, too, we note the same rhythm in defining the current world. A prior, unsatisfactory stage must be enunciated before our real world can be defined: the life under Kronos, a golden age of freedom from toil and of spontaneous generation, must be overwritten by the age of Zeus in which we actually live. The connection of the Python myth with different myths, the monster-slaying myths of Greece (Zeus and Typhon) and the Near East, has been explored in great detail by Fontenrose. For him this type of myth ultimately represents the success of a creative god over the dark forces of chaos and destruction (1959: e.g. 473). Again we are dealing with the establishment of the world in which we live. So, different approaches but same destination: establishment of the order of the world in which we live. 6.2 ARRIVAL BY BIRTH: ZEUS Gaia had always been there, but Apollo arrived. No Olympian god is autochthonous (itself a fact inviting explanation). 1 Consequently, a myth designed to explain a cult readily calls it into existence by the arrival of the god. The most extreme form of arrival is birth. Zeus can be born on Mt Lykaion in Arcadia, as we shall see - though Rhea's girdle was loosened at a certain Mt Thaumasion, also in Arcadia, where her cave was (chapter 8.1). According doubtless to Cretans, Zeus was born in a cave on Mt Dikte (Ap 1.1.5), and he was reared on Mt Dikte - or in another tradition Mt Ida (depicted in Apollodoros as Rhea giving him to the nymphs Ida and Adrasteia to rear). What becomes clear from this is that Zeus was worshipped on mountains, preferably with caves, and that cult on various mountains was explained by a tale of Zeus' birth there. Some centres are however less influential than others, and so will only bid for a girdle-loosening or a rearing, thereby allocating themselves a subordinate but recognised place in a religious system. Those who later put together whole histories will be grateful for a tale of Zeus' birth to begin his biography. But they will need to make decisions as to the best claim on his birthplace. Here in Greek Mythology Dikte won. But the grave of Zeus in Crete is a different matter, being wholly inconsistent with the known historical fact that Zeus is immortal: his death is either a monstrous Cretan lie, or, by Herodoran differentiation (p. 45 above), the grave belongs to another Zeus, a king (Diodoros 3.61.2). The Uses of Greek Mythology 70 6.3 ARRIVAL EN ROUTE: APOLLO AND ARTEMIS AT SIKYON Arrival demands travel, which can serve in myths as a linkage between different centres. Apollo and Artemis arrived at Sikyon after the slaughter of Python (P 2.7.7). The priority of the cult at Delphi is thereby recognised. They were seeking purification for the slaughter. Feeling afraid, at the place called Fear (aetiology), they diverted to Crete where they were purified by one 'Karmanor' - originally, Miiller (1825:159) suggested, Katharmanor ('purification man'). This story allows that Cretan Karmanor's purification is more 'correct' or authoritative than the Sikyonian. But the function of the Cretan story is duplicated by a story of the flight of Apollo to the vale of Tempe (at the bounds of Thessaly) to seek purification. This story of flight and purification is mobile because people migrate, as Miiller understood long ago (1825: 159f). Delphians could retain the Thessalian story and maybe ritual that they brought with them. Migrants to Crete set up a new shrine and a new story in the remote west at Tarrha. But Apollo cult, especially as viewed from Delphi, navel (omphalos) of the world, is a system: thus Karmanor is organised into providing a son, Chrysothemis, to be the first victor in the hymn-to-Apollo contest of the Pythian Games (P 10.7.2). We may also deduce from this that the establishment of the Pythian Games is in its way connected with the acceptability of the slaughter of Python - a slaughter celebrated in these very hymns. Meanwhile, the arrival of Apollo and Artemis at Sikyon has been inserted into an approved myth of the purification of Apollo. This gives the arrival a certain momentum: the Sikyonians failed to give the requisite purification, and somehow their country inspired fear in the gods. For this they pay: seven boys and seven girls must annually persuade the gods to look kindly upon them, bringing the gods from the margins of the River Sythas to the heart of the citadel - the Temple of Peitho ('Persuasion'). This is actually an instance of aphosiosis - the discharging of religious obligations, incurred in this case by exiting the condition of youth (in order to enter adulthood). The arrival myth motivates the impurity (almost contagiously) and the wrath, which must be expiated and propitiated and it also sets up a tension for return to the centre through the gods that are fleeing the centre. The purity of the gods is renewed and the adult community is refreshed by new entrants. 6.4 ARRIVAL WHILST WANDERING: DEMETER Demeter, too, must arrive and the occasion for her arrival is straightforward: she was searching for her daughter, her Kore ('Daughter/Maid' - where named she is Persephone or Phersephatta; in Latin, Proserpina). For Kore has been abducted by the king of the underworld, Hades (or Plouton), and Demeter has been searching everywhere where there later turns out to be a cult-site. She learnt from the people of Hermione (in the Argolid) that Plouton had taken Persephone (Ap 1.5.1); at Argos she was received by Pelasgos (shows how long ago it was) and Chrysanthis told her about it (P 1.14.2); in a suburb of Athens on the road to Eleusis, Phytalos ('Plant'-man) received Demeter and the Arrival at the cult-site 7 1 goddess gave him the (first?) plant of the fig-tree (P 1.37.2). More colourfully, at Onkion in Arcadia (founded, of course, by Onkios son of Apollo), the temple of Demeter Erinys ('Avenging-fury') commemorates how, when searching for her daughter, she turned into a horse to avoid the attentions of Poseidon, but he just did likewise and the result made her very angry (P 8.25). Hence also the cult of Poseidon Hippios ('Horse'-Poseidon) in those parts. How then did the Eleusinian mysteries come into existence? We have an early source for Demeter's arrival at Eleusis. This is the Hymn to Demeter, an early work (perhaps 600-575 BC - Richardson 1974:5-11), supposedly by 'Homer'. Demeter was looking for her daughter (what else?), and took temporary employment as a wet nurse in the royal palace. Here she attempted to make her charge, the royal prince Demophon, immortal, but was interrupted by the prying curiosity of his mother. In response to this failure Demeter prescribes the setting up of a temple and demonstrates the rites to the local heroes, secret rites which may not be divulged. The prying reflects the secrecy of the ritual; and the more limited policy benefits after death, which the rites offer, correspond to, and console for, the failure to achieve complete immortality. They also shadow the incomplete return of Kore/Persephone for whom initiates will search annually. 6.5 THE ARRIVING GOD: DIONYSOS No arrival has been more misleading than that of Dionysos. The myths about him can be particularly insistent on his arrival from elsewhere and this led scholars into a mythology of their own. Nietzsche (1872) had analysed the particular quality of Greek culture as resulting from a combination of two opposing spirits, the restrained inspiration of Apollo and the wild enthusiasm of Dionysos. Rohde (1890) then transposed this, in a historicising way, into a thesis of the invasion of the Hellenic consciousness by a genuinely foreign and even barbaric cult of Dionysos, thus preserving the Greeks for a purity such as scholars of the day might applaud. The myths might now be read as recording the essentially non-Greek nature of the side of Greek civilisation which did not fit preconceived ideas of the Greek achievement. This modern myth has been a long time dying in books on Greek religion. In Euripides' Bacchae, Thebes is presented as the first place in Greece where Dionysos arrives to demonstrate his powers. He has come from Lydia, Phrygia, Persia, Baktria, Media, Arabia and the whole of the Asian seaboard. It is perhaps therefore curious that his late mother Semele, before her incineration (Ap 3.4.3), was a resident of Thebes and that its founder Kadmos (the Erechtheus of Thebes) was her father and his grandfather. He arrives in Thebes fully equipped with Maenads ('Raving Women') as his worshippers and represents an irresistible force which it is folly to oppose. In fact the three remaining daughters of Kadmos, Agaue, Autonoe and Ino (Bacchae 681f.), are leading the three thiasoi (ritual dance-groups of Dionysos) out on the mountains. The reversal is extreme: matrons who should be in the city, weaving clothes, peaceably looking after children, are out on the wild mountain, wearing animal-skins (from animals which they have torn apart alive, in an un-sacrifice with no cooking), suckling snakes and wild creatures in mighty, possessed bands. Woe betide any baby they come across! The Uses of Greek Mythology 72 This - or something like it - is what actually happens in Dionysos cult, in Boiotia though not in Athens (where there was no ecstatic cult). The myth which Euripides is setting and exquisitely elaborating is in fact the hieros logos of the Agrionia festival at Thebes. It depicts a force sweeping in from Outside and Abroad, beyond the well-ordered male-dominated Greek polis, and inverting the behaviour of decent Greek womenfolk. It depicts the three groups in which the women are organised (which we know of from elsewhere). And it depicts Dionysos, impossibly, as both the force of the Outside, thus an outsider, and as specially associated with Thebes. He has, in any case, come to Thebes first. Thus Thebes becomes the premier location of the Dionysos-cult, in keeping, one suspects, with its claim to the leadership of the cities of Boiotia. With the development of Greek culture and, in particular, the impetus given by the expeditions of Alexander the Great, knowledge of a once distant world increased and so too did the travels of Dionysos. Notably, he reached India - or maybe he even was an Indian - or at least one of the many Dionysoses which history confuses (differentiation) was an Indian with a long beard, as Diodoros tells (3.63). This was of course not the one born of Semele in Thebes, though that one travelled too, notably to a Mt Nysa which someone had managed to identify in Arabia (3.64.5). And there were those who thought he travelled from India to Thebes by elephant (3.65.7). It took two years - which just happens to be the interval between Dionysos festivals. Other cities, however, who did not persuade the Greek tradition, stuck to their own version of the birth model. Dionysos was born in Elis or Naxos or Eleutherai or Teos - but, if we may trust 'Homer' in his Hymn to Dionysos (Diodoros 3.66), this is all lies: Zeus gave birth to him on Mt Nysa in Phoenicia. Teos just isn't exotic enough. If therefore in a myth a god is born or arrives at a place, however temporarily, it is worth thinking in terms of an aetiology of a cult-site, perhaps expressing a view of the cult or of its relationship to other cult-centres. The exception is when the place is clearly designated as a distant land, a 'beyond' - a margin to go to, be out of circulation at, or return from. That, I think, is the role of India and Thrace in the Dionysos story and of Karmanor's Crete in the Sikyonian or Delphic view. We will see more of beyonds in chapter 8.2. Chapter 7 Myth and initiation ritual It is time now to delve into some of the myths which gain their shape from association with rituals. As I write there seems to be a growing acceptance that this approach to myth is delivering results. But the reader should be warned that the acceptance is not universal, despite the enthusiasm of the author (my Death and the Maiden (1989) is devoted above all to the area outlined in chapter 7.1 below). There are, I think, two objections. The first is that the method involves too much speculation and guesswork. 1 The second is that, even if the method does deliver results, it tells us about the prehistoric significance of the myth and not what it meant to Greeks of classical times. Of course, I myself think it makes sense, reaches a sufficient level of proof and coherence and explains much, but readers will have to judge for themselves the plausibility and interest of this approach. I have chosen in this chapter to concentrate on initiation rituals. The stories that emerge from the period of expulsion and seclusion tend to be colourful and to ensure disproportionate survival. But of course there were myths associated with other festivals too, for instance the myths that Burkert (1970) explored associated with a renewal- festival on Lemnos and forging a link between that and the Thesmophoria (p. 35 above) - well enough known for its own mythology of Demeter and Kore. 7.1 THE INITIATION OF THE MAIDEN Bears and 'Bears' At two sites in Attica - Brauron and Mounichia - and maybe at many more, a ritual called the arkteia was performed by selected Athenian girls before marriage, in the 5 to 10 age bracket at the start (so comfortably before marriage). They were said to arkteuein during this period of service to the goddess Artemis, or to be arktoi ('Bears'). We know little of the detail of this ritual, though drawings on special small pots which we call krateriskoi and a few other sources give us glimpses. We see girls running in races, clad in tunics or naked. Young women direct the races. Sometimes a person dressed as a bear is present. On one occasion a real bear is present! We hear of a special costume called the krokotos ('saffron'-robe), perhaps meant to present the skin of the tawny bear in a more civilised mode. At some stage, each girl was to sacrifice a goat. A myth is told in connection with this ritual, with differing versions for the two sanctuaries involved. At Mounichia: The Uses of Greek Mythology 74 A she-bear appeared in the shrine and was killed by the Athenians; as a result there was a famine. The god gave an oracle that they would gain relief from it if someone sacrificed his daughter to the goddess. Embaros alone agreed to, provided his clan held the priesthood for life. He dressed his daughter, but hid her in the adyton [restricted room] of the temple and, dressing a goat in clothes, sacrificed it as though it was his daughter. (The Souda, under Embaros eimi (T'm an Embaros'), slightly corrected) At Brauron we are told that there was a wild bear in the region, that it was tamed and (according to one authority) given to the shrine of Artemis: But a girl poked fun at it, with her lack of restraint upset it, and it scratched her face. This annoyed her brothers and they shot the bear, as a result of which a plague befell the Athenians. The Athenians consulted an oracle and it replied that their troubles would end if, to pay for killing the bear, they made their maidens perform the arkteia. And the Athenians voted that no girl should be married to a man without performing the arkteia for the goddess. (The Souda, under Arktos e Brauroniois (T was a Bear at the Brauronia')) There is a particularly transparent connection between these stories and the ritual of which we know some details at Brauron. Both stories supply a bear which is killed, for which a girl in myth, or girls in ritual, must compensate. The two versions even suggest, when put side by side, that the girl that is 'sacrificed' at Mounichia is equivalent to the girls performing the arkteia at Brauron. In ritual the girls compensate for the dead bear by becoming Bears themselves. They also sacrifice a goat, which is portrayed by the Mounichian myth as a substitute for themselves, to the point of being dressed up as them. It is not wholly clear why the goddess is so upset at the death of the bear. We are simply left to suppose that it was in some way sacred to her or under her protection, just as young maidens are. But maidens must pay for their exit visa from maidenhood and we perceive that the momentum of this myth has become comparable to that of the myth of Apollo and Artemis at Sikyon (p. 98). This is another myth of aphosiosis, discharge of religious obligations, on leaving youth for adulthood. There are other themes to note too. The 'sacrifice' by the father fits well with the termination of maidenhood, during which the father is responsible for the daughter. Once she becomes a full matron, the husband will be responsible instead. But the girl is not immediately married - far from it. First she must pass into a sort of limbo, an area of transition outside the normal bounds of society - in this case, the seclusion of the shrine of Artemis. This corresponds to an analysis of rites made by Van Gennep in 1909: in a large category of rites, which he termed 'Rites of Passage', participants transfer from one social status to another. These rites, he argued, exhibited a tripartite structure (Van Gennep 1960:11): 1 rites of 'separation', from the former status; 2 rites of 'transition', a 'liminaP or 'marginal' period, time out, cut off from society altogether; 3 rites of 'incorporation' (agregation), returning the person(s) to the society but in a new Myth and initiation ritual 75 capacity. The arkteia corresponds to the liminal phase. The myth, whilst appearing to narrate the aetiology of the arkteia, in fact establishes the tensions that precipitate the crisis and transfer maidens out of maidenhood into this period of seclusion. Implications: myth and ritual The Attic bear-myth is a specially useful example of the interrelationship between myth and ritual and can serve as a model. At this stage two misconceptions about the relationship should be cleared away. First, it has not been necessary to claim that the myth is the words spoken over the ritual, the legomenon over the dromenon, as Jane Harrison on occasion did (p. 28 above). Second, I have not claimed that the myth derives from the ritual or that the ritual derives from the myth. As we have no knowledge of how either the myth or the ritual is initially established (this is the well of the past, chapter 4.1), we cannot pretend to know that one originated from the other (on this point see Burkert 1970:14; Versnel 1990:59f.). Indeed to claim that one derives from the other seems like an intellectual tidying-up operation, a form of reductionism, an explaining away. One might as well explain away 'heroes' by claiming that they were originally gods or originally men. What we may say in this case is that the myth and the ritual are two media operating in partnership. They explore, alleviate, accommodate moments that are felt difficult or significant. The society has been mapped in the minds of its members as consisting of several groups according to sex and age. In the case of female members these are: maidens, matrons, old women (widows). The bear-ritual and the bear-myth show how the map is preserved but individuals must be shifted. In fact, the myth will be told within its society when it seems interesting or relevant and such occasions are liable to increase in number as the moment of transition approaches. Perhaps it will be welcomed into hymns to the goddess, like the foundation-myth of the Eleusinian mysteries in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter. Myths, however, are stories and good stories have a life of their own. By the time they reach us, many of the surviving myths that have at one time been associated with a ritual have become detached and become part of a common Greek stock of stories, used above all by poets. Even so, when we look at one of these myths, we may realise from its shape and motifs that it belongs to this category. To recognise a myth as belonging to this category is one form of interpretation of myth. It gives a reason for it to be constructed as it is. It will not, however, show the full range of possibilities inherent in the story - which a tragedian might extract or amplify. And it will not show the significance assumed by the myth within the context of a broadly systematic mythology, perhaps revealing the ways of thinking of its locally-based society. But it is a start and has the benefit of relating myths to particular peoples of particular places with particular ceremonies: the Attic bear-myth casts a light of its own on a specific context. The Uses of Greek Mythology 76 Ramifications: Bears The Attic bear-myth itself has to be hunted out: it is not part of the standard Greek Mythology. But other myths which are part of Greek Mythology do take on a different hue once we have looked at the Attic bear-myth. To return to Arcadia, a myth here cries out for attention, that of Kallisto. There are several variants of her story (e.g. Ap 3.8.2), but it is at least clear that she is the leading figure in a group of girls/nymphs that accompany Artemis in hunting and that she is under a duty as a result to remain a maiden. However, Zeus has sex with her. And she is transformed into a bear. We can immediately see a cluster of Attic bear-myth motifs: focus on the maiden (like the daughter of Embaros, the girl who provokes the bear, or the Athenian maidens who must henceforth be Bears); a moment of crisis brought on by sexual maturity (the Athenian maidens must perform the rite before marriage, and the mythic girl hints at sexuality in her attitude towards the tame bear); Artemis (as at both Brauron and Mounichia); a segregated - single-sex, single-age-group - community of Artemis (like the Bears, and as implied by the adyton). The wrath of Artemis is implicit in the story and is worked out in different ways in different versions: it is Artemis who turns Kallisto into a bear, or Hera does and Artemis shoots the bear. In any case, this anger is associated with the end of maidenhood (Zeus, Athenian girls before marriage) or the end of the maiden ('sacrifice' of Embaros' daughter). Together with this goes the clinching detail, metamorphosis into a bear, which is what Brauronian ritual is all about. This is not to deny that there are differences, most notably the intervention of Zeus, or problems, most notably the wavering variants and the lack of a clear location of the myth, other than 'Arcadia'. But it does seem irresistible to identify the Kallisto myth as a partner-myth displaying ample indications of association with a lost passage rite of maidens who must become matrons. Iphigeneia and the deer A different myth is evoked by focusing particularly on Embaros' 'sacrifice' of his daughter. This is, of course, Agamemnon's 'sacrifice' of his daughter Iphigeneia at Aulis (e.g. Ap, Ep. 3.22). It starts with the death of an animal: Agamemnon shoots a deer, as a bear was killed at the beginning of the Attic bear-myth. Again the wrath of the goddess Artemis is the result, and again it requires the sacrifice of a daughter. Iphigeneia is summoned as though for marriage to Achilles - maybe a romantic invention of a poet, but not out of place as it stresses the moment at which these myths must happen. A realistic account would now demand that Iphigeneia was actually sacrificed, but this does not seem to be the usual outcome of the myth: rather, Artemis substitutes a deer for Iphigeneia, whilst she herself is whisked off, secluded we might say, and - in some versions, at any rate - becomes a priestess. The story has undergone some modifications: Iphigeneia becomes a priestess of Artemis Tauropolos (a title in some way associated with tauroi - 'bulls') amongst the Tauroi, a Scythian tribe identified as a result of increased acquaintance with the wider world, just like Dionysos' Mt Nysa in Arabia (p. 100 above). Aeschylus in his Agamemnon, for his own black purposes, leads us to think Myth and initiation ritual 77 Iphigeneia was actually sacrificed (though interestingly his witnesses look aside at the last, terrible moment). But the type of the myth looks very close to the Mounichian. This looks like a partner-myth for a rite of maidens in the cult of Artemis at Aulis. And to judge by the prevalent animal, it looks as though they should become not Bears, but Deer. A deer-rite is in fact suggested by three inscriptions from two sites in southern Thessaly and it does seem to be preliminary to marriage: a man who on one inscription pays a 'release-fee' to Artemis Throsia at Larisa for a female who has nebeu-'d (cf. nebros, 'deer') turns up on another inscription as her husband. Perhaps a deer-rite, apparently demanded at Aulis by the myth, is not entirely imaginary. This local myth has been swept up into Greek Mythology - by travelling poets, striving to entertain audiences with their fund of stories, putting this myth to a different, though scarcely new, use. But it still bears the marks of an earlier social and ritual function based on a firmly categorised, traditional society. Cows Metamorphosis is a theme of sufficient extent to hold together Ovid's 15-book collection of myths, and it has several applications. Most notably it can be used to bring things into existence, to account for them, to provide an aition. But the purpose of the myths I now present is not to account for the existence of cows. The daughters of King Proitos of Tiryns, the Proitids, have grown to the age for marriage and in one version poke fun at the statue of Hera - surely, in her shrine (story: Ap 2.2.2). This is described by Hesiod as an act of machlosyne, a word with sexual overtones ('raunchiness' perhaps goes too far). So: right age, dangerous adolescent behaviour (like poking fun at bears), angry goddess. Result: madness. They think they have become cows (a delusory metamorphosis, surprisingly tentative for myth) and are afflicted by a whitening skin disease and hair loss, reminiscent of ritual daubing of the body and shearing of the hair (like that which Achilles was growing for the River Spercheios - Iliad 23.142). For a period of one year they wander, expelled from Tiryns, in the wilds: we glimpse caves and mountains in the myth and cult of this stage. The Tirynthian ending to the story has not survived. Instead we have a number of places where they were supposed to have been cured of their madness, usually by Melampous, the celebrated wandering (cf. chapter 6.4) seer. The best-known endings are (a) at a temple of Artemis at Lousoi after a year in the mountains above, and (b) somewhere in Sikyon after a colourful chase by a band of youths led by Melampous. There are hints here of Rhea's girdle (p. 97 above): Tiryns is accepted by all centres as the authentic home of the Proitids, but they feel free to stage the release of the Proitids at their own site. The case is particularly strong at Lousoi, perhaps reflecting the population movements from the Argolid to this part of the world at the end of the Mycenaean Age. This would imply transfer of rites without rejection of the point of origin. Tiryns itself was depopulated by the Argives after the Persian Wars and its local traditions lost except for some mythology; but we can use this myth to envisage the rite. Girls, probably select, at the age for marriage undergo service to Hera, goddess presiding over marriage. At the start Hera is hostile and must be won over. The girls start in the shrine, then leave the city daubed white and hair cut. They are the Cows of Hera. After a period of seclusion in the wild, they return to assume their new role in the community, that of matrons. The Uses of Greek Mythology 78 No mention of cows is complete without Io (Ap 2.1.3). Her story belongs only a few kilometres away from that of Proitids, at the temple of Hera known today as the 'Argive Heraion' (but, I think, originally a sacred site of Mycenae). She is a priestess of Hera, unmarried and still therefore in the control of her father, though authorities differed on who he was. But Zeus has sex with her. And she is transformed into a white cow. Now she is a prisoner in the precinct of Hera and is tied to a sacred olive-tree in 'the grove of the Mycenaeans', guarded by the many-eyed Argos. But Hermes kills him with a stone and Io wanders away from the shrine, across the face of the earth until finally in Egypt she is made human again, gives birth to Epaphos and... becomes Isis. The Egyptian adventure is late: depictions of the Egyptian goddess Isis with cow's horns (which originally belonged to another Egyptian goddess, Hathor) has led to the identification of Io with her. And Egypt, instead of being a 'beyond' (chapter 8.2) to which people may wander, has become real and specific. But the kernel of the myth fits our pattern: Io's bovine metamorphosis belongs with that of the Proitids; the goddess is the same, Hera (known as 'cow-faced' in Homer, though literary people prefer to translate 'ox-eyed'); and the temple is once again in the foreground. Unlike the Proitids, Zeus ushers in the age of sexuality (as for Kallisto) and a period of seclusion in the shrine is indicated by the myth (as in the case of Embaros and the adyton). After this, the cow shape is again associated with wandering and we look forward to a release. The Io myth is, however, complicated by a second layer of ritual allusion - to the priestess of the Argive Heraion. Io is not just in the service of Hera, she is the first priestess of Hera, beginning a succession that led down to historical times - the same list that provided the backbone of Hellanikos' work (p. 44 above) and was considered by Thucydides. But the priestess at Argos was not a young maiden: she was a woman, presumably a virgin, who held the post for life. Had this once been a post held, as others were (Dowden 1989:130- 3), by a select maiden until she reached the age for marriage? Or did the priestess continue indefinitely the condition entered only as a liminal phase by the girl-initiands? We cannot know. All we can observe is the pattern which the myth forms beside that of the Proitids and other related myths. 7.2 THE INITIATION OF BOYS It looks as though a female who no longer belongs to one group in human society and does not yet belong to another is depicted in myth as not human at all. What then of males? Immediately cult provides 'Bulls' (Tauroi) at Ephesos and 'Herds' (Agelai) in Crete and at Sparta - there they are directed by 'Ox-leaders' (Bouagoi). At Halai (Attica) we hear of a rite involving a mock-killing of a man, supposedly because Orestes was almost sacrificed by the barbarous Tauroi (Eur. IT 1458-61). Had there been a mock- sacrifice preceding entry into the liminal class of Bulls, marking the end of the previous condition? Such a suggestion is perhaps supported by the mock-killing which preceded entry into the Roman brotherhood of the Luperci ('Wolf-men). Myth and initiation ritual 79 Wolves It is at this point that we return to Lykaon. So far we have only seen him as a mythic tool for establishing Arcadian unity in the cult of Zeus Lykaios and for grounding city life (chapter 5.1 above). But his name is more often associated with an unsavoury story. Ovid tells in his Metamorphoses how Lykaon, as part of a package of impiety towards Jupiter (Zeus), slaughtered a hostage and served him up for a banquet for the god; for this he is turned into a wolf. Pausanias claims that his account has been 'told by the Arcadians since olden times' (P 8.2.4), plainly in books, but he does seem closer to ritual. Here Lykaon sacrifices a human baby on the altar of Zeus Lykaios (that, after all, is how you give food to a god); immediately, he turns into a wolf. This, it turns out, is an aition: 'How, then, does the change from protector to tyrant begin? Is it obviously when the protector begins to perform the same action as the man in the myth told in connection with the shrine of Zeus Lykaios in Arcadia? ' 'Which one?' 'The one about the man who tastes human entrails, chopped up among the entrails of other sacrificial victims, and how he must turn into a wolf. Or haven't you heard the story?' 'Yes, I have.' (Plato, Republic 8 565d-e) They say that ever since Lykaon there has been someone who changes from a man into a wolf at the sacrifice of Zeus Lykaios. But it does not happen for his whole life: if he abstains from human flesh whilst he is a wolf, nine years later he turns back from a wolf to a man; but if he doesn't, he stays a beast for ever. (Pausanias 8.2.6) But what is it an aition for? People don't actually turn into wolves. And it is not clear that there was actually human sacrifice at the Lykaia, though this has been believed both by ancient authors who have a weakness for myth (T thought it unpleasant to look into the matter of the sacrifice. Let it be as it is and as it always has been' - P 8.38.7) and by primitivising scholars ('the savage and cruel rites... cannibal banquet... the awful sacrifice' -Frazer 1921: i 391-3). The answer appears to lie in Indo-European tradition. There are traces in various cultures descended from Indo-European (Germanic, Celtic, Persian) of a custom whereby pre-adult youths of noble birth form roaming bands, typically involved in warfare (in the service of some important person), outside the normal structure of society. It is this violent, semi-outlaw union in bands that evokes the image of the 'wolf - so prominent in men's names, tribal names and werewolf stories. 2 The metamorphosis into wolves, fierce enemies of man, is accomplished through a rite of at least supposed human sacrifice, as with bulls and luperci (the same inheritance), and is a way of presenting warrior-initiation in myth and in ritual. The Uses of Greek Mythology 80 Nine years as a wolf may seem a long time, until we look at Troy. The Greek warriors spent nine years besieging Troy (I presume the counting is inclusive). Who were they? According to Homer, the kouroi Achaion, the 'youths of the Achaians' - the young nobility who form a band, complete with their hetairoi (close comrades). None of the Achaians, apart from Nestor, have sons in battle. Some of the most important are married (the mark of adulthood): Agamemnon, Menelaos, Odysseus. These are the eminent chieftains whom roving bands of kouroi choose to assist. Diomedes and Achilles are not married - and they have hetairoi. Nine or ten years is, I suppose, about how long the physical peak of modern sportsmen lasts, who by the age of 30 must wonder whether they are past it. And in the Spartan system, a preliminary adulthood is reached in the twentieth year (i.e. at 19, the age of Telemachos) - now they become eirenes - but full adulthood with marriage only around the thirtieth. These are the nine or ten years at Troy or transmuted into wolves. I should perhaps mention for completeness at this point the preliminary two-year stage begun in the eighteenth year (i.e. at age 17) by Ephebes at Athens, Melleirenes at Sparta and also, for good measure, the age at which Herakles killed the lion of Kithairon in Apollodoros' source (Ap 2.4.9). The Greek for lupercus is lykourgos, the name of the Spartan lawgiver. It is hard to see how there can be much history in what we are told of him: those Spartan institutions which seemed odd elsewhere in Greece are largely put down to him, though they had their parallels in Crete and are plainly survivals from an older way of life, requiring no Lykourgos to invent them. Even the definition of constitutional arrangements enshrined in the 'Great Rhetra' ('Decree') and its later codicil, both authorised from Delphi, leave him out of the picture. Historically, there is little room for there to be a Lykourgos, but mythically there is plenty. Some of what is told of him looks like a displaced version of the Lykaon story: reading Plutarch (Lykourgos 2-3), it becomes clear that he could have been king (if he had wished), he could have had a child killed as he ate (but refrained). Indeed, a recent writer (Kunstler 1991:201-5) has even tried to connect this not-slaughter of a nephew to the maddened slaughter of his own son by the Thracian Lykourgos (Ap 3.5.1), in that case put down to the hostility of Dionysos. It obviously requires a lot of speculation, but the tattered evidence points to a Wolf-figure in charge of a wolf-pack of youths (hence the attribution to Lykourgos of the initiatory system at Sparta), united around a supposedly human sacrifice and cannibalistic meal. 'Boy'-snatching Greek attitudes to homosexuality were rather different from those of most modern societies. But only one form had any degree of social approval: an upper-class relationship between a young adult and a pre-adult. The pre-adult, the eromenos ('beloved'), is not, in our sense, a 'boy' but a youth making the transition to adulthood. And the adult, the erastes ('lover'), is one who himself has recently made that transition. This institutionalised relationship goes back to Indo-European times, but in classical Greece it was disintegrating and unevenly preserved. In Athens it remained as a custom, rather than a ritual, among the upper classes: hence all those vases pronouncing that so- and-so is kalos ('nice') or depicting youths as objects of interest, particularly when accompanied by a cockerel - a traditional present for an eromenos. Sometimes the Myth and initiation ritual 8 1 eromenos is Ganymede himself, the nice son of King Tros ('Trojan'), taken by Zeus to be his cup-bearer and thereafter the archetypal passive male (Etruscan and Latin, catamita). But the institution remained at its strongest and most associated with ritual in parts of Crete: They have a unique custom regarding love-affairs: they win their eromenoi not by persuasion but by kidnapping. Three or four days in advance the erastes announces to the [boy's] friends that he is intending to do the kidnapping. For them it is a particular disgrace to hide the boy or not to allow him to travel on the arranged road, because in effect they would be admitting that the boy did not deserve an erastes like this. When they meet, provided the kidnapper is of equal or superior status to the boy, they chase him and lay hold of him only in a restrained way, satisfying the custom, but otherwise are happy to let him take him away. If he is not suitable, they remove the boy. The pursuit ends when the boy has been brought to the andreion ['men's (dining-)room'] of the kidnapper. They consider most worth loving not a boy of exceptional beauty but one of exceptional manliness and composure. After giving him presents he takes the boy to some place of his choosing in the country; and they are followed by those who were present at the kidnapping, who feast and hunt together for two months (that is the maximum time for keeping the boy) and then come back down to the city. The boy is released after receiving presents - military costume, an ox, a drinking-cup (these are the regulation gifts) and other, expensive gifts besides, so much so that the friends contribute because of the expense. He sacrifices the ox to Zeus and feasts those who came back with him. Then he reveals whether he actually enjoyed the intercourse with his erastes or not - something for which the rules make provision so that if any violence was employed against him during the kidnapping, he can then and there avenge himself and be rid of him. It is a disgrace for those of attractive appearance and who have distinguished ancestors not to get an erastes, because this failure is put down to their character. But the parastathentes ['stood-by'] - for that is what those kidnapped are called - receive honours: they have the most privileged positions in dances and races, and they are allowed to dress in a way that marks them out from the others, in the costume given to them by their erastai - and not just then, but even when they become adult they wear distinctive clothing by which one can tell in each case that they have been a kleinos ['famous'] - they call the eromenos a kleinos and the erastes a philetor ['lover']. This, then, is their custom regarding love- affairs. (Strabo 10.4.21) Sergent has unravelled the institution along the following lines. The eromenos is specially privileged amongst his age-group to be abducted. The erastes trains him in appropriate skills, for instance hunting, during their time out, which is of course the The Uses of Greek Mythology 82 liminal period we have looked at before. During this period he is a sort of squire and, presumably, cup-bearer. (And there is a good parallel for the reality of the sexual relationship in notorious inscriptions found on Thera certifying consummation.) At the end, the 'youth' is a qualified adult, receiving the warrior's kit. And now he has a cup of his own. The homosexual relationship and practice between warriors and trainee warriors is commonplace in initiations across the world. At the end, his masculinity achieved, he will never be passive again - just as among the Taifali, a German people described by the fourth-century AD historian Ammianus, this passivity is wiped out by the catching of a boar or a bear (Sergent 1986:9), and amongst the Keraki of New Guinea, the effects of passivity (amounting even to pregnancy!) are supposedly undone by the drastic remedy of putting quicklime in the mouth (ibid.: 43). The myth of Ganymede is closely tied to this sort of ritual - it may even be a Cretan myth: in one variant it is Minos not Zeus who is the abductor. Ganymede is abducted in order to bear another's cup. He serves Zeus' pleasure. And Zeus, like a good eromenos, gives a generous present of horses to Ganymede's father Tros. Similarly, a story told of the Spartan Lykourgos looks as though it originally belonged here. Stripped of other motifs, it runs thus: the wealthy chase Lykourgos; they hand over a notable youth, Alkandros ('Mighty-man'), to him and escort them both to Lykourgos' home. There he becomes Lykourgos' servant (the other servants are dismissed) and learns good behaviour from Lykourgos, developing great affection for him (Plutarch, Lykourgos 11). Less specifically, we may perhaps wonder whether Herakles' temporary servitude to Eurystheus and Apollo's temporary servitude to Admetus are not ultimately grounded in this type of myth and ritual. This relationship is described repeatedly in Greek myths. A table in Sergent's book (1986:262-5) lists 42 examples. Poseidon fell for Pelops and took him off, giving him the present of skill with the chariot. Laios of Thebes fell for Pelops' son Chrysippos and took him off... in his chariot, thus inventing homosexuality. Sergent (ibid.: 71-3) has even argued that the oracle to Laios, forbidding him to have children or else his offspring will kill him, is not a punishment for his homosexuality but reflects a ritual requirement for a period of homosexuality before begetting children (adulthood). Furthermore, his son Oedipus' own experience shows the advisability of not rushing into begetting children! The 'Furies of Laios and Oedipus' were worshipped by a rather widespread clan, the Aigeidai, because they supposedly had been unable to have children - both in Sparta and on Thera. They claimed descent from Laios and Oedipus, and were specially associated with the cult of Apollo Karneios, often initiatory in character. His temple on Thera is next to the ephebes' gymnasium, where the gross inscriptions are found (p. 114). It is quite a jigsaw of information, but it certainly casts new light on the failure of Laios and Oedipus to establish successful sexual relations. They were being premature. If homosexuality had this role in the initiation of warriors, it explains why Herakles, the ultimate hero, is so addicted to pederasty. Plutarch's Erotikos (761d) presents him as having had too many such affairs to recount. The fullest story lies behind his constant companion in his labours, Iolaos, who received particular honours in Thebes. Thebes, home of Laios, had a very particular tradition of homosexuality. In 378 BC, homosexual couples in the Theban soldiery were brought together to form a crack squad called the Hieros Lochos, the 'Sacred Band'. Such couples, according to Plutarch, customarily visited the Tomb of Iolaos to swear an oath, in virtue of the relationship between Myth and initiation ritual 83 Herakles and Iolaos. And next to his tomb, or heroon (though Thebans of Pausanias' time 'admitted' he died elsewhere), were the usual (initiatory) sports facilities, the Gymnasium of Iolaos, a stadium and a hippodrome (P 9.23.1) - Iolaos was, after all, according to Pindar (a Theban himself) a champion charioteer (Isthmian Odes 1.21-5). Iolaos also figures at nearby Thespiai (Boiotia). Here he becomes the leader of the Thespiadai, a set of 50 sons of King Thespios. We normally talk about these as the product of Herakles' nocturnal labours (p. 139 below), but they are a group of 50 in their own right, who must go on a long voyage together, in the first instance of colonisation led by a king of a different race from the colonisers: 'The earliest instance was when Iolaos of Thebes, nephew of Herakles, led Athenians and Thespians to Sardinia' (Pausanias 7.2.2). Here it seems to me that Sergent must be right when he views this as a development of an original myth of a local Iolaos leading a voyage of 50 Thespians - diverted to Sardinia because there are Sardinian place- and people-names sounding like Iolaos. In fact, the number 50 is the standard number for members of the initiatory group, the agele ('herd'): 3 there were 50 oarsmen (Ap 1.9.16) plus two non-rowers to make up the Argonauts under Jason's leadership. 4 Fifty sons of 'Egypt' chased the 50 daughters of Danaos. Lykaon in Arcadia had 50 sons. And Tarentum was founded by 50 19-year-old Spartan Partheniai, whose name is based on the word 'maiden' (parthenos) and in some way contrasts them with the concept of marriage. This group size is at home in two further areas: first, it is the size of a dance-group, seen in the chorus for dithyrambs, and this must be related to the dances performed by the age-group (as explicitly attested for the kleinos by Strabo); second, and intriguingly, it is the size of the team of oarsmen required for a pentekonteros (the standard 50-oared galley that preceded the trireme) - a one-way relationship from myth and social structure to the design of the ship, because the group of 50 can be traced back to Indo-European culture long before the use of ships on that scale. In any case, returning to Thespiai, we can see that Iolaos is the kleinos amongst a local group of Argonauts. This is just one of a set of local variants, others including Theseus and his band of 30 who sail in a ship to Crete and the 50 Partheniai who sail to Tarentum. In such cases colonisation could be, as Sergent thinks, a late motif in the development of the myth. But I see this differently (1989:64). Colonisation was not something new in the eighth to sixth centuries BC. It had gone on continuously throughout history (though we tend to obscure this under our wooden term 'migration'). A repeated message of Greek myths is that the age-group and its young leader are associated with the foundation of a new state somewhere else (chapter 9.1). We see it here in the case of the Thespiads and in the case of the Partheniai, though not the Argonauts or Theseus. Apollodoros (2.7.6) and Diodoros (4.29.4) report that only 40 Thespiads went on the colonising party. This tells us something about how myths are manipulated. Two or three Argonauts have to be retained in Thebes and seven in Thespiai itself: in Thespiai they are honoured as the seven demouchoi ('holders of the people'), in Thebes the three had been the ancestors of the major families in the city - i.e. these sets are needed to ground cult and genealogy. The Uses of Greek Mythology 84 Trickery, transvestism, transexuality Trickery, though entertaining when you are not involved, is generally regarded as anti- social. Indeed it could be defined as the failure to perform in accordance with the code of behaviour that is thought to be in force. Those, however, who are set outside society may be expected to express their exclusion by rejection of norms. Thus Spartan youths in their limbo phase between boyhood and adulthood were expected to steal and to kill Helots. Responsible married women in Boiotia during a biennial festival of Dionysos would leave the city, wear skins not clothes and behave in carefully defined extravagant ways to invite the amazement and fear of men. In the myth associated with the Athenian ephebeia (the transitional period for Athenian youths), a duel takes place on a border between Melanthos ('Black', with overtones of treacherous) 5 for the Athenians and King Xanthos ('Fair') of the Boiotians. Melanthos shouts out that Xanthos has cheated - there is someone beside him. But he is lying and, having distracted Xanthos' attention, kills him. And becomes king. Pelops, racing Hippodameia's father Oinomaos to win her hand, persuades the latter's charioteer, Myrtilos, to sabotage the chariot (Ap Ep. 2.6-8). It works, Oinomaos is killed and presently Pelops kills Myrtilos for good measure (or for attempted rape or so that the House of Pelops may be cursed or so that there may be a 'Myrtoan' Sea). Pelops has made his way to adulthood and power through trickery. Perhaps this too is why Leukippos, a recurring name of king's sons, wins the land for the colonising party at Metapontion by extracting from the Tarentines an agreement that he and his party may stay there 'day and night', a phrase ambiguous in Greek between one-day-and-one-night and day-and-night in perpetuity. 6 Another extraordinary feature of Greek myth, surely related to initiation, is the feminisation of heroes before they emerge as adults or warriors. We have seen this in its most literal form in Crete and Thera. But it recurs in other myths: again in Crete, at Phaistos, there is a Leukippos (again this name) who, in answer to his mother's prayer, is at maturity changed from girl to boy - providing a hieros logos for the festival of Ekdysia ('Undressing') and becoming a focus for those who are about to marry; or there is the Leukippos who dresses as a girl to associate with Daphne in Arcadia or Elis. Kainis in Gyrton (Thessaly), who lies with Poseidon, is turned into an invincible warrior, Kaineus, by Poseidon. Achilles in a telling moment is revealed amongst the king's daughters on Skyros when he comes forward, responding to Odysseus' strategem, and chooses weapons: now he can participate in the Trojan War. 7 Herakles swapping clothes with Omphale is a variant on this tradition. This, then, is a taste of initiation ritual and mythology. It will have done its work if we now look more closely at myths to define the site at which the myth is set, the social groups to which their characters are meant to belong and the significance of this moment in their experience. Part IV The world of myth Chapter 8 The world of myth 8.1 LANDSCAPE: THERE'S A STORY ABOUT THIS Every myth must have come into being at a particular place. (Miiller 1825:226) We look now at the countryside and at nature. This is not the land of Wordsworthian poems or ecological ideals. This is the wild, only acceptable if subjugated by human activity, if the scene of ritual, if invested with some aura of myth or history. Pausanias' landscape consists of earth and water: on the one hand, mountains, plains and 'places', on the other hand, springs and rivers. Look at Arcadia. Here is the 'place' Skope ('Viewpoint') where the great fourth-century general Epameinondas looked dying, unaware that he was passing from history into myth (P 8.11.7). The man who had once inflicted Sparta's most demoralising defeat becomes as he dies (on a rather less successful occasion) an aetiology for their neighbours, the Arcadians. Did Epameinondas in fact look? Or is it in our sense a 'myth'? It does not matter, for its importance is mythical: it is associative and makes a statement about Arcadians and Spartans. No one will be surprised if the names of two Arcadian rivers (apparently) contain the word 'wash', lou-. But myth uses the prosaic meaning as a stepping stone to richer significance: the Lymax is where Rhea cleansed herself after giving birth to Zeus (P 8.41); the Lousios is where Zeus was washed at birth (P 8.28.2). Just so, the people of northern Arcadia liked to think that their god Hermes was washed in the 'triple-spring' Trikrena in the territory of Pheneos (P 8.16.1); and Amphion and Zethos were washed in a spring at Eleutherai towards Athens' border with Boiotia (P 1.38.8). In Arcadia, Rhea is a recurring theme: Mt Alesion above Mantinea is named after her 'wandering' (ale - P 8.10.1)); and when pregnant with Zeus, she came, with only a few giants to protect her from Kronos, to her cave on the summit of Mt Thaumasion ('Wonderful') - though of course she actually gave birth on Mt Lykaion (P 8.36.2-3). Rhea, then, invests a number of features of the landscape with significance. Even at the level of a story this links the countryside to the cult of Zeus Lykaios on Mt Lykaion, where Zeus was of course born (P 8.36.3). But the myth may also imply ritual practices: after all, no one may enter Rhea's Cave save 'women sacred to the goddess' (P 8.36.3). Winding rivers are, perhaps, not unlikely to be called 'Snake', but the Arcadian River Snake has a more special aetiology: Antinoe, the daughter of Kepheus, son of Aleos (mythic kings of Arcadia), moved the inhabitants of Mantinea to a new site - using a The world of myth 87 snake as a guide, as an oracle instructed. Pausanias, as a good historian, is concerned that there is no record of what type of snake it actually was, but deduces from Homer that it must have been a drakon (P 8.8.5). But snakes mean more than this. Having no feet, they are in direct contact with the land and they live in holes in the earth. Heroes, who are buried in the earth and watch over the land, can manifest themselves as snakes. Snakes authenticate the title of these Mantineans to their new site. A snake-given title is almost as good as autochthony, the condition of having always been on that land, of having been sprung from it. At Mt Sepia mythic King Aipytos was killed by a snake, a seps presumably; you can see his grave (P 8.16), where, I suppose, he became one with the land. The landscape reflects mythic history, and mythic history defines the landscape. Attica has its similarities. The cape Zoster ('Girdle'), so-called I imagine because of its shape (like the River Snake), contained an altar to Athene and to Apollo, Artemis and Leto. Leto, the story goes, undid her girdle here to give birth to Apollo and Artemis, though of course she actually gave birth elsewhere (P 1.31.1) - Delos according to the approved version. A snake disappearing into the ground informs Chalkinos and Dais (descendants in the tenth generation from Kephalos) where in Attica to sacrifice to Apollo, in accordance with the inevitable oracle; as a result they find a home in Athens (P 1.37.6-7). Once again a snake expresses a sense of belonging to the land, an alternative to autochthony. Or in Salamis there was a stone, presumably fairly eye-catching, not far from the harbour, on which the mythic hero Telamon sat looking (like Epameinondas at memorable 'Viewpoint') at the ship carrying his children off to the Trojan War and death (P 1.35.3). And just as 'Viewpoint' served to remind Arcadians of the defeat of their hated neighbours in Sparta, so on the way from Athens to once-independent Eleusis there is a reminder of the murderous faithlessness of the Megarians beyond Eleusis: here is the tomb of Anthemokritos, a herald slain by the Megarians because they did not like his message (P 1.36.3). The past, both historical and mythical (for there is no distinction), continues to live in the landscape of the present. 8.2 HORIZONS So far we have looked at landscape generally. However, landscape has its own dynamics: mythology has a sense of centre and a sense of distance, a centripetal and a centrifugal nature. Let us proceed gradually from the city. Outside: cultivation As we leave the town we come first to the cultivated land, an area perceived as controlled and civilised. This is generally the realm of Demeter who gave us the civilising gift of corn: the land can now be dominated by human activity and the resulting crops undergo a range of processes - grinding, mixing, cooking; consequently, man has less occasion to encroach upon the wild to gain his food by hunting. Agriculture is, however, perhaps more a matter of ritual than of myth: Demeter is a rare participant in Greek Mythology. Her search for Kore predominates, but here the Eleusinian mysteries often stand in the foreground of interpretation, privileging issues of life and death. In cult the same myth partners the Thesmophoria, a widespread festival of the female half of the citizen The Uses of Greek Mythology 88 community, the women and maidens. Perhaps the death of Kore may be interpreted in the light of the changing seasons of the year - the cyclical growth of crops and their death (whether during winter or, in the light of the Greek climate, during the dry season). But the real point is the association of the death and renewal of the crops with the female nature of the participants in Demeter's festival - and that takes us back from the fields to the community. Otherwise, we hear little of Demeter - except that once she loved Iasion in a thrice- ploughed field: according to Homer he was then blasted by Zeus (Odyssey 5.125-8); and according to Hesiod it was in Crete and the result of their union was Ploutos ('Wealth', Theogony 969-74). Fields needed their fertility and the myth displays something of the attitude of mind of those not always reputable Athenian women who set up model phalluses in ritual allotments at the Attic festival of the Haloa at Eleusis. Nearby was the Rarian Field, where corn had first been sown. Corresponding to corn, the gift of Demeter, is Dionysos' gift of wine. That too has its mythology. Wine, as a cultural fact, must be discovered: we have seen such a story in Hekataios (the bitch and the vine-stock, p. 43 above); in another, Oineus, king of Aitolian Kalydon, was the first to receive a vine-plant from Dionysos (Ap 1.8.1). Meanwhile, Anios, the son of Apollo and priest-king on Delos, whom Aeneas meets on his travels (Vergil, Aeneid 3.80), has a set of three daughters, the Oinotrophoi ('Wine-rearers'). They are called Ela'is, Spermo and Oino (Ap Ep. 3.10), thus neatly accounting for 'olive', 'corn' and 'wine' in turn. Another story again probably underlies Polyphemos' 'discovery' of the force of wine in his confrontation with Odysseus (Odyssey 9.345-74), in which Polyphemos' handicap is a lack of proper Greek culture and Odysseus' asset is the wine he has received from Maron, priest of (oddly) Apollo (9.197). Wine, however, also reaches out to loss of rational thought, and the god of the rampant vegetation like vine and ivy also propels married women, a symbol of the controlled environment, into the mountain wilds, beyond the pale of civilisation. Other cultivated plants too had their sacred character. The olive-tree had been Athene's gift to Attica, ensuring her claim to be the land's patron; Poseidon's gift of water did not suffice (Ap 3.14.1). A similar contest had been held at Argos between, this time, Hera and Poseidon (P 2.22.4, 2.15.5). The contrast between the cultivated land and the threatening sea is clearly marked, not least by the subsequent flood which Poseidon's rancour unleashes on both occasions - a force overcome in other stories by heroes (p. 145 below). An extraordinary appendix to this story tells how the Athenians placated Poseidon's wrath by henceforth denying women the vote and denying children the right to be called by their mothers' names. 1 Are women to be associated with the flood that threatens to engulf civilisation? Does this compensate for the selection of a woman rather than a man as patron of the country? Trees themselves are of more than average significance. The reader should perhaps be aware that trees are part of a seamless continuum of objects of worship which goes back to Mycenaean and Minoan civilisation. Stalagmites in caves, unhewn rocks or stones, pillars, trees, trunks and, finally, the statues made out of those stones or trees have a magnetism as focuses of religious attention. A sacred tree is more than a Christmas tree sent from Norway - it has a power and a real cult. So, in Minoan Crete there were tree sanctuaries, depicted fenced off, an outburst of the sacred into the secular world. This is what lies behind the place trees often assume in Greek myth. The olive-tree of Athene is The world of myth 89 the sacred tree of the Athenian acropolis. The tree to which Io was tied in the 'grove of the Mycenaeans' is surely the sacred tree of the Argive Heraion. And Peleus' spear, the spear which later only his son Achilles had the strength to wield (Iliad 16.140-4), was made from the ash-tree on Mt Pelion. Some metamorphosis myths are used specially to establish the existence of trees, though admittedly here we are talking not of particular trees but of the first tree of a certain type. As it became part of the prettiness of literature, people thought it worthwhile to tell how the maiden Daphne, pursued by Apollo, escaped by metamorphosis into the laurel-tree, specially important in the cult of Apollo (Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.452-567). Pine-trees likewise seemed remarkable enough to identify an island Pityoussa ('Piney') off the coast near Hermione and inspire a myth of how Pitys escaped Pan's attentions in much the same way (Longus, Daphnis and Chloe 2.39). Greek culture may not be ecological, but it is sensitive to trees. Outside: pastoral Beyond the cultivated land lies a land on which man is more of an intruder and where the forces of nature loom larger. Here goatherds and shepherds tend flocks. From the perspective of the town, these are already marginal people on to whom a myth will ultimately be projected, the pastoral myth so beloved of urban poetry since the third century BC. Their gods are now more pastoral too, though our knowledge of them and their myths will of course always have been mediated through the city. Goatherds don't write - and are depicted about as realistically as Scythians or Egyptians. From the Hellenistic Age onwards we become aware of Pan and the Nymphs - in literature, landscape-painting and even reality. Pan is a curiosity amongst Greek gods: goat-legged and sometimes goat-headed, not a grand Olympian, but a rather lowly, country god. Maybe he is a spirited god with the sexual drive of a ram, but in cult he only inhabits Arcadia to any extent. He is a Citroen 2CV amongst gods. He haunts the genre- painted countryside, lusty and priapic 2 like those other half-animal gods, the Satyrs and Centaurs, whose plurality he sometimes acquires - so we hear of Pans. Perhaps Pan is pursuing Daphnis the youthful shepherd of the new pastoral mythology - doomed to love and an early death (Theokritos Idyll 1, Epigram 3). Or perhaps he is pursuing a nymph, Syrinx, who avoids him only by metamorphosis into reed-pipes, the Pan-pipes, another aetiology accomplished (Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.687-712). This is a safely twee countryside, immortalised in Longus' second-century AD novel, Daphnis and Chloe, where Pan and the Nymphs play a magical role in the preservation of the countryside and those who are attuned to it. Can you hear the pipes (Longus 2.26, 29)? They can on Mt Mainalos in Arcadia, up above the ruins of Mainalos town (P 8.36.8). Improved communications, increased wealth and the ability of the well-off to own a place in the country underlie this appropriation of the landscape. Yet it could be more awesome. 'Panic' fear is known since the second century BC. Pan appeared to Pheidippides as he ran back to Marathon in 490 BC, running through Arcadia, beyond the limits of human endurance, out there on Mt Parthenion at his sanctuary (P 8.54.6) high above Tegea: why did the Athenians not honour him, he asked (Herodotos 6.105). And now he begins to register on Athenian pottery. But he is not an Arcadian quirk: a reasonable case can be made out for his being a god that goes all the way back to Indo- The Uses of Greek Mythology 90 European, identical with the Sanskrit PUD an, a god of cattle and of the (nomadic) margins not so distant in concept from another Arcadian god - Hermes, who tradition claims was Pan's father (Puhvel 1987:62f.). Nymphs are an essential part of the generic landscape. They are the apotheosis of marriageable girls at the peak of beauty and desirability, with nice names like Amaryllis and Galatea. They are not yet someone else's, but are there to be courted and pined over by the Daphnises of the pastoral world. But they remain elusive and ungraspable. Even at this late stage in the development of nymphs we perceive the tension in this male mythology between the irresistibility of this class of female and the impossibility (i.e. prohibition) of seduction. The Nymphs are worshipped in caves - already in Homer, at least in our texts, there is a cave of the Nymphs (Odyssey 13.347-8); at Eleusis there was a cave of Pan and the Nymphs where krateriskoi (p. 103) were deposited. And, of course, the cave is the prime cult site of Pan and the Nymphs in Longus. But their power spreads further into every aspect of the countryside, lovingly categorised by learned writers: trees have their Dryads (or Hamadryads), groves have Alseids, rivers Naiads (or Hydriads or Ephydriads), mountains Oreads. This does not take account of implausibly tame developments such as Meadow-nymphs (Leimoniads) and Garden-nymphs (Kepids, presumably plastic). It was always an entertaining and pretty challenge to catalogue their names. Thetis heard Achilles' distress at the death of Patroklos: ...and the goddesses gathered around her, All of the Nereids who lived in the depths of the sea: Glauke was there and Thaleia and Kymodoke And Nesaie and Speio and Thoe and Halie ox-faced [!] And Kymothoe and Aktaie and Limnoreia ...[20 more names] And the other Nereids who lived in the depths of the sea. And their gleaming-white cave [NB] was filled with them... (Homer, Iliad 18.37-50) Or perhaps you would like to know about the 'Rainies' (Hyades), who became stars: ...nymphs like unto the Graces, Phaisyle and Koronis and Kleeia with her pretty garland, And adorable Phaio and Eudoros with her sweeping dress, Whom men on the earth call the Hyades. ('Hesiod', Astronomia fr. 291 M-W) Outside: wild and lush Nymphe in Greek means not only a 'nymph', but also a girl ready for marriage, a bride or a newly-wed. Indeed, the word itself may be related to the Latin word for 'marry', nubere. Their goddess is Artemis who is frequently attended by them in the wilds, typically hunting. As a result it looks very much as though nymphs originally represent the age-class of girls secluded in preparation for marriage and being true to their liminal The world of myth 91 condition by being neither maidenly nor matronly. Hence nymphs come to be portrayed as roaming the wilds. It is dangerous to see these forbidden virgins: then you may become nympholeptos, 'nymph-seized' - frenzied, possessed. A comparable word is phoiboleptos, denoting seizure by Phoibos Apollo. A dreadful warning is given by the case of Aktaion, who stumbles upon Artemis and the Nymphs bathing and, transformed into a deer, is eaten by his own pack of dogs (Ap 3.4.4, Ovid Metamorphoses 3.138- 252). The hunter Orion, whose tomb is in Tanagra (P 9.20.3), was slain by Artemis too (Ap 1.4.5). But this giant who could stride across the sea is much more complex and deserves a book on his own - which Fontenrose has written. 3 There is less menacing land in nature's control. The mouth of the River Alpheios is described by Strabo in these terms: 'The whole land is full of shrines of Artemis and Aphrodite and the Nymphs, in groves mostly full of flowers because water is plentiful' (Strabo 8.3.12). This is the sort of landscape where Hades seized Kore (Persephone): she was playing with the daughters of Ocean with shapely [dresses gathering flowers - roses and saffron and pretty violets, on the soft meadow, and irises and hyacinth and narcissus - grown to trick the bud-faced girl by Earth at the behest of Zeus. . . ('Homer', Hymn to Demeter 5-9) This is a familiar picture in mythology: girls snatched as they pick flowers. Hesiod's Catalogue had told of the daughters of Porthaon, a figure of importance for genealogy, who ties the Aitolians to their major centres of Kalydon and Pleuron (cf. Ap 1.7.7). Amongst the papyrus tatters we read an 'Or-like' something like this: Or like the daughters who were born to Porthaon Three of them, like goddesses, understanding fine crafts... ...Eurythemiste and Stratonike and Sterope. They... as companions of the lovely-haired Nymphs through the wooded mountains of the Muses reached the very peaks of Parnassos (?rejecting the realm?) of gold-garlanded Aphrodite much and... reached (mea)dows dwelling in the tall mountains leaving the home of their father and their doughty mother. They then, rejoicing in their beauty (and ign)orance flowers to adorn (their hair)... Them. . .Phoibos Apollo And he went off with... Stratonike, undowried, And gave her to his dear son to be called his buxom wife, To Melaneus match for a god . . . ('Hesiod', Catalogue of Women fr. 26.5-25) The Uses of Greek Mythology 92 In this myth we see an initiatory type of myth, with an age-group, apparently rejecting sexual maturity, over-confident, secluded from the parental home. Like Europa or Kore the girl is snatched from the correct, sympathetic landscape - well understood by poets throughout antiquity. 4 The fresh, fertile meadow and its flowers ready for picking express the beauty and nubility of the girls that dance there. In this case incipient femininity harmonises with a positive landscape. But in the case of the wild landscape, its very point is that it contradicts the potential femininity of Artemis and the Nymphs, because in this liminal, limbo condition they are not ready to assume the role that integrates them into society. Beyond 'Beyond' is always getting further away. Apollo, having killed Python, must flee north to Tempe - a narrow valley, almost a gorge, near the mouth of the River Peneios, at the far end of Thessaly. This is between Mt Olympos and Mt Ossa, the land of gods and of the giants Ephialtes and Otos who had once tried to pile Mt Pelion on Mt Ossa and Ossa on Olympos to reach the gods in heaven (Ap 1.7.4). This end of the earth is where Greeks who count as Greeks (Macedonians don't) stop and is the point Greeks originally intended to hold against Xerxes in 480 BC (Herodotos 7.173) - a conceptual as well as a strategic barrier. Alternatively, Apollo must flee to the deep south, to the purifier Karmanor in Tarrha in Crete (chapter 6.3). For all its participation in Greek civilisation since the Bronze Age, Crete remains a margin, over the seas and far away. Theseus, as part of a ritual team of seven boys and seven girls, must sail away to meet danger in Crete, and then return. Crete is a 'beyond' for the liminal phase. Its lack of reality is somehow underlined by the role which its most famous king, Minos, must play in the Underworld - judge for dead folk in their daily disputes with each other (Odyssey 11.568-71), and later judging them for the lives they have led. He has Rhadamanthys, his brother and legendary Cretan lawgiver, for company too. A wider world allows Io to wander cow-shaped, not like Proitids across Argive or Arcadian mountains, but round the bounds of the known Greek world. So her itinerary in the Prometheus Bound of 'Aeschylus' encompasses the sorts of material that Herodotos included when dealing, as often he does, with far away places. Indeed, she may wander past the very Caucasus where Prometheus is bound (to discuss how Zeus has given them both a hard time). But her ultimate destination is Egypt. Io never returns from this beyond, but her descendants do. Why must the tribal eponym Danaos and his Danaids come to Argos from Egypt? He has a brother by now, Aigyptos of course, and that brother has 50 sons. Like many male representatives of initiatory youth, they are associated with the colour black during the liminal phase. In this case they are themselves black, because they are Egyptians; and Egypt is the marginal land of these liminal people. Egypt is where the real Helen was whisked away, while the phantom Helen went to Troy - Egypt is off-stage. And in Euripides' imagination (Helen), its king is a typical ends-of-the-earth barbarian (like the king of the Tauroi whom Iphigeneia and Orestes must outwit in Iphigeneia amongst the Tauroi). Herakles, too, in his duty tour of dangerous places, must deal with the barbarian king of Egypt, Busiris (Ap 2.5.11), who, like Euripides' king of the Tauroi, sacrifices strangers. Human sacrifice is a good sign of The world of myth 93 a barbarian. Herodotos, for whom Egypt is a very real country, of course specifically denies the truth of this myth: human sacrifice is wholly alien to Egyptian religion (2.45). Yet Egypt is in the mid-distance, a land where myth and reality merge. It is sufficiently exotic to be surrounded with an impossible aura of learning, tradition, mystery and sacrality, explored in Herodotos' second book. But beyond lie lands cast further adrift from reality. There live the 'Aithiopians' (chapter 5.2). Poseidon has gone to them to receive a sacrifice and that has put him safely out of the way as the Odyssey commences (Odyssey 1.22-7). This too may be where Andromeda is exposed to Poseidon's sea-monster, for Perseus to rescue (Ap 2.4.3; Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.668). And here, in antiquity's greatest novel, Heliodoros' Aithiopika (second or fourth century AD), will be found a nation ambivalent between the barbarity of human sacrifice and an ultimate wisdom transcending even that of Egypt, a target for the purest of human souls. Even beyond Aithiopia there was something more - though only one Iamboulos (perhaps second century BC) seems to have known about it. Deep in the southern sea lay seven blest islands occupied by a fabulous race of amazingly hospitable people. Hairless, with rubbery bones, tongues forked at the base not the tip, they live in meadows (cf. p. 128 above), have hot and cold running springs, study astrology and live to 150. This sort of engaging nonsense was very much to the Hellenistic and post-Hellenistic palate. Antonius Diogenes did a northern version, masquerading also as a thriller (the villain is Paapis, an Egyptian priest), in his Wonders beyond Thule. Thule is the utterly remote northern island (ultima Thule, as Horace puts it), which you may place somewhere in the Shetlands, Orkneys or - if you prefer - Iceland. According to Pytheas of Marseilles (later third century BC), who set the concept running in an apparently factual account of a voyage round northern Europe, Thule was six days' sail from Britain and one day from the 'frozen sea'. We have to wait until Book 24 of Antonius' book before the narrator, Dinias, finally does travel north beyond Thule: there Dinias (because the earth rises) comes close to the Moon and witnesses various other absurdities too, like nights that last six months. Pytheas had been right about that, but Antonius wasn't to know. Traditionally horizons up north had been narrower. Greece stopped at Tempe. Certainly Thrace is a marginal land: it is where Dionysos 'came from', a myth powerful enough to delude many modern books (chapter 6.5). The pre-people of Thasos, expelled by Herakles, were Thracians (Ap 2.5.9). And Herakles' cattle, which he has gained from Geryon at a western margin, sometimes have him on the northern margin: they scatter across the foothills of Thrace (Ap 2.5.10) - leaving wild cattle behind. (Or they wandered where Skythians now live - Herodotos 4.8.) Is not the famous Mt Haimos named after the 'blood' that the monster Typhon gushed out (Ap 1.6.3)? Thrace, too, has its barbarian king: Amykos, king of the Bebrykes, who challenged all comers to a boxing match. Only Polydeukes (Latin, Pollux) the Argonaut stopped that (Ap 1.9.20). Beyond the Thracians at one stage lived the Kimmerioi, who from their name (compare Cymru or Cumberland or Cimbri) should be real, living Celts. But they are Homer's last station before the world of the dead: The ship was coming to the limit of Okeanos with its deep currents.] Here is the people and city of the Kimmerian men, Covered in mist and cloud - never on them Does the shining Sun look with his rays, The Uses of Greek Mythology 94 Neither when he proceeds towards the starry heaven, Nor when he turns back again from heaven to earth: Deadly night stretches over the miserable humans. (Homer, Odyssey 11.13-19) The next step beyond these were usually the Skythians, whose land is celebrated in the opening lines of the Prometheus Bound: We have reached a remote plain of the Earth, The Skythian path, an unpopulated desolation. ('Aeschylus', Prometheus Bound 1-2) The description would doubtless have amused Skythians, but it denotes the limits of popular geography in the mid-fifth century BC. The idea of a map was still new: Anaximander had invented the first one before the mid-sixth century BC, but they remained inaccurate rarities, not a compulsory part of education as today. Real knowledge varied greatly and was accumulated from reports that frequently verged on the mythical. Almost two centuries before the Prometheus, Aristeas of Prokonnesos had put together a strange 'faction' of a poem in which he gave some idea of how northern populations, including the Skythians and Kimmerioi, pressed on each other. Indeed he claimed to have travelled, 'seized by Apollo' (so what sort of journey was this?), to the Skythians (Herodotos 4.13). It was beyond Skythia that his creatures of legend lay: one- eyed Arimaspians wresting gold from griffins. And beyond them again lay the blessed Hyperboreans, the happy people of Apollo, encroaching on no one. Locations in Greek myth have a message relative to the location of the speaker. In this section we have looked at how the distance of a location from the speaker may be set to 'maximum' and therefore divorced from the standard order of things. Where is the 'city of slaves' (Vidalo-Naquet 1981:189)? In Egypt, Libya, Syria, Karia, Arabia or Crete. Geography was - and is - viewed with no more objectivity than history: the one locates us in space, the other in time. When the definition of our view of ourselves takes precedence over accurate reporting of other places and times, we have opened the door to myth. 8.3 OF MONSTERS, GODS AND HEROES Monsters Greek Mythology at first sight has plenty of monsters: things from the beginning of time - or at least begotten by the primeval Earth for gods or heroes to defeat; awkward customers like the Hydra of Lerna (always sprouting new heads), the Nemean Lion (with Chobham skin) for Herakles; mistakes with the Lego set, like the Chimaira for Bellerophon, or centaurs or satyrs; and the simply loathsome Gorgon Medousa for Perseus. Add to that the decorative griffins and bogies to scare children - Lamiai and Empousai and so on - and you may think you have a good supply. The world of myth 95 Monsters disproportionately attract the attention of modern readers, who tend not to notice that in Greek Mythology monsters have a limited circulation, as you may see by counting the proportion of pages given over to them in any complete book of Greek myths. Perhaps the gods themselves sap something of the demand for the non-human and magical in myth - Greek myth is more affected by dungeon-masters than by dragons. But other factors contributed: the exceptional authority of Homer can be viewed as setting a particularly human and realistic tone for later Greek writers to follow; he allows little room for the magical and monstrous. Monsters also lose out in the classical media, in which their distance from reality becomes a liability: they are impracticable for the tragic stage (as any producer of Wagner's Siegfried will tell you), and no longer to the taste of vase-painters by the time that red-figure technique takes over (late sixth century BC). The attraction and importance of monsters is psychological. As they have never existed, their particular construction is likely to reveal more about what is inside man than what is outside. In broad terms we can talk of the fears, loathings and worries they express and perhaps few will disagree. But more specifically, if what psychoanalysts say is valid (cf. chapter 2.2) then this is an area where their work should contribute to our understanding. Perhaps myths, like dreams, reach into our subconscious where the formative worries of childhood still lurk. Perhaps the baby's deep concern with orality will explain the multiple heads of so many monsters. And is the primal water in which a monster may live 'amniotic'? Is the snake a symbol of the penis? Monsters tend to be snakey and tend to be female: are they then 'phallic' females whom the male child must castrate? And if a female is a serpent from the waist down (as Echidna below), is this a result of the male child's ignorance of the unseen half of his mother? Hypothesis: she must be phallic really. 5 Or the lurking fear later: I know she isn't, but what if she was? A nymph whose lower half is a snake is as penile and threatening as a witch on a broomstick. 6 If, however, the monster is male, then it shall represent the father and his defeat an Oedipal victory (Caldwell 1989:45). This is a matrix for the convinced reader. Meanwhile, let us return to more pedestrian approaches. Monsters and gods Monsters exist in order to be defeated and, preferably, slain. They sprout in the path of those that must prove and establish themselves. Thus at the beginning of his world-order, Zeus must defeat Typhon (Hesiod's 'Typhoeus'). Hesiod describes Typhon's appearance (Theogony 823-35): he has 100 snake's heads, eyes blazing fire, voices that could imitate gods' speech or animals' - though artists, under more practical constraints, tended to depict him with one head, a man's, and a snake's body instead. 7 This last child of Earth, the final autochthonous creature, has ambitions to rule the world, which Zeus must suppress in order to rule himself. He is laid low on his mother earth, and cast into Tartaros -thus, I suppose, being un-born (cf. Caldwell 1989:133-4). The name of Apollo's opponent at Delphi blends the alleged old name of Delphi, 'Pytho', with 'Typhon' (chapter 6.1). The 'Homeric' Hymn to Apollo tells us it was a female of the monster-snake species, a drakaina, huge and wild, and that it did much harm to men and flocks (300-4). Routine stuff so far, but it was also the wet-nurse for the super-monster Typhon, who in this version is born by Hera in anger at Zeus (305-7). The Uses of Greek Mythology 96 Thus, by a sort of genealogy, the slaying of a local pest gains wider significance in the world-order. Apollo is thus Slayer of the Foster-Mother of Typhon. This category of monster is preferably born of Earth, because their slaughter depicts the effective world-order supplanting the raw, autochthonous regime. It is interesting that Typhon is presented as in some way muddling definitions: Typhon is a jack of all voices; or he is ('Homer', Hymn to Apollo 351) 'like neither gods nor humans'. His monstrosity reflects the ill-defined nature of his world in contrast with the world we know. As a result of this autochthony, Earth will end up in Greek Mythology as a mother notably of monsters. The Titans and Giants also present the Olympian gods with a battle to establish themselves, the Titanomachy and the Gigantomachy (chapter 9.2). The Titans are a puzzle. We do not know where their name comes from and individually they are a rag- bag of persons, abstractions and even monsters. Anyone born of Heaven and Earth, rather than from Kronos and Rhea like the Olympian gods, must apparently on that account be a 'Titan'. Titans are the Pelasgians of the gods. But early poets and in particular Hesiod, thinking about the world and how it works, liked to establish quite a range of people or concepts early in their heavenly genealogy ('Theogony'). Thus we find Themis (religious correctness) and Mnemosyne (memory/tradition) in this number. Kronos and Rhea themselves can only be Titans - and similarly Sun and Moon, the 'Hyperion' and 'Phoibe' of Hesiod. Indeed 'Titan' gradually becomes poet-speak for 'Sun' - especially in Roman writers. Tethys, ancestor of sea- divinities, must be a Titan too. Nor can we exclude Briareos and two other 'Hundred-handers' (Hekatoncheires - they had 50 heads too): these had, of course, been born of Heaven and Earth, but were released from imprisonment by Zeus and therefore fought on his side, for which Homer, in his wayward inventive way, makes Thetis (Achilles' mother) take credit (Iliad 1.104). Also released from imprisonment and also, therefore, primal Titans are the Kyklopes, who forge Zeus' lightning and thunderbolt. Prometheus was also around to help Zeus and so must likewise be a defecting Titan - though by the time of the Aeschylean Prometheus Bound (line 332), he has learnt to feel sympathy for Typhon! In the end, Kronos and the Titans are defeated, imprisoned securely in Tartaros 'as far beneath Earth as Heaven is above' (Hesiod, Theogony 720). The world is now safely partitioned and formatted: Zeus governs the sky, Poseidon the sea and Hades the Underworld. Giants and dwarves figure even less in Greek myth than monsters. But 'great Giants [Gigantes] , 8 shining in their armour, bearing long spears in their hands' are amongst the offspring of Earth in Hesiod's Theogony (185-6). A myth of their battle against the gods and the assistance which Herakles gave the gods seems to form around them during the earlier sixth century BC and Apollodoros (1.6) gives an account of which god slew which Giant - very useful when one looks at depictions in sculpture. But in sculpture they are used to make special statements, which we shall look at later (chapter 9.2), all of which draw on a perception of Titans and Giants as agrioi ('wild'), thus contrary to the civilised order established by the Olympian gods (Brelich 1958:329f.). Herakles These, then, are the gods' opponents. Heroes face monsters on perhaps a less grand scale, but one more challenging. And it is easier to relate to a hero than a god. There are indeed The world of myth 97 depictions of Typhon, Python, Giants and (maybe) Titans. But these dwindle into insignificance beside the feats of Herakles ('Hercules' in Latin). There are countless depictions of Herakles and the Nemean lion with its invulnerable hide, and several of Herakles and Kerberos (Latin: 'Cerberus'), the three-headed dog that guards the entrance to the Underworld. Hesiod raises the stakes to 50 heads (Theogony 312) and Apollodoros or his source tries a reconciliation: three dog's heads, but umpteen snake's heads on his back (Ap 2.5.12). This just shows how the detail of Greek monsters and, more broadly, myths is not fixed and compulsory, but can be varied to suit an occasion or one's taste. We find about 70 depictions on archaic vases of Geryon, the three-headed (or -bodied) guardian of cattle, often with Orthos his two-headed dog. Even the Hydra was attempted - though that was more of a challenge, as artists find a head-count above three really quite a problem. Any account of Herakles' supposed life will reveal a multitude of locations in his stories and cause him to wander widely in any composite version. In particular, the myth of Geryon's cattle has been used as an aetiology for a scatter of local sanctuaries, rites and even herds of animals from Spain to Scythia (chapter 8.2). When we look at the various labours, individual local tales of Herakles must have been put together, so forming a series of actions for him. This is the route to the canon of tasks, a set list of tasks, finally settling at 12, though Apollodoros is still struggling to make them 10 (Eurystheus disallowed two - Ap 2.5.11). The canon of labours invokes a sense of endurance and trials, an extended fiction of an initiatory period. It lasts 10 years (Ap 2.4.12 fin.), 9 or the first 10 tasks are complete in eight years and one month (Ap 2.5.11 init). The latter is a recognisable periodicity in Greek festivals, the so-called enneateris ('nine-year period', i.e. every eighth year, as Greeks counted inclusively); the former is the Trojan period, the period for which Arcadians were doomed to be Wolves (p. Ill above). This leads to a better understanding of Herakles' basse couture. Lion-skin and club are not marks of civilisation, but of the outside: the lion-skin matches the deer-skins of Dionysos' savage Maenads, and the club (and even bow) contrasts with the spear, sword and shield of the Greek hoplite that the polls sent into battle - in groups, not as Herculean individuals. Cattle-rustling too is an anti-social activity, practised at borders and associated with initiation by some scholars - like Hermes' rustling of the cattle of Apollo ('Homer', Hymn to Hermes), Melampous' rustling of the cattle of Phylakos (Ap 1.9.12) and Nestor's tale of his own cattle-raiding exploits in his youth (Iliad 11.671-761). At the same time, Herakles' combats often share something with myths of gods and with myths of beginnings. A number of Herakles' victims are definitively pigeon-holed by Hesiod as offspring of Typhon and the viperous Echidna: Orthos, Kerberos and the Hydra (Hesiod, Theogony 306-15). Even worse, the Nemean lion is said by Hesiod to be the offspring of Echidna and Orthos, though Apollodoros 'normalises' it as one of Typhon's (Hesiod, Theogony 327; Ap 2.5.1). And the serpent that guarded the apples of the Hesperides was said by a source of Apollodoros (2.5.11) to be another offspring of Typhon and Echidna. So snakey, monstrous autochthony is supplanted by a new arrival in Herakles' myth too; and the specific connection with the major enemy of the gods is a sign of the slot which Herakles and his myths are meant to occupy. It is not untrue to the spirit of these myths that Stoic philosophers finally viewed the Labours of Herakles as the civilising of the world, making it possible for men to live in it. It is a sort of clearance of The Uses of Greek Mythology 98 a primeval jungle. There may also, as Fontenrose (1959:350-2) thinks, be a hint of primeval creation of order out of the chaos of the primeval waters in Herakles' defeat of the greatest Greek river, Acheloos. It would be a simple matter, too, to patch in the Hydra ('Water'-creature) at this point. Maybe not dissimilar is the fact that Herakles' cattle tend to wander in the marginal territories where Greeks establish colonies and the Greek way of life - as though his slaughter of Geryon had paved the way for them and their stock- rearing (Burkert 1977:283). Herakles' labours should fuel psychoanalytical interpetations. Who could resist the massive flushing of the stables of Augeas of accumulated horse-droppings by the diversion of the Rivers Alpheios and Peneios? He has quite enough dealings with snakey monsters. And his winning of the Golden Apples of the Hesperides, as they denote breasts and the maternal, is 'fulfilment of the wish to be reunited with the nurturant mother' - a return to the 'symbiotic paradise' where infant and mother are one and the infant has not become aware of his separate identity (Caldwell 1989:161). Tasks in the west have suggested the world of the dead, suitably located where the sun sets. The Garden of the Hesperides is in the remotest west, with its golden apples (we are not told what happens if you eat one, though it seems the obvious question). Geryon, in particular, has been seen as a lord of the dead, with Orthos as his Kerberos, by various scholars since Radermacher in 1903. 10 He lives beyond the River Okeanos on Erytheia ('Red' island, where he keeps his red cattle) and Herakles actually uses the Sun's personal transport, a golden cup, to get there, at least in Stesichoros' Garyona'is (c. 550 BC). 11 Geryon is part of a pattern. With monstrous body he is there in the west with cattle which Herakles must win (and gets a helping hand from Menoites, Hades' herdsman, who just happens to be there with his own herd - Ap 2.5.10). Meanwhile, 'Periklymenos', son of Neleus, whose name is a title of the Underworld god, guards cattle which Neleus has stolen from Herakles and which again Herakles must recover, in a cave at Pylos - Pylos, which is known as the scene of a fight between Herakles and Hades and whose name suggests pyle ('Gate'... to where?). Periklymenos can change the shape of his body (Herakles finally kills him in the shape of a bee), just like the Indian equivalent of Geryon, Visvampa ('All-shapes'). An Indo-European myth of the winning of cattle from the Underworld looks plausible. Perhaps, too, the Hesperides ('Evening'- maids/ nymphs?) and their apples belong in a twilight world. Even the lake of Lerna, the habitat of the Hydra, may be an entrance to the Underworld and the Hydra its guardian, as Kerenyi believed. 12 Thus several of Herakles' labours may be equivalent to, or may originate in myths equivalent to, a defeat of death: the bringing of Kerberos from the Underworld is simply a more overt - or better preserved - version of this type of Herakles myth. That a hero should overcome death, or attempt to, is no surprise. In Sumerian/Babylonian mythology Gilgames, accompanied by his friend, his wild (non- urban) counterpart Enkidu, performs a number of feats. But his last is to travel to the edges of the earth to seek - and fail - to acquire immortality. Odysseus too must overcome death and return; and even his period in a cave with a one-eyed monster (thought sometimes to be an otherworld characteristic, on no evidence known to me) has been seen as a visit to death - when it is not seen as initiatory, with characteristic loss of name (does he not become 'No one' in order to fool the Kyklops?). The voyage of Argo perhaps itself suggests a visit to another world, beyond the Clashing Rocks - unless they The world of myth 99 represent the birth trauma. Herakles himself, unusually, will in the end achieve immortality: his mortal flesh burnt away in the pyre on Mt Oite, he will alone of men become a god. Herakles' character has strange aspects. Naturally he has the strength and ingenuity to defeat interesting and problematic monsters like any folk-tale hero (though they might benefit from more magic and cleverness). The skin of the Nemean lion can only be penetrated by its own claws; the heads of the Hydra must be cauterised by fire - only fire, it seems, can counter the 'Water' beast. The Kerynian hind was sacred and might not be wounded, so he physically caught it. And so on. Yet one cannot help feeling that the brawn of our hero is more apt to be stressed than his brains. He is also a man of superhuman appetites. This was the man who made Thespios' daughters pregnant in one night, all 50 of them (well, 49 - the remaining one becomes his virgin priestess). In another version it was one a night for 50 nights running, though it is not clear that this shows any less stamina. 13 This is the man who, when he feels hungry, unyokes an ox and eats it (Ap 2.7.7 - a similar story is told on Lindos too). However, his strength is extreme and he is exceptional at awful cost. He is always ready to slaughter and seduce. He murders Iphitos, a guest in his own house, and steals his mares or cattle (Ap 2.6.2). And his capture of Oichalia (wherever that was) and the slaughter of its king, Eurytos, can be seen as motivated by his adulterous lust for the king's daughter Iole (Euripides, Hippolytos 545; Sophocles, Women of Trachis 351-5). Similarly, he captures Ephyre, kills the king and beds the daughter (Diodoros 4.36.1). He is no better with children. He cuffs a boy serving him water and accidentally kills him (accidental killing is characteristic of heroes - Brelich 1958:69f.). Worse, his strength and energy can spill over into a terrible madness - that is how he comes to kill his own children (Euripides, The Madness of Herakles). However these stories originated, and that too is worth thought, their adoption into a single fiction, with all the systematic views that result, creates an awful and extreme model of heroism which Greeks thought it appropriate to entertain. Greek heroes are not saints, even by Greek standards. The terrible anger of Achilles corresponds to the terrible violence of Herakles. And the impulsive, reckless anger of Oedipus in Sophocles' Oedipus the King is at least in part what a Greek audience might expect and even demand of so exceptional a person. Greek supermen are dangerous because they are beyond conforming to the standards which confine ordinary men, and their aberrations are no less typical a feature than their exemplary qualities (Brelich 1958: chapter 4). The stories of Herakles are not so much diverse (Kirk 1977:296) as responsive to various views and interpetations: they are multivalent. And in that lies the success which they have had in arousing the interest and enthusiasm of ancient and modern audiences. Aetiology, creation, civilisation; heroism and beyond; proof of self and survival of the ultimate trial - death. Yet he also embodies stark contradictions (ibid.: 286). Outlaw, almost savage, to be admired by Greeks in well-tempered cities. A particular case is Herakles' sexuality: the ultimate man, hyperendowed with testosterone, yet subject to King Eurystheus and enslaved to Queen Omphale (though this latter theme is unaccountably missing from archaic and classical art). In some versions (and this is popular in Hellenistic and Roman painting) he even exchanges clothing with her - a motif which reappears when he is reduced to dressing as a woman on Kos to escape the local tribe, the Meropes (so providing a hieros logos both for his transvestite priest there The Uses of Greek Mythology 100 and for a marriage custom found also at Argos involving bridegrooms dressing in women's clothing). 14 At some of his shrines women may not even be admitted, yet he spends plenty of time serving women and it was his gallantry to Deianeira, saving her from the attentions of the centaur Nesos, that made her his wife (but led to his death - Loraux 1990:25, 27). What we make of these contradictions, particularly the sexual ones, depends very much on our approach to Greek myth as a whole. Loraux (1990:49) captures current interests when she sees 'the Greeks' as using 'their story of Herakles to pose the problem of their status as sexed creatures endowed with political power'. Personally, I am interested to see how a ritual background leads to the stories and how their paradoxicality motivates their survival: it is precisely because Herakles is generally seen as such a macho hero that a story of him skulking in women's clothing has such force. Or is that just too superficial? Feats of other heroes The monsters of heroes other than Herakles are more clearly something to be overcome in order to achieve a target. Viewed from an initiatory perspective, they are an extreme presentation of the dangers encountered and qualities proved in the testing of the liminal period. Viewed from a cosmogonical perspective they represent the dangerous confusion of forms that must be overcome to establish civilisation. Viewed from a psychoanalytic perspective, they hold different meanings, as we shall see. Bellerophon (Ap 2.3) must overcome the Chimaira, probably a Near Eastern (Burkert 1984:23) collage of lion, snake and - terrifyingly! - goat. The story is set, rather unusually, not on the mainland but at a margin of the Greek world, in Lykia. Combined with this deed is his defeat of the non-Greek, pre-Greek Solymoi- and those representatives of a disturbed social order, the Amazons. However, King Iobates, who has set him these tasks, does not reward him, but has him ambushed. As a result of this Bellerophon stepped into the sea and cursed him, praying to Poseidon that the land might become fruitless and unprofitable. Then he went away after his curse and a wave arose and flooded the land and it was a terrible sight as the sea advanced at a height and hid the plain. The men begged Bellerophon to relent but failed; so the women drew up their underwear and confronted him. So he went backwards out of shame and the wave is said to have gone back with him. (Plutarch, Virtues of Women 248a-b) Now the story can proceed and Bellerophon have his reward - the king's daughter and the kingdom. The extraordinary ending of this story points, I think, to ritual and in particular to those festivals that suspend the normal running of society so that it may be recreated. 15 Floods, whether of Deukalion or as often of Poseidon, belong with prehistory and creation of a definitive order of things, because their function is to blot out the previous order. They go with the time of Kekrops in Athens (Ap 3.14.1) and the time of Nyktimos and his Pelasgians in Arcadia (Ap 3.8.2). Conflict of the sexes and re-creation of the The world of myth 101 institution of marriage (cf. p. 153 below on matrilinearity) is equally part of the recognition of necessary arrangements for civilisation which are characteristically included in this network of ideas and of rituals. 16 Here the ritual assertion of women's sexuality causes chaos to recede. The word 'sexuality' immediately lets the psychoanalysts in. Slater (1968:333-6) underlines the extent to which Bellerophon is involved with women. His initial problems are caused by his rejection of the sexual advances of Proitos' wife (the Potiphar's wife motif); 17 he then slays a female monster, the Chimaira, and defeats the Amazons, only to be defeated by the sexual display of the Xanthian women. 'He does not know how to placate or please the father, and in seeking him is rejected by him.' In Greece the maternal threat is not cushioned, as it is in the biblical family, by 'a strong male role model . . . producing a more brittle, phallic, and narcissistic male, longing for a father but unable to tolerate one' (ibid.: 1968:335). I am not going to evaluate this interpretation, but I will add two puzzles: (1) what exactly is the story of the Xanthian women trying to tell us through comparison and contrast with the tale of Bellerophon's defeat of the Amazons? (2) is the answer to (1) also applicable to the contrast between Herakles' defeat of Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons, and his demise through the love of Deianeira? Perseus (Ap 2.4) is very similar. His king, Akrisios, is hostile because of Danae, who functionally corresponds to Proitos' wife. Her sexuality is an issue, though this time it is Zeus who exploits it to Akrisios' discomfiture. Proitos and Akrisios are of course twins, which forms an interesting link between the two stories. Danae and Perseus are put in a chest which is washed up on Seriphos. Now enter the secondary king to order the task - Polydektes (the Iobates of this story). The task is to bring back the Gorgon's head (cf. the Chimaira). With magical help (cf. Pegasos) he achieves his objective. Apollodoros mentions no defeat of Amazons, but what is this at Argos . . . The tomb nearby is said to be that of a Maenad called 'Dance' [Choreia], because they say that she and other women joined Dionysos' campaign against Argos, but that Perseus, when he won the battle, slew most of the women. (Pausanias 2.20.4) Finally, Perseus has the task of releasing Andromeda - winning her hand in marriage - which he can only do by overcoming a sea-monster sent against the land by Poseidon. This is set at Joppa in Palestine, even more marginal than Bellerophon's Lykia. These myths are not just similarly structured, they are versions of the same myth. The association with maenads is especially interesting in the light of our comments on ritual above. It points to the ritual conflict of the sexes in the Argive Dionysos festival, the Agriania, just as we know happened in its Boiotian equivalent, the Agrionia (Dowden 1989:82-5). This festival is the setting for the whole renewal sequence. Yet this may not exhaust Perseus' ritual connections: Miiller (1825:310) suggested that the cult of Athene on the acropolis of Argos, 'Larisa', was the 'principal factor in the formation of the myth' of Perseus and the Gorgon Medousa. After all, Athene watches over him in this quest and obtains the Gorgon's head for her shield at the end of the day; and Akrisios' tomb was also to be found on Larisa. This Athene is also associated with stories of Diomedes: the The Uses of Greek Mythology 1 02 Palladion which he and Odysseus were said to have stolen from Troy (Ap, Ep. 5.13) was housed in Argos (as well as Athens) and his escapade in Iliad 5 where he rides with Athene is reflected in an Argive ritual where the image of Athene is carried off for renewal by bathing - in a chariot accompanied by the Shield of Diomedes (Burkert 1985:140). Perseus' myth lends itself to interesting psychoanalytical discussion. However sceptical one is about the whole psychoanalytic method, we have only to look at 'enclosure in a chest with one's mother in sea' to understand what words will follow this colon: ante-natal, intrauterine state, amniotic fluid. The Gorgon will generally end up as female, even maternal, genitalia: 'there are several representations of castrating "phallic" females in the monsters of Greek myth: for example the Gorgons, who had snakes for hair and rendered a man impotent by their look' (Caldwell 1989:153); 'a symbol of the mother's sexual demands on the child' (Slater 1968:32). Perseus indeed, in Slater's view, reflects what the world was like for Greek children (at least, upper-class Athenian ones in the Classical Age): closeted with the womenfolk, the father absent doing what a man has to do. Perseus is 'in effect fatherless' (Slater 1968:313); he is his unmarried mother's champion (ibid.: 32); his mother is, however, so close that her intense interest in him causes anxiety. It is mothers who have ambitions for their sons (ibid.: 31): Danae is close to Perseus, Thetis to Achilles - and Olympias, we might add, to Alexander the Great. The bogies that terrify children - Lamia, Gorgo, Empusa, Mormo - are all (ibid.: 64) connected with fears of the mother's sexuality. Here perhaps we see the method's over-indulgence in sex. It is simpler to view these monsters as, yes, reflecting the role of mothers in Greek society (as in other societies - cf. Dvorak's Noonday Witch), but in a different way: do they not rather project the mother's power to frighten children by means of the hurtful characteristics that she denies herself? It is difficult to know quite how far to follow the sometimes tempting reconstructions of the psychoanalysts. Personally, the point at which I lose confidence is when Caldwell (1989:43) asks why the (of course) Oedipal son Bellerophon rejects his 'mother's' advances. True, the orthodox psychoanalytic explanation might be that he fears punishment by his father. But Caldwell prefers 'performance anxiety' as an explanation. Only subsequently does he gain Pegasos, doubly phallic because he flies and because riding him has the virility of riding a powerful motor bike (Caldwell 1989:42, 191). Then he defeats the snakey female. And after that he is 'equipped' to take Andromeda - whose name, AndroMEDa uncannily reflects the same word for 'mastery' that gives us MEDousa (Slater 1968:332). It is best to keep the 'sea monster' away from her (ibid.). The prominence of Theseus is usually said to go with the rise of democratic Athens at the end of the sixth century BC, though that is not the whole story. He compares with Bellerophon and Perseus in his defeat of Amazons and in his slaughter of a monster resulting from Poseidon's anger. The Minotaur results from the coupling of Minos' wife with a bull which Minos had fraudulently retained after Poseidon had sent it to him in response to a prayer. This theme connects with Minos' desire (successful, it appears) to rule the sea. This is the creature he slays, and as a result he wins Ariadne, though she then passes to Dionysos (Ap Ep. 1.9), lord of the Agrionia. So there may be something of the Bellerophon- Perseus type here. If we now add in the death of Theseus' father Aigeus, it becomes fairly clear that renewal is the purpose: Theseus returns to replace Aigeus. 18 Other details connect with a more detailed form of renewal, initiation: two of his party of The world of myth 103 seven youths dress in girls' clothing (cf. p. 118 above) and the black sails with which he returns to Athens are the aition for the black cloaks of Athenian ephebes. More specifically, the expedition to Crete and back is closely associated with the Oschophoria at Athens which involved a procession led by two boys in girls' clothes towards the marginal, boundary village of Skiron (Vidal-Naquet 1981:156-8). So in this case we appear to have a myth to go with a passage rite. Slater (1968:390) finds Theseus interesting because, unlike Bellerophon or Perseus, he has a supportive father, Aigeus. But the Labyrinth in which the Minotaur lives is constructed in psychoanalytic mode as 'reversal of the birth journey... encountering a phallic paternal object and destroying it' (ibid.: 391). 19 Thus an Oedipal conclusion is reached. Others have thought more of his reaching adulthood by penetration with the assistance of a virgin. Meanwhile, his defeat of Amazons 'seems quite in keeping with the misogyny of Athenian thought' (ibid.: 393) and the Potiphar's - or Proitos' - wife motif displaying 'the danger of mature feminine passion' is transferred to his stepson Hippolytos. Personally, I am more intrigued by the shifting figure of Poseidon. He occurs in contexts of male initiation - it is he who lies with 'female' Kainis (like a Cretan?, cf. chapter 7.2) and then grants her a sex-change and invincibility as Kaineus (Ap Ep. 1.22). In these myths he supplies monsters, just as he will beget monstrous and formidable sons, Busiris for Herakles and Polyphemos for Odysseus. The sea over which he rules threatens to overwhelm the land in primordial times. And yet he has some special connection with the heroes who succeed: the wave recedes with Bellerophon son of Glaukos ('grey', name of a sea hero) son of Poseidon; one candidate for father of Theseus is Poseidon - and Miiller (1825:271f.) argued temptingly that Aigeus was another Poseidon. Perseus himself comes out of the ocean. So it is that these heroes have power in the very element that is the antithesis of civilisation. The typical hero-story Another approach to the mythology of heroes is to observe the similarities between their sequences of stories. To what extent is there a common formula that holds them together? This type of approach emerges from the study of folk-tales, where more specific social approaches are excluded by the lack of local data in the tales themselves. Hence, though a psychoanalytic approach is possible (Bettelheim 1976), much rests on the identification of the basic building-blocks or motifs out of which the stories are constructed (which have been indexed in the remarkable volume of Aarne-Thompson 1964) and of the typical patterning of those motifs into recognisable sequences. Even the study of the diffusion of tales from one culture to another rests ultimately on this sort of analysis, because one has to be able to identify the stories which one alleges are spreading from culture to culture. The relationship of Greek myths to folk-tale is a thorny one, but inasmuch as both are sets of traditional tales composed from recurring motifs the same analysis of structure should be applicable. Indeed, folk-tale motifs often appear in Greek myth, though they may be more visible in some myths than in others, for instance in the Perseus and Andromeda sequence. The Uses of Greek Mythology 104 The hero, with his feats and trials, suggests it may be possible to draw up a typical classification of motifs. Such a classification was suggested by Lord Raglan and applied to a sequence of heroes from classical, biblical, medieval and other cultures: 1 The hero's mother is a royal virgin; 2 His father is a king, and 3 Often a near relative of his mother, but 4 The circumstances of his conception are unusual, and 5 He is also reputed to be the son of a god. 6 At birth an attempt is made, usually by his father or his maternal grandfather, to kill him, but 7 He is spirited away, and 8 Reared by foster-parents in a far country. 9 We are told nothing of his childhood, but 10 On reaching manhood he returns or goes to his future kingdom. 11 After a victory over the king and/or a giant, dragon, or wild beast, 12 He marries a princess, often the daughter of his predecessor, and 13 Becomes king. 14 For a time he reigns uneventfully, and 15 Prescribes laws, but 16 Later he loses favour with the gods and/or his subjects, and 17 Is driven from the throne and city, after which 18 He meets with a mysterious death, 19 Often at the top of a hill. 20 His children, if any, do not succeed him. 21 His body is not buried, but nevertheless 22 He has one or more holy sepulchres. (Raglan 1936:179f.) The reader will, I am sure, find this a most interesting attempt at defining a common structure of hero-tales, though it is not clear what conclusions could be drawn from its application, even if it could be successfully applied - and Brelich (1958:66) viewed Raglan's scheme as 'an undoubtedly mistaken attempt'. This is a problem altogether with motivic analysis, that it requires some further theoretical explanation or context - perhaps structuralist or psychoanalytic? A more abstract and sophisticated sequence was developed by Vladimir Propp, who in 1928 published a Russian book classifying Russian folk-tales (byliny), though since his ideas became more widely known (English translation, 1958) his method has been seen as having wider applicability. Like Raglan, he viewed a story as a sequence of slots ('functions') which might be realised by various particular motifs. The order of these 'functions' was constant, but stories did not generally include all functions. I hope it will be helpful to the reader to see these laid out, even though it will be necessary to turn to Propp 's book (1968) for any adequate understanding of what is implied: 1 One of the members of a family absents himself from home. 2 An interdiction is addressed to the hero. 3 The interdiction is violated. The world of myth 105 4 The villain makes an attempt at reconnaissance. 5 The villain receives information about his victim. 6 The villain attempts to deceive his victim in order to take possession of him or of his belongings. 7 The victim submits to deception and thereby unwittingly helps his enemy. 8 The villain causes harm or injury to a member of a family. 8a One member of a family either lacks something or desires to have something. 9 Misfortune or lack is made known: the hero is approached with a request or command; he is allowed to go or he is dispatched. 10 The seeker agrees to or decides upon counteraction. 11 The hero leaves home. 12 The hero is tested, interrogated, attacked, etc., which prepares the way for his receiving either a magical agent or helper. 13 The hero reacts to the actions of the future donor. 14 The hero acquires the use of a magical agent. 15 The hero is transferred, delivered, or led to the whereabouts of an object of search. 16 The hero and the villain join in direct combat. 17 The hero is branded. 18 The villain is defeated. 19 The initial misfortune or lack is liquidated. 20 The hero returns. 21 The hero is pursued. 22 Rescue of the hero from pursuit. 23 The hero, unrecognised, arrives home or in another country. 24 A false hero presents unfounded claims. 25 A difficult task is proposed to the hero. 26 The task is resolved. 27 The hero is recognised. 28 The false hero or villain is exposed. 29 The hero is given a new appearance. 30 The villain is punished. 31 The hero is married and ascends the throne. Propp's method, whose application his enthusiasts have extended, perhaps has a tendency to empty narratives of their contents rather than to uncover a structure which makes sense of the narrative, as a Levi-Strauss or a Detienne might. This indeed was Levi-Strauss' criticism of Propp. 20 Much more educative a method, if not yet attuned to the contradictions and ambivalences perceived by structuralists, was the thoroughgoing examination of the characteristics and associations of Greek heroes in Brelich's 1958 study. The richness of his account does not lend itself to summary, but broadly his approach is as follows. The ancient elements of individual myths cannot be securely identified (1958:45) and in any case what is most characteristic of hero-myths is recurring themes and concerns (ibid.: 67). As a result it is best to take hero-myths as a The Uses of Greek Mythology 106 whole and identify theme by theme their place in Greek culture and values. Thus Brelich discusses in order: death, combat, competitions, prophecy, healing, mysteries, the transition into adulthood, the city, kinship groups, human activities and later in the book the relationship of heroes to other beings, in particular the gods. This is more plainly a route to the understanding of Greek mythology than schematic lists. Chapter 9 Mythic society 9.1 POLITICAL POWER IN MYTH Kings Myth's distance from real political life is specially marked by the convention that mythic states are ruled by kings. There are no oligarchies or democracies. In this light, it is a tour de force that Theseus is portrayed (e.g. by Aristotle, Constitution of the Athenians fr. 4) as having encouraged democracy and rolled back the frontiers of autocracy, the Gorbachev of myth. How do men of myth become kings? Nestor reminds Achilles in Iliad 1.279 of the special position of 'the sceptre-holding king to whom Zeus has granted kydos [glory]'. They are diogeneis (Zeusborn). And naturally, as Zeus is the Olympian model of their sovereignty. Every ninth year Minos communes with Zeus at Knossos (Odyssey 19.178f.). And the festival of Zeus Lykaios comes round every ninth year - where Zeus reviewed Lykaon's kingship and found it wanting. Some kings of myth are simply there from the beginning. Some inherit from their father, like Agamemnon from Atreus. Yet it is not always the oldest who inherits - there are hints of ultimogeniture, inheritance by the youngest. Thus Nestor, king of Pylos, is the youngest son of Neleus; in Arcadia it is Lykaon's youngest son, Nyktimos, that succeeds him (Ap 3.8.1-2); and, of course, Zeus is Kronos and Rhea's youngest. Is it that renewal demands a reversal of the laws of succession? There is some recognition of the spread of power from one centre to another: thus Orestes becomes king of Sparta as well as Mycenae. And Menelaos, Agamemnon's (younger?) brother, becomes king of Sparta. Yet here there are conflicting signals: Sparta is acquired by the Mycenaean family twice in two genera-tions. This story is sending a message linking these two centres and asserting, maybe, the authority of old Mycenae over a Sparta now out of its control. Further, the Mycenaean duo Agamemnon and Menelaos, rescuers of Helen, replay the role of the twin Dioskouroi, equally rescuers of Helen. Authority should have passed from Tyndareus to the Dioskouroi, but their fate takes them elsewhere, Tyndareus steps aside and we are left with Agamemnon and Menelaos in their slot - a slot which historically is filled by the strange Spartan institution of the dual kingship. In mythic terms Agamemnon and Menelaos look like Sanskrit avatars, human realisations of gods (just as in the Mahdbhdrata, the twin Nasatyas are avatars of the Dioskouroi equivalent, the Asvins). The Uses of Greek Mythology 1 08 Marriage matters too: Orestes acquires his entitlement to the throne of Sparta by marriage with Menelaos' daughter, Hermione. Menelaos came to the throne through his marriage with Tyndareus' daughter, Helen. Odysseus' winning of Ikarios' daughter, Penelope, has a high profile in the mythology - a myth which Homer, in his characteristic way, replays through the perverted attempt of the suitors to win Penelope's hand in Ithaka. Is she also implicitly the key to the throne? In these cases the succession to the throne passes via a woman. This is not matriarchy (see the next section), for women are not queens in their own rite, nor is it matrilinearity, for power passes via daughters and wives, not mothers. Indeed the marriage is called into existence precisely because the daughter cannot wield power herself. This belongs in the broader Greek cultural picture of the restrictions upon women inheriting property. Property can only pass to a household, an oikos, of which a man must be in control, and a man who dreams of wealth and power should look to marry an heiress. The marriage of Oedipus and Jocasta (apart from its incestuous difficulties) is based on this type too: as the old king is dead and there is no suitable relative to marry Jocasta and take the oikos (Kreon is her brother), an outsider is needed. More unusual is the story of the prophet Melampous, who cures the Women of Argos (and/or the Daughters of Proitos) and thereby gains a third of the kingdom for himself, and another third for his brother Bias - whilst the remaining third goes to the son of the present king (Ap 2.2.2). Bias does well out of Melampous in an earlier story too, when Melampous by his skill obtains cattle that will persuade Neleus to give his daughter Pero to Bias (Ap 1.9.12). But in that case the throne is not on offer: it is, presumably, Nestor's. A final way to become king is of course by ousting. This happens in various ways. Zeus overthrows his father Kronos. Pelops, seeking to win a throne by marriage to Hippodameia, in fact causes the death of her father Oinomaos in a motoring accident. Theseus' return causes the death of his father Aigeus. Perseus turns Polydektes of Seriphos to stone - does he gain the throne? Should not Herakles' labours lead to the replacement of Eurystheus? These sorts of examples, considered together with Minos' renewal of power after a fixed period and with Frazer's notions of a dying king, led to the mirage of actual kings ritually being slaughtered by their successors at the beginning of the twentieth century (see, for example, Harrison 1912:223). The mistake, however, is only a slight one: the theme of renewal of kingship is certainly present and fits in well enough with other aspects of renewal (p. 145 above); the old scholars simply took it too literally, a perpetual danger with myth. Matriarchy, matrilinearity Greek myths of matriarchy, like the South American, are didactic rather than historical. (Lefkowitz 1986:22) Homer recounts an oddity of the Lykians, a non-Greek people who support the Trojans. Their Bellerophon had two sons and one daughter, but Zeus lay with the daughter, Laodameia, and power apparently passed (thus legitimised) through her to Sarpedon (Iliad 6.196-9). It is a real question, which a Byzantine scholar asked, why Bellerophon's sons did not rather inherit the kingdom. 1 Mythic society 109 Is this perhaps one of those topsy-turvy foreign practices, like Egyptian women urinating standing up (Herodotos 2.35)? This model of what it is to be a foreigner leads to Herodotos' view (1.173) that the Lykians named their children after their mothers, not their fathers, and reckoned their descent (and legitimacy) by the female line - by matrilinearity. But is it historically true? Herodotos' statement follows on from a mention of this Homeric case of Sarpedon, scarcely itself founded on genuine ethnographic observation of how power was inherited amongst the Lykians. We should think rather of a clever predecessor of Herodotos (Hekataios?) reading his Homer and deducing Lykian matrilinearity, perhaps with a little support from the rather less surprising system of primogeniture - inheritance by the eldest whether male or female (Pembroke 1967:21 f.). After Herodotos, Greek authors have their usual lack of scruples in elaborating on flimsy evidence and on each other: Nikolaos of Damascus tells us how amongst the Lykians only daughters could inherit property - and Herakleides Pontikos (a pupil and associate of Plato and Aristotle) even asserts that the Lykians had been ruled by women since time immemorial (tell that to Sarpedon!). In the real world, Lykian inscriptions may not quite reach back to Herodotos' time, but they give no hint that what he says is true. A myth has been conjured up around these Lykians, pigeon-holing them as pre-civilised, as Pembroke saw (ibid.: 34), because matrilinearity belongs with the state of lawless promiscuity which (of course) prevailed before the invention of marriage. Homer's myth and Greek historians' myths about their neighbouring peoples are an even worse basis for Bachofen's (1815-87) romantic idea that once long ago, before classical culture, matriarchy (Mutterrecht or 'Mother-Right') - had prevailed in these primal Aegean cultures and indeed in all societies during the course of their evolution. Homer's Lykian myth is not, however, wholly exceptional: Argive myth told how King Temenos precipitated a crisis by transferring his authority not to his sons but to his son- in-law Deiphontes who married his daughter Hyrnetho (P 2.19; Ap 2.8.5). And Spartan myth can be viewed as diverting power past Kastor and Polydeukes to Helen and son-in- law Menelaos. Here it may be appropriate to note that the Helen and Hyrnetho who share this format of story are both recipients of cult. 2 Matriarchy, according to Greeks, belongs at the ends of the earth: Amazons lived beyond the Black Sea, or, when that was no longer far enough (as Lefkowitz wryly observes, 1986: ch.l), in Skythia, or maybe in Aithiopia. Or perhaps they had once existed but were defeated by a male emblem, a Herakles, Theseus, Perseus or Achilles. Amazons are there to tell us how the world isn't. It is not so different from the disenfranchisement of women under Kekrops in the wake of Athene's victory over Poseidon (chapter 5.6). In other societies, too, the myth of matriarchy belongs to 'a prior and chaotic era before the present social order was established' (Bamberger 1974:276). In our own day, however, the myth of matriarchy has gained new power in relation to a feminist present and is perceived not as a period in prior times ripe for termination, but as a model which recalcitrantly refuses to exemplify itself in history. We make myths serve our times, just as Bachofen did for the upright Victorian matron. King's power in colonies A different way of becoming king is to be sent out to lead a new colony. So, for instance, Leukippos son of King Makareus ('Blest') of Lesbos founds a colony on Rhodes, and The Uses of Greek Mythology 1 1 another Leukippos is sent out by King Admetos of Pherai (Thessaly) to become the founder of Magnesia on the (River) Maeander (Dowden 1989:63f.). Colonisation is a frequent occurrence in Greek history and prehistory and has one key difference from migration, namely that some stay in the original centre while others depart. As a result a new source of authority must be created for those that depart and this is presented sometimes in the mythologem of the colony being founded by the king's son. Looking back across Greek history colonies were founded (1) in the Mycenaean period (e.g. Lesbos, Rhodes), (2) in the early Dark Ages by Aeolian Greeks (in the Troad for instance, but also as far south as Smyrna) and (3) in succession to the Aeolians by the Ionian Greeks (hence what we call Ionia). There had been kings in some and maybe all of these colonies (we hear of kings at Miletos, for instance) and it would indeed be likely that a monarchy would found a monarchical colony (by ultimogeniture so as to preserve the succession at home?). So myth in this case may not be inaccurate in depicting the leadership of the colonising party. As forms of government changed, this monarch whose key role it is to found the new colony (like the legendary founder of cities) becomes more narrowly viewed: less a king or king's son now, more an oikistes ('founder') to receive cult after his death. Even in classical times colonies had an official oikist, not a committee of management, and in some ways this is the only significant survival of monarchy into the Classical Age. Priests and prophets Priests are quite rare in Homer and perhaps only become a necessity when the habit of building temples is developed. These temples belong very much to polls culture and have been seen as substituting divine authority for the authority that had once been the king's, as in the cases where temples are built on the site of the old palace. 3 We therefore do not expect priests in myth. On the other hand, prophets must once have been part of the regular apparatus of society. Kalchas in Homer, though he has a wider history than Homer implies, at least occupies a recognisable augur's place beside the wanax. And the skills such as understanding bird-song (even woodworm-language!) enjoyed by Melampous reflect those professed regularly in other societies. Teiresias may be best consulted dead, as by Odysseus in Book 11 of the Odyssey and by real Greeks at Orchomenos, but again he shows the status of 'approved prophet'. Similarly, Amphiaraos may be consulted dead in Boiotia, but in the campaign of the Seven against Thebes he has a clear role and also a status which matches that of the overlord, Adrastos, himself. So in mythic times, archetypal prophets were valued consultants. There is likely to be some justification for this in facts about pre-historic society, but we must not forget either that prophets of historical times, whose ability was more open to question, needed myth's justification of their predecessors to enhance trust in their own powers. The Klytiads of Elis traced their descent back to Klytios, grandson of Amphiaraos, and one of them, Teisamenos, appears in a traditional role as prophet to the Greek army at Plataia (Herodotos 9.33). Iamos, mythic ancestor of the Iamids, was a child of Apollo who lived by the River Alpheios in Elis, where Melampous also gained his skills from Apollo. Iamos' descendants supplied the prophets of the oracle of Zeus at Olympia. Mythic society 111 Warriors or heroes Beyond the king and prophets stand the warriors. In Greek parlance these warriors, like the king, are 'heroes'. And this is the use from which all our senses of the word 'hero' in the end derive: to be 'heroic' is to behave like one of these heroes (on a good day); and the modern 'hero' of a play is so named because the leading figures of Greek plays had been these heroes. In Greece, we should be aware also that heroes are a class of being between man and god, receiving honours at their special cult-place, their grave. Thus heroes in myth have a nasty habit of living hard and dying young. In Dumezil's system (chapter 2.2) one expects a warrior-class separate from the kingly class and it is true that the kingly function is sometimes separated from the warrior: Eurystheus is the king, Herakles the warrior; Adrastos may lead the Seven against Thebes and even participate, but the focus may be more on the (other) warriors; Agamemnon may do some fighting at Troy, but not on Achilles' scale, as Achilles is made to complain (Iliad 1.226-31). Yet the message of Greek myth is not that warriors are a class apart from kings: some (Diomedes) already are kings, others will be or could have been kings. Herakles has a right to Eurystheus' position and Achilles and Hektor would in due course have become kings if only they had lived - and not died young in order to have their identity fixed for ever as warriors. Being a warrior is thus depicted as a transitional stage for a particular class, whereas being a king will involve greater age, marriage, offspring and genealogy. It is therefore to be expected that kings see their sons fight: Priam rules, Hektor fights; Nestor fights his best, but his son Antilochos occupies the Hektor slot; Peleus is left elderly and pitiable at home, but Achilles fights. It is at this point that it becomes evident that Greek myths are fixated on the upper class, like the mythology of medieval knights. A single man - or Seven - can cause terror to a city because the rest of humanity is filtered out of the picture. Rarely in Homer do we catch sight of the others: 'and the people [laos] were falling'. The importance of the heroes has some partial historical justification in that they alone would have been able to afford armour, horses and chariots in the Bronze Age; they are therefore bound to become the formidable promachoi ('fore-fighters', usually translated 'champions'). But the justification is only partial: 20 peasants with clubs would make short shrift of Achilles. Slaves, on the other hand, are invisible in Greek myths. They existed in the Mycenaean Age as in classical times, but belong to the mechanics of society in which myth itself takes no interest. Only when a myth must be realised on the fuller canvas of epic or tragedy do serving-women, nurses, paidagogoi (tutors) and herdsmen appear. On the other hand, we find the servitude of Herakles to Eurystheus and to Omphale, and of Apollo as a herdsman to Admetos. But this is to reduce the great hero to the otherwise invisible servile condition for a limited period. Heroes sometimes have one particular close friend, a hetairos ('companion'). It is not clear what this represents. Is it an economical image distilled from the relationship between a whole group of warriors? Is it the homosexual relationship found in initiation or the next stage, when the younger man has become a full warrior in his own right? Or is it just an exemplar for friendship, which is after all frequent enough in real life? Herakles and Iolaos belong, as we have seen, with initiatory apprenticeship - Iolaos is a 'squire' in medieval parlance. In the case of Patroklos and Achilles, we (and most Greeks) think of The Uses of Greek Mythology 112 Achilles as the dominant partner, but Homer (perhaps wilfully) depicts Patroklos as the elder who is to guide Achilles (Iliad 11.786-9), surely evoking the trainee-model. Others - Theseus and Peirithoos, Orestes and Pylades - simply become bywords for friendship. There is of course no truth to uncover about these fictional friends, only questions of original context and subsequent use. The Greeks themselves differed on the extent to which the Achilles-Patroklos relationship might have been sexual (the middle road is represented in a fragment of Aeschylus' Myrmidons: 'our association, respectful of your thighs'!) and the mythic tradition provides no definitive answer. Changing times Occasionally, in the grey area between myth and history, one finds material outside the picture we have sketched and closer to later reality. Lawgivers are a particular concern of the Archaic Age but have no niche in myth, which depicts an illiterate world and would talk about founders in any case. Lykourgos at Sparta, as we have seen, is probably entirely mythical, but his depiction as the guardian of an under-age king is more detailed than we expect of myth. The effect, whether in myth or reality, is to distance him from the system he revises, as one might expect of a lawgiver or arbitrator (compare ombudsmen). Solon, as arbitrator and lawgiver for the Athenians, added to this distance by going into exile to give his reforms a chance to work (a motif shared by the Lykourgos story). The laws of the archaic lawgivers Zaleukos (seventh century BC?) and Charondas (sixth century BC?), figures surrounded by 'legend', were adopted by many towns in Italy and Sicily other than their own, obviously appreciating a system brought in from elsewhere. Pythagoras was welcomed from outside to Croton as an authority on moral life and law (Iamblichos, The Pythagorean Life 9). Perhaps we are out of myth into history by now, but the same ways of thought persist. Aristotle, in identifying lawgivers, produces what will become a new mode of genealogy for defining the authority of persons relative to each other: '[some claim that] Lykourgos and Zaleukos heard [i.e. learnt from] Thales and Charondas heard Zaleukos' (Politics 1274a). A few centuries earlier, Charondas would have been Zaleukos' son. Something new is also represented by Thersites ('Rash-man'). In the epic Aithiopis he insults Achilles by claiming that Achilles, who has just slain the Amazon queen Penthesileia, had been in love with her. The result is that he himself is killed by Achilles. Dissension then results from this death. Back in the Iliad (2.212-77), Thersites is depicted as a trouble-maker for the kings, maybe in anticipation of this incident in the Aithiopis. Homer is clear about Thersites: he is uneducated and ugly and of a lower class than the kings. This is usually, and I think correctly, treated as an intrusion from social conditions in Homer's own time and associated with the rise of a larger armed fighting class, the hoplites. His is a lone voice, denigrated by his creators, railing against the privilege of myth. 9.2 REPELLING THE FOREIGNER AND -MACHIES Art may use myth for decoration, just as narration may use it for entertainment. In neither case, however, should we lose sight of its potential for making a statement about the Mythic society 113 world and our place in it. Repelling a foreign enemy is a case in point. When the Persians were driven back in 490 and 480-479 BC, Greek culture had been saved and reasserted. This is why Herodotos' history takes the form it does: an analysis of what it is to be a foreigner and what it is to be a Greek, leading up to the successful preservation of Greek culture from the 'barbarian'. This was especially important at Athens, as Athens had undergone a major form of accreditation through her part in the defeat of Persia. The battle of the Lapiths and the Centaurs, the Centauromachy, is depicted three times on the Athenian acropolis in the decades that followed the Persian Wars: on metopes on the Parthenon, on the shield of the statue of Athene Promachos on the Acropolis and even on the sandal of Athene Parthenos (Carpenter 1991:166). It is also depicted on the west pediment of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia. How far can this be associated with the defeat of the Persians? The role of centaurs is to be disorderly and immoral. They are half-animal; they drink too much; they cannot control their lusts; and, worst of all, they show this behaviour at a dinner party to celebrate a wedding, that of Peirithoos and Hippodameia (Ap, Ep. 1.21). They thus violate the laws binding guests and hosts and dissolve the social bonds which eating together creates. They represent everything which society must restrain in order to survive and it is therefore no surprise that they live in mountains. Who ever heard of a city of centaurs? How could it possibly work? To celebrate the victory of the Lapiths over the Centaurs is to celebrate the victory of the civilised polis. The threat from the Persians appears to have stimulated this celebration in art, though it cannot of course be guaranteed that the Persians continued to be the principal reason for the use of this socially relevant and colourful theme on public works. The reception of such work by visitors and passers-by must have varied in its depth of resonance in any case. This, for instance, is what Pausanias, an intelligent man of the mid-second century AD, made of the Centauromachy at Olympia: 'In my opinion Alkamenes chose this topic because he learnt from Homer [Iliad 14.318] that Peirithoos was a son of Zeus and he knew that Theseus was the great-grandson of Pelops' (P 5.10.8). So the scene is chosen because it features Peirithoos and Theseus, who can be related to Zeus, whose temple it is, and Pelops, the local hero. Once again we are confronted by the surprising literalism of the Greeks - on whom we are trying to impose rich, subtle ideas. But of course Pausanias even mistakes the Apollo in this scene for Peirithoos. What associations, I wonder, would occur to a viewer of Mikon's painting (c. 450 BC) of Theseus helping the Lapiths in their fight with the Centaurs in the Theseus shrine at Athens (P 1.17.2)? One might say that Theseus represents the Athenian role in the defeat of the Persians and their continuing naval deterrent. Equally, the scene is appropriate on the simpler grounds that it is part of the mythology of Theseus and it makes good art - as Mikon would have known if, as is possible, he had worked on the pediment at Olympia. 4 Conversely, the statue of Athene Promachos on the Acropolis is actually a tithe from the defeated Persians (P 1.28.2), which would seem to clinch the connection. And it must be remembered that there are no literal depictions of defeated Persians in classical Athens: art like tragedy (Aeschylus' Persai aside) preferred to talk through myth. It is not until the time of Pergamon that we find literal Persians, even in Athens 5 - and of course by then they are to all intents and purposes mythic. The Uses of Greek Mythology 1 14 But the Centauromachy is only one of a series of mythic battles depicted on the Acropolis. The Gigantomachy, the battle of the Olympian gods with the Giants, has deeper roots. Obviously it is an appropriate theme to celebrate on any sacred building, confirming as it does the order imposed by the gods as a team. It is perhaps specially appropriate to Delphi, which came as close as anywhere in Greece could to general responsibility for religion: there the theme can be found on the north frieze of the Siphnian Treasury, the pediment of the Megarian Treasury and on the west pediment of the Temple of Apollo (Carpenter 1991:75). All these depictions belong to the later sixth century BC. At Athens, likewise, the theme erupts in the sixth century - on large, very public vases dedicated on the Acropolis around 560-550, and is traditionally woven into the peplos presented to Athene's statue at the Panathenaia (it is depicted there on the pediment of an archaic temple around 520 BC). Why? It is not just a question of a poem, the Gigantomachia, suddenly arriving on the scene and exciting artists (it doesn't seem to have excited anyone else). The mid-sixth century at Athens is the time of the tyranny of Peisistratos (except 555-546 BC) and the creation of Athens as a major power. In some way this myth, which underpins the totality of the divine order, has been made part of the image of the newly-amplified Panathenaia, which under Peisistratos became penteteric (= held every four years) like the major Panhellenic festival at Olympia. From now on, the myth is part of the grand apparatus of the Athene cult: it will be found on the east metopes of the Parthenon and on the interior of the shield of Athene Parthenos. This shield seems to have depicted the Giants in a new way and brought about a change in their iconography, to judge by contemporary vases. Giants now have skins not armour and rocks not weapons (Carpenter 1991:75). They have been relegated to the wild and uncivilised and, in effect, reduced to the condition of Centaurs. A new layer of meaning has been superimposed. Perhaps some may even have thought of the Persians. The Persians are certainly at issue in our third battle, the Amazonomachy. Amazons, typically depicted with caps, bows, Persian trousers, axes, reflect a Greek view of barbarian gear in general (because non-Greek) and Persian gear in particular. Maybe too the servile Persians, in contrast to the freedom-loving Greeks, were classed as 'women' (Tyrrell 1984:50-2). This battle provided the theme for the west metopes of the Parthenon and was the principal subject of Pheidias' shield of Athene Parthenos. Thus Athene's shield showed the battle with the Amazons (front) and Giants (back) and her sandal showed the battle with the Centaurs; together they encapsulated the victories of Athens and declared her image to the world. This message was not lost on the artists of the Hellenistic Age in Pergamon, which based its claim to superpower status on its defeat of the Gauls in Asia Minor in the 230s BC. The cultural language of this remarkable art echoes that of Peisistratean Athens and deliberately evokes that of Athens after the Persian Wars. Dead Giants and dead Amazons pick up the themes of world order (this is after all an altar of Zeus) and defeat of the barbarian. Dead Persians drive home the Athenian intertext: what Athens was in the Classical Age, Pergamenes are now (much as the north metopes of the Parthenon had depicted the defeat of those earlier Asians in Troy). Dead Gauls, visibly assimilated to Giants, maybe introduce a new literalism, but transmute present achievement into myth. 6 What, no Centaurs? Look again at the agonised expressions of Pergamene Giants: do they not uncannily recall the deaths of Athenian Centaurs? 7 Mythic society 115 9.3 MYTH AND SEXUALITY It emerges then from an examination of Greek myth that male attitudes to women, and to themselves in relation to women, are marked by tension, anxiety and fear. (Gould 1980:57) Greek mythology is by and large a man's mythology, describing a world from a man's point of view. Women are seldom considered in isolation from men, though we will consider important exceptions below, and they seldom have scope for action on their own initiative. Mostly, females are either (a) children, (b) nubile maidens or (c) married. What is absent from this female career structure is any stage between initiation and marriage - the stage which allows the male to become a warrior, prove himself and discover himself: men marry later than women. Widows are mostly ignored and single women cannot be allowed to exist, except for goddesses like Circe and Kalypso. The tribulation of the Greek virgin One myth plainly for women is that of Demeter and Kore (Persephone). Even this presents a grim portrait of marriage as abduction from the mother with the connivance of the father (Zeus). Yet the myth is grounded in a festival for citizen women and their daughters, the Thesmophoria, and celebrates their relationship with each other and their affinity with the productiveness of nature. Other myths, concerning nubile maidens, can often be viewed (as in chapter 7.1) as going back to stories which must have had currency amongst females concerned with the initiation of girls. But once we set aside that antiquarian background, most often inaccessible to classical Greeks, the mythical environment becomes very hostile to these maidens. Io is the victim of the lust of Zeus and the jealousy of Hera (Ap 2.1.3); her situation is tragically explored in 'Aeschylus', Prometheus Bound and can only be resolved by the family line to which she gives rise: Herakles, who will incidentally release Prometheus, and ultimately Danaos and the Argives. Her consolation, then, for being exploited lies in the oikos to which she will give rise, as in a sense it does with every Athenian maiden. The Danaids do not murder their Egyptian husbands on their own initiative, but on their father's, because he has been forced into arranging these matches. Herakles wants the maiden Iole, but he does not woo her: he must seek the consent of the family. When they refuse he kills them all and has her anyway, though he then bequeaths her to his son Hyllos, whose influential offspring she will doubtless bear. Kreousa in Euripides' Ion foolishly thinks Apollo did wrong by raping her, but her offspring is Ion, eponym of the Ionians. And Kallisto, raped by Zeus, may have a rough time, what with being transformed into a bear and maybe even shot by Artemis, but never mind: her son Arkas will be the ancestor of the Arcadians. However, the gods' lusts, though in themselves something which would get them life imprisonment in a modern society, are not trivially exercised but exist in order to beget significant offspring who will have a god at the head of their genealogy. It is doubtful therefore whether this mythology is best viewed as implementing irresponsible male fantasy, though the case of heroes, who can step beyond normal constraints (p. 140), may The Uses of Greek Mythology 116 be different. Seduction of free-born girls was after all a crime and myth considers no others. Some girls in Greek myth are presented as inviting their fate. The Proitids at Tiryns mocked the statue of Hera (or refused the rites of Dionysos); a girl in the hieros logos of Brauron sets a chain of calamities under weigh by poking fun at a tame bear (that scratches her, is killed by her brothers, and the result is plague and expiation). Two of the daughters of Kekrops, Agraulos and Herse, pry into a forbidden chest, and, seeing a snake wrapped round the infant Erichthonios, are driven mad and hurl themselves from the Acropolis (Ap 3.14.6). These strains of hazardous impulsiveness amongst girls may be reflected in a tendency of mythology to produce hippos ('horse') names for maidens (Melanippe, Hippolyte, Hippodameia), inviting Calame's suggestion (1977:411-20) that marriage and female education both are designed to 'tame' these dangerous maidens. Of course male names also contain this element, suggesting that pride in horses went back to the Greeks' Indo-European forebears whose most momentous technological advance was horsemanship. But that does not exclude the possibility that hippie names indeed registered in the way Calame observes. Faithless wife, passionate woman It perhaps matches the double standards of Greek males that though men and male gods do a lot of begetting in myth, the issue of faithlessness arises only with women (the only male issue is adultery - see Thyestes, Aigisthos, Paris - where the consistent message is that adultery fails). Astonishingly, a chorus of Euripides' Medea puts this stress on female faithlessness down to the absence of women authors who might redress the balance ('since it would have sounded a counter-hymn to the race of males' (Medea 426- 7)). That would imply that there was a competing women's value-system centred on securing the devotion of Greek males to their marriages, which indeed there must have been. Medea in Euripides' play, for all her excesses, plainly wins sympathy based on Jason's behaviour; Deianeira in Sophocles' Women of Trachis acts, with adequate approval, to restore Herakles' interest in their marriage; Clytaemestra in Aeschylus' Agamemnon, though a clear monster who has subverted and perverted the restraints required of women, nevertheless has an intelligible pretext for her hostility to Agamemnon in his introduction of Cassandra to the house. But for all this the real force of moral opprobrium in male-female relationships falls upon the woman: Clytaemestra (who murders her husband), Medea (who destroys her family twice, at least in the prevalent, Euripidean, version), 8 Phaidra (who attempts to seduce Hippolytos), Stheneboia (who attempts to seduce Bellerophon), Eriphyle (who makes her husband Amphiaraos join the Seven against Thebes and go to his death - selling him for a necklace - Ap 3.6.2). The predominant message is that women are disproportionately subject to their passions. One reflection of this is Euripides' interest in the dramatic psychological colour resulting from the tragic situations so produced (nicely satirised by Aristophanes, Frogs 1043-54). Another, cruder, reflection is the myth of Teiresias, who alone of all human beings had been both man and woman: asked the obvious question, he replied that women enjoyed it more (as of course on a Greek male view they would) and was promptly blinded for his pains by Hera (Ap 3.6.7). It is difficult to know what stress one Mythic society 117 may appropriately put on the point, but plainly the arrangements for the Greek oikos and near-purdah of respectable Athenian women in the Classical Age rest on a supposed need to contain women's sexuality and the heroines of the classical stage (the most direct form of communciation through myth) often show the dangers when that sexuality is insufficiently controlled. Even locking Danae in a chamber of bronze does not work. Zeus simply descends in a shower of golden rain (Ap 2.4.1) - later allegorised as a bribe to the servants, something which might be thought to work if your Danae was locked (as women sometimes were) in the women's quarters: There is no wall, nor possession, Nor anything else so hard to watch over as a woman. (Euripides Danae fr. 320 Nauck 2 ) Tragedy extracts from mythology the themes it wishes and the versions of myths which survive, for instance in Apollodoros, are often drawn from the tragedians. It is perhaps a fine line between the dramatist's interpretation of existing values in selected myths and the creation of a new value-system by more radical reinterpretation of myth. There is no need to view the Hippolytos myth (Ap Ep. 1.18-19, from Euripides) as necessarily involving a harsh view of the gods, though we come away from Euripides' play with that view. In perceiving a system of values in myths as a whole, we must, I suppose, be careful to describe values which are inbuilt or consistently perceived rather than those which are peculiar to particular works of literature. So it is worth observing that this picture of the dangers of women's passion does not begin with tragedy. The story of Stheneboia (another Phaidra) is already in Homer's Iliad. And the Odyssey contrasts the intelligent and responsible mistress of the oikos, Penelope, with the brute sexual passions of Kalypso that restrain our Greek man from achievement of his purpose. Odysseus is also advised by Hermes, in a most curious passage, to refuse Circe's bed until he has imposed an oath on her and thereby avoided the loss of his manhood (Odyssey 10.301): it is not clear what exactly is envisaged, but in any case our Greek male needs some reserve and assertion before an offer of sexual relations in order to maintain his maleness. More broadly, the whole distrust of women ('misogyny', hatred of women, seems an exaggeration) has a special place in Greek poetry from Hesiod onwards. His is, of course, the image of Pandora, the nearest thing the Greek tradition has to the biblical Eve, though like much of Hesiod's writing, this story may be new to Greek mythology. Male sexuality: satyrs The unacceptable extremes of male sexuality are exported from men to satyrs. These licentious creatures are part animal, like centaurs, and therefore define behaviour which is beyond the human pale. Their penises, like those of animals such as donkeys, are enormous, usually erect and not so much shown in pictures as displayed and brandished - balancing wine-cups on them is the least of their sins. Greek men, as Lissarrague has observed in this context, may not have been required to hide their genitals but equally they were expected to be discreet about them. 9 The satyrs' endless masturbation, bestiality, mutual orgies and frustrated assaults on maenads denote an excess, even if the excess is to be found amusing. These forces are, of course, part of the apparatus of the The Uses of Greek Mythology 1 1 8 Dionysos procession and display at once the suspension of normal society implicit in much Dionysos religion and the control which the religion is none the less able to exercise over these wild instincts. It is really no different with the maenads themselves, who are at once released from their subservience as matrons to roam with menacing violence out of the city with phallic-looking poles tipped with pine-cones (thyrsoi) but at the same time contained within a religious organisation controlled by a male god. Perhaps Dionysos is perceived as effeminate but his most frequent processional symbol is the phallos. Satyrs and maenads are both good material for art: they can be captured in a characteristic moment. But their strength is their weakness: they have no time-depth, no story, no names. Their iconography, their context and their behaviour define them. They are 'mythical' creatures because they belong to the common Greek imaginative inventory, their imaginaire. Behaviour detrimental to the oikos Mythology offers, in the end, a dialogue on the oikos. All heroes must in some way be legitimate, even if their parenthood involves gods and nymphs - a privilege and a convenience not open to babies of historical times. Thus Euripides in his Bacchae (28-9) casts Semele's sisters as wicked doubters who take a historical not a mythic view and suppose Semele's child Dionysos in fact to have been illegitimate. Adulterous liaisons cannot have offspring: Aigisthos and Clytaemestra may have consorted for 10 years, but their contraceptive practice was, it seems, immaculate. This is not of course the same as a hero born out of wedlock - that does happen, for example, Hippolytos, son of Theseus and the Amazon (Ap, Ep. 1.16), and all the liaisons with immortals, who with the exception of Thetis are never actually married to mortals. Adulterous liaisons, as they cannot produce offspring, cannot succeed either. Aigisthos rules temporarily before being slaughtered by Orestes. Thyestes adultery with Atreus' wife results in his banqueting on his own children - a mushrooming disruption of the oikos: though Thyestes continues to exist, to the embarrassment of mythographers who shuffle him to and fro, he can only continue his influence by (unwittingly) begetting Aigisthos by his own daughter (Ap, Ep. 2.14), leading to a most unpleasant recognition scene in Sophocles' lost play the Thyestes. Thus the saga of an oikos, as may be expected, has something to say about the relationships that are necessary for more successful oikoi. Adultery is only one disruption in a house which can run to Agamemnon's sacrifice of his daughter Iphigeneia, and Orestes' slaughter of his mother Clytaemestra. A similar story results from the saga of the House of Laios at Thebes. Laios' interest in Chrysippos, however it originated (chapter 7.2), becomes the invention of a perversion of sex and is associated by an oracle with his begetting of a son, Oedipus, who will kill his father and marry his mother. In the next generation Oedipus' sons fight and kill each other - and Antigone might just be seen as over-attached to the dead Polyneikes. This is what Levi- Strauss referred to in his treatment of the Oedipus myth (chapter 2.2) as the 'underrating' and 'overrating of blood relations'. Mythic society 119 Conflict between the sexes In the course of the story of Dionysos at Thebes our attention becomes fixed on King Pentheus ('Mourning'-man). He is torn apart alive, as animals are in cult, after being pursued by the maddened women. Perhaps something similar befell King Megapenthes ('Much-mourning') in the lost myth of the Agriania at Argos. Conflict between men and women is integral to this mythology and the associated Dionysos cult, depicting the termination of the normal condition of society and the need to begin it again. At Chios and Tenedos the women are found pursuing or (in myth at any rate) killing a man; at Chaironeia they even pursue Dionysos; and conversely at Chios, Orchomenos and maybe Sikyon a group of men or an individual pursue a group of women (Dowden 1989:84). This too is where Lykourgos, son of Dryas, fits: supposedly he is a king of the Thracian Edones (Antimachos thought he was better as an Arabian - Diodoros 3.65.7), but he has a clearly Greek name and his father Dryas rather reminds one of Dryops. In any event, according to Homer (Iliad 6.130-40) this Lykourgos on a fabulous (Mount) Nyseion pursued the 'nurses' of Dionysos and suffered as a result. Conflict between the sexes occurs elsewhere too. The women of Lemnos murder their husbands, interpreted by Burkert (1970) as relating to another renewal festival, and the Danaids at Argos kill their first set of husbands, the Egyptians - though that may be more a matter of their progress to the acceptance of marriage, as befits a myth possibly once associated with a passage rite of girls (Dowden 1989: ch. 5). Likewise Amazons exist in order to fight men and to be defeated by the likes of Herakles, Theseus and Perseus (chapter 8.3). Thus in ritual, myth and imagination, the separation and distinctive roles of the sexes are explored and presented as a hostility which is periodically in ritual, and once for all in myth, resolved in favour of the men and the taming institution of marriage. There is no lesson that the sexes are necessarily in conflict. Exceptional disruptions serve only to underline the harmony and undisputed male supremacy on which Greek mythology and ritual believe successful societies are built. Conclusion: what Greek myth is The picture which now emerges of Greek myth is hard to summarise. Plainly it is not enough to allege that myth does some one thing or another. Greek myth is a complicated organism, with a history of its own, in both ancient and modern times. At one extreme, Greek myth reaches back to an Indo-European past which we can scarcely conceive; at the opposite extreme stand modern ideas and interpretations of myth, which, irrespective of any value they may have for a correct understanding of Greek myth (and is there such a thing?), are part of the intellectual fabric of our times. In between lies the entire culture and history of the Greeks, with which myth is continually in dialogue and in which it is continually redeployed. I hope that this book, with its shifting standpoints and its little heap of samples, has captured something of what Greek myth is and given some initial guidance on the limits within which it can be used, safely or precariously, to tell us about Greek history, society and values. What we think matters about Greek myth will naturally vary according to our tastes, preferences and the framework of ideas within which we think. I do not think there is any possibility of an objective account of Greek myth and I think it would be the poorer if there was. As a mere example, let me state the conclusions that I myself would draw at this point: 1 Myth is a local heritage. Each local city has its local mythology as it has its local system of gods and festivals. Sometimes that mythology carries a visible message, as in genealogies. Sometimes it explains. Sometimes it expresses a feeling for how their culture feels and thinks. Sometimes it is a good story and their good story. 2 Myth is a national heritage. The system of Greek Mythology is a means of communication between all who subscribe to it. To recognise it is to be Greek, just as to speak the Greek language is a sign of being Greek. A community which sets up a myth in sculpture on its temple talks not just to itself, but to all who come to visit it. If we today can enjoy recognising a Labour of Herakles on a metope, how much more thrilling must it have been to see the original, gloriously painted, at the forefront of art and technology, and showing a powerful Greek traditional story? Local pride grows greater too if it can show that a great national story actually happened here. 3 Myth is the story of a lost and powerful past that created the present. It tells of the age of gods, heroes, beginnings and explanations. It tells too of the human sequence which led to our societies now: then Pelasgians and Karians, now us Megarians. Carbon-14 dating does not have the same ring. 4 Myth expressed in its own way the key factors that rituals also expressed, and sometimes worked, or had worked, in partnership with them. The moment of Conclusion: what Greek myth is 121 initiation, in particular, had been prolific in spawning rituals and myths. Even when those rituals had faded (as they mostly had by the Classical Age), the myths continued, carrying with them much of the original force of these moments. It is no coincidence that stories of departure, difficult experience and return to a new sense of identity have their own vitality - that is why initiation mattered in the first place. The cycle of Labours of Herakles, though put together at a relatively late date (12 was a good number for metopes), displays the power of this pattern - quite as much in its hold over modern audiences as in its hold over ancient. The Odyssey is a return, but a return of a man reshaped by his experiences and endurance. The Iliad is not a tale of the Trojan War, though that too could, and presumably did in hands other than Homer's, deliver this result by including preliminaries, nine-year period of endurance and segregation, and return. The Iliad is the tale of Achilles, who is excluded from the warrior society to which he belongs, who suffers and reflects and who returns, not just physically to slaughter Hektor, but through a supreme moral and emotional reincorporation by confrontation with Priam in the last book. 5 Greek myths often avoid happy endings. This explains why they are ideally suited to tragedy and is reinforced by the collection of myths from tragedy. It would however be shallow and inaccurate to suppose on this account that it is a prime function of myths to serve as warnings (Bettelheim 1976:38). What after all are we warned against by the Oedipus myth? Not to be fated to marry our mothers? Or by Agamemnon? Not to have accursed ancestors? Or to learn through suffering (between axe-strokes)? Especially in the hands of the tragedians, the myths give a more stationary sense of how things are: problems of the divine order, of man's place, of society even and of character are raised, exacerbated, displayed, but not resolved except in the sense that there is an ending. Neither tragedians nor Greeks as a whole drew up divine and social charters through the language of myth. Here the ideas of Levi-Strauss and the structuralists have helped us to focus on the different logic of myth-language (if indeed it is a language): myth expresses opposites and conflicts, it balances them out or reaches for other issues that can act as intermediaries. It clearly would be very satisfactory and very tidy for us writers and students of myth to be able to say that myth solved problems. But we must beware of imposing our own problem-solving intellectual culture on a medium conceived in a different world. I have no intention of imposing this list as a definitive conclusion. Readers must compose their own. Perhaps this book will help. Notes 1 Myth and mythology 1 On folk-tale and initiation rites see Versnel 1990:50 and his bibliography at 81 n.109. 2 Problems with defining myth in terms of religion: Kirk 1970:11. 3 Raglan 1955:129, citing work of W.J. Gruffydd on the Mabinogion; cf. Dowden 1989:3-5. 4 Edmunds (1990:16) attempts to define oral literature as 'scripts' and to include all myth within this category. 5 Apart from a couple of probably false identifications, he figures only as one of the E metopes in the Gigantomachy sequence. 6 For an example of this problem see Dowden 1989:185-7. 7 Frazer 1921: vol. i, xlv-lviii, following earlier work by R. Wagner (Mythographi Graeci, vol. i, Leipzig, 1894). 8 The concept of in illo tempore is Eliade's, for example M. Eliade, Le mythe de I'eternel retour, new edn, Paris, 1969:20, 33-41. 9 Odyssey 4.423 (Eidothee to Menelaos), 7.302 (Odysseus to Alkinoos), 10.516 (Circe to Odysseus); Iliad 20.104 (Apollo to Aeneas). Compare Iliad 23.645, where Nestor speaks of excelling amongst the heroes. 2 How myths work: the theories 1 Examples of historicism in prehistorians: F. Stubbings, 'The rise of Mycenaean civilization', IV 'Danaans and the Hyksos', CAH3 2.1 (1973): 635-8; Hammond 1976: ch. VI. See the Topic bibliography, p. 179. 2 P. Faure, 'Aux sources de la legende des Danai'des', resume in REG 82 (1969) xxvi-xxviii, rightly criticised by Detienne 1979:13f. D.W. Roller, 'The enigma of the tribe of Dan', LCM 16 (1991): 38. 3 E. Rohde, Psyche: The Cult of Souls and Belief in Immortality among the Greeks, Eng. translation, W.B. Hillis, London, 1920:287; contrast Dowden 1989:97, 106. 4 G. Pilot, Le code secret de /' Odysee: les grecs dans I'atlantique, Paris, 1969; V. Berard, Les navigations d'Ulysse, 4 vols, Paris, 1928-35. 5 Puhvel 1987:153; G. Dumezil, Camillus: a study of Indo-European religion as Roman history, Berkeley, 1980: e.g. ch. 1 and table on pp. lOlf. 6 Graf 1987a: 44f. E. Durkheim, Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, Eng. translation, London, 1915 (French: Paris, 1912). 7 This originates with Dumezil 1953:26-8; cf. Littleton 1982:212. 8 Cf. Ap 2.6.1 (Iole), 2.7.7 (Ormenion, a place, not a father of Astydameia), 2.7.8 (Astydameia and Ktesippos): the version in Diodoros looks secondary to me, despite its convenience for Dumezil. 9 The term comes from Jean Starobinski, Iroz's fureurs, Paris, 1974:26 - a reference I owe to Loraux 1990:23. 10 Caldwell 1989:15. Caldwell is in fact particularly didactic, though this of course helps the exemplary clarity of his book. Notes 123 11 Lloyd-Jones 1990:282, citing E. Gellner, The Psychoanalytic Movement, or the Coming of Unreason, London, 1985. 12 W.M. Calder III in LCM 16 (1991): 67. 13 The sources for this version are given by Brelich 1958:75: Cicero, Aratea 424 ('In his frenzy with insane heart he was killing animals'), 431 ('hunting enthusiastically'); scholiast on the Latin Aratea, p. 196 M ('killing practically all the beasts'); Ovid, Fasti 5.451 (' "there is no wild animal", he said, "that I do not wish to defeat" '). 14 R.S. Caldwell, 'The psychoanalytic interpretation of Greek myth', in Edmunds 1990: ch. 7. 3 Greeks on myth 1 Fragments of Greek prose writers who can, however doubtfully, be classed as historians are collected in the many volumes of F. Jacoby, Die Fragmente der ghechischen Histohker, Berlin, 1926-30, Leiden, 1954-8. In, for example, 2F23, 2 indicates that Akousilaos is author number 2 in the collection, F that the reference is to a fragment (not a T for testimonium, i.e. information more broadly about the author) and 23 is the number of the fragment. A fragment is a passage from a lost work of an author, usually recovered as a result of being quoted by other authors who survive in full. In Jacoby' s volumes, some volumes contain the (usually) Greek text of the authors; others contain commentary on those texts (German in earlier volumes, English in later), others again contain the footnotes for the commentary. 2 The text is found in FGH 239. 4 Myth and prehistory 1 See Topic bibliography, p. 181. 2 Another example is surely the comparability of Herakles with Indra as slayers of three-headed figures, see Burkert 1979:85; Puhvel 1987:51-3. For Dumezil's fuller comparison of Herakles with Indra, more controversial in its detail, see pp. 29f. below. 3 Miiller (1844:49) claimed this as evidence for an Achaian phratry at Sparta to which kings belonged. I think this was to take a genealogical claim too literally; after all, one would not hypothesise an Egyptian phratry on the basis of Herodotos 6.53. 4 The name actually looks more like the Tagos ('commander-in-chief') of the lawos ('armed forces'). 5 R. Hope Simpson and J.F. Lazenby, The Catalogue of Ships in Homer's Iliad, Oxford, 1970. 6 Eur. Archelaos, fr. 228 N 2 (Dowden 1989:148). 7 Other interesting examples include the Abas and the Abantes, inhabitants only of Euboia in classical times, yet Abas is the father of Akrisios and Proitos (see further Dowden 1989:156, 162); and, of course, the Achaioi - a major name in Homer, but only the inhabitants of the northern coast of the Peloponnese in classical times (myth deals with them through the figure of Teisamenos, P 7.1.7). 8 Cf. R.M. Cook, CAH3 II.2:778f. 9 O. Gurney, The Hittites, 2nd edn, Harmondsworth, 1954: pp. 56-8; M. Wood, In Search of the Trojan War, London, 1985:186-206. 10 Burkert 1984:99-106; F.H. Stubbings in CAH3 11.2:167-9. 11 J. Chadwick, in Parola del Passato 31 (1976): 116f. 12 This goes all the way back to Miiller 1844:47. Argive invention according to Tigerstedt 1965:35. 13 Tigerstedt (1965:36) observes that the myth in effect certifies the existence of a Dorian invasion against modern doubters. Notes 124 5 Myth and identity 1 The Heraion may once have belonged not to Argos, but to Mycenae, cf. Dowden 1989: 127f. 2 On ethnos and federation see Larsen 1968: xivf., 8f. 3 One would, of course, expect the odd lame eponym, like Hoples (Ap 3.15.6). Dumezil once thought that these subdivisions represented his three Indo-European functions (see Dumezil 1953) and Jeanmaire (1939: ch.2) likewise tries this type of approach. 4 G. Neumann in KIP, s.v. 'Leleger', attributes this view to Shevoroshkin, Issledovaniya po deshifrovke kariiskich nadpisej, Moscow, 1965: p. 28 ('Investigation into the decipherment of Karian inscriptions'). 5 Perhaps Indo-European *PlH 2 sgoi (cf. Greek pelas, 'near'). There are obvious phonological difficulties, but perhaps not beyond resolution: the voiced g might be caused by the laryngeal in a contraction at the Indo-European level of a word for 'neighbours', *pelH 2 s-wikoi; the Germanic w- rather than the expected f- may be explained by the 1 in the environment. What is clear is that the sequence of consonants is labial, lateral, dental spirant (the s does not have to be written out of the proto-Germanic form), velar plosive. This formula would embrace also the Volsci and maybe the Falisci (*Falesci, cf. Falerii?) in Italy. 6 Hes. fr. 234 M-W (Str. 7.7.2 [322]). Deukalion's stones, for example, Ap 1.7.2. 7 Another example: the autochthon Anax ('Lord') ruled over Kares (Karians - of which Leleges are a subdivision - P 7.2.8) in Anactoria, until Miletos sailed in with an army of Cretans, the populations mixed and the place was called Miletos (P 7.2.5). 8 Scholiast on Eur. Orestes 932; Sakellariou 1977:108. 9 Baton FGH 268F5 (Ath. 14.45 639d-40a), Sakellariou 1977:108f. 10 De Polignac 1984:134, summarising AC 49 (1980): 5-22. 11 Genealogical authors and Athens, cf. Parker 1987:200. 12 Klearchos in Ath. Deipn. 13.2 [555d]; Harrison 1912:262; primal promiscuity, Pembroke 1967:30f. 13 On the Aigeidai see Vian, 1963:216-25; and C. Robert, Oidipous: Geschichte eines poetischen Stoffs im griechischen Altertum, 2 vols, Berlin, 1915: vol. i, 2f., 565-74. 14 But the Spartans felt as justified as the Argives in their claim to hegemony through Pelops and Agamemnon (Herodotos 7.159). Huxley (1983:7f.) comments, 'Pelops is mentioned by Syagros because Sparta claimed to rule his island, the Peloponnese; Agamemnon, because he led the Achaeans against Troy, as Sparta must lead the Hellenes in the defence of Greece.' 15 Orestes was said to have moved from Mycenae to Arcadia as the result of an oracle (P 8.5.4). But Teisamenos' bones (equally as a result of an oracle from Delphi) were moved from Achaia too, where tradition said the inhabitants were those dispossessed of Sparta and Argos by the Dorians (P 7.1.5, 7.1.8). Bones were always powerful: compare the bones of eponymous Arkas, that were brought from Mainalos to Mantinea (P 8.9.3). 6 Arrival at the cult-site 1 This inhibits the position of Demeter: as an Olympian she cannot be autochthonous, but as Earth-Mother she cannot be anything else. Hence her sense of not quite belonging with the Olympian family. 7 Myth and initiation ritual 1 P.M.C. Forbes Irving, Metamorphosis in Greek Myth, Oxford, 1990:50-7. 2 J.N. Bremmer and N.M. Horsfall, Roman Myth and Mythography, [BICS Suppl 52], London, 1987:38-43. 3 Sergent 1986: 145f., building on R. Roux, Le probleme des Argonautes: recherches sur les Notes 125 aspects religieux de la legende, Paris, 1949:129, 134f. On the number 50 see also, for example, J. Bremmer, 'The suodales of Poplios Valesios', ZPE 47 (1982): 138; Dowden 1989: 157f. 4 Another crew of 50 + 2: Odysseus' ship has 46 on Circe's island (Od. 10.203-8) after losing six to the Kikones. 5 On this point and the whole myth: Vidal-Naquet 1981. 6 Str. 6.1.15 [265]; Dionys. Ant.Rom. 19.3 [17.4]. Cf. Dowden 1989:64. 7 These examples are in Dowden 1989:65f. 8 The world of myth 1 Varro in Augustine, City of God 18.9; Vidal-Naquet in Gordon 1981:198; less revealing version at Ap 3.14.1. 2 Pan, Priapus, and shepherd-boy: Boardman 1975: ill. 335.1 (Athenian, early 460s, p. 181); Theok. Epigram 3. 3 J. Fontenrose, Orion: the myth of the hunter and the huntress, Berkeley, Calif., 1981. 4 Examples are collected by Richardson 1974:6ff. Compare too Ov. Met. 2.861, 864 (Europa), 5.385-94 (Persephone at Henna in Sicily); Claudian, de Raptu Proserpinae, 2.71-150. 5 For these views see Caldwell 1989:42 and 191 n.10, 153, Campbell 1959:64 (amniotic fluid). 6 Caldwell 1989:33 - but for the penile stick compare the thyrsos of the Maenad. 7 Carpenter 1991: ills. 96, 99 (550-540 BC), 97 (late fourth century BC). 8 The reader may not be aware that Gigantes sounds rather like a tribal name such as Abantes. 9 If 10 tasks not 12, following the usual amendment of the text, then surely 10 years not 12. 10 L. Radermacher, Mythos der Hellenen: Untersuchungen tiber antiker Jenseitsglauben, Bonn, 1903:42. 11 Stesichoros fr. 185 Page; full story in Ath. Deipn. 11 (470c). 12 C. Kerenyi, The Heroes of the Greeks, Eng. translation, H.J. Rose, London, 1959:143. 13 Herodoros, a practical man, reckoned it took seven nights (FGH 31F20). 14 Plutarch, Greek Questions, 58 [304c-e]. Loraux 1990:35 - I do not however understand her general argument on the feminisation of Herakles. 15 Dowden 1989: Subject index s.v. 'renewal of society', for example, 183, 191. 16 Dowden 1989: Subject index s.v. 'chase'. 17 Writers assume this biblical myth to be familiar: it is found in Genesis 39. There are five examples in Greek myth: Slater 1968:335. 18 This point is made, if in outmoded terminology, by Harrison 1912:323. 19 Labyrinth as womb, for example, Campbell 1959:69. 20 C. Levi-Strauss, 'Structure and form: reflections on a work by Vladimir Propp', in Structural Anthropology 2, Eng. translation, M. Layton, London, 1977: ch. viii. 9 Mythic society 1 Eustathios ad loc; J.J. Bachofen, Myth, Religion, and Mother Right: selected writings of J.J. Bachofen, Eng. translation, R. Manheim, Princeton, NJ, 1967:73. 2 Hyrnethion, P 2.28.6-7. Both also are removed from a would-be husband by two brothers in a chariot: Helen from Theseus (for example) by the Dioskouroi, Hyrnetho from Deiphontes by Kerynes and Phalkes, P 2.28.5. 3 For example, F. de Polignac, La naissance de la cite grecque, Paris, 1984:16. 4 P. Levi, Pausanias: Guide to Greece, vol. 1, Harmondsworth, 1971:48 n.92. 5 J. Onians, Art and Thought in the Hellenistic Age: The Greek World View 350-50 BC, London, Notes 126 1979, ill. 83 (at Pergamum); P 1.24.2 (at Athens, dedicated by Attalos, together with, NB, Gauls defeated in Mysia). 6 Onians 1979:81-5. 7 Onians 1977:85-7. 8 In fact in the original Corinthian myth the Corinthians themselves slaughter Medea's children - and ever since must expiate this by a ritual involving children dressed in black. 9 F. Lissarrague, 'The sexual life of Satyrs', in D.M. Halperin, J. J. Winkler and F. I. Zeitlin (eds), Before Sexuality: The Construction of Erotic Experience in the Ancient Greek World, Princeton, 1990:53-81, esp. 55-6. Topic bibliography This is a guide to further reading, both on the whole subject and, chapter by chapter, on its various topics. The best introduction to Greek mythology is (in German) Graf 1987a. In English, Kirk 1974 is well written, learned and deservedly popular, though I am not satisfied that progess in the study of myth is sufficiently helped by his choice of categories. The best bibliography, though now old, is Peradotto 1973. Examples of older approaches are conveniently collected in B. Feldman and R.D. Richardson, The Rise of Modern Mythology 1680-1860, Bloomington, Indiana, 1972. For collections of works by various scholars exemplifying modern approaches, see Bremmer 1987, Edmunds 1990. COLLECTIONS OF GREEK MYTHS Ancient (see also under chapter 1.2): The only conveniently available compendium is that of Apollodoros: Greek text and translation in J.G. Frazer, Apollodorus: The Library, 2 vols, Cambridge, Mass. and London, 1921 (Loeb Classical Library). Modern: R. Graves, The Greek Myths, 2 vols, Harmondsworth, 1955, despite extensive worthless comments, gives a good basic account of the full range of Greek mythology, with sources for each myth. P. Grimal, The Penguin Dictionary of Classical Mythology, London, 1991 (French, 1951), excels in range and detail, but does not cite sources; R. Stoneman, Greek Mythology: an encyclopedia of myth and legend, London, 1991, again in dictionary format, also offers some intriguing medieval and modern material, gives skeletal indications of important sources and, occasionally, discussions, and adds a helpful bibliography. M. Grant, Myths of the Greeks and Romans, London, 1962, though readable and alert, is unduly limited in range and focuses excessively on high literature. Rose 1928 overemphasises gods and, though a solid, methodical book, is badly dated in style and content. CHAPTER 1.1 Veyne 1988 is a reliable and sensitive guide to where myth really fitted in Greek culture. Nestle 1941 propounds the old-fashioned romantic view of the Greeks as a whole advancing from mythos to logos. Mythos/ logos and the relationship to the spread of writing: Vernant 1982:186-90; Edmunds 1990:2-15. Topic bibliography 128 Kirk 1970 (ch.l, section 3) discusses differences between myth and folktale, taking the issue more seriously than I recommend. Graf ( 1987a : introduction, esp. p. 12) is more discriminating. Bremmer ( 1987 : ch. 1) is brief and clear on tradition, collective significance and the relationship to folk-tale, legend, etc. CHAPTER 1.2 Ancient authors where myths or traditional narratives are in plentiful supply: Homer, Hesiod; Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides; Ovid, Metamorphoses; Pausanias - all available in the Penguin Classics series or in the Loeb Classical Library ( Harvard University Press ). For the Epic Cycle, turn to M. Davies, The Epic Cycle, Bristol, 1989. For Antoninus Liberalis, see Francis Celoria, The Metamorphoses of Antoninus Liberalis, London and New York, 1992. Mythology in art: Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae, Zurich, 1981 -date lists alphabetically all known ancient artistic representations of mythological subjects; part one of each volume is the catalogue, part two the illustrations. Especially good value is Carpenter 1991 - profusely illustrated, if more interested in data than in interpretations; NB his topic bibliography at pp. 247-9. The handbooks by John Boardman in the same series (see General bibliography below) each have a section on myth. CHAPTER 2.1 Theories of myth: Graf 1987a : chs 1-2. Puhvel 1987 : ch.l is fresh though he omits Modern Myth-Ritual. Vernant 1982:207-40 gives a thoughtful review of theories and possibilities from a post-structuralist viewpoint. A swift review of theories by an anthropologist, with some useful comment on Levi-Strauss: P.S. Cohen, 'Theories of myth', Man 4 (1969) : 337-53. Historicism: Amongst prehistorians the worst offender is J. Zafiropoulo, Histoire de la Grece a I'age de bronze, Paris, 1964. Good overall discussion of myth and prehistory (if not quite sceptical enough): R.B. Edwards, Kadmos the Phoenician: a study in Greek legends and the Mycenaean Age, Amsterdam, 1979, pp. 192-207. Tigerstedt (1965:26f.) touches on modern credulity in myth as history and cites in particular (322 n. 94) J.L. Myres, Who Were the Greeks?, Berkeley, Calif. 1930:297ff. Allegory: Ancient: J. Pepin, Mythe et allegorie: les origines grecques et les contestations judeo-chretiennes, Paris, 1958 ; F. Cumont, Recherches sur le symbolisme funeraire des romains, Paris, 1942. Renaissance: E. Wind, Pagan Mysteries in the Renaissance, 2nd edn., Harmondsworth, 1967. Romantic: K. Raine and G.M. Harper, Thomas Taylor the Platonist: Selected Writings, Princeton, NJ and London, 1969; F. Creuzer, Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Volker, besonders der Griechen, 3rd impr., 4 vols, Leipzig, 1836-43. (Useful, brief account of Creuzer in Rose 1928:3f.). Natural allegory: Manifesto: Max Muller 1898. On Max Miiller himself see N.C. Chaudhuri, Scholar Extraordinary: the life of Professor the Rt. Hon. Friedrich Max Muller, P.C., London, 1974. Cambridge myth-ritual: Versnel 1990, esp. 30-44, is the major modern discussion. Edmunds 1990:23f. Principal text: Harrison 1912. A later, enthusiastic association of Topic bibliography 129 myth with ritual was found in Raglan 1936, taking in (for example) Robin Hood, King Arthur, Irish and Norse saga, Troy and the hero, ritual drama. For a lucid account of his position, see Raglan 1955. CHAPTER 2.2 New comparative mythology: Littleton 1982. Dumezil's views have now been closely examined and found unverifiable by WW. Belier, Decayed Gods: Origins and Development of Georges Dumezil's 'Ideologic Tripartite', Leiden, 1991. Attempts to explore Greek mythology according to this method: Dumezil 1953 (in French); Dumezil 1970 : ch. 5 (Herakles); Puhvel 1987 : ch. 8. Psychoanalysis: Bibliographies of psychoanalytic treatment of Greek myth: R.S. Caldwell, 'Selected bibliography on psychoanalysis and classical studies', Arethusa 7 (1974), 119-23 on 'Greek mythology' - a brief survey by an enthusiast. J. Glenn, 'Psychoanalytic Writings on Classical Mythology and Religion: 1909-1960', Classical World 70 (1976) 225-47 - a thorough and critical survey. Withering review of the whole approach: Lloyd- Jones 1985. Interesting modern examples of this type of method: Slater 1968; Caldwell 1989. Jung: Jung and Kerenyi 1949. There is a whole sequence of volumes by C. Kerenyi on 'Archetypal images in Greek religion', for example Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life, Eng. translation, R. Manheim, Princeton, NJ and London, 1976. Structuralism: C. Levi-Strauss, Structural Anthropology, Eng. translation, C. Jacobson and B.G. Schoepf, Harmondsworth, 1972 : ch. xi; with E. Leach, Levi-Strauss, London, 1970, rev. 1974. CHAPTER 2.3 Modern myth-ritual: H. Jeanmaire, 'La cryptie lacedemonienne', REG 26 (1913) : 121- 50; Jeanmaire 1939. L.J. Alderink, 'Greek ritual and mythology: the work of Walter Burkert', Religious Studies Review 6 (1980) 1-14; and Versnel 1990:44-90. Brelich 1969; Burkert 1983; Brule 1987; Dowden 1989. 'Rome school': Brelich 1977, on the Rome school, is a useful preliminary to the study of mythology altogether. Brelich 1958:23-78 usefully reviews the problems posed by Greek myth. His 1958 and 1969 studies are the major works of the school. G. Piccaluga, Lykaon: un temo mitico, Roma, 1968. 'Paris school': Detienne sites himself relative to structuralism in Detienne 1979 : ch.l (originally in French as 'Mythes grecs et analyse structurale: controverses et problemes' in Gentili and Paioni 1977:69-89). On J. -P. Vernant: 'A bibliography of the works of Jean-Pierre Vernant', Arethusa 15 (1982) 11-18; C. Segal, 'Afterword: Jean-Pierre Vernant and the study of ancient Greece', Arethusa 15 (1982): 221-34. Froma I. Zeitlin has now edited a particularly useful collection of Vernant's writings, in English translation: J.-P. Vernant, Mortals and Immortals: Collected Essays, Princeton, NJ, 1991. Topic bibliography 130 CHAPTER 3 Greek Attitudes to myth: far-reaching survey, Veyne 1988 ; see also Vernant 1982:200- 4. Myth and history: C. Brillante, 'History and the historical interpretation of myth', in Edmunds 1990 : ch. 2. A deeper study, showing something of why history, even when available, must on occasion be turned to myth: M. Eliade, Le mythe de I'eternel retour, new edn., Paris, 1969, 48-64. CHAPTER 3.4 Homer the Theologian: R. Lamberton, Homer the Theologian: neoplatonist allegorical reading and the growth of the epic tradition, Berkeley, Calif. 1986. CHAPTER 4.1 Borrowing from the Near East: R. Mondi, 'Greek mythic thought in the light of the Near East', in Edmunds 1990: ch. 3 (bibliography: 194-8), seeks to refine the notion of diffusion. Burkert, 'Oriental and Greek mythology: the meeting of parallels', in Bremmer 1987: ch.2, is a useful, but brief, set of samples and reflections. Burkert's 1984 monograph cast the net wider (extensive bibliography: 121-31). P. Walcot, Hesiod and the Near East, Cardiff, 1966 ; M.L. West, Hesiod, Theogony, Oxford, 1966: esp. 18-31 (bibliography at 106f.); Centre d'Etudes Superieures Specialisees d'Histoire des Religions de Strasbourg, Collogue, 1958, Strasbourg: Elements Orientaux dans la religion grecque ancienne, Paris, 1960. Interesting material also, if intermittently, in Burkert 1979. CHAPTER 4.3 Trojan war: M.L. Finley, J.L. Caskey, G.S. Kirk and D.L. Page, 'The Trojan War', JHS 84 (1964) : 1-20; J.T. Hooker, Mycenaean Greece, London, 1977, 165-8, 214-16; L. Foxhall and J.K. Davies, The Trojan War: Its Historicity and Context: papers of the first Greenbank Colloquium, 1981, Bristol, 1984. Popularising: M. Wood, In Search of the Trojan War, London, 1985. Look too at Bremmer 1987. CHAPTER 4.4 Dorian migration: the historicity is challenged by, for example: R.M. Cook, 'The Dorian invasion', Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society 188 (1962): 16- 22; John Chadwick, 'Who were the Dorians?', Parola del Passato 31 (1976) : 103-17; J.T. Hooker, Mycenaean Greece, London, 1977, 168-80. The traditional view is defended by P. Cartledge, Sparta and Lakonia: a regional history, London, 1979:77- 88 (bibliography at 100 f.). Topic bibliography 131 CHAPTER 5.2 Genealogy, Aetiology: Veyne 1988:24-6. Attempt to restrict the significance of aetiology for the explanation of Greek myth: Kirk 1974:53-9. Vansina 1965, index s.v. 'genealogies' for genealogy in traditional societies. 6 CHAPTER 5.5 Pelasgians: Duller 1937:36-39 on Pelasgians and myth; Sakellariou 1977:81-230, with excellent documentation of other views. The monograph on the Pelasgians is F. Lochner-Hiittenbach, Die Pelasger, Vienna, 1960, which I regret I have not seen. Modern treatments of Orpheus: Graf 1987b ; J.F. Nagy, 'Hierarchy, heroes and heads: Indo-European structures in Greek myth', in Edmunds 1990: ch. 4. Sparta: Tigerstedt 1965 : ch.l; Calame 1987; GL. Huxley, 'Herodotus on myth and politics in early Sparta', Proceedings. Royal Irish Academy, 83 Section C (1983): 1- 16. Athens: Parker 1987. CHAPTER 5.6 CHAPTER 6.1 Delphi: C. Sourvinou-Inwood, 'Myth as history: the previous owners of the Delphic Oracle', in Bremmer 1987 : ch. 10; Fontenrose 1959. Sikyon: Brelich 1969:377-87. CHAPTER 6.3 CHAPTER 6.5 Dionysos: E. Rohde, Psyche: the cult of souls and belief in immortality among the Greeks, 8th edn, Eng. translation, W.B. Hillis, London, 1920 (in German, 1st edn, Freiburg, 1890); W.F. Otto, Dionysus: myth and cult, Eng. translation, R.B. Palmer, Bloomington, Indiana, 1965; Burkert 1985:161-7. CHAPTER 7.1 On the profile and features of Initiation that are relevant to an understanding of myth, see Versnel 1990:44-59. Girls' initiations in general: Brelich 1969 ; Calame 1977 ; Brule 1987 ; Dowden 1989. Bears in particular: Brule 1987 : Ch. 2; Dowden 1989 : Ch. 1; P.H.J. Lloyd-Jones, 'Artemis and Iphigeneia', JHS 103 (1983) 87-102; C. Sourvinou-Inwood, Studies in Girls' Transitions: Aspects of the arkteia and age representation in Attic iconography, Athens, 1988. Topic bibliography 132 CHAPTER 7.2 Wolves: in Arcadia, Burkert 1983:84-93; in Greek myth and history, Kunstler 1991. Troy and initiation: Bremmer 1978. Homosexuality and myth: first-rate treatment in Sergent 1986. CHAPTER 8.2 Iamboulos: Diodorus Siculus, 2.55-60, for example, in C.H. Oldfather, Diodorus Siculus, vol. 2, Cambridge, Mass. and London, 1935 (Loeb Classical Library, vol. ii). Antonius Diogenes: summary preserved in the Byzantine bishop Photios, Library 166, translated by G. Sandy, in B.P. Reardon (ed.), Collected Ancient Greek Novels, Berkeley, Calif. 1989:775-82. CHAPTER 8.3 Greek monsters in general: Kirk 1970:191. Titans and Titanomachy: Ap 1.1-2; Hesiod Theogony: 133-53 (list, apparently, of Titans), 501-6 (Kyklopes), 617-28 (100- handers), 664-745 (battle and imprisonment). Cattle-raiding and initiation: B. Lincoln, 'The Indo-European cattle-raiding myth', HR 16 (1976) : 42-65; P. Walcot, 'Cattle-raiding, heroic tradition and ritual: the Greek evidence', HR 18 (1979) : 326-51. Geryon, cattle and the dead: J.J. Croon, The Herdsman of the Dead, diss., Amsterdam, 1952; Fontenrose 1959:334-46; Burkert 1979:85-8, based on Burkert 1977. On Theseus, now see the extensive work of C. Calame, Thesee et I'imaginaire athenien: legende et culte en Grece antique, Lausanne, 1990. Folk-tale and typical story-structures: Burkert 1979:5-10, 83 f.; A. Aarne, The Types of the Folktale: a classification and bibliography, Eng. translation and amplification, S. Thompson, Helsinki, 1964; V.J. Propp Morphology of the Folktale, Eng. translation, L. Scott, 2nd edn, LA. Wagner, Bloomington, 1968. Psychoanalysis and Heroes from Oedipus to Lohengrin via Jesus: O. Rank, The Myth of the Birth of the Hero: a psychological interpretation of mythology, Eng. translation, New York, 1914. CHAPTER 9.1 Matriarchy: J.J. Bachofen, Das Mutterrecht: eine Untersuchung iiber die Gynaikokratie der alten Welt nach ihrer religiosen und rechtlichen Natur ('Matriarchy: an investigation into rule by women in the ancient world with respect to its religious and legal character'), Basel, 1861, repr. in K. Meuli (ed.), J.J. Bachofen: Gesammelte Werke, vols 2-3, Basel, 1948. Criticism of Bachofen: Pembroke 1967; S. Pembroke, 'Last of the matriarchs', Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 8 (1965) : 219-47; Bamberger 1974; G.G. Thomas, 'Matriarchy in early Greece: the Bronze and Dark Ages', Arethusa 6 (1973): 173-95; P. Vidal-Naquet, 'Slavery and the rule of women in tradition, myth and Utopia' in Gordon 1981:187-200. Some bibliography on Feminism and ancient matriarchy/matrilinearity issues: S.B. Topic bibliography 133 Pomeroy, 'Selected bibliography on women in antiquity', Arethusa 6 (1973): 125-57, esp. 132-5. CHAPTER 9.2 Amazons: Tyrreli 1984 is the standard book; more provocative is P. duBois, Centaurs and Amazons: Women in the Pre-History of the Great Chain of Being, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1982. For briefer perspectives see P. duBois, 'On horse/men, Amazons, and endogamy', Arethusa 12 (1979) : 35-49; and A.W. Kleinbaum, 'Amazon legends and misogynists: the women and civilization question', in F.R. Keller (ed.), Views of Women's Lives in Western Traditions: frontiers of the past and the future, Lewiston, NY, Queenston, Ontario and Lampeter, Wales, 1990 ; and, judiciously, Lefkowitz 1986: ch. 1. CHAPTER 9.3 Misogyny/women in Greek myth and literature: N. Loraux, 'Sur la race des femmes et quelques-unes de ses tribus', Arethusa 11 (1978) : 43-87; Lefkowitz 1986: ch. 7; and, particularly forceful on sexual polarisation in myth, F.I. Zeitlin, 'The dynamics of misogyny: myth and myth-making in the Oresteia', Arethusa 11 (1978): 149-84, esp. 150-60. But one of the major needs in literature on myth is for a book comprehensively reviewing mythology from a woman's standpoint. In the meantime, some understanding may be gained, for instance, from: A. Cameron and A. Kuhrt (eds), Images of Women in Antiquity, London, 1983; M.Z. Rosaldo and L. Lamphere (eds), Women, Culture, and Society, Stanford. Calif.. 1974. General bibliography This part of the bibliography serves as a key to (a) the text references and notes; and (b) the Topic bibliography on pp. 178-84. For 'further reading', please refer to the Topic bibliography. Bamberger, J. (1974) 'The Myth of matriarchy: why men rule in primitive society', in M.Z. Rosaldo and L. Lamphere (eds), Women, Culture and Society, Stanford, Calif.: 263-80. Bettelheim, B. (1976) The Uses of Enchantment: The meaning and importance of fairy tales, London. Boardman, J. (1974) Athenian Black Figure Vases, London. — (1975) Athenian Red Figure Vases: The Archaic Period, London. — (1978) Greek Sculpture: The Archaic Period, London. — (1985) Greek Sculpture: The Archaic Period, London. — (1989) Athenian Red Figure Vases: The Classical Period, London. Brelich, A. (1958) Gli eroi greci: un problema storico-religioso, Roma. — (1969) Paides e parthenoi, Roma. — (1977) 'La metodologia della scuola di Roma', in B. Gentili and G.Paioni (eds), // Mito Greco: Atti del convegno internazionale (Urbino 7-12 maggio 1973), Roma: 3-29. Bremmer, J. (1978) 'Heroes, rituals and the Trojan War', SSR 2: 5-38. — (ed.) (1987) Interpretations of Greek Mythology, London. Brule, P. (1987) La fille d'Athenes, Paris. Burkert, W. (1970) 'Jason, Hypsipyle and new fire at Lemnos', CQ n.s. 20: 1-16. — (1977) 'Le mythe de Geryon: perspectives prehistoriques et tradition rituelle', in B. Gentili and G. Paioni (eds), // Mito Greco: Atti del convegno internazionale (Urbino 7-12 maggio 1973), Roma: 273-84. — (1979) Structure and History in Greek Mythology and Ritual, Berkeley and Los Angeles, Calif. — (1983) Homo Necans: The Anthropology of Ancient Greek Sacrificial Ritual and Myth, Eng. translation, P. Bing, Berkeley and Los Angeles, Calif. — (1984) Die orientalisierende Epoche in der griechischen Religion und Literatur, Heidelberg. — (1985) Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical, Eng. translation, J. Raffan, Oxford. Calame, C. (1977) Les choeurs de jeunes filles en Grece archaique, vol. I, 'Morphologie, fonction religieuse et sociale', Roma. — (1987) 'Spartan genealogies', in J. Bremmer (ed.), Interpretations of Greek Mythology, London: Ch. 8. Caldwell, R. (1989) The Origin of the Gods: a psychoanalytic study of Greek theogonic myth, New York, NY and Oxford. Campbell, J. (1959) The Masks of God: Primitive Mythology, New York, NY. General bibliography 135 Carpenter, T.H. (1991) Art and Myth in Ancient Greece, London. Cave Brown, A. (1976) Bodyguard of Lies, London. Detienne, M. (1979) Dionysos Slain, Eng. translation, M. and L. Muellner, Baltimore, Maryland and London. — (1986) The Creation of Mythology, Eng. translation, M. Cook, Chicago, 111. Diller, A. (1937) Race Mixture among the Greeks before Alexander, Urbana, 111. (repr. Westport, Conn., 1971). Dowden, K. (1989) Death and the Maiden: Girls' initiation rites in Greek mythology, London and New York, NY. Dumezil, G. (1953) 'Les trois fonctions dans quelques traditions grecques', in Hommage a Lucien Febvre: Eventail de I'histoire vivante, vol. 2, Paris: 25-32. — (1970) The Destiny of the Warrior, Eng. translation, A. Hiltebeitel, Chicago, 111. Edmunds, L. (ed.) (1990) Approaches to Greek Myth, Baltimore, Maryland and London. Fontenrose, J. (1959) Python: A Study of Delphic Myth and its Origins, Berkeley, Calif. Frazer, J.G. (1921) Apollodorus: The Library (Loeb Classical Library), 2 vols, London. Freud, S. (1913) Totem and Taboo, Leipzig and Vienna (Eng. translation, ed. J. Strachey, London, 1955). Gentili, B. and Paioni, G. (eds.) (1977) // Mito Greco: Atti del convegno internazionale (Urbino 7-12 maggio 1973), Roma. Gordon, R.L. (ed.) (1981) Myth, Religion and Society, Cambridge. Gould, J. (1980) 'Law, custom and myth: aspects of the social position of women in Classical Athens', MS 100: 38-59. Graf, F. (1987a) Griechische Mythologie: Eine Einfuhrung, 2nd rev. impr., Miinchen and Zurich. — (1987b) 'Orpheus: a poet among men', in J. Bremmer (ed.), Interpretations of Greek Mythology, London: ch. 5. Hammond, N.G.L. (1976) Migrations and Invasions in Greece and Adjacent Areas, Park Ridge, NJ. Harrison, J.E. (1912) Themis: A Study of the Social Origins of Greek Religion, Cambridge. Jeanmaire, H. (1939) Couroi et Couretes : essai sur I'education spartiate et sur les rites d' adolescence dans I'antiquite Hellenique, Lille. Jung, C.C. and Kerenyi, C. (1949) Science of Mythology: Essays on the myth of the divine child and the Mysteries ofEleusis, Eng. translation, London. Kirk, G.S. (1970) Myth: Its meaning and functions in ancient and other cultures, Cambridge. — (1974) The Nature of Greek Myths, Harmondsworth. — (1977) 'Methodological reflexions on the myths of Heracles', in B. Gentili and G Paioni (eds), // Mito Greco: Atti del convegno internazionale (Urbino 7-12 maggio 1973), Roma: 285-97. Kunstler, B. (1991) 'The werewolf figure and its adoption into the Greek political vocabulary', CW84: 189-205. Larsen, J.A.O. (1968) Greek Federal States: their institutions and history, Oxford. Leach, E. (1974) Levi-Strauss, London (1st edn 1970). Lefkowitz, M.R. (1986) Women in Greek Myth, London. General bibliography 136 Littleton, C. Scott (1982) The New Comparative Mythology: an anthropological assessment of the theories of Georges Dumezil, 3rd edn, Berkeley and Los Angeles, Calif. Lloyd-Jones, P.H.J. (1985) 'Psychoanalysis and the study of the Ancient World', in P. Horden (ed.), Freud and the Humanities, London and New York, NY: 152-80 (reprinted in P.H.J. Lloyd-Jones, Greek Comedy, Hellenistic Literature, Greek Religion, and Miscellanea: The Academic Papers of Sir Hugh Lloyd-Jones, Oxford, 1990: 281-305). Loraux, N. (1990) 'Herakles: the super-male and the feminine', in D.M. Halperin , J.J. Winkler, and F.I. Zeitlin (eds), Before Sexuality: The Construction of Erotic Experience in the Ancient Greek World, Princeton, N.J.: 21-52. Max Miiller, F. (1873) Introduction to the Science of Religion, London (repr. 1899). — (1898) 'Comparative Mythology' (1856), in F. Max Miiller, Chips from a German Workshop, reissue, vol. IV, London: 1-154. Miiller, K.O. (1825) Prolegomena zu einer wissenschaftlichen Mythologie, Gottingen. — (1844) Die Dorier, part 1, 2nd edn., Breslau. Nestle, W. (1941) Vom Mythos zum Logos: Die Selbstentfaltung des griechischen Denkens von Homer bis auf die Sophistik und Sokrates, 2nd impr., Stuttgart. Nietzsche, F. (1872) Die Geburt der Tragodie aus dem Geiste der Musik, Leipzig. Nilsson, M.P. (1932) The Mycenaean Origin of Greek Mythology, Berkeley, Los Angeles, Calif, and London. Parker, R. (1987) 'Myths of early Athens' in J. Bremmer (ed.), Interpretations of Greek Mythology, London: ch. 9. Pembroke, S. (1967) 'Women in charge: the functions of alternatives in early Greek tradition and the ancient idea of matriarchy', Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 30: 1-35. Peradotto, J. (1973) Classical Mythology: An Annotated Bibliographical Survey, American Philological Association, Urbana, 111. Polignac, F. de (1984) La naissance de la cite grecque: cultes, espace et societe, Vllle- Vle siecles avant J.-C, Paris. Puhvel, J. (1987) Comparative Mythology, Baltimore, Maryland and London. Raglan, Lord (1936) The Hero: A study in tradition, myth, and drama, London. — (1955) 'Myth and Ritual' in TA. Sebeok (ed.), Myth: a symposium, Philadelphia (repr. Bloomington, Indiana, 1958): 122-35. Richardson, N.J. (1974) The Homeric Hymn to Demeter, Oxford. Rose, H.J. (1928) A Handbook of Greek Mythology, London. Sakellariou, M.V. (1977) Peuples prehelleniques d'origine indo-europeenne, Athens. Sergent, B. (1986) Homosexuality in Greek Myth, Eng. translation, A. Goldhammer, London. Slater, P.E. (1968) The Glory of Hera: Greek Mythology and the Greek Family, Boston, Mass. Tigerstedt, E.N. (1965) The Legend of Sparta in Classical Antiquity, vol. 1, Stockholm, Goteborg and Uppsala. Tyrrell, W.B. (1984) Amazons: A Study in Athenian Mythmaking, Baltimore, Maryland and London. General bibliography 137 Van Gennep, A. (1960) The Rites of Passage, Eng. translation, M.B. Vizedom and V.L. Caffee, London. Vansina, J. (1965) Oral Tradition: a study in historical methodology, Eng. translation, H.M. Wright, London. Vernant, J. -P. (1982) Myth and Society in Ancient Greece, Eng. translation, J. Lloyd, London. Versnel, H.S. (1990) 'What's sauce for the goose is sauce for the gander: myth and ritual, old and new', in L. Edmunds (ed.), Approaches to Greek Myth, Baltimore, Maryland and London. Veyne, P. (1988) Did the Greeks Believe in their Myths?: An essay on the constitutive imagination, Eng. translation, P. Wissing, Chicago, 111. Vian, F. (1963) Les origines de Thebes: Cadmos et les Spartes, Paris. Vidal-Naquet, P. (1981) 'The black hunter and the origin of the Athenian ephebeia', in R.L. Gordon (ed.), Myth, Religion and Society, Cambridge (an earlier version appeared in PCPhS 194 (1968): 49-64). Ward, D.J. (1968) The Divine Twins: an Indo-European myth in Germanic tradition, Berkeley and Los Angeles, Calif. West, M.L. (1985) The Hesiodic Catalogue of Women: its nature, structure, and origins, Oxford. Index of ancient authors Aelian 43 Aeschylus 15, 107, 157, 164; see also Pseudo-Aeschylus Akousilaos (Acusilaus) 13, 42 Anaxagoras 41 Antimachos 167 Antoninus Liheralis 16 Antonius Diogenes 131 Apollodoros: importance ix, 8f.; late date 10; sources of 17; summary of 18-20; Book 1: 1.5 97; 1.6 27; 4.5 128; 6.1 51; 6.2 136; 6.3 132; 7.3 79; 7.4 129; 7.7 128; 8.1 124; 9.1 43; 9.12 137, 152; 9.16 116; 9.17 35; 9.20 132; 9.23 51; Book 2: 1.3 109, 162; 1.4 23, 64; 2.2 108f., 151; 3 141; 4 142; 4.1 164; 4.3 131; 4.9 112; 4.12 137; 5.1 36, 137; 5.9 131; Index of ancient authors 139 5.10 131, 138; 5.11 130, 137; 5.12 136; 6.2 30, 140; 6.4 68; 7.3-4 78; 7.6 12, 117; 7.7 26, 139; 8.3 71; 8.5 153; Book 3: 4.1 51; 4.3 100; 4.4 128; 5.1 112; 6-7 68-70; 6.2 164; 6.7 164; 8.2 106, 142, 150; 9.2 65; 14.1 124, 142; 14.6 163; 14.8 36; 15.4 85; Epitome: 1.9 145; 1.16 166; 2.18-19 165; 1.21 159; 1.22 145; 2.6-8 117; 2.14 167; 3.2 29; 3.10 124; 3.21 36; 3.22 107; 5.13 143 Aristeas of Prokonnesos 13, 132 Aristophanes 164 Aristotle 20, 25, 88f., 150, 158 Arktinos, Aithiopis 158 Index of ancient authors 140 Artemidoros of Daldis 50f. Asios 11, 82f. Boccaccio 17 Boethius 17 Boio 16 Callimachus 16 Cyclic Poets 9, 13, 158 Diodoros of Sicily 29f., 49f., 97, lOOf. Dionysios of Halikarnassos 45 Dionysios Skytobrachion 17, 43 Empedokles 41 Ephoros 49, 84, 95 Eratosthenes 16 Euhemeros 50 Euripides 15; Bacchae 100f., 166; and barbarians 130; Danae 164; Herakles' madness 140; Hippolytos and gods 165; on Iole 140; Ion 162; on male authors 163; on passionate women, e.g. Medea 164; on Theseus 88 Eustathios 25 Exekias 12 Favorinus of Aries 41 Fulgentius 17 Hekataios of Miletos (Hecataeus) 42-4, 83, 153 Heliodoros, Aithiopika 131 Hellanikos of Lesbos 44-6, 109 Herakleides Pontikos 153 Herakleitos of Ephesos (Heraclitus) 40; see also Pseudo-Herakleitos Herodoros of Herakleia 13, 45, 176 Herodotos: barbarians 81; distinguishes myth from history? 45f.; Egyptian urination 152; human sacrifice 130; Lykian matrilinearity 152f.; mythic argument 72, 90; mythos 5; Index of ancient authors 141 Pelasgians 82; unrepresentative of prose authors 39 Hesiod and Pseudo-Hesiod 10, 39, 43; and Akousilaos 42; criticism of 40, 47; misogyny 165; and the Near East 58; Astronomia 16, 127; Catalogue of Women ('Or-likes') 10, 79f., 108, 128f.; Theogony 12, 40, 47, 124, 134-7; Works and Days 48 Homer 9f., 39; Achilles' hair 108; Agamemnon fights little 156; allegory 24f., 40-2, 47f.; Catalogue of Ships 10f., 63, 67, 86; criticism of 24, 40-2, 47f.; Diomedes rides with Athene 143; and Greek Mythology 20; 'heroes' 20; Iasion 124; Kalchas 155; Kimmerioi 132; kingship in 150; Lykian inheritance 152; Lykourgos and Dionysos 167; mythos in 4; Nestor's cattle-rustling 137; nymphs 127; Odysseus and Circe 165; Patroklos and Achilles 157; Penelope v. Kalypso 165; Poseidon and Aithiopes 131; sense of epics 170; size of Odysseus' crew 175; Stheneboia and Bellerophon 164f.; Teiresias consultation 155; Thersites 158; Thetis and Hundred-Handers 135; traditional tales accommodated by 67; underworld 130; warrior community 111; wine and Polyphemos 124; wooing of Penelope 151 Homeric Hymns to: Apollo 96, 134f.; Demeter 99, 128; Dionysos 101; Hermes 137 Hyginus, Julius 17 Index of ancient authors 142 Iamblichos 158 Iamboulos 131 Kinaithon 11 Longus, Daphnis and Chloe 125f. Mahdbhdrata (Sanskrit) 22, 151 Marmor Parium 51f. Metrodoros of Lampsakos 41f. Mikon (sculptor) 159f. Nero, Fall of Troy 53 Nicander 16 Nikolaos of Damascus 153 Nonnos 10 Ovid, Metamorphoses 16f., 108, 110, 125f., 128, 131 Panyassis 15 Pausanias 17; Arcadia 121-3; eponyms 74, 89; genealogy 11, 86; human sacrifice 110f.; interpreter of art 158; landscape 121; late date 10; mythic argument 72, 90; sources of 17, 45; tomb of Dance 143; which snake? 122 Petronius 53 Pherekydes of Athens 13, 44 Philippos of Theangela 83 Pindar 15, 116 Plato 47-9, 110 Plotinos 25 Plutarch 115, 142 Presocratics 39-42 Proclus 17 Pseudo-Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 130, 132, 135, 162 Pseudo-Herakleitos 24, 49 Pytheas of Marseilles 131 Rdmdyana (Sanskrit) 22 Rig Veda (Sanskrit) 25f. Servius 17 Index of ancient authors 143 Song of Roland 68 Sophocles 15, 140, 164, 166f. Souda, the (Byzantine encyclopaedia) 103 Stesichoros 15, 138 Stoics 41, 137f. Strabo 17, 64, 84, 128 Theagenes of Rhegion 40f. Theokritos 126 Thucydides 5, 39, 44, 46f ., 66 tragedians 10, 15, 105, 163-5 Vergil 124 Xenophanes 40 Index of modern authors Aarne, A., and Thompson S. 146 Bachofen, J.J. 153f. Bamberger, J. 154 Bettelheim, B. 6, 146, 171 Boardman, J. 13, 15 Brelich, A. 7, 22, 34-7, 61, 136, 140, 147, 149 Brule, P. 35 Burkert, W. 28, 32, 34f., 37, 69, 105, 138, 141, 143, 167f. Calder III, W.M. 35 Caldwell, R.S. 31, 38, 134, 144, 173 Carpenter, T.H. x, 159f. Chirassi-Colombo, I. 35 Cook, A.B. 28 Cornford, F.M. 28 Creuzer, F. 24 Detienne, M. 36f., 149 Diller, A. 83f. Dowden, K. 35 Dumezil, G. 28-30, 156 Durkheim, E. 28 Dvorak, A. 144 Faure, P. 23 Fontenrose, J. 96, 128, 138 Frazer, J.G. 18, 27f., Ill, 152 Freud, S. 30-2 Gernet, L. 37 Gould, J. 161 Graf, F. 28, 110 Grimm, Jacob and Wilhelm 6 Hammond, N.G.L. 24, 73 Harrison, J.E. 27f., 87, 105, 152 Hope Simpson, R. 63 Jacoby, F. 173 Index of modern authors 145 Jeanmaire, H. 34 Jung, C.G. 32 Kerenyi, K. 32, 139 Kirk, G.S. 22, 23, 33f., 140 Kunstler, B. 112 Lazenby, J.F. 63 Leach, E. 33 Lefkowitz, M.R. 152f. Levi-Strauss, C. 32-4, 36-8, 149, 167, 171 Lissarrague, F. 165 Loraux, N. 141 Mann, T. 57 Massenzio, M. 35 Max Muller, F. 22, 25-7, 28f. Muller, K.O. 18, 33, 97f., 121, 143, 145 Murray, G. 28 Nietzsche, F. 99 Nilsson, M.P. 60, 62f. Parker, R. 86 Pembroke, S. 153 Pettazoni, R. 35 Piccaluga, G. 35 Pilot, G. 24 Propp, V.J. 147-9 Puhvel, J. 29, 59, 126 Raglan, Lord 146f. Richardson, N.J. 99 Robertson Smith, W. 27 Rohde, E. 23, 99 Roller, D.W. 23 Rose, H.J. 6 Sabatucci, D. 35 Sakellariou, M.V. 83 Schlieman, H. 24, 65 Sergent, B. 114-16 Slater, P.E. 142, 144f. Tyrrell, W.B. 161 Van Gennep, A. 104 Vernant, J.-P. 36-8 Versnel, H.S. 105 Index of modern authors 146 Vian, F. 29 Vidal Naquet, P. 36f., 145 Wagner, R. 133 Ward, D.J. 59 West, M.L. 10 Wogan, T. 3 Index of peoples, characters and places Spelling of Greek names: I have kept Greek names as close as possible to the Greek alphabet, which for instance has no letter C. So look under K rather than C and expect AI and OI not AE and OE, except in the commonest words - e.g. Aigeus (not Aegeus), Akrisios (not Acrisius), Kaineus (not Caeneus), Kouretes (not Curetes). The exceptions are such words as Circe, Oedipus, Corinth - where Kirke, Oidipous and Korinthos seemed in varying degrees excessive. d. = daughter of k. = king of r. = river Abas, Abantes 174, 176 Achaians 61, 64, 66, 79f., 174 Achaios 79f. Acheloos, r. 138 Achilles: Ajax 12; allegorised 41; anger 140; hair for r. Spercheios 108; Hektor maltreated 48; Iphigeneia 107; kingship 156; mother 144; mythos 4; Patroklos 157; return as reincorporation 170; on Skyros 118; spear 125; Thersites 158; Troilos 13; unmarried warrior 111 Admetos 115, 154, 156 Adonis 37 Adrastos (k. Argos) 69, 89, 155f. Ae- see note at head of this index Aeneas 124 Aeolian Greeks 63, 65, 67, 79f., 83, 154 Agamemnon 5, 24, 36, 41, 66, 107, 150f., 156, 167, 171 Agraulos 163 Aidoneus 41 Aigeidai 87, 115 Aigeus 87, 89, 145f., 152 Index of peoples, characters and places 148 Aigikoreis 80 Aigimios 70f. Aigina 14f. Aigisthos 163, 166 Aigyptos, and sons 43, 116, 130, 168 Aiolos (eponym) 79 Aithiopes (Ethiopians), Aithiopia 76, 130f., 153 Aitolians (Aetolians) 78, 128 Ajax (Greek Aias, Telamon's son) 12, 123 Akrisios 77, 142f. Aktaion 128 Aktaios 88 Alesion, Mt 122 Alexander (the Great) 100, 144 Alkandros 114f. Alkathoos (k. Megara) 83 Alpheios, r. 128, 155 Alseids 127 Amazons 14, 17, 52, 88, 141-3, 145, 153, 161, 168 Amphiaraos 155, 164 Amphion and Zethos 121 Amyklas, Amyklai 82 Amykos (k. Bebrykes) 132 Andromeda 90, 131, 143 Anios (k. Delos) 124 Antigone 33, 167 Antilochos 156 Antinoe (d. Kepheus) 122 Aphrodite 29, 41, 128 Apollo: Admetos 115, 156; allegorised 41, 42; birth 122; Daphne 26, 125; Dionysos 99; grants prophecy 155; Herakles steals tripod 14; Hermes steals cattle 137; Ion and Kreousa 162; Karmanor 97f., 129f.; Karneios on Thera 115; at Olympia 159; Python, Tempe 95-8, 129, 134f.; seizure by 128, 132; at Sikyon with Artemis 97f.; wine 124 Arcadia, Arcadians 77f., 79f., 82f., 97, 106, 110f., 121-3, 126 Ares 41, 51 Argadeis 80 Argos (city) 63, 76-8, 82, 90, 98, 124, 141, 143 Argos (mythical figure) 77 Ariadne 145 Index of peoples, characters and places 149 Arimaspians 132 Arkas 78, 162, 175 Artemis 41, 97f., 102-7, 122, 128f. Astydameia 30 Asvins (Sanskrit) 26, 59, 151 Atalante 65 Athene 5, 29, 41, 86, 124f., 143 Athens: Acropolis art 15, 159-61; Anthesteria and Keres 83; Areopagos 51, 92; Arkteia in vicinity 102-7; Athene v. Poseidon 124, 153; Cape Zoster 122; ephebeia 37, 89, 112, 117, 145; Erechtheion 86; in Greek Mythology 20, 63, 67; Hephaistieion 15, 159; Ionians 79f.; kings and early 'history' 85-9; Kronia 82f.; Oschophoria 145; Panathenaia 87, 160; pederasty 113; Pelasgians 83; Thesmophoria 35, 162; Thracians 85; see also Eleusis Atlas 45 Atlantis 65 Atreus 150 Attalos see Pergamon Atthis (eponym of Attica) 88 Auge 78 Augeas 138 Aulis 67, 107 Bellerophon 133, 141-4, 152, 164 Bias (brother of Melampous) 151 Boreas 85 Brauron 102-7, 163 Briareos 135 Busiris 36, 130, 145 C- see note at head of this index Cassandra 164 Centaurs 29, 126, 133, 158-61; see also Cheiron, Nesos Chaironeia 167 Charondas (lawgiver) 158 Charybdis 24 Index of peoples, characters and places 150 Cheiron (centaur) 76 Chimaira 133, 141f. Chios 167 Chrysaor 14 Chrysippos 115, 167 Chrysothemis (son of Karmanor) 98 Circe 25, 162, 165 Clytaemestra 164, 166f. Corinth 37, 63, 177 Crete: as 'beyond' 129f.; Iasion 124; initiation practices 110, 113f.; Leukippos 118; on the Mycenaean map 63; Zeus 27, 97 Cyclops see Kyklopes, Polyphemos Danae 64, 142-4, 164 Danaos, Danaids, Danaoi 23, 43, 51, 64, 75-7, 116, 130, 162, 167 Daphne 26, 118, 125 Daphnis 126 Deianeira 26, 30, 141f., 164 Delos 122, 124 Delphi 14, 95-8, 134f., 160 Demeter 42, 98f., 1231, 162, 175 Deukalion 43, 46, 51, 82, 142 Dikte, Mt 97 Diomedes 111, 143, 156 Dione 59 Dionysos 42, 99-101, 112, 117, 124, 143, 145, 166f. Dioskouroi 59, 132, 151, 153 Dolops, Dolopes 76 Dorians 61, 79f., 90-2; see also Dorian 'invasion' (Index of topics and themes) Doros 71 Dryads 127 Dryas 167 Dryops, Dryopes 71, 73, 75f., 167 Dymas, Dymaneis 71f., 80 Earth see Gaia Egypt 109, 130 Eleusis 79, 84-7, 89f., 99, 123f. Embaros (Mounichia) 18, 103, 106f. Empousai 133, 144 Enkidu (Sumerian/ Akkadian) 139 Epameinondas 121 Ephesos (city) 110 Ephesos (eponym) 75 Ephialtes 129 Index of peoples, characters and places 151 Ephydriads 127 Ephyre (supposedly Corinth) 63, 140 Erechtheus 791, 84, 86-9 Erichthonios 51, 86-9, 163 Eriphyle 164 Eteokles (k. Thebes) 33, 69 Eteokles (Tawagalawos) 62 Ethiopians see Aithiopes Eumolpos 84f. Europa 14, 129 Eurotas (eponym, r.) 82 Eurystheus (Mycenae) 60, 71, 115, 140, 152, 156 Eurytos (k. 'Oichalia') 140 Gaia (Ge: 'Earth') 95f., 135 Ganymede 113f. Geleontes 80 Geryon 43, 136, 138 Gigantes (Giants) 13, 29, 135f., 160f., 176 Gilgames (Sumerian/ Akkadian) 139 Gla (palace) 63 Glaukon (Lykia) 67 Gorgo 144 Gorgons 12, 14, 144 Gytheion 92 Hades (ruler of underworld) 98, 136, 138 Hadrian (Emperor, AD 117-38) 88f. Haimos, Mt 131f. Halai (Attica) 110 Hamadryads 127 Hathor 109 Heaven see Ouranos Hebe 26 Hektor 4, 41, 48, 67, 156 Helen 41, 46, 48, 59, 130, 150, 153 Helios 24f., 135, 138 Hellen ('Greek') 46, 51, 71, 79 Helots 117 Hephaistos 41 Hera 29, 41, 59, 106, 108f., 124, 135, 162, 164 Heraion, 'Argive' 77, 109, 125 Herakles 136-41; age 112; Amazons 142; in art 12-14; cycle of Labours 137, 170; the Dorians 70-3; at Ephyre 140; gigantomachy 136; Herodoros' 17 books 45; Index of peoples, characters and places 152 Io and Prometheus 162; Iolaos 1151, 157; at Kos 140f.; madness 29, 140; and Mycenaean sites 60; on Mt Oite 26f„ 30, 139; Panyassis' epic 15; pederast 115; servitude 115, 140, 156; sins against the three functions 29f.; at Sparta 91; at Tegea 78; at Thasos 131; at Troy 14, 68; see also Acheloos, Atlas, Augeas, Busiris, Deianeira, Geryon, Hesperides, Hydra, Indra, Iole, Iphitos, Kerberos, Kerynian Hind, Nemean Lion, Omphale, Thespios Hermes 41, 76, 121, 126, 137 Hermione (Argolid) 98, 125 Hermione (d. Menelaos) 151 Herse 163 Hesperides 45, 138f. Hippodameia 117, 152, 159 Hippolyte 142, 166 Hippolytos 145, 164-6 Hittites 65f. Hopletes 80 Hyades 127 Hydra, the 14, 43, 133, 136-9 Hydriads 127 Hyllos, Hylleis 24, 71-3, 80, 162 Hyperboreans 132 Hyrnetho (d. Temenos) 153 Iamids (seers) 155 Iasion 124 Iasos 77 Ida, Mt (Crete) 97 Idaian Dactyls 51 Ilion (Ilium) see Troy Inachos 86 India 76, 100 Indra (Sanskrit) 26, 29, 173 Io 46, 77, 109, 130, 162 Iolaos (hetairos of Herakles) 14, 115f., 157 Iole 27, 30, 140, 162 Iolkos 62, 64 Ion, Ionians 79f., 83, 154, 162 Iphigeneia 107, 130, 167 Iphitos 30, 140 Iris 42 Isis 109 Index of peoples, characters and places 153 Ithaka 62f. Jason 116, 164 Jocasta 151 Joppa (Palestine) 143 Kadmos 100 Kaineus 118, 145 Kalchas 155 Kallisto 106, 162 Kalydon 78, 124, 128 Kalypso 25, 162, 165 Kar, Karians 83, 86, 170, 175 Karmanor 97f., 129f. Kastor see Dioskouroi Kekrops 51, 86-9, 142, 153, 162 Kepheus (Tegea) 78, 122 Kepids 127 Keraki (New Guinea) 114 Kerberos, and Herakles 43, 136f. Kerkopes 14 Keryneia 92 Kerynian Hind 139 Kimmerioi 132 Kleisthenes of Athens 80, 88f. Kleisthenes of Sikyon 80 Kleomenes of Sparta 61 Klytiads (seers) 155 Kore (Persephone) 98f., 123, 128f, 162 Kouretes 27, 29 Kreon 33, 88f, 151 Kreousa (Creusa) 162 Kresphontes 72 Kronos (Cronus) 47, 50, 82f, 96, 135, 150, 152 Kyklopes 29, 60, 135; see also Polyphemos Kyrene 65 Laios (k. Thebes) 115, 167 Lakonia 82 Lamiai 133, 144 Laomedon (k. Troy) 68 Lapiths 71, 158f. Larisa (acropolis of Argos) 143 Larisa (Thessaly) 107 Leimoniads 127 Lelex, Leleges 81-3 Lemnos 35, 65, 167f. Lesbos 63, 66f., 85 Leto 122 Leukippos 118, 154 Index of peoples, characters and places 154 Lindos (Rhodes) 139 Lokros, Lokris, Lokrians 82 Lotus-Eaters 24 Lousoi (Arcadia) 108 Luperci (Roman) llOf. Lykaion, Mt 75, 78, 97, 122 Lykaon (Lycaon) 36, 75f., 78f., 82, 86, 110-12, 116, 150 Lykia, Lykians 141, 152f. Lykourgos (Lycurgus, lawgiver, Sparta) 62, 112, 157f. Lykourgos (k. Thrace) 112, 167 Magnesia on the Maeander 154 Mainalos, Mt 126 Mantinea 122 Maron (priest in Homer) 124 Medea 46, 164, 177 Medousa (Gorgon) 12, 14, 133, 143f. Megapenthes (k. Argos) 167 Megara 83, 87f., 123 Melampous 23, 108, 137, 151, 155 Melanthos 117 Menelaos 59, 66, 111, 150f., 153 Meropes (Kos) 140f . Messene, Messenia 11, 81f. Metapontion 118 Midea (palace) 63 Minos 51, 114, 130, 145, 150, 152 Minotaur 145 Minyai 64f. Minyas (k. Orchomenos), Minyads 64, 75 Mnemosyne 135 Mormo 144 Mounichia 88, 102-7 Mousaios (Musaeus) 45, 85 Mycenae 60, 62, 64, 67, 71, 109, 151 Myles ('miller') 81 Myrtilos 117 Naiads 127 Nasatyas (Sanskrit) 151 Nauplios, Nauplion 91f. Neleus (k. Pylos) 52, 138, 150f. Nemean Lion 133, 136, 139 Neoptolemos 14 Nesos (Nessos, the Centaur) 12, 30, 141 Nestis (in Empedokles) 41 Nestor 60, 111, 137, 150, 152, 156 Niobe 51 Nyktimos (Pelasgian, Arcadia) 142, 150 Nymphs 126-9 Nysa, Mt lOOf. Index of peoples, characters and places 155 Nyseion, Mt 167 Odysseus: allegorised 24f.; in art 12; Ithaka, moved to 62f.; marriage 111, 151; Palladion 143; Phaiakians 42; Polyphemos 145; resists Circe 165; uncloaks Achilles 118; use of wine 124 Oedipus (Oidipous): Freud on 3 If.; impulsive 140; Levi-Strauss on 32f.; marries heiress 151; sex and family 115, 167; sphinx 13; Theseus saves 88; Vernant on 37f.; a warning? 171 Oichalia 140 Oineus 124 Oinomaos 12, 117, 152 Oinotrophoi, the 124 Oite, Mt see Herakles Okeanids 128 Okeanos, r. 138 Olympia, Temple of Zeus 12, 14, 15, 159 Olympos, Mt 81, 129 Omphale 118, 140, 156 Onkion 99 Orchomenos 62, 64, 75, 155, 167 Oreads 127 Oreithyia 85 Orestes 52, 72, 91f., 110, 150, 166f. Orestheus (son of Deukalion) 43 Orion 36, 128, 173 Orpheus 45, 85 Orthos (dog of Geryon) 136-8 Ossa, Mt 129 Otos 129 Ouranos (Heaven) 42, 47, 50, 135 Palladion (statue of Pallas Athene) 143 Pamphylos, Pamphyloi 71f., 80 Pan 76, 125-7 Pandion 87 Paris (or Alexander) 29, 41, 66, 163 Index of peoples, characters and places 156 Partheniai, the 116 Parthenion, Mt 126 Pegasos 144 Peiras(os) (Tiryns) 77 Peirithoos 48, 88, 157, 159 Peisistratos 160 Peitho 98 Pelasgos, Pelasgians 67, 75, 79, 80-5, 98, 142, 170, 174 Peleus 125, 156 Pelops 12, 45, 72, 76, 115, 117, 152, 159 Penelope 63, 151, 165 Penthesileia 158 Pentheus 167 Pergamon 89, 160f. Periklymenos 138 Pero (d. Neleus) 151 Persephone see Kore Perseus 12, 64, 72, 77, 90f., 131, 133, 142-6, 152 Phaiakians (Phaeacians) 42 Phaidra 164 Phaistos (Crete) 118 Phaleron 88 Pheidippides 126 Pheneos (Arcadia) 121 Philomela 85 Phokis 85, 91 Phoroneus 42, 75, 77, 86 Phrixos 43 Phylakos 137 Phytalos 99 Pleuron 78, 128 Plouton (Pluto) see Hades Ploutos ('Wealth') 124 Poimandros (Tanagra) 18 Polydektes 143, 152 Polydeukes (Pollux) see Dioskouroi Polykaon (k. Messenia) 11, 81 Polyneikes (Polynices) 33, 69, 167 Polyphemos (the Cyclops) 12, 24, 124, 139, 145; see also Kyklopes Porthaonids 128 Poseidon 145f.; allegorised 41; contests and floods 51, 86, 124, 141f.; domain 136; Horse Poseidon 99; initiation/pederasty 115, 118; monsters 131 Priam 14, 24, 68, 156 Proitos, Proitids 60, 77, 108f., 142f., 163 Prokne 85 Prometheus 12, 51 Index of peoples, characters and places 157 Pusan (Sanskrit) 126 Pylades 9 If. Pylos 60, 63, 138 Pythagoras 158 Pytho, Pythia, Python 95-8, 129 Rarian Field 124 Rhadamanthys 130 Rhea 97, 121f., 135 Rhodes 64, 67, 154 Salamis 122f. Sardinia 116 Sarpedon 152 Satyrs 126, 133, 165f. Semele 100 Seriphos 143 Sikyon 97f., 108, 167 Skylla 24 Skyros 88 Skythia 1311, 153 'Snake', r. (Ophis) 122 Solon 157 Solymoi 141 Sparta: Achaian phratry at? 174; Aigeidai 87; dual kingship 151; expansion in 550s BC 91; genealogy of origins 81f.; initiation groups 110-12; Krypteia 34, 117; in mythic times 150f. Starcatherus 29 Stheneboia 164f. Sun see Helios Taifali (German tribe) 114 Tainaron 43 Tanagra 18, 63, 128 Tarentum 116, 118 Tarrha (Crete) 98, 129 Tartaros 134 Tauroi (Scythia) 107, 110 Tegea 78, 91f., 126 Teiresias 155, 164 Teisamenos (seer in Herodotos) 155 Teisamenos (son of Orestes) 72, 91, 174f. Telamon 122f. Telchines 29 Telemachos 111 Index of peoples, characters and places 158 Temenos 72, 153 Tempe 97f., 129, 131 Tereus 85 Tethys 135 Thamyris 85 Thasos 131 Thaumasion, Mt 97, 122 Thebes, Thebans 68, 87, 90; Dionysos 100f.; Sacred Band, Iolaos 115f.; Thespiads 117; see also Seven against Thebes (Index of topics and themes) Themis 95f., 135 Thera 65, 87 Thersites 158 Theseus 87f., 144-6; Aigeus replaced by 145, 152; in art 15; band of thirty 116; v. Centaurs 159; democratic autocrat 88, 150; fathers Hippolytos 166; Helen 48, 59; not historical 62; initiations 34, 130; Peirithoos 157; and the Seven against Thebes 88-90; synoikism 52 Thesmophoria 35, 162 Thespios, Thespiai, Thespiadai 87, 116f., 139f. Thessaly 62-5, 67, 78, 81-3, 98, 107, 118 Thetis 127, 135, 144, 166 Thrace, Thracians 84f., 131f., 167 Thule 131 Thyestes 163, 166f. Tiryns 62, 77, 108f. Titans 29, 135f. Tlepolemos (Rhodes) 67 Trimalchio 53 Triton 14 Troilos (son of Priam) 13 Troizen 92 Tros, Trojans 65, 87, 113 Troy 65-8 Tydeus, encephalophagy 69 Tyndareus 82, 91, 151 Typhon 42, 132, 134f. Uranus see Ouranos Visvarupa (Sanskrit) 139 Index of peoples, characters and places 159 Xanthos (k. Boiotia) 117 Xerxes 129 Xouthos 79 Zaleukos 157f. Zeus: allegorised 41; birth in Arcadia 121f., on Crete 27, 97; birth of Athene 5; Danae 142, 164; euhemerised 50; Ganymede 113f.; in Herakleitos 40; Indo-European 59; Io 109, 162; Kallisto 106; and kingship 150, 152; Lykaon 110, 150; monster-slaying 96, 134-6; prophets at Olympia 155 Index of topics and themes adultery 163, 166 Aeolic traditions 63, 67 aetiology, aition 61, 95, 97, 100, 104, 108, 111, 118, 141, 145 agriculture 36, 82, 123 allegory 24f., 40-2, 45, 47, 49, 51; see also natural allegory amniotic fluid 134, 144 anthropomorphism 40 aphosiosis 98, 104 archetypal images 32 Argo and Argonauts 9, 35, 43, 45, 116, 139 autochthony 75f., 79, 86, 96f., 122, 134f. avatars 151 Battle of Britain 3 bears 102-7 'beyond' 101, 129-33 binary opposition 33 black, the colour 117, 130, 145 black-figure pottery 13 boar-hunt 113f. bone-shifting 77, 88, 91, 175 bulls 110 cannibalism 110-12 catalogue poetry lOf. catasterism 16 cattle-rustling 137f. caves 97, 108, 125, 127, 138f. centaurs 14 champions (Greek promachoi) 156 chariot skills 115, 117 civilisation see wild collective unconscious 31f. colonisation/migration 64f., 67f., 79f., 85, 98, 108, 116f., 154 comparative mythology 25-7, 28-30 comparative philology 25f., 58f. contests between gods 124 cows 108f., 136f. cup-bearing 113f. Index of topics and themes 161 death, overcoming 99, 138f. deer 107 differentiation 45, 97, 100 'disease of language' 26 divine succession myths 96 Dorian 'invasion' 49, 70-3, 79f., 91, 174 dreams 30-2, 50f., 134 dromena 28 ecology 121, 125 economies 68, 78 eniautos daimon 27f. epic poets 9f . 'Epigonoi' 68-70 eponyms 44, 46f., 62, 71, 74-6, 77, 87-9 ethnology 35f. ethnos 77 euhemerism 50 evolution 57 fairy story 7, 30 females: disenfranchised 124, 153; and Herakles in cult/myth 140f.; impulsive, passionate 163f.; initiation ch. 7.1; and landscape 129; obsession with sons 144; repel Bellerophon 142; stages in life 161f. feminisation 118 fertility 27f., 124 fifty, group size 116, 130, 139, 175 flood 36, 86, 124, 141f., 145f. flowers 128f. folk-tale 6f., 146-9 genealogical poetry lOf. genealogy 11, 42-4, 87, 117, 162 'Geometric' 12 gigantomachy 13, 14, 51 griffins 13, 132f. hair-shearing 108 Herakleidai, Return of the 49, 70-3, 91 herds (agelai) 110, 116 heroes 20, 50, 139-49, 155-7 hetairos ('comrade') 157 hieros logos see aetiology hippie names 163 Index of topics and themes 162 historicism 23f., 68, 172 homosexuality see pederasty hoplites 137, 158 horses 99, 163 hunting 36, 37 illegitimacy 166 imaginaire 166 Indo-European 22, 25f., 28f., 58-60, 77f., lllf., 126, 163, 169 initiations 34, 36f., 98, ch. 7, 137, 139, 141, 145, 162, 168, 170 'interpretive supplementation' 31 inverted behaviour 100, 114, 117, 140f. ludgment of Paris 29 kingship 27, 61f., 88, 150-2, 154, 158 krateriskoi 103 labyrinth 145 lameness 37f. last judgment 130 lawgivers 112, 130, 157f. leagues (political structure) 78 legend 6 legomena 28 Lemnos, Women of 35, 167f. local histories 16f., 45 logical quadrangles 33 logographoi (logographers) 4 logos see mythos maenads 100, 143, 166 males 161-8, ch. 7.2; see also heroes maps 132 marriage: as abduction 162; dangers to 163f.; (re)institution of 86, 142, 153f.; and oikos 151, 162; rejection of 108f., 129, 168; of warrior lllf. matriarchy, matrilinearity 151-4 meadows 127-9, 131 metamorphosis 16, 106-12, 125, 128 migration see colonisation misogyny 145, 165 moon 131 motivic analysis 7, 33f., 58f., 146-9 mountains 97, 108 Index of topics and themes 163 mural paintings 15 Mycenaean Age 60-70, 78 myth ch. 1, esp. 3-7, 20, Conclusion; in art 8, 12f., 158-61, 170; chronological illusion 8, 11, 44; not credal 22; degeneration of 7; geographical spread 9; Greek Mythology (intertext) 7-21, 36; and history 5-7, llf., 20, ch. 3 esp. 45-7, Part II, 121, 123; human 20, 133; local 18, 21, 121-3, 169; locations in 6, 34, 106, 136f.; national 170; origins stated by ch. 5, 170; and religion 22, 27; tragic 170f. myth and ritual: Agrionia (Dionysos) 100, 143, 167f.; Cambridge 'school' 27f.; criticism of 30; Demeter 98f.; initiation rituals ch. 7, 170; in modern authors 34-8; in Sikyon (R. Sythas) 98; tale of Thracians 84 mythos and logos 4f., 43f., 46 name-changing 139 natural allegory 25-7 Near Eastern borrowing 58, 69 New Year see renewal festivals nine/ten years 68, lllf., 137 Oedipus complex 31f. oikist 154 oikos ('house/family') 78, 151, 162-4, 166f. orientalising pottery 12f. Paris 'school' 36-8 passage rites 104 pastoral 125-7 pederasty and homosexuality 112-17, 157, 167 pentekontoroi (ships) 51, 116 Persian invasion (480-79 BC) 158-61 Persian views of myth 90 phallic females 134, 144, 166 phalloi 124 poets, early impact of 7, 9-12, 63, 78, 105, 107 Index of topics and themes 164 polis ('city/state') 76-8, 155, 159 Potiphar's wife motif 142, 145, 176 priests 155 primogeniture 153 prophets 155 psychoanalysis 6, 30-3, 133f, 138f , 142-5 Pythagoreans 48 rationalisation 42-4, 46, 66 reception of myth in art 159 redende Namen 69 red-figure pottery 15, 133 renewal festivals 28, 35, 142f, 145, 167f. ritual see myth and ritual rivers: birth from 75, 82; hair-offering to 108; in the landscape 121-3; marking margin 98 Rome 'school' 35f. sacrifice, human 103, 107, 110f, 130f., 167 saga 6, 11 saints 6 sea see flood 'Sea-Peoples' 23 Seven against Thebes 9, 52, 61, 68-70, 88f., 155f, 164 sexes, separation of 35, 143, 167f. slaves 133, 156f. snakes 86, 95f, 122, 134, 144, 163 Sown Men (Greek Spartoi) 51, 82 sphinx(es) 13, 14 sport 103, 114f. springs 121f., 131 stars see catasterism 'Stone Age' 83f. structuralism 32-4, 36-8 substratum 60, 84 symbiotic paradise 138, 144 synoikism 86-8 ten years see nine/ten years theogony 12, 40 thiasoi 100 thyrsoi 166 tombs: Dance the Maenad 143; Iolaos 115; Ion 80; Orestes 91f.; Orestes' Finger 92; Index of topics and themes 165 Seven against Thebes 90; Zeus 97 transvestism 118, 140f., 145 travel/wandering in myth 97, 109, 122, 130, 138 trees 99, 124f. tribe 64f., 70-3, 75-85, 87 trickery 117f. Trojan War: in art 14; avoiding the 18, 118, cf. 123; dated 44, 52; duration and meaning 111; and Greek Mythology 20, 46, 61; historicity 5, 51, 65-8; and conflict with Persians 67; in Thucydides 47 Trojan War, of Herakles 14, 68 Turin Shroud 65 ultimogeniture 150, 154 underworld 130 universal history 44, 49 warriors see heroes wild/uncivilised 80-5, 100, 108, 121, 124, 127f., 129-33, 137-40, 159-61 wine 43, 124 witches 144 wolf 110-2 women see females Wooden Horse 67 year-god 27f.
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Mizaru, Mikazaru and Iwazaru are the names of the three what? | Three Wise Monkeys | The Book of Threes
The Book of Threes
The Japanese names of the three wise monkeys are:
Mazaru: Speak no evil
Mikazaru: Hear no evil
The three wise monkeys ( Japanese : 三 猿 , san’en or sanzaru, or 三 匹 の 猿 , sanbiki no saru, literally “three monkeys”), sometimes called the three mystic apes, [1] are a pictorial maxim . Together they embody the proverbial principle to “see no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil”. [2] The three monkeys are Mizaru, covering his eyes, who sees no evil; Kikazaru, covering his ears, who hears no evil; and Iwazaru, covering his mouth, who speaks no evil.
There are various meanings ascribed to the monkeys and the proverb including associations with being of good mind, speech and action. In the Western world the phrase is often used to refer to those who deal with impropriety by turning a blind eye . [3]
In English , the monkeys’ names are often given as Mizaru, [4] Mikazaru, [5] and Mazaru, [6] but the last two names were corrupted from the Japanese originals. [7] [8]
partial source http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_wise_monkeys
| wise monkeys |
‘The Heater from Van Meter’ was the nickname of which American Major League Baseball pitcher? | Xija Research - Three wise monkeys, iPhone Development and Apps
Xija Research
Xija Research > About us > Three wise monkeys
Three wise monkeys
The three wise monkeys (Japanese: 三 猿 , san'en or sanzaru, or 三 匹 の 猿 , sanbiki no saru, literally "three monkeys") are a pictorial maxim. Together they embody the proverbial principle to "see no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil". The three monkeys are Mizaru, covering his eyes, who sees no evil; Kikazaru, covering his ears, who hears no evil; and Iwazaru, covering his mouth, who speaks no evil. Sometimes there is a fourth monkey depicted with the three others; the last one, Shizaru, symbolizes the principle of "do no evil". He may be shown covering his abdomen or genital area, or crossing his arms.
There are various meanings ascribed to the monkeys and the proverb including associations with being of good mind, speech and action. In the western world the phrase is often used to refer to those who deal with impropriety by looking the other way, refusing to acknowledge it, or feigning ignorance.
Origin
The source that popularized this pictorial maxim is a 17th century carving over a door of the famous Tōshō-gū shrine in Nikkō, Japan. The philosophy, however, probably originally came to Japan with a Tendai-Buddhist legend, from China in the 8th century (Nara Period).
In Chinese, a similar phrase exists in the Analects of Confucius: "Look not at what is contrary to propriety; listen not to what is contrary to propriety; speak not what is contrary to propriety; make no movement which is contrary to propriety" (非禮勿視， 非禮勿聽，非禮勿言， 非禮勿動). It may be that this phrase was shortened and simplified after it was brought into Japan.
Though the teaching had nothing to do with monkeys, the concept of the three monkeys originated from a word play. The saying in Japanese is "mizaru, kikazaru, iwazaru" ( 見 ざ る , 聞 か ざ る , 言 わ ざ る , or with the suffix in kanji , 見 猿 , 聞 か 猿 , 言 わ 猿 ), literally "don't see, don't hear, don't speak". Shizaru is likewise written し 猿 , "don't do". In Japanese, zaru, which is an archaic negative verb conjugation, is the same as zaru, the vocalized suffix for saru meaning monkey (it is one reading of 猿 , the kanji for monkey). Therefore, it is evident how the monkeys may have originated from what one would see as an amusing play on words.
In English, the monkeys' names are often given as Mizaru, Mikazaru, and Mazaru. It is unclear how the last two names changed from the Japanese originals.
This text was taken from the Wikipedia article " Three wise Monkeys " and is available under a CC-BY-SA license.
The image of the three monkeys is based on a photo by Anderson Mancini , available under a CC-BY license.
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In December 2007, The Empire State Building in New York was illuminated yellow to promote which film? | Empire State Building
Empire State Building
May 06, 2010 • By witch • • 1,435 Views
History
U.S. National Register of Historic Places
U.S. National Historic Landmark
New York, New York 10118
United States
404454.36 735908.36 / 40.7484333N 73.9856556W / 40.7484333; -73.9856556Coordinates: 404454.36 735908.36 / 40.7484333N 73.9856556W / 40.7484333; -73.9856556
Architect:
NRHP Reference#:
82001192
The site of the Empire State Building was first developed as the John Thomson Farm in the late 18th century. At the time, a stream ran across the site, emptying into Sunfish Pond, located a block away. Beginning in the late 19th century the block was occupied by the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, frequented by The Four Hundred, the social elite of New York.
Design and construction
The Empire State Building was designed by William F. Lamb from the architectural firm Shreve, Lamb and Harmon, which produced the building drawings in just two weeks, using its earlier designs for the Reynolds Building in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, and the Carew Tower in Cincinnati, Ohio (designed by the architectural firm W.W. Ahlschlager & Associates) as a basis. Every year the staff of the Empire State Building sends a Father's Day card to the staff at the Reynolds Building in Winston-Salem to pay homage to its role as predecessor to the Empire State Building. The building was designed from the top down. The general contractors were The Starrett Brothers and Eken, and the project was financed primarily by John J. Raskob and Pierre S. du Pont. The construction company was chaired by Alfred E. Smith, a former Governor of New York and James Farley's General Builders Supply Corporation supplied the building materials. John W. Bowser was project construction superintendant.
A worker bolts beams during construction; the Chrysler Building can be seen in the background.
Excavation of the site began on January 22, 1930, and construction on the building itself started symbolically on March 17t.Patrick's Dayer Al Smith's influence as Empire State, Inc. president. The project involved 3,400 workers, mostly immigrants from Europe, along with hundreds of Mohawk iron workers, many from the Kahnawake reserve near Montreal. According to official accounts, five workers died during the construction. Governor Smith's grandchildren cut the ribbon on May 1, 1931. Lewis Wickes Hine's photography of the construction provides not only invaluable documentation of the construction, but also a glimpse into common day life of workers in that era. In particular the photo of a worker climbing a stay cable is talismanic of the era and the building itself.
The construction was part of an intense competition in New York for the title of "world's tallest building". Two other projects fighting for the title, 40 Wall Street and the Chrysler Building, were still under construction when work began on the Empire State Building. Each held the title for less than a year, as the Empire State Building surpassed them upon its completion, just 410 days after construction commenced. The building was officially opened on May 1, 1931 in dramatic fashion, when United States President Herbert Hoover turned on the building's lights with the push of a button from Washington, D.C. Ironically, the first use of tower lights atop the Empire State Building, the following year, was for the purpose of signalling the victory of Franklin D. Roosevelt over Hoover in the presidential election of November 1932.
Opening
The building's opening coincided with the Great Depression in the United States, and as a result much of its office space went without being rented. The building's vacancy was exacerbated by its poor location on 34th Street, which placed it relatively far from public transportation, as Grand Central Terminal, the Port Authority Bus Terminal, and Penn Station are all several blocks away. Other more successful skyscrapers, such as the Chrysler Building, do not have this problem. In its first year of operation, the observation deck took in approximately 2 million dollars, as much money as its owners made in rent that year. The lack of renters led New Yorkers to deride the building as the "Empty State Building". The building would not become profitable until 1950. The famous 1951 sale of The Empire State Building to Roger L. Stevens and his business partners was brokered by the prominent upper Manhattan real-estate firm Charles F. Noyes & Company for a record $51 million. At the time, that was the highest price ever paid for a single structure in real-estate history.
Dirigible (airship) terminal
The building's distinctive Art Deco spire was originally designed to be a mooring mast and depot for dirigibles. The 102nd floor was originally a landing platform with a dirigible gangplank. A particular elevator, traveling between the 86th and 102nd floors, was supposed to transport passengers after they checked in at the observation deck on the 86th floor. However, the idea proved to be impractical and dangerous after a few attempts with airships, due to the powerful updrafts caused by the size of the building itself. A large broadcast tower was added to the top of the spire in 1953.
1945 plane crash
Main article: B-25 Empire State Building crash
Crash by a U.S. Army B-25 bomber on July 28, 1945
At 9:40 a.m.on Saturday, July 28, 1945, a B-25 Mitchell bomber, piloted in thick fog by Lieutenant Colonel William Franklin Smith, Jr., crashed into the north side of the Empire State Building, between the 79th and 80th floors, where the offices of the National Catholic Welfare Council were located. One engine shot through the side opposite the impact and flew as far as the next block where it landed on the roof of a nearby building, starting a fire that destroyed a penthouse. The other engine and part of the landing gear plummeted down an elevator shaft. The resulting fire was extinguished in 40 minutes. 14 people were killed in the incident. Elevator operator Betty Lou Oliver survived a plunge of 75 stories inside an elevator, which still stands as the Guinness World Record for the longest survived elevator fall recorded. Despite the damage and loss of life, the building was open for business on many floors on the following Monday. The crash helped spur the passage of the long-pending Federal Tort Claims Act of 1946, as well as the insertion of retroactive provisions into the law, allowing people to sue the government for the accident.
A year later, another aircraft had a close encounter with the skyscraper. It narrowly missed striking the building.
Height records and comparisons
Height comparison in buildings in New York City
The Empire State Building remained the tallest man-made structure in the world for 23 years before it was surpassed by the Griffin Television Tower Oklahoma (KWTV Mast) in 1954. It was also the tallest free-standing structure in the world for 36 years before it was surpassed by the Ostankino Tower in 1967.
The longest world record held by the Empire State Building was for the tallest skyscraper (to structural height), which it held for 42 years until it was surpassed by the North Tower of the World Trade Center in 1973. With the destruction of the World Trade Center in the September 11, 2001 attacks, the Empire State Building again became the tallest building in New York City, and the second-tallest building in the Americas, currently surpassed only by the Willis Tower in Chicago. When measured by pinnacle height, the Empire State Building is currently the third-tallest building in the Americas, surpassed only by the Willis Tower and the Trump International Hotel and Tower.
1 World Trade Center, currently under construction in New York City, is expected to exceed the height of the Empire State Building upon completion. The Chicago Spire is also expected to exceed the height of the Empire State Building upon completion, but its construction has been halted due to financial problems.
Suicides
Over the years, more than thirty people have committed suicide from the top of the building. The first suicide occurred even before its completion, by a worker who had been laid off. The fence around the observatory terrace was put up in 1947 after five people tried to jump during a three-week span. On December 2, 1979, Elvita Adams jumped from the 86th floor, only to be blown back onto the 85th floor and left with only a broken hip.
Shootings
Main article: 1997 Empire State Building shooting
On February 24, 1997, a Palestinian gunman shot seven people on the observation deck, killing one, then fatally wounding himself.
Architecture
The Empire State Building (in center of image) is the tallest building in New York City
Street level view of the Empire State Building
The Empire State Building rises to 1,250 ft (381 m) at the 102nd floor, and including the 203 ft (62 m) pinnacle, its full height reaches 1,453 ft8916 in (443.09 m). The building has 85 stories of commercial and office space representing 2,158,000 sq ft (200,500 m2). It has an indoor and outdoor observation deck on the 86th floor. The remaining 16 stories represent the Art Deco tower, which is capped by a 102nd-floor observatory. Atop the tower is the 203 ft (62 m) pinnacle, much of which is covered by broadcast antennas, with a lightning rod at the very top.
The Empire State Building was the first building to have more than 100 floors. It has 6,500 windows and 73 elevators, and there are 1,860 steps from street level to the 103rd floor. It has a total floor area of 2,768,591 sq ft (257,211 m2); the base of the Empire State Building is about 2 acres (8,094 m2). The building houses 1,000 businesses, and has its own zip code, 10118. As of 2007, approximately 21,000 employees work in the building each day, making the Empire State Building the second-largest single office complex in America, after the Pentagon. The building was completed in one year and 45 days. Its original 64 elevators are located in a central core; today, the Empire State Building has 73 elevators in all, including service elevators. It takes less than one minute by elevator to get to the 86th floor, where an observation deck is located. The building has 70 mi (113 km) of pipe, 2,500,000 ft (760,000 m) of electrical wire, and about 9,000 faucets.[citation needed] It is heated by low-pressure steam; despite its height, the building only requires between 2 and 3 psi (14 and 21 kPa) of steam pressure for heating. It weighs approximately 370,000 short tons (340,000 t). The exterior of the building was built using Indiana limestone panels.
The Empire State Building cost $40,948,900 to build.
A series of setbacks causes the building to taper with height.
Unlike most of today's skyscrapers, the Empire State Building features an art deco design, typical of pre-World War II architecture in New York. The modernistic stainless steel canopies of the entrances on 33rd and 34th Streets lead to two story-high corridors around the elevator core, crossed by stainless steel and glass-enclosed bridges at the second-floor level. The elevator core contains 67 elevators.
The lobby is three stories high and features an aluminum relief of the skyscraper without the antenna, which was not added to the spire until 1952. The north corridor contains eight illuminated panels, created by Roy Sparkia and Rene Nemorov in 1963, depicting the building as the Eighth Wonder of the World, alongside the traditional seven.
Long-term forecasting of the life cycle of the structure was implemented at the design phase to ensure that the building's future intended uses were not restricted by the requirements of previous generations. This is particularly evident in the over-design of the building's electrical system.
Floodlights
Empire State Building with red and green lights for Christmas, as seen from GE Building
Empire State Building with normal white lighting, as seen from New Jersey
In 1964, floodlights were added to illuminate the top of the building at night, in colors chosen to match seasonal and other events, such as St. Patrick's Day, Christmas, Independence Day or Bastille Day. After the eightieth birthday and subsequent death of Frank Sinatra, for example, the building was bathed in blue light to represent the singer's nickname "Ol' Blue Eyes". After the death of actress Fay Wray (King Kong) in late 2004, the building stood in complete darkness for 15 minutes.
The floodlights bathed the building in red, white, and blue for several months after the destruction of the World Trade Center, then reverted to the standard schedule. Traditionally, in addition to the standard schedule, the building will be lit in the colors of New York's sports teams on the nights they have home games (orange, blue and white for the New York Knicks, red, white and blue for the New York Rangers, and so on). The first weekend in June finds the building bathed in green light for the Belmont Stakes held in nearby Belmont Park. The building is illuminated in tennis-ball yellow during the US Open tennis tournament in late August and early September. It was twice lit in scarlet to support nearby Rutgers University: once for a football game against the University of Louisville on November 9, 2006 , and again on April 3, 2007 when the women's basketball team played in the national championship game.
In 1995, the building was lit up in blue, red, green and yellow for the release of Microsoft's Windows 95 operating system, which was launched with a $300 million campaign.
The building has also been known to be illuminated in purple and white in honor of graduating students from New York University.
Every year in September, the building is lit in black, red, and yellow, with the top lights off (for black) to celebrate the German-American Steuben Parade on Fifth Avenue.
The building was lit green for three days in honor of the Islamic holiday of Eid ul-Fitr in October 2007. The lighting, the first for a Muslim holiday, is intended to be an annual event and was repeated in 2008 and 2009. In December 2007, the building was lit yellow to signify the home video release of The Simpsons Movie.
From April 2527, 2008 the building was lit in lavender, pink, and white in celebration of international pop diva Mariah Carey's accomplishments in the world of music and the release of her eleventh studio album E=MC2.[citation needed]
In late October 2008, the building was lit green in honor of the fifth anniversary of the acclaimed Broadway Musical Wicked by Kerry Ellis and Stephen Schwartz.
Starting in 2008, the building along with New York City and many other cities around the world, participated in Earth Hour. The skyscraper's floodlights were turned off for exactly an hour to conserve energy.
In September 2009, the building was lit for one night in orange colors, in celebration of the exploration of Manhattan Island by Henry Hudson 400 years earlier. The Dutch prince Willem-Alexander van Oranje and princess Maxima were present and turned on the lights from the lobby.
In 2009, the building was lit for one night in red and yellow, the colors of the Communist People's Republic of China, to celebrate the 60 years since its founding, amid controversy.
Observation decks
The Empire State Building has one of the most popular outdoor observatories in the world, having been visited by over 110 million people. The 86th-floor observation deck offers impressive 360-degree views of the city. There is a second observation deck on the 102nd floor that is open to the public. It was closed in 1999, but reopened in November 2005. It is completely enclosed and much smaller than the first one; it may be closed on high-traffic days. Tourists may pay to visit the observation deck on the 86th floor and an additional amount for the 102nd floor. The lines to enter the observation decks, according to the building's website, are "as legendary as the building itself:" there are five of them: the sidewalk line, the lobby elevator line, the ticket purchase line, the second elevator line, and the line to get off the elevator and onto the observation deck. For an extra fee tourists can skip to the front of the line.
The skyscraper observation deck plays host to several cinematic, television, and literary classics including, An Affair To Remember, Love Affair and Sleepless in Seattle. In the Latin American literary work Empire of Dreams by Giannina Braschi the observation deck is the site of a pastoral revolution; shepherds take over the City of New York. The deck was also the site of a Martian invasion on an old episode of I Love Lucy.
A panoramic view of New York City from the 86th-floor observation deck of the Empire State Building, spring 2005
New York Skyride
View from Macy's
The Empire State Building also has a motion simulator attraction, located on the 2nd floor. Opened in 1994 as a complement to the observation deck, the New York Skyride (or NY Skyride) is a simulated aerial tour over the city. The theatrical presentation lasts approximately 25 minutes.
Since its opening, the ride has gone through two incarnations. The original version, which ran from 1994 until around 2002, featured James Doohan, Star Trek's Scotty, as the airplane's pilot, who humorously tried to keep the flight under control during a storm, with the tour taking an unexpected route through the subway, Coney Island, and FAO Schwartz, among other places. After September 11th, however, the ride was closed, and an updated version debuted in mid-2002 with actor Kevin Bacon as the pilot. The new version of the narration attempted to make the attraction more educational, and included some minor post-9/11 patriotic undertones with retrospective footage of the World Trade Center. The new flight also goes haywire, but this segment is much shorter than in the original.
Broadcast stations
New York City is the largest media market in the United States. Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, nearly all of the city's commercial broadcast stations (both television and FM radio) have transmitted from the top of the Empire State Building, although a few FM stations are located at the nearby Cond Nast Building. Most New York City AM stations broadcast from just across the Hudson River in New Jersey.
Communications devices for broadcast stations are located at the top of the Empire State Building.
Broadcasting began at Empire on December 22, 1931, when RCA began transmitting experimental television broadcasts from a small antenna erected atop the spire. They leased the 85th floor and built a laboratory there, andn 1934CA was joined by Edwin Howard Armstrong in a cooperative venture to test his FM system from the Empire antenna. When Armstrong and RCA fell out in 1935 and his FM equipment was removed, the 85th floor became the home of RCA's New York television operations, first as experimental station W2XBS channel 1, which eventually became (on July 1, 1941) commercial station WNBT, channel 1 (now WNBC-TV channel 4). NBC's FM station (WEAF-FM, now WQHT) began transmitting from the antenna in 1940. NBC retained exclusive use of the top of the Empire until 1950, when the FCC ordered the exclusive deal broken, based on consumer complaints that a common location was necessary for the (now) seven New York television stations to transmit from so that receiving antennas would not have to be constantly adjusted. Construction on a giant tower began. Other television broadcasters then joined RCA at Empire, on the 83rd, 82nd, and 81st floors, frequently bringing sister FM stations along for the ride. Multiple transmissions of TV and FM began from the new tower in 1951. In 1965, a separate set of FM antennas were constructed ringing the 103rd floor observation area. When the World Trade Center was being constructed, it caused serious problems for the television stations, most of which then moved to the World Trade Center as soon as it was completed. This made it possible to renovate the antenna structure and the transmitter facilities for the benefit of the FM stations remaining there, which were soon joined by other FMs and UHF TVs moving in from elsewhere in the metropolitan area. The destruction of the World Trade Center necessitated a great deal of shuffling of antennas and transmitter rooms in order to accommodate the stations moving back uptown.
As of 2009, the Empire State Building is home to the following stations:
TV: WCBS-TV 2, WNBC-TV 4, WNYW 5, WABC-TV 7, WWOR-TV 9 Secaucus, WPIX-TV 11, WNET 13 Newark, WNYE-TV 25, WPXN-TV 31, WXTV 41 Paterson, WNJU 47 Linden, and WFUT-TV 68 Newark
FM: WXRK 92.3, WPAT-FM 93.1 Paterson, WNYC-FM 93.9, WPLJ 95.5, WXNY 96.3, WQHT-FM 97.1, WSKQ-FM 97.9, WRKS-FM 98.7, WBAI 99.5, WHTZ 100.3 Newark, WCBS-FM 101.1, WRXP 101.9, WWFS 102.7, WKTU 103.5 Lake Success, WAXQ 104.3, WWPR-FM 105.1, WQXR-FM 105.9 Newark, WLTW 106.7, and WBLS 107.5
Empire State Building Run-Up
The Empire State Building Run-Up is a foot race from ground level to the 86th-floor observation deck that has been held annually since 1978. Its participants are referred to both as runners and as climbers, and are often tower running enthusiasts. The race covers a vertical distance of 1,050 feet (320 m) and takes in 1,576 steps. The record time is 9 minutes and 33 seconds, achieved by Australian professional cyclist Paul Crake in 2003, at a climbing rate of 6,593 ft (2,010 m) per hour.
In popular culture
Film
Perhaps the most famous popular culture representation of the building is in the 1933 film King Kong, in which the title character, a giant ape, climbs to the top to escape his captors but falls to his death. In 1983, for the 50th anniversary of the film, an inflatable King Kong was placed on the actual building. In 2005, a remake of King Kong was released, set in 1930s New York City, including a final showdown between Kong and bi-planes atop a greatly detailed Empire State Building. (The 1976 remake of King Kong was set in a contemporary New York City and held its climactic scene on the towers of the World Trade Center.)
The 1939 romantic drama film Love Affair involves a couple who plan to meet atop the Empire State Building, a rendezvous that is averted by an automobile accident. The film was remade in 1957 (as An Affair to Remember) and in 1994 (again as Love Affair). The 1993 film Sleepless in Seattle, a romantic comedy partially inspired by An Affair to Remember, climaxes with a scene at the Empire State observatory.
Andy Warhol's 1964 silent film Empire is one continuous, eight-hour shot of the Empire State Building at night, shot in black-and-white. In 2004, the National Film Registry deemed its cultural significance worthy of preservation in the Library of Congress.
The film Independence Day features the Empire State Building as ground zero for an alien attack; it is devastated by the aliens' primary weapon which incinerates most of New York City.
Many other movies that feature the Empire State Building are listed on the building's own website.
Television
The Empire State Building featured in the 1966 Doctor Who serial The Chase, in which the TARDIS lands on the roof of the building; The Doctor and his companions leave quite quickly, however, because The Daleks are close behind them. A Dalek is also seen on the roof of the building while it interrogates a human. In 2007, Doctor Who episodes "Daleks in Manhattan" and "Evolution of the Daleks" also featured the building, which the Daleks are constructing to use as a lightning conductor. Russell T Davies said in an article that "in his mind", the Daleks remembered the building from their last visit.
The Discovery Channel show MythBusters tested the urban myth which claims that if one drops a penny off the top of the Empire State Building, it could kill someone or put a crater in the pavement. The outcome was that, by the time the penny hits the ground, it is going roughly 65 mph (105 km/h) (terminal velocity for an object of its mass and shape), which is not fast enough to inflict lethal injury or put a crater into the pavement. The urban legend is a joke in the 2003 musical Avenue Q, where a character waiting atop the building for a rendezvous tosses a penny over the sidenly to hit her rival.
Literature
H.G. Wells' 1933 science fiction book The Shape of Things to Come, written in the form of a history book published in the far future, includes the following passage: "Up to quite recently Lower New York has been the most old-fashioned city in the world, unique in its gloomy antiquity. The last of the ancient skyscrapers, the Empire State Building, is even now under demolition in C.E. 2106!".
In the science fiction novel The Rebel of Rhada by Robert Cham Gilman (Alfred Coppel), taking place at a decayed galactic empire of the far future, New York is an ancient city which was destroyed and rebuilt countless times. Its highest and most ancient building, covered with piled-up ruins up to half its height, is known simply as "The Empire Tower", but is obviously the Empire State Building.
David Macaulay's 1980 illustrated book Unbuilding depicts the Empire State Building being purchased by a Middle Eastern billionaire and disassembled piece by piece, to be transported to his home country and rebuilt there.
The Empire State Building is featured prominently as both a setting and integral plot device throughout much of Michael Chabon's 2000 Pulitzer Prize-winning novel, The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay.
In the Percy Jackson book series, Mount Olympus is located over the Empire State Building, and there is a special elevator in the building to the "600th floor," which is supposed to be Olympus.
Tenants
Notable tenants of the building include:
Alitalia, Suite 3700
Croatian National Tourist Board, Suite 4003
Filipino Reporter, Suite 601
Human Rights Watch, 34th Floor
Polish Cultural Institute in New York, Suite 4621
Senegal Tourist Office, Suite 3118
TAROM, Suite 1410
The King's College, Suite 1500
Former tenants include:
China National Tourist Office (now located at 370 Lexington Avenue)
National Film Board of Canada (now located at 1123 Broadway)
Nathaniel Branden Institute
A view upward of the Empire State Building from Broadway
The top of the Empire State Building
Looking up
Art deco elevators in the lobby
Panoramic view of Midtown Manhattan from observation deck
The Empire State Building lights up in yellow and red during the 60th anniversary of the PRC
See also
World's tallest free standing structure on land
History of tallest skyscrapers
List of tallest buildings by U.S. state
References
Notes
^ a b The Empire State Building is located within the 10001 zip code area, but 10118 is assigned as the building's own zip code. Source: USPS.
^ National Geodetic Survey datasheet KU3602, Retrieved 2009-07-26
^ a b Willis, Carol (1995). "Empire State Building". in Kenneth T. Jackson. The Encyclopedia of New York City. New Haven, CT & London & New York: Yale University Press & The New-York Historical Society. pp. 375376.
^ ESBNYC.com
^ Pollak, Michael (April 23, 2006). "75 YEARS: F. Y. I.". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D03EEDD153FF930A15757C0A9609C8B63&scp=4&sq="empire state building" height 1,454&st=cse. Retrieved 2009-10-31.
^ SkyscraperPage Empire State Building, antenna height source: CTBUH, top floor height source: Empire State Building Company LLC
^ a b Rosenberg, Jennifer. "Empire State Building Trivia and Cool Facts". About.com. http://history1900s.about.com/od/1930s/a/empirefacts.htm. Retrieved 2008-11-08.
^ a b White, Norval & Willensky, Elliot; AIA Guide to New York City, 4th Edition; New York Chapter, American Institute of Architects; Crown Publishers. 2000. p.226.
^ a b "Empire State Building". National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. 2007-09-11. http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=1842&ResourceType=Building.
^ Carolyn Pitts (April 26, 1985). "Empire State Building"" (PDF). National Historic Landmark Nomination. National Park Service. http://pdfhost.focus.nps.gov/docs/NHLS/Text/82001192.pdf.
^ "Empire State Buildingccompanying 7 photos, exterior and interior, from 1978." (PDF). National Register of Historic Places Inventory. National Park Service. 1985-04-26. http://pdfhost.focus.nps.gov/docs/NHLS/Photos/82001192.pdf.
^ W&H Properties Empire State Building
^ Skyscrapers Becoming More Eco-Friendly In Hopes to Lure Tenants
^ "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. 2007-01-23. http://www.nr.nps.gov/.
^ Reynolds Building. Retrieved November 15, 2008.
^ Cincinnati Skyscrapers, Waymarketing.com
^ "Thirteen Months to Go", Geraldine B. Wagner, 2003, Quintet Publishing Ltd., pg. 32
^
^
^ about.com Empire State Building Trivia and Cool Facts
^ "Lewis Wickes Hine: The Construction of the Empire State Building, 19301931 (New York Public Library Photography Collection)"
^ "Icarus, high up on Empire State; Lewis Wickes Hine, New York Public Library Photography Collection"
^ Tower Lights History Retrieved 2007-12-16
^ NYT Travel: Empire State Building
^ "A Renters' Market in London." August 18, 2008.
^ ew York: A Documentary Film.
^ a b Shanor, Rebecca Read (1995). "Unbuilt projects". in Kenneth T. Jackson. The Encyclopedia of New York City. New Haven, CT & London & New York: Yale University Press & The New-York Historical Society. pp. 12081209.
^ Goldman, Jonathan (1980). The Empire State Building Book. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 44.
^ "750th Squadron 457th Bombardment Group: Officers 1943 to 1945". http://www.457thbombgroup.org/New/750thSquad.html. Retrieved 2009-04-06.
^ "Empire State Building Withstood Airplane Impact"
^ "Plane Hits Building Woman Survives 75-Story Fall"
^ guinnessworldrecords.com
^ "The Day A Bomber Hit The Empire State Building". National Public Radio. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=92987873. Retrieved 2008-07-28. "Eight months after the crash, the U.S. government offered money to families of the victims. Some accepted, but others initiated a lawsuit that resulted in landmark legislation. The Federal Tort Claims Act of 1946, for the first time, gave American citizens the right to sue the federal government."
^ Glanz, James and Eric Lipton (2002-09-08). "The Height of Ambition". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F02E2DD1F3FF93BA3575AC0A9649C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=10.
^ iht.com
^ Compass American Guides: Manhattan, 4th Edition. Reavill, Gil and Zimmerman, Jean P. 160.
^ George H. Douglas, Skyscrapers, p. 173
^ Empire State Building New York.com: Empire State Building Suicides
^ Geoffrey Broughton, Expressions, p. 32
^ The Empire State Building Book, Jonathan Goldman, St. Martin's Press, 1980, p.63
^ Empire State Building: Official Internet Site
^ Lelyveld, Joseph (February 23, 1964). "The Empire State to Glow at Night". The New York Times. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10B11FE385F137A8EDDAA0A94DA405B848AF1D3.
^ thevillager.com
^ a b Empire State Building lighting schedule
^ espn.com
^ Empire State Building Goes Green for Muslim Holiday
^ Empire State adorns yellow to celebrate The Simpsons Movie
^ http://www.broadway.com/Empire-State-Building-Goes-Green-for-Wicked-Birthday-Final-Yellow-Brick-Road-Cast-Announced/broadway_news/5013909
^ a b https://www.esbnyc.com/tickets/index.cfm?CFID=28691766&CFTOKEN=35278567
^ "Ten Things Not to Do in New York"
^ NYRR Empire State Building Run-Up Crowns Dold and Walsham as Champions, New York Road Runners
^ Empire State Building Past Race Winners
^ www.esbnyc.com
^ http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks03/0301391h.html
^ a b c d e f g h "Foreigners flocking to 350 Fifth Avenue." Real Estate Weekly. June 30, 2004.
^ "FAQ." Alitalia (United States website). Retrieved September 4, 2008.
^ "Claims and Suggestions." Alitalia (United States website). Retrieved September 4, 2008.
^ Home page. Croatian National Tourist Board. Retrieved September 4, 2008.
^ "Contact." Filipino Reporter. Retrieved September 4, 2008.
^ "Contact." Human Rights Watch. Retrieved September 4, 2008.
^ Home Page. Polish Cultural Institute in New York. Retrieved September 4, 2008.
^ Information Senegal Tourist Office. Retrieved September 4, 2008.
^ "Travel Agencies for plane tickets to Romania." Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved September 4, 2008.
^ "The King's College". http://www.tkc.edu/. Retrieved 2008-11-01.
^ "Contact Us." China National Tourist Office. Retrieved September 4, 2008.
^ "Contact us." National Film Board of Canada. Retrieved September 4, 2008.
^ In Answer to Ayn Rand by Nathaniel Branden at his ex-wife's website
Further reading
Aaseng, Nathan. (1999). Construction: Building the Impossible. Minneapolis, MN: Oliver Press. ISBN 1-881-50859-5.
Bascomb, Neal. (2003). Higher: A Historic Race to the Sky and the Making of a City. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-50660-0.
Goldman, Jonathan. (1980). The Empire State Building Book. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-24455-X.
James, Theodore, Jr. (1975). The Empire State Building. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 0-060-12172-6.
Kingwell, Mark. (2006). Nearest Thing to Heaven: The Empire State Building and American Dreams. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10622-X.
Pacelle, Mitchell. (2001). Empire: A Tale of Obsession, Betrayal, and the Battle for an American Icon. New York: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-40394-6.
Tauranac, John. (1995). The Empire State Building: The Making of a Landmark. New York: Scribner. ISBN 0-684-19678-6.
Wagner, Geraldine B. (2003). Thirteen Months to Go: The Creation of the Empire State Building. San Diego, CA: Thunder Bay Press. ISBN 1-592-23105-5.
Willis, Carol (ed). (1998). Building the Empire State. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-73030-1.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Empire State Building
Look up Empire State Building in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Empire State Building official Web site
Commercial Construction.com
Empire State Building Green Retrofit
Empire State Building Trivia
Empire State Building Information
The Construction of the Empire State Building, 19301931, New York Public Library
VIVA2, The Skyscraper Museum's online archive of over 500 construction photographs of the Empire State Building.
NYC Insider Guide, Empire State Building vs. Top of the Rock compare views.
Empire State Building at Structurae
Records
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Which is the only bird that can swim but can’t fly? | Empire State Building
Empire State Building
May 06, 2010 • By witch • • 1,435 Views
History
U.S. National Register of Historic Places
U.S. National Historic Landmark
New York, New York 10118
United States
404454.36 735908.36 / 40.7484333N 73.9856556W / 40.7484333; -73.9856556Coordinates: 404454.36 735908.36 / 40.7484333N 73.9856556W / 40.7484333; -73.9856556
Architect:
NRHP Reference#:
82001192
The site of the Empire State Building was first developed as the John Thomson Farm in the late 18th century. At the time, a stream ran across the site, emptying into Sunfish Pond, located a block away. Beginning in the late 19th century the block was occupied by the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, frequented by The Four Hundred, the social elite of New York.
Design and construction
The Empire State Building was designed by William F. Lamb from the architectural firm Shreve, Lamb and Harmon, which produced the building drawings in just two weeks, using its earlier designs for the Reynolds Building in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, and the Carew Tower in Cincinnati, Ohio (designed by the architectural firm W.W. Ahlschlager & Associates) as a basis. Every year the staff of the Empire State Building sends a Father's Day card to the staff at the Reynolds Building in Winston-Salem to pay homage to its role as predecessor to the Empire State Building. The building was designed from the top down. The general contractors were The Starrett Brothers and Eken, and the project was financed primarily by John J. Raskob and Pierre S. du Pont. The construction company was chaired by Alfred E. Smith, a former Governor of New York and James Farley's General Builders Supply Corporation supplied the building materials. John W. Bowser was project construction superintendant.
A worker bolts beams during construction; the Chrysler Building can be seen in the background.
Excavation of the site began on January 22, 1930, and construction on the building itself started symbolically on March 17t.Patrick's Dayer Al Smith's influence as Empire State, Inc. president. The project involved 3,400 workers, mostly immigrants from Europe, along with hundreds of Mohawk iron workers, many from the Kahnawake reserve near Montreal. According to official accounts, five workers died during the construction. Governor Smith's grandchildren cut the ribbon on May 1, 1931. Lewis Wickes Hine's photography of the construction provides not only invaluable documentation of the construction, but also a glimpse into common day life of workers in that era. In particular the photo of a worker climbing a stay cable is talismanic of the era and the building itself.
The construction was part of an intense competition in New York for the title of "world's tallest building". Two other projects fighting for the title, 40 Wall Street and the Chrysler Building, were still under construction when work began on the Empire State Building. Each held the title for less than a year, as the Empire State Building surpassed them upon its completion, just 410 days after construction commenced. The building was officially opened on May 1, 1931 in dramatic fashion, when United States President Herbert Hoover turned on the building's lights with the push of a button from Washington, D.C. Ironically, the first use of tower lights atop the Empire State Building, the following year, was for the purpose of signalling the victory of Franklin D. Roosevelt over Hoover in the presidential election of November 1932.
Opening
The building's opening coincided with the Great Depression in the United States, and as a result much of its office space went without being rented. The building's vacancy was exacerbated by its poor location on 34th Street, which placed it relatively far from public transportation, as Grand Central Terminal, the Port Authority Bus Terminal, and Penn Station are all several blocks away. Other more successful skyscrapers, such as the Chrysler Building, do not have this problem. In its first year of operation, the observation deck took in approximately 2 million dollars, as much money as its owners made in rent that year. The lack of renters led New Yorkers to deride the building as the "Empty State Building". The building would not become profitable until 1950. The famous 1951 sale of The Empire State Building to Roger L. Stevens and his business partners was brokered by the prominent upper Manhattan real-estate firm Charles F. Noyes & Company for a record $51 million. At the time, that was the highest price ever paid for a single structure in real-estate history.
Dirigible (airship) terminal
The building's distinctive Art Deco spire was originally designed to be a mooring mast and depot for dirigibles. The 102nd floor was originally a landing platform with a dirigible gangplank. A particular elevator, traveling between the 86th and 102nd floors, was supposed to transport passengers after they checked in at the observation deck on the 86th floor. However, the idea proved to be impractical and dangerous after a few attempts with airships, due to the powerful updrafts caused by the size of the building itself. A large broadcast tower was added to the top of the spire in 1953.
1945 plane crash
Main article: B-25 Empire State Building crash
Crash by a U.S. Army B-25 bomber on July 28, 1945
At 9:40 a.m.on Saturday, July 28, 1945, a B-25 Mitchell bomber, piloted in thick fog by Lieutenant Colonel William Franklin Smith, Jr., crashed into the north side of the Empire State Building, between the 79th and 80th floors, where the offices of the National Catholic Welfare Council were located. One engine shot through the side opposite the impact and flew as far as the next block where it landed on the roof of a nearby building, starting a fire that destroyed a penthouse. The other engine and part of the landing gear plummeted down an elevator shaft. The resulting fire was extinguished in 40 minutes. 14 people were killed in the incident. Elevator operator Betty Lou Oliver survived a plunge of 75 stories inside an elevator, which still stands as the Guinness World Record for the longest survived elevator fall recorded. Despite the damage and loss of life, the building was open for business on many floors on the following Monday. The crash helped spur the passage of the long-pending Federal Tort Claims Act of 1946, as well as the insertion of retroactive provisions into the law, allowing people to sue the government for the accident.
A year later, another aircraft had a close encounter with the skyscraper. It narrowly missed striking the building.
Height records and comparisons
Height comparison in buildings in New York City
The Empire State Building remained the tallest man-made structure in the world for 23 years before it was surpassed by the Griffin Television Tower Oklahoma (KWTV Mast) in 1954. It was also the tallest free-standing structure in the world for 36 years before it was surpassed by the Ostankino Tower in 1967.
The longest world record held by the Empire State Building was for the tallest skyscraper (to structural height), which it held for 42 years until it was surpassed by the North Tower of the World Trade Center in 1973. With the destruction of the World Trade Center in the September 11, 2001 attacks, the Empire State Building again became the tallest building in New York City, and the second-tallest building in the Americas, currently surpassed only by the Willis Tower in Chicago. When measured by pinnacle height, the Empire State Building is currently the third-tallest building in the Americas, surpassed only by the Willis Tower and the Trump International Hotel and Tower.
1 World Trade Center, currently under construction in New York City, is expected to exceed the height of the Empire State Building upon completion. The Chicago Spire is also expected to exceed the height of the Empire State Building upon completion, but its construction has been halted due to financial problems.
Suicides
Over the years, more than thirty people have committed suicide from the top of the building. The first suicide occurred even before its completion, by a worker who had been laid off. The fence around the observatory terrace was put up in 1947 after five people tried to jump during a three-week span. On December 2, 1979, Elvita Adams jumped from the 86th floor, only to be blown back onto the 85th floor and left with only a broken hip.
Shootings
Main article: 1997 Empire State Building shooting
On February 24, 1997, a Palestinian gunman shot seven people on the observation deck, killing one, then fatally wounding himself.
Architecture
The Empire State Building (in center of image) is the tallest building in New York City
Street level view of the Empire State Building
The Empire State Building rises to 1,250 ft (381 m) at the 102nd floor, and including the 203 ft (62 m) pinnacle, its full height reaches 1,453 ft8916 in (443.09 m). The building has 85 stories of commercial and office space representing 2,158,000 sq ft (200,500 m2). It has an indoor and outdoor observation deck on the 86th floor. The remaining 16 stories represent the Art Deco tower, which is capped by a 102nd-floor observatory. Atop the tower is the 203 ft (62 m) pinnacle, much of which is covered by broadcast antennas, with a lightning rod at the very top.
The Empire State Building was the first building to have more than 100 floors. It has 6,500 windows and 73 elevators, and there are 1,860 steps from street level to the 103rd floor. It has a total floor area of 2,768,591 sq ft (257,211 m2); the base of the Empire State Building is about 2 acres (8,094 m2). The building houses 1,000 businesses, and has its own zip code, 10118. As of 2007, approximately 21,000 employees work in the building each day, making the Empire State Building the second-largest single office complex in America, after the Pentagon. The building was completed in one year and 45 days. Its original 64 elevators are located in a central core; today, the Empire State Building has 73 elevators in all, including service elevators. It takes less than one minute by elevator to get to the 86th floor, where an observation deck is located. The building has 70 mi (113 km) of pipe, 2,500,000 ft (760,000 m) of electrical wire, and about 9,000 faucets.[citation needed] It is heated by low-pressure steam; despite its height, the building only requires between 2 and 3 psi (14 and 21 kPa) of steam pressure for heating. It weighs approximately 370,000 short tons (340,000 t). The exterior of the building was built using Indiana limestone panels.
The Empire State Building cost $40,948,900 to build.
A series of setbacks causes the building to taper with height.
Unlike most of today's skyscrapers, the Empire State Building features an art deco design, typical of pre-World War II architecture in New York. The modernistic stainless steel canopies of the entrances on 33rd and 34th Streets lead to two story-high corridors around the elevator core, crossed by stainless steel and glass-enclosed bridges at the second-floor level. The elevator core contains 67 elevators.
The lobby is three stories high and features an aluminum relief of the skyscraper without the antenna, which was not added to the spire until 1952. The north corridor contains eight illuminated panels, created by Roy Sparkia and Rene Nemorov in 1963, depicting the building as the Eighth Wonder of the World, alongside the traditional seven.
Long-term forecasting of the life cycle of the structure was implemented at the design phase to ensure that the building's future intended uses were not restricted by the requirements of previous generations. This is particularly evident in the over-design of the building's electrical system.
Floodlights
Empire State Building with red and green lights for Christmas, as seen from GE Building
Empire State Building with normal white lighting, as seen from New Jersey
In 1964, floodlights were added to illuminate the top of the building at night, in colors chosen to match seasonal and other events, such as St. Patrick's Day, Christmas, Independence Day or Bastille Day. After the eightieth birthday and subsequent death of Frank Sinatra, for example, the building was bathed in blue light to represent the singer's nickname "Ol' Blue Eyes". After the death of actress Fay Wray (King Kong) in late 2004, the building stood in complete darkness for 15 minutes.
The floodlights bathed the building in red, white, and blue for several months after the destruction of the World Trade Center, then reverted to the standard schedule. Traditionally, in addition to the standard schedule, the building will be lit in the colors of New York's sports teams on the nights they have home games (orange, blue and white for the New York Knicks, red, white and blue for the New York Rangers, and so on). The first weekend in June finds the building bathed in green light for the Belmont Stakes held in nearby Belmont Park. The building is illuminated in tennis-ball yellow during the US Open tennis tournament in late August and early September. It was twice lit in scarlet to support nearby Rutgers University: once for a football game against the University of Louisville on November 9, 2006 , and again on April 3, 2007 when the women's basketball team played in the national championship game.
In 1995, the building was lit up in blue, red, green and yellow for the release of Microsoft's Windows 95 operating system, which was launched with a $300 million campaign.
The building has also been known to be illuminated in purple and white in honor of graduating students from New York University.
Every year in September, the building is lit in black, red, and yellow, with the top lights off (for black) to celebrate the German-American Steuben Parade on Fifth Avenue.
The building was lit green for three days in honor of the Islamic holiday of Eid ul-Fitr in October 2007. The lighting, the first for a Muslim holiday, is intended to be an annual event and was repeated in 2008 and 2009. In December 2007, the building was lit yellow to signify the home video release of The Simpsons Movie.
From April 2527, 2008 the building was lit in lavender, pink, and white in celebration of international pop diva Mariah Carey's accomplishments in the world of music and the release of her eleventh studio album E=MC2.[citation needed]
In late October 2008, the building was lit green in honor of the fifth anniversary of the acclaimed Broadway Musical Wicked by Kerry Ellis and Stephen Schwartz.
Starting in 2008, the building along with New York City and many other cities around the world, participated in Earth Hour. The skyscraper's floodlights were turned off for exactly an hour to conserve energy.
In September 2009, the building was lit for one night in orange colors, in celebration of the exploration of Manhattan Island by Henry Hudson 400 years earlier. The Dutch prince Willem-Alexander van Oranje and princess Maxima were present and turned on the lights from the lobby.
In 2009, the building was lit for one night in red and yellow, the colors of the Communist People's Republic of China, to celebrate the 60 years since its founding, amid controversy.
Observation decks
The Empire State Building has one of the most popular outdoor observatories in the world, having been visited by over 110 million people. The 86th-floor observation deck offers impressive 360-degree views of the city. There is a second observation deck on the 102nd floor that is open to the public. It was closed in 1999, but reopened in November 2005. It is completely enclosed and much smaller than the first one; it may be closed on high-traffic days. Tourists may pay to visit the observation deck on the 86th floor and an additional amount for the 102nd floor. The lines to enter the observation decks, according to the building's website, are "as legendary as the building itself:" there are five of them: the sidewalk line, the lobby elevator line, the ticket purchase line, the second elevator line, and the line to get off the elevator and onto the observation deck. For an extra fee tourists can skip to the front of the line.
The skyscraper observation deck plays host to several cinematic, television, and literary classics including, An Affair To Remember, Love Affair and Sleepless in Seattle. In the Latin American literary work Empire of Dreams by Giannina Braschi the observation deck is the site of a pastoral revolution; shepherds take over the City of New York. The deck was also the site of a Martian invasion on an old episode of I Love Lucy.
A panoramic view of New York City from the 86th-floor observation deck of the Empire State Building, spring 2005
New York Skyride
View from Macy's
The Empire State Building also has a motion simulator attraction, located on the 2nd floor. Opened in 1994 as a complement to the observation deck, the New York Skyride (or NY Skyride) is a simulated aerial tour over the city. The theatrical presentation lasts approximately 25 minutes.
Since its opening, the ride has gone through two incarnations. The original version, which ran from 1994 until around 2002, featured James Doohan, Star Trek's Scotty, as the airplane's pilot, who humorously tried to keep the flight under control during a storm, with the tour taking an unexpected route through the subway, Coney Island, and FAO Schwartz, among other places. After September 11th, however, the ride was closed, and an updated version debuted in mid-2002 with actor Kevin Bacon as the pilot. The new version of the narration attempted to make the attraction more educational, and included some minor post-9/11 patriotic undertones with retrospective footage of the World Trade Center. The new flight also goes haywire, but this segment is much shorter than in the original.
Broadcast stations
New York City is the largest media market in the United States. Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, nearly all of the city's commercial broadcast stations (both television and FM radio) have transmitted from the top of the Empire State Building, although a few FM stations are located at the nearby Cond Nast Building. Most New York City AM stations broadcast from just across the Hudson River in New Jersey.
Communications devices for broadcast stations are located at the top of the Empire State Building.
Broadcasting began at Empire on December 22, 1931, when RCA began transmitting experimental television broadcasts from a small antenna erected atop the spire. They leased the 85th floor and built a laboratory there, andn 1934CA was joined by Edwin Howard Armstrong in a cooperative venture to test his FM system from the Empire antenna. When Armstrong and RCA fell out in 1935 and his FM equipment was removed, the 85th floor became the home of RCA's New York television operations, first as experimental station W2XBS channel 1, which eventually became (on July 1, 1941) commercial station WNBT, channel 1 (now WNBC-TV channel 4). NBC's FM station (WEAF-FM, now WQHT) began transmitting from the antenna in 1940. NBC retained exclusive use of the top of the Empire until 1950, when the FCC ordered the exclusive deal broken, based on consumer complaints that a common location was necessary for the (now) seven New York television stations to transmit from so that receiving antennas would not have to be constantly adjusted. Construction on a giant tower began. Other television broadcasters then joined RCA at Empire, on the 83rd, 82nd, and 81st floors, frequently bringing sister FM stations along for the ride. Multiple transmissions of TV and FM began from the new tower in 1951. In 1965, a separate set of FM antennas were constructed ringing the 103rd floor observation area. When the World Trade Center was being constructed, it caused serious problems for the television stations, most of which then moved to the World Trade Center as soon as it was completed. This made it possible to renovate the antenna structure and the transmitter facilities for the benefit of the FM stations remaining there, which were soon joined by other FMs and UHF TVs moving in from elsewhere in the metropolitan area. The destruction of the World Trade Center necessitated a great deal of shuffling of antennas and transmitter rooms in order to accommodate the stations moving back uptown.
As of 2009, the Empire State Building is home to the following stations:
TV: WCBS-TV 2, WNBC-TV 4, WNYW 5, WABC-TV 7, WWOR-TV 9 Secaucus, WPIX-TV 11, WNET 13 Newark, WNYE-TV 25, WPXN-TV 31, WXTV 41 Paterson, WNJU 47 Linden, and WFUT-TV 68 Newark
FM: WXRK 92.3, WPAT-FM 93.1 Paterson, WNYC-FM 93.9, WPLJ 95.5, WXNY 96.3, WQHT-FM 97.1, WSKQ-FM 97.9, WRKS-FM 98.7, WBAI 99.5, WHTZ 100.3 Newark, WCBS-FM 101.1, WRXP 101.9, WWFS 102.7, WKTU 103.5 Lake Success, WAXQ 104.3, WWPR-FM 105.1, WQXR-FM 105.9 Newark, WLTW 106.7, and WBLS 107.5
Empire State Building Run-Up
The Empire State Building Run-Up is a foot race from ground level to the 86th-floor observation deck that has been held annually since 1978. Its participants are referred to both as runners and as climbers, and are often tower running enthusiasts. The race covers a vertical distance of 1,050 feet (320 m) and takes in 1,576 steps. The record time is 9 minutes and 33 seconds, achieved by Australian professional cyclist Paul Crake in 2003, at a climbing rate of 6,593 ft (2,010 m) per hour.
In popular culture
Film
Perhaps the most famous popular culture representation of the building is in the 1933 film King Kong, in which the title character, a giant ape, climbs to the top to escape his captors but falls to his death. In 1983, for the 50th anniversary of the film, an inflatable King Kong was placed on the actual building. In 2005, a remake of King Kong was released, set in 1930s New York City, including a final showdown between Kong and bi-planes atop a greatly detailed Empire State Building. (The 1976 remake of King Kong was set in a contemporary New York City and held its climactic scene on the towers of the World Trade Center.)
The 1939 romantic drama film Love Affair involves a couple who plan to meet atop the Empire State Building, a rendezvous that is averted by an automobile accident. The film was remade in 1957 (as An Affair to Remember) and in 1994 (again as Love Affair). The 1993 film Sleepless in Seattle, a romantic comedy partially inspired by An Affair to Remember, climaxes with a scene at the Empire State observatory.
Andy Warhol's 1964 silent film Empire is one continuous, eight-hour shot of the Empire State Building at night, shot in black-and-white. In 2004, the National Film Registry deemed its cultural significance worthy of preservation in the Library of Congress.
The film Independence Day features the Empire State Building as ground zero for an alien attack; it is devastated by the aliens' primary weapon which incinerates most of New York City.
Many other movies that feature the Empire State Building are listed on the building's own website.
Television
The Empire State Building featured in the 1966 Doctor Who serial The Chase, in which the TARDIS lands on the roof of the building; The Doctor and his companions leave quite quickly, however, because The Daleks are close behind them. A Dalek is also seen on the roof of the building while it interrogates a human. In 2007, Doctor Who episodes "Daleks in Manhattan" and "Evolution of the Daleks" also featured the building, which the Daleks are constructing to use as a lightning conductor. Russell T Davies said in an article that "in his mind", the Daleks remembered the building from their last visit.
The Discovery Channel show MythBusters tested the urban myth which claims that if one drops a penny off the top of the Empire State Building, it could kill someone or put a crater in the pavement. The outcome was that, by the time the penny hits the ground, it is going roughly 65 mph (105 km/h) (terminal velocity for an object of its mass and shape), which is not fast enough to inflict lethal injury or put a crater into the pavement. The urban legend is a joke in the 2003 musical Avenue Q, where a character waiting atop the building for a rendezvous tosses a penny over the sidenly to hit her rival.
Literature
H.G. Wells' 1933 science fiction book The Shape of Things to Come, written in the form of a history book published in the far future, includes the following passage: "Up to quite recently Lower New York has been the most old-fashioned city in the world, unique in its gloomy antiquity. The last of the ancient skyscrapers, the Empire State Building, is even now under demolition in C.E. 2106!".
In the science fiction novel The Rebel of Rhada by Robert Cham Gilman (Alfred Coppel), taking place at a decayed galactic empire of the far future, New York is an ancient city which was destroyed and rebuilt countless times. Its highest and most ancient building, covered with piled-up ruins up to half its height, is known simply as "The Empire Tower", but is obviously the Empire State Building.
David Macaulay's 1980 illustrated book Unbuilding depicts the Empire State Building being purchased by a Middle Eastern billionaire and disassembled piece by piece, to be transported to his home country and rebuilt there.
The Empire State Building is featured prominently as both a setting and integral plot device throughout much of Michael Chabon's 2000 Pulitzer Prize-winning novel, The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay.
In the Percy Jackson book series, Mount Olympus is located over the Empire State Building, and there is a special elevator in the building to the "600th floor," which is supposed to be Olympus.
Tenants
Notable tenants of the building include:
Alitalia, Suite 3700
Croatian National Tourist Board, Suite 4003
Filipino Reporter, Suite 601
Human Rights Watch, 34th Floor
Polish Cultural Institute in New York, Suite 4621
Senegal Tourist Office, Suite 3118
TAROM, Suite 1410
The King's College, Suite 1500
Former tenants include:
China National Tourist Office (now located at 370 Lexington Avenue)
National Film Board of Canada (now located at 1123 Broadway)
Nathaniel Branden Institute
A view upward of the Empire State Building from Broadway
The top of the Empire State Building
Looking up
Art deco elevators in the lobby
Panoramic view of Midtown Manhattan from observation deck
The Empire State Building lights up in yellow and red during the 60th anniversary of the PRC
See also
World's tallest free standing structure on land
History of tallest skyscrapers
List of tallest buildings by U.S. state
References
Notes
^ a b The Empire State Building is located within the 10001 zip code area, but 10118 is assigned as the building's own zip code. Source: USPS.
^ National Geodetic Survey datasheet KU3602, Retrieved 2009-07-26
^ a b Willis, Carol (1995). "Empire State Building". in Kenneth T. Jackson. The Encyclopedia of New York City. New Haven, CT & London & New York: Yale University Press & The New-York Historical Society. pp. 375376.
^ ESBNYC.com
^ Pollak, Michael (April 23, 2006). "75 YEARS: F. Y. I.". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D03EEDD153FF930A15757C0A9609C8B63&scp=4&sq="empire state building" height 1,454&st=cse. Retrieved 2009-10-31.
^ SkyscraperPage Empire State Building, antenna height source: CTBUH, top floor height source: Empire State Building Company LLC
^ a b Rosenberg, Jennifer. "Empire State Building Trivia and Cool Facts". About.com. http://history1900s.about.com/od/1930s/a/empirefacts.htm. Retrieved 2008-11-08.
^ a b White, Norval & Willensky, Elliot; AIA Guide to New York City, 4th Edition; New York Chapter, American Institute of Architects; Crown Publishers. 2000. p.226.
^ a b "Empire State Building". National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. 2007-09-11. http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=1842&ResourceType=Building.
^ Carolyn Pitts (April 26, 1985). "Empire State Building"" (PDF). National Historic Landmark Nomination. National Park Service. http://pdfhost.focus.nps.gov/docs/NHLS/Text/82001192.pdf.
^ "Empire State Buildingccompanying 7 photos, exterior and interior, from 1978." (PDF). National Register of Historic Places Inventory. National Park Service. 1985-04-26. http://pdfhost.focus.nps.gov/docs/NHLS/Photos/82001192.pdf.
^ W&H Properties Empire State Building
^ Skyscrapers Becoming More Eco-Friendly In Hopes to Lure Tenants
^ "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. 2007-01-23. http://www.nr.nps.gov/.
^ Reynolds Building. Retrieved November 15, 2008.
^ Cincinnati Skyscrapers, Waymarketing.com
^ "Thirteen Months to Go", Geraldine B. Wagner, 2003, Quintet Publishing Ltd., pg. 32
^
^
^ about.com Empire State Building Trivia and Cool Facts
^ "Lewis Wickes Hine: The Construction of the Empire State Building, 19301931 (New York Public Library Photography Collection)"
^ "Icarus, high up on Empire State; Lewis Wickes Hine, New York Public Library Photography Collection"
^ Tower Lights History Retrieved 2007-12-16
^ NYT Travel: Empire State Building
^ "A Renters' Market in London." August 18, 2008.
^ ew York: A Documentary Film.
^ a b Shanor, Rebecca Read (1995). "Unbuilt projects". in Kenneth T. Jackson. The Encyclopedia of New York City. New Haven, CT & London & New York: Yale University Press & The New-York Historical Society. pp. 12081209.
^ Goldman, Jonathan (1980). The Empire State Building Book. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 44.
^ "750th Squadron 457th Bombardment Group: Officers 1943 to 1945". http://www.457thbombgroup.org/New/750thSquad.html. Retrieved 2009-04-06.
^ "Empire State Building Withstood Airplane Impact"
^ "Plane Hits Building Woman Survives 75-Story Fall"
^ guinnessworldrecords.com
^ "The Day A Bomber Hit The Empire State Building". National Public Radio. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=92987873. Retrieved 2008-07-28. "Eight months after the crash, the U.S. government offered money to families of the victims. Some accepted, but others initiated a lawsuit that resulted in landmark legislation. The Federal Tort Claims Act of 1946, for the first time, gave American citizens the right to sue the federal government."
^ Glanz, James and Eric Lipton (2002-09-08). "The Height of Ambition". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F02E2DD1F3FF93BA3575AC0A9649C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=10.
^ iht.com
^ Compass American Guides: Manhattan, 4th Edition. Reavill, Gil and Zimmerman, Jean P. 160.
^ George H. Douglas, Skyscrapers, p. 173
^ Empire State Building New York.com: Empire State Building Suicides
^ Geoffrey Broughton, Expressions, p. 32
^ The Empire State Building Book, Jonathan Goldman, St. Martin's Press, 1980, p.63
^ Empire State Building: Official Internet Site
^ Lelyveld, Joseph (February 23, 1964). "The Empire State to Glow at Night". The New York Times. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10B11FE385F137A8EDDAA0A94DA405B848AF1D3.
^ thevillager.com
^ a b Empire State Building lighting schedule
^ espn.com
^ Empire State Building Goes Green for Muslim Holiday
^ Empire State adorns yellow to celebrate The Simpsons Movie
^ http://www.broadway.com/Empire-State-Building-Goes-Green-for-Wicked-Birthday-Final-Yellow-Brick-Road-Cast-Announced/broadway_news/5013909
^ a b https://www.esbnyc.com/tickets/index.cfm?CFID=28691766&CFTOKEN=35278567
^ "Ten Things Not to Do in New York"
^ NYRR Empire State Building Run-Up Crowns Dold and Walsham as Champions, New York Road Runners
^ Empire State Building Past Race Winners
^ www.esbnyc.com
^ http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks03/0301391h.html
^ a b c d e f g h "Foreigners flocking to 350 Fifth Avenue." Real Estate Weekly. June 30, 2004.
^ "FAQ." Alitalia (United States website). Retrieved September 4, 2008.
^ "Claims and Suggestions." Alitalia (United States website). Retrieved September 4, 2008.
^ Home page. Croatian National Tourist Board. Retrieved September 4, 2008.
^ "Contact." Filipino Reporter. Retrieved September 4, 2008.
^ "Contact." Human Rights Watch. Retrieved September 4, 2008.
^ Home Page. Polish Cultural Institute in New York. Retrieved September 4, 2008.
^ Information Senegal Tourist Office. Retrieved September 4, 2008.
^ "Travel Agencies for plane tickets to Romania." Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved September 4, 2008.
^ "The King's College". http://www.tkc.edu/. Retrieved 2008-11-01.
^ "Contact Us." China National Tourist Office. Retrieved September 4, 2008.
^ "Contact us." National Film Board of Canada. Retrieved September 4, 2008.
^ In Answer to Ayn Rand by Nathaniel Branden at his ex-wife's website
Further reading
Aaseng, Nathan. (1999). Construction: Building the Impossible. Minneapolis, MN: Oliver Press. ISBN 1-881-50859-5.
Bascomb, Neal. (2003). Higher: A Historic Race to the Sky and the Making of a City. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-50660-0.
Goldman, Jonathan. (1980). The Empire State Building Book. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-24455-X.
James, Theodore, Jr. (1975). The Empire State Building. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 0-060-12172-6.
Kingwell, Mark. (2006). Nearest Thing to Heaven: The Empire State Building and American Dreams. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10622-X.
Pacelle, Mitchell. (2001). Empire: A Tale of Obsession, Betrayal, and the Battle for an American Icon. New York: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-40394-6.
Tauranac, John. (1995). The Empire State Building: The Making of a Landmark. New York: Scribner. ISBN 0-684-19678-6.
Wagner, Geraldine B. (2003). Thirteen Months to Go: The Creation of the Empire State Building. San Diego, CA: Thunder Bay Press. ISBN 1-592-23105-5.
Willis, Carol (ed). (1998). Building the Empire State. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-73030-1.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Empire State Building
Look up Empire State Building in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Empire State Building official Web site
Commercial Construction.com
Empire State Building Green Retrofit
Empire State Building Trivia
Empire State Building Information
The Construction of the Empire State Building, 19301931, New York Public Library
VIVA2, The Skyscraper Museum's online archive of over 500 construction photographs of the Empire State Building.
NYC Insider Guide, Empire State Building vs. Top of the Rock compare views.
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Which famous singer died of a heart attack on a Spanish golf course in October 1977? | Dead People Server - Celebrities and Notable People Who Died in the Year 1977
Dead People Server
1976 * * 1978
January
Peter Finch (actor) -- Dead. Heart attack. Died January 14, 1977. Born September 28, 1916. He was mad as hell in Network and won an Oscar for his performance posthumously. IMDb FindAGrave
Anais Nin (author) -- Dead. Ovarian cancer. Died January 14, 1977. Born February 21, 1903. Wrote Henry and June.
IMDb FindAGrave
Burt Mustin (actor) -- Dead. Died January 28, 1977. Born February 8, 1882. Played very tall, very old men in the '60s and '70s. IMDb
Freddie Prinze (comic) -- Dead. Self-inflicted gunshot wound. Died January 29, 1977. Born June 22, 1954. Chico and the Man.
IMDb FindAGrave
February
Andy Devine (actor) -- Dead. Heart attack. Died February 18, 1977. Born October 7, 1905. Acted in dozens of Westerns. IMDb
Eddie "Rochester" Anderson (actor) -- Dead. Cancer. Died February 28, 1977. Born September 18, 1905. Jack Benny 's "butler." IMDb
March
Diana Hyland (actress) -- Dead. Cancer. Died March 25, 1977. Born January 25, 1936. The mother of teenagers in Eight Is Enough, she was dating teen heartthrob John Travolta at the time of her death. IMDb
April
May
Joan Crawford (actress) -- Dead. Cancer. Died May 10, 1977. Born March 23, 1908. Almost more famous for being the "Mommie Dearest" than for her acting, won an Oscar for Mildred Pierce, first wife of Douglas Fairbanks, Jr. . IMDb
June
Stephen Boyd (actor) -- Dead. Heart attack. Died June 2, 1977. Born July 4, 1928. Ben Hur's competitor. IMDb
Matthew Garber (kid actor) -- Dead. Died June 13, 1977. Born March 25, 1956. Cute kid in Disney movies like Mary Poppins and The Three Lives of Thomasina, Elizabeth at Reelclassics.com has done some amazing research on his death . IMDb
Alan Reed (voice) -- Dead. Died June 14, 1977. Born August 20, 1907. Voice of the original Fred Flintstone. IMDb
Wernher von Braun (physicist) -- Dead. Cancer. Died June 15, 1977. Born March 23, 1912. Father of Modern Rocketry.
July
August
Francis Gary Powers (pilot) -- Dead. Helicopter crash while flying over LA. Died August 1, 1977. Born August 17, 1929. U-2 pilot shot down over Soviet Union on May 1, 1960, during the height of the Cold War
Elvis Presley (musician) -- Dead. Died August 16, 1977. Born January 8, 1935. Groundbreaing rocker, roller, sometime actor, but Elvis sightings just aren't funny anymore.
Sebastian Cabot (actor) -- Dead. Died August 23, 1977. Born July 6, 1917. Family Affair. IMDb
Hans Augusto Rey (illustrator of children's books) -- Dead. Died August 26, 1977. Born 1899.
September
Ethel Waters (actress) -- Dead. Heart disease. Died September 1, 1977. Born October 31, 1896. Member of the Wedding.
Zero Mostel (actor) -- Dead. Died September 8, 1977. Born February 28, 1915. A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum. IMDb
October
Bing Crosby (singer) -- Dead. Heart attack on a Spanish golf course. Died October 14, 1977. Born May 3, 1903.
IMDb
November
Guy Lombardo (bandleader) -- Dead. Died November 5, 1977. Born June 19, 1902. It used to be traditional to welcome in the New Year listening to Guy Lombardo and his Royal Canadians play "Olde Lang Syne". IMDb
Richard Carlson (actor) -- Dead. Died November 24, 1977. Born April 29, 1912. Creature from the Black Lagoon.
IBDB IMDb FindAGrave
December
Charlie Chaplin (actor/director) -- Dead. Old age. Died December 25, 1977. Born April 16, 1889. Made great movies including The Kid and The Great Dictator, married to a variety of much younger women including Paulette Goddard and Oona O'Neil, fathered many performers including Geraldine Chaplin. IMDb
| Bing Crosby |
According to the bible, what was the name of the murderer who was released by Pontius Pilate in preference to Jesus? | Bing Crosby – The Closeness of Death |
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Bing Crosby – The Closeness of Death
On the 14th of October 1977 Bing Crosby the very famous American singer and actor was playing a round of golf on a Course near to Madrid in Spain. Just after 6.00 pm that day he putted the ball into the hole on the 18th green and then turned to those he had been playing with and said, “It was a great game of golf fellas”. Then immediately, without any warning he collapsed and died from a massive heart attack!
The life of the notorious entertainer, who was seventy four years old, had come to a sudden end. Bing was having a great time with his friends on the golf course and he didn’t realise just how near he was to death and eternity.
That story illustrates very clearly the fact that death can be closer than you think. Just stop for a moment and ask yourself, “How close am I to death? How near am I to eternity? The reality is that your life could be almost over; you could be nearer to death than you imagine.
Many people live as if death is very far away. There are multitudes who think like the rich farmer in the New Testament that they still have “many years” to live (Luke 12:19). Especially when you are young or in good health you think that death is a long way off in the future.
But the solemn reality for all of us is that death is near at hand. The Scriptures remind us of that truth in many places. James taught that in a ‘little while’ we will begone from this life (James 4:14). Paul reminds you that you don’t have long to live, when he said, ‘The time is short’ (1 Cor 7:29). David stressed that it’s not very far for you until the journey of life will be over, when he said, ‘there is but a step between me and death’ (1 Sam 20:3).
All of those verses of Scripture and many others emphasise the closeness of death. Therefore, how important it is that you face up to the fact that you don’t have much time left upon this earth. You will soon be gone from this life – perhaps sooner than you think!
What a warning that great truth is to you of the need to be ready for death and eternity. The Prophet Amos said, “Prepare to meet thy God” (Amos 4:12). That means that you need to be saved and by receiving Jesus Christ as your Saviour. And the important fact is that you need to be saved now, without any more delay — lest you too should die very suddenly (Num 6:9 & 2 Cor 6:2).
To receive a FREE booklet on the subject “God’s way of Salvation,” please e-mail [email protected] with your name and address.
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What is the name of the last Beatles album to be recorded before the band split up? | 'Abbey Road' vs. 'Let It Be': Which Was the Beatles' Last Album? - Rolling Stone
The 100 Greatest Beatles Songs
It's a grey area what counts as a Beatles album and what's merely a Beatles project. (In the 1970s, fans argued over whether Hey Jude and Hollywood Bowl were official Beatles albums. Nobody argues about that anymore.) Capitol, for obvious reasons, would probably like to err on the side of counting projects as albums, although they still show heroic restraint and taste when it comes to respecting the core canon. (Like, they count Magical Mystery Tour as an official album, but they know better than to make claims for The Beatles' Reel Music.)
Anyone would have to agree Let It Be is in the grey area, but from my fan perspective, it's on the Hey Jude side of the line, along with Yellow Submarine. If you want to claim the Beatles made 11 studio albums, I can see that, and if you want to claim the Beatles made 13 studio albums, counting Let It Be and Yellow Submarine, I can see that too. I can even see stretching it to 14 with Hey Jude. (That one was a Capitol hodgepodge from early 1970.)
Magical Mystery Tour is in the grey area – the Beatles released it as a 6-song U.K. EP, but it got padded into a U.S.-only 1967 album, so it's about as legit as Hey Jude. But it's been a long time since I've heard anyone try to read it out of the canon, and it's a case where sheer quality makes a difference. (Not even a strict-constructionist hardliner would claim the EP is better because it leaves out "Strawberry Fields Forever.") If someone tried to argue the Beatles only made 10 albums, because Magical Mystery Tour, Yellow Submarine and Let It Be are mere footnotes, I would basically assume they were an idiot, regardless of whether or not it's a valid point. (All idiots have a valid point, right? Not having a valid point doesn't make you an "idiot," just a "rock critic.")
So let's put it this way. Let It Be is the final Beatles album, not Abbey Road. . . but only if it's a Beatles album. Can you argue that Let It Be is a Beatles album, yet not the Beatles' final album? No, not really, because it includes a tiny amount of music they made in 1970. So here's my reluctant conclusion, at least as of today. I like Abbey Road better. Sentimentally, for me, it's the one I think of as the end. However, unfortunately, Let It Be is the last Beatles album. I would love it if you could change my mind about that.
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| Abbey Road |
What is the name of a community of ants? | Let It Be - The Beatles — Listen and discover music at Last.fm
Let It Be
pop
Let It Be was officially The Beatles' last album. Although most of the songs were initially recorded in January 1969 –before the recording of Abbey Road in September 1969– only Get Back and Don't Let Me Down were released on single later that April '69, and the rest of the recordings left unpublished due to The Beatles' busy schedule and personal difficulties in the band-/production-team. When The Beatles finally decided they would split up, the unreleased material was prepared… read more
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What disability did the wife and mother of inventor Alexander Graham Bell both suffer? | Alexander Graham Bell Facts for Kids - Telephone, Inventions, Quotes
Check out our fun facts for kids that feature interesting trivia, quotes and information related to a range of famous scientists.
Alexander Graham Bell Facts
Learn about the man credited with the invention of the first practical telephone with our Alexander Graham Bell facts for kids. Find out about his life growing up in Scotland, his move to Canada, his study of sound and his many experiments and inventions. Read on and enjoy our range of interesting facts and information related to Alexander Graham Bell.
Alexander Graham Bell was an influential scientist, engineer and inventor.
He was born on March 3, 1847 in Edinburgh, Scotland. He died on August 2, 1922 at the age of 75.
He is widely credited with the invention of the first practical telephone.
Bell’s mother and wife were both deaf, this had a major influence on his work.
He didn’t have the middle name “Graham” until he turned 11 when his father gave it to him as a birthday present. He’d earlier asked to have a middle name like his two brothers.
Bell became an excellent piano player at a young age.
When he was 23, Bell and his parents moved to Canada.
Bell studied the human voice and worked with various schools for the deaf.
Bell experimented with sound, working with devices such as a ‘harmonic telegraph’ (used to send multiple messages over a single wire) and a ‘phonautograph’ (used to record sound).
He worked on acoustic telegraphy with his assistant, an electrical designer named Thomas Watson.
On February 14, 1876, Bell and an American electrical engineer named Elisha Gray both filed patents with the U.S. Patent Office covering the transmission of sounds telegraphically. There is debate about who got there first but the patent was awarded to Bell. A few days later he succeeded in getting his telephone to work using elements similar to those of Gray’s water transmitter.
Bell’s first words with the working telephone were spoken to his assistant Watson and were along the lines of “Mr Watson, come here. I want to see you.”
Bell improved on the design and by 1886 more than 150000 people owned telephones in the United States.
Bell also had a strong interest in other scientific fields, conducting medical research, searching for alternative fuel sources, experimenting with metal detectors, developing hydrofoil watercraft and much more.
Famous Alexander Graham Bell quotes include: "Before anything else, preparation is the key to success."
"A man, as a general rule, owes very little to what he is born with - a man is what he makes of himself."
"The day will come when the man at the telephone will be able to see the distant person to whom he is speaking."
"The inventor looks upon the world and is not contented with things as they are. He wants to improve whatever he sees, he wants to benefit the world; he is haunted by an idea. The spirit of invention possesses him, seeking materialization."
Alexander Graham Bell
| Hearing loss |
The Lady Lever Art Gallery is in which English city? | Alexander Graham Bell facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Alexander Graham Bell
Baddeck, Nova Scotia
Inventor and educator
Because of family tradition and upbringing, Alexander Graham Bell was, perhaps, destined to create one of the world's most commonly used inventions today: the telephone. He came from two generations of men who were students of speech and language and a hard-of-hearing mother who was a musician. These influences led him to dedicate his life to science and sound as well as to the education of the deaf.
"It is possible to connect every man's house, office or factory with a central station, so as to give him direct communication with his neighbors."
Teacher of the Deaf
Alexander Graham Bell was born on March 3, 1847, in Edinburgh, Scotland. He was the middle of three sons born to Alexander Melville Bell and Eliza Grace Symonds. Alexander Melville's father, Alexander Bell, had been an actor and later became a speech teacher. Alexander Melville followed in his footsteps and worked for many years as a teacher of elocution, which is the art of speaking correctly and effectively. He also studied the way a person uses his larynx, mouth, tongue, and lips to form sounds. After years of teaching and study, Bell invented Visible Speech, a set of symbols based on the position and action of the throat, tongue, and lips while making sounds. This technique would later be used in the education of the deaf.
Eliza Grace, the daughter of a surgeon in the Royal Navy, was an accomplished pianist despite the fact that she was hearing impaired. She was able to hear some sounds with the use of a speaking tube. She was Alexander Graham's first and most important teacher.
In 1865, the Bell family moved to London where Alexander Melville continued the work begun by his father who had recently died. In London, Alexander Graham became his father's assistant and studied anatomy and physiology at University College. He also began experimenting with the transmission of sounds using his family's piano and tuning forks. But his discoveries would soon be placed on hold. By 1870, both of his brothers had died of tuberculosis, and his father persuaded his family to move to Brantford, Ontario , Canada , where he considered the climate to be better for their health.
Alexander Melville had become well known for his work with Visible Speech, and when he was invited to introduce this technique to Sarah Fuller's School for the Deaf in Boston, he instead sent his partner and son, Alexander Graham. From then on, Alexander Graham Bell dedicated his life to teaching the deaf and developing new instruments for their use. He visited various schools for the deaf in the Boston area, and in 1873, he became professor of vocal physiology and the mechanics of speech. He presented lectures at Boston University and the University of Oxford.
When he was a teenager, Alexander Graham Bell and his older brother made a "speaking machine" that mechanically produced vocal sounds. A local butcher had given them a larynx from a lamb, and the boys made a model of the lamb's vocal organs. They attached levers that moved the organs. When they blew into a tube, it moved the levers which, in turn, made the organs produce sounds like human cries.
Bell also began to take private deaf students. From 1873 until 1876, Bell had the sole responsibility of educating the five-year-old, deaf son of Thomas Sanders in Haverhill, Massachusetts. Sanders would later become treasurer of the Bell Telephone Company. At the same time, Bell met another influential man, Gardiner G. Hubbard, who also had a deaf child and was dedicated to her education. Hubbard later became trustee of the Bell Telephone Company. On July 11, 1877, Bell, a slender, dark-haired young man, married Hubbard's eighteen-year-old daughter, Mabel, who had been deaf since early childhood.
A Man of Inventions
Thomas Sanders and Gardiner Hubbard were so impressed with Bell, they encouraged him to pursue his ideas and continue with his experiments. And they gave him the money to do it. At that time, Bell worked mostly on three kinds of equipment: a phonoautograph, a device that would help a deaf person see a sound; a multiple telegraph, a device that could transmit two or more messages over wire at the same time; and an electric speaking telegraph, or telephone.
All of the experiences he had prior to 1876, led Bell to one of the greatest inventions in history. He had a special ear for pitch and tones, thanks to music lessons with his mother; he had a mind for science like his father and grandfather; and he had knowledge gained from his experiments with the telegraph and other sound-producing devices. Bell developed a basic concept for the phone and worked diligently for over a year to get it to work. Finally, he discovered that he could reproduce the tone and overtones of the human voice through a wire.
Bell gave the plans to build the first telephone to his assistant, Thomas A. Watson (1854-1934), and on March 10, 1876, they used the phone to communicate for the first time. Two months later, Bell introduced the telephone to the scientific world at the Academy of Arts and Sciences in Boston. By July 1877, the Bell Telephone Company was formed and the first telephone was installed in a private home.
Bell continued experimenting with communication equipment and developed many noteworthy devices including the photophone, a device that transmits sound on a beam of light. The photophone was the predecessor of today's optical fiber systems. He also worked on an audiometer, an instrument used to measure how well a person hears, and the first successful phonograph record.
Beginning in 1895, Bell's scientific interests moved into the area of aviation. He worked with a friend, Samuel P. Langley, on things like gunpowder rockets and the rotating blades of helicopters. Bell eventually received five patents for aerial vehicles and four for a system called hydrodynamics, which propels a vehicle by skimming the surface of water.
After the Phone
Bell, his wife, and two daughters moved from Boston to Washington, D.C., in 1882, where he became a United States citizen. By this time, he had become a stout man with a full, gray beard, reminiscent of Santa Claus. And, just like Santa, his benevolent acts continued throughout his lifetime.
Patricia F. Russo: Lucent's New Leader
Taking over a failing company is not a job many want. After losing $16 million and 90 percent of its stock value, one of Lucent's goals for 2002 was to find a leader who would help them at least break even. The company found just the person to fill the job: Patricia F. Russo
Russo was born in New Jersey , one of seven children. "In a big family, everyone pitches in," she said in a 2002 Wall Street journal interview. She attended college at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., completed the Advanced Management Program at Harvard University , and received an Honorary Doctorate in Entrepreneurial Studies from Columbia College in South Carolina .
Russo began her business career in sales and marketing at IBM, one of the leading technology companies in the world. Although she majored in political science and history, not computer science, she was able to successfully sell mainframes and other computer equipment. At the time, she was one of only a few women who held this type of job. In 1981, she joined AT&T as a manager, and from 1992 through 1996, she was president of AT&T's Business Communications Systems division.
In 1996, Russo was one of the founding executives who helped launch Lucent Technologies. She remained at Lucent for the next five years. From 2001 to 2002, Russo was president and chief operating officer (COO) of Eastman Kodak Company (see entry). She returned to Lucent in January 2002, as president and CEO.
After it was announced that Russo would fill the job as leader of Lucent, she said that she would focus on employee morale and building customer relationships. In a 2002 Wall Street journal article, the authors said, "The fact that Ms. Russo has played golf since she was a teenager probably doesn't hurt her sales pitch. Nor does the fact that she knows her customers extremely well." Russo was named one of the "50 Most Powerful Women in American Business" by Fortune magazine in 1998, 1999, and 2001.
He was partly responsible for ensuring the advancement of science and Bell continued research to benefit the deaf. He helped develop the journal Science in 1880, became president of the American Association for the Promotion of the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf in 1890, joined the board of the Smithsonian Institution in 1898, served as president of the National Geographic Society from 1898 to 1903, succeeding his father-in-law, Gardiner Hubbard, who was founder of the society, and organized the Aerial Experiment Association in 1907.
During most of his later years, Bell and his family spent increasingly more time at a Baddeck, Nova Scotia, summer home they had purchased in 1886. Eventually they lived there year-round. Bell continued his work, often working and studying past midnight, enjoying the solitude of the quiet hours when everyone else was asleep. He died there at the age of seventy-five.
Alexander Graham Bell will always be remembered as the inventor of the telephone. But his life and works reached far beyond that. For his two daughters, nine grandchildren, and the countless numbers of deaf and hearing children who crossed his path, perhaps he was also remembered as a kind soul and a good teacher.
For More Information
Books
Adams, Stephen B., and Orville R. Butler. Manufacturing the Future: A History of Western Electric. Cambridge and New York : Cambridge University Press, 1999.
Grosvenor, Edwin S., and Morgan Wesson. Alexander Graham Bell: The Life and Times of the Man Who Invented the Telephone. New York: Harry Abrams, Inc., 1997.
Periodicals
Berman, Dennis K., and Joann S. Lublin. "Russo's Goal as Lucent's New Chief: Restore Luster." The Wall Street Journal (January 8, 2002): pBl.
Bruce, Robert V., and Ira Block. "Alexander Graham Bell." National Geographic (September 1988): p. 358.
Chang, Kenneth. "The Precursor to Tiniest Chip is Developed." New York Times (October 18, 2001): p. A22.
Peraino, Kevin. "An Earlier ATT Spinoff Sputters: Once a High Flier, Lucent Hits a Downdraft." Newsweek (November 6, 2000): p 53.
"Telecom: $3-billion Stock Offering, Part of Plan to Split AT&T, Gives Equipment Firm a Value of About $15 million." Los Angeles Times (April 4, 1996): p. D-1.
"Telephones in the United States." Popular Mechanics (March 2002): pS6.
Web Sites
"The Alexander Graham Bell Family Papers in the Library of Congress 1862-1939" [On-line] http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/bellhtml/bellhome.html (accessed on August 15, 2002).
AT&T. [On-line] http://www.att.com (accessed on August 15, 2002).
Lucent Technologies. [On-line] http://www.lucent.com (accessed on August 15, 2002).
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Baddeck, Nova Scotia , Canada
Scottish-born American inventor
Alexander Graham Bell, Scottish-born American inventor and teacher of the deaf, is best known for perfecting the telephone to transmit, or send, vocal messages using electricity. The telephone began a new age in communications technology.
The young man
Alexander Graham Bell was born on March 3, 1847, in Edinburgh, Scotland. His father, Alexander Melville Bell, was an expert on the mechanics of the voice and on elocution (the art of public speaking). His grandfather, Alexander Bell, was an elocution professor. Bell's mother, Eliza, was hard of hearing but became an accomplished pianist (as well as a painter), and Bell took an interest in music. Eliza taught Alexander, who was the middle of three brothers, until he was ten years old. When he was a youth he took a challenge from a mill operator and created a machine that removed the husks from grain. He would later call it his first invention.
After studying at the University of Edinburgh and University College, London, England , Bell became his father's assistant. He taught the deaf to talk by adopting his father's system of visible speech (illustrations of speaking positions of the lips and tongue). In London he studied Hermann Ludwig von Helmholtz's (1821–1894) experiments with tuning forks and magnets to produce complex sounds. In 1865 Bell made scientific studies of the resonance (vibration) of the mouth while speaking.
Both of Bell's brothers had died of tuberculosis (a fatal disease that attacks the lungs). In 1870 his parents, in search of a healthier climate, convinced him to move with them to Brantford, Ontario , Canada. In 1871 he went to Boston, Massachusetts, to teach at Sarah Fuller's School for the Deaf, the first such school in the world. He also tutored private students, including Helen Keller (1880–1968). As professor of voice and speech at Boston University in 1873, he initiated conventions for teachers of the deaf. Throughout his life he continued to educate the deaf, and he founded the American Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf.
Inventing the telephone
From 1873 to 1876 Bell experimented with many inventions, including an electric speaking telegraph (the telephone). The funds came from the fathers of two of his students. One of these men, Gardiner Hubbard, had a deaf daughter, Mabel, who later became Bell's wife.
To help deaf children, Bell experimented in the summer of 1874 with a human ear and attached bones, magnets, smoked glass, and other things. He conceived the theory of the telephone: that an electric current can be made to change its force just as the pressure of air varies during sound production. That same year he invented a telegraph that could send several messages at once over one wire, as well as a telephonic-telegraphic receiver.
Bell supplied the ideas; Thomas Watson created the equipment. Working with tuned reeds and magnets to make a receiving instrument and sender work together, they transmitted a musical note on June 2, 1875. Bell's telephone receiver and transmitter were identical: a thin disk in front of an electromagnet (a magnet created by an electric current).
On February 14, 1876, Bell's attorney filed for a patent, or a document guaranteeing a person the right to make and sell an invention for a set number of years. The exact hour was not recorded, but on that same day Elisha Gray (1835–1901) filed his caveat (intention to invent) for a telephone. The U.S. Patent Office granted Bell the patent for the "electric speaking telephone" on March 7. It was the most valuable single patent ever issued. It opened a new age in communications technology.
Bell continued his experiments to improve the telephone's quality. By accident, Bell sent the first sentence, "Watson, come here; I want you," on March 10, 1876. The first public demonstration occurred at the American Academy of Arts and Sciences convention in Boston two months later. Bell's display at the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition a month later gained more publicity. Emperor Dom Pedro of Brazil (1825–1891) ordered one hundred telephones for his country. The telephone, which had been given only eighteen words in the official catalog of the exposition, suddenly became the "star" attraction.
Establishing an industry
Repeated demonstrations overcame public doubts. The first two-way outdoor conversation was between Boston and Cambridge, Massachusetts, by Bell and Watson on October 9, 1876. In 1877 the first telephone was installed in a private home; a conversation took place between Boston and New York using telegraph lines; in May the first switchboard (a central machine used to connect different telephone lines), devised by E. T. Holmes in Boston, was a burglar alarm connecting five banks; and in July the first organization to make the telephone a commercial venture, the Bell Telephone Company, was formed. That year, while on his honeymoon, Bell introduced the telephone to England and France .
The first commercial switchboard was set up in New Haven, Connecticut, in 1878, the same year Bell's New England Telephone Company was organized. Charles Scribner improved switchboards, with more than five hundred inventions. Thomas Cornish, a Philadelphia electrician, had a switchboard for eight customers and published a one-page telephone directory in 1878.
Questioning Bell's patent
Other inventors had been at work between 1867 and 1873. Professor Elisha Gray (of Oberlin College in Ohio ) invented an "automatic self-adjusting telegraph relay," installed it in hotels, and made telegraph printers. He also tried to perfect a speaking telephone from his multiple-current telegraph. The Gray and Batton Manufacturing Company of Chicago developed into the Western Electric Company.
Another competitor was Professor Amos E. Dolbear, who insisted that Bell's telephone was only an improvement on an 1860 invention by Johann Reis, a German who had experimented with pigs' ears and may have made a telephone. Dolbear's own instrument could transmit tones but not voice quality.
In 1879 Western Union, with its American Speaking Telephone Company, ignored Bell's patents and hired Thomas Edison (1847–1931), along with Dolbear and Gray, as inventors and improvers. Later that year Bell and Western Union formed a joint company, with the latter getting 20 percent for providing wires, equipment, and the like. Theodore Vail, organizer of Bell Telephone Company, combined six companies in 1881. The modern transmitter was born mainly in the work of Emile Berliner and Edison in 1877 and Francis Blake in 1878. Blake's transmitter was later sold to Bell.
The claims of other inventors were contested. Daniel Drawbaugh, who was from rural Pennsylvania and had little formal schooling, almost won a legal battle with Bell in 1884 but was defeated by a four-to-three vote in the Supreme Court (the highest court in the United States ). This claim made for the most exciting lawsuit over telephone patents. Altogether the Bell Company was involved in 587 lawsuits, of which five went to the Supreme Court. Bell won every case. The defending argument for Bell was that no competitor had claimed to be original until seventeen months after Bell's patent. Also, at the 1876 Philadelphia Exposition, major electrical scientists, especially Lord Kelvin (1824–1907), the world's leading authority, had declared Bell's invention to be "new." Professors, scientists, and researchers defended Bell, pointing to his lifelong study of the ear and his books and lectures on speech mechanics.
The Bell Company
The Bell Company built the first long-distance line in 1884, connecting Boston and New York. Bell and others organized The American Telephone and Telegraph Company in 1885 to operate other long-distance lines. By 1889 there were 11,000 miles of underground wires in New York City.
The Volta Laboratory was started by Bell in Washington, D.C., with France awarding the Volta Prize money (about $10,000) for his invention. At the laboratory Bell and his associates worked on various projects during the 1880s, including the photophone, induction balance, audiometer, and phonograph improvements. The photophone transmitted speech by light. The induction balance (electric probe) located metal in the body. The audiometer, used to test a person's hearing, indicated Bell's continued interest in deafness. The first successful phonograph record was produced. The Columbia Gramophone Company made profitable Bell's phonograph records. With the profits Bell established an organization in Washington to study deafness.
Bell's later interests
Bell was also involved in other activities that took much of his time. The magazine Science (later the official publication of the American Association for the Advancement of Science) was founded in 1880 because of Bell's efforts. He made many addresses and published many papers. As National Geographic Society president from 1896 to 1904, he contributed to the success of the society and its publications. In 1898 he became a member of a governing board of the Smithsonian Institution. He was also involved in sheep breeding, hydrodynamics (the study of the forces of fluids, such as water), and projects related to aviation, or the development and design of airplanes.
Aviation was Bell's primary interest after 1895. He aided physicist and astronomer Samuel Langley (1834–1906), who experimented with heavier-than-air flying machines; invented a special kite (1903); and founded the Aerial Experiment Association (1907), bringing together aviator and inventor Glenn Curtiss (1878–1930), Francis Baldwin, and others. Curtiss provided the motor for Bell's man-carrying kite in 1907.
Bell died in Baddeck, Nova Scotia, Canada, on August 2, 1922. His contribution to the modern world and its technologies was enormous.
For More Information
Grosvenor, Edwin S., and Morgan Wesson. Alexander Graham Bell. New York: Harry Abrams, 1997.
Mackay, James A. Alexander Graham Bell: A Life. New York: J. Wiley, 1998.
Weaver, Robyn M. Alexander Graham Bell. San Diego : Lucent, 2000.
Cite this article
(b. Edinburgh, Scotland, 3 March 1847; d, Baddeck, Nova Scotia, 2 August 1922)
technology.
Both Bell’s grandfather, Alexander, and his father, Alexander Melville, were teachers of elocution; his father was well known as the inventor of Visible Speech (a written code indicating the position and action of throat, tongue, and lips in forming sounds). Bell had a lifelong interest in teaching the deaf to speak, an interest intensified because his mother and his wife were deaf. In 1870, after the second of Bell’s two brothers died of tuberculosis, the family moved to Canada. Bell did his early telephone work in Boston and subsequently moved to Washington. He became a citizen of the United States in 1882.
Bell achieved fame as inventor of the telephone and fortune under a broad interpretation given to the patent granted him 10 March 1876. His early experimental work was spurred on by a persistent belief in its ultimate commercial value, and enthusiasm unshared by his predecessor Philip Reis and his contemporary Elisha Gray. Although the telephone is not properly called a scientific invention (Bell’s knowledge of electricity at the time was extremely limited), a fair proportion of the wealth he received from it was used by Bell to pursue scientific researches of his own and to support those of others.
His interest in the deaf led Bell to publish several articles on hereditary deafness. This in turn led to studies on longevity and a long-term series of experiments in which he attempted to develop a breed of sheep with more than the usual two nipples. In 1909, after twenty years of selection, he had a flock consisting solely of six-nippled sheep. He found, as he had suspected, that twin production increased with the number of nipples. Bell made a number of suggestions on the medical use of electricity but performed few experiments himself. His approach to these areas was as an amateur, although one with an active, inquiring mind.
Bell’s financial support of science took several forms. In 1880 he used the 50,000 francs of the Volta Prize to establish the Volta Laboratory Association (later the Volta Bureau), largely devoted to work for the deaf, in Washington. In 1882 he conceived the idea of the journal Science, which began publication in 1883. In the first eight years of its existence, Bell and his father-in-law, G.G. Hubbard, subsidized this journal to the amount of about $100,000. To allay S.P. Langley’s concern that his post as secretary of the Smithsonian Institution would be merely administrative, Bell and J.H. Kidder each gave $5,000 for Langley’s personal research; this money was used in the establishment of the Smithsonian’s astrophysical observatory. In 1891 Bell gave $5,000 to support Langley’s flight experiments. He himself experimented with kites, and in 1907 he organized the Aerial Experimental Association, which lasted for a year and a half and was financed by his wife. Bell also helped to organize and finance the National Geographic Society, serving as its president from 1898 to 1903.
Bell was elected to membership in the National Academy of Sciences in 1883 and was appointed a regent of the Smithsonian Institution in 1898.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. Original Works. A complete list of Bell’s publications is given in Osborne’s article (see below). His notebooks, letters, and other documentary material are nicely housed by the Bell family at the National Geographic Society; some of these have been reproduced on microfilm and are available at the Library of Congress and the Bell Telephone Company of Canada, Montreal. Bell’s court testimony dealing with the telephone appears in The Bell Telephone (Boston, 1908). Most of the surviving pieces of apparatus are preserved at the Smithsonian Institution.
II. Secondary Literature. No satisfactory biography of Bell exists. Basic details can be found in W.C. Langdon’s article on Bell, in Dictionary of American Biography, II, 148–152; C.D. Mackenzie, Alexander Graham Bell, the Man Who Contracted Space (New York, 1928); and H.S. Osborne. “Alexander Graham Bell,” in National Academy of Sciences, Biographical Memoirs, 23 (1945), 1–30. Part of the experimental telephone work is analyzed in B.S. Finn, “Alexander Graham Bell’s Experiments With the Variable-Resistance Transmitter,” in Smithsonian Journal of History, 1 , no. 4 (1966), 1–16.
Bernard S. Finn
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Pink Fairy and Nine Banded are species of which animal? | Armadillos, Armadillo Pictures, Armadillo Facts - National Geographic
3 oz to 120 lbs (85 g to 54 kg)
Did you know?
The nine-banded armadillo’s hapless propensity for being run over by cars has earned it the nickname “Hillbilly Speed Bump.”
Size relative to a 6-ft (2-m) man:
Of the 20 varieties of armadillo, all but one live in Latin America. The familiar nine-banded armadillo is the only species that includes the United States in its range.
Armadillo is a Spanish word meaning “little armored one” and refers to the bony plates that cover the back, head, legs, and tail of most of these odd looking creatures. Armadillos are the only living mammals that wear such shells.
Closely related to anteaters and sloths, armadillos generally have a pointy or shovel-shaped snout and small eyes. They vary widely in size and color, from the 6-inch-long (15-centimeter-long), salmon-colored pink fairy armadillo to the 5-foot-long (1.5-meter-long), dark-brown giant armadillos. Others have black, red, gray, or yellowish coloring.
Contrary to popular belief, not all armadillos are able to encase themselves in their shells. In fact, only the three-banded armadillo can, curling its head and back feet and contorting its shell into a hard ball that confounds would-be predators.
Habitat and Diet
Armadillos live in temperate and warm habitats, including rain forests, grasslands, and semi-deserts. Because of their low metabolic rate and lack of fat stores, cold is their enemy, and spates of intemperate weather can wipe out whole populations.
Most species dig burrows and sleep prolifically, up to 16 hours per day, foraging in the early morning and evening for beetles, ants, termites, and other insects. They have very poor eyesight, and utilize their keen sense of smell to hunt. Strong legs and huge front claws are used for digging, and long, sticky tongues for extracting ants and termites from their tunnels. In addition to bugs, armadillos eat small vertebrates, plants, and some fruit, as well as the occassional carrion meal.
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What were the first names of English novelist R.D.Blackmore? | Lifeform of the week: Armadillos | Earth | EarthSky
Lifeform of the week: Armadillos
By Alex Reshanov in Earth | Science Wire | February 16, 2016
From the pink fairy to the screaming hairy, armadillos are a most peculiar mammal.
VladLazarenko
I’ve been living in Texas for over six years now and blogging about animals for four of those years. And yet not once have I written about armadillos, a shameful omission which I will remedy today in this latest installment of Lifeform of the Week. Join me, dear reader, as there is much to learn…
For instance, until recently I believed one particular species – the nine-banded armadillo – to be the official state mammal of Texas. But it turns out it’s only the small state mammal. We also have a large state mammal (the Texas Longhorn) and a flying state mammal (the Mexican free-tailed bat). All this state symbol hoarding is a bit greedy, if you ask me. Just pick a mammal, Texas. You can’t have them all. Nevertheless armadillos are an important part of the state’s identity. Charming some with their paradoxical appearance, annoying others with their tendency to dig up lawns, and constantly littering our highways with their adorable armored carcasses.
Mammal in a shell
Anatomy of an armadillo. Image: Ryan Somma.
Armadillos are new world mammals, originating in South America. Most of the 21 extant species are found only on that continent, but a few have ventured northward to Central America and, in the case of the nine-banded armadillo, have even crossed the U.S. border.
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Those of you residing in non-armadilloed parts of the world may be surprised to learn that they’re mammals at all. That’s understandable. If asked to sort the armadillo upon first sighting, most people would place it somewhere closer to reptiles. In reality, sloths and anteaters are armadillos’ nearest relatives, but the shell (called a carapace) immediately evokes turtles.
Three-banded armadillo all curled up. Image: Stephanie Clifford.
The armadillo carapace is formed in the dermal layer of the animal’s skin (after formation of the skeleton) and is composed of boney scale-like structures called scutes, topped with a layer of keratin (a component of hair, nails, and horns). The basic carapace structure for most species is one piece covering the shoulders, another covering the rear, and some bands in the middle. Limbs, face, and tail are also usually armored (though naked-tailed armadillos – genus Cabassous – forgo that last bit).
Whether the carapace evolved specifically to shield armadillos from the jaws of predators is debatable. And only three-banded armadillos (genus Tolypeutes) are capable of rolling themselves into an impenetrable ball when threatened. The shell may also offer protection from fellow armadillos (they do fight, especially during the mating season) and it allows them to tromp merrily through thorny vegetation that would shred the hides and/or cargo pants or less armored species.
Bugs and burrows
Besides the carapace, the other crucial anatomical feature shared by all species of armadillo is claws. Armadillos spend a good deal of time digging and their feet are equipped with varying degrees of sharp talons to accomplish this task.
The six-banded armadillo and its formidable claws. Image: Whaldener Endo.
The digging is for both room and board. The room part involves the excavation of burrows. Some species, like the pink fairy armadillo (the smallest, and by some accounts cutest, species of armadillo) live almost entirely underground, whereas others just use burrows for sleeping and nest building.
And all armadillos dig for their dinner. While some species supplement their diet with fruit, invertebrates, and even carrion, all seem to enjoy unearthing a good bug. The biggest and scariest claws are found on armadillos that specialize in tearing open the nests of social insects. For this reason, and because it can reach a mass of 45 kg, do not want to mess with the giant armadillo (Priodontes maximus) an avid connoisseur of termites.
Conquering the U.S.
The pink fairy armadillo seen in its aboveground taxidermied form. Image: Daderot.
Armadillo diversity in South America isn’t bad. As mentioned, they range from tiny (pink fairy armadillo) to enormous (giant armadillo). There are three-banded and six-banded armadillos. There long-nosed armadillos and screaming hairy armadillos (the latter of which can be rather vocal when startled). But here in the United States, we just have the one species – Dasypus novemcinctus, the nine-banded armadillo.*
Our armadillo is a relative newcomer to the U.S., first reported in the Rio Grand Valley only in the mid-nineteenth century. But in the 150 plus years since, the species has rapidly increased its range, which now covers much of Texas and Louisiana, and stretches as far north as Nebraska. Nine-banded armadillos have also set up shop in Florida and parts of Georgia, but that was a separate invasion/expansion caused by the usual Florida factor of captive animals escaping into the wild (oh, Florida, when will you learn?).
Reshaping of the southern U.S. landscape by settlers in the 19th century likely helped nine-banded armadillos expand their range, as did the displacement of Native Americans, who were more willing than Europeans to hunt the animals. But the critters also benefit from not being too set in their ways. They’re flexible in what they eat and where they live, and they don’t seem especially put out by being in close proximity to humans.
The nine-banded armadillo; one of the many official state mammals of Texas. Image: Robert Nunnally.
Nine-banded armadillo may also have an advantage when it comes to reproduction. While females only mate once a year, and only release one egg at a time, that single fertilized egg consistently yields four offspring – genetically identical quadruplets. Four kids for the price of one egg. Not a bad deal if you’re looking to increase your numbers. The phenomenon is called obligate polyembryony (meaning it’s the rule rather than the exception, unlike the fluky twinning seen in mammal species like ours), and is shared by other armadillos of the Dasypus genus. The nine-bander isn’t even the most prolific of the lot. The southern long-nosed armadillo (Dasypus hybridus) produces litters of 6-12 identically adorable armadillo pups.
Can anything stop the nine-band armadillo’s merciless march north? Well, colder and drier climates seem to slow them down a little. But the rest of you can expect to find them gutting your flower gardens as they forage for tasty insects.
Lovable lepers
It’s perhaps best that non-native Americans aren’t especially keen on hunting armadillos for food, as the animals are now notorious carriers of leprosy. While still prevalent in some parts of the world today, leprosy has largely been eradicated in the United States. But of the cases that do occur here, many may be due to contact with armadillos . Though don’t be too quick to judge. Leprosy didn’t exist in the Americas prior to colonialism. So if you must blame anyone for armadillo-to-human leprosy transmission, blame Europe.
In terms of scientific research, armadillo leprosy has proven rather convenient. They’re the only animals besides primates capable of hosting the bacteria that cause the disease, and as a result have become the go-to research animal for its study. Armadillos are actually more susceptible to leprosy than our species, due to their body temperature, which is low by mammal standards and especially hospitable to the bacteria. [Bonus fact: Another consequence of their cooler body temperature is that male armadillos needn’t worry about overcooking their delicate gametes. Testes can thus be safely housed in the abdomen, rather than dangling precariously in the external scrotum of the typical XY mammal.]
Kings of the road
My first nine-banded armadillo sighting occurred within a month of moving to Texas. The animal was noisily foraging just outside the fence of my father’s backyard, inciting much frantic yelping and lunging from his dogs. My tale is unusual, I’m told, in that most Texans see multiple dead armadillos on the side of the road before ever encountering a living specimen.
Some claim that the nine-banded armadillos’ defensive strategy of jumping (rather than simply running) when startled is the cause of their unhappy interactions with automobiles. While this could certainly be a factor, another possibility is that the species’ generally beneficial ability to tolerate human proximity works against them in this case. They may be so unperturbed by the sound of human activity (cars included) that they don’t realize they’re in danger until it’s too late. Either way, armadillos aren’t actually the most numerous car-killed cadavers found on southern U.S. roadways, coming in only third after skunks and opossums. Perhaps they’re just the most memorable.
* Much of the information on nine-banded armadillos in this post comes from The Nine-Banded Armadillo: A Natural History .
This article was originally published in February 2015.
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