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'Alderbaran' is the brightest star in which constellation? | Aldebaran is the Bull's fiery eye | Brightest Stars | EarthSky
History and mythology of Aldebaran.
Science of star Aldebaran. This star glows with the orangish color of a K5 giant star. In visible light, it is about 153 times brighter than the sun, although its surface temperature is lower (roughly 4000 kelvins compared to 5800 kelvins for the sun).
Aldebaran is about 65 light-years away, much closer than the stars of the Hyades with which it misleadingly seems associated. The Hyades are about 150 light-years away.
Aldebaran is an erratic variable with minor variations too small to be noticed by the eye. It also has a small, faint companion star, an M-type red dwarf, some 3.5 light-days away. In other words, light from Aldebaran would need to travel for 3.5 days to reach the companion, in contrast to light from our sun, which requires 8 minutes to travel to Earth.
The three medium-bright stars of Orion’s Belt point to reddish Aldebaran. Image via SolarEmpireUK
How to see Aldebaran. Aldebaran is easy to find. Frequently imagined as the fiery eye of Taurus the Bull, Aldebaran is part of a V-shaped star grouping that forms the face of the Bull. This pattern is called the Hyades.
You can also locate Aldebaran using the famous constellation Orion as a guide. Simply locate the three stars of Orion’s Belt. Then draw an imaginary line through the belt to the right. The first bright star you come to will be Aldebaran with its distinctive reddish-orange glow.
Aldebaran is the 14th brightest star, but five of those that outshine it are only barely visible or not visible at all from much of the Northern Hemisphere. Aldebaran is primarily a winter and spring star. At least, that is when this red star is most easily visible in the evening sky. By early December, it rises shortly after sunset and is visible all night. Three months later it is high to the south at sunset, and sets at around midnight. By early May, it hangs low about the western sunset glow – and before the end of the month, it’s lost altogether. It returns to the predawn sky around late June.
By the way, although it appears among them, Aldebaran is not actually a member of the V-shaped Hyades cluster. It is actually much closer to us in space than the actual Hyades stars.
Constellation Taurus. See Aldebaran marked as the Bull’s Eye? View larger.
History and mythology of Aldebaran. Aldebaran is often depicted as the fiery eye of Taurus the Bull. Because it is bright and prominent, Aldebaran was honored as one of the Four Royal Stars in ancient Persia, the other three Royal Stars being Regulus, Antares and Fomalhaut.
The name Aldebaran is from the Arabic for “The Follower,” presumably as a hunter following prey, which here likely was the star cluster we call the Pleiades. The latter was often viewed as a flock of birds, perhaps doves. According to Richard Hinckley Allen in his classic book Star Names, the name Aldebaran once was applied to the entire Hyades star cluster, a large loose collection of faint stars.
In Hindu myth, Aldebaran was sometimes identified with a beautiful young woman named Rohini, disguised as an antelope and pursued by her lecherous father, disguised as a deer, Mriga. Apparently several ancient peoples associated the star with rain. The Wikipedia entry notes a Dakota Sioux story in which Aldebaran was a star which had fallen to the Earth and whose killing of a serpent led to the formation of the Mississippi River. Allen notes a number of other alternate names, but precious little mythology is known for Aldebaran separately.
Aldebaran is the name of one of the chariot horses in the movie Ben Hur.
On a different note, astronomer Jack Eddy has suggested a connection with the Big Horn Medicine Wheel, an ancient circle of stones atop a mountain in Wyoming. Eddy wrote that the ancient Americans may have used this site as a sort of observatory to view the rising of Aldebaran just before the sun in June to predict the June solstice.
Interestingly, in about two million years, the American spaceprobe Pioneer 10, now heading out into deep space, will pass Aldebaran.
Aldebaran’s position is RA: 4h 35m 55s, dec: 16°30’35”
Bottom line: The star is so Aldebaran huge that, were it in our sun’s place, its surface would extend almost to the orbit of Mercury.
| Taurus |
Named after the scene of the crime, what name is given to the Notorious murder of 1827 when Maria Marten was shot dead by her lover, William Corder, in Suffolk? | Aldebaran | Article about Aldebaran by The Free Dictionary
Aldebaran | Article about Aldebaran by The Free Dictionary
http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Aldebaran
Also found in: Dictionary , Thesaurus , Wikipedia .
Aldebaran
(ăl'dĕb`ərən), brightest star in the constellation Taurus Taurus
[Lat.,= the bull], in astronomy, constellation NW of Orion and lying on the ecliptic (the sun's apparent path through the heavens) between Gemini and Aries; it is one of the constellations of the zodiac.
..... Click the link for more information. ; Bayer designation α Tauri; 1992 position R.A. 4h35.5m, Dec. +16°30'. An orange giant star ( spectral class spectral class,
in astronomy, a classification of the stars by their spectrum and luminosity. In 1885, E. C. Pickering began the first extensive attempt to classify the stars spectroscopically.
..... Click the link for more information. K5 III) with apparent magnitude averaging 0.85, it is one of the 20 brightest stars in the sky. Aldebaran is a visual binary star binary star
or binary system,
pair of stars that are held together by their mutual gravitational attraction and revolve about their common center of mass. In 1650 Riccioli made the first binary system discovery, that of the middle star in the Big Dipper's handle, Zeta
..... Click the link for more information. and an irregular variable star variable star,
star that varies, either periodically or irregularly, in the intensity of the light it emits. Other physical changes are usually correlated with the fluctuations in brightness, such as pulsations in size, ejection of matter, and changes in spectral type, color, or
..... Click the link for more information. , with magnitude magnitude,
in astronomy, measure of the brightness of a star or other celestial object. The stars cataloged by Ptolemy (2d cent. A.D.), all visible with the unaided eye, were ranked on a brightness scale such that the brightest stars were of 1st magnitude and the dimmest stars
..... Click the link for more information. ranging from 0.78 to 0.93. Its distance is 68 light-years. The name is from the Arabic meaning "follower (of the Pleiades)."
Aldebaran
(al-deb -ă-răn) (α Tau) A conspicuous red giant that is the brightest star in the constellation Taurus and lies in the line of sight of but much nearer than the Hyades. It is a slow irregular variable. It has two companions: one of 11th magnitude at 122″ separation, the other of 13th magnitude at 30″. mv : 0.85 (var.); Mv : –0.3; spectral type: K5 III; radius (by interferometer): 45 times solar radius; distance: 18 pc.
Aldebaran
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Which film starring Bruce Willis, Billy Bob Thornton and Ben Affleck was the world's highest grossing film of 1998? | ARMAGEDDON (1998) - Official Movie Trailer - YouTube
ARMAGEDDON (1998) - Official Movie Trailer
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Uploaded on Jun 17, 2011
Armageddon (1998) / Армагеддон (Трейлер)
Director: Michael Bay
Starring: Bruce Willis, Billy Bob Thornton, Liv Tyler, Will Patton, Owen Wilson, Jason Isaacs and Ben Affleck
Armageddon is a 1998 American science-fiction disaster film, directed by Michael Bay, produced by Jerry Bruckheimer and released by Disney's Touchstone Pictures. The film follows a group of blue-collar deep-core drillers sent by NASA to stop a gigantic asteroid on a collision course with Earth. It features an ensemble cast including William Fichtner, Bruce Willis, Ben Affleck, Billy Bob Thornton, Liv Tyler, Owen Wilson, Will Patton, Peter Stormare, Michael Clarke Duncan and Steve Buscemi.
Armageddon opened in theaters only two-and-a-half months after a similar impact-based movie, Deep Impact, which starred Morgan Freeman. According to Bruce Joel Rubin writer of Deep Impact, a 'president at Disney' took notes on everything the writer said during lunch about his script and initiated Armageddon as a counter film at Disney. Astronomers described Deep Impact as being more scientifically accurate, though Armageddon fared better at the box office. Both films were equally received by critics. Armageddon was an international box office success, despite generally mixed reviews from film critics. It became the highest-grossing film of 1998 worldwide surpassing the Steven Spielberg war epic, Saving Private Ryan.
Plot:
When an asteroid the size of Texas is headed for Earth the world's best deep core drilling team is sent to nuke the rock from the inside.
I do NOT own this video or right to it. All rights go to its rightful owners (movie company and film creators).
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| Armageddon |
Named after a nickname given to the victim, what name is given to the unsolved murder of American waitress Elizabeth Short in Leimert Park, Los Angeles in 1947? | The Highest Grossing Jerry Bruckheimer Produced Films
The Highest Grossing Jerry Bruckheimer Produced Films
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Jerry Bruckheimer is an American film and television producer with one of the most impressive résumés in Hollywood. The 70 year old producer has has been honored with 41 Academy Award nominations (six wins), eight Grammy Award nominations (five wins), 23 Golden Globe nominations (four wins), 77 Emmy Award nominations (17 wins), and eight People’s Choice nominations (four wins) over the course of his 42-year career. Bruckheimer’s best-known television series include the CSI franchise, Without a Trace, Cold Case, and the American version of The Amazing Race. Some his most famous films include Flashdance, Beverley Hills Cop, Top Gun, Bad Boys, The Rock, Con Air, Armageddon, Black Hawk Down, Pearl Harbor, the Pirates of the Caribbean franchise, and the National Treasure franchise. With a net worth of $850 million, Bruckheimer is the ninth richest producer in the world. Below is a list of his highest grossing films worldwide.
5. Armageddon – $553.7 million
The only Bruckheimer film in the top five not having to do with pirates, Armageddon is a 1998 American science fiction disaster thriller, directed by Michael Bay, that follows a group of deep-core drillers sent by NASA to stop a giant asteroid on a collision course with Earth. Starring Bruce Willis, Ben Affleck, Billy Bob Thornton, Liv Tyler, Owen Wilson, Michael Clarke Duncan, and Steve Buscemi, Armageddon was a box office smash that received mixed critical reviews.
4. Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl – $654.3 million
Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl–the first film in the Pirates of the Caribbean franchise–is a 2003 fantasy film based on the popular Disney theme park ride. Directed by Gore Verbinski, the film follows pirate Captain Jack Sparrow (Johnny Depp) and blacksmith Will Turner (Orlando Bloom) as they rescue a kidnapped Elizabeth Swann (Keira Knightley) from the cursed crew of the Black Pearl. The film was a huge success, critically and financially.
3. Pirates of the Caribbean: At World’s End – $963.4 million
Released in 2007, the third film in the Pirates of the Caribbean franchise, Pirates of the Caribbean: At World’s End, follows Will Turner (Bloom), Elizabeth Swann (Knightley), Hector Barbossa (Geoffrey Rush), and the crew of the Black Pearl as they attempt to rescue Captain Jack Sparrow (Depp) form Davy Jones’ Locker. Directed once again by Gore Verbinski, the film became the most successful film of 2007 and was the most expensive movie ever made to date with a budget of $300 million.
2. Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides – $1.05 billion
The fourth and newest installment of the Pirates of the Caribbean franchise, Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides, is the only film of the series not directed by Gore Verbinski. Directed by Rob Marshall, the film–which draws inspiration from the novel On Stranger Tides by Tim Powers–follows Captain Jack Sparrow (Depp), joined by Angelica (Penélope Cruz), in his search for the Fountain of Youth. The film received mixed critical reviews but stands as the 13th highest grossing film of all-time.
1. Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man’s Chest – $1.07 billion
Directed by Gore Verbinski, Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man’s Chest was the second film of the Pirates of the Caribbean franchise. Released in 2006, the film follows Will Turner (Bloom) in his quest to find Jack Sparrow’s (Depp) magic compass at the order of Lord Cutler Beckett of the East India Trading Company, who promises to pardon Turner and Elizabeth Swann (Knightley) upon the item’s successful return. At the time, the film was the fastest film to ever gross $1 billion worldwide and currently stands as the 11th highest grossing film of all-time.
Photo by Mark Davis/Getty Images
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Which British Prime Minister later became the Earl of Stockton? | Harold Macmillan - Stockton Council
Stockton Council
Harold Macmillan
Harold Macmillan
Maurice Harold Macmillan, 1st Earl of Stockton, OM, PC (1894 - 1986) was a British Conservative politician and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 10 January 1957 to 18 October 1963.
Nicknamed 'Supermac', in his premiership he advocated a mixed economy, championed the use of public investment to create expansion, and presided over an age of affluence marked by high growth and low unemployment. He restored the special relationship with the United States, decolonised much of Africa, ended National Service, strengthened the nuclear deterrent, and pioneered the Nuclear Test Ban with the Soviet Union, but his unwillingness to disclose United States nuclear secrets to France led to a French veto of the United Kingdom's entry into the European Economic Community.
When asked what represented the greatest challenge for a statesman, Macmillan replied: "Events, my dear boy, events". Harold Macmillan was born in Chelsea, London, and was first educated at Summer Fields School and then at Eton but left during his first half after a serious attack of pneumonia. He also attended Balliol College, Oxford, although he only completed two years of the four year course reading Greats before the outbreak of the First World War.
Macmillan served with distinction as a captain in the Grenadier Guards during the war and was wounded on three occasions. During the Battle of the Somme, he spent an entire day wounded and lying in a slit trench with a bullet in his pelvis, reading the classical Greek playwright Aeschylus in his original language.
Macmillan lost so many of his fellow students during the war that afterwards he refused to return to Oxford, saying the university would never be the same. He joined Macmillan Publishers as a junior partner in 1920, remaining with the company until his appointment to ministerial office in 1940. Macmillan married Lady Dorothy Cavendish, daughter of Victor Cavendish, 9th Duke of Devonshire on 21 April 1920.
Between 1929 and 1935 Lady Dorothy had a long affair with the Conservative politician Robert Boothby, in full public view of Westminster and established society. Boothby was widely rumoured to have been the father of Macmillan's youngest daughter Sarah. The stress caused by this may have contributed to Macmillan's nervous breakdown in 1931. Lady Dorothy died on 21 May 1966, aged 65.
Elected to the House of Commons in 1924 for Stockton-on-Tees, Macmillan lost his seat in 1929, only to return in 1931. He spent the 1930s on the backbenches, During this time (1938) he published the first edition of his book The Middle Way, which advocated a broadly centrist political philosophy both domestically and internationally.
In the Second World War he at last attained office, serving in the wartime coalition government in the Ministry of Supply and the Colonial Ministry before attaining real power upon being sent to North Africa in 1942 as British government representative to the Allies in the Mediterranean.
During this assignment Macmillan worked closely with US General Dwight Eisenhower, a friendship that would prove crucial in his later career. Macmillan was also the British resident minister advising General Keightley of V Corps, the senior Allied commander in Austria responsible for Operation Keelhaul, which included the forced repatriation of up to 70,000 prisoners of war to the Soviet Union and Tito's Yugoslavia in 1945.
Macmillan returned to England after the war and was Secretary of State for Air for two months in 1945. He lost his seat in the landslide Labour victory that year, but soon returned to Parliament in a November 1945 by-election in Bromley. With the Conservative victory in 1951 he became Minister of Housing under Winston Churchill and fulfilled his conference promise to build 300,000 houses per year. He then served as Minister of Defense from October 1954. He then served as Foreign Secretary in April-December 1955 and Chancellor of the Exchequer 1955-1957 under Anthony Eden.
Harold Macmillan became Prime Minister and leader of the Conservative Party after Eden's resignation in January 1957, Macmillan led the Conservatives to victory in the October 1959 general election, increasing his party's majority from 67 to 107 seats. The successful campaign was based on the economic improvements achieved, the slogan "Life's Better Under the Conservatives" was matched by Macmillan's own remark, "indeed let us be frank about it - most of our people have never had it so good.", usually paraphrased as "You've never had it so good".
In 1963 he was taken ill on the eve of the Conservative Party conference, diagnosed incorrectly with inoperable prostate cancer. Consequently, he resigned on 18 October 1963. Macmillan initially refused a peerage and retired from politics in September 1964. He did, however, accept the distinction of the Order of Merit from the Queen. After retiring, he took up the chairmanship of his family's publishing house, Macmillan Publishers.
In 1984 he finally accepted a peerage and was created Earl of Stockton and Viscount Macmillan of Ovenden. In the last month of his life, he observed: "Sixty-three years ago ... the unemployment figure (in Stockton-on-Tees) was then 29%. Last November ... the unemployment (there) is 28%. A rather sad end to one's life." Macmillan died at Birch Grove, West Sussex, on 29 December 1986, aged 92 years and 322 days, the greatest age attained by a British Prime Minister until surpassed by James Callaghan on 14 February 2005.
His son Maurice had become heir to the earldom of Stockton, but died suddenly a month after his father's elevation. Harold Macmillan's grandson became the 2nd Earl of Stockton.
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| Harold Macmillan |
Which organisation was founded by the Reverend Chad Varah? | Maurice Harold Macmillan, Earl of Stockton
Copyright 2003, The Eleanor Roosevelt Papers. All rights reserved.
Maurice Harold Macmillan, Earl of Stockton (1895-1986)
Harold Macmillian, British prime minister from 1957-1963, was educated at Eton and Oxford and, after working in his family's publishing house, became a member of Parliament in 1924. As a Conservative MP, he criticized Neville Chamberlain's appeasement policies, only advancing to Cabinet office during World War II. He then held a series of influential posts under Churchill's administration, ultimately closing his wartime service as secretary of state for air. When Churchill returned to the prime ministership in 1951, Macmillan served as housing minister from 1951-1954 and foreign secretary of defense in 1955. When he replaced Anthony Eden as prime minister in 1957, he helped improve British-American relations, visited Khrushchev 's Soviet Union, helped negotiate the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, championed independence for British colonies, and unsuccessfully tried to get Britain included in the European Economic Community (also known as the Common Market). Fallout from the Common Market battle and the scandal caused by war secretary John Profumo's affair with Christine Keeler, coupled with his ill health, forced Macmillan to resign the ministership in 1963. He remained outside politics until 1985, when he was made a member of the House of Lords, from which he criticized the decisions of Margaret Thatcher's government.
Source: Asa Briggs, ed., Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 370-371.
Recommended Citation: Eleanor Roosevelt, John Kennedy, and the Election of 1960: A Project of The Eleanor Roosevelt Papers, ed. by Allida Black, June Hopkins, John Sears, Christopher Alhambra, Mary Jo Binker, Christopher Brick, John S. Emrich, Eugenia Gusev, Kristen E. Gwinn, and Bryan D. Peery (Columbia, S.C.: Model Editions Partnership, 2003). Electronic version based on unpublished letters. On the Web at http://mep.blackmesatech.com/mep/ [Accessed 15 February 2015]
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In which city are the headquarters of UNESCO? | Hotels near UNESCO Headquarters | Hotels.com
Hotels near UNESCO Headquarters, Left Bank
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What was the name of William Shakespeare's only son? | Top 10 Left Bank Hotels Near UNESCO Headquarters | France | Hotels.com
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Hôtel Royal Phare
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Locaflat boulevard de Grenelle Studio
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What does the Saffir-Simpson Scale measure? | Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale
Climatology | Names | Wind Scale | Extremes | Models | Breakpoints
The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale is a 1 to 5 rating based on a hurricane's sustained wind speed. This scale estimates potential property damage. Hurricanes reaching Category 3 and higher are considered major hurricanes because of their potential for significant loss of life and damage. Category 1 and 2 storms are still dangerous, however, and require preventative measures. In the western North Pacific, the term "super typhoon" is used for tropical cyclones with sustained winds exceeding 150 mph.
Category
Types of Damage Due to Hurricane Winds
1
64-82 kt
119-153 km/h
Very dangerous winds will produce some damage: Well-constructed frame homes could have damage to roof, shingles, vinyl siding and gutters. Large branches of trees will snap and shallowly rooted trees may be toppled. Extensive damage to power lines and poles likely will result in power outages that could last a few to several days.
2
83-95 kt
154-177 km/h
Extremely dangerous winds will cause extensive damage: Well-constructed frame homes could sustain major roof and siding damage. Many shallowly rooted trees will be snapped or uprooted and block numerous roads. Near-total power loss is expected with outages that could last from several days to weeks.
3
| Tropical cyclone |
Which product used the advertising slogan 'cuts cleaning time in half '? | What does the SaffirSimpson scale measure
What does the Saffir-Simpson scale measure?
Tornado
Typhoon
Hurricane
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'Pilot', 'Melon' and 'Strapped-Toothed' are types of which sea creature? | Pilot Whale - Whale Facts and Information
Pilot Whale
Pilot Whale – genus Globicephala
Description
Pilot Whales are dark black in color most of the time. Some of them are a dark gray. There are two species of the Pilot whale, but it is often very hard to tell them apart. They generally both get lumped into this basic category. One has a short fin while the other features one that is long. These whales are very large, and only the killer whale is bigger than they are.
Males are the largest with a length of up to 25 feet and they can weigh as much as three tons. The females only weigh about half of that and they can be up to 16 feet in length.
Behavior
You may not get to see the Pilot Whale as often as other species. This is because it tends to stick to the deeper waters. They have been praised for their extremely high level of intelligence. They are said to be very easy to train and they are also social creatures. They often form groups of more than 100 in them. They have been found from time to time in large groups on the beaches. It is believed this is due to an infestation of parasites that affects the brain’s ability to stay on course.
Diet/Feeding
The Pilot Whale has quite a selection when it comes to the foods they eat. Their diet includes squid, octopus, herring, and various small fish. They tend to prefer the squid though so that is the primary food source if it is readily available for them. They eat about 70 pounds of food daily which is very little compared to other types of whales their size.
Observation of the Pilot Whales indicate that they work together in order to get the food that they want. Engaged in a type of high pitched whistle, they will create a circle that seems to mesmerize the prey and then they can consume it with ease.
Distribution
There is nowhere you won’t find the Pilot Whale. In fact, they are believed to be the most distributed whale in the world. They enjoy both the tropic and the temperate waters. Generally you will find those with the shorter fins in the warmer waters. The two types of physical characteristic Pilot Whales tend to stay separate from each other. Sometimes they do cross paths though during the migration process.
Short Finned Pilot Whale Distribution
Long Finned Pilot Whale Distribution
Reproduction
Females mature faster than the males at about 9 years of age. For the males it is around 15 years old. The process of mating takes place after aggressive acts from the males with each other. This includes shocks melon to melon in order to get the attention of the females around them.
The calves emerge about 4.7 feet long and weighing just over 135 pounds. They will receive milk from their mothers for almost two years. Some Pilot Whales observed have been noted to nurse a calf for up to 10 years. This is quite puzzling to researchers. They believe it may have something to do with the older females. They may do this with their last offspring.
Human Interaction
The Japanese tend to savor the meat from the Pilot Whale so it often fall victim of their whaling efforts. Since Pilot Whales travel in large groups the easily fall victim to whaling. There are complex set ups that move an entire group of them towards the beach so that they can be killed.
Conservation
Pilot Whale is considered as “data deficient” species in the Red List of Threatened species. They seem to do extremely well in captivity which can be a huge benefit if some severe forms of conservation need to take place later on.
Categories
| Whale |
Which cartoon character first appeared on screen in 'The Wise Little Hen' in 1934 and later in the 'Oscar' winning cartoon 'Der Fuhrer's Face' in 1942? | Dolphins in Hawaiian Culture
Dolphins in Hawaiian Culture
Mahealani Kuamo'o-Henry Pahoa, Big Island:
My name is Mahealani Kuamo'o-Henry. And I am kanaka maoli, cultural teacher and Hawaiian spiritual Kahu-priestess.
My Hawaiian ancestors and 'ohana members today freely interact with our ocean 'aumakua, and yes, they are 'aumakua to us, guardians and guides, our family, our ocean family.
In 1820 there was a huge, huge movement in our Hawaiian landscape. In 1820, from that period on, many of my people had practices that we did prior to 1820. We swam -- yes, we swam --with our ocean family. They were so much a part of us.
In my 'ohana alone, my mother comes from the Honu Clan. Absolutely. And my father with my grandfather, they used to have their canoes. They paddled their canoes and they called on the nai'a. The nai'a was part of our way for fishing as well, and for directing canoes. We are talking even way prior to that time frame.
For those Hawaiians who do not have that kind of mo'olelo in their 'ohana today, it is not your fault that you do not have this memory, because in 1820, with the coming of the missionaries, so many of our Hawaiian practices were deleted, were placed aside.
Please know, please know, that our ocean family, our ocean 'ohana, our 'aumakua still live within the hearts and practices of many, such as myself, who have received not only the personal experience but also the mo'olelo that was passed on from one generation to another that was not banned in certain 'ohana, and certainly not in mine.
So I simply ask you, please, aloha, aloha yourself, aloha our 'ohana of the ocean, and let's put together in one mind of aloha the kapu, if you will, certain conscious, conscious, means of education for protocol with our, our, 'ohana from the ocean. Mahalo.
Star Newland, Big Island:
I noticed when my Hawaiian ohana spoke about their cultural interactions with the dolphins, with the nai'a, they have yet to mention the use of the historical and cultural tradition to birth with them in the oceans. We know this goes back, at least the last recorded one -- actually, I met a man on Oahu who he, himself, was born with the dolphins in Kauai, his children were born, his grandchildren were born, and even before him they were born with the nai'a.
Doug Hackett.Big Island;
When we showed up we were very, very interested in learning about the Hawaiian culture and the Hawaiian traditions. So one of the first things I did was I signed up for a lecture by Kahuna Lanakila Bryant about the Hawaiian aumakuas, because I wanted to learn about the aumakua. In particular, I was most interested in how the nai'a, the dolphins, fit into the Hawaiian - - traditional Hawaiian culture. To my great surprise, he didn't address the nai'a at all in talking about any of the aumakua. So after the meeting I was very, very interested, and I asked him, what about the nai'a, you know, what about the dolphins. He said, they're not an aumakua, they are not one of the Hawaiian aumakua. I said, well, how could that be when they seem to be a very important part. He said, well, they showed up a little later. They just weren't included. They weren't part of the Hawaiian tradition. I was very surprised about that. So I said, well, what do you feel about us swimming with the dolphins. He said, well, it's your choice. I personally don't recommend it, he says, but it's your choice.
Maggie Connor - visitor
I count myself fortunate, to even be able to see the dolphins just from the shore. These pods, if you were here 15 years ago -- and I know some of you are born and raised here. Uncle Alena was telling me, you know, what's this word pods. I never even heard of pods. With us, the dolphins numbered in the thousands. I mean, can you imagine? In the thousands.
Damien Kenison, Hookena Beach
I speak for my wife and her family, the Kalina Alani Ohana (phonetic), who have lived here
for generations, who have fished there and lived off the land and who never once bothered the nai'a. Not once.
Michael Salla
I was very touched to hear some of the representatives from the Hawaiian community. I don't know too much about the Hawaiian culture so it was very good to hear what they had to say about their attitudes towards the dolphins. I've worked with indigenous communities in different parts of the world; Australia, Sri Lanka, East Timor. So I well know indigenous communities often do represent cultures that go back many centuries. But I also know that indigenous communities are not uniform. They have many diverse opinions in them. We heard from Doug Hackett that some indigenous Hawaiian community leaders do have very different attitudes toward swimming with dolphins.
Marie Burns Honaunau,
I have heard a lot of you guys lie to point out your facts. You exploit the culture. You lie about the culture. Believe it or not, Auntie that came in here, I don't know where she's from, but I'm from that ahupua'a. I'm from this island. She's another person who's using the Hawaiian culture as a Hawaiian coming in here and saying stuff. But the reality is that's not what was happening at Honaunau Bay. Maybe it happened elsewhere, but not at Honaunau Bay. Not in Puna, either. Because maybe if you -- well, maybe at Kehena, but that's fine. That's her thing.
Mikahala Roy, Kona and Oiwi
The nai'a and sea creatures longstanding in the waters of Hawaii are among our ohana.
,..as an Oiwi of Hawaii, and at the same time a member of the larger Pacific ohana, know that there is a name Teohanaonanaia. ...This name means, the family of the nai'a. ...The name infers strong connection between the people and the nai'a.
The nai'a are members of the family of Oiwi, people of the bones of our ancestors of these lands. The nai'a are esteemed, beloved family to us, and the relationship between they and our original people perhaps needs to be fully discovered, like the relationship of the stars to the lands in our Pacific and in our Hawaii. They are highly placed -- the nai'a are highly placed in a pantheon that only some of us may understand at this time. Perhaps this hierarchy of spirit is the reason that human beings of all racial backgrounds may be able to tell about our brothers and sisters, the nai'a.
Dolphin Legends in Hawaii (excerpted from Serge Kahili King)
There aren't any, or are there?
Although there are many mysteries and strange happenings to be found in these beautiful islands, one of the most mysterious and strange is the fact that there are no traditional dolphin stories.
There are two names for dolphins given in the Pukui-Elbert dictionary: nai'a and nu'ao, neither of which are easy to understand (one of these is translated as "porpoise," but "porpoise" and "dolphin" are commonly used interchangeably, even though, technically, there are no porpoises in Hawaiian waters). Nai'a quite possibly simply means "sea creatures" (na = plural, i'a = fish or any sea creature). Nu'ao has tantalizing roots that could mean "whistling multitude," but that's a stretch. <I think that is a perfect name for a large pod of vocalizing dolphiins! Not a strecth at all... editor>
Even more curiously, all the <human interaction> behaviors have been attributed to a different sea creature in Hawaiian legends. So I have a theory. In all the books I have read about Hawaiian legends and mythology, there are numerous references to sharks, but none to dolphins. This has always struck me as rather strange, but it was not until I read a shark story in "Myths and Legends of the Polynesians" by Johannes C. Andersen that I got my first clue as to why this might be so. In a story from Mangaia, the most southerly of the Cook Islands, the goddess 'Ina (the equivalent of the Hawaiian Hina) is using a shark to help her with various tasks when she cracks a coconut open on the shark's forehead, and this is why, in the words of the story, "From that day there has been a protuberance on the forehead of all sharks, known as the 'bump of 'Ina'."
Well, in spite of what the story says, sharks do not have bumps on their foreheads, but dolphins do. In re-reading all the shark stories I could find I noticed a large number of behaviors described that are characteristic of dolphins, but not sharks. My conclusion is that the most common word for a shark, which is mano in Hawaiian, was originally a generic term that included both dolphins and sharks, and that for some unknown reason translators applied it only to sharks. Mano is always translated as "shark," even though one type of shark that, by Hawaiian tradition. rested its head on the bow of a canoe and was fed and loved by fishermen, was called mano ihu wa'a, which means "Mano with a beak like the prow of a canoe." If my theory is valid, then there are many dolphin stories in Polynesian legends. Dolphins are just traveling through the literature disguised as sharks - and maybe laughing about it.
<What do you think?>
"The melon-headed whale was originally identified in Hawai‘i. The first account of the species is from Hilo Bay, Hawai‘i in 1841 where approximately 60 animals were driven ashore and harvested for their meat and oil (Wilkes 1845). According to Wilkes, “the moment a school of porpoises is discovered, it is their usual practice to drive them in” referring to native Hawaiians. This drive fishery is contrary to some beliefs that native Hawaiians held dolphins to be sacred and did not hunt them." Jessica Aschettino in "POPULATION SIZE AND STRUCTURE OF MELON-HEADED WHALES
(PEPONOCEPHALA ELECTRA) AROUND THE MAIN HAWAIIAN ISLANDS:
EVIDENCE OF MULTIPLE POPULATIONS BASED ON PHOTOGRAPHIC DATA"
Hawaiian Newspaper Translation Project: Fisheries
Historical accounts translated from Hawaiian to English
"This is something amazing that took place here in Kahana on
Friday, the 14th of December, 1837. I went to Ka‘a‘awa at ten
o‘clock and I stayed there until late afternoon, around three
o‘clock. I returned from Ka‘a‘awa and reached Makaua. The
men, women and children weren‘t there. I asked two elderly
women sitting in the house, “Where are all of your people?”
“They have all gone down to look at the fish.” I asked again,
“What kind of fish?” They responded, “Dolphins.” Then my
feet swiftly carried me down to Pu‘uomahia where I watched
the canoes, crowded with people, catching the fish in the ocean.
Men, women and children were grabbing fish; a strong man
would get 12 fish, a weaker man, 8 fish, a very weak man, 4
fish, a strong woman, 6 fish, a weaker woman, 3 fish, and a very
weak woman, 1 fish, a strong child, 4 fish, a weaker child, 2 fish,
and a very weak child, 1 fish. Here is where they were speared,
the snout, the dorsal fin, and the tail, those are the places where
those large fishes were speared. Some were 7 feet long, some
6 feet in length, and up to 3 feet in circumference at the widest
point. Here is the count of these fish, there were 206 that were
killed. The people ate the meat. Another benefit gotten from
these fish is oil. Pots, jars, and bamboo containers were filled,
which are our lamps that we are burning. The people chopped
the dolphins up until they were exhausted, dogs came and ate,
and pigs came and ate. The sea, the three rivers, and even the
plains were filled with the stench. That is my friendly thought
for all of us. By me, NAILI"
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On which Dutch river does Amsterdam stand? | What Does the XXX in the Amsterdam Mean?
Updated July 29, 2016.
What Does the Triple X (XXX) in Amsterdam Mean?
Given one of the most common stereotypes about the city of Amsterdam , the triple X that can be spotted all over the city may come as little surprise - but does it really have to do with the city's reputation for sex tourism? Not at all; the triple X on the Amsterdam coat of arms turns out to be just a coincidence. The three X's are actually silver St. Andrew's Crosses, also known as saltires - the type of cross on which St. Andrew is said to have been crucified, and a common heraldic symbol worldwide.
There are various theories as to what the X's stand for. One popular theory is that the X's stand for the three chief perils that the city of Amsterdam once faced: floods, fire, and the Black Death . Another theory holds that the crosses were taken from the shield of the family Persijn, and refer to three of the family's properties: Amsterdam, Ouder-Amstel, and Nieuwer-Amstel (present-day Amstelveen ).
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The black pale , a heraldic term for a vertical band, that runs down the shield would represent the Amstel River, on which the three were located.
The X's are often found on their own - for example, on the traffic bollards found on countless city streets - but on the Amsterdam coat of arms, the crosses appear vertically on a red escutcheon or heraldic shield. Two lions, added in the 16th century, flank the shield. Atop the shield is the Imperial Crown of Austria; in the 15th century, Amsterdam was rewarded with permission to use the imperial crown of Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I in its coat of arms in return for the financial support it provided to Maximilian in wartime; this was considered a favorable endorsement of the city far and wide. When the personal crown of the Catholic emperor became the Imperial Crown of Austria (under Maximilian I's successor, Rudolf II), the city of Amsterdam updated its coat of arms to the new crown.
The silver scroll below the escutcheon, the most recent addition, contains the motto of Amsterdam: Heldhaftig, Vastberaden, Barmhartig, "Heroic, Steadfast, Compassionate". Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands, grandmother of the current Queen Beatrix, introduced the scroll to commemorate the February strike of 1941 when the non-Jews of Amsterdam rose up in protest of Nazi persecution of the city's Jewish population. This was the first, and one of the only, such strikes in occupied Europe. The scroll was added in 1947 and has since been emblazoned on surfaces across the city.
| Amstel |
What was the title of singer/songwriter Don McLean's first UK number one? | The River IJ, Amsterdam's Waterfront | DutchAmsterdam.com
Our take on restaurants along the IJ
Alternatively, have an impromptu picnic at the Oeverpark just west of the EYE Film Institute Netherlands . Buy something the eat and drink at the Albert Heijn supermarket in Central Station, then take the Buiksloterweg ferry, and walk past the EYE building to the park along the IJpromenade.
Free ferries across the IJ
Situated right next to one of the ferry landings, the owner of Al Ponte could potentially get very rich selling tickets for the trip across the water. Every day countless tourists walk up to the kiosk’s window and ask how much tickets for the ferry cost.
The answer: Niente. Nothing. Nada. Niets… The ferries are free to use for everyone.
You can travel back and forth across the river IJ on board the free ferries
That’s because without the ferries — which are operated by the municipal public transport company GVB — many Amsterdammers could not easily travel back and forth across the IJ.
There is a bridge for cars, cyclists and pedestrians to the far east of the water, and there are three tunnels for cars. 1
But the bridge is 4.3 km (2.6 miles) — as the crow flies — from Central Station, which means that most people travelling back and forth between Amsterdam’s city center and Amsterdam Noord are dependent on the ferries. Since traveling by ferry is a matter of necessity, rather than choice, the city at some point promised that the ferry trips would always be free.
The GVB operates 6 ferry routes across the IJ, which currently serve more than 15 million passengers a year. That’s up from 12 million in 2011 — a reflection of the growing importance of the Noord borough , where more and more people and businesses are settling.
Poor Man’s Cruise?
When my sister and I were children, my parents — who weren’t well off financially — would treat us to a trip on the ferry before we’d eat ice cream at Central Station. We would go back and forth a few times. To this date I remember those trips: the excitement of being on a boat, of seeing all the other ships, and of going to ‘places unknown.’
To be honest, no matter how often I use the ferry nowadays, I still get a kick out of it — and there are plenty of times when I take an extra trip or two across the water. And so can you.
Why deny yourself one of life’s simply pleasures, right?
When I was young Amsterdam North was still home to various shipyards, and the islands to the east comprised the Port of Amsterdam
Another bridge across the IJ?
There are six ferry lines across the IJ, serviced by eleven ferries which together costs GVB 10 million Euro a year to operate.
During peak hours, or when there are special events in the city, the ferries tend to be overcrowded. Debarking on the other side can be somewhat of a challenge, as lots of people want to get on to the ferry while others are still trying to get off the ship.
Recently the city painted huge red and green areas at the landings. If you want to board the ferry, wait in a red area until all passengers getting off the ship have cleared the green area.
Most of the time it works, but there are plenty of selfish nutcases who don’t want to wait, and instead push their way on board through the flow of people debarking.
The on-going growth in the number of passengers, the cost of new ferries, and the limitations imposed by sailing back and forth across a busy, international waterway, have given new life to old dreams.
Since about the middle of the 19th century people have been talking about the possibility of building one or more bridges across the IJ.
The Amsterdam city council will decide in 2017 whether or not two bridges will be built across the river IJ
Nowadays the city is seriously looking into the possibilities, and has asked the citizens of Amsterdam to help think about possible solutions.
Suggestions have anything from dedicated tunnels for pedestrians and cyclists to cableways. The latter are said to be impractical and too expensive. The former would be costly as well. Tunnels must be laid very deep in order to accommodate cruise ships. And not every bicyclist would be able to negotiate the steep inclines.
Anyway, the city council is expected to make a decision on the issue in 2017. If approved, the bridges would become reality some time between 2020 and 2025, at an expected cost of 130 million Euro.
In anticipation, the city has already reserved the necessary plots of land.
Many commuters, noting the rising popularity of ‘Noord’ along with the overcrowding on the ferries during morning and evening drive times, would love to see those bridges become reality.
On the other hand many Amsterdammers, including lots of ‘Noorderners‘ are against such plans — for a variety of reasons.
For one, we generally don’t trust City Hall with big, money-eating projects (e.g. the way-over-budget Noord-Zuid metro line ).
For another, there are all manner of practical considerations, such as the fact that 150+ cruise ships a year visit the harbor. How tall would a bridge have to be — and how hard would you have to pedal your bike across a windy bridge? If the bridge opens instead, how often and how long would you have to wait each time that happens?
And there are plenty of people who wish to keep North ‘to themselves,’ so to speak.
There are economic considerations as well.
Most proposals for possible bridges call for the Passenger Terminal Amsterdam (PTA) — the cruise ship terminal — to be moved from its current position just east of Central Station to a location in the commercial port district. Studies into the bridge issue mention that doing so may negatively impact Amsterdam’s burgeoning cruise ship business. Cruise agencies may decide to bypass the city if passengers have to be ferried back and forth between a remote port location and the center of town. Mind you, each cruise ship represents an economic boon of about €500.000 Euro. On average Amsterdam welcomes 137 such ships a year — and this number of expected to grow to 250 by 2030.
The river IJ, seen in easterly direction. Central Station is at the middle-right. © Copyright, amports.nl. Used by permission.
The Port Authorities are not happy with the talk about bridges either. The IJ is an international ‘corridor’ of great importance to the logistic and economic position of the port. Messing about with bridges — and even the slightest possibilities of delays or safety issue — is, in their eyes, not an option.
At one time the controversial Noord-Zuid metro line had a station planned for the yacht harbor location just across from the Buiksloterweg ferry landing. But it was axed in one of a series of budget cuts.
Can you swim in the river IJ?
Not officially, but there some ‘ wild swimming ‘ spots where people do take to the water.
Is it a river, a lake, an estuary, an inlet, or a bay?
Throughout the centuries the landscape of the province of North Holland, in which Amsterdam is situated, has undergone many drastic changes in an ongoing battle between land and water.
On successive maps of Amsterdam and surroundings you see that the shape of the IJ has also constantly changed. That is one reason why people refer to the body of water with different geographical terms.
Note how the IJ also constantly changes shape
In tourist guidebooks you’ll see the IJ called a bay, and inlet, a lake or a river — and at one time or another each of those terms were true.
Officially the IJ is a link in one of the eight ‘national water corridors’ in the Netherlands, and as such is managed by Rijkswaterstaat, part of the Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment, rather than by the municipality of Amsterdam.
Rijkswaterstaat refers to the IJ as a river. So do other official websites, such as the ones run by the city itself. DutchAmsterdam follows suit.
That said, we should mention that many Amsterdammers refer to it as “het Blauwe Plein” — the Blue Square.
The IJ’s key role in Amsterdam’s merchant history
Knowing a thing or two about this river will greatly aid your understanding and enjoyment of Amsterdam itself.
After all, currently one of Europe’s busiest waterways — connecting the North Sea and the Port of Amsterdam with the rest of the continent — the IJ has played an important role in the history and development of the city.
Note, for instance, how Amsterdam is shaped around the IJ:
Aerial view of Amsterdam, as viewed from the south. Central Station is in the middle, alongside the river IJ.
And the city is still expanding around the water. Note the new developments to the east, to the west, and right across the IJ.
Central Station, the place where most tourists enter the city, was built in the 1880’s — on three interconnected artificial islands. Until then this spot was the center of the Port of Amsterdam
Right here, where the delta of the river Amstel met with the IJ, a small trading post was established around 1220.
Known as Amestelledamme, this settlement was home to farmers, fishermen, traders and craftsmen who settled along a dike built to protect the low lands against the flood waters of the tidal Zuiderzee (South Sea), the body of water the IJ connects to. 2
A lot of trade traffic took place on the Zuiderzee — for instance with ships sailing between such Dutch cities as Kampen and Deventer, as well as towns along the Baltic Sea.
The growing village of Amsterdam was ideally situated to serve as a key trading spot for products going to and from its back country to the south and west.
At the time the IJ, which sported several small islands, was a brackish estuary that reached almost to the dunes along the North Sea in the west. 3
This 1681 map is orientated with the North Sea — west of Amsterdam — at the top. The river IJ, here still called Ye, reached almost to the dunes.
Additional history coming soon: The IJ during the Golden Age (and beyond)
Plus: information about the North Sea canal, the Port of Amsterdam, harbor cruises, cruise ships, the ongoing ‘should we build a bridge between Amsterdam North and the center’ debate and more.
Map of the IJ river in Amsterdam
This map in in progress. Additional information will be added shortly.
Restaurants Along the IJ
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What was the name of the mini skirted cartoon character created in 1915, who first appeared on film in 'Dizzy Dishes' in 1930? | Betty Boop
Betty Boop
Music Boxes - Figurines- Clocks - Water Globes-and Fun Stuff!!
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Betty And Pudgy Glass Music Box
Betty Polka Dots Glass Music Box
$39.95
$39.95
This music box is made of glass and has bevelled edges on all sides. Betty and Pudgy are featured in the centerof the lid, encilrcled with a heart and her name written at the bottom. The background of the entire box is pink and has red hearts and white stars all over. Lift the lid to hear the music and store your favorite things inside.
Tune is:
Size is: 5.125" X 3.5" X 2"
Material: Glass R
This music box is made of glass and has bevelled edges on all sides. Betty is featured on the right side of the lid, winking and sitting with her one leg pointing up.On the left side of the lid, is a white heart with red polka dots in it and her name.The background of the entire box is red with white polka dots all over. Lift the lid to hear the music and store your favorite things inside.
Tune is:
Size is: 5.125" X 3.5" X 2"
Material: Glass R
Betty Boop "She's So Fine" Globe
Betty Boop Cookie Jar
$46.95
$59.95
Very cute water globe with Betty inside the waterglobe holding her red dress down (classic Marilyn pose) and the base is red with a banner accross the front that says "She's So Fine" with Pudgy in front.
Tune is: "Canon in D"
Size is: 5 1/2" H x 4" W 100mm WG
Material: Glass,Water, Resin R
New Betty Cookie Jar!! Betty Stands next to the jar with Pudgy peeking out of the pile of cookies inside. The jar is done in pink with red hearts and trim.
Non-Musical
Betty "It's Not The Age"
Flapper Betty Figurine
$39.95
$32.95
It's Not The Age...It's The Attitude! Betty has on a gorgeous oversized red hat with a real red feather on it, a cute short purple dress, red garter, red shoes and a red bracelet. On the purple base it says in white letters "It's Not The Age, It's The Attitude!"
9" H x 5" W
Resin Cast R
Betty looks great in her short little red Flapper Dress and red heels. She is looking to the side ever so sweetly and has a red band going around her head with a real red feather sticking up from it.
8 1/2" H x 2 3/4" W
Resin Cast R
Betty "She's Still Got It"
Golfer Betty
$44.95
$36.95
Betty looks elegant in a long Red sparkle dress and real dangling earrings! The dress is slit up the side and Betty shows off her beautiful leg with her foot on a cute little foot stool. The black base says
"She's Still Got It."
9" H x 5" W
Resin Cast R
Betty takes up golf! Dressed in sporty short shorts, tank top, visor, and golfball earrings, with her best friend Pudgy holding the pin.
Non-Musical
Size is: 7" High R
Item #20029W
Adorable French Betty, with her black sparkle barret, short shorts and 1940's style wedge shoes.
Non-Musical
Size is: 7 1/2"H x 2 3/4"W R
It's your Birthday! make a wish and blow out the candle, Betty. Her adorable best friend Pudgy holds her cake.
Non-Musical
Size is: 7" H x 3" W R
Item #20132W
Betty Tin Tote Polka Dots
Betty Tin Tote City Lights
$16.95
Polka Dots Rectangular Tin Tote.
Size: 10" x 7" x 4" R
City Lights Rectangular Tin Tote.
Size: 10" x 7" x 4" R
Item #20190W
History
The History of Betty Boop
Here is a little history and cartoon information on the very much beloved cartoon diva Ms. Betty Boop:
Betty Boop was first created as a dog character by Grim Natwick and appeared as the girl friend of another dog named Bimbo. Betty's figure was modeled after Mae West's and her singing style taken from Helen Kane the "Boop-Boop-a-Doop" Girl. The voice of Betty Boop was that of May Questal. Max & Dave Fleisher first produced the Talkartoons for Paramount. Max drew his first comic strip for the "Brooklyn Daily Eagle" in 1902. In 1915 Max, Dave and Joe Fleisher invented the rotoscope which revoulutionized animation. It gave a much smoother, more life-like quality to the motion of the characters. Betty Boop made her debut as a sexy canine cabaret singer in the Max Fleischer short "Dizzy Dishes" on Aug. 8, 1930. In 1931 Betty's friends Koko the Clown and Pudgy, Bimbo's replacement, were introduced. Betty Boop evolved into her own with "Betty Co-Ed" when she shed her dog identity and the long ears became earrings. Betty Boop's beginings were quite risque and ahead of her time as gusts of wind raised her skirt long before Marilyn Monroe. By 1932 Betty was considered to be the first andonly female animated screen star who could do it all - Drama, Musicals and Comedy. Betty Boop had a flare all her own, she could be daring and assertive while keeping an air of innocence however in 1933 the Betty Boop short "Boilesque" was banned in Philadelphia for being too risque. By 1934, due to moralist pressure, Betty Boop began showing far less leg. There were more than one hundred Betty Boop cartoons produced including ninty in the official Betty Boop Series. "Stopping the show", "Betty Boop for President" and "Boilesk" are among the most noteworthy. In 1939 her last film "Yip Yip Yipee" was released. In 1934, King Features Syndicate started distribution of "Betty Boop", a newspaper comic strip drawn by Bud Counihan.
When is Betty Boop's Birthday?
Date of Birth: August 8, 1930
Who is the white dog that is featured with Betty Boop?
That's Pudgy, Betty Boop's loyal puppy buddy (created by Myron Waldman).
Who owns Betty Boop? Can I make my own Betty Boop Products to sell?
The Betty Boop Character and trademark is currently owned by King Features Syndicate and Fleischer Studios. Betty Boop is copyrighted and it is illegal to make and sell your own Betty Boop Merchandise.
What happen to the lady who did the voice of Betty Boop?
Mae Questel is the lady. She provided the unique, child-like voice of cartoon characters Betty Boop & Olive Oyl, and died at age 89 on January 4th, 1998. She was a veteran of stage, movies & vaudeville. Born in the Bronx, Questel was discovered at 17 when she was signed to perform on the vaudeville circuit. She did imitations of popular performers! When animator Max Fleischer heard one of Ms. Questel's performances, he signed her to take over the squeaky voice of the now worldwide famous Betty Boop. The voice was actually styled on the voice of another actor, Helen Kane, who created a sensation on Broadway in 1928 with a "boop-boop-a-doop" rendition of the hit song "I Wanna Be Loved by You." During her eight years as the voice of Betty Boop, Questel was in 150 plus cartoon shorts. Her recording of "On the Good Ship Lollipop", in her Betty Boop voice, sold more than two million copies back in the day! The Betty Boop Animated Toon was retired in 1939, but Mae Questel returned to the character when Betty Boop appeared in the 1988 movie "Who Framed Roger Rabbit." Also, in 1933, Mae Questel did the voices of Olive Oyl and Swee' Pea for the Popeye Animated Cartoons.
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"Betty Boop Doll" by Oop Boop a doop, via Flickr. _ A "new breed" of young Western women in the 1920s who wore short skirts, bobbed their hair, listened to jazz, and flaunted their disdain for what was then considered acceptable behavior. Flappers were seen as brash for wearing excessive makeup, drinking, treating sex in a casual manner, smoking, driving automobiles and otherwise flouting social and sexual norms.
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Which philosopher propounded the idea of 'Utilitarianism', later taken up by John Stuart Mill? | Mill, John Stuart: Ethics | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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John Stuart Mill: Ethics
The ethical theory of John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) is most extensively articulated in his classical text Utilitarianism (1861). Its goal is to justify the utilitarian principle as the foundation of morals. This principle says actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote overall human happiness. So, Mill focuses on consequences of actions and not on rights nor ethical sentiments.
This article primarily examines the central ideas of his text Utilitarianism, but the article's last two sections are devoted to Mill's views on the freedom of the will and the justification of punishment, which are found in System of Logic (1843) and Examination of Sir William Hamilton’s Philosophy (1865), respectively.
Educated by his father James Mill who was a close friend to Jeremy Bentham , John Stuart Mill came in contact with utilitarian thought at a very early stage of his life. In his Autobiography he claims to have introduced the word “utilitarian” into the English language when he was sixteen. Mill remained a utilitarian throughout his life. Beginning in the 1830s he became increasingly critical of what he calls Bentham’s “theory of human nature”. The two articles “Remarks on Bentham’s Philosophy” (1833) and “Bentham” (1838) are his first important contributions to the development of utilitarian thought. Mill rejects Bentham’s view that humans are unrelentingly driven by narrow self-interest. He believed that a “desire of perfection” and sympathy for fellow human beings belong to human nature. One of the central tenets of Mill’s political outlook is that, not only the rules of society, but also people themselves are capable of improvement.
Secondary Sources
1. Introductory Remarks
Mill tells us in his Autobiography that the “little work with the name” Utilitarianism arose from unpublished material, the greater part of which he completed in the final years of his marriage to Harriet Taylor, that is, before 1858. For its publication he brought old manuscripts into form and added some new material.
The work first appeared in 1861 as a series of three articles for Fraser’s Magazine, a journal that, though directed at an educated audience, was by no means a philosophical organ. Mill planned from the beginning a separate book publication, which came to light in 1863. Even if the circumstances of the genesis of this work gesture to an occasional piece with a popular goal, on closer examination Utilitarianism turns out to be a carefully conceived work, rich in thought. One must not forget that since his first reading of Bentham in the winter of 1821-22, the time to which Mill dates his conversion to utilitarianism, forty years had passed. Taken this way, Utilitarianism was anything but a philosophical accessory, and instead the programmatic text of a thinker who for decades had understood himself as a utilitarian and who was profoundly familiar with popular objections to the principle of utility in moral theory. Almost ten years earlier (1852) Mill had defended utilitarianism against the intuitionistic philosopher William Whewell (Whewell on Moral Philosophy).
The priority of the text was to popularize the fundamental thoughts of utilitarianism within influential circles. This goal explains the composition of the work. After some general introductory comments, the text defends utilitarianism from common criticisms ("What Utilitarianism Is"). After this Mill turns to the question concerning moral motivation ("Of the Ultimate Sanction of the Principle of Utility").This is followed by the notorious proof of the principle of utility (“Of What Sort of Proof the Principle of Utility is Susceptible”) and the long concluding chapter on the relation of utility and justice (“On the Connection Between Justice and Utility”). The last chapter is often neglected – and wrongly so, for it contains a central statement of Mill’s understanding of morals; it creates the foundation for the philosopher’s theory of moral rights that plays a preeminent role in the context of his political thought.
According to his early essay “Bentham” (1838), all reasonable moral theories assume that “the morality of actions depends on the consequences which they tend to produce” (CW 10, 111); thus, the difference between moral theories lie on an axiological plane. His own theory of morality, writes Mill in Utilitarianism, is grounded in a particular “theory of life…–namely, that pleasure, and freedom from pain, are the only things desirable as ends.” (CW 10, 210) Such a theory of life is commonly called hedonistic , and it seems appropriate to say that Mill conceives his own position as hedonistic, even if he does never use the word “hedonism” or its cognates. What makes utilitarianism peculiar, according to Mill, is its hedonistic theory of the good (CW 10, 111). Utilitarians are, by definition, hedonists. For this reason, Mill sees no need to differentiate between the utilitarian and the hedonistic aspect of his moral theory.
Modern readers are often confused by the way in which Mill uses the term ‘utilitarianism’. Today we routinely differentiate between hedonism as a theory of the good and utilitarianism as a consequentialist theory of the right. Mill, however, considered both doctrines to be so closely intertwined that he used the term ‘utilitarianism’ to signify both theories. On the one hand, he says that the “utilitarian doctrine is, that happiness is desirable, and the only thing desirable, as an end.” (CW 10, 234) On the other hand, he defines utilitarianism as a moral theory according to which “actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness…” (CW 10, 210).
Utilitarians are, for him, consequentialists who believe that pleasure is the only intrinsic value.
Mill counts as one of the great classics of utilitarian thought; but this moral theory deviates from what many contemporary philosophers consider core features of utilitarianism. This explains why the question whether Mill is a utilitarian is more serious than it may appear on first inspection (see Coope 1998). One may respond that this problem results from an anachronistic understanding of utilitarianism, and that it disappears if one abstains from imputing modern philosophical concepts on a philosopher of the nineteenth century. However, this response would oversimplify matters. For it is not clear whether Mill’s value theory was indeed hedonistic (see Brink 1992). As mentioned before, Mill maintains that hedonism is the differentia specifica of utilitarianism; if he were not a hedonist, he would be no utilitarian by his own definition. In view of the fact that Mill’s value theory constitutes the center of his ethics (Donner 1991, 2009), the problem of determining its precise nature and adequate naming has attracted considerable attention over the last 150 years.
2. Mill’s Theory of Value and the Principle of Utility
Mill defines "utilitarianism" as the creed that considers a particular “theory of life” as the “foundation of morals” (CW 10, 210). His view of theory of life was monistic: There is one thing, and one thing only, that is intrinsically desirable, namely pleasure. In contrast to a form of hedonism that conceives pleasure as a homogeneous matter, Mill was convinced that some types of pleasure are more valuable than others in virtue of their inherent qualities. For this reason, his position is often called “qualitative hedonism”. Many philosophers hold that qualitative hedonism is no consistent position. Hedonism asserts that pleasure is the only intrinsic value. Under this assumption, the critics argue, there can be no evaluative basis for the distinction between higher and lower pleasures. Probably the first ones to raise this common objection were the British idealists F. H. Bradley (1876/1988) and T. H. Green (1883/2003).
Which inherent qualities make one kind of pleasure better than another, according to Mill? He declares that the more valuable pleasures are those which employ “higher faculties” (CW 10, 211). The list of such better enjoyments includes “the pleasures of intellect, of the feelings and imagination, and of the moral sentiments” (CW 10, 211). These enjoyments make use of highly developed capacities, like judgment and empathy. In one of his most famous sentences, Mill affirms that it “is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied” (CW 10, 212). This seems to be a surprising thing to say for a hedonist. However, Mill thought that we have a solid empirical basis for this view. According to him, the best obtainable evidence for value claims consists in what all or almost all people judge as valuable across a vast variety of cases and cultures. He makes the empirical assertion that all or almost all people prefer a “manner of existence” (CW 10, 211) that employs higher faculties to a manner of existence which does not. The fact that “all or almost all” who are acquainted with pleasures that employ higher faculties agree that they are preferable to the lower ones, is empirical evidence for the claim that they are indeed of higher value. Accordingly, the best human life (“manner of existence”) is one in which the higher faculties play an adequate part. This partly explains why he put such great emphasis on education.
3. Morality as a System of Social Rules
The fifth and final chapter of Utilitarianism is of unusual importance for Mill’s theory of moral obligation. Until the 1970s, the significance of the chapter had been largely overlooked. It then became one of the bridgeheads of a revisionist interpretation of Mill, which is associated with the work of David Lyons, John Skorupski and others.
Mill worked very hard to hammer the fifth chapter into shape and his success has great meaning for him. Towards the end of the book he maintains the “considerations which have now been adduced resolve, I conceive, the only real difficulty in the utilitarian theory of morals.” (CW 10, 259)
At the beginning of Utilitarianism, Mill postulates that moral judgments presume rules (CW 10, 206). In contrast to Kant who grounds his ethical theory on self-imposed rules, so-called maxims, Mill thinks that morality builds on social rules. But what makes social rules moral rules? Mill’s answer is based on a thesis about how competent speakers use the phrase “morally right” or “morally wrong”. He maintains that we name a type of action morally wrong if we think that it should be sanctioned either through formal punishment, public disapproval (external sanctions) or through a bad conscience (internal sanctions). This is the critical difference between “morality and simple expediency” (CW 10, 246). Wrong or inexpedient actions are those that we cannot recommend to a person, like harming oneself. But in contrast to immoral actions, inexpedient actions are not worthy of being sanctioned.
Mill differentiates various spheres of action. In his System of Logic he names morality, prudence and aesthetics as the three departments of the “Art of Life” (CW 8, 949). The principle of utility governs not only morality, but also prudence and taste (CW 8, 951). It is not a moral principle but a meta-principle of practical reason (Skorupski 1989, 310-313).
There is a field of action in which moral rules obtain, and a “person may rightfully be compelled to fulfill” them (CW 10, 246). But there are also fields of action, in which sanctions for wrong behavior would be inappropriate. One of them is the sphere of self-regarding acts with which Mill deals in On Liberty. In this private sphere we can act at our convenience and indulge in inexpedient and utterly useless behavior as long as we do not harm others.
It is fundamental to keep in mind that Mill looks into morality as a social practice and not as autonomous self-determination by reason, like Kant. For Kantians, moral deliberation determines those actions which we have the most reason to perform. Mill disagrees; for him, it makes sense to say that “A is the right thing to do for Jeremy, but Jeremy is not morally obliged to do A.”For instance, even if Jeremy is capable of writing a brilliant book that would improve the life of millions (and deteriorate none), he is not morally obliged to do so. According to Mill, our moral obligations result from the justified part of the moral code of our society; and the task of moral philosophy consists in bringing the moral code of a society in better accordance with the principle of utility.
4. The Role of Moral Rules (Secondary Principles)
In Utilitarianism, Mill designs the following model of moral deliberation. In the first step the actor should examine which of the rules (secondary principles) in the moral code of his or her society are pertinent in the given situation. If in a given situation moral rules (secondary principles) conflict, then (and only then) can the second step invoke the formula of utility (CW 10, 226) as a first principle. Pointedly one could say: the principle of utility is for Mill not a component of morality, but instead its basis. It serves the validation of rightness for our moral system and allows – as a meta-rule – the decision of conflicting norms. In the introductory chapter of Utilitarianism, Mill maintains that it would be “easy to show that whatever steadiness or consistency these moral beliefs have attained, has been mainly due to the tacit influence of a standard not recognized” (CW 10, 207), namely the principle of utility. The tacit influence of the principle of utility made sure that a considerable part of the moral code of our society is justified (promotes general well-being). But other parts are clearly unjustified. One case that worried Mill deeply was the role of women in Victorian Britain. In “The Subjection of Women” (1869) he criticizesthe “legal subordination of one sex to the other” (CW 21, 261) as incompatible with “all the principles involved in modern society” (CW 21, 280).
Moral rules are also critical for Mill because he takes human action in essence as to be guided by dispositions. A virtuous person has the disposition to follow moral rules. In his early essay “Remarks on Bentham’s Philosophy” (1833) he asserts that a “man is not really virtuous” (CW 10, 12), unless the mere thought of committing certain acts is so painful that he does not even consider the possibility that they may have good consequences. He repeats this point in his System of Logic (1843)and Utilitarianism:
[T]he mind is not in a right state, not in a state conformable to Utility, not in the state most conducive to the general happiness, unless it does love virtue in this manner - as a thing desirable in itself, even although, in the individual instance, it should not produce those other desirable consequences which it tends to produce, and on account of which it is held to be virtue. (CW 10, 235 and 8, 952).
It is one thing to say that it could have optimal consequences (and thus be objectively better) to break a moral rule in a concrete singular case. Another is the question as to whether it would facilitate happiness to educate humans such that they would have the disposition to maximize situational utility. Mill answers the latter in the negative. Again, the upshot is that education matters. Humans are guided by acquired dispositions. This makes moral degeneration, but also moral progress possible.
5. Rule or Act Utilitarianism?
There is considerable disagreement as to whether Mill should be read as a rule utilitarian or an (indirect) act utilitarian. Many philosophers look upon rule utilitarianism as an untenable position and favor an act utilitarian reading of Mill (Crisp 1997). Under the pressure of many contradicting passages, however, a straightforward act utilitarian interpretation is difficult to sustain. Recent studies emphasize Mill’s rule utilitarian leanings (Miller 2010, 2011) or find elements of both theories in Mill (West 2004).
In Utilitarianism he seems to give two different formulations of the utilitarian standard. The first points in an act utilitarian, the second in a rule utilitarian direction. Since act and rule utilitarianism are incompatible claims about what makes actions morally right, the formulations open up the fundamental question concerning what style of utilitarianism Mill wants to advocate and whether his moral theory forms a consistent whole. It is important to note that the distinction between rule and act utilitarianism had not yet been introduced in Mill’s days. Thus Mill is not to blame for failing to make explicit which of the two approaches he advocates.
In the first and more famous formulation of the utilitarian standard (First Formula) Mill states:
The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals, Utility, or the Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain, and the privation of pleasure. To give a clear view of the moral standard set up by the theory, much more requires to be said (…). But these supplementary explanations do not affect the theory of life on which this theory of morality is grounded….” (CW, 210, emphasis mine)
Just a few pages later, following his presentation of qualitative hedonism, Mill gives his second formulation (Second Formula):
According to the Greatest Happiness Principle (…) the ultimate end (…) is an existence exempt as far as possible from pain, and as rich as possible in enjoyments, both in point of quantity and quality; (…). This, being, according to the utilitarian opinion, the end of human action, is necessarily also the standard of morality; which may accordingly be defined, the rules and precepts for human conduct, by the observance of which an existence such as has been described might be, to the greatest extent possible, secured to all mankind; and not to them only, but, so far as the nature of things admits, to the whole sentient creation. (CW, 214, emphasis mine)
The Second Formula relates the principle of utility to rules and precepts and not to actions. It seems to say that an act is correct when it corresponds to rules whose preservation increases the mass of happiness in the world. And this appears to be a rule-utilitarian conception.
In the light of these passages, it is not surprising that the question whether Mill is an act- or a rule-utilitarian has been intensely debated. In order to understand his position it is important to differentiate between two ways of defining act and rule utilitarianism. (i) One can conceive of them as competing theories about objective rightness. An action is objectively right if it is the thing which the agent has most reason to do. Act utilitarianism would say that an action is objectively right, if it actually promotes happiness. For rule utilitarianism, in contrast, an action would be objectively right, if it actually corresponds to rules that promote happiness.
(ii) One can also conceive of act- and rule utilitarianism as theories about moral obligation. Act utilitarianism requires us to aim for the maximization of happiness; rule utilitarianism, in contrast, requires us to observe rules that facilitate happiness. Understood as a theory about moral obligation, act utilitarianism postulates: Act in a way that promotes happiness the most. Rule utilitarianism claims, on the other hand: Follow a rule whose general observance promotes happiness the most.
Mill is in regard to (i) an act utilitarian and in regard to (ii) a rule utilitarian. This way the seeming contradiction between the First and the Second Formula can be resolved. The First Formula states what is right and what an agent has most reason to do. It points to the “foundation of morals”. In contrast, the Second Formula tells us what our moral obligations are. We are morally obliged to follow those social rules and precepts the observance of which promotes happiness in the greatest extent possible.
6. Applying the Standard of Morality
In “Whewell on Moral Philosophy” (1852), Mill rejects an objection raised by one of his most competent philosophical adversaries. Whewell claimed that utilitarianism permits murder and other crimes in particular circumstances and is therefore incompatible with our considered moral judgments. Mill’s discussion of Whewell’s criticism is exceedingly helpful in clarifying his ethical approach:
Take, for example, the case of murder. There are many persons to kill whom would be to remove men who are a cause of no good to any human being, of cruel physical and moral suffering to several, and whose whole influence tends to increase the mass of unhappiness and vice. Were such a man to be assassinated, the balance of traceable consequences would be greatly in favour of the act. (CW 10, 181)
Mill gives no concrete case. Since he wrote – together with his wife Harriet Taylor –a couple of articles on horrible cases of domestic violence in the early 1850s, he might have had the likes of Robert Curtis Bird in mind, a man who tortured his servant Mary Ann Parsons to death [see CW 25 (The Case of Mary Ann Parsons), 1151-1153].Does utilitarianism require us to kill such people who are the “cause of no good to any human being, of cruel physical and moral suffering to several”? Mill answers in the negative. His main point is that nobody’s life would be safe if people were allowed to kill others whom they believe to be a source of unhappiness (CW 10, 182). Thus, a general rule that would allow to “remove men who are a cause of no good” would be worse than a general rule that does not allow such acts. People should follow the rule not to kill other humans because the general observance of this rule tends to promote the happiness of all.
This argument can be interpreted in a rule utilitarian or an indirect act utilitarian fashion. Along indirect act utilitarian lines, one could maintain that we would be cognitively overwhelmed by the task of calculating the consequences of any action. We therefore need rules as touchstones that point us to the path of action which tends to promote the greatest general happiness. Mill compares, in a critical passage, the core principles of our established morality (which he also calls “secondary principles”) with the Nautical Almanack, a companion for navigating a voyage (CW 10, 225). Just as the Nautical Almanackis not first calculated at sea, but instead exists as already calculated, the agent must not in individual cases calculate the expected utility. In his moral deliberation the agent can appeal to secondary principles, such as the prohibition of homicide, as an approximate solution for the estimated problem.
Apparently, the act utilitarian interpretation finds further support in a letter Mill wrote to John Venn in 1872. He states:
I agree with you that the right way of testing actions by their consequences, is to test them by their natural consequences of the particular actions, and not by those which would follow if everyone did the same. But, for the most part, considerations of what would happen if everyone did the same, is the only means we have of discovering the tendency of the act in the particular case. (CW 17, 1881)
Mill argues that in many cases we can assess the actual, expected consequences of an action, only if we hypothetically consider that all would act in the same manner. This means we recognize that the consequences of this particular action would be damaging if everyone acted that way. A similar consideration is found in the Whewell essay. Here Mill argues: If a hundred breaches of rule (homicides, in this case) led to a particular harm (murderous chaos), then a single breach of rule is responsible for a hundredth of the harm. This hundredth of harm offsets the expected utility of this particular breach of rule (CW 10, 182). Mill believes that the breach of the rule is wrong because it is actually harmful. The argument is questionable because Mill overturns the presumption he introduces: that the actual consequences of the considered action would be beneficial. If the breach of the rule is actually harmful, then it is to be rejected in every conceivable version of utilitarianism. The result is trivial then and misses the criticism that act utilitarianism has counter-intuitive implications in particular circumstances.
There is one crucial difficulty with the interpretation of Mill as an indirect act utilitarian regarding moral obligation. If the function of rules was in fact only epistemic, as suggested by indirect act utilitarianism, one would expect that the principle of utility – when the epistemic conditions are satisfactory – can be and should be directly applied. But Mill is quite explicit here. The utilitarian principle should only be applied when moral rules conflict:“We must remember that only in these cases of conflict between secondary principles is it requisite that first principles should be appealed to.” (CW 10, 226). From an act utilitarian view regarding moral obligation, this is implausible. Why should one be morally obliged to follow a rule of which one positively knows that its observance in a particular case will not promote general utility?
Coming back to the example, it is important to remember that “the balance of traceable consequences would be greatly in favour of the act [of homicide].” (CW 10, 181) Thus, according to an act utilitarian approach regarding moral obligation it would be morally allowed, if not required, to kill the man.
As mentioned, Mill arrives at a different conclusion. His position can be best understood with recourse to the distinction between the theory of objective rightness and the theory of moral obligation introduced in the last section. Seen from the perspective of an all-knowing and impartial observer, it is – in regard to the given description – objectively right to perpetrate the homicide. However, moral laws, permissions, and prohibitions are not made for omniscient and impartial observers, but instead for cognitively limited and partial beings like humans whose actions are mainly guided by acquired dispositions. Their capacity to recognize what would be objectively right is imperfect; and their ability to motivate themselves to do the right thing is limited. As quoted before in his “Remarks on Bentham’s Philosophy” (1833),he states that some violations of the established moral code are simply unthinkable for the members of society: people recoil “from the very thought of committing” (CW 10, 12) particular acts. Because humans cannot reliably recognize objective rightness and, in critical cases, cannot bring themselves to act objectively right, they are not obliged to maximize happiness. For ought implies can. In regard to the given description, the fact that the assassination of a human would be objectively right does not imply that the assassination of this human would be morally imperative or allowed. In other words: Mill differentiates between the objectively right act and the morally right act. With this he can argue that the assassination would be forbidden (theory of moral obligation). To enact a forbidden action is morally wrong. As noted, Mill’s theory allows for the possibility that an action is objectively right, but morally wrong (prohibited). An action can be wrong (bearing unhappiness), but its enactment would be no less morally right (Lyons 1978/1994, 70).
Thus, Mill’s considered position should be interpreted in the following way: First, the objective rightness of an act depends upon actual consequences; second, in order to know what we are morally obliged to do we have to draw on justified rules of the established moral code.
7. The Meaning of the First Formula
What has been said about Mill’s conception of morality as a system of social rules is relevant for the interpretation of Mill’s First Formula of utilitarianism. The Formula says that actions are right “in proportion as they tend to promote happiness” and wrong “as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness” (CW 10, 210). Roughly said, actions are right insofar as they facilitate happiness, and wrong insofar as they result in suffering. Mill does not write “morally right” or “morally wrong”, but simply “right” and “wrong”. This is important. Mill emphasizes in many places that virtuous actions can exhibit a negative balance of happiness in a singular case. If the word “moral” occurred in the First Formula, then the noted virtuous actions would be, for Mill, morally wrong. But as we have seen, this is not his view. Virtuous actions are morally right, even if they are objectively wrong under particular circumstances.
Accordingly, the First Formula is not to be interpreted as drafting a moral duty. It is a general statement about what makes actions right (reasonable, expedient) or wrong. The First Formula gives a general characterization of practical reason. It says that the promotion of happiness makes an action objectively right (but not necessarily morally right); or, as Mill says in his System of Logic, “the promotion of happiness is the ultimate principle of Teleology” (CW 8, 951) An action is objectively right if it maximizes happiness; however, an action is morally right if it is in accordance with social rules which are protected by internal and external sanctions and which tend to promote general utility. Subsets of right ones are morally right actions; subsets of wrong actions are morally wrong.
Mill’s differentiation between a moral and a non-moral sphere of action is not far from our everyday understanding. We generally believe that not all actions must be judged in regard to a moral point of view. This does not exclude us from valuing actions, which are not in the moral realm, in regard to prudence. Less evident is how one should take Mill’s claim that the promotion of happiness can be understood as a general principle of rightness even with respect to artistic production. Many artists would presumably not be comfortable with the thesis that good art arises from the goal of facilitating the happiness of humankind. This however is not what Mill means. Apart from cases of conflict between secondary principles, the First Formula does not guide action. Just as Mill speaks in a moral context about how noble characters will not strive to maximize general happiness (CW 8, 952), he could argue in an aesthetic context that artists should work from a purely aesthetic point of view. The rules of artistic judgments, nonetheless, are justified through their contribution to the flourishing of human life.
To summarize the essential points: Mill can be characterized as an act utilitarian in regard to the theory of objective rightness, but as a rule utilitarian in regard to the theory of moral obligation. He defines morality as a system of rules that is protected by sanctions. The principle of utility is not a part of this system, but its fundamental justification (the “foundation of morality” (CW 10, 205)).
8. Right in Proportion and Tendencies
(i) For contemporary readers it is striking that Mill’s First Formula does not explicitly relate to maximization. Mill does not write, as one might expect, that only the action which leads to the best consequences is right. In other places in the text we hear of the “promotion” or “multiplication” of happiness, and not of the “maximization”. Alone does the “Greatest Happiness Principle” explicitly refer to maximization. The actual formula, in contrast, has to do with gradual differences (right in proportion). Actions which add to the sum of happiness in the world but fail to maximize happiness thus can be right, even if to a lesser degree.
This is confusing insofar as it would be unreasonable to prefer that which is worse to that which is better. For every good there is a better that one should reasonably choose until one succeeds to the best. If the First Formula expresses the ideal of practical reason, then one should expect that it requires maximization. Maybe Mill’s point is that the search for a global best option would exceed the cognitive capabilities of humans. He probably does not want to suggest that an agent should not choose the best local option. But the local best option must not represent the objective (global) best. This may be the reason why Mill does not refer to maximization in the formula of utility.
(ii) A further complication arises with the word “tend”. According to the formula of utility, actions are more or less correct insofar as they facilitate happiness (CW 10, 210). It is doubtlessly not the same to say that an action is right if it actually facilitates happiness, or to say that it is right if it tends to facilitate happiness. The model seems to be roughly this: At the neutral point of the preference scale, actions have the tendency – in regard to the status quo – to neither increase nor decrease the mass of utility in the world. All actions that tend to facilitate happiness are right, all actions that tend to be harmful are wrong, but all are not in the same measure. An action has a high positive value on the scale of preference, if its tendency to facilitate happiness is high. An action has highly negative value on the preference scale, if its tendency to evoke unhappiness is high. But what does the concept “tendency” mean precisely?
In everyday language, we often use the word “tend” in the sense of “will probably lead to”. That an action tends to produce a particular consequence means that this consequence has a high probability. Mill could have wanted to say that an action is right in proportion to the probability with which it promotes happiness. This makes sense when we compare options that produce the same amount of happiness. But what about cases in which two actions produce different amounts of pleasure? One plausible answer is that both dimensions must be regarded: the amount of happiness and the probability of its occurrence. Action A is better than action B, if the expected happinessfor Ais greater than the expected happiness for B. If one reads Mill this way, then “in proportion” relates to “promote” and to “tend”. The best action is one that maximizes the amount of expected happiness.
9. Utility and Justice
In the final chapter of Utilitarianism, Mill turns to the sentiment of justice. Actions that are perceived as unjust provoke outrage. The spontaneity of this feeling and its intensity makes it impossible for it to be ignored by the theory of morals. Mill considers two possible interpretations of the source of the sentiment of justice: first of all, that we are equipped with a sense of justice which is an independent source of moral judgment; second, that there is a general and independent principle of justice. Both interpretations are irreconcilable with Mill’s position, and thus it is no wonder that he takes this issue to be of exceptional importance. He names the integration of justice the only real difficulty for utilitarian theory (CW 10, 259).
Mill splits this problem of integration into three tasks: The first consists in explaining the intensity and spontaneity of the sentiment of justice. The second task is to make plausible that the various types of judgments about justice can be traced back to a systematic core; and the third task consists in showing that the principle of utility constructs this core.
In a nutshell, Mill explains the sentiment of justice as the sublimation of the impulse to take revenge for perceived mortifications of all kinds. Mill sees vengeance as “an animal desire” (CW 10, 250) that operates in the service of self-preservation. If it is known that one will not accept interventions in spheres of influence and interest, the probability of such interventions dwindles. The preparedness to take revenge tends to deter aggression in the first place. Thus, a reputation for vindictiveness – at first glance an irrational trait – arguably has survival value. This helps to explain why the sentiment is so widespread and vehement.
Our sentiment of justice, for Mill, is based on a refinement and sublimation of this animal desire. Humans are capable of empathizing such that the pleasure of others can instill one’s own pleasure, and the mere sight of suffering can cause own suffering. The hurting of another person or even an animal may therefore produce a very similar affect as the hurting of one’s own person. Mill considers the extension of the animal impulse of vengeance on those with whom we have sympathy as “natural” (CW 10, 248), because the social feelings are for him natural. This natural extension of the impulse of revenge with the help of the social feelings represents a step in the direction of cultivating and refining human motivation. People begin to feel outrage when the interests of the members of their tribe are being violated or when shared social rules are being disregarded.
Gradually, sympathy becomes more inclusive. Humans discover that co-operation with people outside the tribe is advantageous. The “human capacity of enlarged sympathy” follows suit (CW 10, 248).
As soon as humans begin to think about which parts of the moral code of a society are justified and which parts are not, they inevitably begin to consider consequences. This often occurs in non-systematic, prejudiced or distorted ways. Across historical periods of times, the correct ideas of intrinsic good and moral rightness will gradually gain more influence. Judgments about justice approximate progressively the requirements of utilitarianism: The rules upon which the judgments about justice rest will be assessed in light of their tendency to promote happiness. To summarize: Our sentiment of justice receives its intensity from the “animal desire to repel or retaliate a hurt or damage to oneself”, and its morality from the “human capacity of enlarged sympathy” and intelligent self-interest (CW 10, 250).
According to Mill, when we see a social practice or a type of action as unjust, we see that the moral rights of persons were harmed. The thought of moral rights is the systematic core of our judgments of justice. Rights breed perfect obligations, says Mill. Moral rights are concerned with the basic conditions of a good life. They protect an “extraordinarily important and impressive kind of utility.” (CW 10, 250-251). Mill subsumes this important and impressive kind of utility under the term security, “the most vital of all interests” (CW 10, 251). It comprises such things as protection from aggression or starvation, the possibility to shape one’s own life unmolested by others and enforcement of contracts. Thus, the requirements of justice “stand higher in the scale of social utility” (CW 259).To have a moral right means to have something that society is morally required to guard either through the compulsion of law, education or the pressure of public opinion (CW 10, 250). Because everyone has an interest in the security of these conditions, it is desirable that the members of society reciprocally guarantee each other “to join in making safe for us the very groundwork of our existence” (CW 10, 251).Insofar as moral rights secure the basis of our existence, they serve our natural interest in self-preservation – this is the reason why their harm calls forth such intense emotional reactions. The interplay of social feelings and moral education explains, in turn, why we are not only upset by injustices when we personally suffer, but also when the elemental rights of others are harmed. This motivates us to sanction the suffering of others as unjust. Moral rights thus form the “most sacred and binding part of all morality” (CW 10, 255). But they do not exhaust the moral realm. There are imperfect obligations which have no correlative right (CW 10, 247).
The thesis that moral rights form the systematic core of our judgments of justice is by no means unique to utilitarianism. Many people take it to be evident that individuals have absolute, inalienable rights; but they doubt that these rights can be grounded in the principle of utility. Intuitionists may claim that we recognize moral rights spontaneously, that we have intuitive knowledge of them. In order to reject such a view, Mill points out that our judgments of justice do not form a systematic order. If we had a sense of justice that would allow us to recognize what is just, similar to how touch reveals forms or sight reveals color, then we would expect that our corresponding judgments would exhibit a high degree of reliability, definitude and unanimity. But experience teaches us that our judgments regarding just punishments, just tax laws or just remuneration for waged labor are anything but unanimous. The intuitionists must therefore mobilize a first principle that is independent of experience and that secures the unity and consistency of our theory of justice. So far they have not succeeded. Mill sees no suggestion that is plausible or which has been met with general acceptance.
10. The Proof of Utilitarianism
What Mill names the “proof” of utilitarianism belongs presumably to the most frequently attacked text passages in the history of philosophy. Geoffrey Sayre-McCord once remarked that Mill seems to answer by example the question of how many serious mistakes a brilliant philosopher can make within a brief paragraph (Sayre-McCord 2001, 330). Meanwhile the secondary literature has made it clear that Mill’s proof contains no logical fallacies and is less foolish than often portrayed.
It is found in the fourth part, “Of What Sort of Proof the Principle of Utility is Susceptible”, of Utilitarianism. For the assessment of the proof two introductory comments are helpful. Already at the beginning of Utilitarianism, Mill points out that “questions of ultimate ends are not amenable to direct proof.” (CW 10, 207). Notwithstanding, it is possible to give reasons for theories about the good, and these considerations are “equivalent to proof” (CW 10, 208). These reasons are empirical and touch upon the careful observation of oneself and others. More cannot be done and should not be expected in a proof re ultimate ends.
A further introductory comment concerns the basis of observation through which Mill seeks to support utilitarianism. In moral philosophy the appeal to intuitions plays a prominent role. They are used to justify moral claims and to check the plausibility of moral theories. The task of thought-experiments in testing ethical theories is analogous to the observation of facts in testing empirical theories. This suggests that intuitions are the right observational basis for the justification of first moral principles. Mill, however, was a fervent critic of intuitionism throughout his philosophical work. In his Autobiography he calls intuitionism “the great intellectual support of false doctrines and bad institutions.” (CW 1, 232). Mill considered the idea that truths can be known a priori, independently of observation and experience, to be a stronghold of conservatism.
His argument against intuitionistic approaches to moral philosophy has two parts. The first part points out that intuitionists have not been able to bring our intuitive moral judgments into a system. There is neither a complete list of intuitive moral precepts nor a basic principle of morality which would found such a list(CW 10, 206).
The second part of the Millian argument consists in an explanation of this result: What some call moral intuition is actually the result of our education and present social discourse. Society inculcates us with our moral views, and we come to believe strongly in their unquestionable truth. There is no system, no basic principle in the moral views of the Victorian era though. In The Subjection of Women, Mill caustically criticizes the moral intuitions of his contemporaries regarding the role of women. He finds them incompatible with the basic principles of the modern world, such as equality and liberty. Because the first principle of morality is missing, intuitionist ethics is in many regards just a decoration of the moral prejudices with which one is brought up –“(…) not so much a guide as a consecration of men’s actual sentiments” (CW 10, 207).
What we need, Mill contends, is a basis of observation that verifies a first principle, a principle that is capable of bringing our practice of moral judgments into order. This elemental observational basis – and this is the core idea in Mill’s proof – is human aspiration.
His argument for the utilitarian principle – if not a deductive argument, an argument all the same – involves three steps. First, Mill argues that it is reasonable for humans to aspire to one’s own well-being; second, that it is reasonable to support the well-being of all persons (instead of only one’s own); and third, that well-being represents the only ultimate goal and the rightness of our actions is to be measured exclusively in regard to the balance of happiness to which they lead (CW 10, 234).
Let us turn to the first step of the argument. Upon an initial reading it seems in fact to have little success. Mill argues that one’s own well-being is worthy of striving for because each of us strives for his or her own well-being. Here he leans on a questionable analogy: “The only proof capable of being given that an object is visible, is that people actually see it. […] In like manner, I apprehend, the sole evidence it is possible to produce that anything is desirable, is that people do actually desire it.” (CW 10, 234).
Can a more evident logical fallacy be given than the claim that something is worthy of striving for because it is factually sought? But Mill in no way believes that the relation between desirable and desired is a matter of definition. He is not saying that desirable objects are by definition objects which people desire; he writes instead that what people desire is the only evidence for what is desirable. If we want to know what is ultimately desirable for humans, we have to acquire observational knowledge about what humans ultimately strive for.
Mill’s argument is simple: We know by observation that people desire their own happiness. With a conclusion that Mill calls “inductive”, and to which he ascribes a central role in regard to our acquisition of knowledge, we succeed to the general thesis that all humans finally aspire to their happiness. This inductive conclusion serves as evidence for the claim that one’s own happiness is not only desired, but desirable, worthy of aspiration. Mill thus supports the thesis that one’s own happiness is an ultimate good to oneself with the observation that every human ultimately strives for his or her own well-being.
On this basis, Mill concludes in the second step of his proof that the happiness of all is also a good: “…each person’s happiness is a good to that person, and the general happiness, therefore, a good to the aggregate of all persons.” (CW 10, 234).
The “therefore” in the cited sentence above has evoked many a raised eyebrows. Does Mill claim here that each person tries to promote the happiness of all? This seems to be patently wrong. In a famous letter to a Henry Jones, he clarifies that he did not mean that every person, in fact, strives for the general good. “I merely meant in this particular sentence to argue that since A's happiness is a good, B's a good, C's a good, &c., the sum of all these goods must be a good.” (CW 16, 1414, Letter 1257).
Indeed, in the “particular sentence” he just concludes that general happiness is a “good to the aggregate of all persons.” Nonetheless, one may doubt that Mill adequately responds to Jones’ reservations. It is unclear what it means that general happiness is the good of the aggregate of all persons. Neither each person, nor the aggregate of all persons seem to strive for the happiness of all. But Mill’s point in the second step of the argument is arguably a more modest one.
He simply wanted to vindicate the claim that if each person’s happiness is a good to each person, then we are entitled to conclude that general happiness is also a good. As he says in the letter to Jones: “the sum of all these goods must be a good.” Similar to the first step of the argument we have here an epistemic relationship: The fact that each person is striving for his or her own happiness is evidence that happiness as such (regardless to whom) is valuable. If happiness as such is valuable, it is not unreasonable to promote the well-being of all sentient beings. With this, the second step of the argument is complete. The result may seem meager at first. That it is not unreasonable to promote the happiness of all appears to be no particularly controversial claim. On closer inspection, however, Mill’s conclusion is quite interesting since it imposes pressure on self-interest theories of practical rationality. The “notion that self-interest possesses a special, underived rationality (…) seems suddenly to require justification.” (Skorupski 1989, 311).What Mill fails to show is that each person has most reason to promote the general good. One should note, however, that the aim of the proof is not to answer the question why one should be moral. Mill does not want to demonstrate that we have reason to prefer general happiness to personal happiness.
Hedonism states not only that happiness is intrinsically good, but also that it is the only good and thus the only measure for our action. To show this, is the goal of the third step of the proof. Mill’s reflections in this step are based on psychological hedonism and the principle of association. According to Mill, humans cannot desire anything except that which is either aninstrument to or a component of happiness. He concedes that people seem to strive for every possible thing as ultimate ends. Philosophers may pursue knowledge as their ultimate goal; others value virtue, fame or wealth. Corresponding to his basic thesis that “the sole evidence it is possible to produce that anything is desirable, is that people do actually desire it” (CW 10, 234), Mill must consider the possibility that knowledge, fame or wealth have intrinsic value.
He blocks this inference with the thesis that humans do not “naturally and originally” (CW 10, 235) desire other goods than happiness. That knowledge, virtue, wealth or fame is seen as intrinsically valuable is due to the operation of the principle of association. In the course of our socialization, goods, like knowledge, virtue, wealth or fame acquire value by their association with pleasure. A philosopher came to experience knowledge as pleasurable, and this is why he desires it. Humans strive for virtue and other goods only if they are associated with the natural and original tendency to seek pleasure and avoid pain. Virtue, knowledge or wealth can thus become parts of happiness. At this point, Mill declares that the proof is completed.
11. Evaluating Consequences
According to Mill’s Second Formula of the utilitarian standard, a good human life must be rich in enjoyments, in both quantitative and qualitative respects. A manner of existence without access to the higher pleasures is not desirable: “It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.” (CW 10, 212).
The life of Socrates is better because no person who is familiar with higher pleasures will trade the joy of philosophizing against an even infinite amount of lower pleasures, Mill suggests. This does not amount to a modern version of Aristotle’s’ view that only a life completely devoted to theoretical activity is desirable. One must not forget that Mill is a hedonist after all. What kind of life is joyful and therefore good for a particular person depends upon many factors, such as tastes, talents and character. There are a great variety of lifestyles that are equally good. But Mill insists that a human life that is completely deprived of higher pleasures is not as good as it could be. It is not a desirable “mode of existence”, nothing a “competent judge” would choose.
Utilitarianism demands that we establish and observe a system of social, legal and moral rules that enables all mankind to have the best life possible, a life that is “as rich as possible in enjoyments, both in point of quantity and quality” (CW 10, 214). Mill’s statement that every human has an equal claim “to all the means of happiness” (CW 10, 258), belongs in this context. Society must make sure that the social-economic preconditions of a non-impoverished life prevail. In one text passage, Mill even includes the happiness of animals. Animals, too, should have the best possible life, “so far as the nature of things admits” (CW 10, 214).
The Second Formula maintains that a set of social rules A is better than the set B, if in A less humans suffer from an impoverished, unhappy life and more enjoy a fulfilled, rich life than in B.
More difficult is the question how to evaluate scenarios that involve unequal population sizes. With Mill there is no explicit unpacking of this problem; but his advocacy of the regulation of birth gives us at least an indication of the direction in which his considerations would go. Let us consider the following example: Which world would be better: world X in which 1000 humans have a fulfilled life and 100 a bad one, or world Y in which 10000 humans have a fulfilled life and 800 an impoverished one? The answer to this question depends on whether we focus on the minimizing the number of bad lives or on maximizing the number of good lives, and whether we measure this absolutely or relatively to the total population.
(i) One possible answer concerns the minimization of the number of bad lives. This can mean the absolute number of humans with joyless or impoverished lives. If one answers this way, then world X would be better than world Y because in this world the absolute number of humans with bad lives would be less. But it is also possible to think of the Second Formula as a statement about the relative number of humans with bad lives; in this case world Y would be preferable.
(ii) Another possible answer emphasizes the maximization of fulfilled lives. If one follows this interpretation, then world Y is better than world X because in this world absolute and relative measurements suggest that more humans have fulfilled lives.
Under the influence of Malthus, Mill insisted throughout his work that the problem of poverty is to be resolved only through a reduction of the population number – as noted, he encouraged the regulation of birth. This proposal is reconcilable with all three interpretations, but does not bear any relation to the question concerning which of the interpretations he could have preferred. One can speculate how Mill would answer, but there is not clear textual basis.
A further theme that Mill does not address concerns the problem of measurement and the interpersonal comparison of quantities of happiness. From an utilitarian point of view, other things being equal, it makes no moral difference whether A or B experiences an equal quantity of happiness (CW 10, 258). A quantity of happiness for A bears precisely as much value as a quantity of happiness for B. But this answers neither the question of measurement nor the question of the comparison of interpersonal utility. Can quantities of happiness be measured like temperatures? The philosopher and economist Francis Edgeworth spoke in his 1881 Mathematical Psychics of a fictitious instrument of measurement, a hedonimeter, with whose help the quantities of pleasure and pain could be determined with scientific accuracy.
Or do amounts of happiness have to be assessed approximately, such that Harriet Taylor for example can say that she is happier today than she was yesterday. Interpersonal comparisons of utility are confronted with the related question whether and under which conditions one can say that, for instance, Harriet Taylor and John Stuart Mill experience an equal amount of happiness.
Mill gave both themes little attention. But probably he was convinced that precise measurement and comparison of interpersonal utility would not be needed, maybe not even possible. One often does not need a thermometer to discern whether or not an object is warmer than another. Similarly, in many cases we do not need something like a hedonimeter to judge whether the condition of world A is better than that of world B. We need only a reasonable degree of experience and the capacity to empathize. Often, though, we may be unsure what to say. Which of two systems of income tax, for instance, promotes general happiness more? Mill’s position here seems to be that we have to decide questions like these by means of public debate and not by means of a hedonimeter.
Regarding moral rights, “the most sacred and binding part of all morality” (CW 10, 255), all competent judges seem to agree that they promote general happiness. Our capacity to estimate quantities and qualities of happiness is thus sufficiently good in order to conclude that a society that does protect “the most vital of all interests” (CW 10, 251) is better than a society that does not.
12. Freedom of Will
In various places of his work John Stuart Mill occupied himself with the question of the freedom of the human will. The respective chapter in the System ofLogic he later claimed was the best part of the entire book. Here Mill presents the solution to a problem with which he wrestled not only intellectually. In his Autobiography he calls it a “heavy burden” and reports: “I pondered painfully on the subject.” (CW 1, 177)
Freedom of the will is a traditional philosophical problem whose roots stretch back to antiquity. The problem results from the conflict of two positions: On the one hand, that all events – and thus also all actions – have causes from which they necessarily follow; on the other hand, that humans are free. Both claims cannot be reconciled, or so it seems, and this is the problem.
Mill is a determinist and assumes that human actions follow necessarilyfrom antecedent conditions and psychological laws. This apparently commits him to the claim that humans are not free; for if their actions occurred necessarily and inevitably, then they could not act otherwise. With perfect knowledge of antecedent conditions and psychological laws, we could predict human behavior with perfect accuracy.
But Mill is convinced that humans are free in a relevant sense. In modern terminology, this makes him a compatibilist, someone who believes in the reconcilability of determinism and free will . Part of his solution to the problem of compatibility is based on the discovery of a “misleading association”, which accompanies the word “necessity”. We have to differentiate between the following two statements: On the one hand, that actions occur necessarily; on the other hand, that they are predetermined and agents have no influence on them. Corresponding to this is the differentiation of the doctrine of necessity (determinism) and the doctrine of fatalism. Fatalism is indeed not compatible with human freedom, says Mill, but determinism is.
He grounds his thesis that determinism is reconcilable with a sense of human freedom, first, (i) with a repudiation of common misunderstandings regarding the content of determinism and, second, (ii) with a presentation of what he takes to be the appropriate concept of human freedom.
(i) With regard to human action, the “doctrine of necessity” claims that actions are determined by the external circumstances and the effective motives of the person at a given point in time. Causal necessity means that events are accompanied not only factually without exception by certain effects, but would also be under counter-factual circumstances. Given the preconditions and laws, it is necessary that a person acts in a certain way, and a well-informed observer would have predicted precisely this. As things were, this had to happen.
Fatalism advocates a completely different thesis. It claims that all essential events in life are fixed, regardless of antecedent conditions or psychological laws. Nothing could change their occurrence. If someone’s fate is to die on a particular day, there is no way of changing it. One finds this kind of fatalism in Sophocles “Oedipus”. Oedipus is destined to kill his father and marry his mother and his desperate attempts to avoid his foretold fate are in vain. The determinists of his day, Mill suggests, were “more or less obscurely” also fatalists – and he thought that this explains the predominance of the belief that human will can be free only if determinism is false.
(ii) Mill now turns to the question of whether determinism – correctly understood – is indeed incompatible with the doctrine of free will. His central idea is, firstly, that determinism in no way excludes the possibility that a person can influence his or her character; and secondly, that the ability to have influence on one’s own character is what we mean by free will.
(1) Actions are determined by one’s character and the prevailing external circumstances. The character of a person is constituted by his or her motives, habits, convictions and so forth. All these are governed by psychological laws. A person’s character is not given at birth. It is being formed through education; the goals that we pursue, the motives and convictions that we have depend to a large degree on our socialization. But if it is possible to form someone’s character by means of education, then it is also possible to form one’s own character through self-education: “We are exactly as capable of making our own character, if we will, as others are of making it for us.”
If we have the wish to change ourselves, then we can. Experience teaches us that we are capable of having influence on our habits and attitudes. The desire to change oneself resides, for Mill, in the individual, thus in our selves. Discontent with oneself and one’s own life, or the admiration for another lifestyle may be reasons why one wants to change (CW 8, 841).
(2) The ability to influence the formation of one’s own character, for Mill, is the substance of the doctrine of free will: “(…) that what is really inspiring and ennobling in the doctrine of freewill, is the conviction that we have real power over the formation of our own character; that our will, by influencing some of our circumstances, can modify our future habits or capabilities of willing. All this was entirely consistent with the doctrine of circumstances, or rather, was that doctrine itself, properly understood.” (CW 1, 177). Nothing more is intended by the doctrine of free will: We are capable of acting in a way that corresponds to our own desires; and we are, if we want, capable of shaping our desires. More precisely said, Mill advocates the idea that we are in a measure free, insofar as we can become those who we want to be.
One may object here that Mill’s theory presumes the desire to change. But what about those who do not want to change? If one does not want to change, then one could not change. And with this, not all humans are free. But such an objection presumes that those who do not have the desire to change themselves are missing something (namely, the desire to change), and that, because of this lack, they are less free. But Mill contends that persons in certain ways “are their desires”. If someone is lacking the desire to change, he or she is no less free than a person who has this desire. It is not as if one were simply missing an entry upon a list of choices. The “I” does not choose between various desires and options; instead it is rather that “one’s self” is identified with one’s desires: “…it is obvious that ‘I’ am both parties in the contest; the conflict is between me and myself; between (for instance) me desiring a pleasure, and me dreading self-reproach. What causes Me, or, if you please, my Will, to be identified with one side rather than with the other, is that one of the Me’s represents a more permanent state of feelings than the other one does.” (CW 9, 452).
The thought that there is no “I” is also the reason why Mill rejects the idea that freedom presupposes the capacity to refrain from an act in a given situation (“I could have done otherwise”). Mill finds the idea utterly curious that someone’s will was only free if he could have acted differently. For what does it mean to say that “(o)ne could have acted differently?” Is it supposed to mean that one could have chosen what one did not want to choose (CW 9, 450)?According to Mill’s analysis, what we mean by the phrase (that we could have acted differently) is this: If the circumstances, or my character or my mood or my knowledge and so forth, would have been different, I would have acted differently. Without such variations, the thought that one could have acted differently seems strange to Mill:“I dispute therefore altogether that we are conscious of being able to act in opposition to the strongest present desire or aversion.” (CW 9, 453). Because a person cannot counteract an effective desire, he is necessarily determined by it – just as things are.
13. Responsibility and Punishment
Mill variously examines the thesis that punishment is only justified if the perpetrator could have acted differently. A contemporary of Mill’s, the social reformer Robert Owen, claimed that punishment of the breaking of social norms is unjustified, because the character of a person is the result of social influences. No one is the author of himself. Because actions follow from the character and one is not responsible for this, it is not just to punish people for the violation of norm which they could not help violating. It was not within their power to act differently. And it is unjust to punish someone for something, if he could not do anything to hinder its occurrence (CW 9, 453).
Mill responds to Owen’s criticism that persons could very well have influence on their characters, if they wanted. But does this satisfy us as a defence of punishment for the breaking of norms? It might be right that someone who does not want to change will not become depressed about his inability to change (CW 8, 841). Probably the thought will not even occur to him. But the point here is not whether one’s inability is a source of depression or not. The point is whether it is fair to punish people for actions which they could not control. If one lacks the respective desire, then one cannot change one’s character. It seems unfair to blame a person for her rotten character if there is no “I” that we can accuse of failing to have the desire to change.
Mill’s solution to this problem is somewhat surprising. We have to be clear as to what it means to say that a person “could not have acted differently”. Certainly, it does not mean that a person would have performed a particular act under all conceivable circumstances. This would be the case, if humans were programmed like robots to act in certain ways, regardless of the external conditions. In actual fact, one can in almost all cases imagine variations in circumstances that would effectively hold a person back from acting how he or she acted. Someone with criminal tendencies might not be able to keep himself from acting criminally, because he does not consider the possibility that he will be severely punished if caught. “If, on the contrary, the impression is strong in his mind that a heavy punishment will follow, he can, and in most cases does, help it.” (CW 9, 458)
It is the purpose of punishments to reduce anti-social behavior, in particular the violation of moral rights, “the most vital of all interests” (CW 10, 251). The justification of punishment consists in the fact that it serves this justified goal (CW 9, 459-460). If someone cannot be restrained from breaking the norm through the threat of punishment, then the threat of punishment was ineffective in regard to this individual. It was not enough – seen in the light of his character and his perception of the situation – to discourage him from violating the norm. But that the criminal inclinations of an individual is higher than average and that it had therefore needed a stronger incentive in order to bring him to respect the norm makes neither the punishment nor the threat of punishment unjust or illegitimate.
According to Mill, conceiving oneself as a morally responsible agent does not mean to see oneself as an “I” who could have acted differently. It means to consider oneself as member of a moral community entitled to sanction the violation of justified social norms. This idea of moral responsibility does not seem far-fetched. A person may well agree that it is appropriate to punish him for the violation of moral rights, even if he “could not have done otherwise” under the given circumstances.
14. References and Further Readings
a. Primary Sources
Mill, John Stuart, The Collected Works of John Stuart Mill. Gen. Ed. John M. Robson. 33 vols. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1963-91.
The standard scholarly edition including Mill’s published works, letters, and notes; cited in the text as CW volume, page.
b. Secondary Sources
Bain, Alexander, 1882, John Stuart Mill. A Criticism: With Personal Recollections, London: Longmans, Green, and Co.
Berger, Fred R., 1984, Happiness, Justice, and Freedom: The Moral and Political Philosophy of John Stuart Mill, Berkeley & Los Angeles: U. of California Press.
Bradley, Francis H., 1876/1988, Ethical Studies, reprint of the second edition, Oxford: OUP.
Brink, David, 1992, “Mill's Deliberative Utilitarianism”, in: Philosophy & Public Affairs 21, pp. 67-103.
Brown, D. G., 1973, “What is Mill’s Principle of Utility?”, in: Canadian Journal of Philosophy 3 (1), pp. 1-12.
Coope, Christopher M., 1998, “Was Mill a Utilitarian?”, Utilitas 10 (1), pp. 33-67.
Crisp, Roger, 1997, Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Mill on Utilitarianism, London: Routledge.
Donner, Wendy, 1991, The Liberal Self. John Stuart Mill’s Moral and Political Philosophy, Ithaca & London: Cornell UP.
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Eggleston, Ben/Dale E. Miller/David Weinstein (eds.), 2011, John Stuart Mill and the Art of Life, Oxford: OUP.
Fuchs, Alan, 2006, “Mill’s Theory of Morally Correct Action”, in: The Blackwell Guide to Mill’s Utilitarianism, edited by Henry R. West, Oxford: Blackwell, 139-158.
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What is the official language of Guinea-Bissau? | Mill, John Stuart | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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John Stuart Mill (1806—1873)
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) profoundly influenced the shape of nineteenth century British thought and political discourse. His substantial corpus of works includes texts in logic, epistemology, economics, social and political philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, religion, and current affairs. Among his most well-known and significant are A System of Logic, Principles of Political Economy, On Liberty, Utilitarianism, The Subjection of Women, Three Essays on Religion, and his Autobiography.Mill’s education at the hands of his imposing father, James Mill, fostered both intellectual development (Greek at the age of three, Latin at eight) and a propensity towards reform. James Mill and Jeremy Bentham led the “Philosophic Radicals,” who advocated for rationalization of the law and legal institutions, universal male suffrage, the use of economic theory in political decision-making, and a politics oriented by human happiness rather than natural rights or conservatism. In his twenties, the younger Mill felt the influence of historicism, French social thought, and Romanticism, in the form of thinkers like Coleridge, the St. Simonians, Thomas Carlyle, Goethe, and Wordsworth. This led him to begin searching for a new philosophic radicalism that would be more sensitive to the limits on reform imposed by culture and history and would emphasize the cultivation of our humanity, including the cultivation of dispositions of feeling and imagination (something he thought had been lacking in his own education).
None of Mill’s major writings remain independent of his moral, political, and social agenda. Even the most abstract works, such as the System of Logic and his Examination of Sir William Hamilton’s Philosophy, serve polemical purposes in the fight against the German, or a priori, school otherwise called “intuitionism.” On Mill’s view, intuitionism needed to be defeated in the realms of logic, mathematics, and philosophy of mind if its pernicious effects in social and political discourse were to be mitigated.
In his writings, Mill argues for a number of controversial principles. He defends radical empiricism in logic and mathematics, suggesting that basic principles of logic and mathematics are generalizations from experience rather than known a priori. The principle of utility—that “actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness”—was the centerpiece of his ethical philosophy. On Liberty puts forward the “harm principle” that “the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others.” In The Subjection of Women, he compares the legal status of women to the status of slaves and argues for equality in marriage and under the law.
This article provides an overview of Mill’s life and major works, focusing on his key arguments and their relevant historical contexts.
Table of Contents
References and Further Reading
1. Biography
Writing of John Stuart Mill a few days after Mill’s death, Henry Sidgwick claimed, “I should say that from about 1860-65 or thereabouts he ruled England in the region of thought as very few men ever did: I do not expect to see anything like it again.” (Collini 1991, 178). Mill established this rule over English thought through his writings in logic, epistemology, economics, social and political philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, religion, and current affairs. One can say with relative security, looking at the breadth and complexity of his work, that Mill was the greatest nineteenth century British philosopher.
This rule did not come about accidentally. It had been planned by his father James Mill from the younger Mill’s birth on May 20, 1806. The elder Mill was a towering figure for his eldest child, and Mill’s story must be told through his father’s. James Mill was born in Scotland in 1773 to a family of modest means. Through the patronage of Sir John and Lady Jane Stuart, he was able to attend the University of Edinburgh, which at the time was one of the finest universities in Europe. He trained for the Presbyterian ministry under the auspices of admired teachers like Dugald Stewart, who was an effective popularizer of Thomas Reid’s philosophy.
After a brief and generally unsuccessful stint as a minister, James Mill moved to London, where he began his career in letters. This was a difficult path for a man of very modest resources to take; he and his wife Harriet (married 1805) lived without financial security for well over a decade. It was only with the publication of his The History of British India in 1818—a work that took twelve years to write—that Mill was able to land a stable, well paying job at the East India Company that enabled him to support his large family (ultimately consisting of his wife and nine children).
Throughout the years of relative poverty, James Mill received assistance from friends including the great legal theorist and utilitarian reformer Jeremy Bentham, whom he met in 1808. The two men helped lead the movement of “Philosophic Radicals” that gave intellectual heft to the British Radical party of the early to mid-nineteenth century. Among their colleagues were David Ricardo, George Grote, Sir William Molesworth, John Austin, and Francis Place.
This philosophically inspired radicalism of the early nineteenth century positioned itself against the Whigs and Tories. The Radicals advocated for legal and political reform, universal male suffrage, the use of economic theory (especially Ricardo’s) in political decision-making, and a politics oriented by human happiness rather than by conservatism or by natural rights (which Bentham famously derided as “nonsense upon stilts”). Moreover, one aspect of their political temperament that distinguished them from Whigs and Tories was their rationalism—their willingness to recommend re-structuring social and political institutions under the explicit guidance of principles of reason (e.g. the principle of utility).
With Bentham’s financial support, the Radicals founded the Westminster Review (1824) to counter the Whig Edinburgh Review (1802) and the Tory Quarterly Review (1809). While Whig intellectuals and Radicals tended to align with each other on economic issues, both tending towards pro-urban, pro-industrial, laissez-faire policies, Tory intellectuals focused on defending traditional British social structures and ways of life associated with aristocratic agrarianism. These alliances can be seen in disputes over the Tory-supported Corn Laws, legislation meant to protect domestic agriculture by taxing imported grains.
Though Whigs and Radicals were often allied (eventually forming the Liberal party in the 1840s), some of the most acrimonious political and intellectual rows of the period were over their differences (for example, Macaulay’s famous public disputes with James Mill over political theorizing). James Mill saw the Whigs as too imbued with aristocratic interests to be a true organ of democratic reform. Only the Radicals could properly advocate for the middle and working classes. Moreover, unlike the Radicals, who possessed a systematic politics guided by the principle of utility (the principle that set the promotion of aggregate happiness as the standard for legislation and action), the Whigs lacked a systematic politics. The Whigs depended instead on a loose empiricism, which the senior Mill took as an invitation to complacency. Whigs, alternatively, took exception to the rationalistic tenor of the Radicals’ politics, seeing in it a dangerous psychological and historical naiveté. They also reacted to the extremity of the Radicals’ reformist temperaments, which revealed hostility to the Anglican church and to religion more generally.
The younger Mill was seen as the crown prince of the Philosophic Radical movement and his famous education reflected the hopes of his father and Bentham. Under the dominating gaze of his father, he was taught Greek beginning at age three and Latin at eight. He read histories, many of the Greek and Roman classics, and Newton by eleven. He studied logic and math, moving to political economy and legal philosophy in his early teens, and then went on to metaphysics. His training facilitated active command of the material through the requirement that he teach his younger siblings and through evening walks with his father when the precocious pupil would have to tell his father what he had learned that day. His year in France in 1820 led to a fluency in French and initiated his life-long interest in French thought and politics. As he matured, his father and Bentham both employed him as an editor. In addition, he founded a number of intellectual societies and study groups and began to contribute to periodicals, including the Westminster Review.
The stress of his education and of his youthful activity combined with other factors to lead to what he later termed, in his Autobiography, his “mental crisis” of 1826. There have been a wide variety of attempts to explain what led to this crisis—most of which center around his relation to his demanding father—but what matters most about the crisis is that it represents the beginning of Mill’s struggle to revise his father’s and Bentham’s thought, which he grew to think of as limited in a number of ways. Mill claims that he began to come out of his depression with the help of poetry (specifically Wordsworth). This contributed to his sense that while his education had fostered his analytic abilities, it had left his capacity for feeling underdeveloped. This realization made him re-think the attachment to the radical, rationalistic strands of Enlightenment thought that his education was meant to promote.
In response to this crisis, Mill began exploring Romanticism and a variety of other European intellectual movements that rejected secular, naturalistic, worldly conceptions of human nature. He also became interested in criticisms of urbanization and industrialization. These explorations were furthered by the writings of (and frequent correspondence with) thinkers from a wide sampling of intellectual traditions, including Thomas Carlyle, Auguste Comte, Alexis de Tocqueville, John Ruskin, M. Gustave d’Eichtal (and other St. Simonians), Herbert Spencer, Frederick Maurice, and John Sterling.
The attempt to rectify the perceived deficiencies of the Philosophic Radicals through engagement with other styles of thought began with Mill’s editing of a new journal, the London Review, founded by the two Mills and Charles Molesworth. Molesworth quickly bought out the old Westminster Review in 1834, to leave the new London and Westminster Review as the unopposed voice of the radicals. With James Mill’s death in 1836 and Bentham’s 1832 demise, Mill had more intellectual freedom. He used that freedom to forge a new “philosophic radicalism” that incorporated the insights of thinkers like Coleridge and Thomas Carlyle. (Collected Works [CW], I.209). One of his principal goals was “to shew that there was a Radical philosophy, better and more complete than Bentham’s, while recognizing and incorporating all of Bentham’s which is permanently valuable.” (CW, I.221).
This project is perhaps best indicated by Mill’s well-known essays of 1838 and 1840 on Bentham and Coleridge, which were published in the London and Westminster Review. Mill suggested that Bentham and Coleridge were “the two great seminal minds of England in their age” and used each essay to show their strengths and weaknesses, implying that a more complete philosophical position remained open for articulation. Mill would spend his career attempting to carry that out.
Harriet Taylor, friend, advisor, and eventual wife, helped him with this project. He met Taylor in 1830 and she was to join James Mill as one of the two most important people in Mill’s life. Unfortunately for Mill, Taylor was married. After two decades of an intense and somewhat scandalous platonic relationship, they were married in 1851 after her husband’s death. Her death in 1858 left him inconsolable.
There has been substantial debate about the nature and extent of Harriet Taylor’s influence on Mill. Beyond question is that Mill found in her a partner, friend, critic, and someone who encouraged him. Mill was probably most swayed by her in the realms of political, ethical, and social thought, but less so in the areas of logic and political economy (with the possible exception of his views on socialism).
Mill’s day-to-day existence was dominated by his work at the East India Company, though his job required little time, paid him well, and left him ample opportunity for writing. He began there in 1826, working under his father, and by his retirement in 1857, he held the same position as his father, chief examiner, which put him in charge of the memoranda guiding the company’s policies in India.
On his retirement and after the death of his wife, Mill was recruited to stand for a Parliamentary seat. Though he was not particularly effective during his one term as an MP, he participated in three dramatic events. (Capaldi 2004, 326-7). First, Mill attempted to amend the 1867 Reform Bill to substitute “person” for “man” so that the franchise would be extended to women. Though the effort failed, it generated momentum for women’s suffrage. Second, he headed the Jamaica Committee, which pushed (unsuccessfully) for the prosecution of Governor Eyre of Jamaica, who had imposed brutal martial law after an uprising by blacks. Third, Mill used his influence with the leaders of the laboring classes to defuse a potentially dangerous confrontation between government troops and workers who were protesting the defeat of the 1866 Reform Bill.
After his term in Parliament ended and he was not re-elected, Mill began spending more time in France, writing, walking, and living with his wife’s daughter, Helen Taylor. It was to her that he uttered his last words in 1873, “You know that I have done my work.” He was buried next to his wife, Harriet.
Though Mill’s influence has waxed and waned since his death, his writings in ethics and social and political philosophy continue to be read most often. Many of his texts—particularly On Liberty, Utilitarianism, The Subjection of Women, and his Autobiography—continue to be reprinted and taught in universities throughout the world.
2. Works
Mill wrote on a startling number of topics. All his major texts, however, play a role in defending his new philosophic radicalism and the intellectual, moral, political, and social agendas associated with it.
a. A System of Logic
Though Mill’s biography reveals his openness to intellectual exploration, his most basic philosophical commitment—to naturalism—never seriously wavers. He is committed to the idea that our best methods of explaining the world are those employed by the natural sciences. Anything that we can know about human minds and wills comes from treating them as part of the causal order investigated by the sciences, rather than as special entities that lie outside it.
By taking the methods of the natural sciences as the only route to knowledge about the world, Mill sees himself as rejecting the “German, or a priori view of human knowledge,” (CW, I.233) or, as he also calls it, “intuitionism,” which was espoused in different ways by Kant, Reid, and their followers in Britain (e.g. Whewell and Hamilton). Though there are many differences among intuitionist thinkers, one “grand doctrine” that Mill suggests they all affirm is the view that “the constitution of the mind is the key to the constitution of external nature—that the laws of the human intellect have a necessary correspondence with the objective laws of the universe, such that these may be inferred from those.” (CW, XI.343). The intuitionist doctrine conceives of nature as being largely or wholly constituted by the mind rather than more or less imperfectly observed by it. One of the great dangers presented by this doctrine, from the perspective of Mill’s a posteriori school, is that it supports the belief that one can know universal truths about the world through evidence (including intuitions or Kantian categories of the understanding) provided by the mind alone rather than by nature. If the mind constitutes the world that we experience, then we can understand the world by understanding the mind. It was this freedom from appeal to nature and the lack of independent (i.e. empirical) checks to the knowledge claims associated with it that Mill found so disturbing.
For Mill, the problems with intuitionism extend far beyond the metaphysical and epistemological to the moral and political. As Mill says in his Autobiography when discussing his important treatise of 1843, A System of Logic:
The notion that truths external to the mind may be known by intuition or consciousness, independently of observation and experience, is, I am persuaded, in these times, the great intellectual support of false doctrines and bad institutions. By the aid of this theory, every inveterate belief and every intense feeling, of which the origin is not remembered, is enabled to dispense with the obligation of justifying itself by reason, and is erected into its own all-sufficient voucher and justification. There never was such an instrument devised for consecrating all deep-seated prejudices. And the chief strength of this false philosophy in morals, politics, and religion, lies in the appeal which it is accustomed to make to the evidence of mathematics and of the cognate branches of physical science. To expel it from these, is to drive it from its stronghold. (CW, I.233)
This charge against intuitionism, that it frees one from the obligation of justifying one’s beliefs, has strong roots in philosophic radicalism. We find Bentham, in his 1789 An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, attacking non-utilitarian moral systems for just this reason: “They consist all of them in so many contrivances for avoiding the obligation of appealing to any external standard, and for prevailing upon the reader to accept of the author’s sentiment or opinion as a reason and that a sufficient one for itself.” (IPML, II.14). Mill thus saw his own commitment to the naturalism and empiricism of the “a posteriori school” of thought as part of a broader social and political agenda that advocated for reform and also undercut traditional foundations of conservatism.
Intuitionism, however, is often taken to be on much firmer ground than empiricism when it comes to accounting for our knowledge of mathematics and logic. This is especially true if one rejects the idea, found in people like Hobbes and Hume, that mathematical propositions like 2 + 3 = 5 are true merely because of the meaning of the constituents of the proposition, or, as Hume puts it, because of the proposition’s “relations of ideas.” Mill agrees with those (including Kant) who maintain that logical and mathematical truths are not merely linguistic—that they contain substantive, non-linguistic information. But this leaves Mill with the problem of accounting for the apparent necessity of such truths—a necessity which seems to rule out their origin in experience. To successfully attack intuitionism in “its stronghold,” the System of Logic needs to provide alternative grounds for basic principles of logic and mathematics (e.g. the principle of non-contradiction). In particular, Mill needs to show how “that peculiar character of what are called necessary truths” may be explained from experience and association alone.
The object of logic “is to ascertain how we come by that portion of our knowledge (much the greatest portion) which is not intuitive: and by what criterion we can, in matters not self-evident, distinguish between things proved and things not proved, between what is worthy and what is unworthy of belief.” (A System of Logic [System], I.i.1). It should be noted that logic goes beyond formal logic for Mill and into the conditions of truth more generally.
The text has the following basic structure. Book I addresses names and propositions. Books II and III examine deduction and induction, respectively. Book IV discusses a variety of operations of the mind, including observation, abstraction and naming, which are presupposed in all induction or instrumental to more complicated forms of induction. Book V reveals fallacies of reasoning. Finally, in Book VI, Mill treats the “moral sciences” and argues for the fundamental similarity of the methods of the natural and human sciences. In fact, the human sciences can be understood as themselves natural sciences with human objects of study.
i. Names, Propositions, and the Principles of Logic and Mathematics
Mill’s argument that the principles of mathematics and logic are justified by appeal to experience depends upon his distinction between verbal and real propositions, that is, between propositions that do not convey new information to the person who understands the meaning of the proposition’s terms and those propositions that do convey new information. The point of the distinction between verbal and real propositions is, first, to stress that all real propositions are a posteriori. Second, the distinction emphasizes that verbal propositions are empty of content; they tell us about language (i.e. what words mean) rather than about the world. In Kantian terms, Mill wants to deny the possibility of synthetic a priori propositions, while contending that we can still make sense of our knowledge of subjects like logic and mathematics.
This distinction between verbal and real propositions depends, in turn, upon Mill’s analysis of the meaning of propositions, i.e. how the meanings of constituents of propositions determine the meaning of the whole. A proposition, in which something is affirmed or denied of something, is formed by putting together two “names” or terms (subject and predicate) and a copula. The subject is the name “denoting the person or thing which something is affirmed or denied of.” (System, I.i.2). The predicate is “the name denoting that which is affirmed or denied.” The copula is “the sign denoting that there is an affirmation or denial,” which thereby enables “the hearer or reader to distinguish a proposition from any other kind of discourse.” In the proposition ‘gold is yellow’ for example, the copula ‘is’ shows that the quality yellow is being affirmed of the substance gold.
Mill divides names into general and singular names. All names, except proper names (e.g. Ringo, Buckley, etc) and names that signify an attribute only (e.g. whiteness, length), have a connotation and a denotation. That is, they both connote or imply some attribute(s) and denote or pick out individuals that fall under that description. The general name “man,” for example, denotes Socrates, Picasso, Plutarch and an indefinite number of other individuals, and it does so because they all share some attribute(s) (e.g. rational animal, featherless biped, etc.) connoted by man. The name “white” denotes all white things and implies or connotes the attribute whiteness. The word “whiteness,” by contrast, denotes or signifies an attribute but does not connote an attribute. Instead, it operates like a proper name in that its meaning derives entirely from what it denotes.
The meaning of a typical proposition is that the thing(s) denoted by the subject has the attribute(s) connoted by the predicate. In sentences like “Eleanor is tired” and “All men are mortal,” though the subjects pick out their objects differently (through a proper name and through an attribute, respectively), Mill’s basic story about the meaning of propositions holds.
Things become much more difficult with identity statements like “Hesperus is Phosphorus.” In this case, we have two proper names that pick out the same object (the planet Venus). Under Mill’s view, these proper names should have the same meaning because they denote the same object. But this appears untenable because the statement seems informative. It doesn’t seem plausible that the proposition merely states that an object is identical with itself, which would be the proposition’s meaning if Mill’s views on the meaning of proper names were correct. (See Frege and Russell’s attack on Mill’s account of the meaning of proper names; but see Kripke’s sophisticate defense of Mill on this in Naming and Necessity).
This discussion of the nature of names or terms enables us to understand Mill’s treatment of verbal and real propositions. Verbal propositions assert something about the meaning of names rather than about matters of fact. This means that, “(s)ince names and their signification are entirely arbitrary, such propositions are not, strictly speaking, susceptible of truth or falsity, but only of conformity or disconformity to usage or convention.” (System, I.vi.1). This kind of proposition simply “asserts of a thing under a particular name, only what is asserted of it in the fact of calling it by that name; and which, therefore, either gives no information, or gives it respecting the name, not the thing.” (I.vi.4). As such, verbal propositions are empty of content and they are the only things we know a priori, independently of checking the correspondence of the proposition to the world.
Real propositions, in contrast, “predicate of a thing some fact not involved in the signification of the name by which the proposition speaks of it; some attribute not connoted by that name.” (I.vi.4). Such propositions convey information that is not already included in the names or terms employed, and their truth or falsity depends on whether or not they correspond to relevant features of the world. Thus, “George is on the soccer team” predicates something of the subject George that is not included in its meaning (in this case, the denotation of the individual person) and its being true or not depends upon whether George is, in fact, on the team.
Mill’s great contention in the System of Logic is that logic and mathematics contain real, rather than merely verbal, propositions. He claims, for example, that the law of contradiction (i.e. the same proposition cannot at the same time be false and true) and the law of excluded middle (i.e. either a proposition is true or it is false) are both real propositions. They are, like the axioms of geometry, experimental truths, not truths known a priori. They represent generalizations or inductions from observation—very well-justified inductions, to be sure, but inductions nonetheless. This leads Mill to say that the necessity typically ascribed to the truths of mathematics and logic by his intuitionist opponents is an illusion, thereby undermining intuitionist argumentative fortifications at their strongest point.
A System of Logic thus represents the most thorough attempt to argue for empiricism in epistemology, logic, and mathematics before the twentieth century (for the best discussion of this point, see Skorupski 1989). Though revolutionary advances in logic and philosophy of language in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries have rendered many of Mill’s technical points about semantics and logic obsolete, the basic philosophical vision that Mill defends is very much a live option (see, for example, the work of Quine).
ii. Other Topics of Interest
There are some other topics covered in the System of Logic that are of interest. First is Mill’s treatment of deduction (in the form of the syllogism). His discussion is driven by one basic concern: Why wouldn’t a deduction simply tell us what we already know? How can it be informative? Mill discounts two common views about the syllogism, namely, that it is useless (because it tells us what we already know) and that it is the correct analysis of what the mind actually does when it discovers truths. To understand why Mill discounts these ways of thinking about deduction, we need to understand his views on inference.
The key point here is that all inference is from particular to particular. When we infer that the Duke of Wellington is mortal from “All men are mortal,” what we are really doing is inferring the Duke’s mortality from the mortality of the individual people with whose mortality we are familiar. What the mind does in making a deductive inference is not to move from a universal truth to a particular one. Rather, it moves from truths about a number of particulars to a smaller number (or one). The general statement that “All men are mortal” only allows us to more easily register what we know—it reflects neither the true inference being made nor the warrant or evidence we have for making the inference. Though general propositions are not necessary for reasoning, they are heuristically useful (as are the syllogisms that employ them). They aid us in memory and comprehension.
Mill’s famous treatment of induction reveals the a posteriori grounds for belief. He focuses on four different methods of experimental inquiry that attempt to single out from the circumstances that precede or follow a phenomenon the ones that are linked to the phenomenon by an invariable law. (System, III.viii.1). That is, we test to see if a purported causal connection exists by observing the relevant phenomena under an assortment of situations. If we wish, for example, to know whether a virus causes a disease, how can we prove it? What counts as good evidence for such a belief? The four methods of induction or experimental inquiry—the methods of agreement, of difference, of residues, and of concomitant variation—provide answers to these questions by showing what we need to demonstrate in order to claim that a causal law holds. Can we show, using the method of difference, that when the virus is not present the disease is also absent? If so, then we have some grounds for believing that the virus causes the disease.
Another issue addressed in A System of Logic that is of abiding interest is Mill’s handling of free will. Mill’s commitment to naturalism includes treating the human will as a potential object of scientific study: “Our will causes our bodily actions in the same sense, and in no other, in which cold causes ice, or a spark causes an explosion of gunpowder. The volition, a state of our mind, is the antecedent; the motion of our limbs in conformity to the volition, is the consequent.” (System, III.v.11). The questions that readily arise are how, under this view, can one take the will to be free and how can we preserve responsibility and feelings of choice?
In his Autobiography, Mill recounts his own youthful, melancholy acceptance of the doctrine of “Philosophical Necessity” (advocated by, among others, Robert Owen and his followers): “I felt as if I was scientifically proved to be the helpless slave of antecedent circumstances; as if my character and that of all others had been formed for us by agencies beyond our control, and was wholly out of our own power.” (CW, I.175-7). But it is precisely the idea that our character is formed for us, not by us, that Mill thinks is a “grand error.” (System, VI.ii.3). We have the power to alter our own character. Though our own character is formed by circumstances, among those circumstances are our own desires. We cannot directly will our characters to be one way rather than another, but we can will actions that shape those characters.
Mill addresses an obvious objection: what leads us to will to change our character? Isn’t that determined? Mill agrees. Our desire to change our character is determined largely by our experience of painful and pleasant consequences associated with our character. For Mill, however, the important point is that, even if we don’t control the desire to change our character, we are still left with the feeling of moral freedom, which is the feeling of being able to modify our own character “if we wish.” (System, VI.ii.3). What Mill wants to save in the doctrine of free will is simply the feeling that we have “real power over the formation of our own character.” (CW, I.177). If we have the desire to change our character, we find that we can. If we lack that desire it is “of no consequence what we think forms our character,” because we don’t care about altering it. For Mill, this is a thick enough notion of freedom to avoid fatalism.
One of the basic problems for this kind of naturalistic picture of human beings and wills is that it clashes with our first-person image of ourselves as reasoners and agents. As Kant understood, and as the later hermeneutic tradition emphasizes, we think of ourselves as autonomous followers of objectively given rules (Skorupski 1989, 279). It seems extremely difficult to provide a convincing naturalistic account of, for example, making a choice (without explaining away as illusory our first-person experience of making choices).
The desire to treat the will as an object, like ice or gunpowder, open to natural scientific study falls within Mill’s broader claim that the moral sciences, which include economics, history, and psychology among others, are fundamentally similar to the natural sciences. Though we may have difficulty running experiments in the human realm, that realm and its objects are, in principle, just as open to the causal explanations we find in physics or biology.
Perhaps the most interesting element of his analysis of the moral sciences is his commitment to what has been called “methodological individualism,” or the view that social and political phenomena are explicable by appeal to the behavior of individuals. In other words, social facts are reducible to facts about individuals: “The laws of the phenomena of society are, and can be, nothing but the laws of the actions and passions of human beings united together in the social state. Men, however, in a state of society, are still men; their actions and passions are obedient to the laws of individual human nature. Men are not, when brought together, converted into another kind of substance with different properties.” (System, VI.vii.1).
This position puts Mill in opposition to Auguste Comte, a founding figure in social theory (he coined the term “sociology”) and an important influence on, and correspondent with, Mill. Comte takes sociology rather than psychology to be the most basic of human sciences and takes individuals and their conduct to be best understood through the lens of social analysis. To put it simplistically, for Comte, the individual is an abstraction from the whole—its beliefs and conduct are determined by history and society. We understand the individual best, on this view, when we see the individual as an expression of its social institutions and setting. This naturally leads to a kind of historicism. Though Mill recognized the important influences of social institutions and history on individuals, for him society is nevertheless only able to shape individuals through affecting their experiences—experiences structured by universal principles of human psychology that operate in all times and places. (See Mandelbaum 1971, 167ff).
b. An Examination of Sir William Hamilton’s Philosophy
Mill’s attacks on intuitionism continued throughout his life. One notable example is his 1865 An Examination of Sir William Hamilton’s Philosophy, which revisits much of the same ground as A System of Logic in the guise of a thorough-going criticism of Hamilton, a thinker influenced by Reid and Kant whom Mill took as representing “the great fortress of the intuitional philosophy in this country.” (CW, I.270). The rather hefty volume explores “some of the disputed questions in the domain of psychology and metaphysics.” (CW, I.271).
Among the doctrines given most attention is that of the “relativity of knowledge,” something to which Mill takes Hamilton as insufficiently committed. It is the idea that we have no access to “things-in-themselves” (thus, the relativity versus absoluteness of knowledge) and that we are limited to analyzing the phenomena of consciousness. Mill, who accepts this basic principle, counts himself as a Berkeleian phenomenalist and famously defines matter in the Examination as “a Permanent Possibility of Sensation,” (CW, IX.183), thinks that Hamilton accepts this doctrine in a confused manner. “He affirms without reservation, that certain attributes (extension, figures, etc.) are known to us as they really exist out of ourselves; and also that all our knowledge of them is relative to us. And these two assertions are only reconcileable, if relativity to us is understood in the altogether trivial sense, that we know them only so far as our faculties permit.” (CW, IX.22). Hamilton therefore seems to want to have his cake and eat it too when it comes to knowledge of the external world. On the one hand, he wants to declare that we have access to things as they are, thereby aligning himself with Reid’s project of avoiding the fall into (Humean) skepticism—a fall prompted by the Lockean “way of ideas.” On the other hand, he wants to follow Kant in limiting our knowledge of things-in-themselves, thereby reigning in the pretensions of metaphysical speculation. Mill avoids this dilemma by rejecting Hamilton’s position that we know things outside as they really are.
One point of historical interest about the Examination is the impact that it had on the way that the history of philosophy is taught. Mill’s demolition of Hamilton’s reputation led to the removal of Reid and the school of Scottish “common sense” philosophy from the curriculum in Britain and America. As Kuklick puts it, the success of Mill’s Examination “is the crucial event in understanding the development of the contemporary view of Modern Philosophy in America.” By destroying “the credibility of the entire Scottish reply to Hume,” Mill’s Examination led Anglo-American philosophers to turn to Kant in the later part of the nineteenth century in order to find more satisfactory response to Humean skepticism (Kuklick 1984, 128). Thus, the standard course in Modern Philosophy that includes all or some of Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, Hume, and Kant, is partly an unintended consequence of the publication of Mill’s attack on Hamilton and on intuitionism more broadly.
c. Psychological Writings
As noted in the discussion of A System of Logic, Mill’s commitment to “methodological individualism” makes psychology the foundational moral science. Though he never wrote a work of his own on psychology, he edited and contributed notes to an 1869 re-issue of his father’s 1829 work in psychology, Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind, and reviewed the work of his friend and correspondent, Alexander Bain. All three were proponents of the associationist school of psychology, whose roots go back to Hobbes and especially Locke and whose members included Gay, Hartley, and Priestly in the eighteenth century and the Mills, Bain, and Herbert Spencer in the nineteenth century.
Mill distinguishes between the a posteriori and a priori schools of psychology. The former “resolves the whole contents of the mind into experience.” (CW, XI.341). The latter emphasizes that “in every act of thought, down to the most elementary, there is an ingredient which is not given to the mind, but contributed by the mind in virtue of its inherent powers.” (CW, XI.344). In the a priori or intuitionist school, experience “instead of being the source and prototype of our ideas, is itself a product of the mind’s own forces working on the impressions we receive from without, and has always a mental as well as an external element.” (CW, XI.344).
The associationist version of a posteriori psychology has two basic doctrines: “first, that the more recondite phenomena of the mind are formed out of the more simple and elementary; and, secondly, that the mental law, by means of which this formation takes place, is the Law of Association.” (CW, XI.345). The associationist psychologists, then, would attempt to explain mental phenomena by showing them to be the ultimate product of simpler components of experience (e.g. color, sound, smell, pleasure, pain) connected to each other through associations. These associations take two basic forms: resemblance and contiguity in space and/or time. Thus, these psychologists attempt to explain our idea of an orange or our feelings of greed as the product of simpler ideas connected by association.
Part of the impulse for this account of psychology is its apparent scientific character and beauty. Associationism attempts to explain a large variety of mental phenomena on the basis of experience plus very few mental laws of association. It therefore appeals to those who are particularly drawn to simplicity in their scientific theories.
Another attraction of associationist psychology, however, is its implications for views on moral education and social reform. If the contents of our minds, including beliefs and moral feelings, are products of experiences that we undergo connected according to very simple laws, then this raises the possibility that human beings are capable of being radically re-shaped—that our natures, rather than being fixed, are open to major alteration. In other words, if our minds are cobbled together by laws of association working on the materials of experience, then this suggests that if our experiences were to change, so would our minds. This doctrine tends to place much greater emphasis on social and political institutions like the family, the workplace, and the state, than does the doctrine that the nature of the mind offers strong resistance to being shaped by experience (i.e. that the mind molds experience rather than being molded by it). Associationism thereby fits nicely into an agenda of reform, because it suggests that many of the problems of individuals are explained by their situations (and the associations that these situations promote) rather than by some intrinsic feature of the mind. As Mill puts it in the Autobiography in discussing the conflict between the intuitionist and a posteriori schools:
The practical reformer has continually to demand that changes be made in things which are supported by powerful and widely spread feelings, or to question the apparent necessity and indefeasibleness of established facts; and it is often an indispensable part of his argument to shew, how these powerful feelings had their origin, and how those facts came to seem necessary and indefeasible. There is therefore a natural hostility between him and a philosophy which discourages the explanation of feelings and moral facts by circumstances and association, and prefers to treat them as ultimate elements of human nature…I have long felt that the prevailing tendency to regard all the marked distinctions of human character as innate, and in the main indelible, and to ignore the irresistible proofs that by far the greater part of those differences, whether between individuals, races, or sexes, are such as not only might but naturally would be produced by differences in circumstances, is one of the chief hindrances to the rational treatment of great social questions, and one of the greatest stumbling blocks to human improvement. (CW, I.269-70).
d. Utilitarianism
Another maneuver in his battle with intuitionism came when Mill published Utilitarianism (1861) in installments in Fraser’s Magazine (it was later brought out in book form in 1863). It offers a candidate for a first principle of morality, a principle that provides us with a criterion distinguishing right and wrong. The utilitarian candidate is the principle of utility, which holds that “actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain and the privation of pleasure.” (CW, X.210).
i. History of the Principle of Utility
By Mill’s time, the principle of utility possessed a long history stretching back to the 1730’s (with roots going further back to Hobbes, Locke, and even to Epicurus). In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, it had been explicitly invoked by three British intellectual factions. Though all may have agreed that an action’s consequences for the general happiness were to dictate its rightness or wrongness, the reasons behind the acceptance of that principle and the uses to which the principle was put varied greatly.
The earliest supporters of the principle of utility were the religious utilitarians represented by, among others, John Gay, John Brown, Soame Jenyns, and, most famously, William Paley, whose 1785 The Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy was one of the most frequently re-printed and well read books of moral thought of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries (to Mill’s dismay, Bentham’s utilitarianism was often conflated with Paley’s). Religious utilitarianism was very popular among the educated classes and dominated in the universities until the 1830’s. These thinkers were all deeply influenced by Locke’s empiricism and psychological hedonism and often stood opposed to the competing moral doctrines of Shaftesbury, Hutcheson, Clarke, and Wollaston.
The religious utilitarians looked to the Christian God to address a basic problem, namely how to harmonize the interests of individuals, who are motivated by their own happiness, with the interests of the society as a whole. Once we understand that what we must do is what God wills (because of God’s power of eternal sanction) and that God wills the happiness of his creatures, morality and our own self-interest will be seen to overlap. God guarantees that an individual’s self-interest lies in virtue, in furthering the happiness of others. Without God and his sanctions of eternal punishment and reward, it would be hard to find motives that “are likely to be found sufficient to withhold men from the gratification of lust, revenge, envy, ambition, avarice.” (Paley 2002 [1785], 39). As we shall see in a moment, another possible motivation for caring about the general happiness—this one non-religious—is canvassed by Mill in Chapter Three of Utilitarianism.
In contrast to religious utilitarianism, which had few aspirations to be a moral theory that revises ordinary moral attitudes, the two late-eighteenth century secular versions of utilitarianism grew out of various movements for reform. The principle of utility—and the correlated commitments to happiness as the only intrinsically desirable end and to the moral equivalency of the happiness of different individuals—was itself taken to be an instrument of reform.
One version of secular utilitarianism was represented by William Godwin (husband of Mary Wollstonecraft and father of Mary Shelley), who achieved great notoriety with the publication of his Political Justice of 1793. Though his fame (or infamy) was relatively short-lived, Godwin’s use of the principle of utility for the cause of radical political and social critique began the identification of utilitarianism with anti-religiosity and with dangerous democratic values.
The second version of secular utilitarianism, and the one that inspired Mill, arose from the work of Jeremy Bentham. Bentham, who was much more successful than Godwin at building a movement around his ideas, employed the principle of utility as a device of political, social, and legal criticism. It is important to note, however, that Bentham’s interest in the principle of utility did not arise from concern about ethical theory as much as from concern about legislative and legal reform.
This history enables us to understand Mill’s invocation of the principle of utility in its polemical context—Mill’s support of that principle should not be taken as mere intellectual exercise. In the realm of politics, the principle of utility served to bludgeon opponents of reform. First and foremost, reform meant extension of the vote. But it also meant legal reform, including overhaul of the common law system and of legal institutions, and varieties of social reform, especially of institutions that tended to favor aristocratic and moneyed interests. Though Bentham and Godwin intended it to have this function in the late eighteenth century, utilitarianism became influential only when tied with the political machinery of the Radical party, which had particular prominence on the English scene in the 1830’s.
In the realm of ethical debate, Mill took his opponents to be the “intuitionists” led by Sedgwick and Whewell, both Cambridge men. They were the contemporary representatives of an ethical tradition that understood its history as tied to Butler, Reid, Coleridge, and turn of the century German thought (especially that of Kant). Though intuitionists and members of Mill’s a posteriori or “inductive” school recognize “to a great extent, the same moral laws,” they differ “as to their evidence and the source from which they derive their authority. According to the one opinion, the principles of morals are evident a priori, requiring nothing to command assent except that the meaning of the terms be understood. According to the other doctrine, right and wrong, as well as truth and falsehood, are questions of observation and experience.” (CW, X.206).
The chief danger represented by the proponents of intuitionism was not from the ethical content of their theories per se, which defended honesty, justice, benevolence, etc., but from the kinds of justifications offered for their precepts and the support such a view lent to the social and political status quo. As we saw in the discussion of the System of Logic and with reference to Mill’s statements in his Autobiography, he takes intuitionism to be dangerous because it allegedly enables people to ratify their own prejudices as moral principles—in intuitionism, there is no “external standard” by which to adjudicate differing moral claims (for example, Mill understood Kant’s categorical imperative as getting any moral force it possesses either from considerations of utility or from mere prejudice hidden by hand-waving). The principle of utility, alternatively, evaluates moral claims by appealing to the external standard of pain and pleasure. It presented each individual for moral consideration as someone capable of suffering and enjoyment.
ii. Basic Argument
Mill’s defense of the principle of utility in Utilitarianism includes five chapters. In the first, Mill sets out the problem, distinguishes between the intuitionist and “inductive” schools of morality, and also suggests limits to what we can expect from proofs of first principles of morality. He argues that “(q)uestions of ultimate ends are not amenable to direct proof.” (CW, X.207). All that can be done is to present considerations “capable of determining the intellect either to give or withhold its assent to the doctrine; and this is equivalent to proof.” (CW, X.208). Ultimately, he will want to prove in Chapter Four the basis for the principle of utility—that happiness is the only intrinsically desirable thing—by showing that we spontaneously accept it on reflection. (Skorupski 1989, 8). It is rather easy to show that happiness is something we desire intrinsically, not for the sake of other things. What is hard is to show that it is the only thing we intrinsically desire or value. Mill agrees that we do not always value things like virtue as means or instruments to happiness. We do sometimes seem to value such things for their own sakes. Mill contends, however, that on reflection we will see that when we appear to value them for their own sakes we are actually valuing them as parts of happiness (rather than as intrinsically desirable on their own or as means to happiness). That is, we value virtue, freedom, etc. as things that make us happy by their mere possession. This is all the proof we can give that happiness is our only ultimate end; it must rely on introspection and on careful and honest examination of our feelings and motives.
In Chapter Two, Mill corrects misconceptions about the principle of utility. One misconception is that utilitarianism, by endorsing the Epicurean view “that life has…no higher end than pleasure” is a “doctrine worthy only of swine.” (CW, X.210). Mill counters that “the accusation supposes human beings to be capable of no pleasures except those of which swine are capable.” (CW, X.210). He proffers a distinction (one not found in Bentham) between higher and lower pleasures, with higher pleasures including mental, aesthetic, and moral pleasures. When we are evaluating whether or not an action is good by evaluating the happiness that we can expect to be produced by it, he argues that higher pleasures should be taken to be in kind (rather than by degree) preferable to lower pleasures. This has led scholars to wonder whether Mill’s utilitarianism differs significantly from Bentham’s and whether Mill’s distinction between higher and lower pleasures creates problems for our ability to know what will maximize aggregate happiness.
A second objection to the principle of utility is that “it is exacting too much to require that people shall always act from the inducement of promoting the general interest of society.” (CW, X.219). Mill replies that this is to “confound the rule of action with the motive of it.” (CW, X.219). Ethics is supposed to tell us what our duties are, “but no system of ethics requires that the sole motive of all we do shall be a feeling of duty; on the contrary, ninety-nine hundredths of all our actions are done from other motives, and rightly so done if the rule of duty does not condemn them.” (CW, X.219). To do the right thing, in other words, we do not need to be constantly motivated by concern for the general happiness. The large majority of actions intend the good of individuals (including ourselves) rather than the good of the world. Yet the world’s good is made up of the good of the individuals that constitute it and unless we are in the position of, say, a legislator, we act properly by looking to private rather than to public good. Our attention to the public well-being usually needs to extend only so far as is required to know that we aren’t violating the rights of others.
Chapter Three addresses the topic of motivation again by focusing on the following question: What is the source of our obligation to the principle of utility? What, in other words, motivates us to act in ways approved of by the principle of utility? With any moral theory, one must remember that ‘ought implies can,’ i.e. that if moral demands are to be legitimate, we must be the kind of beings that can meet those demands. Mill defends the possibility of a strong utilitarian conscience (i.e. a strong feeling of obligation to the general happiness) by showing how such a feeling can develop out of the natural desire we have to be in unity with fellow creatures—a desire that enables us to care what happens to them and to perceive our own interests as linked with theirs. Though Chapter Two showed that we do not need to attend constantly to the general happiness, it is nevertheless a sign of moral progress when the happiness of others, including the happiness of those we don’t know, becomes important to us.
Finally, Chapter Five shows how utilitarianism accounts for justice. In particular, Mill shows how utilitarianism can explain the special status we seem to grant to justice and to the violations of it. Justice is something we are especially keen to defend. Mill begins by marking off morality (the realm of duties) from expediency and worthiness by arguing that duties are those things we think people ought to be punished for not fulfilling. He then suggests that justice is demarcated from other areas of morality, because it includes those duties to which others have correlative rights, “Justice implies something which it is not only right to do, and wrong not to do, but which some individual person can claim from us as his moral right.” (CW, X.247). Though no one has a right to my charity, even if I have a duty to be charitable, others have rights not to have me injure them or to have me repay what I have promised.
Critics of utilitarianism have placed special emphasis on its inability to provide a satisfactory account of rights. For Mill, to have a right is “to have something which society ought to defend me in the possession of. If the objector goes on to ask why it ought, I can give no other reason than general utility.” (CW, X.250). But what if the general utility demands that we violate your rights? The intuition that something is wrong if your rights can be violated for the sake of the general good provoked the great challenge to utilitarian conceptions of justice, leveled with special force by twentieth century thinkers like John Rawls.
e. On Liberty
The topic of justice received further treatment at Mill’s hands in his famous 1859 book On Liberty. This work is the one, along with A System of Logic, that Mill thought would have the most longevity. It concerns civil and social liberty or, to look at it from the contrary point of view, the nature and limits of the power that can legitimately be exercised by society over the individual.
Mill begins by retelling the history of struggle between rulers and ruled and suggests that social rather than political tyranny is the greater danger for modern, commercial nations like Britain. This social “tyranny of the majority” (a phrase Mill takes from Tocqueville) arises from the enforcement of rules of conduct that are both arbitrary and strongly adhered to. The practical principle that guides the majority “to their opinions on the regulation of human conduct, is the feeling in each person’s mind that everybody should be required to act as he, and those with whom he sympathizes, would like them to act.” (On Liberty [OL], 48). Such a feeling is particularly dangerous because it is taken to be self-justifying and self-evident.
There is a need, therefore, for a rationally grounded principle which governs a society’s dealings with individuals. This “one very simple principle”—often called the “harm principle”—entails that:
[T]he sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection. That the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral, is not a sufficient warrant. He cannot rightfully be compelled to do or forbear because it will be better for him to do so, because it will make him happier, because, in the opinion of others, to do so would be wise, or even right. These are good reasons for remonstrating with him, or reasoning with him, or persuading him, or entreating him, but not for compelling him, or visiting him with any evil in case he do otherwise. (OL, 51-2)
This anti-paternalistic principle identifies three basic regions of human liberty: the “inward domain of consciousness,” liberty of tastes and pursuits (i.e. of framing our own life plan), and the freedom to unite with others.
Mill, unlike other liberal theorists, makes no appeal to “abstract right” in order to justify the harm principle. The reason for accepting the freedom of individuals to act as they choose, so long as they cause minimal or no harm to others, is that it would promote “utility in the largest sense, grounded on the permanent interests of man as a progressive being.” (OL, 53). In other words, abiding by the harm principle is desirable because it promotes what Mill calls the “free development of individuality” or the development of our humanity.
Behind this rests the idea that humanity is capable of progress—that latent or underdeveloped abilities and virtues can be actualized under the right conditions. Human nature is not static. It is not merely re-expressed in generations and individuals. It is “not a machine to be built after a model, and set to do exactly the work prescribed for it, but a tree, which requires to grow and develop itself on all sides, according to the tendency of the inward forces which make it a living thing.” (OL, 105). Though human nature can be thought of as something living, it is also, like an English garden, something amenable to improvement through effort. “Among the works of man, which human life is rightly employed in perfecting and beautifying, the first in importance surely is man himself.” (OL, 105). The two conditions that promote development of our humanity are freedom and variety of situation, both of which the harm principle encourages.
A basic philosophical problem presented by the work is what counts as “harm to others.” Where should we mark the boundary between conduct that is principally self-regarding versus conduct that involves others? Does drug-use cause harm to others sufficient to be prevented? Does prostitution? Pornography? Should polygamy be allowed? How about public nudity? Though these are difficult questions, Mill provides the reader with a principled way of deliberating about them.
f. The Subjection of Women and Other Social and Political Writings
Many volumes of Mill’s writings deal with topics of social and political concern. These include writings on specific political problems in India, America, Ireland, France, and England, on the nature of democracy (Considerations on Representative Government) and civilization, on slavery, on law and jurisprudence, on the workplace, and on the family and the status of women. The last subject was the topic of Mill’s well-known The Subjection of Women, an important work in the history of feminism.
The radical nature of Mill’s call for women’s equality is often lost to us after over a century of protest and changing social attitudes. Yet the subordination of women to men when Mill was writing remains striking. Among other indicators of this subordination are the following: (1) British women had fewer grounds for divorce than men until 1923; (2) Husbands controlled their wives personal property (with the occasional exception of land) until the Married Women’s Property Acts of 1870 and 1882; (3) Children were the husband’s; (4) Rape was impossible within a marriage; and (5) Wives lacked crucial features of legal personhood, since the husband was taken as the representative of the family (thereby eliminating the need for women’s suffrage). This gives some indication of how disturbing and/or ridiculous the idea of a marriage between equals could appear to Victorians.
The object of the essay was to show “(t)hat the principle which regulates the existing social relations between the two sexes—the legal subordination of one sex to the other—is wrong in itself, and now one of the chief hindrances to human improvement; and that it ought to be replaced by a principle of perfect equality, admitting no power or privilege on the one side, nor disability on the other.” (CW, XXI.261). This shows how Mill appeals to both the patent injustice of contemporary familial arrangements and to the negative moral impact of those arrangements on the people within them. In particular, he discusses the ways in which the subordination of women negatively affects not only the women, but also the men and children in the family. This subordination stunts the moral and intellectual development of women by restricting their field of activities, pushing them either into self-sacrifice or into selfishness and pettiness. Men, alternatively, either become brutal through their relationships with women or turn away from projects of self-improvement to pursue the social “consideration” that women desire.
It is important to note that Mill’s concern for the status of women dovetails with the rest of his thought—it is not a disconnected issue. For example, his support for women’s equality was buttressed by associationism, which claims that minds are created by associative laws operating on experience. This implies that if we change the experiences and upbringing of women, then their minds will change. This enabled Mill to argue against those who tried to suggest that the subordination of women to men reflected a natural order that women were by nature incapable of equality with men. If many women were incapable of true friendship with noble men, says Mill, that is not a result of their natures, but of their faulty environments.
g. Principles of Political Economy
Another work that addresses issues of social and political concern is Mill’s Principles of Political Economy of 1848. The book went through numerous editions and served as the dominant British textbook in economics until being displaced by Alfred Marshall’s 1890 Principles of Economics. Mill intended the work as both a survey of contemporary economic thought (highlighting the theories of David Ricardo, but also including some contributions of his own on topics like international trade) and as an exploration of applications of economic ideas to social concerns. It was “not a book merely of abstract science, but also of application, and treated Political Economy not as a thing by itself, but as a fragment of a greater whole.” (CW, I.243). These two interests nicely divide the text into the first three more technical books on production, distribution, and exchange and the last two books, which address the influences of societal progress and of government on economic activity (and vice versa). The technical work is largely obsolete. Mill’s relating of economics and society, however, remains of great interest.
In particular, Mill shared concerns with others (e.g. Carlyle, Coleridge, Southey, etc.) about the moral impact of industrialization. Though many welcomed the material wealth produced by industrialization, there was a sense that those very cornerstones of British economic growth—the division of labor (including the increasing simplicity and repetitiveness of the work) and the growing size of factories and businesses—led to a spiritual and moral deadening.
Coleridge expressed this in his contrast of mere “civilization” with “cultivation”:
The permanency of the nation…and its progressiveness and personal freedom…depend on a continuing and progressive civilization. But civilization is itself but a mixed good, if not far more a corrupting influence, the hectic of disease, not the bloom of health, and a nation so distinguished more fitly to be called a varnished than a polished people, where this civilization is not grounded in cultivation, in the harmonious development of those qualities and faculties that characterize our humanity. We must be men in order to be citizens. (Coleridge 1839, 46).
“Civilization” expresses central features of modernization, including industrialism, cosmopolitanism, and increasing material wealth. But, for Coleridge, civilization needed to be subordinated to cultivation of our humanity (expressed in terms similar to those later found in On Liberty).
This concern for the moral impact of economic growth explains, among other things, his commitment to a brand of socialism. In an essay on the French historian Michelet, Mill praises the monastic associations of Italy and France after the reforms of St. Benedict: “Unlike the useless communities of contemplative ascetics in the East, they were diligent in tilling the earth and fabricating useful products; they knew and taught that temporal work may also be a spiritual exercise.” (CW, XX.240). It was the desire to transform temporal work into a spiritual and moral exercise that led Mill to favor socialist changes in the workplace.
In order to transform the workplace from a setting filled with antagonism into a “school of sympathy” that would enable workers to feel a part of something greater than themselves—thereby mitigating the rampant selfishness encouraged by industrial society—Mill recommends “industrial co-operatives.” Mill thought that these co-operatives had the advantage over communes or other socialist institutions because they were able to compete against traditional firms (his complaint against many other socialists is that they undervalued competition as a morally useful stimulus to activity). These co-operatives can take two forms: a profit-sharing system in which worker pay is tied to the success of the business or a worker co-operative in which workers share ownership of capital. The latter was preferable because it turned all the workers into entrepreneurs, calling upon many of the faculties that mere labor for pay left to atrophy.
Though Mill contended that laborers were generally unfit for socialism given their current level of education and development, he thought that modern industrial societies should take small steps towards fostering co-operatives. Included among these steps was the institution of limited partnerships. Up to Mill’s time, partners shared full liability for losses, including any personal property they owned—obviously a strong deterrent to the founding of worker co-operatives.
Mill’s recommendations for the economic organization of society, like his political and social policies, always paid careful attention to how institutions, laws, and practices impacted the intellectual, moral, and affective well-being of the individuals operating under or within them.
h. Essays on Religion
Mill’s criticism of traditional religious doctrines and institutions and his promotion of the “Religion of Humanity,” also depended largely on concerns about human cultivation and education. Though the Benthamite “philosophic radicals,” including Mill, took Christianity to be a particularly pernicious superstition that fostered indifference or hostility to human happiness (the keystone of utilitarian morality), Mill also thought that religion could potentially serve important ethical needs by supplying us with “ideal conceptions grander and more beautiful than we see realized in the prose of human life.” (CW, X.419). In so doing, religion elevates our feelings, cultivates sympathy with others, and imbues even our smallest activities with a sense of purpose.
The posthumously published three Essays on Religion (1874)—on “Nature,” the “Utility of Religion,” and “Theism”—criticized traditional religious views and formulated an alternative in the guise of the Religion of Humanity. Along with the criticism of religion’s moral effects that he shared with the Benthamites, Mill was also critical of the intellectual laziness that permitted belief in an omnipotent and benevolent God. He felt, following his father, that the world as we find it could not possibly have come from such a God given the evils rampant in it; either his power is limited or he is not wholly benevolent.
Beyond attacking arguments concerning the essence of God, Mill undermines a variety of arguments for his existence including all a priori arguments. He concludes that the only legitimate proof of God is an a posteriori and probabilistic argument from the design of the universe – the traditional argument (stemming from Aristotle) that complex features of the world, like the eye, are unlikely to have arisen by chance, hence there must be a designer. (Mill acknowledges the possibility that Darwin, in his 1859 The Origin of Species, has provided a wholly naturalistic explanation of such features, but he suggests that it is too early to judge of Darwin’s success).
Inspired by Comte, Mill finds an alternative to traditional religion in the Religion of Humanity, in which an idealized humanity becomes an object of reverence and the morally useful features of traditional religion are supposedly purified and accentuated. Humanity becomes an inspiration by being placed imaginatively within the drama of human history, which has a destination or point, namely the victory of good over evil. As Mill puts it, history should be seen as “the unfolding of a great epic or dramatic action,” which terminates “in the happiness or misery, the elevation or degradation, of the human race.” It is “an unremitting conflict between good and evil powers, of which every act done by any of us, insignificant as we are, forms one of the incidents.” (CW, XXI.244). As we begin to see ourselves as participants in this Manichean drama, as fighting alongside people like Socrates, Newton, and Jesus to secure the ultimate victory of good over evil, we become capable of greater sympathy, moral feeling, and an ennobled sense of the meaning of our own lives. The Religion of Humanity thereby acts as an instrument of human cultivation.
3. Conclusion
Mill’s intellect engaged with the world rather than fled from it. His was not an ivory tower philosophy, even when dealing with the most abstract of philosophical topics. His work is of enduring interest because it reflects how a fine mind struggled with and attempted to synthesize important intellectual and cultural movements. He stands at the intersections of conflicts between enlightenment and romanticism, liberalism and conservatism, and historicism and rationalism. In each case, as someone interested in conversation rather than pronouncement, he makes sincere efforts to move beyond polemic into sustained and thoughtful analysis. That analysis produced challenging answers to problems that still remain. Whether or not one agrees with his answers, Mill serves as a model for thinking about human problems in a serious and civilized way.
4. References and Further Reading
* = works of note.
Primary Texts
Bentham, Jeremy. Deontology together with A Table of the Springs of Action and The Article on Utilitarianism. Edited by Amnon Goldworth. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983.
Bentham, Jeremy. An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996.
Bentham, Jeremy. The Works of Jeremy Bentham. Edited by John Bowring. 10 vols. New York: Russell and Russell, 1962.
Carlyle, Thomas. A Carlyle Reader. Edited by G.B. Tennyson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
Carlyle, Thomas. Critical and Miscellaneous Essays. Philadelphia: Casey and Hart, 1845.
Carlyle, Thomas. Past and Present. London: Ward, Lock, and Bowden, Ltd., 1897.
Coleridge, S.T.C. On the Constitution of the Church and State According to the Idea of Each (3rd Edition), and Lay Sermons (2nd Edition). London: William Pickering, 1839.
Comte, Auguste. A General View of Positivism. 1848. Reprint. Dubuque, Iowa: Brown Reprints, 1971.
Mill, James. An Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind. Edited and with Notes by John Stuart Mill. London: Longmans, Green and Dyer, 1869.
*Mill, John Stuart. The Collected Works of John Stuart Mill. Gen. Ed. John M. Robson. 33 vols. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1963-91.
The standard scholarly editions including Mill’s published works, letters, and notes; an outstanding resource.
Mill, John Stuart. A System of Logic. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1874.
Mill, John Stuart. On Liberty. Peterborough, Canada: Broadview Press, 1999.
Paley, William. The Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy. Indianapolis: Liberty Press, 2002 [1785].
Secondary Texts
Britton, Karl. ‘John Stuart Mill on Christianity.’ In James and John Stuart Mill: Papers of the Centenary Conference, John Robson and Michael Laine (eds.). Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1976.
*Capaldi, Nicholas. John Stuart Mill: A Biography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
A recent and very thorough treatment of Mill’s life and work.
Carlisle, Janice. John Stuart Mill and the Writing of Character. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1991.
Collini, Stefan. ‘The Idea of “Character” in Victorian Political Thought.’ Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th series, 35 (1985), 29-50.
*Collini, Stefan. Public Moralists, Political Thought and Intellectual Life in Great Britain 1850-1930. Oxford: Clarendon, 1991.
A useful history that includes discussion of Mill’s intellectual and institutional context.
*Collini, Stefan, Donald Winch, and John Burrow. That Noble Science of Politics: A Study in Nineteenth-century Intellectual History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Very valuable work on nineteenth century British political discourse; includes discussion of the Philosophic Radicals.
Donner, Wendy. The Liberal Self: John Stuart Mill’s Moral and Political Philosophy. Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1991.
Harrison, Brian. ‘State Intervention and Moral Reform in nineteeth-century England.’ In Pressure from Without in Early Victorian England, edited by Patricia Hollis, 289-322. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1974.
*Halevy, Elie. The Growth of Philosophical Radicalism. Translated by Mary Morris. Boston: The Beacon Press, 1955.
Though originally published in 1904, this is still a seminal work in the history of utilitarianism.
Hamburger, Joseph. ‘Religion and “On Liberty.”’ In A Cultivated Mind: Essays on J.S. Mill Presented to John M. Robson, edited by Michael Laine, 139-81. Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press, 1961.
Harrison, Ross. Bentham. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1983.
Hedley, Douglas. Coleridge, Philosophy and Religion: Aids to Reflection and the Mirror of the Spirit. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Heydt, Colin. ‘Narrative, Imagination, and the Religion of Humanity in Mill’s Ethics.’ Journal of the History of Philosophy, vol. 44, no. I (Jan. 2006), 99-115.
Heydt, Colin. ‘Mill, Bentham, and “Internal Culture”.’ British Journal for the History of Philosophy, vol. 14, no. 2 (May 2006), 275-302.
Heydt, Colin. Rethinking Mill’s Ethics: Character and Aesthetic Education. London: Continuum Press, 2006.
*Hollander, Samuel. The Economics of John Stuart Mill (Toronto: UTP and Oxford: Blackwell), 1985: Volume I, Theory and Method. Volume II, Political Economy, 482-1030.
The seminal work on Mill’s economics.
Jenkyns, Richard. The Victorians and Ancient Greece. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980.
Jones, H. S. ‘John Stuart Mill as Moralist.’ Journal of the History of Ideas 53 (1992): 287-308.
Kuklick, Bruce. ‘Seven thinkers and how they grew: Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz; Locke, Berkeley, Hume; Kant.’ In Philosophy in History, Rorty, Schneewind, Skinner (eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
*Mandelbaum, M. History, Man and Reason. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1971.
An excellent intellectual history of Europe in the nineteenth century; contains very valuable discussions of Mill.
Matz, Lou. ‘The Utility of Religious Illusion: A Critique of J.S. Mill’s Religion of Humanity.’ Utilitas 12 (2000): 137-154.
Millar, Alan. ‘Mill on Religion.’ In The Cambridge Companion to Mill, John Skorupski (ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
*Packe, Michael. The Life of John Stuart Mill. New York: MacMillan Company, 1954.
Prior to Capaldi’s, the standard life; still contains useful biographical detail.
Raeder, Linda C. John Stuart Mill and the Religion of Humanity. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2002.
Robson, John M. The Improvement of Mankind: The Social and Political Thought of John Stuart Mill. Toronto: Toronto Univ. Press, 1968.
Robson, John. ‘J.S. Mill’s Theory of Poetry.’ In Mill: A Collection of Critical Essays, J. B. Schneewind, (ed.). London: MacMillan, 1968.
Ryan, Alan. The Philosophy of John Stuart Mill. London: MacMillan, 1970.
*Ryan, Alan. J.S. Mill. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1974.
A nice introduction to Mill’s writings and central arguments.
*Schneewind, J. B. Sidgwick’s Ethics and Victorian Moral Philosophy. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977.
Still easily the best extant treatment of Victorian moral philosophy; includes extremely valuable examination of the conflict between utilitarianism and intuitionism.
Sen, Amartya, and Bernard Williams, eds. Utilitarianism and Beyond. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1982.
Shanely, Mary Lyndon. ‘Marital Slavery and Friendship: John Stuart Mill’s The Subjection of Women.’ Political Theory, Vol. 9, No. 2 (May 1981), 229-247.
Shanley, Mary Lyndon. ‘Suffrage, Protective Labor Legislation, and Married Women’s Property Laws in England.’ Signs, Vol. 12, No. 1 (1986).
*Skorupski, John. John Stuart Mill. London: Routledge, 1989.
Unquestionably, the best single book on Mill’s general philosophy.
Skorupski, John. ‘Introduction.’ In The Cambridge Companion to Mill, edited by John Skorupski. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
*Skorupski, John (editor). The Cambridge Companion to Mill. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
Includes a number of important articles and an extensive (though by now a little dated) bibliography.
Smart, J.J.C. ‘Extreme and Restricted Utilitarianism.’ The Philosophical Quarterly, (October 1956), 344-354.
*Thomas, William. The Philosophic Radicals: Nine Studies in Theory and Practice 1817-1841. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979.
Very good resource for Philosophic Radicalism.
Turner, Michael J. “Radical Opinion in an Age of Reform: Thomas Perronet Thompson and the Westminster Review,” History, Vol. 86 (2001), Issue 281, 18-40.
Williams, Raymond. Culture and Society 1780-1950. New York: Columbia University Press, 1983.
*Wilson, Fred. Psychological Analysis and the Philosophy of John Stuart Mill. Toronto: Toronto Univ. Press, 1990.
Most thorough treatment of Mill’s psychological views.
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Biography
Spice Girls were the first major British pop music phenomenon of the mid-'90s to not have a debt to independent pop/rock. Instead, the all-female quintet derived from the dance-pop tradition that made Take That the most popular British group of the early '90s, but there was one crucial difference. Spice Girls used dance-pop as a musical base, but they infused the music with a fiercely independent, feminist stance that was equal parts Madonna, post-riot grrrl alternative rock feminism, and a co-opting of the good-times-all-the-time stance of England's new lad culture. Their proud, all-girl image and catchy dance-pop appealed to younger listeners, while their colorful, sexy personalities and sense of humor appealed to older music fans, making Spice Girls a cross-generational success. The group also became chart-toppers throughout Europe in 1996, before concentrating in America in early 1997. Every member of Spice Girls was given a specific identity by the British press from the outset, and each label was as much an extension of their own personality as it was a marketing tool, since each name derived from their debut single and video, "Wannabe." Geri Estelle Halliwell was the "sexy Spice"; Melanie Janine Brown was the "scary Spice"; Victoria Adams was "the posh Spice"; Melanie Jayne Chisholm was "the sporty Spice"; Emma Lee Bunton was "the baby Spice." Each persona was exploited in the group's press articles and videos, which helped send "Wannabe" to the top of the charts upon its summer release in 1996. If all of the invented personalities made Spice Girls seem manufactured, that's because they were to a certain extent. Every member of the group was active in England's theatrical, film, and modeling circuit before the group's formation, and they all responded to an advertisement requesting five "lively girls" for a musical group in the summer of 1993. The manager who placed the ad chose all five members of Spice Girls, yet the women rejected his plans for their career and set out on their own two months after forming. For the next two years, the Girls fought to get a record contract, since most record labels insisted that the band pick one member as a clear leader, which is something the group refused. Eventually, Spice Girls signed a contract to Virgin Records. They were without a manager, though, which made recording a debut album nearly impossible. All five members moved into a house and went on the dole as they searched for a manager. By the end of 1995, the group had signed with Annie Lennox's manager Simon Fuller, and began writing songs with Elliot Kennedy. "Wannabe," Spice Girls' first single, was released in the summer of 1996 and became the first debut single by an all-female band to enter the British charts at number one. It remained there for seven weeks, and by the end of the year, "Wannabe" had hit number one in 21 other countries. Immediately following the success of "Wannabe," Spice Girls became media icons in Britain as stories of their encounters with other celebrities became fodder for numerous tabloids, as did nude photos of Halliwell that she posed for earlier in her career. All of this added to the group's momentum, and their second single, "Say You'll Be There," entered the charts at number one in the fall, selling 200,000 copies a week. Spice, their debut album, was released at the end of the year, accompanied by their first ballad, "2 Become 1." Both the album and single went directly to number one, staying there for several weeks; both records were at number one over the Christmas week, making Spice Girls one of three artists to achieve that feat. Having topped the charts in virtually every other country in the Western world, Spice Girls concentrated on America in early 1997, releasing "Wannabe" in January and Spice in February. They became massive stars in the U.S. as well, also scoring the hits "Say You'll Be There" and "2 Become 1"; Spiceworld, their second LP, appeared later in the year in conjunction with their feature film of the same name. In May 1998, Geri Halliwell departed from the band, not citing major reasons for leaving the group. She did release a solo album, Schizophonic, a year later, but nothing chart-topping to match the success of her former band. Still not deterred by the absence of Ginger Spice, Spice Girls trudged on -- Melanie B. married Spice Girls dancer Jimmy Gulzar and released the solo single, a duet with Missy "Misdemeanor" Elliot called "I Want You Back." By Christmas, Spice Girls scored a number one hit with Goodbye and with a career floating high, their personal lives were moving as well. Melanie B. gave birth to a daughter named Phoenix Chi in February 1999, and Adams followed a month later with a son, Brooklyn Joseph. And now only known as Victoria Beckham, Posh Spice married Manchester United soccer star David Beckham later that summer. Becoming now more noticeable for their social status than their singing, Spice Girls took a well-deserved break while Melanie C. took over the English charts with her successful solo effort Northern Star, which was released in the U.S. in fall 1999. The following year, the girls headed back into the studio with high-profile producers Rodney Jerkins, Terry Lewis, and Jimmy Jam (Janet Jackson, Mary J. Blige) to record a follow-up to their pop-friendly Spiceworld. In the middle of recording, Melanie B. divorced Gulzar and endured a bitter custody battle throughout the remainder of 2000. Spice Girls' creative power overruled media scrutiny so that they could fully focus on the new R&B sound they were trying for and a the new collaboration united the foursome once again to release the third album Forever, which hit American shores in fall 2000. The group began to splinter not long after the release of Forever, which made little impact outside of the UK where it only had one hit single -- the chart-topping double-sided single “Holler”/”Let Love Lead the Way” -- before the Spice Girls stopped promoting the album. Just three months after the album's November 2000 release, the band announced that they were separating in February of 2001. Over the next few years, the Spice Girls may not have existed as a group, but they were never out of various taboild headlines in the UK and America. As the wife of football superstar David Beckham, Victoria got the most attention, but Mel B wasn't far behind thanks to her ill-fated romance with actor Eddie Murphy, which resulted in an out-of-wedlock child. Mel Chisholm had a steady career as a pop singer while Emma Bunton had some chart success of her own with her 2001 album A Girl Like Me and its 2004 successor, Free Me. Meanwhile, Geri Halliwell split her time between recording and TV projects. After years of persistent rumors of a reunion -- peaking heavily yet never materializing for Bob Geldolf's 2005 charity event Live 8 -- the Spice Girls announced in June 2007 that they would be reuniting for an eleven-concert tour beginning that December, which would be accompanied by a new greatest hits album and documentary. In 2010, it was announced that the Spice Girls had joined forces with Simon Fuller to develop a musical based on their songs. Viva Forever: The Musical - penned by British comedienne Jennifer Saunders - was announced at a press conference in June 2012. After much speculation in the British press, the Spice Girls reformed once more for the closing ceremony of the London 2012 Olympics. ~ Stephen Thomas Erlewine
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1999 Spice Girls: The Live One (TV Special) (performer: "Spice Up Your Life", "Something Kinda Funny", "Say You'll Be There", "Right Back at Ya", "Step to Me", "Mama", "Too Much", "W.O.M.A.N.", "2 Become 1", "Stop", "Holler", "Who Do You Think You Are", "Never Give Up On the Good Times", "Wannabe", "Goodbye", "Viva Forever", "Merry Xmas Everybody", "I Wish It Could Be Christmas Everyday") / (writer: "Spice Up Your Life", "Something Kinda Funny", "Say You'll Be There", "Step to Me", "Mama", "Too Much", "2 Become 1", "Stop", "Who Do You Think You Are", "Never Give Up On the Good Times", "Wannabe", "Viva Forever")
Daria (TV Series) (performer - 5 episodes, 1997 - 1999) (writer - 4 episodes, 1997 - 1998)
- The Lawndale File (1999) ... (performer: "Outer Space Girls" - uncredited)
- See Jane Run (1998) ... (performer: "Too Much" - uncredited) / (writer: "Too Much" - uncredited)
- Ill (1998) ... (performer: "Stop" - uncredited) / (writer: "Stop" - uncredited)
- The Lab Brat (1997) ... (performer: "Say You'll Be There" - uncredited) / (writer: "Say You'll Be There" - uncredited)
- College Bored (1997) ... (performer: "Wannabe" - uncredited) / (writer: "Wannabe" - uncredited)
Flava (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode, 1999) (writer - 1 episode, 1999)
- Flava Featuring Mel G (1999) ... (performer: "Say You'll Be There" - uncredited) / (writer: "Say You'll Be There" - uncredited)
Queer as Folk (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode, 1999) (writer - 1 episode, 1999)
- Episode #1.7 (1999) ... (performer: "The Lady Is a Vamp" - uncredited) / (writer: "The Lady Is a Vamp" - uncredited)
1999 Zärtliche Begierde (TV Movie) (performer: "Wannabe" - as The Spice Girls) / (writer: "Wannabe")
- Episode dated 23 December 1998 (1998) ... (performer: "Goodbye")
1998 Jack Frost (performer: "Sleigh Ride" - as The Spice Girls)
1998 Spice Girls Live at Wembley Stadium (Video) (performer: "If U Can't Dance", "Who Do You Think You Are", "Something Kinda Funny", "Do It", "Too Much", "Stop", "Love Thing', "The Lady Is a Vamp", "Say You'll Be There", "Naked", "2 Become 1", "Wannabe", "Spice Up Your Life", "Mama", "Viva Forever", "Never Give Up on the Good Times", "We Are Family") / (writer: "If U Can't Dance", "Who Do You Think You Are", "Something Kinda Funny", "Do It", "Too Much", "Stop", "Love Thing', "The Lady Is a Vamp", "Say You'll Be There", "Naked", "2 Become 1", "Wannabe", "Spice Up Your Life", "Mama", "Viva Forever", "Never Give Up on the Good Times")
- Episode #1.19 (1998) ... (performer: "Goodbye")
King of the Hill (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode, 1998) (writer - 1 episode, 1998)
- Peggy's Pageant Fever (1998) ... (performer: "Wannabe" - uncredited) / (writer: "Wannabe" - uncredited)
1998 Spice Girls: Live in Your Living Room (TV Special) (performer: "If U Can't Dance", "Who Do You Think You Are", "Something Kinda Funny", "Do It", "Too Much", "Stop", "Love Thing', "The Lady Is a Vamp", "Say You'll Be There", "Naked", "2 Become 1", "Wannabe", "Spice Up Your Life", "Mama", "Viva Forever", "Never Give Up on the Good Times", "We Are Family") / (writer: "If U Can't Dance", "Who Do You Think You Are", "Something Kinda Funny", "Do It", "Too Much", "Stop", "Love Thing', "The Lady Is a Vamp", "Say You'll Be There", "Naked", "2 Become 1", "Wannabe", "Spice Up Your Life", "Mama", "Viva Forever", "Never Give Up on the Good Times")
The O-Zone (TV Series) (performer - 3 episodes, 1996 - 1998) (writer - 3 episodes, 1996 - 1998)
- The Spice Girls... After Geri (1998) ... (performer: "Too Much", "Viva Forever" (uncredited), "Who Do You Think You Are", "Wannabe" (uncredited), "Spice Up Your Life", "Move Over" (uncredited), "Power of Five" (uncredited), "Stop", "Say You'll Be There") / (writer: "Too Much", "Viva Forever" (uncredited), "Who Do You Think You Are", "Wannabe" (uncredited), "Spice Up Your Life", "Move Over" (uncredited), "Stop", "Say You'll Be There")
- Episode dated 6 October 1997 (1997) ... (performer: "Spice Up Your Life") / (writer: "Spice Up Your Life")
- Episode dated 8 July 1996 (1996) ... (performer: "Wannabe") / (writer: "Wannabe")
1998 Small Soldiers (performer: "Wannabe" - as The Spice Girls) / (writer: "Wannabe" - as The Spice Girls)
The National Lottery (TV Series) (performer - 3 episodes, 1996 - 1998) (writer - 3 episodes, 1996 - 1998)
- Love and Marriage (1998) ... (writer: "2 Become 1" - uncredited)
1997 Brit Awards 1997 (TV Special) (performer: "Who Do You Think You Are", "Wannabe", "Say You'll Be There") / (writer: "Who Do You Think You Are", "Wannabe", "Say You'll Be There")
1997 Spice Girls: Live in Istanbul (Video documentary) (performer: "If U Can't Dance", "Who Do You Think You Are", "Say You'll Be There", "Step To Me", "Naked", "2 Become 1", "Spice Up Your Life", "Move Over", "Wannabe") / (writer: "If U Can't Dance", "Who Do You Think You Are", "Say You'll Be There", "Step To Me", "Naked", "2 Become 1", "Spice Up Your Life", "Move Over", "Wannabe")
1997 Spice World (performer: "Wannabe", "Stop", "Spice Up Your Life", "Too Much", "Saturday Night Divas", "Never Give Up On The Good Times", "Do It", "Say You'll Be There", "2 Become 1", "Mama", "Who Do You Think You Are", "Viva Forever", "Denying", "Lady Is A Vamp", "Leader Of The Gang", "Sound Off", "My Boy Lollipop" - as The Spice Girls) / (writer: "Wannabe", "Stop", "Spice Up Your Life", "Too Much", "Saturday Night Divas", "Never Give Up On The Good Times", "Do It", "Say You'll Be There", "2 Become 1", "Mama", "Who Do You Think You Are", "Viva Forever", "Denying", "Lady Is A Vamp" - as The Spice Girls)
1997 Spice Girls: Too Much Is Never Enough (TV Movie documentary) (performer: "Wannabe", "Say You'll Be There", "2 Become 1", "If U Can't Dance", "Mama", "Never Give Up On The Good Times", "Saturday Night Divas", "Stop", "Spice Up Your Life", "Spice Up Your Life (Morales Radio Mix)", "Move Over", "Viva Forever", "The Lady Is A Vamp", "Too Much") / (writer: "Wannabe", "Say You'll Be There", "2 Become 1", "If U Can't Dance", "Mama", "Never Give Up On The Good Times", "Saturday Night Divas", "Stop", "Spice Up Your Life", "Spice Up Your Life (Morales Radio Mix)", "Move Over", "Viva Forever", "The Lady Is A Vamp", "Too Much")
1997 MTV Europe Music Awards 1997 (TV Special) (performer: "Spice Up Your Life" - uncredited) / (writer: "Spice Up Your Life" - uncredited)
The Drum (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode, 1997) (writer - 1 episode, 1997)
- Oasis Special (1997) ... (performer: "Wannabe", "New York, New York" - uncredited) / (writer: "Wannabe" - uncredited)
- Episode dated 21 August 1997 (1997) ... (performer: "Wannabe" - uncredited)
1997 Contact (performer: "Wannabe" - uncredited) / (writer: "Wannabe" - uncredited)
Egos & Icons (TV Series documentary) (performer - 1 episode, 1997) (writer - 1 episode, 1997)
- Oasis (1997) ... (performer: "Who Do You Think You Are" - uncredited) / (writer: "Who Do You Think You Are" - uncredited)
1997 Here and Now (TV Series documentary) (performer - 1 episode)
1997 Red Nose Awards (TV Special) (performer: "Wannabe")
No Sweat (TV Series) (performer - 2 episodes, 1997) (writer - 2 episodes, 1997)
- Episode #1.2 (1997) ... (performer: "Mama" - uncredited) / (writer: "Mama" - uncredited)
- No Sweat (1997) ... (performer: "Mama" - uncredited) / (writer: "Mama" - uncredited)
1997 Comic Relief (TV Special) (performer: "Who Do You Think You Are", "Mama") / (writer: "Who Do You Think You Are", "Mama")
Noel's House Party (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode, 1997) (writer - 1 episode, 1997)
- Episode #6.18 (1997) ... (performer: "Who Do You Think You Are", "Wannabe") / (writer: "Who Do You Think You Are", "Wannabe")
1997 Sexton (TV Mini-Series) (performer - 1 episode)
- Del 11 (1997) ... (performer: "Wannabe")
Bat Yam - New York (TV Series) (performer - 2 episodes, 1997) (writer - 2 episodes, 1997)
1997 Ramat Aviv Gimmel (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)
- Episode #3.10 (1997) ... (performer: "2 Become 1" - uncredited)
The Girlie Show (TV Series documentary) (performer - 1 episode, 1997) (writer - 1 episode, 1997)
- Episode #2.10 (1997) ... (performer: "Who Do You Think You Are") / (writer: "Who Do You Think You Are")
- Episode #1.2 (1996) ... (performer: "Wannabe")
1996 Smash Hits Poll Winners Party 1996 (TV Special) (performer: "Wannabe", "Say You'll Be There" - uncredited) / (writer: "Wannabe", "Say You'll Be There" - uncredited)
The Noise (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode, 1996) (writer - 1 episode, 1996)
- Episode #1.8 (1996) ... (performer: "Say You'll Be There") / (writer: "Say You'll Be There")
- Episode dated 13 October 1996 (1996) ... (performer: "Say You'll Be There")
1996 Sabrina, the Teenage Witch (TV Series) (performer: "Walk Of Life" - as The Spice Girls) / (writer: "Walk Of Life" - as The Spice Girls)
Fully Booked (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode, 1996) (writer - 1 episode, 1996)
- Episode #2.12 (1996) ... (performer: "Wannabe") / (writer: "Wannabe")
GMTV (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode, 1996) (writer - 1 episode, 1996)
| i don't know |
What language is spoken in Surinam in South America? | Publishing the research of SIL in Suriname
Suriname is situated on the northeast coast of South America, between Guyana and French Guiana, and is home to about 15 distinct languages. Since it was a colony of The Netherlands until 1975, the official language of Suriname is Dutch. Other languages spoken in Suriname include several Amerindian languages, several Creole languages, Suriname Javanese and Sarnami Hindustani. SIL researchers first came to Suriname in 1968 and worked for more than 30 years doing language and anthropological research, literacy, as well as producing dictionaries, reading books, grammar descriptions, and doing translation. Since 2001, SIL no longer has an official presence in the country. This site makes their research available to anyone who is interested in learning more about these languages.
Materials on this site include interactive html dictionaries which allow you to search for words online, vernacular stories and a pdf bibliography (143Kb) of all of the works SIL published in Suriname.
| Dutch people |
Who was the Conservative Prime Minister of Great Britain from 1895 to 1902? | Suriname travel guide - Wikitravel
Understand[ edit ]
IMPORTANT: at the moment (05/2016) Suriname has a problem with Inflation. Bring USD or EUR to change on the street for better rates! Most of the ATM's only accept Mastercard. VISA only works on Republic bank ATM. These once are rare.
Climate[ edit ]
Tropical; moderated by trade winds; yearly rain average 2200 mm. There are 2 dry seasons (February to March, August to November) and 2 rainy seasons (December to January, April to August). November is the generally the hottest month.
Terrain[ edit ]
Mostly rolling hills, rising towards maximum of around 1000 meters in the south; narrow coastal plain with mangrove swamps. Mostly tropical rain forest; great diversity of flora and fauna that is in excellent condition, though is increasingly threatened by new development.
Elevation extremes
History[ edit ]
Independence from the Netherlands was granted in 1975. Five years later the civilian government was replaced by a military regime that soon declared a socialist republic. It continued to rule through a succession of nominally civilian administrations until 1987, when internal and international pressure finally forced a democratic election. In 1989, the military overthrew the civilian government, but a democratically-elected government returned to power in 1991.
Get in[ edit ]
If you want to visit Suriname and you are not a citizen of one of the following countries, you have to ensure that your visa papers are in order. If you want to apply for a visa please contact one of the Suriname Consulates listed in Contact.
Citizens of the following countries do not need a visa to enter Suriname:
Antigua and Barbuda , Bahamas , Barbados , Belize , Brazil , Chile , Costa Rica (for holders of diplomatic and official passports only), Colombia (for holders of diplomatic and official passports only), Cuba (for holders of diplomatic and official passports only), Dominica , Philippines , Gambia , Guyana , Grenada , Hong Kong , Israel , Jamaica , Japan , Malaysia , Montserrat , Netherlands Antilles , Saint Kitts and Nevis , Saint Lucia , Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , Singapore , South Korea , Trinidad and Tobago , Venezuela (for holders of diplomatic and official passports only).
Note that in most cases you will receive a single-entrance visa. So you only will be able to enter Suriname one time with that visa. In most cases this is no issue, but it can become an issue if you want to combine your trip to Suriname with a visit to for instance Guyana or French-Guiana. As of december 2010 single entry was 45USD and multiple entry 50USD in Georgetown for EU citizens.
When you arrive in Suriname it is important that you inform the authorities where you are staying. Therefore you must go to the foreigners registration office in the 'Nieuwe Haven' within a week after your arrival. The customs-official will remind you of this.
New rules april 2015. All Europen union countries can get the tourist card on arrival . As of November 2011 citizens of the following countries can obtain a single entry 90 day tourist card for $25USD or €20 (cash) at The Johan Adolf Pengel International Airport, at Schiphol Amsterdam airport (two hours before scheduled flights to Paramaribo) and at embassies of Surinam in Georgetown (Guyana) and Cayenne (French Guyana): Netherlands , Belgium , Bolivia , Canada , Chile , France , Germany , Norway , Paraguay , Peru , United States of America , United Kingdom , Uruguay , Venezuela . See The Suriname Embassy in The Hague [1] for more details.
By plane[ edit ]
Johan Adolf Pengel International Airport[ edit ]
( IATA : PBM, ICAO : SMJP) Formerly called Zanderij International Airport, it is located 45km south of Paramaribo.
From Amsterdam you can get the daily KLM flight. Surinam Airways [2] also offers flights from Amsterdam and various caribbean destinations.
From the United States, airline service is available via Surinam Airways and Caribbean Airlines [3] , with a stopover in Trinidad. Besides the daily connection to the Netherlands , there are weekly direct flights to Suriname from Trinidad , Brazil ( Belem ), and Curacao .
From there you can take the taxi or bus into town. A taxi (if private one) will cost around 80SRD. However, prices will vary between drivers. Make sure to arrange and set a price with the driver before going anywhere. in June 2014 a taxi from the city to the airport cost 150 SRD (if taken from the street up to 200 SRD). A (tourist) bus service cost 60 SRD or 15€ if you prefer to pay in €. This bus will pick you up at your guesthouse or hotel. The local bus cost 2,15 SRD, but is not reliable if you want to arrive at the airport in time. It leaves from the bus station at Heiligenweg in the center of Paramaribo.
Zorg-en-Hoop Airfield[ edit ]
( IATA : ORG, ICAO : SMZO) A small airfield located further from Paramaribo which is for a few private charter companies and primarily local/domestic flights. The following companies have a few daily flights from/to Ogle Aerodome in Georgetown_(Guyana) :
Gum Air, Doekhieweg 03, Zorg-en-Hoop Airport, Paramaribo, Suriname, ☎ +597 433830 ( [email protected] , fax: +597 491740), [4] . M-Sa. edit
Trans Guyana Airways (TGA), Ogle Aerodome, Ogle, East Coast Demerara, Guyana, ☎ 592-222-2525 ( [email protected] ), [5] . M-Sa. edit
By train[ edit ]
There are currently no trains in Suriname, however a plan has been announced to reopen the line between Onverwacht and Paramaribo Central Station. The completion date for phase one is hoped to be 2016 and the intention is for the line to be extended onto Paramaribo Adolf Pengel Airport.
By car[ edit ]
Guyana has road access to Suriname. In Guyana, Georgetown inquire in for mini-buses traveling to Suriname. Note that entering Suriname, Nieuw Nickerie by water travel from in Guyana is illegal. Buses leave Georgetown for the Surinamese border daily. Ask for Berbice car park. In the west(Guyana-Suriname border) there's a regular river ferry between Guyana and Suriname.
There's a possibility of traveling from French Guiana by car (there a small car ferry between Suriname and French Guiana). In the east there are small boats and small ferry between Albina (Suriname) and St. Laurent ( French Guiana ) The price is usually around SRD 10,- or €5,- p.p.
By bus[ edit ]
For around SRD 30,- or €10,- you can take the bus from Albina (bordering French Guiana ) to Paramaribo.
From Georgetown , Guyana , take minibus #63a to Moleson Creek in eastern Guyana just across the river from Suriname.
Ferries between the Guyanese and Surinamese sides of the river depart at 9am and 1pm. Minibuses typically depart Georgetown at 4am to arrive in time for the 9am ferry. The cost is approximately $US15 to the border however tickets for the whole trip through to Paramaribo are available for approximately $US30 - $US35. Ask at hotels for the numbers of drivers who will pick passengers up from their residences/hotels in Georgetown between 4:00am - 4:30am. There are also a number of drivers who depart Georgetown to meet the 1pm ferry although these are less common.
Travelers will need to arrive at the border at least one hour before the scheduled departure to clear customs which is open from 6:30am - 8:00am for the 9am departure and 10:30am - noon for the 1pm departure. A one way fare costs approximately circa $US 10 payable in local currency.
The actual ferry ride takes about 30 minutes. From there you can get a minibus into Paramaribo. Again the trip takes at least 3 hrs and costs ~US$15.
It is better to change GYD to SRD on the Guyanese side of the border where rates are more competitive. Opportunities to change money on the Surinamese side of the border are seemingly scarce and those desperate to change GYD there must be willing to accept a circa 20% loss in value upon exchange as opposed to circa 10% on the Guyanese side. Money changers typically only deal in GYD and SRD (US dollars or Euros are scarce).
By boat[ edit ]
In the east there are small boats and small ferry between Albina (Suriname) and St. Laurent ( French Guiana ) The price is usually around SRD 10,- or €5,- p.p.
In the west there's a regular river ferry between Guyana and Suriname. Most minibuses from Georgetown and Paramaribo make sure they arrive in time for catching the 11 AM ferry. However there are ferries during the day (depending on traffic). The return fare is 68 SRD (15€) and valid for a period of 21 days. Most minibuses do not cross the Corantijn river, though this would be possible as the ferry carries private vehicles.
Get around[ edit ]
Since not many tourists visit Suriname yet and the inner-land is not within easy reach, the expenses of travel are higher than you might expect. Tourist attractions can be more expensive than in Europe or the United States. It is expected that this will change in future since there is an annual increase visible in foreign tourists, creating the necessity of working on better roads as well as other ways of cheaper transportation. The best way to go around in Suriname is by boat or car. There are not that many roads going into the country. At every riverbank you can charter boats at reasonable prices. It is wise to travel with a tour guide.
It is also an option to rent a car, although some rental companies don't allow you to go into the forest with their cars. Always rent a four-wheel drive. Suriname traffic drives at the left side of the road.
Alternatively you can travel by bus. Most places of some significance are linked by a system of minibuses that are privately as well as state owned. The national bus company's website . Their reputation is 'cheap and slow'.
By air[ edit ]
There are two local airlines providing private connections with the innerland. Bluewing Airlines [6] and Gumair [7] .
Talk[ edit ]
Dutch is the sole official language, and is the language of education, government, business, and the media. Over 60% of the population speaks Dutch as a mother tongue, and most of the rest speak it as a second language. Only in the interior of Suriname is Dutch seldom spoken.
Sranang Tongo - an English creole language - is the native language of Creoles and much of the younger population, and is often used as a lingua franca between different ethnic groups. It was suppressed by the Dutch for many years, but it is now the most widely used language in Suriname other than Dutch. It was previously called nengre or negerengels (Dutch, "Negro English"). There is very little written material in Sranang Tongo. It is not too hard to learn.
Other languages spoken in Suriname include Sarnami (a dialect of Bhojpuri), Javanese and Chinese (Mandarin, Hakka and Cantonese).
Most locals in Paramaribo speak English to varying degrees of fluency. English usage in rural areas is less common.
See[ edit ][ add listing ]
With almost a third of the country being declared national reserves, Suriname's main tourist attraction are its vast natural lands and the diversity of flora and fauna in them. Head to the beaches of Galibi and Albina to witness the impressive breeding process of large Leatherback sea turtles, or book a helicopter ride to one of the more remote beaches to see the same, with fewer people around. Spot river dolphins on the way and see the typical mangrove forests between the ocean and the rain forests. The Amazon rain forests cover most of the Surinam surface and is home to thousands of birds, reptiles, monkeys and even a handful of jaguars. As tourism develops, guided tours and resorts in the heart of the jungle are popping up and make a comfortable option if you want to spend a few days spotting wildlife or plants, including the rubber tree, spike-footed palms, plenty of orchids and cactusses. Daytrips are an option too. The Central Suriname Nature Reserve is the most popular of the reserves and is home to the Raleigh waterfalls and mount Voltzberg. Brownsberg Nature Park is home to one of the largest man-made lakes in the world: the Brokopondo Reservoir. Visit Tonka Island to see the eco-tourism project that Saramaccaner Maroons have set up there.
Maroon and Amerindian villages are found deep in the forests, but many of them also lie on the riverbanks. A boat trip down the Marowijne river, with French Guyana just on the other side, is a great way to see the best of the forest, visit some villages and and do some border hopping on the go. For a less adventurous day, try swimming in Cola Creek , a black water (Blaka Watra) recreational park some 50 km from Paramaribo and popular with Suriname families. On the way back, make sure to stop at the Jodensavanne (Jews savanna), where the Jews were allowed to settle in the 17th century. Now, only the ruins at this important historic place remind of those days.
Paramaribo itself is a pleasant place and its historic inner center is a Unesco World Heritage sight. The capital has many characteristics of a large village community and although there are few real landmarks and sights, is a nice place to spend some time. Linger on the Waterkant, the water side street with its old wooden, colonial houses and grab a bite from one of the food stands there. Go shopping at the Central Market and gaze at the Jules Wijdenboschbrug. Stroll to Fort Zeelandia, through the Palm tree garden and the Independence square. Make sure to include the Roman Catholic Saint Peter and Paul Cathedral in your walk, since it is the largest wooden building in South America.
Former plantations will take you back to colonial times, when coffee and sugar where produced here. Some of the plantation houses have been renovated, and a few are even in use to make coffee and dry shrimp. Bike through the quiet and green area, between the banana plants, to visit former plantations with names like Einde Rust (End of Rest), Worsteling Jacobs (Struggle Jacobs), Zorgvliet and Zeldenrust (Rarely Rest). Peperpot (Pepper pot) not far from Paramaribo on the other side of the Wijdenbosch bridge even has a 3,5 km trail with signs and explanations about what you see (entry 18 SRD).
You will much enjoy the entertainment there like music and watching Association Football. Surinamese songs are called "pokoes" in Sranang Tongo. They have a great variety of music, because of the different cultures.
Central Suriname Nature Reserve[ edit ]
The Central Suriname Nature Reserve (CSNR) protects some of the most remote, ancient, and pristine wilderness on Earth. It comprises more than 1.6 million hectares of primary tropical forest. The Reserve forms a corridor linking the three most important protected areas in central Suriname: the Raleighvallen Nature reserve in the north, and the Tafelberg and Eilerts de Hann Gebergte Nature Reserves in the central and southern portion of the corridor. The area —an area the size of New Jersey— protects the watershed of one of Suriname's most important river systems, the Coppename River, where there are countless varieties of flora and fauna, many of them endemic. The Raleighvallen Nature Reserve is one of the most important protected areas in South America. Vegetation there consists mostly of moist highland forest, the same forest that covers approximately 80 percent of Suriname. The Tafelberg Nature Reserve is in a remote area that includes the geographic center of suriname. This area is made up of primary rainforest and savanna ecosystems. The Eilerts de Hann Gebergte Nature Reserve has no human populations living within or around its boundaries. This reserve includes parts of the Eilerts de Hann Gebergte mountain range and is made up of primary tropical rain forest and savanna ecosystems. Since there has been very little exploration in this Reserve, very little is known about is flora and fauna. The Central Suriname Nature Reserve is an important precendent in protecting large blocks of undisturbed tropical wilderness. But it is only a first step. The challenge for Conservation International and its funding partners is to continue these efforts to protect the ecological viability of the world's last remaining tropical wilderness areas. Conservation International has been active in Suriname since 1991, using an integrated approach that draws on both the knowledge and expertise of highly trained Surinamese conservationists as well as CI's on-the-ground experience in twenty-two other countries of the world.
Rather than sell the country's forests to the highest-bidding timber companies, the Surinamese government made a commitment in 1998 to protect the forests and explore the long-term economic benefits of sustainable development and ecotourism. Conservation International (CI) joined Suriname to help design, fund, and promote this effort to carefully blend biodiversity conservation and economic opportunity.
Seven years later, the uniquely constructed tourist facilities on Foengoe Island—tucked neatly within the CSNR—are poised to become a premier destination for ecotourism in the Guayana Shield, the massive, two billion-year-old geological formation that underlies five countries in northeastern South America.
Raleighvallen Nature Reserve[ edit ]
This nature reserve has an area of 78,170 ha and is situated along the Coppename River. It can be reached by airplane (less than an hour) or by car (120 mi) to be followed by a 3-4 hour boat ride. The reserve headquarters and the tourist lodges are located on Fungo Island in the middle of the Coppename River.
Raleighvallen (Raleigh Falls) is the name for the extensive set of rapids near Fungo Island in the upper Coppename River.
The reserve is internationally known as a bird and monkey paradise. You'll see toucans, macaws and parrots and 400 other species. Hanging from the tree branches on and around Fungo Island you'll notice the pendulum-shaped nests of the weaver birds (oropendulas) which are large, colonial nesting birds with yellow outer feathers. These nests can be close to a meter long.
Another interesting feature is the Voltzberg. This granite sugarloaf mountain can be reached on foot in about three hours by jungle trail from Foengoe Island. The Voltzberg rises about 150 m (375 ft) above the forest canopy. The night can be spent in a hammock in a simple jungle camp at the base of the mountain. During the night you will be surrounded by the sounds of monkeys, tree frogs, and other creatures from the tropical rainforest.
The reserve is also the home of the spectacular and rare cock-of-the-rock (Rupicola rupicola).
There is the possibility, as well, of encountering deer, tortoises, tinamous, and several species of monkey on the 7 km (one-way) hike to the mountain. The trail is good but the damp climate of the rainforest, and the steep climb up the Volzberg, make it a heavy trip, especially for the out-of-shape hiker.
Brownsberg[ edit ]
This park is situated 130 km (90 mi) south of Paramaribo, and can easily be reached by car. The park headquarters and tourist bungalow/lodges are situated on the cool, 500 m (1500 ft) high Mazaroni Plateau. At several places on the plateau there is a beautiful view over the Brokopondo Reservoir. And trails lead to creeks, waterfalls and lookouts, giving spectacular panoramic views of the interior. Except for the park staff, there is no permanent habitation in the park itself. The Brownsberg is known for its rich flora and fauna. The Brownsberg is also a paradise for birdwatchers. Of the 650 birds known for Suriname, more than 200 can be found here. Some of the birds are rarely seen because they live in the forest canopy, although their songs and whistling are heard regularly. Irenevallen is a waterfall of about 10 m high in the Brownskreek. It is about an hour's walk from park headquarters. After a heavy rain it is wonderful to stand under this natural shower. Witikreek is a secluded rushing stream at the foot of the Brownsberg. You can walk to it in about a two-hour downhill hike. Once there you can swim, nap in a hammock, and have a picnic.
Galibi Nature Reserve[ edit ]
Galibi Nature Reserve is world famous as a nesting site for endangered sea turtles. Four species come ashore to lay their eggs between February and August. The nearby Amerindian villages of Christiannkondre and Langemankondre can also be visited, giving you an opportunity to purchase Carib indian artwork. This is a wonderful place to relax for a few days. Here are undisturbed sea turtle nesting beaches, where you have the best chance to observe different species of turtles: the green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas), the leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), and the olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea). Eilanti Beach is the only beach where mass nesting aggregations (arribadas) of the olive ridley are known to have occurred in the Atlantic region. The hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) nests only sporadically in Suriname with rarely more than twenty-five nests per year for all of Suriname.
The Galibi Nature Reserve is situated in the Northeast corner of Suriname, at the mouth of the Marowijne River, bordering French Guiana. Because the saline oceanic Guiana Current and the freshwater flow of the Marowijne River collide along the east and north borders of the reserve, it is exposed to many different environmental factors. This results in a great biological diversity characterized by the Suriname coast.
The Galibi reserve and the nearby Amerinidan villages are accessible only by boat, about 1 1/2 hours downstream from the drop in point, Albina. The villagers are allowed to use the reserve for fishing, hunting, plant collecting and small-scale agricultural activities.
Upper Surinam river[ edit ]
This is the most easily accessible way to go far inland. The road south from Paramaribo branches off just before Brownsberg to the south of the Brokopondo Lake. This branch is as of 2010 still under the process of being surfaced. It ends at Atjoni, where the Upper Surinam river begins and where many boats can be found around noon to take you upstream. These regular boats go as far south as Djuumu, where the river branches into Gran Rio and Pikin Rio. In between, the river is littered with guesthouses, way too many of them, so there is plenty of choice and there is generally no need to book ahead.
The culture here is quite different from the coast and misunderstandings are to be expected. For example, a surgarge on the agreed price is often added upon leaving for use of the kitchen. So make sure beforehand if this is the case. And since that can be a relatively high surcharge (eg 10 srd on top of 40 srd for the room), it might be advisible to bring your own cooker. Also, an improptu forest walk with the owner can later turn out to cost 100 srd. On the other hand, if you go paddling in a dugout you are not likely to be charged for that (although it never hurts to ask). And one traveller wasn't even charged anything when during such a trip he ran the boat onto a rock, resulting in a total-loss.
Nature Resort Kabalebo[ edit ]
Kabalebo Nature Resort lies in the unspoiled west of Suriname. This area is completely uninhabited, allowing one to rightfully speak of "untouched nature". Within a circumference of hundreds of kilometers, you will see nothing except for the flora and fauna of the splendid Amazon rain forest. Where playful monkeys leap through the treetops, the colorful parrots glide above your head and unusual fish leap and quickly swim away down a secluded creek...
Besides the numerous unusual birds, colorful butterflies and many dazzling types of fish, you may also come across a member of the cat family, the jaguar. You may spend hours on exploratory trips together with your guide. But you may also see many animals even if you decide to remain in the vicinity of the lodge.
Javanese[ edit ]
Although Indonesian food might be appropriate, the Indonesian people we have in Suriname are mostly if not all from the island Java. And Java has its own cuisine distinct from the rest of Indonesian food. Furthermore as you might have guessed the food has evolved to a more Surinamese culture and is thus (very) different from food you'd find in Java. Nevertheless it tastes great and you should try it. The most popular places where you would find such food is in 'warung's' Lelydorp on your way from the airport to Paramaribo , or Blauwgrond in Paramaribo, and since recently near the bridge in Commewijne .
Chinese[ edit ]
Chinese food tastes great everywhere in the world. Suriname is no exception. Good restaurants can be found in Paramaribo Also try visiting the Chinese market on Sunday and many of their Dim Sum restaurants
East-Indian[ edit ]
East Indian food is less spicy compared to original Indian food, but still a well appreciated meal.
Drink[ edit ][ add listing ]
Suriname wouldn't be the tropical paradise it is without its a wide variety of great fruit juices. Even the well known orange juice is a sensational taste, but do not hesitate to try great tropical fruits like passion fruit (known locally as 'markoesa') or soursap, better known as Guanábana (locally known as 'zuurzak'). Since locals have an appetite for sweet, sugar is added to most juices you buy in bottles. For pure juice it is best to ask for fresh made juice.
The Javanese have a pink (and occasionally green) colored drink called dawet, which consists of coconut milk.
Try to get a local 'east-indian' to make you a glass of lassi if you have the chance.
Alcohol[ edit ]
Beer: Try the local 'Parbo-beer', which when comes in 1 liter bottles is called a 'djogo'. In 2008 Suriname finally got Parbo beer in a can, which was somewhat of a major event in the country. Guinness is a popular import beer, and for that reason Parbo also brews a very decent own stout variant: Parbo Stout. Of course imported beer is also available. Rum: Borgoe and Black Cat.
Sleep[ edit ][ add listing ]
There are several good hostels and guest-houses available in Paramaribo and Nickerie . See the appropriate page for more information. When going into the rainforest it is best to buy a hammock in Paramaribo. Some guest houses in the forest provide hammocks, but these tend to be less hygenic, since washing machines are not available in the forest.
Learn[ edit ]
The University of Suriname Universiteit van Suriname [8]
However, it should be noted that students wishes to pursue education here must have a working knowledge of Dutch as classes are only instructed in Dutch.
Work[ edit ]
Working as a foreigner in Suriname without a work permit is illegal, though granted, there is not much of a force to stop you. However, relations do exist between the Netherlands and Suriname for work exchange programs and extra labour, especially those of skilled classes.
Stay safe[ edit ]
If you are concerned about safety try to avoid venturing at night alone. Try using a bike when possible. When in Paramaribo at night, avoid the Palm Garden as this is a well known crime site where much drug trade is done. The police force is only so large and can only protect you to a certain extent. Therefore, stay where you know police protection is offered. So please, use common sense when venturing outside downtown, which in itself can have problems. Do NOT venture to the bush (binnenland) alone.
Stay healthy[ edit ]
To enter Suriname there’s no need for any special kind of vaccination, though some are recommended (see below). If you plan a jungle-trip, which is highly recommended, it is possible that you may want to take precautions against malaria, depending on the area you are planning to visit. There were 729 confirmed cases of malaria in 2013 according to the WHO World Malaria Report. Be sure to check with BOG, or your local pharmacist or health clinic what prophylaxe you should take. The bigger threat nowadays comes from dengue, also spread by mosquitos, for which there is no prophylaxe, nor any cure. Travelers diarrhea can also potentially be a problem.
Yellow fever vaccination is recommended. (Required to get into Brazil afterwards!) Tetanus-diphtheria vaccination is recommended. Hepatitis A vaccination is recommended.
The Adult HIV/AIDS prevalence is reaching 2% or 1 in 50 adults, which is 3 times higher than the US and 9 times higher than the Netherlands. Be sure to practice safe sex.
Respect[ edit ]
Be respectful when taking photographs. Like everywhere else, one should respect the environment and the culture. For example the inland-people consider certain trees and spots holy and it is likely you need consent before taking a photograph. Your local guide will usually also indicate so. Ask for consent when you think it is appropriate as you would anywhere else.
Alarmnumber, ☎ 115. edit
Consulate
Embassy of Belgium, Domineestraat 32, bov, Paramaribo, Suriname P.O.B.. 1841, ☎ (+597) 472545, (597) 474690 (fax: (+597) 410563). edit
Embassy of Suriname in Brussels, Avenue Louise 379, 1050 Bruxelles, Belgium, ☎ (+32) 2 640 1172 (fax: (+32) 2 646 3962). edit
Embassy of Brazil, Maratakkastraat 2, Paramaribo, Suriname, ☎ (+597) 400200 ( [email protected] , fax: (+597) 400205). 08:00-13:00. edit
Embassy of Suriname in Brasília, SHIS QI 9 - conjunto 8 - casa 24, Lago Sul, 71625-080 Brasília - DF, ☎ (+55) 61 3248 3595 ( [email protected] , fax: (+55) 61 3248 3791). edit
Embassy of Canada, Wagenwagstraat 50bov, Paramaribo, Suriname P. O.B. 1449, ☎ (+597) 424527. edit
Embassy of the People's Republic of China, Anton Dragtenweg 154, Paramaribo, Suriname, ☎ (+597) 451570 (fax: (+597) 452560). edit
Embassy of Suriname in Beijing, 3-7-1- Kinguomanwai, Beijing 100020, China, ☎ (+86) 10 6532 2939 (fax: (+86) 10 6500 2022). edit
Embassy of France, Gravenstraat 5-7, Paramaribo, Suriname, ☎ (+597) 475222 (fax: (+597) 471208). edit
Consulate of Suriname in Cayenne, 38 ter RUW Christoph Colomb, 97300, Cayenne, French Guiana, ☎ (+594) 300461 (fax: (+594) 317645). edit
Embassy of Guyana, Gravenstraat 82, Paramaribo, Suriname, ☎ (+597) 477895 (fax: (+597) 472679). edit
Embassy of Suriname in Georgetown, 304 Church St. P.O.B. 334, Georgetown, Guyana, ☎ (+592) 267844 (fax: (+592) 253476). edit
Embassy of India, Rode Kruislaan 10, Paramaribo, Suriname, ☎ (+597) 498344 (fax: (+597) 499538). edit
Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia, Van Brussellaan 3, Paramaribo, Suriname, ☎ (+597) 431230 (fax: (+597) 498234). edit
Embassy of Japan, Gravenstraat 23 - 25, Paramaribo, Suriname, ☎ (+597) 474860 (fax: (+597) 412208). edit
Embassy of the Republic of Korea, Heerenstraat 8, Paramaribo, Suriname, ☎ (+597) 484747. edit
Embassy of the Netherlands, Van Roseveltkade 5, Paramaribo, Suriname, ☎ (+597) 477211 ( [email protected] , fax: (+597) 477792). edit
Embassy of Suriname in The Hague, Alexander Gogelweg 2, 2517JH, Den Haag, Netherlands, ☎ (+31) 70 365 0844 (fax: (+31) 70 361 7445). edit
Consulate of Suriname in Amsterdam, De Cuserstraat 11, 1081CK, Amsterdam,, ☎ (+31) 20 642 6137 (fax: (+31) 20 646 5311). edit
Consulate of Suriname in Curaçao, ITC Building IM 124, Willemstad, Curaçao, ☎ (+599) 9 463 6650 (fax: (+599) 9 463 6450). edit
Embassy of Suriname in Port-of-Spain, 11 Maraval Road 5th Floor Tatil Building, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, ☎ (+1) 868 626 0704 (fax: (+1) 868 628 0086). edit
Embassy of the United States of America, Dr. Sophie Redmondstraat 129, Paramaribo, Suriname, ☎ (+597) 472900 (fax: (+597) 425690). Monday – Friday, 7:30 – 16:00. edit
Embassy of Suriname in Washington, DC, Van Ness Centre, 4301 Connecticut Ave. - suite 108, Washington, DC 20008, USA, ☎ (+1) 202 244 7590 (fax: (+1) 202 244 5878). edit
Consulate of Suriname in Miami, 7235 NW 19th St Suite A, Miami, FL 33126, USA, ☎ (+1) 305 593 2163 (fax: (+1) 305 599 1034). edit
Embassy of Venezuela, Gravenstraat 23 - 25, Paramaribo, Suriname, ☎ (+597) 475401. edit
Embassy of Suriname in Caracas, Entre 7a y 8a Transversal, 41 Qta Los Milagros, Altamira, Caracas 1060 A, Venezuela, ☎ (+58) 212 263 1554 (fax: (+58) 212 261 2724). edit
| i don't know |
Which sea area lies between 'Plymouth' and 'Wight'? | List of British Sea Areas
as listed in the weather report for shipping on BBC Radio4
Here's a nice but big (162K) map
I scanned it from the Radio Times, they managed to forget Bailey so I had to edit it in, which is why the lines and font are a bit dodgy there.
Here's one from the Met Office , a lot smaller but not as pretty, but it DOES have Trafalgar on it, and it makes the Lat and Longs more obvious.
South East Iceland: 64N18W..65N14W..63N7W..62N11W (roughly)
Faeroes: 63N7W..62N3W..59N7W..62N11W (roughly)
Fair Isle: 62N3W..61N00..58N00..58N5W..59N7W (roughly)
The above 3 form a diagonal band from the coast of Iceland down to the Greenwich Meridian at the Shetlands on the northern edge, and the Scottish coast on the southern edge. Fair Isle is 5 sided to get back into the normal squarish grid.
Bailey: Between 10W and 15W from South East Iceland down to about 58N
Rockall: Between 10W and 15W from Bailey (58N) down to 53N
Shannon: Between 10W and 15W, from Rockall down to 50N, and including the bits off the Irish coast.
Hebrides: The bit between Faeroes and Fair Isle, the Scottish coast, 10W, and 57N
Malin: Below Hebrides, between Rockall and the coasts, down to the narrowest point between England and Ireland
Irish Sea: The Irish Sea from Malin down to the narrowest point between Wales and Ireland
Lundy: Bounded by the south Welsh and north Cornish coasts, out to about 6.5W
Fastnet: Between Lundy and Shannon, with the south Irish coast above and 50N below
Sole: 6.5W..15W and 50N..48.27N, below Shannon and Fastnet
Finisterre, now renamed Fitzroy: Below Sole
Biscay: From Finisterre to the French coast
Plymouth: The mouth of the Channel to about 8W, Biscay below, Sole to the left
Portland: Up the channel from Plymouth to about 2W
Wight: From Portland to a line from about 50N2E(France) to 51N1E(England)
Dover: From Wight to a line matching the latitude 51N, near enough
Thames: Moving out towards the North Sea, as far as about 52.5N
Humber: Up to 54N, but loses a degree of its eastern extent halfway up
Tyne: A tiny bit about a degree wide along the coast from Humber up to about 56N
Dogger: Tyne to the left, Humber below, 4E at the right, up to about 56N
German Bight: From Humber and Dogger on the left to the continental coast
Forties: Directly above Dogger, ie about 56N..58.5N and 1W..4E
Forth: Between Forties and the Scottish coast, stopping at 57N
Cromarty: Between Forties and the Scottish coast, from Forth up to 58.5N or so, where it meets Fair Isle
Viking: Above Forties with Fair Isle to the west
Fisher: East of Forties and north of German Bight, but only as far as about 57.5N
North Utsire, South Utsire: The last bit between Viking and Forties and the Scandinavian coast
I appear to have listed them in the reverse order to that used by the weather forecasters. Never mind!
| Portland |
In cookery, what is 'Julienne'? | Sea areas in UK Met Office shipping bulletins
61�00'N 00�00'
61�00'N 04�00'E
58�30'N 04�00'E
58�30'N 00�00'
NORTH UTSIRE
61�00'N 04�00'E
61�00'N 05�00'E
59�00'N 05�35'E
59�00'N 04�00'E
SOUTH UTSIRE
59�00'N 04�00'E
59�00'N 05�35'E
58�00'N 07�05'E
57�45'N 07�30'E
57�45'N 04�00'E
FORTIES
58�30'N 01�00'W
58�30'N 04�00'E
56�00'N 04�00'E
56�00'N 01�00'W
FORTH
55�40'N 01�50'W
56�00'N 01�00'W
57�00'N 01�00'W
57�00'N 02�10'W
CROMARTY
57�00'N 02�10'W
57�00'N 01�00'W
58�30'N 01�00'W
58�30'N 03�00'W
TYNE
54�15'N 00�20'W
54�15'N 00�45'E
56�00'N 01�00'W
55�40'N 01�50'W
DOGGER
56�00'N 01�00'W
54�15'N 00�45'E
54�15'N 04�00'E
56�00'N 04�00'E
FISHER
57�45'N 04�00'E 56�00'N 04�00'E
56�00'N 08�10'E
57�05'N 08�35'E
57�45'N 07�30'E
GERMAN BIGHT
56�00'N 08�10'E
56�00'N 04�00'E
54�15'N 04�00'E
53�35'N 04�40'E
52�45'N 04�40'E
HUMBER
52�45'N 01�40'E
52�45'N 04�40'E
53�35'N 04�40'E
54�15'N 04�00'E
54�15'N 00�20'W
THAMES
51�15'N 01�25'E
51�15'N 02�55'E
52�45'N 04�40'E
52�45'N 01�40'E
DOVER
50�45'N 00�15'E
50�15'N 01�30'E
51�15'N 02�55'E
51�15'N 01�25'E
WIGHT
50�35'N 01�55'W
49�45'N 01�55'W
50�15'N 01�30'E
50�45'N 00�15'E
PORTLAND
50�25'N 03�30'W
48�50'N 03�30'W
49�45'N 01�55'W
50�35'N 01�55'W
PLYMOUTH
50�05'N 05�45'W
50�00'N 06�15'W
48�27'N 06�15'W
48�27'N 04�45'W
48�50'N 03�30'W 50�25'N 03�30'W
48�27'N 06�15'W
43�35'N 06�15'W
48�27'N 04�45'W
TRAFALGAR
35�00'N 15�00'W
35�00'N 06�15'W
41�00'N 08�40'W
41�00'N 15�00'W
FITZROY
48�27'N 15�00'W
41�00'N 15�00'W
41�00'N 08�40'W
43�35'N 06�15'W
48�27'N 06�15'W
SOLE
50�00'N 06�15'W
50�00'N 15�00'W
48�27'N 15�00'W
48�27'N 06�15'W
LUNDY
52�30'N 06�15'W
50�00'N 06�15'W
50�05'N 05�45'W
52�00'N 05�05'W
FASTNET
51�35'N 10�00'W
50�00'N 10�00'W
50�00'N 06�15'W
52�30'N 06�15'W
IRISH SEA
54�50'N 05�05'W
54�45'N 05�45'W
52�30'N 06�15'W
52�00'N 05�05'W
SHANNON
53�30'N 15�00'W
50�00'N 15�00'W
50�00'N 10�00'W
51�35'N 10�00'W
53�30'N 10�05'W
ROCKALL
58�00'N 10�00'W
58�00'N 15�00'W
53�30'N 15�00'W
53�30'N 10�05'W
54�20'N 10�00'W
MALIN
57�00'N 05�50'W
57�00'N 10�00'W
54�20'N 10�00'W
54�45'N 05�45'W
54�50'N 05�05'W
HEBRIDES
60�35'N 10�00'W 57�00'N 10�00'W 57�00'N 05�50'W 58�40'N 05�00'W
BAILEY
62�25'N 15�00'W 58�00'N 15�00'W 58�00'N 10�00'W 60�35'N 10�00'W
FAEROES
63�20'N 07�30'W 61�10'N 11�30'W 59�30'N 07�15'W 61�50'N 02�30'W
FAIR ISLE
61�50'N 02�30'W
59�30'N 07�15'W
58�40'N 05�00'W
58�30'N 03�00'W
58�30'N 00�00'
61�00'N 00�00'
SOUTHEAST ICELAND
63�35'N 18�00'W 61�10'N 11�30'W 63�20'N 07�30'W 65�00'N 13�35'W
| i don't know |
By what name is Hansen's Disease better known? | Hansen's Disease (Leprosy) | CDC
Hansen's Disease (Leprosy)
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Hansen's disease (also known as leprosy) is a long-lasting infection caused by bacteria.
The disease was once feared as a highly contagious and devastating disease. Now, however, the disease is very rare and easily treated. Early diagnosis and treatment usually prevent disability related to the disease.
| Leprosy |
Who won the 'Oscar' for Best Actress in the 1950's film 'Born Yesterday'? | Signs and Symptoms | Hansen's Disease (Leprosy) | CDC
Hansen's Disease (Leprosy)
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The bacteria that cause Hansen's disease grow very slowly. It may take 2-10 years before signs and symptoms appear.
Symptoms mainly affect the skin, nerves, and mucous membranes (the soft, moist areas just inside the body's openings).
The disease can cause:
Skin lesions that may be faded/discolored
Growths on the skin
Thick, stiff or dry skin
Severe pain
Numbness on affected areas of the skin
Muscle weakness or paralysis (especially in the hands and feet)
Eye problems that may lead to blindness
Enlarged nerves (especially those around the elbow and knee)
A stuffy nose
Ulcers on the soles of feet
Since Hansen’s disease affects the nerves, loss of feeling or sensation can occur.
When loss of sensation occurs, injuries (such as burns or fractures) may go unnoticed. You should always try to avoid injuries. But, if you experience loss of sensation due to Hansen’s disease (or another cause), you may not feel pain that can warn you of harm to your body. So, take extra caution to ensure your body is not injured.
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There are three colours on the flag of Madagascar, red, white and which other colour? | Madagascar Flag
Country: Democratic Republic of Madagascar
Proportions: 2:3
Madagascar Flag Description:
The flag of Madagascar consists of two horizontal stripes and one vertical stripe, all of which are of equal size. There is a vertical white stripe on the left side of the Madagascar flag. The rest of the Madagascar flag consists of a red horizontal stripe over top of a green one.
Madagascar Flag Meaning:
One theory on the Madagascar flag's meaning states that the colors of the Madagascar flag represent Madagascar's history, yearning for independence, and traditional classes. Red and white were the colors of the Merina kingdom, which fell to France in 1896. The colors were used in the flag of Queen Ranavalona III, the last Merina monarch. They also represent the ethnic origins of the Malagasy people in Southeast Asia, and are shared by the flag of Indonesia. Green was the color of the Hova, a class of commoners who played a significant role in the independence movement. The modern day interpretation of the Madagascar flag colors believes that red standing for sovereignty, white represents purity and green means hope.
Madagascar Flag History:
The Madagascar flag was adopted on October 14, 1958. Madagascar gained independence from France on June 26, 1960.
Interesting Madagascar Flag Facts:
Although Madagascar officially changed its name under a new constitution in 1975, the Madagascar flag remained the same.
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| Green (disambiguation) |
'Pallid', 'Brown' and 'Bumblebee' are species of which mammal? | Colors of flags
This page is part of © FOTW Flags Of The World website
Colors of flags
Flags of the World Colour Standards
Pantone Matching System and flags
The Flag Institute has used standard colours for some time, derived from the Pantone Matching System, but making allowance for the prevailing system of printing from four process colours. As has been pointed out, most Mac programmes cater for PMS colours, including the one we use for graphics, which is Adobe Illustrator. Our object is to restrain the growth of colours to unmanageable proportions, and so we have listed some standard flag colours, with a few allowable variations. These variations come into effect where a flag's specifications call for them, eg 'azul turquesi' in some Central American flags, 'Yale Blue' in the flag of Israel, and where official specifications list either Pantone matches, eg Finland, Estonia, Australia, or other colour identification matches than can be 'translated' into Pantone matches. The standard PMS colours are: 032, red; 286, blue; 354, green; 109, yellow; 165, orange; and 167, brown. Some frequent variations are: 185, red for 'Old Glory Red' also used in Australia; 280 blue, ditto; 355 green as in the flag of Saudi Arabia, etc. Gold is 116, as in the flag of Europe and of Germany, and silver is 420. So far we have kept to our resolution to use not more than 30 shades of colour. A printout of these is available on request. Our position is that flags normally employ the 'default' colours unless some good reason can be shown for departing from them.
William Crampton, 14 October 1995
Pantone matches are widely used, but not all countries have officially specified matches. I know the Flag Institute keeps records of officially set Pantone matches and that they have set their own matches for those flags where no official specification is made. For example, the Flag Institute's Pantone matches for the UK flag is Red 032 and Blue 286.
Jan Oskar Engene, 11 December 1996
The British Navy's "Flags of all nations" give us general Pantone colours:
Azure blue 549C
Heraldic blue 286C
Grey 409C
With the specification: "The Pantone colour reference is for printers' use only". But, is a good colour reference.
Sebastia Herreros, 13 December 1996
Shade of Blue in some flags
On 26 February 1996 Bill Grimes-Wyatt stated "there is no question that the flags of Israel and Greece are a light blue, not dark blue as your charts might suggest."
Blues can be very confusing. In Flags Through the Ages and Across the World (W. Smith, 1975) [smi75b] you will find that Israel and Greece both use a fairly dark blue, though they are slightly different from each other. The Israeli blue is as dark as any of the Blue Ensigns shown in the book, and the Greek flag is of a very slightly lighter shade. They both stand in sharp contrast to the light blue of Argentina , Botswana , Fiji , etc. The Greek flag, like the Finnish flag, used to be what we would think of as "light blue" but both have changed to darker shades. I have a Greek flag made in Greece of paper and it is of the lighter blue shade. I purchased it over a dozen years ago, so I don't know what shade of blue the locals would recognize as proper, but according to regulations it is no longer "light blue."
Nick Artimovich, 26 February 1996
The blue colour in Israel's flag is definitely dark. Some time ago I got a folder on national symbols from the Embassy of Israel in Washington. In the flag drawing the blue is dark, the text defines it as Yale Blue.
Jan Oskar Engene, 27 January 1996
The flag of Israel was a dark blue (navy) until the late 50's or early 60's at which time it was changed to a lighter blue. This is from memory.
Ronnie Kay, 27 February 1996
The odd thing is that at the time I called the Israeli mission to the U.N. to verify the color before producing the flag, and the impression I got was that they didn't care which color was used.
R. Nathan Bliss, 27 February 1996
Actually, the color is officially declared to be "blue". However, it can be any kind of blue - light, cyan or whatever shade, so long as it's 'blue' and have the 'magen david' sign in between the lines.
Goren S, 9 February 1996
The flag of Israel is decidedly not any single shade of blue. It is based on a tallit, a religious article of clothing. The color of blue meant to be used on the tallit is not known and in fact everything from black to reddish purple is used to denote it with different religious and political connotations. The most common color (the light blue) comes from the fact that the tallit most people wear (including mine) is a light blue with the deliberate statement of "this is most probably not the right color." Many people, including me, would find black as acceptable as the current shade of blue. The reddish tones of purple could get you into an argument. For the State of Israel to make any definite proclamation beyond "blue" could incite violence (!) and questions as to what exactly what shade of the color it is are probably viewed with suspicion of "looking for a fight." There are enough people opposed to using blue at all, to begin with.
Jacob Faturechi, 21 October 1996
Something interesting: in Taiwanese vexillological regulations, the Chinese word for 'blue' is never used - the word 'qing' is used instead. The problem is, in layman's language, 'qing' usually means green rather than blue! Even more interesting is the use of politically correct terms for the colour red. When English is used, the Taiwanese flag is described as 'blue sky, white sun, crimson field' and never 'red field' so as to avoid any links with 'Red China ' (the Communists). When Chinese is used, however, the word for 'red' ('hong') is used regardless. This is because, when the colour red is associated with the Communists, the Taiwanese authorities uses the word 'chi' (sanguine) instead!
Miles Li, 28 September 2001
Reading official descriptions of Brazilian flags has taught me (sometimes the hard way) that color designations don't necessarily mean in Portuguese what I would think they'd mean in English. For example, "azul celeste" in Brazil seems to mean regular bright blue (B), not the pale blue that an American raised on Crayola crayons would expect.
I've encountered in descriptions of Brazilian military flags the term "azul-turquesa." The English cognate would obviously be "turquoise blue," a light greenish blue color. But I suppose it could also mean Turkish blue, which could be a medium light blue between B and Argentine James Dignan, 13 October 2008
| i don't know |
Which philosopher and economist wrote 'The Wealth Of Nations'? | Smith, Adam | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Z
Adam Smith (1723—1790)
Adam Smith is often identified as the father of modern capitalism. While accurate to some extent, this description is both overly simplistic and dangerously misleading. On the one hand, it is true that very few individual books have had as much impact as his An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. His accounts of the division of labor and free trade, self-interest in exchange, the limits on government intervention, price, and the general structure of the market, all signify the moment when economics transitions to the "modern." On the other hand, The Wealth of Nations, as it is most often called, is not a book on economics. Its subject is " political economy ," a much more expansive mixture of philosophy, political science, history, economics, anthropology, and sociology. The role of the free market and the laissez-faire structures that support it are but two components of a larger theory of human interaction and social history.
Smith was not an economist; he was a philosopher. His first book, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, sought to describe the natural principles that govern morality and the ways in which human beings come to know them. How these two books fit together is both one of the most controversial subjects in Smith scholarship and the key to understanding his arguments about the market and human activity in general. Historically, this process is made more difficult by the so-called "Adam Smith Problem," a position put forth by small numbers of committed scholars since the late nineteenth century that Smith's two books are incompatible. The argument suggests that Smith's work on ethics, which supposedly assumed altruistic human motivation, contradicts his political economy, which allegedly assumed egoism . However, most contemporary Smith scholars reject this claim as well as the description of Smith's account of human motivation it presupposes.
Smith never uses the term "capitalism;" it does not enter into widespread use until the late nineteenth century. Instead, he uses "commercial society," a phrase that emphasizes his belief that the economic is only one component of the human condition. And while, for Smith, a nation's economic "stage" helps define its social and political structures, he is also clear that the moral character of a people is the ultimate measure of their humanity. To investigate Smith's work, therefore, is to ask many of the great questions that we all struggle with today, including those that emphasize the relationship of morality and economics. Smith asks why individuals should be moral. He offers models for how people should treat themselves and others. He argues that scientific method can lead to moral discovery, and he presents a blueprint for a just society that concerns itself with its least well-off members, not just those with economic success. Adam Smith's philosophy bears little resemblance to the libertarian caricature put forth by proponents of laissez faire markets who describe humans solely as homo economicus. For Smith, the market is a mechanism of morality and social support.
Table of Contents
1. Life and Influences
a. Early Life and Influences
Adam Smith was born in June, 1723, in Kirkcaldy, a port town on the eastern shore of Scotland; the exact date is unknown. His father, the Comptroller and Collector of Customs, died while Smith's mother was pregnant but left the family with adequate resources for their financial well being. Young Adam was educated in a local parish (district) school. In 1737, at the age of thirteen he was sent to Glasgow College after which he attended Baliol College at Oxford University. His positive experiences at school in Kirkcaldy and at Glasgow, combined with his negative reaction to the professors at Oxford, would remain a strong influence on his philosophy.
In particular, Smith held his teacher Francis Hutcheson in high esteem. One of the early leaders of the philosophical movement now called the Scottish Enlightenment, Hutcheson was a proponent of moral sense theory, the position that human beings make moral judgments using their sentiments rather than their "rational" capacities. According to Hutcheson, a sense of unity among human beings allows for the possibility of other-oriented actions even though individuals are often motivated by self-interest. The moral sense, which is a form of benevolence, elicits a feeling of approval in those witnessing moral acts. Hutcheson opposed ethical egoism, the notion that individuals ought to be motivated by their own interests ultimately, even when they cooperate with others on a common project.
The term "moral sense" was first coined by Sir Anthony Ashley Cooper, Third Earl of Shaftesbury , whose work Smith read and who became a focal point in the Scots' discussion, although he himself was not Scottish. Although Shaftesbury did not offer a formal moral sense theory as Hutcheson did, he describes personal moral deliberation as a "soliloquy," a process of self-division and self-examination similar in form to Hamlet's remarks on suicide. This model of moral reasoning plays an important role in Smith's books.
The Scottish Enlightenment philosophers, or the literati, as they called themselves, were a close-knit group who socialized together and who read, critiqued, and debated each other's work. They met regularly in social clubs (often at pubs) to discuss politics and philosophy. Shortly after graduating from Oxford, Smith presented public lectures on moral philosophy in Edinburgh, and then, with the assistance of the literati, he secured his first position as the Chair of Logic at Glasgow University. His closest friendship in the group—and probably his most important non-familial relationship throughout his life—was with David Hume , an older philosopher whose work Smith was chastised for reading while at Oxford.
Hume was believed to be an atheist, and his work brought into question some of the core beliefs in moral philosophy. In particular, and even more so than Hutcheson, Hume's own version of moral sense theory challenged the assumption that reason was the key human faculty in moral behavior. He famously asserted that reason is and ought to be slave to the passions, which means that even if the intellect can inform individuals as to what is morally correct, agents will only act if their sentiments incline them to do so. An old proverb tells us that you can lead a horse to water but that you can't make it drink. Hume analogously argues that while you might be able to teach people what it means to be moral, only their passions, not their rational capacities, can actually inspire them to be ethical. This position has roots in Aristotle 's distinction between moral and intellectual virtue .
Smith, while never explicitly arguing for Hume's position, nonetheless seems to assume much of it. And while he does not offer a strict moral sense theory, he does adopt Hume's assertion that moral behavior is, at core, the human capacity of sympathy, the faculty that, in Hume's account, allows us to approve of others' characters, to "forget our own interest in our judgments," and to consider those whom "we meet with in society and conversation" who "are not placed in the same situation, and have not the same interest with ourselves" (Hume: Treatise, book 3.3.3).
b. Smith's Writings
Smith echoes these words throughout A Theory of Moral Sentiments. In this book, he embraces Hume's conception of sympathy, but rejects his skepticism and adds, as we shall see, a new theory of conscience to the mix. However, focusing on Hume's observations also allow us to see certain other themes that Smith shares with his Scottish Enlightenment cohort: in particular, their commitment to empiricism. As with most of the other Scottish philosophers, Hume and Smith held that knowledge is acquired through the senses rather than through innate ideas, continuing the legacy of John Locke more so than René Descartes . For Hume, this epistemology would bring into question the connection between cause and effect—our senses, he argued, could only tell us that certain events followed one another in time, but not that they were causally related. For Smith, this meant a whole host of different problems. He asks, for example, how a person can know another's sentiments and motivations, as well as how members can use the market to make "rational" decisions about the propriety of their economic activity.
At the core of the Scottish project is the attempt to articulate the laws governing human behavior. Smith and his contemporary Adam Ferguson are sometimes credited with being the founders of sociology because they, along with the other literati, believed that human activities were governed by discoverable principles in the same way that Newton argued that motion was explainable through principles. Newton, in fact, was a tremendous influence on the Scots' methodology. In an unpublished essay on the history of astronomy, Smith writes that Newton's system, had "gained the general and complete approbation of mankind," and that it ought to be considered "the greatest discovery that ever was made by man." What made it so important? Smith describes it as "the discovery of an immense chain of the most important and sublime truths, all closely connected together, by one capital fact, of the reality of which we have daily experience" (EPS, Astronomy IV.76).
While Smith held the chair of logic at Glasgow University, he lectured more on rhetoric than on traditional Aristotelian forms of reasoning. There is a collection of student lecture notes that recount Smith's discussions of style, narrative, and moral propriety in rhetorical contexts. These notes, in combination with his essay on astronomy, offer an account of explanation that Smith himself regarded as essentially Newtonian. According to Smith, a theory must first be believable; it must soothe anxiety by avoiding any gaps in its account. Again, relying upon a basically Aristotelian model, Smith tells us that the desire to learn, and the theories that result, stems from a series of emotions: surprise at events inspires anxieties that cause one to wonder about the process. This leads to understanding and admiration of the acts and principles of nature. By showing that the principles governing the heavens also govern the Earth, Newton set a new standard for explanation. A theory must direct the mind with its narrative in a way that both corresponds with experience and offers theoretical accounts that enhance understanding and allow for prediction. The account must fit together systematically without holes or missing information; this last element—avoiding any gaps in the theory—is, perhaps, the most central element for Smith, and this model of philosophical explanation unifies both his moral theories and his political economy.
As a young philosopher, Smith experimented with different topics, and there is a collection of writing fragments to compliment his lecture notes and early essays. These include brief explorations of "Ancient Logics," metaphysics, the senses, physics, aesthetics, the work of Jean-Jacque Rousseau, and other assorted topics. Smith's Scottish Enlightenment contemporaries shared an interest in all of these issues.
While the works offer a glimpse into Smith's meditations, they are by no means definitive; few of them were ever authorized for publication. Smith was a meticulous writer and, in his own words, "a slow a very slow workman, who do and undo everything I write at least half a dozen of times before I can be tolerably pleased with it" (Corr. 311). As a result, he ordered sixteen volumes of unpublished writing burnt upon his death because, presumably, he did not feel they were adequate for public consumption. Smith scholars lament this loss because it obfuscates the blueprint of his system, and there have been several attempts of late to reconstruct the design of Smith's corpus, again with the intent of arguing for a particular relationship between his major works.
After holding the chair of logic at Glasgow for only one year (1751–1752), Smith was appointed to the Chair of Moral Philosophy, the position originally held by Hutcheson. He wrote The Theory of Moral Sentiments, first published in 1759, while holding this position and, presumably, while testing out many of his discussions in the classroom. While he spoke very warmly of this period of his life, and while he took a deep interest in teaching and mentoring young minds, Smith resigned in 1764 to tutor the Duke of Buccleuch and accompany him on his travels.
It was not uncommon for professional teachers to accept positions as private tutors. The salary and pensions were often lucrative, and it allowed more flexibility than a busy lecturing schedule might afford. In Smith's case, this position took him to France where he spent two years engaged with the philosophes—a tight-knit group of French philosophers analogous to Smith's own literati—in conversations that would make their way into The Wealth of Nations. How influential the philosophes were in the creation of Smith's political economy is a matter of controversy. Some scholars suggest that Smith's attitudes were formed as a result of their persuasion while others suggest that Smith's ideas were solidified much earlier than his trip abroad. Whatever the case, this shows that Smith's interests were aligned, not just with the Scottish philosophers, but with their European counterparts. Smith's writing was well-received in part because it was so timely. He was asking the deep questions of the time; his answers would change the world.
After his travels, Smith returned to his home town of Kirkcaldy to complete The Wealth of Nations. It was first published in 1776 and was praised both by his friends and the general public. In a letter written much later, he referred to it as the "very violent attack I had made upon the whole commercial system of Great Britain" (Corr. 208). The Theory of Moral Sentiments went through six editions in Smith's lifetime, two of which contained major substantive changes and The Wealth of Nations saw four different editions with more minor alterations. Smith indicated that he thought The Theory of Moral Sentiments was a better book, and his on-going attention to its details and adjustments to its theory bear out, at least, that he was more committed to refining it. Eventually, Smith moved to Edinburgh with his mother and was appointed commissioner of customs in 1778; he did not publish anything substantive for the remainder of his life. Adam Smith died on July 17, 1790.
After his death, The Wealth of Nations continued to grow in stature and The Theory of Moral Sentiments began to fade into the background. In the more than two centuries since his death, his published work has been supplemented by the discoveries of his early writing fragments, the student-authored lectures notes on his course in rhetoric and belles-letters, student-authored lecture notes on jurisprudence, and an early draft of part of The Wealth of Nations, the date of which is estimated to be about 1763. The latter two discoveries help shed light on the formulation of his most famous work and supply fodder for both sides of the debate regarding the influence of the philosophes on Smith's political economy.
As stated above, Smith is sometimes credited with being one of the progenitors of modern sociology, and his lectures on rhetoric have also been called the blueprint for the invention of the modern discipline of English; this largely has to do with their influence on his student Hugh Blair, whose own lectures on rhetoric were instrumental in the formation of that discipline. The Theory of Moral Sentiments played an important role in 19th century sentimentalist literature and was also cited by Mary Wollstonecraft to bolster her argument in A Vindication of the Rights of Women: Smith's moral theories experienced a revival in the last quarter of the twentieth century. Secondary sources on Smith flooded the marketplace and interest in Smith's work as a whole has reached an entirely new audience.
There are two noteworthy characteristics of the latest wave of interest in Smith. The first is that scholars are interested in how The Theory of Moral Sentiments and The Wealth of Nations interconnect, not simply in his moral and economic theories as distinct from one another. The second is that it is philosophers and not economists who are primarily interested in Smith's writings. They therefore pay special attention to where Smith might fit in within the already established philosophical canon: How does Smith's work build on Hume's? How does it relate to that of his contemporary Immanuel Kant? (It is known that Kant read The Theory of Moral Sentiments, for example.) To what extent is a sentiment-based moral theory defensible? And, what can one learn about the Scots and eighteenth-century philosophy in general from reading Smith in a historical context? These are but a few of the questions with which Smith's readers now concern themselves.
2. The Theory of Moral Sentiments
a. Sympathy
Hutcheson, Hume, and Smith were unified by their opposition to arguments put forth by Bernard Mandeville. A Dutch-born philosopher who relocated to England, Mandeville argued that benevolence does no social good whatsoever. His book, The Fable of the Bees: Private Vices, Public Benefits, tells the whole story. Bad behavior has positive social impact. Without vice, we would have, for example, no police, locksmiths, or other such professionals. Without indulgence, there would be only minimal consumer spending. Virtue, on the other hand, he argued, has no positive economic benefit and is therefore not to be encouraged.
But Mandeville took this a step further, arguing, as did Thomas Hobbes , that moral virtue derives from personal benefit, that humans are essentially selfish, and that all people are in competition with one another. Hobbes was a moral relativist , arguing that "good" is just a synonym for "that which people desire." Mandeville's relativism, if it can be called that, is less extreme. While he argues that virtue is the intentional act for the good of others with the objective of achieving that good, he casts doubt on whether or not anyone could actually achieve this standard. Smith seems to treat both philosophers as if they argue for the same conclusion; both offer counterpoints to Shaftesbury's approach. Tellingly, Mandeville writes wistfully of Shaftesbury's positive accounts of human motivation, remarking they are "a high Compliment to Human-kind," adding, however, "what Pity it is that they are not true" (Fable, I, 324).
Smith was so opposed to Hobbes's and Mandeville's positions that the very first sentence of The Theory of Moral Sentiments begins with their rejection:
However selfish man may be supposed, there are evidently some principles in his nature, which interest him in the fortune of others, and render their happiness necessary to him, though they derive nothing from it except the pleasure of seeing it. (TMS I.i.1.1)
While it is often assumed that people are selfish, Smith argues that experience suggests otherwise. People derive pleasure from seeing the happiness of others because, by design, others concern us. With this initial comment, Smith outlines the central themes of his moral philosophy: human beings are social, we care about others and their circumstances bring us pleasure or pain. It is only through our senses, through "seeing," that we acquire knowledge of their sentiments. Smith's first sentence associates egoism with supposition or presumption, but scientific "principles" of human activity are associated with evidence: Newtonianism and empiricism in action.
The Theory of Moral Sentiments (TMS) is a beautifully written book, clear and engaging. With few exceptions, the sentences are easy to follow, and it is written in a lively manner that speaks of its rehearsal in the classroom. Smith has a particular flair for examples, both literary and from day-to-day life, and his use of "we" throughout brings the reader into direct dialogue with Smith. The book feels like an accurate description of human emotions and experience—there are times when it feels phenomenological, although Smith would not have understood this word. He uses repetition to great benefit, reminding his readers of the central points in his theories while he slowly builds their complexity. At only 342 pages (all references are to the Glasgow Editions of his work), the book encompasses a tremendous range of themes. Disguised as a work of moral psychology—as a theory of moral sentiments alone—it is also a book about social organization, identity construction, normative standards, and the science of human behavior as a whole.
Smith tells us that the two questions of moral philosophy are "Wherein does virtue consist?" and "By what power or faculty in the mind is it, that this character, whatever it be, is recommended to us?" (TMS VII.i.2) In other words, we are to ask what goodness is and how we are to be good. The Theory of Moral Sentiments follows this plan, although Smith tackles the second question first, focusing on moral psychology long before he addresses the normative question of moral standards. For Smith, the core of moral learning and deliberation—the key to the development of identity itself—is social unity, and social unity is enabled through sympathy.
The term "sympathy" is Hume's, but Smith's friend gives little indication as to how it was supposed to work or as to its limits. In contrast, Smith addresses the problem head on, devoting the first sixty-six pages of TMS to illuminating its workings and most of the next two hundred elaborating on its nuances. The last part of the book (part VII, "Of Systems of Moral Philosophy") is the most distanced from this topic, addressing the history of ethics but, again, only for slightly less than sixty pages. It is noteworthy that while modern writers almost always place the "literature review" in the beginning of their books, Smith feels that a historical discussion of ethics is only possible after the work on moral psychology is complete. This is likely because Smith wanted to establish the principles of human behavior first so that he could evaluate moral theory in the light of what had been posited.
The Theory of Moral Sentiments is, not surprisingly, both Aristotelian and Newtonian. It is also Stoic in its account of nature and self-command. The first sentence quoted above is a first principle—individuals are not egoistic—and all the rest of the book follows from this assertion. And, as with all first principles, while Smith "assumes" the possibility of other-oriented behavior, the rest of the book both derives from its truth and contributes to its believability. Smith's examples, anecdotes, and hypotheticals are all quite believable, and if one is to accept these as accurate depictions of the human experience, then one must also accept his starting point. Human beings care for others, and altruism, or beneficence as he calls it, is possible.
What is sympathy , then? This is a matter of controversy. Scholars have regarded it as a faculty, a power, a process, and a feeling. What it is not, however, is a moral sense in the most literal meaning of the term. Sympathy is not a sixth capacity that can be grouped with the five senses. Smith, while influenced by Hutcheson, is openly critical of his teacher. He argues that moral sense without judgment is impossible (TMS VII.3.3.8-9), and sympathy is that which allows us to make judgments about ourselves and others. Sympathy is the foundation for moral deliberation, Smith argues, and Hutcheson's system has no room for it.
For Smith, sympathy is more akin to modern empathy, the ability to relate to someone else's emotions because we have experienced similar feelings. While contemporary "sympathy" refers only to feeling bad for a person's suffering, Smith uses it to denote "fellow-feeling with any passion whatever" (TMS I.i.1.5). It is how a "spectator... changes places in fancy with... the person principally concerned" (TMS I.i.1.3-5).
In short, sympathy works as follows: individuals witness the actions and reactions of others. When doing so, this spectator attempts to enter into the situation he or she observes and imagines what it is like to be the actor—the person being watched. (Smith uses actor and agent interchangeably.) Then, the spectator imagines what he or she would do as the actor. If the sentiments match up, if the imagined reaction is analogous to the observed reaction, then the spectator sympathizes with the original person. If the reactions are significantly different, then the spectator does not sympathize with the person. In this context, then, sympathy is a form of moral approval and lack of sympathy indicates disapproval.
Sympathy is rarely exact. Smith is explicit that the imagined sentiments are always less intense than the original, but they are nonetheless close enough to signify agreement. And, most important, mutual sympathy is pleasurable. By nature's design, people want to share fellow-feeling with one another and will therefore temper their actions so as to find common ground. This is further indication of the social nature of human beings; for Smith, isolation and moral disagreement is to be avoided. It is also the mechanism that moderates behavior. Behavior modulation is how individuals learn to act with moral propriety and within social norms. According to The Theory of Moral Sentiments, mutual sympathy is the foundation for reward and punishment.
Smith is insistent, though, that sympathy is not inspired by simply witnessing the emotions of others even though it "may seem to be transfused from one man to another, instantaneously, and antecedent to any knowledge of what excited them in the person principally concerned" (TMS I.i.1.6). Rather, the spectator gathers information about the cause of the emotions and about the person being watched. Only then does he or she ask, given the particular situation and the facts of this particular agent's life, whether the sentiments are appropriate. As Smith writes:
When I condole with you for the loss of your only son, in order to enter into your grief I do not consider what I, a person of such a character and profession, should suffer, if I had a son, and if that son was unfortunately to die: but I consider what I should suffer if I was really you, and I not only change circumstance with you, but I change persons and characters. My grief, therefore, is entirely upon your own account, and not in the least upon my own. (TMS VI.iii.I.4)
We can see here why the imagination is so important to Smith. Only through this faculty can a person enter into the perspective of another, and only through careful observation and consideration can someone learn all the necessary information relevant to judge moral action. We can also see why sympathy is, for Smith, not an egoistic faculty:
In order to produce this concord, as nature teaches the spectators to assume the circumstances of the person principally concerned, so she teaches this last in some measure to assume those of the spectators. As they are continually placing themselves in his situation, and thence conceiving emotions similar to what he feels; so he is as constantly placing himself in theirs, and thence conceiving some degree of that coolness about his own fortune, with which he is sensible that they will view it. As they are constantly considering what they themselves would feel, if they actually were the sufferers, so he is as constantly led to imagine in what manner he would be affected if he was only one of the spectators of his own situation. As their sympathy makes them look at it, in some measure, with his eyes, so his sympathy makes him look at it, in some measure, with theirs, especially when in their presence and acting under their observation: and as the reflected passion, which he thus conceives, is much weaker than the original one, it necessarily abates the violence of what he felt before he came into their presence, before he began to recollect in what manner they would be affected by it, and to view his situation in this candid and impartial light. (TMS I.i.4.8)
Contrary to the description put forth by the Adam Smith Problem, sympathy cannot be either altruistic or egoistic because the agents are too intertwined. One is constantly making the leap from one point of view to another, and happiness and pleasure are dependant on joint perspectives. Individuals are only moral, and they only find their own happiness, from a shared standpoint. Egoism and altruism melt together for Smith to become a more nuanced and more social type of motivation that incorporates both self-interest and concern for others at the same time.
Typical of Smith, the lengthy paragraph cited above leads to at least two further qualifications. The first is that, as Smith puts it, "we expect less sympathy from a common acquaintance than from a friend... we expect still less sympathy from an assembly of strangers" (TMS I.1.4.10). Because sympathy requires information about events and people, the more distance we have from those around us, the more difficult it is for us to sympathize with their more passionate emotions (and vice versa). Thus, Smith argues, we are to be "more tranquil" in front of acquaintances and strangers; it is unseemly to be openly emotional around those who don't know us. This will lead, eventually, to Smith's discussion of duty in part III—his account of why we act morally towards those with whom we have no connection whatsoever.
The second qualification is more complex and revolves around the last phrase in the paragraph: that one must observe actions in a "candid and impartial light." If movement toward social norms were the only component to sympathy, Smith's theory would be a recipe for homogeneity alone. All sentiments would be modulated to an identical pitch and society would thereafter condemn only difference. Smith recognizes, therefore, that there must be instances in which individuals reject community judgment. They do so via the creation of an imagined impartial spectator.
b. The Impartial Spectator
Using the imagination, individuals who wish to judge their own actions create not just analogous emotions but an entire imaginary person who acts as observer and judge:
When I endeavour to examine my own conduct, when I endeavour to pass sentence upon it, and either to approve or condemn it, it is evident that, in all such cases, I divide myself, as it were, into two persons; and that I, the examiner and judge, represent a different character from that other I, the person whose conduct is examined into and judged of. The first is the spectator, whose sentiments with regard to my own conduct I endeavour to enter into, by placing myself in his situation, and by considering how it would appear to me, when seen from that particular point of view. The second is the agent, the person whom I properly call myself, and of whose conduct, under the character of a spectator, I was endeavouring to form some opinion. The first is the judge; the second the person judged of. But that the judge should, in every respect, be the same with the person judged of, is as impossible, as that the cause should, in every respect, be the same with the effect. (TMS III.1.6)
The impartial spectator is the anthropomorphization of the calm and disinterested self that can be recovered with self control and self reflection. In today's world, someone might advise us to "take a deep breath and step back" from a given situation in order to reflect on our actions more dispassionately. Smith is suggesting the same, although he is describing it in more detail and in conjunction with the larger ethical theory that helps us find conclusions once we do so. Individuals who wish to judge their own actions imaginatively split themselves into two different people and use this bifurcation as a substitute for community observation.
Here we see the legacy of Shaftesbury's soliloquy. An actor who wishes to gauge his or her own behavior has to divide him or herself in the way that Shaftesbury describes, in the way that Hamlet becomes both poet and philosopher. We are passionate about our own actions, and self-deception, according to Smith, is "the source of half the disorders of human life" (TMS III.4.6). Self-division gives individuals the ability to see themselves candidly and impartially and leads us to better self-knowledge. We strive to see ourselves the way others see us, but we do so while retaining access to the privileged personal information that others might not have. The community helps us see past our own biases, but when the community is limited by its own institutionalized bias or simply by lack of information, the impartial spectator can override this and allow an agent to find propriety in the face of a deformed moral system. In the contemporary world, racism and sexism are examples of insidious biases that prevent the community from "seeing" pain and injustice. Smith too can be read as recognizing these prejudices, although he would not have recognized either the terms or the complicated discourses about them that have evolved since he wrote two and a half centuries ago. For example, he cites slavery as an instance of the injustice and ignorance of a community. He writes:
There is not a Negro from the coast of Africa who does not, in this respect, possess a degree of magnanimity which the soul of his sordid master is too often scarce capable of conceiving. Fortune never exerted more cruelly her empire over mankind, than when she subjected those nations of heroes to the refuse of the jails of Europe, to wretches who possess the virtues neither of the countries which they come from, nor of those which they go to, and whose levity, brutality, and baseness, so justly expose them to the contempt of the vanquished. (TMS V.2.9)
Despite its corrective potential, impartiality has its limits. Smith does not imagine the impartial spectator to see from an Archimedean or God's eye point of view. Because the impartial spectator does not really exist—because it is created by an individual person's imagination—it is always subject to the limits of a person's knowledge. This means that judgment will always be imperfect and those moral mistakes that are so profoundly interwoven into society or a person's experience are the hardest to overcome. Change is slow and society is far from perfect. "Custom," as he calls it, interferes with social judgment on both the collective and the individual level. There are two points, according to Smith, when we judge our own actions, before and after we act. As he writes, "Our views are apt to be very partial in both cases; but they are apt to be most partial when it is of most importance that they should be otherwise" (TMS 111.4.2). Neither of these points is independent of social influence.
Knowledge is imperfect and individuals do the best they can. But all individuals are limited both by their own experiences and the natural inadequacies of the human mind. Smith's suggestion, then, is to have faith in the unfolding of nature, and in the principles that govern human activity—moral, social, economic, or otherwise. With this in mind, however, he cautions people against choosing the beauty of systems over the interest of people. Abstract philosophies and abstruse religions are not to take precedent over the evidence provided by experience, Smith argues. Additionally, social engineering is doomed to fail. Smith argues that one cannot move people around the way one moves pieces on a chess board. Each person has his or her "own principle of motion... different from that which the legislature might choose to impress upon" them (TMS VI.ii.2.18).
Smith's caution against the love of systems is a component of Smith's argument for limited government: "Harmony of minds," Smith argues, is not possible without "free communication of settlements and opinion," or, as we would call it today, freedom of expression (TMS VII.iv.27). It also offers a direct connection to Smith's most famous phrase "the invisible hand." In The Theory of Moral Sentiments, he uses the invisible hand to describe the conditions that allow for economic justice. This natural aesthetic love of systems leads people to manipulate the system of commerce, but this interferes with nature's plan:
The rich only select from the heap what is most precious and agreeable. They consume little more than the poor, and in spite of their natural selfishness and rapacity, though they mean only their own conveniency, though the sole end which they propose from the labours of all the thousands whom they employ, be the gratification of their own vain and insatiable desires, they divide with the poor the produce of all their improvements. They are led by an invisible hand to make nearly the same distribution of the necessaries of life, which would have been made, had the earth been divided into equal portions among all its inhabitants, and thus without intending it, without knowing it, advance the interest of the society, and afford means to the multiplication of the species. (TMS IV.1.10)
In this passage, Smith argues that "the capacity of [the rich person's] stomach bars no proportion to the immensity of his desires, and will receive no more than that of the meanest peasant" (TMS IV.1.10). Thus, because the rich only select "the best" and because they can only consume so much, there ought to be enough resources for everyone in the world, as if an invisible hand has divided the earth equally amongst all its inhabitants.
As an economic argument, this might have been more convincing in Smith's time, before refrigeration, the industrial revolution, modern banking practices, and mass accumulation of capital; for a more thorough defense (from Smith's point of view) see the discussion of The Wealth of Nations. However, its relevance to the history of economics is based upon his recognition of the role of unintended consequences, the presumption that economic growth helps all members of the society, and the recognition of the independence of the free market as a natural force. At present, we can focus on Smith's warnings about the power of aesthetic attraction. The Newtonian approach, Smith argues—the search for a coherent narrative without gaps that addresses surprise, wonder, and admiration—can lead people astray if they prioritize beauty over the evidence. This love of the beautiful can also deform moral judgments because it causes the masses to over-value the rich, to think the wealthy are happy with their "baubles and trinkets," and thus to pursue extreme wealth at the cost of moral goodness: "To attain to this envied situation, the candidates for fortune too frequently abandon the paths of virtue; for unhappily, the road which leads to the one and that which leads to the other, lie sometimes in very opposite directions" (TMS I.iii.8). Smith is very critical not only of the rich, but of the moral value society places on them. Only their wealth makes them different, and this love of wealth, and of beauty in general, can distort moral judgment and deform the impartial spectator.
The impartial spectator is a theory of conscience. It provides individuals with the opportunity to assent to their own standards of judgment, which, hopefully, are in general agreement with the standards of the society that houses them. Difference, as Smith discusses in both of his books, is the product of education, economic class, gender, what we would now call ethnic background, individual experience, and natural abilities; but Smith argues that the last of these, natural abilities, constitute the least of the factors. In his Lectures on Jurisprudence, for example, he argues that there is no "original difference" between individuals (LJ(A) vi.47-48), and in The Wealth of Nations, he writes that "The difference of natural talents in different men is, in reality, much less than we are aware of.... The difference between the most dissimilar characters, between a philosopher and a street porter, for example, seems to arise not so much from nature, as from habit, custom and education" (WN I.ii.4). Society and education, hopefully, help to bridge these gaps, and help to cultivate a unified community where people are encouraged to sympathize with others.
Here is the overlap in Smith's two operative questions. First, one encounters his account of moral psychology. (How does one come to know virtue?) Now one comes face to face with the identification of moral standards themselves. (Of what does virtue consist?) Smith may look like a relativist at times: individuals modulate their sentiments to their community standards, and agreement of individual imaginations may falsely seem to be the final arbiter of what is morally appropriate behavior. With this in mind, there are certainly readers who will argue that Smith, despite his rejection of Hobbes and Mandeville, ends up offering no universally binding moral principles. This, however, forgets Smith's Newtonian approach: observation leads to the discovery of natural principles that can be repeatedly tested and verified. Furthermore, many scholars argue that Smith was strongly influenced by the classical Stoics. In addition to inheriting their concern with the modulation of emotions and the repression of emotions in public, he also likely thought that moral laws are written into nature's design in just the same way that Newton's laws of motion are. As a result, some Smith scholars (but certainly not all) argue that Smith is a moral realist , that sympathy is a method of discovery rather than invention, and that what is to be discovered is correct independent of the opinions of those who either know or are ignorant of the rules.
Consistent with this interpretation, Smith emphasizes what he terms the general rules of morality:
...they are ultimately founded upon experience of what, in particular instances, our moral faculties, our natural sense of merit and propriety, approve, or disapprove of. We do not originally approve or condemn particular actions; because, upon examination, they appear to be agreeable or inconsistent with a certain general rule. The general rule, on the contrary, is formed, by finding from experience, that all actions of a certain kind, or circumstanced in a certain manner, are approved or disapproved of. To the man who first saw an inhuman murder, committed from avarice, envy, or unjust resentment, and upon one too that loved and trusted the murderer, who beheld the last agonies of the dying person, who heard him, with his expiring breath, complain more of the perfidy and ingratitude of his false friend, than of the violence which had been done to him, there could be no occasion, in order to conceive how horrible such an action was, that he should reflect, that one of the most sacred rules of conduct was what prohibited the taking away the life of an innocent person, that this was a plain violation of that rule, and consequently a very blamable action. His detestation of this crime, it is evident, would arise instantaneously and antecedent to his having formed to himself any such general rule. The general rule, on the contrary, which he might afterwards form, would be founded upon the detestation which he felt necessarily arise in his own breast, at the thought of this, and every other particular action of the same kind. (TMS III.4.8)
According to Smith, our sentiments give rise to approval or condemnation of a moral act. These can be modified over time with additional information. Eventually, though, spectators, see patterns in the condemnation. They see, for example, that murder is always wrong, and therefore derive a sense that this is a general rule. They begin, then, to act on the principle rather than on the sentiment. They do not murder, not simply because they detest murder, but because murder is wrong in itself. This, again, is Aristotelian in that it recognizes the interaction between intellectual and moral virtue. It also shares commonalities with the Kantian deontology that became so influential several decades after the publication of TMS. Like Kant, Smith's agents begin to act on principle rather than emotion. Unlike Kant, however, reason in itself does not justify or validate the principle, experience does.
Smith does several things in the last excerpt. First, he embraces the Newtonian process of scientific experimentation and explanation. Moral rules are akin to the laws of physics; they can be discovered. Second, Smith anticipates Karl Popper's twentieth-century claim that scientific truths are established through a process of falsification: we cannot prove what is true, Popper argued. Instead, we discover what is false and rule it out.
c. Virtues, Duty, and Justice
Smith emphasizes a number of virtues along with duty and justice. Self-command, he argues "is not only itself a great virtue, but from it all the other virtues seem to derive their principle lustre" (TMS VI.iii.11). This should not be surprising since, for Smith, it is only through self-command that agents can modulate their sentiments to the pitch required either by the community or the impartial spectator. Self-command is necessary because "the disposition to anger, hatred, envy, malice, [and] revenge... drive men from one another," while "humanity, kindness, natural affection, friendship, [and] esteem... tend to unite men in society" (TMS VI.iii.15). One can see, then, the normative content of Smith's virtues—those sentiments that are to be cultivated and those that are to be minimized. According to Smith, humans have a natural love for society and can develop neither moral nor aesthetic standards in isolation.
Individuals have a natural desire not only be to be loved, but to be worthy of love: "He desires not only praise, but praiseworthiness,... he dreads not only blame, but blame-worthiness" (TMS III.2.2). This speaks first to the power of the impartial spectator who is a guide to worth when no spectators are around. It also speaks to Smith's conception of duty, in that it sets a standard of right action independent of what communities set forth. Individuals "derive no satisfaction" from unworthy praise (TMS III.2.5), and doing so is an indication of the perversion of vanity than can be corrected by seeing ourselves the way others would, if they knew the whole story.
It should not be surprising that Smith addresses God amidst his discussion of duty:
The all-wise Author of Nature has, in this manner, taught man to respect the sentiments and judgments of his brethren; to be more or less pleased when they approve of his conduct, and to be more or less hurt when they disapprove of it. He has made man, if I may say so, the immediate judge of mankind; and has, in this respect, as in many others, created him after his own image, and appointed him his vicegerent upon earth, to superintend the behaviour of his brethren. They are taught by nature, to acknowledge that power and jurisdiction which has thus been conferred upon him, to be more or less humbled and mortified when they have incurred his censure, and to be more or less elated when they have obtained his applause. (TMS III.2.31)
Here Smith makes several points. First, like many of the Scots, as well as Thomas Jefferson and many of the American founders, Smith was a deist. While there is controversy amongst scholars about the extent to which God is necessary to Smith's theory, it is likely that he believed that God designed the universe and its rules, and then stepped back as it unfolded. Smith's God is not an interventionist God and, despite some readers suggesting the contrary, the invisible hand is not an indication of God's involvement in creation. It is, instead, just the unfolding of sociological and economic principles. Second, because God is detached from the system, Smith argues that human beings are God's regents on earth. It is up to them to be the judges of their own behavior. Individuals are necessarily most concerned with themselves first, and are therefore best self-governed. Only then can they judge others via the moral system Smith describes. While it is true that, as Smith puts it, the general rules are "justly regarded as the laws of the deity" (TMS III.v), this seems to be a point of motivation, not of metaphysical assertion. If individuals understand the general rules as stemming from God, then they will follow them with more certainty and conviction. "The terrors of religion should thus enforce the natural sense of duty" (TMS III.5.7), Smith writes, because it inspires people to follow the general rules even if they are inclined not to do so, and because this support makes religion compatible with social and political life. Religious fanaticism, as Smith points out in The Wealth of Nations, is one of the great causes of factionalism—the great enemy of political society.
For Smith, the most precise virtue is justice. It is "the main pillar that upholds the whole edifice" of society (TMS III.ii.4). It is, as he describes it, "a negative virtue" and the minimal condition for participation in the community. Obeying the rules of justice, therefore, result in little praise, but breaking them inspires great condemnation:
There is, no doubt, a propriety in the practice of justice, and it merits, upon that account, all the approbation which is due to propriety. But as it does no real positive good, it is entitled to very little gratitude. Mere justice is, upon most occasions, but a negative virtue, and only hinders us from hurting our neighbour. The man who barely abstains from violating either the person, or the estate, or the reputation of his neighbours, has surely very little positive merit. He fulfils, however, all the rules of what is peculiarly called justice, and does every thing which his equals can with propriety force him to do, or which they can punish him for not doing. We may often fulfil all the rules of justice by sitting still and doing nothing. (TMS II.ii.1.9)
Smith's account of justice assumes that individual rights and safety are core concerns. He writes:
The most sacred laws of justice, therefore, those whose violation seems to call loudest for vengeance and punishment, are the laws which guard the life and person of our neighbour; the next are those which guard his property and possessions; and last of all come those which guard what are called his personal rights, or what is due to him from the promises of others. (TMS II.ii.2.3)
His discussion of justice is supplemented in The Wealth of Nations and would have likely been added to in his proposed work on "the general principles of law and government" that he never completed. His lectures on jurisprudence give one a hint as to what might have been in that work, but one must assume that the manuscript was part of the collection of works burnt upon his death. (It is not even known what was actually destroyed, let alone what the works argued.) It is frustrating for Smith's readers to have such gaps in his theory, and Smith scholars have debated the possible content of his other work and the way it relates to his first book. It is clear, though, that The Theory of Moral Sentiments is only one part of Smith's larger system, and one truly understands it only in light of his other writing. It is therefore necessary to switch the discussion from his work on moral philosophy to his political economy. As will be evident, this break is not a radical one. The two books are entirely compatible with one another and reading one supplements reading the other; both contain moral claims and both make assertions classified as political economy. While their emphases are different much of the time—they are two different books after all—their basic points are more than just harmonious. They depend upon one another for justification.
3. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations
a. Wealth and Trade
The Wealth of Nations (WN) was published in March of 1776, four months before the signing of the American Declaration of Independence. It is a much larger book than The Theory of Moral Sentiments—not counting appendices and indices, it runs 947 pages. To the first time reader, therefore, it may seem more daunting than Smith's earlier work, but in many ways, it is actually a simpler read. As he grew older, Smith's writing style became more efficient and less flowery, but his authorial voice remained conversational. His terms are more strictly defined in WN than in TMS, and he clearly identifies those positions he supports and rejects. His economic discussions are not as layered as his comments on morality, so the interpretive issues are often less complex. The logic of the book is transparent: its organizational scheme is self-explanatory, and its conclusions are meticulously supported with both philosophical argument and economic data. There are many who challenge its assertions, of course, but it is hard to deny that Smith's positions in WN are defensible even if, in the end, some may conclude that he is wrong.
The text is divided into five "books" published in one, two, or three bound volumes depending on the edition. The first books outline the importance of the division of labor and of self-interest. The second discusses the role of stock and capital. The third provides an historical account of the rise of wealth from primitive times up until commercial society. The fourth discusses the economic growth that derives from the interaction between urban and rural sectors of a commercial society. The fifth and final book presents the role of the sovereign in a market economy, emphasizing the nature and limits of governmental powers and the means by which political institutions are to be paid for. Smith, along with his Scottish Enlightenment contemporaries, juxtaposes different time periods in order to find normative guidance. As TMS does, The Wealth of Nations contains a philosophy of history that trusts nature to reveal its logic and purpose.
This is a remarkable scope, even for a book of its size. Smith's achievement, however, is not simply the multitude of his discussions, but how he makes it all fit together. His most impressive accomplishment in The Wealth of Nations is the presentation of a system of political economy. Smith makes seemingly disparate elements interdependent and consistent. He manages to take his Newtonian approach and create a narrative of both power and beauty, addressing the philosophical along with the economic, describing human behavior and history, and prescribing the best action for economic and political betterment. And, he does so building on a first principle that was at least as controversial as the sentence that began The Theory of Moral Sentiments. He begins the introduction by asserting:
The annual labour of every nation is the fund which originally supplies it with all the necessaries and conveniencies of life which it annually consumes, and which consist always either in the immediate produce of that labour, or in what is purchased with that produce from other nations. (WN intro.1)
The dominant economic theory of Smith's time was mercantilism. It held that the wealth of a nation was to be assessed by the amount of money and goods within its borders at any given time. Smith calls this "stock." Mercantilists sought to restrict trade because this increased the assets within the borders which, in turn, were thought to increase wealth. Smith opposed this, and the sentence cited above shifted the definition of national wealth to a different standard: labor.
The main point of The Wealth of Nations is to offer an alternative to mercantilism. Labor brings wealth, Smith argues. The more one labors the more one earns. This supplies individuals and the community with their necessities, and, with enough money, it offers the means to make life more convenient and sometimes to pursue additional revenue. Free trade, Smith argues, rather than diminishing the wealth of the nation, increases it because it provides more occasion for labor and therefore more occasion to create more wealth. Limited trade keeps the amount of wealth within the borders relatively constant, but the more trade a country engages in, the wider the market becomes and the more potential there is for additional labor and, in turn, additional wealth. This point leads Smith to divide stock into two parts, that which is used for immediate consumption—the assets that allow a person to acquire necessities—and that which is used to earn additional revenue. This latter sum he calls "capital" (WN II.1.2), and the term "capitalism" (which, again, Smith does not use) is derived from its use in a commercial system: capital is specifically earmarked for reinvestment and is therefore a major economic engine.
This is, of course, a philosophical point as much as an economic one: Smith asks his readers to reconsider the meaning of wealth itself. Is wealth the money and assets that one has at any given time, or is it these things combined with the potential to have more, to adjust to circumstances, and to cultivate the skills to increase such potential? Smith thinks it is the latter. Smith is also concerned specifically with the distinction between necessities and conveniences. His overarching concern in The Wealth of Nations is the creation of "universal opulence which extends itself to the lowest ranks of the people" (WN I.i.10). In other words, Smith believes that a commercial system betters the lives for the worst off in society; all individuals should have the necessities needed to live reasonably well. He is less concerned with "conveniences" and "luxuries;" he does not argue for an economically egalitarian system. Instead, he argues for a commercial system that increases both the general wealth and the particular wealth of the poorest members. He writes:
Is this improvement in the circumstances of the lower ranks of the people to be regarded as an advantage or as an inconveniency to the society? The answer seems at first sight abundantly plain. Servants, labourers and workmen of different kinds, make up the far greater part of every great political society. But what improves the circumstances of the greater part can never be regarded as an inconveniency to the whole. No society can surely be flourishing and happy, of which the far greater part of the members are poor and miserable. It is but equity, besides, that they who feed, cloath and lodge the whole body of the people, should have such a share of the produce of their own labour as to be themselves tolerably well fed, cloathed and lodged. (WN I.viii.36)
Smith argues that the key to the betterment of the masses is an increase in labor, productivity, and workforce. There are two main factors that influence this: "the skill, dexterity, and judgment with which its labour is generally applied," and "the proportion between the number of those who are employed in useful labour, and that of those who are not" (WN intro.3).
Smith repeats the phrase "skill, dexterity and judgment" in the first paragraph of the body of the book, using it to segue into a discussion of manufacture. Famously, he uses the division of labor to illustrate the efficiency of workers working on complementary specific and narrow tasks. Considering the pin-maker, he suggests that a person who was required to make pins by him or herself could hardly make one pin per day, but if the process were divided into a different task for different people—"one man draws out the wire, another straights it, a third cuts it, a fourth points it, a fifth grinds it at the top for receiving the head; to make the head requires two or three distinct operations; to put it on, is a peculiar business, to whiten the pins is another"—then the factory could make approximately forty-eight thousand pins per day (WN I.i.3).
The increase in efficiency is also an increase in skill and dexterity, and brings with it a clarion call for the importance of specialization in the market. The more focused a worker is on a particular task the more likely they are to create innovation. He offers the following example:
In the first fire-engines, a boy was constantly employed to open and shut alternately the communication between the boiler and the cylinder, according as the piston either ascended or descended. One of those boys, who loved to play with his companions, observed that, by tying a string from the handle of the valve which opened this communication, to another part of the machine, the valve would open and shut without his assistance, and leave him at liberty to divert himself with his play-fellows. One of the greatest improvements that has been made upon this machine, since it was first invented, was in this manner the discovery of a boy who wanted to save his own labour. (WN I.i.8)
This example of a boy looking to ease his work day, illustrates two separate points. The first is the discussion at hand, the importance of specialization. In a commercial society, Smith argues, narrow employment becomes the norm: "Each individual becomes more expert in his own peculiar branch, more work is done upon the whole, and the quantity of science is considerably increased by it" (WN I.i.9). However, the more important point—certainly the more revolutionary one—is the role of self-interest in economic life. A free market harnesses personal desires for the betterment not of individuals but of the community.
Echoing but tempering Mandeville's claim about private vices becoming public benefits, Smith illustrates that personal needs are complementary and not mutually exclusive. Human beings, by nature, have a "propensity to truck, barter, and exchange one thing for another" (WN I.ii.1). This tendency, which Smith suggests may be one of the "original principles in human nature," is common to all people and drives commercial society forward. In an oft-cited comment, Smith observes,
It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker, that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own self-interest. We address ourselves, not to their humanity but to their self-love, and never talk to them of our own necessities but of their advantages. (WN I.ii.2)
Philosophically, this is a tectonic shift in moral prescription. Dominant Christian beliefs had assumed that any self-interested action was sinful and shameful; the ideal person was entirely focused on the needs of others. Smith's commercial society assumes something different. It accepts that the person who focuses on his or her own needs actually contributes to the public good and that, as a result, such self-interest should be cultivated.
Smith is not a proponent of what would today be called rampant consumerism. He is critical of the rich in both of his books. Instead, his argument is one that modern advocates of globalization and free trade will find familiar: when individuals purchase a product, they help more people than they attempted to do so through charity. He writes:
Observe the accommodation of the most common artificer or day-labourer in a civilized and thriving country, and you will perceive that the number of people of whose industry a part, though but a small part, has been employed in procuring him this accommodation, exceeds all computation. The woollen coat, for example, which covers the day-labourer, as coarse and rough as it may appear, is the produce of the joint labour of a great multitude of workmen. The shepherd, the sorter of the wool, the wool-comber or carder, the dyer, the scribbler, the spinner, the weaver, the fuller, the dresser, with many others, must all join their different arts in order to complete even this homely production. How many merchants and carriers, besides, must have been employed in transporting the materials from some of those workmen to others who often live in a very distant part of the country! how much commerce and navigation in particular, how many ship-builders, sailors, sail-makers, rope-makers, must have been employed in order to bring together the different drugs made use of by the dyer, which often come from the remotest corners of the world! What a variety of labour too is necessary in order to produce the tools of the meanest of those workmen! To say nothing of such complicated machines as the ship of the sailor, the mill of the fuller, or even the loom of the weaver, let us consider only what a variety of labour is requisite in order to form that very simple machine, the shears with which the shepherd clips the wool. The miner, the builder of the furnace for smelting the ore, the feller of the timber, the burner of the charcoal to be made use of in the smelting-house, the brick-maker, the brick-layer, the workmen who attend the furnace, the mill-wright, the forger, the smith, must all of them join their different arts in order to produce them. Were we to examine, in the same manner, all the different parts of his dress and household furniture, the coarse linen shirt which he wears next his skin, the shoes which cover his feet, the bed which he lies on, and all the different parts which compose it, the kitchen-grate at which he prepares his victuals, the coals which he makes use of for that purpose, dug from the bowels of the earth, and brought to him perhaps by a long sea and a long land carriage, all the other utensils of his kitchen, all the furniture of his table, the knives and forks, the earthen or pewter plates upon which he serves up and divides his victuals, the different hands employed in preparing his bread and his beer, the glass window which lets in the heat and the light, and keeps out the wind and the rain, with all the knowledge and art requisite for preparing that beautiful and happy invention, without which these northern parts of the world could scarce have afforded a very comfortable habitation, together with the tools of all the different workmen employed in producing those different conveniencies; if we examine, I say, all these things, and consider what a variety of labour is employed about each of them, we shall be sensible that without the assistance and co-operation of many thousands, the very meanest person in a civilized country could not be provided, even according to what we very falsely imagine, the easy and simple manner in which he is commonly accommodated. Compared, indeed, with the more extravagant luxury of the great, his accommodation must no doubt appear extremely simple and easy; and yet it may be true, perhaps, that the accommodation of an European prince does not always so much exceed that of an industrious and frugal peasant, as the accommodation of the latter exceeds that of many an African king, the absolute master of the lives and liberties of ten thousand naked savages. (WN I.i.11)
The length of this excerpt is part of its argumentative power. Smith is not suggesting, simply, that a single purchase benefits a group of people. Instead, he is arguing that once you take seriously the multitude of people whose income is connected to the purchase of the single coat, it is hard to even grasp the numbers we are considering. A single purchase brings with it a vast network of laborers. Furthermore, he argues, while one may be critical of the inevitable class difference of a commercial society, the differential is almost inconsequential compared to the disparity between the "haves" and "have-nots" in a feudal or even the most primitive societies. (Smith's reference to "a thousand naked savages" is just thoughtless eighteenth century racism and can be chalked-up to the rhetoric of the time. It ought to be disregarded and has no impact on the argument itself.) It is the effect of one minor purchase on the community of economic agents that allows Smith to claim, as he does in TMS, that the goods of the world are divided equally as if by an invisible hand. For Smith, the wealthy can purchase nothing without benefiting the poor.
According to The Wealth of Nations, the power of the woolen coat is the power of the market at work, and its reach extends to national economic policy as well as personal economic behavior. Smith's comments relate to his condemnation of social engineering in The Theory of Moral Sentiments, and he uses the same metaphor—the invisible hand—to condemn those mercantilists who think that by manipulating the market, they can improve the lot of individual groups of people.
But the annual revenue of every society is always precisely equal to the exchangeable value of the whole annual produce of its industry, or rather is precisely the same thing with that exchangeable value. As every individual, therefore, endeavours as much as he can both to employ his capital in the support of domestic industry, and so to direct that industry that its produce may be of the greatest value; every individual necessarily labours to render the annual revenue of the society as great as he can. He generally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry, he intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention. Nor is it always the worse for the society that it was no part of it. By pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it. I have never known much good done by those who affected to trade for the public good. It is an affectation, indeed, not very common among merchants, and very few words need be employed in dissuading them from it. (WN IV.2.9)
Smith begins his comments here with a restatement of the main point of The Wealth of Nations: "...the annual revenue of every society is always precisely equal to the exchangeable value of the whole annual produce of its industry, or rather is precisely the same thing with that exchangeable value." The income of any community is its labor. Smith's remarks about the invisible hand suggest that one can do more damage by trying to manipulate the system than by trusting it to work. This is the moral power of unintended consequences, as TMS's account of the invisible hand makes clear as well.
What Smith relies upon here is not " moral luck " as Bernard Williams will later call it, but, rather, that nature is logical because it operates on principles, and, therefore, certain outcomes can be predicted. Smith recognizes that human beings and their interactions are part of nature and not to be understood separately from it. As in The Theory of Moral Sentiments, social and political behavior follows a natural logic. Now Smith makes the same claim for economic acts. Human society is as natural as the people in it, and, as such, Smith rejects the notion of a social contract in both of his books. There was never a time that humanity lived outside of society, and political development is the product of evolution (not his term) rather than a radical shift in organization. The state of nature is society for Smith and the Scots, and, therefore, the rules that govern the system necessitate certain outcomes.
b. History and Labor
Smith's account of history describes human civilization as moving through four different stages, time periods that contain nations of hunters, nations of shepherds, agricultural nations, and, finally commercial societies (WN V.i.a, see, also, LJ(A) i.27; see also LJ(B) 25, 27, 149, 233). This is progress, Smith insists, and each form of society is superior to the previous one. It is also natural. This is how the system is designed to operate; history has a logic to it. Obviously, this account, in fact all of The Wealth of Nations, was very influential for Karl Marx. It marks the important beginning of what would be called social science—Smith's successor to the Chair of Moral Philosophy, Adam Ferguson, is often identified as the founder of modern sociology—and is representative of the project the Scottish Enlightenment thinkers referred to as "the science of man."
Smith's discussion of history illustrates two other important points. First, he argues that the primary economic tension, and, as a result, the primary economic engine, in any given society can be found in the interaction between "the inhabitants of the town and those of the country" (WN III.i.1). According to Smith, agricultural lands supply the means of sustenance for any given society and urban populations provide the means of manufacture. Urban areas refine and advance the means of production and return some of its produce to rural people. In each of the stages, the town and country have a different relationship with each other, but they always interact.
Here, Smith is indebted to the physiocrats, French economists who believed that agricultural labor was the primary measure of national wealth. Smith accepted their notion that productive labor was a component of the wealth of nations but rejected their notion that only agricultural labor should be counted as value. He argues, instead, that if one group had to be regarded as more important, it would be the country since it provides food for the masses, but that it would be a mistake to regard one's gain as the other's loss or that their relationship is essentially hierarchical: "the gains of both are mutual and reciprocal, and the division of labour is in this, as in all other cases, advantageous to all the different persons employed in the various occupations into which it is subdivided" (WN III.i.1).
Again, there are philosophical issues here. First, is what one is to regard as labor; second is what counts towards economic value. Additionally, Smith is showing how the division of labor works on a large scale; it is not just for pin factories. Rather, different populations can be dedicated to different tasks for everyone's benefit. (This might be an anticipation of David Ricardo's notion of "comparative advantage.") A commercial system is an integrated one and the invisible hand ensures that what benefits one group can also benefit another. Again, the butcher, brewer, and baker gain their livelihood by manufacturing the lunch of their customers.
Returning to Smith's account of history, Smith also argues that historical moments and their economic arrangements help determine the form of government. As the economic stage changes, so does the form of government. Economics and politics are intertwined, Smith observes, and a feudal system could not have a republican government as is found in commercial societies. What Smith does here, again, is anticipate Marx's dialectical materialism, showing how history influences economic and political options, but, of course, he does not take it nearly as far as the German does close to a century later.
Given the diversity of human experience—WN's stage theory of history helps account for difference—Smith is motivated to seek unifying standards that can help translate economic value between circumstances. Two examples are his discussions of price and his paradox of value. Within these discussions, Smith seeks an adequate measure of "worth" for goods and services. Consumers look at prices to gauge value, but there are good and bad amounts; which is which is not always transparent. Some items are marked too expensive for their actual value and some are a bargain. In developing a system to account for this interaction, Smith offers a range of different types of prices, but the two most important are natural price—the price that covers all the necessary costs of manufacture—and the market price, what a commodity actually goes for on the market. When the market and the natural prices are identical, the market is functioning well: "the natural price, therefore, is, as it were, the central price to which the prices of all commodities are continually gravitating" (WN I.vii.15).
Here, the term "gravitating" indicates, yet again, that there are principles that guide the economic system, and a properly functioning marketplace—one in which individuals are in "perfect liberty"—will have the natural and market prices coincide (WN i.vii.30). (Smith defines perfect liberty as a condition under which a person "may change his trade as often as he pleases" (WN I.vii.6)). Whether this is a normative value, whether for Smith the natural price is better than other prices, and whether the market price of a commodity should be in alignment with the natural price, is a matter of debate.
Following the question of worth, Smith poses the paradox of value. He explains: "Nothing is more useful than water: but it will purchase scarce any thing; scarce anything can be had in exchange for it. A diamond, on the contrary, has scarce any value in use; but a very great quantity of other goods may frequently be had in exchange for it" (WN I.iv.13). Smith's question is straightforward: why is water so much cheaper than diamonds when it is so much more important for everyday life?
Obviously, we are tempted to argue that scarcity plays a role in the solution to this paradox; water is more valuable than diamonds to a person dying of thirst. For Smith, however, value, here, is general utility and it seems problematic to Smith that the more useful commodity has the lower market price. His solution, then, is to distinguish between two types of value, "value in use" and "value in exchange"—the former is the commodity's utility and the latter is what it can be exchanged for in the market. Dividing the two analytically allows consumers to evaluate the goods both in terms of scarcity and in terms of usefulness. However, Smith is also searching for a normative or objective core in a fluctuating and contextual system, as with the role of impartiality in his moral system. Scarcity would not solve this problem because that, too, is fluctuating; usefulness is largely subjective and depends on an individual's priorities and circumstance. Smith seeks a more universal criterion and looks towards labor to anchor his notion of value: "labour," he writes, "is the real measure of the exchangeable value of all commodities" (WN I.v).
What Smith means by this is unclear and a matter of controversy. What seems likely, though, is that one person's labor in any given society is not significantly different from another person's. Human capabilities do not change radically from one time period or location to another, and their labor, therefore, can be compared: "the difference of natural talents in different men is, in reality, much less than we are aware of." He elaborates:
Labour, therefore, it appears evidently, is the only universal, as well as the only accurate measure of value, or the only standard by which we can compare the values of different commodities at all times and at all places. We cannot estimate, it is allowed, the real value of different commodities from century to century by the quantities of silver which were given for them. We cannot estimate it from year to year by the quantities of corn. By the quantities of labour we can, with the greatest accuracy, estimate it both from century to century and from year to year. From century to century, corn is a better measure than silver, because, from century to century, equal quantities of corn will command the same quantity of labour more nearly than equal quantities of silver. From year to year, on the contrary, silver is a better measure than corn, because equal quantities of it will more nearly command the same quantity of labour. (WN I.v.17)
In other words, for example, a lone person can only lift so much wheat at one go, and while some people are stronger than others, the differences between them don't make that much difference. Therefore, Smith seems to believe, the value of any object can be universally measured by the amount of labor that any person in any society might have to exert in order to acquire that object. While this is not necessarily a satisfying standard to all—many economists argue that the labor theory of value has been surpassed—it does, again, root Smith's objectivity in impartiality. The "any person" quality of the impartial spectator is analogous to the "any laborer" standard Smith seems to use as a value measure.
Ultimately, according to Smith, a properly functioning market is one in which all these conditions—price, value, progress, efficiency, specialization, and universal opulence (wealth)—all work together to provide economic agents with a means to exchange accurately and freely as their self-interest motivates them. None of these conditions can be met if the government does not act appropriately, or if it oversteps its justified boundaries.
c. Political Economy
The Wealth of Nations is a work of political economy. It is concerned with much more than the mechanisms of exchange. It is also concerned with the ideal form of government for commercial advancement and the pursuit of self-interest. This is where Smith's reputation as a laissez faire theorist comes in. He is arguing for a system, as he calls it, of "natural liberty," one in which the market largely governs itself as is free from excessive state intervention (recall Smith's use of the invisible hand in TMS). As he explains, there are only three proper roles for the sovereign: to protect a society from invasion by outside forces, to enforce justice and protect citizens from one another, and "thirdly, the duty of erecting and maintaining certain publick works and certain publick institutions, which it can never be for the interest of any individual, or small number of individuals, to erect and maintain; because the profit could never repay the expence to any individual or small number of individuals, though it may frequently do much more than repay it to a great society" (WN IV.ix).
Each of the responsibilities of the sovereign contains its own controversies. Regarding the first, protecting society, Smith debated with others as to whether a citizen militia or a standing army was better suited for the job, rooting his discussion, as usual, in a detailed history of the military in different stages of society (WN V.1.a). Given the nature of specialization, it should not be surprising that Smith favored the army (WN V.1.a.28). The nature of justice—the second role of the sovereign—is also complicated, and Smith never fully articulated his theory of what justice is and how it ought to be maintained, although, as we have seen, he was liberal in his assumptions of the rights of individuals against the imposition of government on matters of conscience and debate. In his chapter on "the expence of justice" (WN V.i.b), he discusses the nature of human subordination and why human beings like to impose themselves on one another. However, it is the third role of the sovereign—the maintenance of works that are too expensive for individuals to erect and maintain, or what are called "natural monopolies"—that is the most controversial.
It is this last book—ostensibly about the expenditures of government—that shows most clearly what Smith had in mind politically; the government plays a much stronger role in society than is often asserted. In particular, book five addresses the importance of universal education and social unity. Smith calls for religious tolerance and social regulation against extremism. For Smith, religion is an exceptionally fractious force in society because individuals tend to regard theological leaders as having more authority than political ones. This leads to fragmentation and social discord.
The discussion of "public goods" includes an elaborate discussion of toll roads, which, on the face of it, may seem to be a boring topic, but actually includes a fascinating account of why tolls should be based on the value of transported goods rather than on weight. This is Smith's attempt to protect the poor—expensive goods are usually lighter than cheaper goods—think of diamonds compared to water—and if weight were the standard for tolls, justified, perhaps, by the wear and tear that the heavier goods cause, the poor would carry an undue share of transportation costs (WN V.i.d). However, the most intriguing sections of Book Five contain his two discussions of education (WN V.i.f–V.i.g). The first articulates the role of education for youth and the second describes the role of education for "people of all ages."
The government has no small interest in maintaining schools to teach basic knowledge and skills to young people. While some of the expense is born by parents, much of this is to be paid for by society as a whole (WN V.i.f.54-55). The government also has a duty to educate adults, both to help counter superstition and to remedy the effects of the division of labor. Regarding the first, an educated population is more resistant to the claims of extremist religions. Smith also advocates public scrutiny of religious assertions in an attempt to moderate their practices. This, of course, echoes Smith's moral theory in which the impartial spectator moderates the more extreme sentiments of moral agents. Finally, Smith insists that those who govern abandon associations with religious sects so that their loyalties do not conflict.
Regarding the second purpose of education for all ages, and again, anticipating Marx, Smith recognizes that the division of labor is destructive towards an individual's intellect. Without education, "the torpor" (inactivity) of the worker's mind:
renders him, not only incapable of relishing or bearing a part in any rational conversation, but of conceiving any generous, noble, or tender sentiment, and consequently of forming any just judgment concerning many even of the ordinary duties of private life. Of the great and extensive interests of his country, he is altogether incapable of judging; and unless very particular pains have been taken to render him otherwise, he is equally incapable of defending his country in war.... His dexterity at his own particular trade seems, in this manner, to be acquired at the expence of his intellectual, social, and martial virtues. But in every improved and civilized society this is the state into which the labouring poor, that is, the great body of the people, must necessarily fall, unless government takes some pains to prevent it. (WN V.i.f.50)
Education helps individuals overcome the monotony of day to day life. It helps them be better citizens, better soldiers, and more moral people; the intellect and the imagination are essential to moral judgment. No person can accurately sympathize if his or her mind is vacant and unskilled.
We see here that Smith is concerned about the poor throughout The Wealth of Nations. We also see the connections between his moral theory and his political economy. It is impossible to truly understand why Smith makes the political claims he does without connecting them to his moral claims, and vice versa. His call for universal wealth or opulence and his justification of limited government are themselves moral arguments as much as they are economic ones. This is why the Adam Smith Problem doesn't make sense and why contemporary Smith scholars are so focused on showing the systematic elements of Smith's philosophy. Without seeing how each of the parts fit together, one loses the power behind his reasoning—reasoning that inspired as much change as any other work in the history of the Western tradition. Of course, Smith has his detractors and his critics. He is making claims and building on assumptions that many challenge. But Smith has his defenders too, and, as history bears out, Smith is still an important voice in the investigation of how society ought to be organized and what principles govern human behavior, inquiry, and morality. The late twentieth century revival in Smith's studies underscores that Smith's philosophy may be as important now as it ever was.
4. References and Further Reading
All references are to The Glasgow Edition of the Correspondence and Works of Adam Smith, the definitive edition of his works. Online versions of much of these can be found at The Library of Economics and Liberty.
a. Work by Smith
[TMS] Theory of Moral Sentiments. Ed. A.L. Macfie and D.D. Raphael. Indianapolis: Liberty Press, 1982.
First published in 1759; subsequent editions in 1761 (significantly revised), 1767, 1774, 1781, and 1790 (significantly revised with entirely new section).
[WN] An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. 2 vols. Ed. R.H. Campbell and A.S. Skinner. Indianapolis: Liberty Press, 1976.
First published in 1776; subsequent editions in 1778, 1784 (significantly revised), 1786, 1789.
[LJ] Lectures on Jurisprudence. Ed. R.L. Meek and D.D. Raphael. Indianapolis: Liberty Press, 1982.
Contains two sets of lectures, LJ(A), dated 1762–3 and LJ(B) dated 1766.
[LRBL] The Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres. Ed. J.C. Bryce. Indianapolis: Liberty Press, 1985.
Edition also contains the fragment: "Considerations Concerning the First Formation of Languages" in LRBL. Lecture dates, 1762–1763.
[EPS] Essays on Philosophical Subjects. Ed. W.P.D. Wightman and J.C. Bryce. Indianapolis: Liberty Press, 1982.
Contains the essays and fragments: "The Principles Which Lead and Direct Philosophical Enquires Illustrated by the History of Astronomy," "The Principles Which Lead and Direct Philosophical Enquires Illustrated by the History of Ancient Physics," "ThePrinciples which lead and direct Philosophical Enquiries Illustrated by the History of the Ancient Logics and Metaphysics," "Of the External Senses," "Of the Nature of that Imitation which takes place in what are called The Imitative Arts," "Of the Affinity between Music, Dancing, and Poetry," "Of the Affinity between certain English and Italian Verses," Contributions to the Edinburgh Review of 1755-56, Review of Johnson's Dictionary, A Letter to the Authors of the Edinburgh Review, Preface and Dedication to William Hamilton's Poems on Several Occasions 261 and Dugald Stewart's "Account of the Life and Writings of Adam Smith, LL.D." First published in 1795.
[Corr.] Correspondence of Adam Smith. Ed. E.C. Mossner and I.S. Ross. Indianapolis: Liberty Press, 1987.
b. Companion Volumes to the Glasgow Edition
Index to the Works of Adam Smith. Ed K. Haakonssen and A.S. Skinner. Indianapolis,: Liberty Press, 2002.
Essays on Adam Smith. Edited by A.S. Skinner and Thomas Wilson. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976.
Life of Adam Smith. I.S. Ross. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.
c. Introductions and Works for a General Audience
Berry, Christopher J. The Social Theory of the Scottish Enlightenment. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1997.
Fleischacker, Samuel. On Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004.
Haakonssen, K. (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Adam Smith. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
Muller, Jerry Z. Adam Smith in His Time and Ours. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993.
Otteson, James R. Adam Smith: Selected Philosophical Writings (Library of Scottish Philosophy). Exeter: Imprint Academic, 2004.
Weinstein, Jack Russell. On Adam Smith. Belmont: Wadsworth, 2001.
Raphael, D.D. Adam Smith (Past Masters). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986.
d. Recommended Books for Specialists
Any issue of the journal The Adam Smith Review will be of interest to Smith's readers. Volume 2 (2007) has a special symposium on Smith's notion of rational choice (economic deliberation), and Volume 3 (2008) will have a special symposium on Smith and education. Both may deserve special attention.
Campbell, T.D. Adam Smith's Science of Morals. New Jersey: Rowman and Littlefield, 1971.
Cropsey, Joseph. Polity and Economy: An Interpretation of the Principles of Adam Smith (With Further Thoughts on the Principles of Adam Smith) (Revised Edition). Chicago: St. Augustine's Press, 2001.
Evensky, J. Adam Smith's Moral Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
Force, Pierre. Self-interest before Adam Smith. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Griswold, Charles L. Jr. Adam Smith and the Virtues of Enlightenment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
Haakonssen, Knud (ed.). Adam Smith (The International Library of Critical Essays in the History of Philosophy. Aldershot: Ashgate/Dartmouth Publishing, 1998.
Haakonssen, Knud. The Science of A Legislator. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981.
Montes, Leonidas. Adam Smith in Context. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2004.
Otteson, James. Adam Smith's Marketplace of Life. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Raphael, D.D. The Impartial Spectator. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
Scott, William Robert. Adam Smith as Student and Professor. New York: Augusts M. Kelley, 1965.
Teichgraeber, Richard. Free Trade and Moral Philosophy: Rethinking the Sources of Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations. Durham, Duke University Press, 1986.
Weinstein, Jack Russell. Adam Smith’s Pluralism: Rationality Education and the Moral Sentiments. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2013.
| Adam Smith |
On which German river does Hamburg stand? | Before 'The Wealth Of Nations,' Adam Smith Penned The Ultimate Guide To A Moral Life | The Huffington Post
Before 'The Wealth Of Nations,' Adam Smith Penned The Ultimate Guide To A Moral Life
09/09/2014 09:02 am ET | Updated Sep 09, 2014
290
Carolyn Gregoire Senior Writer, The Huffington Post
ilbusca via Getty Images
When the name Adam Smith comes up, 99 percent of the time it's in reference to the Scottish philosopher's 1776 magnum opus An Inquiry Into The Nature And Causes Of The Wealth Of Nations, a manifesto on free-market capitalism and the division of labor.
Virtually every introductory economics class teaches the principles of The Wealth Of Nations, a text whose influence on Western culture and global economics is difficult to overestimate. But even those who are familiar with Smith's work may not know that the "invisible hand" followed a sweeping ethical treatise on human nature and the pursuit of happiness. The largely forgotten The Theory of Moral Sentiments, published in 1759, addresses the psychology of morality, and explores how man deals with conflicts between morality and self-interest.
Stanford economist Russ Roberts, for one, knew The Wealth of Nations inside and out, but Moral Sentiments sat on his shelf for nearly 30 years until he finally picked it up and gave it a read. Now, Roberts calls the book a "marvel" and a "road map to happiness, goodness, and self-knowledge" that completely changed his life.
"Even though he's the father of capitalism and wrote the most famous and maybe the best book ever on why some nations are rich and others are poor," Roberts, host of the popular podcast EconTalk, writes in his new book, How Adam Smith Can Change Your Life, "Adam Smith in The Theory of Moral Sentiments wrote as eloquently as anyone ever has on the futility of pursuing money with the hope of finding happiness."
At first glance, there may seem to be inconsistency between Smith's two works -- one which advocates economic self-interest, and the other which suggests empathy and altruism are as natural to us as eating and sleeping. But for Smith, these two points are not as discordant as they might seem. Smith suggests in The Theory of Moral Sentiments that both the individual and society benefit if we pursue our own interest through virtuous actions .
The Theory of Moral Sentiments, according to Roberts, is the greatest self-help book that almost no one has read -- and it makes you realize that not much about human nature has changed since the 18th century. "A wise-enough man can reach across more than two centuries, get your attention, and teach you a thing or two about yourself and what's important," writes Roberts.
Here are four essential pieces of wisdom from The Theory of Moral Sentiments to apply to your own pursuit of the good life.
We're all innately self-interested -- but we're also wired to care about others.
Smith stresses that empathy is one of the most fundamental human drives, and he states this from the very outset.
The first lines of the text read , "How selfish soever man may be supposed, there are evidently some principles in his nature, which interest him in the fortune of others, and render their happiness necessary to him, though he derives nothing from it except the pleasure of seeing it."
Smith doesn't deny that we're all looking out for ourselves, and that we live in a world where individuals must compete for scarce resources. But he cares deeply about our ability to share the feelings of others, a defining human characteristic. We can actually be self-interested and altruistic at the same time. The virtue of benevolence, writes Smith, is "capable of counteracting" our strongest selfish impulses -- for instance, when given the choice between a small harm done to ourselves and a significant harm done to a number of other people, we will sacrifice our selfish interests and allow the harm to be done to ourselves.
We make this sacrifice because of an imaginary "impartial spectator," Smith writes, who we believe to judge the morality of our actions. The impartial spectator is a sort of moral yardstick against which we judge our own actions and the actions of others, which serves to remind us of how petty our concerns are when viewed through the lens of all humanity's needs. As a result, reflecting on the judgment of the impartial spectator teaches us both humility and generosity.
The desire to be loved is universal.
In The Theory of Moral Sentiments, the founding father of capitalism says that the pursuit of fame and fortune is not what will make us happy.
What we really want is to be loved, and to find a sense of purpose in what we do. We desire to be loved, respected and appreciated -- in fact, Smith goes so far as to say, "the chief part of human happiness arises from the consciousness of being loved."
But for Smith, it's not just about having a romantic partner. As Roberts explains, we're happy when our peers "love us for what we do and who we are."
"When we earn the admiration of others honestly by being respectable, honorable, blameless, generous, and kind, the end result is true happiness," Roberts writes.
There's another reason that money can't buy happiness. Smith believes that having too much stuff -- or as he puts it , "trinkets of frivolous utility" -- does not contribute to our happiness, and can instead act as a burden that weighs us down.
Don't waste your energy trying to change things you can't control.
Smith was deeply influenced by the ancient Greek and Roman philosophers, particularly the Stoics, who created a philosophy to help people find meaning and happiness in an inherently capricious and unpredictable world. The foundational concept of the stoic philosophy is reflected in the words of the famous Serenity Prayer: "God grant me the serenity to accept the things I cannot change; courage to change the things I can; and wisdom to know the difference."
Smith writes that happiness requires that we act to change that which is under our own control, and let go of that which we cannot control -- “never complain of that of which it is at all times in your power to rid yourself," he says.
Let go of attachments.
One of the main lessons of The Theory of Moral Sentiments is that in order to find happiness, we must let go of our expectations and our attachment to particular outcomes. It's an idea that's reflected in a number of religions and wisdom traditions, and is perhaps best known as one of the four noble truths ("attachment creates suffering") of Buddhism.
Attachment causes us to magnify our problems, and to make them seem worse by constantly comparing what we have to what we want. Smith urges us to let go of comparison and clinging in order to find peace of mind. He writes:
“The great source of both the misery and disorders of human life, seems to arise from over-rating the difference between one permanent situation and another. Avarice over-rates the difference between poverty and riches: ambition, that between a private and a public station: vain-glory, that between obscurity and extensive reputation. The person under the influence of any of those extravagant passions, is not only miserable in his actual situation, but is often disposed to disturb the peace of society, in order to arrive at that which he so foolishly admires. The slightest observation, however, might satisfy him, that, in all the ordinary situations of human life, a well-disposed mind may be equally calm, equally cheerful, and equally contented."
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What in Norse mythology, is the name of the rainbow bridge that connects 'Asgard' to 'Midgard'? | Bifrost - Norse Mythology for Smart People
Norse Mythology for Smart People
Bifrost
The Rainbow Bridge in Richard Wagner’s Das Rheingold, directed by Otto Schenk (1990)
Bifrost (pronounced roughly “BEEF-roast;” Old Norse Bifröst) is the rainbow bridge that connects Asgard , the world of the Aesir tribe of gods, with Midgard , the world of humanity. Bifrost is guarded by the ever-vigilant god Heimdall . During Ragnarok , the giants breach Heimdall’s defenses and cross the bridge to storm Asgard and slay the gods.
The etymology of the word is uncertain. The original form of the name seems to be Bilröst,[1][2] which suggests a meaning along the lines of “the fleetingly glimpsed rainbow.”[3] If Bifröst is correct, however, the meaning would be something akin to “the shaking or trembling rainbow.” In either case, the word points to the ephemeral and fragile nature of the bridge.
All rainbows, of course, are “fleeting.” In the pre-Christian Germanic worldview, the invisible, religious modality of existence doesn’t lie in a realm of absolute remove from the material world, as in monotheistic religions. Rather, it lies within or behind the everyday, material world. The mythological image of Bifrost expresses the existential meaning that the rainbow carries in this perspective, and, accordingly, Bifrost lies behind and within any and every visible rainbow, each of which is a transitory and quaking bridge between the sky and the earth, between Asgard and Midgard.
Looking for more great information on Norse mythology and religion? While this site provides the ultimate online introduction to the topic, my book The Viking Spirit provides the ultimate introduction to Norse mythology and religion period. I’ve also written a popular list of The 10 Best Norse Mythology Books , which you’ll probably find helpful in your pursuit.
References:
| Bifröst |
How are the comedians Paul and Barry Elliot better known? | Midgard - Credo Reference
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Topic Page: Midgard
Summary Article: Midgard from Encyclopedia of Imaginary and Mythical Places
Image from: Brooch found in Öland, Sweden, depicting a beast... in World Mythology: Handbook of Norse Mythology
Variations: Mana-Heim, Miðgarðr In Norse mythology, Midgard (“mid-yard”), one of the NINE WORLDS, was the realm of mankind; it was located between GIMLE above and NIFLEHEIM below. Midgard is one of the three words that touch the roots of the tree YGGDRASIL. Situated in the middle of the universe, Midgard is bordered by mountains and the great sea, úthaf, so vast that to cross it is impossible. Jormungand, the Midgard serpent, lives in this sea. On the other side of this sea is the home of the giants, UTGARD (“Out-Yard”). North of Midgard is NIDAVELLIR (“Dark Home”), the home of the dwarfs; below is SVARTALFHEIM (“Land of the Dark Elves”) home of the elves. The Rainbow Bridge, BIFROST, connects Midgard to ASGARD.
Source
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What was the nationality of Capablanca, the world chess champion 1921-27? | Capablanca | Define Capablanca at Dictionary.com
Capablanca
[kap-uh-blang-kuh; Spanish kah-pah-vlahng-kah] /ˌkæp əˈblæŋ kə; Spanish ˌkɑ pɑˈvlɑŋ kɑ/
Spell
[haw-se rah-ool] /hɔˈsɛ rɑˈul/ (Show IPA), 1888–1942, Cuban chess master.
Dictionary.com Unabridged
British Dictionary definitions for Capablanca
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noun
1.
José Raúl (xoˈse raˈul), called Capa or the Chess Machine 1888–1942, Cuban chess player; world champion 1921–27.
Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition
© William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins
Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012
| Cuban |
On which holiday island is Kolossi Castle built by the Knights Templar in the 13th century? | Cuban Champ`s Lost Games Found, Published - tribunedigital-sunsentinel
Cuban Champ`s Lost Games Found, Published
April 14, 1991|By HUMBERTO CRUZ, Chess Columnist
Our game of the week today is part of a unique collection: a book containing 1,200 games by the late Jose Raul Capablanca, Cuban-born world chess champion from 1921-27.
The author, Rogelio Caparros of Elizabeth, N.J., recalls how the book came to be.
``It was a miracle,`` he said.
Vacationing in Miami two-and-a-half years ago and looking for a Cuban gold coin at a second-hand store on Southwest Eighth Street, Caparros found a scrapbook from Juan Corzo, several-times Cuban champion.
The scrapbook contained dozens of clippings from Corzo`s chess column in Revista Carteles magazine in Havana from 1935 to 1941, and rare chess columns from provincial Cuban newspapers. The store also had two bound volumes of the Capablanca Magazine, containing all 42 issues published from 1912 to 1914.
``When I got the clippings from Corzo I got the idea to put together the whole thing,`` Caparros said.
His book, The Games of Jose Raul Capablanca, contains all of Capa`s 581 games in official competitions, and 619 more in exhibitions, simultaneous displays and informal matches. Capablanca, who died in 1942 and is still revered by Cuban players throughout the world, was arguably the most gifted natural player of all time.
``It is impossible to have a more complete collection,`` Caparros said.
And, with the book out, Caparros hopes to find a few more games.
``I am sure there are people who may have private games,`` he said. ``Capablanca gave some simultaneous exhibitions in Cuba that may have been reported in the newspapers.
``Those games are still in Cuba. Nobody has them in the United States. They are not in the Library of Congress and they are not in the University of Miami library.
``I guess I could find 50 more games if I went to Cuba,`` he said. ``But I am not going to Cuba until Fidel Castro is overthrown.``
Caparros, a 73-year-old Cuban exile, was the equivalent of a U.S. senior chess master in Havana. He has been a photojournalist both in Cuba and the United States, and taught mathematics at Plymouth State College in Pymouth, N.H.
His book, published this year, sells for $25. (For information, write to Caissa Editions, P.O. Box 151, Yorklyn, Delaware 19736).
Besides the games, the book contains Capablanca`s complete tournament and match record. Games, in figurine algebraic notation, are classified by Encyclopedia of Chess Openings symbols.
A disk version of the book for computer users also will be available.
``My idea was not to give only all the games I could find in this book, but also to provide the entire collection in the form of a chess data base in a computer diskette format that greatly facilitates the rapid review of a large number of games,`` Caparros said.
The computer version will be available through ChessBase USA and New In Chess. (To contact ChessBase in the United States, write to 2153 Highway 35, Sea Girt, N.J. 08750 or call Don Maddox at 1-908-974-9085. To contact New In Chess, write 2423 Noble Station, Bridgeport, Conn., 06608, or leave a message at 1-203-367-1555).
Today we bring you one of the games in the book, played in a 10- board, clock-simultaneous exhibition Capablanca gave in Havana in 1941.
Capablanca`s opponent was Dr. Juan Gonzalez of Coral Gables, a chess master still very active as a tournament player in South Florida. Gonzalez is ranked 17th among players 65 and over in the United States.
``I was 24 years old at the time and had just won the championship of the Cuban National Chess Federation,`` Gonzalez said.
The game was a draw, one of two Capablanca surrendered without a loss at the simultaneous against some of Cuba`s strongest players at the time. ``I had a won ending, but I rushed to sacrifice Rook by Knight, and that was a mistake,`` Gonzalez said.
-- In case you missed the story in our local news section, here it is: Highland Beach in Palm Beach County will play host to this year`s U.S. Women`s championship, a nine-round round robin featuring 10 players.
``It will be the strongest that ever was,`` said Donald Schultz, president of the Florida Chess Association, who was instrumental in landing the tournament. The championship will be played from Aug. 17 through Aug. 25 at Highland Beach Town Hall. We`ll have more details in future columns.
SIMULTANEOUS EXHIBITION, 1941
White (EQ) Capablanca Black (EQ) Gonzalez
1. e4 e6
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Who was the female winner of the 2002 London Marathon? | 2002 race report
2002 race report
The men’s race
Khannouchi claims world record
Moroccan-born USA citizen Khalid Khannouchi achieved his ambition of winning the London Marathon and in a fascinating race he shaded his own world record by 4 seconds.
Meanwhile, Kenya’s Paul Tergat finally vanquished his nemesis Haile Gebrselassie and ran to within 6 seconds of the old world record, while Gebrselassie himself made an amazing debut of 2:06:35 (pushing deposed course record holder Antonio Pinto down to 4th on the all-time London lists). Such was the power of Khannouchi’s final surge, however, Gebrselassie finished nearly a minute down on the winner.
Defending champion, Abdelkader El Mouaziz, had the galling experience of falling at 20km. Although he recovered enough to reduce his best time to 2:06:50 and finish in 4th place, this was obviously small compensation to the highly competitive Moroccan. Behind him, South Africa’s Ian Syster removed over 6 minutes from his previous best to post 2:07:06 and move into world class, 23 seconds in front of European champion Stefano Baldini who in turn set a personal best.
The decisive moments of the race came as three leaders – Gebrselassie, Khannouchi and Tergat – wound up the pace on The Embankment with Big Ben in sight. The Ethiopian had been looking good at the front but when Khannouchi started a long surge for home he was quickly dropped. Although diligently drinking water throughout, the man who had set 15 world records ignored the sports drinks on offer and was now suffering the consequences with cramping in his legs. As in 2001, Paul Tergat chased the leader hard but was once again the bridesmaid. On this occasion he finished in a time that was out of the reach of all but one other man – unfortunately for Tergat that other man was also in the race.
From a British point of view the best news was Mark Steinle’s continued improvement. He handled the hot pace and finished in 8th place, lowering his personal record by more than a minute to 2:09:16. On the British all-time lists, he had elevated himself from 19th to 8th.
The women’s race
Radcliffe races to record debut
In ideal conditions for distance running, Paula Radcliffe erased every women’s marathon record on the books bar Catherine Ndereba’s world mark of 2:18:47, which was set in a mixed race in Chicago. The British runner comprehensively destroyed a talent-packed field after breaking away in the 9th mile, with injections of sub 5:10 miles in the 2nd half of the race.
It soon became obvious that Radcliffe wanted to run quickly, and she was always at the front of a leading pack that trailed the two pacemakers by 10 seconds through the early miles. By 6 miles the pack had closed on the pacemakers but after 37 minutes of running Radcliffe started to move clear, running easily alongside pacemaker Iness Chenonge.
At 10 miles – reached in 54:26 by Radcliffe – Kenya’s Susan Chepkemei and defending champion Derartu Tulu of Ethiopia attempted to build a response, but Radcliffe’s answer was an 11th mile in 5:17, the fastest so far. This was made to look pedestrian, however, during mile 15 which the Bedford runner covered in 5:08.
For much of the second half of the race, Japan’s Reiko Tosa, 2nd in the 2001 World Championship marathon, took on the burden of leading the chasing group with the two Russians Svetlana Zakharova and Lyudmila Petrova content to sit behind with Chepkemei. The latter suffered a bout of sickness on the cobblestones of the Tower of London, and from there her chances of a podium place looked slim.
All this time, Radcliffe’s long legs were devouring the miles, defying the logic that said you don’t run this fast in your debut marathon. With the result no longer in doubt, it was now a question of just how fast. When the 24th and 25th miles were ticked off in 5:09 and 5:06, the world record looked under serious threat. That this mixed-race record survived took nothing away from Radcliffe’s outstanding 2:18:56 effort - in a women-only race it was an intrinsically superior performance.
The next four runners all posted personal best times. Zakharova bustled her way to 2nd place in 2:22:31, a Russian record, beating her countrywoman Petrova by 2 seconds. Tosa achieved her aim of beating 2:23:00 with her 2:22:46, and Chepkemei overcame sickness to edge inside her previous best by 4 seconds with 2:23:18.
A measure of Radcliffe’s time is that it beat the English qualifying standard for the men’s marathon in the 2002 Commonwealth Games.
The men’s wheelchair race
Weir the winner
David Weir became the first male winner of the London Mini Wheelchair Marathon to later triumph at the full distance.
Normally a sprint finisher, this year Weir adopted different tactics. A group of 8 racers were drafting and exchanging lead positions until the half distance when Frenchman Pierre Fairbank, the fastest in the field and favourite, pulled away.
Fairbank’s advantage disappeared when he had an accident at a small traffic island, losing a lot of ground. Weir used the opportunity to test the field, and he soon opened an unexpected gap that grew to more than a minute and a half by the finish. He knocked 7 minutes 16 from his previous best.
The chasing group of three athletes all turned into The Mall together and in the ensuing sprint Tushar Patel took a tiny lead which he held to the line. The 2001 winner, Frenchman Denis Lemeunier, took 3rd with a surge in the last 20 metres, beating Paul Nunnari, the Sydney Marathon champion. The first six athletes all finished under 2 hours.
The women’s wheelchair race
Grey-Thompson takes victory six
Tanni Grey-Thompson won the London Marathon for a 6th time just 9 weeks after giving birth to Carys, her first child. Not surprisingly she took it easy – by her standards.
She was followed home by promising newcomer Michelle Lewis, the youngest MBE in the country for 60 years, who produced a personal best of 2:37:07.
Civil servant Paula Craig also recorded a personal best. Craig ran the marathon 6 times and had a personal best of 2:57 so was pleased to beat her running time with 2:48:53. Craig was knocked off her bicycle in May 2001 while training for a triathlon.
| Paula Radcliffe |
There are three colours on the flag of the Yemen, red, white and which other colour? | by Jessica Whittington February 9, 2015
The London Marathon’s first female winner tells AW how she progressed with the sport
The Virgin Money London Marathon this year celebrates its 35th anniversary and while one running great – Paula Radcliffe – prepares to enjoy what could potentially be a final hurrah over 26.2 miles at the age of 41 , three-and-a-half decades earlier another British great won the very first staging of the event.
Joyce Smith was ahead of her time and was two years older than the now world record-holder and only in her second year of competitive marathon running when she claimed victory in London.
When Smith began competitive athletics in the 1950s the longest track race in international competition available to women was 880 yards, so she moved up in distance as the events became available. From being introduced to running at a summer camp when she was 15 to finishing 11th in the 1984 Olympic marathon at the age of 46, the progression of her career is a fascinating tale.
“Obviously right through my athletics career, the events weren’t there,” the 77-year-old told AW at the London Marathon’s recent annual lunch event. “I moved up events as they came in so that’s why my career obviously prolonged.”
“Obviously right through my athletics career, the events weren’t there … I moved up events as they came in”
After success on the country including a full set of world medals and world record-breaking performances on the track, Smith smashed the British record when running her first marathon in 1979. She improved that mark three more times before running 2:29:57 to win the inaugural London Marathon in 1981. That was the first time a British woman and any female over the age of 40 had gone sub-2:30.
She returned to London a year later and retained her title, clocking another British record of 2:29:43 and becoming, at the age of 44 years and 195 days, the oldest woman to win the race. It’s a record that still stands today.
“Before I did the marathon I had found that running the 3000m at 41, I was having problems,” said Smith, who had earlier captained the GB women’s team at the 1972 Olympics in Munich where she ran the 1500m. “I tried to make the Europeans in 1978 and was having injuries and goodness knows what, so I knew I couldn’t track train any more. I just wanted to do a marathon like lots of people to say you’ve done one.
“The first one (in Cheshire) went well and within three months I did another two – the Avon International, I won that, and then the Tokyo International, and I won that.
“I just wanted to do a marathon like lots of people to say you’ve done one”
“So it created this new big world. In the first year of my marathons I did six marathons, as I didn’t know how long it was going to last because of my age.”
Smith would enjoy another six years of competitive running during which time she finished ninth at the first IAAF World Championships in Helsinki and 11th in the first women’s Olympic marathon in Los Angeles. She helped to take the event to new levels – her 2:29:43 lifetime best set in London in 1982 would have seen her top the UK rankings in both 2014 and 2013 and she believes she could have gone quicker.
“Looking back I wish I’d been able to do it (the marathon) in my 30s,” she said. “Because, you know, obviously I was reasonable at it and what would I have achieved?”
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What is the state capital of Virginia? | Viriginia State Capitol – A website dedicated to the restoration and preservation of Virginia's State Capitol
The Capitol Square Fair-023_1
We also thank all students, teachers, and visitors who came to enjoy the Virginia Capitol Square Fair.
Please contact the Capitol Square Preservation Council Education Coordinator, Maggie Jackson, with any questions by phone at (804) 225-8051 or by email.
Capitol Visitor Guide
The Virginia State Capitol houses the oldest legislative body in the Western Hemisphere. The Capitol was conceived of by Thomas Jefferson and Charles-Louis Clérisseau in France, completed in 1788 and is 226 years old as of 2016, the current Capitol is the eighth built to serve as Virginia's state house.
Capitol Square
Many monuments are situated throughout the 12-acre grounds. Among those honored with memorial trees on the grounds are presidents Washington and Tyler, governors Colgate Darden, Charles Robb and Gerald Baliles, and Nobel peace laureate Martin Luther King, Jr. The newest memorial in Capitol Square honors Virginians who were active in the Civil Rights movement.
Directions & Parking Information
Located in Richmond Virginia, the Capitol is accessible via I-95 and I-64. Parking is available in pay lots and parking decks nearby, with limited street parking adjacent to the Capitol. Private vehicles with handicap tags are able to park and unload passengers on Bank Street near the new public entrance.
Accessibility
Visitor Hours
The Capitol building is open to visitors from 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. Monday through Saturday, and from 1:00 p.m. to 5:00 p.m. on Sundays. Self-Guided tours are available during operating hours each day our Capitol Visitors Brochure will help you get started. Closed Thanksgiving, Christmas, and New Years Day.
Guided tours are available from 9:30 a.m. to 4:00 p.m. Monday through Saturday, and from 1:00 p.m. to 4:00 p.m. on Sundays, with the last tour commencing at 4:00 pm.
Directions
I-95 North
If traveling north on I-95 take exit 74C (Broad Street). At the fork in the exit ramp bear right (follow “Broad St. East” sign) and enter onto 17th Street heading South. At light turn right onto Broad Street and drive uphill (west) to the light at 14th Street. Turn left at 14th Street and go downhill (south) to the light at Franklin/Bank Street. Turn right onto Bank Street and go straight ahead through one light and a short distance further to the Capitol entrance plaza, on the right side of Bank Street opposite 10th Street.
I-95 South
If traveling south on I-95 take exit 74B (Franklin Street). Be careful to slow down when taking this exit because it is a short downhill ramp ending at a traffic light. At the light turn right onto Franklin Street and proceed straight ahead through two lights. Franklin Street becomes Bank Street. The Capitol entrance plaza is on Bank Street (on the right side) opposite 10th Street.
I-64 West
If traveling west on I-64 get into the left lane while crossing a bridge into downtown Richmond and take the left ramp, exit 190, onto I-95 south. After a short distance take exit 74B (Franklin Street). Be careful to slow down when taking this exit because it is a short downhill ramp ending at a traffic light. At the light turn right onto Franklin Street and proceed straight ahead through two lights. Franklin Street becomes Bank Street. The Capitol entrance plaza is on Bank Street (on the right side) opposite 10th Street.
I-64 East
If traveling east on I-64 into downtown Richmond proceed straight ahead on 95 south (AVOID the right exit for I-64 East to Williamsburg) and take exit 74B (Franklin Street). Be careful to slow down when taking this exit because it is a short downhill ramp ending at a traffic light. At the light turn right onto Franklin Street and proceed straight ahead through two lights. Franklin Street becomes Bank Street. The Capitol entrance plaza is on Bank Street (on the right side) opposite 10th Street.
Read More
Capitol Tours
Indoor guided tours last about one hour and include two newly restored rooms that were not previously on tour. In addition to the Rotunda, Old House and Old Senate chambers, tour groups usually see one of the 1906 legislative chambers located in the wings (when the General Assembly is not in session).
For more information on arranging guided tours, contact:
Tours are available daily of the underground extension and newly restored Capitol.
Capitol Square Guided Tours
Post Office Box 406
Richmond, Virginia 23218
Call our main voice number 804-698-1788 to verify daily tour schedules and make group tour appointments for groups of 10 or more people.
Accessibility
The new underground extension has wheelchair accessible restrooms, ramps and elevators. There is barrier-free access from the new extension to the original 1788 Capitol and the 1906 legislative wings. Please contact us if you have any special needs and we will do our best to accommodate you.
Accessible Parking: Private vehicles with handicap plates are able to park and unload passengers on Bank Street near the new public entrance. There is no public parking on the Capitol Square grounds.
Access to the General Assembly Building
A wheelchair-accessible ramp and door is located at the 9th Street entrance of the building. Please ring the bell located at that door and the Capitol Police will provide entry.
Contact Information
| Richmond District, San Francisco |
What is the motor-car international identification for Iceland? | Virginia State Capitol - Virginia Is For Lovers
Virginia is for Lovers
Historic Sites Virginia State Capitol
Address
Visit Site
The Capitol was designed by Thomas Jefferson and first occupied in 1788 by Virginia's General Assembly, America's oldest English-speaking legislature. During the Civil War, the Confederate Congress also met here.
The east (House) and west (Senate) wings were added between 1904-1906. The Capitol has reopened after a $104.5 million restoration and expansion project. Free one-hour guided tours are offered daily, including some holidays. Visitors also may tour on their own. Impressive interior designs and colors from 1910 have been replicated in the Rotunda, House and Senate chambers.
New visitor amenities include a gift shop (Mon-Sat), cafe (Mon-Fri) and exhibit gallery. The Capitol Square grounds have been re-landscaped. Individuals, families, school and tour groups are welcome. Reservations are needed for groups of 10 or more.
Amenities
900 East Broad Street; Room 117
Richmond, VA 23219
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Who wrote the 1973 Booker Prize winning novel 'The Siege of Krishnapur'? | The Siege of Krishnapur book review - 1973 Booker Prize
Not so good:
This was a book I was interested to discover what the British did in India. I was left feeling that the book was an overlong and overdetailed exposition of a situation that the inhabitants, mostly unremarkable, had brought on themselves. The people in question seemed to me on the whole to be second rate, enjoying a standard of living made possible for them by the almost slave labour of the local inhabitants.
Amazon review VM Pountney 11th July 2009
About the author
J G Farrell was born in Liverpool in January 1935. In 1956 he went to study at Brasenose College, Oxford; it was while there he contracted polio. He drew heavily on his experience for his second novel, The Lung (1965). His novel, Troubles (1970), the first in the Empire trilogy, won the Faber Memorial Prize in 1971. A film version of Troubles was made for British television in 1988. J G Farrell died in 1979.
1969 - Something To Answer For
2016 Pulitzer Prize Winner
It's a massive day in arts and journalism because the 100th annual Pulitzer Prize winners were just announced, and there's a big surprise. 2015's best artistic and nonfiction writing across 21 categories were recognized during a ceremony Monday afternoon at Columbia University in New York City. The first Pulitzer Prize was awarded to Hebert Bayward Swope, a reporter for The New York World, in 1916. (And if you're as big a fan of Newsies as I am, that paper should ring a bell, but try to think of it more positively.)
The major prize for book nerds, the 2016 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction went to The Sympathizer by Viet Thanh Nguyen (Grove Press), a legitimate surprise, if you've been paying attention to the book nerd and industry buzz. The feeling around the prize in the last few months would have you putting all your hard-earned cash down on A Little Life by Hanya Yanagihara to take home the award, but that's why you should never gamble. Viet Thanh Nguyen is no less deserving, and moreover, it's his debut novel, which makes it such a wonderful win.
Extract from New York Times to view full article...
| J. G. Farrell |
Who created the character 'Walter Mitty'? | The Siege of Krishnapur : J.G. Farrell : 9781857994919
The Siege of Krishnapur
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In the Spring of 1857, with India on the brink of a violent and bloody mutiny, Krishnapur is a remote town on the vast North Indian plain. For the British there, life is orderly and genteel. Then the sepoys at the nearest military cantonment rise in revolt and the British community retreats with shock into the Residency. They prepare to fight for their lives with what weapons they can muster. As food and ammunition grow short, the Residency, its defences battered by shot and shell and eroded by the rains, becomes ever more vulnerable. The Siege of Krishnapur is a modern classic of narrative excitement that also digs deep to explore some fundamental questions of civilisation and life. show more
Product details
128 x 194 x 28mm | 258.55g
Publication date
Phoenix (an Imprint of The Orion Publishing Group Ltd )
Publication City/Country
Historical Fiction
Review quote
While I can't categorically state it's the best book ever, I find it hard to think of one that I prefer. One that does more as a work of fiction, or that says more about our flawed humanity ... The Siege of Krishnapur is a superb portrayal of physical horrors and psychological fallout ... [It] is wonderfully funny, written with devastating wit and rambunctious humanity. I can't praise it enough - and I can't push it enough -- Sam Jordison Guardian Inspired, funny but ultimately tragic look at colonialism in India. It has an unusual exuberance -- Mariella Frostrup For a novel to be witty is one thing, to tell a good story is another, to be serious is yet another, but to be all three is surely enough to make it a masterpiece New Statesman A novel of quite outstanding quality The Times show more
Review Text
The best of all the Booker winners (from 1973). This is a novel not so much about personal relationships (though these are important) nor about an actual historical event (though the setting is the Indian Mutiny of 1857-58) as about an atmosphere, a climate of tension. Farrell transported me to a place in India under siege so completely that I swear I felt the heat, the fear, the thirst, and had forced upon me, as the characters described do, agonizing decisions to do with what constitutes Good as opposed to Evil. Review by Margaret Forster, whose books include 'The Memory Box' (Kirkus UK) show more
About J.G. Farrell
J.G. Farrell was born in Liverpool in 1935 and spent a good deal of his life abroad, including periods in France and North America, and then settled in London where he wrote most of his novels. Among his novels, TROUBLES won the Faber Memorial Prize in 1970 and the Lost Man Booker prize in 2010 and THE SIEGE OF KRISHNAPUR won the Booker Prize in 1973. In April 1979 he went to live in County Cork where only four months later he was drowned in a fishing accident. show more
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Kevin Whately plays the title role in the television series 'Lewis', who plays his Sergeant? | Kevin Whately: I don't like detective dramas - Telegraph
TV and Radio
Kevin Whately: I don't like detective dramas
Kevin Whately, who plays the title role in the hit ITV detective series Lewis, has admitted that he does not like crime dramas.
Kevin Whately as DI Robert Lewis Photo: ITV
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For most television viewers, Kevin Whately is synonymous with crime dramas, having played the dependable Oxford detective Lewis on our screens for more than 25 years.
But the popular actor has admitted that he has never liked police shows and revealed that he would not even watch his own programme if he were not in it.
The current series of Lewis on ITV1 will be the last after Whately voiced concerns that he was getting too old to play a police officer and expressed a yearning to swap the “factory” of television productions for the challenges of live theatre.
Whately, 61, first appeared as Detective Sergeant Robbie Lewis in 1987 as the sidekick to John Thaw in Inspector Morse.
That series ended after Thaw’s death in 2002, but ITV revived the characters in 2006 to create Lewis, which is now on its seventh series.
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Kevin Whately and Laurence Fox on the new series of Lewis
23 Apr 2010
Yet despite devoting so much of his acting career to performing in crime mysteries, Newcastle-born Whately confesses he is not a fan of the genre.
"I never have liked detective dramas. I try to watch all of them to see what's going on, but I don't like them. I'd almost certainly not watch Lewis if I wasn't in it,” he told the Sunday Mirror.
"I have no idea why it's still so popular. I think we are very lucky in a lot of ways. The city of Oxford is very attractive and the chemistry seems to work between the cast. It's one of those intangible things but I'm absolutely gobsmacked. It's ludicrous."
He and fellow actor Laurence Fox, 34, who plays Lewis’s cerebral deputy Detective Sergeant James Hathaway, decided together that they wanted a break from the series.
Whately said: "As an actor you do try and keep it fresh, but there are only so many variations and it can start to feel like a factory."
The characters will not be killed off at the end of the present series of Lewis, and Whately has not ruled out appearing in one-off episodes in the future.
He said: "I'd be quite happy to come back in two years, although I wouldn't if Laurence didn't."
Whately was a folk singer before he made his name as an actor in the 1980s BBC comedy drama Auf Wiedersehen, Pet.
He has also appeared in Coronation Street and Peak Practice, and has two grown-up children with his wife Madelaine Newton, the actress.
Speaking last year, he said he was getting tired of all the compromises involved in making television programmes and wanted to do more stage acting.
“I thrive on the insecurity and enjoy one-night stands, where every hall is a different place to play, a different size of venue, and you’re flexing acting muscles, which you don’t do in this kind of situation,” he said.
“The more telly you do, the more it feels like a factory. Everybody is trying to do their best work, but it’s always a compromise.”
| Laurence Fox |
In which year was HRH Prince Charles invested as Prince of Wales? | Lewis returns to ITV two years after stars called time on hit drama series - Mirror Online
Cop drama Lewis is to return to ITV – just two years after stars Kevin Whately and Laurence Fox called time on the hit series.
The pair feared that the show, a spin-off of Morse, might become “a bit samey” if it continued, with Fox saying he’d had enough of playing a policeman.
“I need to broaden my range before I start randomly arresting people down the pub,” he declared in 2012. “Kev and I have decided we want to do other things, otherwise it all gets a bit samey.”
But yesterday channel chiefs announced that a new six-part run will start shooting next month, to air later this year.
And the twist is that this time around it is Fox’s character James Hathaway who has been promoted to Inspector, while Lewis (Whately) will be brought out of retirement to be his sidekick.
“It’s a new dynamic for our detectives, but one they’ll have to come to terms with quickly if they are to achieve results,” producers revealed.
The eighth run of the show will be made by the same team, including Morse creator Colin Dexter as consultant.
When the “final” series aired a year ago, Whately admitted it was “very difficult to let go of something as successful as that”.
He added: “But it’s probably about time. We’d really quite like to finish it.”
Today ITV drama boss Steve November said: “Viewers have a great deal of respect for Inspector Lewis and a huge loyalty to Kevin Whately. Together with Laurence, he has forged a formidable partnership and we’re delighted to have them back.”
Executive producer Michele Buck added: “Lewis has a special place in the hearts of the ITV audience. Since we started producing the series in 2006, Lewis has achieved a reputation for thought provoking stories and we’re determined to continue to set high standards.”
Since announcing the end of Lewis in 2012, both Fox and Whately have concentrated on theatre roles.
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Which Irish born writer wrote 'A Woman Of No Importance'? | Oscar Wilde - Biography - IMDb
Oscar Wilde
Jump to: Overview (4) | Mini Bio (1) | Spouse (1) | Trivia (9) | Personal Quotes (51)
Overview (4)
30 November 1900 , Paris, France (acute meningitis, following an ear infection)
Birth Name
Oscar Fingal O'Flahertie Wills Wilde
Height
6' 3" (1.91 m)
Mini Bio (1)
A gifted poet, playwright and wit, Oscar Wilde was a phenomenon in 19th-century England. He was illustrious for preaching the importance of style in life and art, and of attacking Victorian narrow-mindedness.
Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland, in 1854. He studied at Trinity College in Dublin before leaving the country to study at Oxford University in England when he was in his early 20s. His prodigious literary talent was recognized when he received the Newdegate Prize for his outstanding poem "Ravenna". After leaving college his first volume of poetry, "Patience", was published in 1881, followed by a play, "The Duchess of Padua", two years later. It was around this time that Wilde sparked a sensation.
On his arrival to America he stirred the nation with his flamboyant personality: wearing long silk stockings--an unusual mode of dress--long, flowing hair that gave the impression to many of an effeminate and a general air of wittiness, sophistication and eccentricity. He was an instant celebrity, but his works did not find recognition until the publication of "The Happy Prince and Other Tales" in 1888. His other noted work was his only novel, was "The Picture of Dorian Gray" (1890), which caused controversy as the book evidently attacked the hypocrisy of England. It was later used as incriminating evidence at Wilde's trial, on the basis of its obvious homosexual content.
Wilde was a married man with children, but his private life was as a homosexual. He had an affair with a young snobbish aristocrat named Lord Alfred Douglas. Douglas' father, the Marquess of Queensberry, did not approve of his son's relationship with the distinguished writer, and when he accused Wilde of sodomy, Wilde sued the Marquess in court. However, his case was dismissed when his homosexuality--which at the time was outlawed in England--was exposed. He was sentenced to two years hard labor in prison. On his release he was a penniless, dejected man and soon died in Paris. He was 46.
Wilde is immortalized through his works, and the stories he wrote for children, such as "The Happy Prince" and "The Selfish Giant", are still vibrant in the imagination of the public, especially "The Picture of Dorian Gray", the story of a young handsome man who sells his soul to a picture to have eternal youth and beauty, only to face the hideousness of his own portrait as it ages, which entails his evil nature and degradation. The book has been interpreted on stage, films and television. In 1997 Stephen Fry played the lead in Wilde (1997) and Jude Law as Lord Alfred Douglas.
( 29 May 1884 - 7 April 1898) (her death) (2 children)
Trivia (9)
Oscar was the great-nephew of author Charles Maturin, an Irish clergyman and author whose gothic novel "Melmoth the Wanderer" inspired Oscar's pseudonym 'Sebastian Melmoth', which he lived under for three years from his release from prison to his death.
Sons: Cyril, born in June 1885, who died in World War I, and Vyvyan, born in November 1886. Vyvyan became a writer using the surname Holland, and his own grandson, Merlin Holland , has written two books about his grandfather, "Wilde Album" and "After Oscar: The Color of his Legacy." Merlin's son Lucien is a classics major at Oxford, just like Oscar Wilde.
Appears on the sleeve of The Beatles ' "Sgt Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band" album.
Separated from his wife not long after their second child was born. Was a homosexual. Tried and convicted, alongside Alfred Taylor, a procurer of young men, in 1895 for indecent acts, as homosexuality was then outlawed in the UK. All of his possessions and property were confiscated following the ruling, which resulted in prison for the playwright. Moved to Paris after he finished his sentence and lived as a pauper, writing his autobiography and works that never found an audience. Died in a cheap Paris hotel.
He published several books of stories for children, originally written for his own sons.
Relying on the generosity of friends, he went to live in France, adopting the name of Sebastian Melmoth.
Wilde attempted to woo the son of the Marquess of Queensberry, and Lord Queensberry retaliated by circulating a note which accused Wilde of Sodomy. Wilde sued for libel, but after three days in court, he realized he was losing, and he dropped the suit.
Both Wilde and his procurer (of young boys) were tried twice for "public indecency". The first trial ended in a hung jury. The second convicted him.
Wilde served two years at hard labor for public indecency.
Personal Quotes (51)
There is only one thing in the world worse than being talked about, and that is not being talked about.
I adore persons better than principles and persons with no principles more than anything else in the world.
We are all in the gutter, but some of us are looking at the stars.
Men can be analyzed, women ... merely adored.
I couldn't help it. I can resist everything except temptation.
I must decline your invitation owing to a subsequent engagement.
It is only by not paying one's bills that one can hope to live in the memory of the commercial classes.
Whenever people agree with me I always feel I must be wrong.
In the old days men had the rack. Now they have the Press.
Education is an admirable thing, but it is well to remember from time to time that nothing that is worth knowing can be taught.
One would have to have a heart of stone to read the death of Little Nell without laughing.
[on his deathbed in a Paris hotel room] Either this wallpaper goes, or I do!
The books that the world calls immoral are the books that show the world its own shame.
Only the shallow know themselves.
[upon taking a glass of champagne on his deathbed] I am dying beyond my means.
The man who sees both sides of a question is a man who sees absolutely nothing.
Most people are other people. Their thoughts are someone else's opinions, their lives a mimicry, their passions a quotation.
[his defense at his trial] "The Love that dare not speak its name" in this country is such a great affection of an elder for a younger man as there was between David and Jonathan, such as Plato made the very basis of his philosophy, and such as you find in the sonnets of Michelangelo and [ William Shakespeare ]. It is that deep, spiritual affection that is as pure as it is perfect . . . It is in this century misunderstood, so much misunderstood that it may be described as "the Love that dare not speak its name", and on account of it I am placed where I am now. It is beautiful, it is fine, it is the noblest form of affection. There is nothing unnatural about it, and it repeatedly exists between an elder and a younger man, when the elder has intellect, and the younger man has all the joy, hope and glamor of life before him. That it should be so, the world does not understand. The world mocks at it and sometimes puts one in the pillory for it.
She wore too much rouge last night and not quite enough clothes. That is always a sign of despair in a woman.
Dying is easy. Comedy is hard.
I am not young enough to know everything.
Imagination is a quality given a man to compensate him for what he is not, and a sense of humor was provided to console him for what he is.
I love acting. It is so much more real than life.
Democracy means simply the bludgeoning of the people by the people for the people.
The only difference between the saint and the sinner is that every saint has a past and every sinner has a future.
The only way to get rid of a temptation is to yield to it.
Women have a much better time than men in this world. There are far more things forbidden to them
[Upon arriving at US Customs in 1882] I have nothing to declare except my genius.
Anybody can be good in the country.
[on Frédéric Chopin ] After playing Chopin, I feel as if I had been weeping over sins that I had never committed, and mourning over tragedies that were not my own. Music always seems to me to produce that effect. It creates for one a past of which one has been ignorant, and fills one with a sense of sorrows that have been hidden from one's tears.
A man cannot be too careful in the choice of his enemies.
In matters of grave importance, style, not sincerity, is the vital thing.
Crying is the refuge of plain women, but the ruin of pretty ones.
What is a cynic? A man who knows the price of everything and the value of nothing.
Women have a wonderful instinct about things. They can discover everything except the obvious.
Young men want to be faithful, and are not; old men want to be faithless, and cannot.
Some cause happiness wherever they go; others, whenever they go.
We Irish are too poetical to be poets; we are a nation of brilliant failures, but we are the greatest talkers since the Greeks.
The public has an insatiable curiosity to know everything, except what is worth knowing.
Moderation is a fatal thing... nothing succeeds like excess.
It is only the shallow people who do not judge by appearance.
[on his room in the Ritz Hotel in Paris] A harsh and ugly light, enough to ruin your eyes, and not a candle or lamp for bedside reading. And who wants an immovable washing basin in one's room? I do not. Hide the thing.
Bernard Shaw has no enemies but is intensely disliked by his friends.
[on fellow writer Emile Zola] Mr. Zola is determined to show that, if he has not got genius, he can at least be dull.
[as he was being led in handcuffs to Reading Gaol] If this is how Her Majesty treats her prisoners, she doesn't deserve to have any.
The young are always ready to give to those who are older than themselves the full benefits of their inexperience.
Make people laugh when you tell them the truth, or they will kill you.
Seriousness is the last refuge of the shallow.
If I can't be famous I'll be notorious.
Man is many things, but he is not rational.
The conscience of an editor is purely decorative.
See also
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Oscar Wilde
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We are all in the gutter, but some of us are looking at the stars.
Disobedience , in the eyes of any one who has read history, is man's original virtue. It is through disobedience that progress has been made, through disobedience and through rebellion .
Private property ... has led Individualism entirely astray. It has made gain not growth its aim. So that man thought that the important thing was to have, and did not know that the important thing is to be. The true perfection of man lies, not in what man has, but in what man is.
Quotes[ edit ]
God knows; I won't be an Oxford don anyhow. I'll be a poet, a writer, a dramatist. Somehow or other I'll be famous, and if not famous, I'll be notorious. Or perhaps I'll lead the life of pleasure for a time and then—who knows?—rest and do nothing. What does Plato say is the highest end that man can attain here below? To sit down and contemplate the good. Perhaps that will be the end of me too.
Quoted in " In Victorian days and other papers " by Sir David Oswald Hunter-Blair (New York: Longmans, 1939, p122).
If it took Labouchere three columns to prove that I was forgotten, then there is no difference between fame and obscurity.
Quoted in The New-York Herald, Sunday August 12th, 1883. See (Fame and Obscurity) .
I have the simplest tastes. I am always satisfied with the best.
Quoted in " Oscar Wilde, an idler's impression " by Edgar Saltus (Chicago Brothers of the Book, 1917, p20).
Tread Lightly, she is near
Under the snow,
Speak gently, she can hear
The daisies grow.
Lo! with a little rod
I did but touch the honey of romance —
And must I lose a soul's inheritance?
Helas! , l. 12-14 (1881).
And down the long and silent street,
The dawn, with silver-sandalled feet,
Crept like a frightened girl.
The Harlot's House , st. 12 (1885).
Be warned in time, James, and remain, as I do, incomprehensible: to be great is to be misunderstood.
Letter to James McNeill Whistler (23 February 1885).
A thing is not necessarily true because a man dies for it.
The Portrait of Mr. W. H. (1889).
The honest ratepayer and his healthy family have no doubt often mocked at the dome-like forehead of the philosopher, and laughed over the strange perspective of the landscape that lies beneath him. If they really knew who he was, they would tremble. For Chuang Tsǔ spent his life in preaching the great creed of Inaction, and in pointing out the uselessness of all things.
Review of Herbert Giles translation of the works of Zhuangzi (Chuang Tsu) in The Speaker (8 February 1890).
Consistency is the last refuge of the unimaginative.
"The Relation of Dress to Art," The Pall Mall Gazette (February 28, 1885)
reprinted in Aristotle at Afternoon Tea:The Rare Oscar Wilde (1991).
A poet can survive everything but a misprint.
"The Children of the Poets," The Pall Mall Gazette (October 14, 1886).
Most modern calendars mar the sweet simplicity of our lives by reminding us that each day that passes is the anniversary of some perfectly uninteresting event.
"A New Calendar," The Pall Mall Gazette (February 17, 1887).
A simile committing suicide is always a depressing spectacle.
"The Poets' Corner III," The Pall Mall Gazette (May 30, 1887).
And, after all, what is a fashion? From the artistic point of view, it is usually a form of ugliness so intolerable that we have to alter it every six months.
The Philosophy of Dress , The New-York Tribune, 1885. For an analysis see Fashion a Form of Ugliness .
We have really everything in common with America nowadays, except, of course, language.
The Canterville Ghost (1887). For history and analysis of the quote see Common Language .
It is always a silly thing to give advice, but to give good advice is absolutely fatal.
"The Portrait of Mr. W. H.," Blackwood's Magazine , July 1889
The more we study Art, the less we care for Nature. What Art really reveals to us is Nature's lack of design, her curious crudities, her extraordinary monotony, her absolutely unfinished condition.
Intentions (1891).
Art finds her own perfection within, and not outside of herself. She is not to be judged by any external standard of resemblance. She is a veil, rather than a mirror.
Intentions (1891).
All art is immoral.
Intentions (1891).
He is really not so ugly after all, provided, of course, that one shuts one's eyes, and does not look at him.
le mystère de l'amour est plus grand que le mystère de la mort.
The mystery of love is greater than the mystery of death.
Salomé (1893).
Death must be so beautiful. To lie in the soft brown earth, with the grasses waving above one's head, and listen to silence. To have no yesterday, and no tomorrow. To forget time, to forgive life, to be at peace.
The Canterville Ghost (1887).
I put all my genius into my life; I put only my talent into my works.
J’ai mis tout mon génie dans ma vie; je n’ai mis que mon talent dans mes œuvres.
Conversation with André Gide in Algiers , quoted in letter by Gide to his mother (30 January 1895); popularized by Gide and often subsequently quoted in Gide’s later work and in "Gide, André (1869-1951)" at Standing Ovations ; the conversation was again recalled in Gide’s journal of (3 July 1913), quoted in “André Gide’s ‘Hommage à Oscar Wilde’ or ‘The Tale of Judas’”, Victoria Reid (University of Glasgow, UK), Chapter 5 in Reception of Oscar Wilde in Europe , edited by Stefano Evangelista (8 July 2010) part of a Continuum series The Reception of British and Irish Authors in Europe, ISBN 978-1-84706005-1 , pp. 98–99 , also footnote 6 (p. 99), quoting 1996 edition of Gide’s journal, pp. 746–47]
On George Bernard Shaw An excellent man: he has no enemies, and none of his friends like him.
Quoted by George Bernard Shaw in a letter to Ellen Terry , 25 September 1896.
I summed up all systems in a phrase, and all existence in an epigram.
Written in a letter from Reading Prison to Lord Alfred Douglas in early 1897.
People who count their chickens before they are hatched act very wisely because chickens run about so absurdly that it's impossible to count them accurately.
Letter from Paris (May 1900).
It is better to have a permanent income than to be fascinating.
The Model Millionaire, 1912.
Tell me, when you are alone with him [ Max Beerbohm ] Sphinx, does he take off his face and reveal his mask?
In a letter to Ada Leverson [Sphinx] recorded in her book Letters To The Sphinx From Oscar Wilde and Reminiscences of the Author (1930).
One can survive everything nowadays except death.
Oscariana (1907).
Psychology is in its infancy, as a science. I hope in the interests of Art, it will always remain so.
Oscar Wilde, 1897, | Hart-Davis, ed., Letters of Wilde, p. 173
I have the kiss of Walt Whitman still on my lip.
In a journal or later note by George Cecil Ives recording a meeting with Wilde in 1900, Oscar Wilde: Myths, Miracles and Imitations (Cambridge University Press,1996), John Stokes.
Prayer must never be answered: if it is, it ceases to be prayer and becomes correspondence.
Quoted by Alvin Redman in The Epigrams of Oscar Wilde (1952).
Keep love in your heart. A life without it is like a sunless garden when the flowers are dead. The consciousness of loving and being loved brings warmth and richness to life that nothing else can bring.
Quoted by Alvin Redman in The Epigrams of Oscar Wilde (1952).
After the first glass you see things as you wish they were. After the second glass you see things as they are not. Finally, you see things as they really are, and that is the most horrible thing in the world.
Said about Absinthe . Quoted in “Letters to the Sphinx from Oscar Wilde: With Reminiscences of the Author" by Ada Leverson (London: Duckworth, 1930).
Fool, nothing is impossible in Russia but reform.
Michael, Act I
Reforms in Russia are very tragic, but they always end in a farce.
Baron Raff, Act IV
To make a good salad is to be a brilliant diplomatist – the problem is so entirely the same in both cases. To know exactly how much oil one must put with one's vinegar.
Life is much too important a thing ever to talk seriously about it.
There is always more brass than brains in an aristocracy.
Good kings are the enemies of democracy.
Heaven is a despotism. I shall be at home there.
There are few things easier than to live badly and to die well.
Experience, the name men give to their mistakes.
Indifference is the revenge the world takes on mediocrities.
When a man has no enemy left there must be something mean about him.
I cannot understand your nature. If my nature had been made to suit your comprehension rather than my own requirements, I am afraid I would have made a very poor figure in the world.
To drift with every passion till my soul
Is a stringed lute on which all winds can play,
Is it for this that I have given away
Mine ancient wisdom, and austere control?
Methinks my life is a twice-written scroll
Scrawled over on some boyish holiday
With idle songs for pipe and virelay ,
Which do but mar the secret of the whole.
"The Nightingale and the Rose"
Be happy, be happy; you shall have your red rose. I will build it out of music by moonlight, and stain it with my own heart's-blood. All that I ask of you in return is that you will be a true lover, for Love is wiser than Philosophy, though she is wise, and mightier than Power, though he is mighty.
"The Nightingale and the Rose".
Why, what a wonderful piece of luck! Here is a red rose! I have never seen any rose like it in all my life. It is so beautiful that I am sure it has a long Latin name.
"The Nightingale and the Rose".
Hard work is simply the refuge of people who have nothing whatever to do.
[E]verybody who is incapable of learning has taken to teaching.
Spoken by "Vivian."
If Nature had been comfortable, mankind would never have invented architecture...In a house, we all feel of the proper proportions. Everything is subordinated to us, fashioned for our use and our pleasure.
It is always the unreadable that occurs.
His style is chaos illumined by flashes of lightning.
A reference to George Meredith 's style.
Life imitates art far more than art imitates Life.
No great artist ever sees things as they really are. If he did, he would cease to be an artist.
The final revelation is that Lying, the telling of beautiful untrue things, is the proper aim of Art.
The Critic as Artist (1891)[ edit ]
Part I[ edit ]
Meredith is a prose Browning , and so is Browning. He used poetry as a medium for writing in prose.
Anybody can make history. Only a great man can write it.
There is no mode of action, no form of emotion, that we do not share with the lower animals. It is only by language that we rise above them, or above each other—by language, which is the parent, and not the child, of thought.
Every great man nowadays has his disciples, and it is always Judas who writes the biography.
Truth, in the matters of religion, is simply the opinion that has survived.
Oh! journalism is unreadable, and literature is not read.
I am but too conscious of the fact that we are born in an age when only the dull are treated seriously, and I live in terror of not being misunderstood.
The one duty we owe to history is to rewrite it.
It is well for his peace that the saint goes to his martyrdom. He is spared the sight of the horror of his harvest.
Action [...] is the last resource of those who know not how to dream.
Part II[ edit ]
It is through art, and through art only, that we can realize our perfection; through art and art only that we can shield ourselves from the sordid perils of actual existence.
Man is least himself when he talks in his own person. Give him a mask, and he will tell you the truth.
A little sincerity is a dangerous thing, and a great deal of it is absolutely fatal.
It is to do nothing that the elect exist. Action is limited and relative. Unlimited and absolute is the vision of him who sits at ease and watches, who walks in loneliness and dreams.
As long as war is regarded as wicked, it will always have its fascination. When it is looked upon as vulgar, it will cease to be popular.
It is chiefly, I regret to say, through journalism that such people find expression. I regret it because there is much to be said in favour of modern journalism. By giving us the opinions of the uneducated, it keeps us in touch with the ignorance of the community. By carefully chronicling the current events of contemporary life, it shows us of what very little importance such events really are. By invariably discussing the unnecessary, it makes us understand what things are requisite for culture, and what are not.
To be good, according to the vulgar standard of goodness, is obviously quite easy. It merely requires a certain amount of sordid terror, a certain lack of imaginative thought, and a certain low passion for middle-class respectability.
There is no sin except stupidity.
Ah! Don't say you agree with me. When people agree with me I always feel I must be wrong.
also appears in Lady Windermere's Fan (1892), Act II.
England has done one thing; it has invented and established Public Opinion, which is an attempt to organize the ignorance of the community, and to elevate it to the dignity of physical force.
A dreamer is one who can only find his way by moonlight, and his punishment is that he sees the dawn before the rest of the world.
One is tempted to define man as a rational animal who always loses his temper when he is called upon to act in accordance with the dictates of reason.
It is absurd to divide people into good and bad. People are either charming or tedious.
Lord Darlington, Act I.
Nowadays we are all of us so hard up that the only pleasant things to pay are compliments. They're the only things we can pay.
Lord Darlington, Act I.
I can resist everything except temptation.
Lord Darlington, Act I.
Life is far too important a thing ever to talk seriously about it.
Lord Darlington, Act I
Often quoted as: Life is far too important to be taken seriously.
Often quoted as: Life is too important to be taken seriously.
Often quoted as: Life is too important to take seriously.
I am the only person in the world I should like to know thoroughly.
Mr. Dumby, Act II.
My experience is that as soon as people are old enough to know better, they don't know anything at all.
Cecil Graham, Act II.
Between men and women there is no friendship possible. There is passion, enmity, worship, love, but no friendship.
Lord Darlington, Act II.
My own business always bores me to death. I prefer other people's.
Cecil Graham, Act III.
We are all in the gutter, but some of us are looking at the stars.
Lord Darlington, Act III.
In this world there are only two tragedies. One is not getting what one wants, and the other is getting it.
Mr. Dumby, Act III.
A man who knows the price of everything and the value of nothing. [Answering the question, what is a cynic?]
Lord Darlington, Act III.
Experience is the name everyone gives to their mistakes. [First used by Wilde in Vera; or, The Nihilists .]
Mr. Dumby, Act III.
I have never admitted that I am more than twenty-nine, or thirty at the most. Twenty-nine when there are pink shades, thirty when there are not.
Mrs. Erlynne, Act IV.
What a pity that in life we only get our lessons when they are of no use to us.
Lady Windermere, Act IV
The growing influence of women is the one reassuring thing in our political life.
Kelvil, Act I.
Mrs. Allonby: They say, Lady Hunstanton, that when good Americans die they go to Paris.
Lady Hunstanton: Indeed? And when bad Americans die, where do they go to?
Lord Illingworth: Oh, they go to America.
Act I.
The youth of America is their oldest tradition. It has been going on now for three hundred years.
Lord Illingworth, Act I.
The English country gentleman galloping after a fox — the unspeakable in full pursuit of the uneatable.
Lord Illingworth, Act I.
Kelvil: May I ask, Lord Illingworth, if you regard the House of Lords as a better institution than the House of Commons?
Lord Illingworth: A much better institution of course. We in the House of Lords are never in touch with public opinion. That makes us a civilised body.
Act I.
Lord Illingworth: The Book of Life begins with a man and a woman in a garden.
Mrs. Allonby: It ends with Revelations.
Act I.
Lady Hunstanton: But do you believe all that is written in the newspapers?
Lord Illingworth: I do. Nowadays it is only the unreadable that occurs.
Act I.
Lord Illingworth: Women have become too brilliant. Nothing spoils a romance so much as a sense of humour in the woman.
Mrs. Allonby: Or the want of it in the man.
Act I
Gerald: I suppose society is wonderfully delightful?
Lord Illingworth: To be in it is merely a bore. But to be out of it simply a tragedy.
Act III.
Men marry because they are tired; women because they are curious. Both are disappointed.
Lord Illingworth, Act III.
I am always astonishing myself. It is the only thing that makes life worth living.
Lord Illingworth, Act III.
Moderation is a fatal thing, Lady Hunstanton. Nothing succeeds like excess.
Lord Illingworth, Act III.
The only difference between the saint and the sinner is that every saint has a past and every sinner has a future.
Lord Illingworth , Act III.
Children begin by loving their parents. After a time they judge them. Rarely if ever do they forgive them.
A Few Maxims for the Instruction of the Over-Educated (1894)[ edit ]
First published anonymously in the Saturday Review (17 November 1894); see full list
Education is an admirable thing. But it is well to remember from time to time that nothing that is worth knowing can be taught.
The English are always degrading truths into facts. When a truth becomes a fact it loses all its intellectual value.
It is a very sad thing that nowadays there is so little useless information.
The only link between Literature and the Drama left to us in England at the present moment is the bill of the play.
In old days books were written by men of letters and read by the public. Nowadays books are written by the public and read by nobody.
Friendship is far more tragic than love. It lasts longer.
Art is the only serious thing in the world. And the artist is the only person who is never serious.
To be really mediæval one should have no body. To be really modern one should have no soul. To be really Greek one should have no clothes.
Even the disciple has his uses. He stands behind one's throne, and at the moment of one's triumph whispers in one's ear that, after all, one is immortal.
The only thing that can console one for being poor is extravagance. The only thing that can console one for being rich is economy.
Those whom the gods love grow young.
A humorous reference to Menander 's "ὃν οἱ θεοὶ φιλοῦσιν ἀποθνῄσκει νέος [whom the gods love dies young]".
Phrases and Philosophies for the Use of the Young (1894)[ edit ]
First published in the Oxford student magazine The Chameleon (December 1894). See full list .
Ambition is the last refuge of the failure.
Religions die when they are proved to be true. Science is the record of dead religions.
If one tells the truth, one is sure, sooner or later, to be found out.
Patriotism is the vice of nations.
Only the shallow know themselves.
In examinations the foolish ask questions that the wise cannot answer.
The old believe everything; the middle-aged suspect everything; the young know everything.
To love oneself is the beginning of a life-long romance.
One should always be a little improbable.
Time is a waste of money.
The only way to atone for being occasionally a little over-dressed is by being always absolutely over-educated.
Really, if the lower orders don't set us a good example, what on earth is the use of them?
Algernon, Act I.
I really don’t see anything romantic in proposing. It is very romantic to be in love . But there is nothing romantic about a definite proposal. Why, one may be accepted. One usually is, I believe. Then the excitement is all over. The very essence of romance is uncertainty.
Algernon, Act I.
Divorces are made in Heaven.
Algernon, Act I.
The amount of women in London who flirt with their own husbands is perfectly scandalous. It looks so bad. It is simply washing one’s clean linen in public.
Algernon, Act I.
I hear her hair has turned quite gold from grief
Algernon, Act I.
I do not approve of anything that tampers with natural ignorance. Ignorance is like a delicate exotic fruit; touch it and the bloom is gone.
Lady Bracknell, Act I.
My dear fellow, the truth isn't quite the sort of thing one tells to a nice, sweet, refined girl.
Jack, Act I.
The only way to behave to a woman is to make love to her if she is pretty and to someone else if she is plain.
Algernon, Act I.
Ah! That must be Aunt Augusta. Only relatives, or creditors, ever ring in that Wagnerian manner.
Algernon, Act I.
To lose one parent may be regarded as a misfortune … to lose both seems like carelessness.
Lady Bracknell, Act I.
An engagement should come on a young girl as a surprise, pleasant or unpleasant as the case may be.
Lady Bracknell, Act I.
All women become like their mothers. That is their tragedy. No man does. That's his.
Algernon, Act I.
Jack: That, my dear Algy, is the whole truth pure and simple.
Algernon: The truth is rarely pure and never simple. Modern life would be very tedious if it were either, and modern literature a complete impossibility!
Act I
Often quoted as "The pure and simple truth is rarely pure and never simple."
I have invented an invaluable permanent invalid called Bunbury, in order that I may be able to go down into the country whenever I choose.
Algernon, Act I.
In married life, three is company, and two is none.
Algernon, Act I.
Of course the music is a great difficulty. You see, if one plays good music, people don't listen, and if one plays bad music people don't talk.
Algernon, Act I.
It is absurd to have a hard and fast rule about what one should read and what one shouldn't. More than half of modern culture depends on what one shouldn't read.
Algernon, Act I.
I have always been of opinion that a man who desires to get married should know either everything or nothing.
Lady Bracknell, Act I.
Relations are simply a tedious pack of people, who haven’t got the remotest knowledge of how to live, nor the smallest instinct about when to die.
Algernon, Act I.
All women become like their mothers . That is their tragedy. No man does. That’s his.
Algernon, Act I.
Mothers , of course, are all right. They pay a chap's bills and don't bother him. But fathers bother a chap and never pay his bills.
Jack, Act I.
Memory is the diary that we all carry about with us.
Miss Prism, Act II.
No gentleman ever has any money.
Algernon, Act II.
When a man does exactly what a woman expects him to do she doesn't think much of him. One should always do what a woman doesn't expect, just as one should say what she doesn't understand.
Algernon, Act II.
I never travel without my diary. One should always have something sensational to read in the train.
Gwendolen, Act II.
The home seems to me to be the proper sphere for the man. And certainly once a man begins to neglect his domestic duties he becomes painfully effeminate, does he not?
Gwendolen, Act II.
I hope you have not been leading a double life, pretending to be wicked and being really good all the time. That would be hypocrisy.
Cecily, Act II.
The good ended happily, and the bad unhappily. That is what Fiction means.
Miss Prism, Act II.
The absence of old friends one can endure with equanimity. But even a momentary separation from anyone to whom one has just been introduced is almost unbearable.
Cecily, Act II.
Well, I can't eat muffins in an agitated manner. The butter would probably get on my cuffs. One must eat muffins quite calmly, it is the only way to eat them.
Algernon, Act II.
Never speak disrespectfully of Society, Algernon. Only people who can’t get into it do that.
Lady Bracknell, Act III.
To speak frankly, I am not in favour of long engagements. They give people the opportunity of finding out each other's character before marriage, which I think is never advisable.
Lady Bracknell, Act III.
Thirty-five is a very attractive age. London society is full of women of the very highest birth who have, of their own free choice, remained thirty-five for years.
Lady Bracknell, Act III.
I've now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest.
Jack, Act III.
If you are not too long, I will wait here for you all my life.
Gwendolen, Act III.
Oh, I love London society! It is entirely composed now of beautiful idiots and brilliant lunatics. Just what society should be.
Mabel Chiltern, Act I.
Science can never grapple with the irrational. That is why it has no future before it, in this world.
Mrs Cheveley, Act I.
Even you are not rich enough, Sir Robert, to buy back your past. No man is.
Mrs Cheveley, Act I
Usually quoted as: No man is rich enough to buy back his own past.
I always pass on good advice. It is the only thing to do with it. It is never of any use to oneself.
Lord Goring, Act I.
Sooner or later we have all to pay for what we do.
Mrs Chevely, Act I.
Only dull people are brilliant at breakfast.
Mrs Chevely, Act I.
I love talking about nothing, father. It is the only thing I know anything about.
Lord Goring, Act I.
Women have a wonderful instinct about things. They can discover everything except the obvious.
Lord Goring, Act II.
Musical people are so absurdly unreasonable. They always want one to be perfectly dumb a the very moment when one is longing to be absolutely deaf.
Mabel Chiltern, Act II.
All sins, except a sin against itself, Love should forgive. All lives, save loveless lives, true Love should pardon.
Sir Robert Chiltern, Act II.
Fashion is what one wears oneself. What is unfashionable is what other people wear.
Lord Goring, Act III.
The only possible society is oneself.
Lord Goring, Act III.
To love oneself is the beginning of a lifelong romance.
Lord Goring, Act III.
However, it is always nice to be expected, and not to arrive.
Lord Goring, Act III.
Oh, why will parents always appear at the wrong time? Some extraordinary mistake in nature, I suppose.
Lord Goring, Act III.
Lord Caversham: No woman, plain or pretty, has any common sense at all, sir. Common sense is the privilege of our sex.
Lord Goring: Quite so. And we men are so self-sacrificing that we never use it, do we, father?
Act III.
Do you really think, Arthur, that it is weakness that yields to temptation? I tell you that there are terrible temptations that it requires strength, strength and courage, to yield to.
Sir Robert Chiltern, Act III.
Women are never disarmed by compliments. Men always are.
Mrs. Cheveley, Act III.
Lord Goring: Now I'm gonna give you some good advice.
Mrs. Cheveley: Pray don't. You should never give a woman something she can't wear in the evening
Act III.
Fathers should be neither seen nor heard. That is the only proper basis for family life. Mothers are different. Mothers are darlings.
Lord Goring, Act IV.
When one pays a visit it is for the purpose of wasting other people's time, not one's own.
Lord Goring, Act IV.
If we men married the women we deserved, we should have a very bad time of it.
Lord Goring, Act IV.
I don't at all like knowing what people say of me behind my back. It makes me far too conceited.
Lord Goring, Act IV.
Now don't stir. I'll be back in five minutes. And don't fall into any temptations while I am away.
Miss Mabel Chiltern to Lord Goring, just after accepting his proposal, Act IV
The Soul of Man Under Socialism (1895)[ edit ]
online text
Just as the worst slave-owners were those who were kind to their slaves, and so prevented the horror of the system being realised by those who suffered from it, and understood by those who contemplated it, so, in the present state of things in England, the people who do most harm are the people who try to do most good.
It is immoral to use private property in order to alleviate the horrible evils that result from the institution of private property.
Charity creates a multitude of sins.
Disobedience , in the eyes of any one who has read history, is man's original virtue. It is through disobedience that progress has been made, through disobedience and through rebellion .
Sometimes the poor are praised for being thrifty. But to recommend thrift to the poor is both grotesque and insulting. It is like advising a man who is starving to eat less.
As for begging, it is safer to beg than to take, but it is finer to take than to beg.
Misery and poverty are so absolutely degrading, and exercise such a paralysing effect over the nature of men, that no class is ever really conscious of its own suffering. They have to be told of it by other people, and they often entirely disbelieve them.
Agitators are a set of interfering, meddling people, who come down to some perfectly contented class of the community, and sow the seeds of discontent amongst them. That is the reason why agitators are so absolutely necessary. Without them, in our incomplete state, there would be no advance towards civilisation.
For the recognition of private property has really harmed Individualism, and obscured it, by confusing a man with what he possesses. It has led Individualism entirely astray. It has made gain not growth its aim. So that man thought that the important thing was to have, and did not know that the important thing is to be. The true perfection of man lies, not in what man has, but in what man is.
Now, nothing should be able to harm a man except himself. Nothing should be able to rob a man at all. What a man really has, is what is in him. What is outside of him should be a matter of no importance.
With the abolition of private property, then, we shall have true, beautiful, healthy Individualism. Nobody will waste his life in accumulating things, and the symbols for things. One will live. To live is the rarest thing in the world. Most people exist, that is all.
Wherever there is a man who exercises authority, there is a man who resists authority.
The note of the perfect personality is not rebellion, but peace.
It will be a marvellous thing--the true personality of man--when we see it. It will grow naturally and simply, flowerlike, or as a tree grows. It will not be at discord. It will never argue or dispute. It will not prove things. It will know everything. And yet it will not busy itself about knowledge. It will have wisdom. Its value will not be measured by material things. It will have nothing. And yet it will have everything, and whatever one takes from it, it will still have, so rich will it be. It will not be always meddling with others, or asking them to be like itself. It will love them because they will be different. And yet while it will not meddle with others, it will help all, as a beautiful thing helps us, by being what it is. The personality of man will be very wonderful. It will be as wonderful as the personality of a child.
'Know thyself' was written over the portal of the antique world. Over the portal of the new world, 'Be thyself' shall be written.
Don't imagine that your perfection lies in accumulating or possessing external things. Your perfection is inside of you. If only you could realise that, you would not want to be rich. Ordinary riches can be stolen from a man. Real riches cannot. In the treasury-house of your soul, there are infinitely precious things, that may not be taken from you. And so, try to so shape your life that external things will not harm you. And try also to get rid of personal property. It involves sordid preoccupation, endless industry, continual wrong. Personal property hinders Individualism at every step.
There is only one class in the community that thinks more about money than the rich, and that is the poor.
Man reaches his perfection, not through what he has, not even through what he does, but entirely through what he is.
The things people say of a man do not alter a man. He is what he is. Public opinion is of no value whatsoever.
All modes of government are failures. Despotism is unjust to everybody, including the despot, who was probably made for better things. Oligarchies are unjust to the many, and ochlocracies are unjust to the few. High hopes were once formed of democracy; but democracy means simply the bludgeoning of the people by the people for the people.
All authority is quite degrading. It degrades those who exercise it, and degrades those over whom it is exercised.
When private property is abolished there will be no necessity for crime, no demand for it; it will cease to exist.
The fact is, that civilisation requires slaves. The Greeks were quite right there. Unless there are slaves to do the ugly, horrible, uninteresting work, culture and contemplation become almost impossible. Human slavery is wrong, insecure, and demoralizing. On mechanical slavery, on the slavery of the machine, the future of the world depends.
A map of the world that does not include Utopia is not worth even glancing at, for it leaves out the one country at which Humanity is always landing.
A work of art is the unique result of a unique temperament. Its beauty comes from the fact that the author is what he is. It has nothing to do with the fact that other people want what they want.
Art is the most intense mode of individualism that the world has known.
The public has always, and in every age, been badly brought up. They are continually asking Art to be popular, to please their want of taste, to flatter their absurd vanity, to tell them what they have been told before, to show them what they ought to be tired of seeing, to amuse them when they feel heavy after eating too much, and to distract their thoughts when they are wearied of their own stupidity. Now Art should never try to be popular. The public should try to make itself artistic. There is a very wide difference.
Art is Individualism, and Individualism is a disturbing and disintegrating force. Therein lies its immense value. For what it seeks to disturb is monotony of type, slavery of custom, tyranny of habit, and the reduction of man to the level of a machine.
They are always asking a writer why he does not write like somebody else, or a painter why he does not paint like somebody else, quite oblivious of the fact that if either of them did anything of the kind he would cease to be an artist.
In the old days men had the rack. Now they have the Press.
If a man approaches a work of art with any desire to exercise authority over it and the artist, he approaches it in such a spirit that he cannot receive any artistic impression from it at all. The work of art is to dominate the spectator: the spectator is not to dominate the work of art. The spectator is to be receptive. He is to be the violin on which the master is to play. And the more completely he can suppress his own silly views, his own foolish prejudices, his own absurd ideas of what Art should be, or should not be, the more likely he is to understand and appreciate the work of art in question.
People sometimes inquire what form of government is most suitable for an artist to live under. To this question there is only one answer. The form of government that is most suitable to the artist is no government at all. Authority over him and his art is ridiculous.
There are three kinds of despots. There is the despot who tyrannises over the body. There is the despot who tyrannises over the soul. There is the despot who tyrannises over the soul and body alike. The first is called the Prince. The second is called the Pope. The third is called the People.
The only thing that one really knows about human nature is that it changes. Change is the one quality we can predicate of it.
Selfishness is not living as one wishes to live, it is asking others to live as one wishes to live.
A man who does not think for himself does not think at all.
For what man has sought for is, indeed, neither pain nor pleasure, but simply Life. Man has sought to live intensely, fully, perfectly. When he can do so without exercising restraint on others, or suffering it ever, and his activities are all pleasurable to him, he will be saner, healthier, more civilised, more himself. Pleasure is Nature's test, her sign of approval. When man is happy, he is in harmony with himself and his environment.
I have said to you to speak the truth is a painful thing. To be forced to tell lies is much worse.
A thing is, according to the mode in which one looks at it.
Only good questions deserve good answers.
It seems to me that we all look at Nature too much, and live with her too little.
The supreme vice is shallowness.
We are specially designed to appeal to the sense of humour.
We are the zanies of sorrow. We are clowns whose hearts are broken.
When one has weighed the sun in the balance, and measured the steps of the moon, and mapped out the seven heavens, there still remains oneself. Who can calculate the orbit of his own soul?
Where there is sorrow there is holy ground.
Most people are other people. Their thoughts are someone else's opinions, their lives a mimicry, their passions a quotation.
For a sentimentalist is simply one who desires to have the luxury of an emotion without paying for it.
All trials are trials for one’s life, just as all sentences are sentences of death;
I never saw a man who looked
With such a wistful eye
Upon that little tent of blue
Which prisoners call the sky.
Pt. I, st. 3.
When a voice behind me whispered low,
"That fellow's got to swing."
Pt. I, st. 4.
Yet each man kills the thing he loves
By each let this be heard,
Some do it with a bitter look,
Some with a flattering word,
The coward does it with a kiss,
The brave man with a sword!
Pt. I, st. 7.
It is sweet to dance to violins
When Love and Life are fair:
To dance to flutes, to dance to lutes
Is delicate and rare:
But it is not sweet with nimble feet
To dance upon the air!
Pt. II, st. 9.
Something was dead in each of us,
And what was dead was Hope.
Pt. III, st. 29.
And the wild regrets, and the bloody sweats,
None knew so well as I:
For he who lives more lives than one
More deaths than one must die.
Pt. III, st. 35.
And alien tears will fill for him
Pity's long-broken urn,
For his mourners will be outcast men,
And outcasts always mourn.
Pt. IV, st. 23 -- Wilde's epitaph.
I know not whether Laws be right,
Or whether Laws be wrong;
All that we know who lie in gaol
Is that the wall is strong;
And that each day is like a year,
A year whose days are long.
Pt. V, st. 1.
The vilest deeds like poison weeds
Bloom well in prison air;
It is only what is good in man
That wastes and withers there;
Pale Anguish keeps the heavy gate
And the Warder is Despair.
Pt. V, st. 5.
And all, but Lust, is turned to dust
In Humanity's machine.
How else but through a broken heart
May Lord Christ enter in?
Pt. V, st. 14.
Max Beerbohm , quoted in Cecil Beaton 's diary (September 1953).
That sovereign of insufferables, Oscar Wilde has ensued with his opulence of twaddle and his penury of sense. He has mounted his hind legs and blown crass vapidities through the bowel of his neck, to the capital edification of circumjacent fools and foolesses, fooling with their foolers. He has tossed off the top of his head and uttered himself in copious overflows of ghastly bosh. The ineffable dunce has nothing to say and says it—says it with a liberal embellishment of bad delivery, embroidering it with reasonless vulgarities of attitude, gesture and attire. There never was an impostor so hateful, a blockhead so stupid, a crank so variously and offensively daft. Therefore is the she fool enamored of the feel of his tongue in her ear to tickle her understanding.
The limpid and spiritless vacuity of this intellectual jellyfish is in ludicrous contrast with the rude but robust mental activities that he came to quicken and inspire. Not only has he no thoughts, but no thinker. His lecture is mere verbal ditch-water—meaningless, trite and without coherence. It lacks even the nastiness that exalts and refines his verse. Moreover, it is obviously his own; he had not even the energy and independence to steal it. And so, with a knowledge that would equip and idiot to dispute with a cast-iron dog, and eloquence to qualify him for the duties of a caller on a hog-ranch, and an imagination adequate to the conception of a tom-cat, when fired by contemplation of a fiddle-string, this consummate and star-like youth, missing everywhere his heaven-appointed functions and offices, wanders about, posing as a statue of himself, and, like the sun-smitten image of Memnon, emitting meaningless murmurs in the blaze of women’s eyes.
He makes me tired. And this gawky gowk has the divine effrontery to link his name with those of Swinburne, Rossetti and Morris—this dunghill he-hen would fly with eagles. He dares to set his tongue to the honored name of Keats. He is the leader, quoth’a, of a renaissance in art, this man who cannot draw—of a revival of letters, this man who cannot write! This little and looniest of a brotherhood of simpletons, whom the wicked wits of London, haling him dazed from his obscurity, have crowned and crucified as King of the Cranks, has accepted the distinction in stupid good faith and our foolish people take him at his word. Mr. Wilde is pinnacled upon a dazzling eminence but the earth still trembles to the dull thunder of the kicks that set him up.
Ambrose Bierce in an unsigned comment from a column titled Prattle in the satirical magazine Wasp, San Francisco (31 March 1882).
Leyendo y releyendo, a lo largo de los años, a Wilde, noto un hecho que sus panegiristas no parecen haber sospechado siquiera: el hecho comprobable y elemental de que Wilde, casi siempre, tiene razón.
Reading and re-reading Wilde throughout the years, I notice a fact that people who praise him apparently haven't in the very least: the basic and verifiable fact that Wilde is almost always right.
Jorge Luis Borges , Obras completas, Vol. II, p. 70.
Como Chesterton, como Lang, como Boswell, Wilde es de aquellos venturosos que pueden prescindir de la aprobación de la crítica y aun, a veces, de la aprobación del lector, pues el agrado que nos proporciona su trato es irresistible y constante.
Like Chesterton , like Lang , like Boswell , Wilde is one of the happy few who do not need the approval of the critic, nor even, sometimes, the approval of the reader, for the pleasure they give us is constant and irresistible.
Jorge Luis Borges , Obras completas, Vol. II, p. 71.
The same lesson [of the pessimistic pleasure-seeker] was taught by the very powerful and very desolate philosophy of Oscar Wilde. It is the carpe diem religion; but the carpe diem religion is not the religion of happy people, but of very unhappy people. Great joy does not gather the rosebuds while it may; its eyes are fixed on the immortal rose which Dante saw.
G.K. Chesterton , Heretics (1905).
Oscar Wilde said that sunsets were not valued because we could not pay for sunsets. But Oscar Wilde was wrong; we can pay for sunsets. We can pay for them by not being Oscar Wilde.
G. K. Chesterton , Orthodoxy (1908).
He was a great artist. He also was really a charlatan. I mean by a charlatan one sufficiently dignified to despise the tricks that he employs. … Wilde and his school professed to stand as solitary artistic souls apart from the public. They professed to scorn the middle class, and declared that the artist must not work for the bourgeois. The truth is that no artist so really great ever worked so much for the bourgeois as Oscar Wilde. No man, so capable of thinking about truth and beauty, ever thought so constantly about his own effect on the middle classes. … One might go through his swift and sparkling plays with a red and blue pencil marking two kinds of epigrams; the real epigram which he wrote to please his own wild intellect, and the sham epigram which he wrote to thrill the very tamest part of our tame civilization.
G. K. Chesterton , Daily News (19 October 1909).
Wilde himself wrote some things that were not immorality, but merely bad taste; not the bad taste of the conservative suburbs, which merely means anything violent or shocking, but real bad taste; as in a stern subject treated in a florid style; an over-dressed woman at a supper of old friends; or a bad joke that nobody had time to laugh at. This mixture of sensibility and coarseness in the man was very curious; and I for one cannot endure (for example) his sensual way of speaking of dead substances, satin or marble or velvet, as if he were stroking a lot of dogs and cats.
G. K. Chesterton , The Victorian Age in Literature (1913).
Am reading more of Oscar Wilde. What a tiresome, affected sod.
Noël Coward , Diary for 14 July 1946, in The Noel Coward Diaries, ed. S Morley and G. Payn (1982).
Wilde's voice was of the brown velvet order — mellifluous — rounded — in a sense giving it a plummy quality — rather on the adenotic side — but practically pure cello — and very pleasing.
Franlin Dyall, quoted in Life of Oscar Wilde by Hesketh Pearson.
Oscar Wilde did not dive very deeply below the surface of human nature, but found, to a certain extent rightly, that there is more on the surface of life than is seen by the eyes of most people.
J. T. Grein, quoted in Sunday Special (9 December 1900).
No, I've never cared for his work. Too scented.
Rudyard Kipling , quoted by Harry Ricketts in The Unforgiving Minute, (1999).
The reason Wilde did his best work after turning homosexual is that women simply reinforced his own feminine sentimentality. … Heterosexuality inhibited his imagination because woman is physically and psychologically internal.
Camille Paglia , Sexual Personae, (Vintage, 1990) p. 571
When in doubt, I read Oscar Wilde.
Camille Paglia , Sex, Art and American Culture: New Essays (Vintage, 1992) p. xi
If, with the literate, I am
Impelled to try an epigram,
I never seek to take the credit;
We all assume that Oscar said it.
Dorothy Parker in A Pig's-Eye View of Literature (1937).
Men lived more vividly in his presence, and talked better than themselves.
Arthur Ransome, in Oscar Wilde, A Critical Study.
He was never quite sure himself where and when he was serious.
Robert Ross, letter to Adela Schuster (23 December 1900).
What has Oscar in common with Art? except that he dines at our tables and picks from our platter the plums for the puddings he peddles in the provinces. Oscar -- the amiable, irresponsible, esurient Oscar -- with no more sense of a picture than of the fit of a coat, has the courage of the opinions -- of others!
James McNeill Whistler in The World, 17 November 1886, in The Gentle Art of Making Enemies (1890).
"I wish I'd said that"
(by Wilde, to a witty remark by James McNeill Whistler ), to which Whistler riposted:
"You will, Oscar."
Quoted in James McNeil Whistler by Lisa N. Peters, p. 57, ISBN 1-880908-70-0 .
The dinner table was Wilde's event and made him the greatest talker of his time…
| i don't know |
The 'Dulcimer' is a forerunner of which musical instrument? | Encyclopedia Smithsonian: Hammer Dulcimer: History and Playing
Hammer Dulcimer: History and Playing
History
"...everyman that shall hear the sound of the cornet, flute, harp, sackbut, psaltery, and dulcimer, and all kinds of musick, shall fall down and worship...."
Daniel III:10
It is no wonder that King Nebuchadnezzar's decree was opposed, for the sound of the dulcimer makes one feel much more like dancing than "worshipping." In fact, the modest revival of dulcimer playing in America seems due in large measure to the delightful manner in which dance tunes can be played on it. The hammer dulcimer is capable of a range of tones from a sort of music-box sound to powerful and percussive piano-like effects which can stand out in any band.
Although the plucked dulcimer (also called Appalachian or mountain dulcimer) shares the same name, the two instruments differ considerably in form, sound, evolution, and manner of playing. Both have strings stretched across a neckless soundbox, which identifies them in certain classification schemes as belonging to the zither form. The plucked dulcimer relies on the shortening (fretting or stopping) of strings to produce many pitches with one or few strings. Guitars, banjos, and fiddles work in this way. The alternative is to have one string or course of strings tuned to each desired pitch, as in the harps, piano, psaltery, and hammer dulcimer.
The name dulcimer comes from the Latin and Greek works dulce and melos, which combine to mean "sweet tune." The meaning and the biblical connections no doubt made the word attractive to those who named the Appalachian dulcimer. All evidence seems to indicate that the Appalachian dulcimer dates back no more than 200 years and that Bibles refer to the hammered type.
The true hammer dulcimer is a close relative to the psaltery, the chief difference being that the psaltery is usually plucked and the dulcimer is usually struck. Early varieties were rather simple, having relatively few strings which passed over bridges only at the sides.
The versatility of the dulcimer was greatly increased by clever placement of additional bridges. Treble courses pass over the side bridges and also over a treble bridge usually placed between the side bridges so that the vibrating lengths of the strings are divided in the ratio 2:3. This results in two notes from each string in the ratio of a perfect fifth interval. Other ratios have occasionally been used. Many dulcimers have another bridge added near the right side to carry bass courses. The bass courses pass high over the bass bridge and low through holes or interruptions in the treble bridge. Likewise, the treble strings are raised at the treble bridge and pass low through the bass bridge. Thus, the treble strings may be struck near the treble bridge without danger of hitting bass strings, and bass courses can be played near the bass bridge without running afoul of treble strings. This arrangement triples the number of notes possible without any increase of size or consequent increase in distance from the player. Dulcimers of this sort began appearing in Europe during the 16th century and remained rather popular to the 18th.
The ancient origins of the dulcimer are undoubtedly in the Near East, where instruments of this type have been made and played for perhaps 5000 years. Santir and psanterim were names early applied to such instruments and are probably derived from the Greek psalterion. Today the dulcimer is known as the santouri in Greece and as the santur in India.
From the Near East the instrument traveled both east and west. Arabs took it to Spain where a dulcimer-like instrument is depicted on a cathedral relief from 1184 A.D. Introduction into the Orient came much later. The Chinese version is still known as the yang ch'in, or foreign zither. Though its use in China is reported to date from about the beginning of the 19th century, Korean tradition claims association with the hammer dulcimer from about 1725.
Although the early keyboard string instruments could have been derived from either psaltery or dulcimer, it seems logical that the dulcimer provided much of the inspiration for the piano. The dulcimer is capable of considerable dynamic nuance; a wide range of effects from loud to soft can be achieved, depending on the manner in which the player strikes the strings. Harpsichords were quite limited in this quality of expressiveness and the clavichord was severely limited in volume. The pianoforte was the result of attempts to overcome these restraints, and the solution was to excite the strings with leather or felt hammers as on the dulcimer. One early form of the piano even bears the name of a 17th-century Prussian dulcimer, the pantaleon.
The most elaborate of dulcimers is certainly the cimbalom, developed around the end of the 19th century in Hungary. This instrument is a mainstay in the music of the Hungarian gypsies and is used as a concert instrument. The cimbalom is equipped with a damper mechanism and has a range of four chromatic octaves. Most other dulcimers are tuned to a diatonic scale with ranges of two to three octaves.
Dulcimers were reasonably common domestic and concert instruments in the United States during the 18th and 19th centuries. No doubt they were first brought to the colonies from England where they were used in the street music of the time. Portability and simplicity made the dulcimer much more practical than the piano for many settlers. These attributes probably led to its association with the lumber camps of Maine and Michigan. It is still referred to as a "lumberjack's piano" in the North. As names for the dulcimer go, however, the American appellation "whamadiddle" must be ranked as most colorful, with a close second in the German term "hackbrett," literally "chopping board!"
It is interesting that in this era of folk instrument revivals the Appalachian dulcimer, which never had a very widespread distribution in the past, is getting considerable attention from urban performers, while the once well-known hammer dulcimer has faded into relative obscurity. Occasionally, old dulcimers can be found in the Appalachians, Maine, New York, and in various parts of the Midwest.
Several dulcimer factories were thriving in western New York during the 1850s and 1860s. They employed salesmen who played and sold their instruments as far away as Missouri and into the southern states. Michigan has continued to nourish a persistent tradition of dulcimer hammering, and a club of players has been organized there. One Michigander, Chet Parker, has been recorded, and his fine playing of old dance and popular tunes is well worth hearing ( Folkways Records FA 02381 ).
Figure 1 - Arrangement of bridges and strings on dulcimer with bass
Playing
The hammer dulcimer is an instrument easily played by ear. Once the tuning is understood, finding melodies is not at all difficult. Playing a rapid tune up to speed may require some practice, however. The key to playing fast passages is to strike one note with one hand and the next note with the other hand, and so on. Give some thought to which hand will be used for which note. You must change from one side of the bridge to the other many times in most tunes. You will want to do this without getting your hands crossed. Try to determine the easiest way to play a tune when starting to learn it. This may help avoid having to relearn the hammering pattern as you attempt to play more rapidly.
Many things have been used for hammers. Bent pieces of cane or curved sticks are perhaps the simplest. Most hammers consist of thin handles with knobs on one end. Handles may be made from tortoiseshell, whalebone, spring metal, wood, and old corset stays. The knobs or hammer heads are usually wood, sometimes with a covering of leather or felt. Sticks with felt pads for hammers give a soft sound but can be hardened by dipping in thinned lacquer or shellac for a loud, crisp tone. Try making different kinds to discover what feels best to you.
Hammers are usually held between thumb and forefinger or between the forefinger and long finger on each hand. Hold them lightly but firmly so that they bounce easily on the strings.
Dulcimers are usually tuned with a fifth interval between notes on either side of the treble bridge, the left side being higher. The bass bridge, when present, carries longer strings and lower notes. Figure 2 , a tuning diagram for a D-G-C dulcimer with 12 treble and 11 bass courses, shows a rather common tuning scheme and is the one referred to in this section on playing.
Figure 2
Let us identify pitch locations this way: /2 equals right side treble course #2 (second string from low end); 2/ equals left treble course #2; 2 equals bass course #2; and so on. Starting at the second treble course on the right (/2) a major scale in D can be played in the following way:
You will also find major scales for G and C starting at /5 and /8 respectively. Play them.
The relationship between the bass courses and the right treble courses is the same as that between left treble and right treble courses. Try playing a G scale one octave lower than before using bass courses:
By exploring a little you will find about 2 1/2 octaves in A, D, G, and C, with only an occasional note missing here and there.
Minor scales of Am, Bm, and Em are also present.
For Em: /3 /4 /5 /6 /7 /8 /9 /10
Here are some tunes to try. L and R indicate whether a note is struck with the left or right hand:
Here are a few chords to try. You can easily find additional ones as needed.
D - /2 /4 2/
A7 - /1 /3 /5 2/
G - /5 /7 5/
D7 - /4 /6 /8 5/
Am - /6 /8 6/
Em - /3 /5 3/
Bm - 3/ 5/ 7/
Because of its volume the dulcimer works well as a lead instrument in a band. Try it in combinations with other instruments. You will also find it easy to play chords for back-up and rhythm. Listen to tunes you like and then try to hammer them out by ear. If you read music get a book of dance tunes and get to work!
Have fun!
| The Piano |
Singultus is the medical name for which minor complaint? | History of the Dulcimer
History of the Dulcimer
A Brief History of the Appalachian Dulcimer
David Schnaufer
Adj. Assoc. Professor of Dulcimer
Vanderbilt University, 2003
The dulcet tones and harmonious drones of the Appalachian dulcimer have been an important part of American music for over three hundred years. It is classified as an diatonically fretted �zither� � a �zither� being an instrument with strings stretched across a box from end to end and having no neck as do guitars and violins. Autoharps and hammered dulcimers are also zithers. �Diatonic� means that the instrument plays the eight tones of the major scale: do, re, mi, fa, so, la, ti, do like the white keys of the piano. Though it does not contain all the �chromatic� notes of the twelve tone scale found on pianos and guitars, it can be tuned to harmonize with nearly all Western folk music.
The earliest depiction of this type of instrument is found in a fresco from 1560 in the Church of Rynkeby on the Danish island of Fyn. An angel musician is seen plucking the strings of straight sided zither with her fingers. This beam like form spread throughout northern Europe and it is the Germanic variant called a �Scheitholt� that arrived in America probably in the early eighteenth century. These instruments have two sets of strings � one set to play the melody and the other to provide a continuous drone like a bagpipe. They generally had from eight to ten strings and were either plucked or played with a bow. This type of instrument was common over much of Europe with the exception of the British Isles.
The Appalachian dulcimer was forged in the melting pot of the wagon roads and river routes of the frontier. The Scots and Irish settlers could hear the drone of the pipes in this sturdy and easily constructed zither and the English found it to be an appropriate accompaniment to their ballads and laments. They reduced the number of strings to just three or four, as wire was a precious commodity in the wilderness, and added a raised fingerboard to allow the playing of quick jigs and reels with a plectrum. By reducing the strings the instrument became more adaptable to more types of music within this theater. Unlike other instruments that have a distinct evolution to their present form, the dulcimer is still being reinvented all the time. The shapes and sounds vary widely throughout the region. The Shenandoah Valley has a tradition of teardrop or boat shaped dulcimers played with a turkey quill for a pick. Kentucky is known for its delicate hourglass shaped three string instrument, and Tennessee is home to a large rectangular dulcimer that was known as a �music box�. West Virginia, with its early German settlers and isolated regions has the most widely variegated traditions. There is also much cross-pollination, with North Carolina dulcimers sharing distinct West Virginia shapes and fretting ideas.
Most of the dulcimers of hundreds years ago were made of poplar which was readily available, easy to work, and not subject to warping with temperature and humidity extremes. Some few were made of walnut, cherry and maple. These woods have been most common in the twentieth century. Though there are a few examples of commercial makers in the late nineteenth century, for the most part dulcimers were made by individuals supplying their families and close neighbors. The settlement schools and folk revivals of the 1930s and 40s kept the dulcimer visible until Jean Ritchie left Viper, Kentucky in the fifties and brought the dulcimer to the world stage with her music and literature. Since the sixties, the Appalachian dulcimer has staked a claim in the American orchestra of rock, pop, jazz, country, blues and classical and is now more popular than ever. Its sweet voice will be heard for centuries to come because it�s the sound of the ground we walk on.
For further reading:
Appalachian Dulcimer Traditions; Ralph Lee Smith, Scarecrow Press, 1997
The Story of the Dulcimer; Ralph Lee Smith, Crying Creek Publication
Play of a Fiddle � Traditional Music, Dance, and Folklore in West Virginia;
Gerald Milnes, University Press of Kentucky, 1999
All That Is Native and Fine; David Whisnant, University of North
Carolina Press, 1983
The Dulcimer Book; Jean Ritchie, Oak Publication, 1974
Dulcimer People; Jean Ritchie, Oak Publication
A Catalogue of Pre Revival Appalachian Dulcimers; L. Allen Smith,
University of Missouri Press, 1983
Plucked Dulcimers & Zithers; Wim Bosmans, Brussels Musical Instrument
Museum, 2001
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According to the Bible, who donated his own tomb for the burial of Jesus after the crucifixion? | 45. The Burial and Resurrection of Jesus Christ (John 19:38-20:9) | Bible.org
45. The Burial and Resurrection of Jesus Christ (John 19:38-20:9)
Introduction
When I was more deeply involved in prison ministry a few years ago, I had the opportunity to meet a number of prison chaplains. Among these was the chaplain for the death row unit in Huntsville, Texas. He told of some condemned men he had dealt with who had truly come to faith, and of others who were hardened to the gospel. As a death row chaplain, one of his responsibilities was to meet with each condemned man just before his execution. Whether or not they wished to speak with him about spiritual things, there were some other matters which had to be discussed. In particular, they had to discuss their burial arrangements. Unless other arrangements were made in advance by family or loved ones, the body of the executed criminal would be buried in what was, in effect, “boot hill”—a gravesite designated for executed criminals near the prison.
As we come to John’s account of the burial of our Lord, I am reminded of the fact that in all likelihood, our Lord would have been buried in the “boot hill” of His day:
Under Roman law, the bodies of executed criminals were normally handed over to their next of kin, but not so in the case of those crucified for sedition. They were left to the vultures, the culminating indignity and shame. The Jews never refused to bury any executed criminal, but instead of allowing the bodies of such sinners to be placed in family tombs, where they might desecrate those already buried, they provided a burial site for criminals just outside the city (cf. Jos., Ant. v. 44). 188
Most of the disciples were keeping their distance from Jesus at this point in time. 189 It does not even appear to be possible for any of Jesus’ disciples or family to secure His body and give it a proper burial. And to make the situation even more difficult, time to give Jesus a proper burial had virtually run out. By the time Jesus and the two men beside Him had died, it was getting late. The bodies must be quickly buried, before dark, when the Sabbath began (see Luke 23:54). Every indication was that the body of our Lord would be hastily buried in “boot hill.”
Looking back on this great moment in history, we know something else, something which the disciples did not realize at the time: the Old Testament had prophesied that the Messiah would be buried in a rich man’s tomb: “He was assigned a grave with the wicked, and with the rich in his death, though he had done no violence, nor was any deceit in his mouth” (Isaiah 53:9, NIV). Somehow, the Messiah would be put to death as a criminal (Isaiah 53:3-4), with criminals (53:9), and yet He was also to be buried with the rich (53:9). How could all these things possibly take place at the same time?
In spite of the difficulties, Jesus was crucified as a criminal, with criminals. And in our text, we shall see that after His death He was given a rich man’s burial. We might even say that Jesus was given a burial “fit for a king.” How did all of this come about? What caused this amazing turn of events? Our text, complimented by the parallel accounts of the Synoptic Gospels, gives us the answer.
Before we concentrate on John’s account of the burial and resurrection of our Lord, allow me to call your attention to the contribution of the Synoptic Gospels. Matthew’s Gospel has some especially important information, which enhances our study in John. Matthew informs us of the request the Jewish religious leaders made of Pilate after the death and burial of Jesus. They remembered that Jesus claimed He would rise from the dead after three days:
39 But he answered them, “An evil and adulterous generation asks for a sign, but no sign will be given to it except the sign of the prophet Jonah. 40 For just as Jonah was in the belly of the huge fish for three days and three nights, so the Son of Man will be in the heart of the earth for three days and three nights” (Matthew 12:39-40; see also Mark 8:31; 9:31; 10:34; John 2:19).
Even though the disciples had forgotten our Lord’s words about His resurrection, the Jewish religious leaders had not:
62 The next day (which is after the day of preparation) the chief priests and the Pharisees assembled before Pilate 63 and said, “Sir, we remember that while that deceiver was still alive he said, ‘After three days I will rise again.’ 64 So give orders to secure the tomb until the third day. Otherwise his disciples may come and steal his body and say to the people, ‘He has been raised from the dead,’ and the last deception will be worse than the first.” 65 Pilate said to them, “Take a guard of soldiers. Go and make it as secure as you can.” 66 So they went with the soldiers of the guard and made the tomb secure by sealing the stone (Matthew 27:62-66). 190
In my mind’s eye, I can see the smug look of satisfaction on the faces of those who had brought about the death of our Lord. What could be more perfect? The body of Jesus was in a chamber hewn out of rock, with a very large stone sealing the entrance to the tomb. Once the stone was “sealed,” no one would dare to try to steal the body of Jesus, to make it look as if He had been raised from the dead in fulfillment of His own prophecies. And to be doubly sure, guards were posted at the tomb so that no one could gain access to the body of Jesus. These guards would terrify anyone who dared to attempt to gain entrance to the tomb.
Matthew’s account shows how useless these efforts were to “contain” the Son of God:
2 And there was a severe earthquake, for 191 an angel of the Lord descending from heaven came and rolled back the stone, and sat on it. 3 His appearance was like lightning, and his clothes were white as snow. 4 The guards were shaken and became like dead men because they were so afraid of him (Matthew 28:2-4).
Did the Jewish religious leaders hope to strike terror into the hearts of our Lord’s disciples to prevent them from attempting to steal the body of Jesus from that tomb? It was not the disciples they were opposing; it was God. The guards were no match for the angels, and a sealed stone was no match for an earthquake. In an instant, every barrier to that tomb was removed. And to think that the women had wasted their time worrying about how they would remove that stone (see Mark 16:3)! It was the Roman guards who were “all shook up” by the earthquake. They were petrified with fear at the sight of the angel of the Lord.
I don’t think you need to be reminded of this, but that stone was not removed so that Jesus could get out of the tomb (see John 20:19). The stone was removed to make it completely clear to those outside that Jesus was not inside—that He had been raised from the dead, just as He had said.
Matthew supplies us with some other valuable information. He alone informs us that Joseph of Arimathea was a “rich man” (27:57). He also is the one who tells us that the tomb in which our Lord is buried is Joseph’s own new tomb, which has been hewn out of solid stone (27:60).
The Synoptic Gospels portray Joseph of Arimathea in a favorable light. He is said to be a “disciple” of our Lord (Matthew 27:57; see also John 19:38), who was looking for the kingdom of God (Mark 15:43; Luke 23:51). He was a member of the Jewish Sanhedrin (Mark 15:43; Luke 23:50), but he opposed their plans to put Jesus to death (Luke 23:51). All the Gospels identify him as the one who went to Pilate, requesting the body of Jesus:
43 Joseph of Arimathea, a highly regarded member of the council, who was himself looking forward to the kingdom of God, went boldly to Pilate and asked for the body of Jesus. 44 Pilate was surprised that he was already dead. He called the centurion and asked him if he had been dead for a long time. 45 When Pilate was informed by the centurion, he gave the body to Joseph (Mark 15:43-45).
From what we are told in John’s Gospel, I am not so sure that I am willing to accept the translation in verse 43, which would indicate that Joseph “boldly” approached Pilate to ask for the body of Jesus. I doubt that anyone would boldly approach Pilate on such an occasion. For one thing, Joseph was a “secret disciple” of Jesus. For him to identify himself with Jesus at this point did take courage, but I don’t think that his courage was reflected by a “boldness” in his approach to Pilate. Pilate may have had just about enough from the Jews for one day, especially when it came to Jesus. He was far from happy over the way the religious leaders had forced his hand in bringing about the crucifixion of Jesus. I think that these translations more accurately reflect the sense of Mark’s words:
Joseph of Arimathea came, a prominent member of the Council, who himself was waiting for the kingdom of God; and he gathered up courage and went in before Pilate, and asked for the body of Jesus (Mark 15:43, NAB).
Joseph of Arimathea, a prominent council member, who was himself waiting for the kingdom of God, coming and taking courage, went in to Pilate and asked for the body of Jesus (Mark 15:43, NKJV).
It was a courageous thing that Joseph of Arimathea did, going before Pilate and requesting the body of Jesus. But I don’t think that it was something he did “boldly.” I think that he worked up the courage to request an audience with Pilate and then made his request, but not with the arrogance and smugness with which the Jewish religious leaders had dealt with him. His was a humble request, but a reasonable one. Unlike the crucifixion of our Lord, it does not appear to be something that Pilate begrudgingly granted. Indeed, if he felt guilty over condemning an innocent man, he may have felt good that Jesus (this “righteous man,” as Pilate’s own wife had referred to Him—Matthew 27:19) was given an honorable burial. And if the other religious leaders happened not to like it, so much the better.
The Synoptic Gospels all call attention to the women who were present at the cross, and then followed those who buried Jesus to note the place where the body of Jesus was laid to rest (Matthew 27:61; Mark 15:47; Luke 23:54-56). It was their intention to come back after the Sabbath and do a more thorough job of preparing the Lord’s body for burial.
The Burial of Jesus
(19:38-42)
38 After this Joseph of Arimathea, a disciple of Jesus (but secretly, because he feared the Jewish authorities), asked Pilate if he could remove the body of Jesus. Pilate gave him permission, so he went and took away the body. 39 Nicodemus, who had come to Jesus earlier at night, went with Joseph too, carrying a mixture of myrrh and aloes weighing seventy-five pounds. 40 So they took Jesus’ body and wrapped it, with the aromatic spices, in strips of linen cloth according to Jewish burial customs. 41 Now at the place where Jesus was crucified there was a garden, and in the garden was a new tomb where no one had yet been buried. 42 So because it was the Jewish day of preparation and the tomb was nearby, they laid Jesus there.
The trial(s), execution, death, and burial of our Lord were all hurried. The Jews did not wish to arrest and do away with Jesus during the Passover, but their hand was forced and they had to act quickly. The trial of Jesus had been prolonged (with Jesus being sent to Herod), and because Passover was soon to commence, it was necessary to break the legs of the two men beside Jesus to speed up their deaths. Pilate was surprised to learn that Jesus had already died (Mark 15:44). The bodies had to be taken down and buried before nightfall. It was this “rush” which seemed, at first, to be an obstacle to a proper burial for our Lord, but it actually played an important part in bringing about our Lord’s “royal” burial.
John’s account makes a point of indicating that the Lord’s burial was a hurried one (19:42). Time was short, and no one who was close to Jesus seems to be able to secure the body of Jesus. Suddenly, from out of nowhere, two men emerge: Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus. Nicodemus is never mentioned in the Synoptic Gospels, and Joseph of Arimathea is referred to only after the death of Jesus. While the Synoptics speak very favorably of Joseph, John is not quite as complimentary in his description of this man. John does not mention that Joseph was a member of the Jewish Sanhedrin or that he opposed their efforts to kill Jesus. John describes Joseph only as a disciple who kept his allegiance to Jesus a secret, for fear of the Jews.
It looks as though John wants us to view Joseph as a pretty unlikely candidate to bring about what the Scriptures require, so far as our Lord’s burial is concerned. Added to this is the fact that Nicodemus is just as unlikely. Who can pull off what is required here, and in such a short period of time? From what I know of Nicodemus, and from what little I know of Joseph of Arimathea, these two men would not be at the top of my “most likely to be helpful” list.
So far as their loyalty to our Lord in the past is concerned, these two men are not impressive. But so far as their ability to accomplish the task (of burying Jesus in a kingly fashion), they are well qualified. This is not the time for a family member or a close follower of Jesus to request His body for burial. But Joseph of Arimathea is a member of the Sanhedrin and a very wealthy man. He offers Pilate the opportunity to rid himself of the responsibility for burying the body of Jesus.
Joseph of Arimathea is not alone in his efforts to obtain the body of Jesus and to give Him a proper burial. He is working with Nicodemus, another very prominent member of the Sanhedrin. These two men must have begun their association as colleagues on the Council of the Sanhedrin. When Nicodemus objected to the way the Council was proposing to deal with Jesus, Joseph must have taken notice. They may have talked privately and discovered that they were of like mind regarding Jesus. They may have attempted to support each other as they objected to the course the Sanhedrin seemed bent on taking. While Jesus was being crucified, they seem to have mutually agreed upon a plan to obtain His body in order to give Him a proper burial.
One cannot discern from the Gospels just when Joseph and Nicodemus agreed to work together, or when they commenced their efforts to prepare for the burial of Jesus. It may be that Joseph agreed to ask Pilate for permission to remove and bury the Lord’s body. At the same time, Nicodemus could have begun to acquire the necessary spices and material to prepare the body of Jesus for burial. Working together, these two men are able to accomplish something that none of our Lord’s family or His eleven disciples could achieve—they are able to gain access to Pilate and to gain possession of the body of Jesus.
In his account of the burial of Jesus, John gives us some very important details. He not only mentions Joseph of Arimathea, he tells us about Nicodemus. It is only from John’s Gospel that we even know of Nicodemus. No other Gospel mentions this fellow. Nicodemus is the same man who “came to Jesus by night,” as we read in John 3:1-2, and as he reminds us in 19:39. It is John’s mention of Nicodemus in chapter 7 of his Gospel that now catches my attention. You will remember that Jesus had come to Jerusalem for the Feast of Tabernacles (7:1-10ff.). The Pharisees and chief priests decided it was time to arrest Jesus, so they sent the temple police to bring Jesus to them (7:32). When these men returned empty-handed, the Pharisees were incensed. The officers explained that they had never heard anyone speak as Jesus did (7:45-49).
Nicodemus then sought to speak a word (cautiously, it would seem) on Jesus’ behalf. He did not openly defend Jesus and His teachings, but he did question his fellow Pharisees about the legality of the method by which they proposed to deal with Him.
50 Nicodemus, who had gone to Jesus before and who was one of the rulers, said, 51 “Our law doesn’t condemn a man unless it first hears from him and learns what he is doing, does it?” 52 They replied, “You aren’t from Galilee too, are you? Investigate carefully and you will see that no prophet comes from Galilee!” (John 7:50-52)
In today’s legal terminology, Nicodemus is objecting that Jesus is not being given “due process of the law.” Jewish law required that charges against Jesus first be substantiated and, after this, that Jesus be given the chance to speak in His own defense. This had not been done, Nicodemus pointed out, and no one seemed to be heading in the direction of making things right. His peers were not at all gentle in the way they responded to his objections. Here was a highly respected teacher of the law, a Pharisee, a member of the Sanhedrin, and yet he was dealt with as though he were an incoming freshman. “You are not a Galilean, too, are you?” This was no compliment. It was like saying, “How could you be so ignorant?” And then, adding insult to injury, they challenged Nicodemus to look into this subject more carefully, implying that his grasp of the issues was shallow and superficial.
I must admit that I had nearly written Nicodemus off in chapter 3, but after reading about Nicodemus in chapter 7, I had totally given up on this man. I assumed that he just sort of wilted under the criticism of his peers, never to be heard from again. I now must rethink my hasty conclusion. I believe that Nicodemus rose to the challenge. I think that he did investigate more thoroughly and found that the Scriptures did point to Jesus as the Messiah. Furthermore, I think that as Nicodemus became more convinced that Jesus was the Messiah, he spoke out more openly, and at least one other person on the Council agreed with him—Joseph of Arimathea. I am willing to go even farther. I wonder if it was not because of the objections of Nicodemus (and perhaps Joseph as well) that the Sanhedrin felt compelled to modify the way they sought to deal with Jesus, so that they at least appeared to be following Jewish law. Is this why Jesus was first brought before Annas, and then Caiaphas, and then finally brought before the whole Council? Is this why the assistance of Rome was requested? If this is the case, then Nicodemus contributed greatly to the process which led to our Lord’s crucifixion rather than to death by stoning, as the Jews seemed to prefer. It would also seem that the Sanhedrin voted to hand Jesus over to Pilate, but not without hearing objections from both Joseph and Nicodemus (if, indeed, they were both present). This act of requesting the body of Jesus and giving Him a proper burial may have been a public protest on the part of these two members of the Sanhedrin. All of this would mean that Joseph and Nicodemus were not as passive in their disagreement with their peers on the Sanhedrin as I had assumed.
It is John’s Gospel alone that informs us of these two men’s lavish use of spices in their preparation of Jesus’ body for burial (19:39-40). From the accounts of the Synoptic Gospels, we might have assumed that our Lord’s body was not even properly prepared for burial. We read there only that the body of Jesus was “wrapped in a clean linen cloth” (Matthew 27:59; see also Mark 15:46; Luke 23:53). We read also in the Synoptics of the intent of the women to return to the tomb and to prepare the Lord’s body with spices (Mark 16:1; Luke 23:55-56; 24:1). It was almost as though the women were unaware of the fact that nearly 75 pounds of spices had been used by Joseph and Nicodemus. Or, perhaps they just felt they could not trust these men to do it right, and they would have to come back later to improve on the work of these two men.
The thing that strikes me in John’s account is that no mention is made of the fact that the tomb in which Jesus was laid was the one that Joseph had custom-built for himself (Matthew 27:60). From a reading of John’s account, one would assume they were carrying the Lord’s body away from the cross and through a garden (only John mentions the garden). It was getting late, and they had no time to lose. There was an available tomb nearby, in the garden, and they made use of it. It appears the reason for using this tomb was not because it belonged to Joseph, but because it was close, and it seemed expedient to use it because they had run out of time.
This makes sense to me. The question which the reader must ask is, “How was it possible for Jesus to be given a rich man’s burial, when none of His eleven disciples were present, and when the time was so short?” Putting together all of the data from the four Gospels, I would conclude that something like this occurred. Joseph and Nicodemus had opposed the Sanhedrin’s plan to kill Jesus. At some time during the crucifixion process, they determined to acquire the body of Jesus to give Him a proper burial. Joseph went to Pilate and obtained the body while Nicodemus acquired the necessary spices and cloth. They both went to the cross, took down the Lord’s body, and wrapped it in a clean linen sheet. They were carrying the body through the garden, noting the lateness of the hour, and wondering what they should do. Joseph may have looked up and seen the freshly-hewn tomb which he had acquired for his own burial (and perhaps for the use of his family as well). Realizing they were out of time, Joseph told Nicodemus that they would stop right here and bury the body of Jesus in his own tomb. There was no time to do anything else.
I am assuming here that Joseph had intended from the beginning to give Jesus a proper burial, but that he had not necessarily planned to bury Jesus in his own tomb. As nightfall approached, Joseph realized that he was in trouble, time-wise. He looked about, and his eyes fixed on his own personal burial place. There was really no other choice, given the time, and so this is the place where they chose to lay the body of Jesus. John tells the story in such a way that the reader sees, once again, the sovereign hand of God, orchestrating these events so that they fulfill the prophecies of old. Jesus was put to death with criminals, but in the final analysis, He was buried with the rich. The One who seemed destined to be buried on “boot hill” is now buried on “snob hill.” And in so doing, prophecy is once again fulfilled.
Note, incidentally, that John does not tell us every time that a prophecy is fulfilled. Three times in his account of our Lord’s death he indicates that the details of Jesus’ death fulfilled prophecy. But here he does not tell us that the Scriptures were fulfilled, even though they were. I believe John expects his readers to figure some things out for themselves. A good teacher does not give the student the answer to every question. A good teacher teaches the student how to find the answers to his questions. John is a good teacher.
The Resurrection
(20:1-9)
1 Now very early on the first day of the week, while it was still dark, Mary Magdalene came to the tomb and saw the stone had been moved away from the opening. 2 So she went running to Simon Peter and the other disciple whom Jesus loved and told them, “They have taken the Lord from the tomb, and we don’t know where they put him!” 3 Then Peter and the other disciple set out to go to the tomb. 4 The two were running together, but the other disciple ran faster than Peter and reached the tomb first. 5 Bending over, he saw the strips of linen cloth lying there, but he did not go in. 6 Then Simon Peter, who had been following him, arrived and went right into the tomb. He saw the strips of linen cloth lying there, 7 and the face cloth, that had been around Jesus’ head, not lying with the strips of linen cloth but rolled up in a place by itself. 8 Then the other disciple who had reached the tomb first came in, and he saw and believed. 9 (For they did not yet understand the scripture that Jesus must rise from the dead.)
In this text, we come upon another unlikely player in the drama of our Lord’s burial and resurrection. Mary Magdalene is mentioned at this point in all the Gospel accounts. Only Luke refers to Mary Magdalene earlier in the life of Christ:
1 Sometime afterward he went on through towns and villages, preaching and proclaiming the good news of the kingdom of God. The twelve were with him, 2 and also some women who had been healed of evil spirits and disabilities: Mary (called Magdalene), from whom seven demons had gone out, 3 and Joanna, the wife of Cuza, Herod’s household manager, and Susanna, and many others, who provided for them out of their own resources (Luke 8:1-3).
This is not a very flattering introduction, is it? Mary Magdalene is the woman from whom Jesus had earlier cast out seven demons. From that point in time, she seems to have faithfully followed Jesus, along with the other women named. These women supported Jesus and His disciples out of their own means.
All the Gospels honor Mary Magdalene by naming her as the first woman to come to the tomb to anoint the body of her Lord. Matthew also mentions the “other Mary” (27:61), Mark refers to “Mary the mother of Joses” (15:47), and “Mary, the mother of James and Salome” (16:1). Luke includes “Joanna” and “other women” (24:10). These women came prepared to anoint the dead body of Jesus. They did not come with the intention of becoming witnesses to His resurrection, but that is precisely what happened.
John chooses to focus only on Mary Magdalene. This woman is the first one to arrive at the empty tomb. She came to the tomb while it was “still dark” (20:1), and when she got close enough she saw that the stone had been removed. That was all the information she needed. She jumped to the wrong conclusion. She was right, of course, in assuming that the body of her Lord was gone. She was wrong to conclude that someone (“they”) had taken the Lord’s body from the tomb. Exactly who “they” are is not indicated. She may have been thinking in terms of thieves, but more likely she was thinking of the Romans, or perhaps the Jewish religious leaders, or even the “gardener.” No matter; she was wrong.
Mary first ran to where Peter was and then to where John (and Mary, the mother of our Lord) was staying. 192 She repeated the conclusion she had reached. The body of Jesus had been taken, and she had no idea where His body could be found. Her highest ambition was to locate the Lord’s body, so that she could see to it that He was properly buried. Is this not an illustration of a marvelous biblical truth?
6 Now we do speak wisdom among the mature, but not a wisdom of this age or of the rulers of this age, who are perishing. 7 Instead we speak the wisdom of God, hidden in a mystery, that God determined before the ages for our glory. 8 None of the rulers of this age understood it. If they had known it, they would not have crucified the Lord of glory. 9 But just as it is written, “Things that no eye has seen, or ear heard, or mind imagined, are the things God has prepared for those who love him” (1 Corinthians 2:6-9).
20 Now to him who by the power that is working within us is able to do far beyond all that we ask or think, 21 to him be the glory in the church and in Christ Jesus to all generations, forever and ever. Amen (Ephesians 3:20-21).
Mary was to experience a far greater blessing than she could have imagined at this dark moment in her life, no doubt the darkest she had ever known. She had been delivered from bondage to Satan. She had been privileged to follow her Lord and to help support Him and His ministry. She had placed all her faith and hope in Him, and yet He had been put to death as a criminal. That was bad enough, but now she thought that she would not even be able to honor His memory by properly anointing His body for burial. It couldn’t get any worse—or so she thought. But the truth was that it could not get much better. How slow we are to see God’s richest blessings in the things which appear to be great adversity!
Peter may have followed Mary to the home of John, where Mary repeated her story. The two men must then have alternately walked and run to the tomb to check out the situation. John seems to have outrun Peter. Was this because he was younger, or might it be because Peter had already run some distance from his house to John’s home? We don’t know, and it doesn’t really matter. The entrance to the tomb would not be any bigger than necessary. After all, this tomb was hewn out of solid rock. A smaller entrance would make it easier to seal the tomb, and it was not as if people routinely entered the place. John therefore had to stoop to look into the tomb. Some have wondered why he was so slow to enter in and investigate more thoroughly. I think John was too good a Jew to defile himself by rushing into a tomb. Peter, on the other hand, was not as scrupulous. When he arrived, he seems to have entered the tomb without giving it a thought. Peter came out scratching his head, so to speak. It was a mystery to him, one that he couldn’t reason out. The body of Jesus was definitely gone, but the scene inside the tomb was not what one would expect if the grave had been robbed. And where were the guards? Who had moved the stone? What was going on? Peter simply didn’t know (see Luke 24:12).
John’s curiosity now overcomes his scruples about entering the tomb. He had earlier noted the strips of linen cloth. They may not have been in the form of a cocoon, but neither were they the unraveled mess one would expect after grave robbers had done their work. Entering into the tomb and looking more closely, John could now see the whole scene. In addition to the linen strips, he could see the face cloth that had been around Jesus’ head. It was laying separately, neatly placed by itself. John pondered as he looked, and believed (20:8).
It is incredible that some would conclude from this statement that John “believed that Mary was right, and that Jesus’ body was gone.” That would be to state the obvious. It seems to me what John wants us to grasp is that while Peter was still pondering the evidence, John had reached his conclusion. John had come to believe that Jesus really had somehow risen from the dead. John “saw” and he “believed.”
The parenthetical comment in verse 9 is further confirmation of this. Neither Mary Magdalene, nor Peter, nor John understood at this point that it was prophesied that their Lord would rise from the dead. Of course Jesus had said it, and Old Testament prophecies had foretold it as well. But like many of the things Jesus had spoken to His disciples, they simply did not remember or comprehend what He meant.
Why does John tell us this here and now? I think the reason is very simple, and very important. The disciples were not predisposed to believe in the resurrection of Jesus. It was not something which Jesus suggested to them, so that when His body was found to be missing, they would jump to the conclusion that He had truly been resurrected. John is telling us that he came to believe in the resurrection of Jesus before he even realized that he was supposed to do so.
There is a country and western song that goes something like this: “I was (fond of) country (music), when country wasn’t cool.” John is telling us here that he became a believer in the resurrection of Jesus before it was understood to be a necessary part of the Christian faith (see Romans 10:9). John believed Jesus had risen from the dead, by the sheer force of the evidence, not because he thought he was supposed to. What an incredible event this must have been. There, in the darkness of that tomb, John “saw the light.”
Conclusion
There are a number of things which catch my attention in our text. The first is that there is a clear change of players. The regular team—the eleven disciples—have been called off the field, and a number of substitutions have been made (to speak in sports terms). Among these are Joseph of Arimathea, Nicodemus, and Mary Magdalene. Who would have expected such folks to play a key role in the burial and resurrection of our Lord?
There is a lesson to be learned here: God provides. I am reminded of the story of Abraham, when he took his son Isaac up Mount Moriah to offer a sacrifice to the Lord. Isaac asked his father where the animal to be sacrificed was, and Abraham assured him that the Lord would provide the sacrifice. And God did provide. Our text is another demonstration of God’s faithful provision of all that He has purposed and promised. He provided a rich man’s burial for Jesus, who should have been buried on “boot hill.” He provided a place near the cross, within a very narrow window of time. He provided, not through the expected means, but through a man whose name (Joseph of Arimathea) we have never seen before in the Gospels, and through another (Nicodemus) whom we would never have expected to help bury the body of our Lord. The women who followed Jesus wanted to be able to anoint the body of our Lord, but the barriers to entering the tomb seemed insurmountable. A large stone covered the tomb; it had been sealed by Rome, and soldiers were there guarding the tomb to make certain it was undisturbed. God provided. Neither the stone, the seal, nor the soldiers kept Jesus in the tomb—or the disciples out.
God always provides for the fulfillment of His promises. He does so by the instruments of His choosing. He does so in His time. The human instruments were those we would not have chosen, people we would never even have considered. It never occurred to me that, among the members of the Sanhedrin that condemned Jesus to die, there would be some who believed in Jesus, who opposed the plan of their peers, who managed to obtain the body of Jesus and give it a rich man’s burial. God was at work in the hearts of these two men—Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus—and at just the right time, He used them for His glory, and their good.
How often we are like the eleven disciples of our Lord, so frightened and lacking in faith that we do nothing, or like the women in our text who are preoccupied with fears about how we can move a stone. How foolish these fears seem to us now, and yet is it not our own fears that keep us from attempting what our Lord has commanded us to do?
As I read through this text describing our Lord’s burial and resurrection, I am impressed with how unlikely it all seemed at the time. It looked impossible to secure the Lord’s body and to properly prepare it for burial before nightfall. It seemed impossible to find a burial place. There seemed to be no one who would be able to secure the release of our Lord’s body. And once the body of our Lord was discovered to be missing, there seemed to be no way to recover it. Much of what occurred in our text was contrary to the expectations and desires of those who were present. It does not seem as though Joseph really intended to have Jesus buried in his burial place, but as time ran out, it became the only thing he could do. For John, at least, there is an unavoidable conclusion: God raised Jesus from the dead. All these things were orchestrated by God, at just the right time, and in just the right way, so that the Scriptures would be fulfilled.
This was not a conclusion John felt he was obliged to reach, based upon our Lord’s prophecies of His resurrection. John had completely forgotten about these prophecies. He believed in the resurrection of Jesus because there was no other explanation. The resurrection is a foundational truth for the Christian. Saving faith is resurrection faith. Christians do not believe in the resurrection simply because they feel obliged to do so; they believe in the resurrection because it is true, and there is no other reasonable explanation for the events which we find described in our text, or in the rest of the Bible.
By bringing about the fulfillment of prophecy in the way He did, God gave compelling proof of the resurrection of the Lord Jesus. The disciples and followers of Jesus believed in the resurrection because the evidence was compelling. That’s the way God wanted it to be. That’s the way God caused it to work out. He arranged for the body of Jesus to be placed in a hewn tomb, the entrance of which was covered by a great stone, sealed with the Roman seal, and guarded by Roman soldiers. The open and empty tomb was compelling proof that the claim of our Lord to be the Messiah, the King of the Jews, was true.
As I think of Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus, I am reminded that these were men of position and power, and at least Joseph was a man of wealth. I would never have imagined God would have used them to provide for our Lord’s royal burial, but this is precisely who He used. While it is true that God uses the weak and foolish things of this world, it is also true that He sometimes uses the rich and the powerful, as He does here in our text. God always uses just the right instrument to accomplish His purposes.
As I have reflected on this passage, I have come to realize that it describes one of the great turning points of all time. Our Lord is put to death, and His body is placed in a tomb, only to be raised to new life on the third day. This event turned the disciples’ sorrow to joy, their weakness to strength, their fears to boldness and courage. It was the turning point for men and women like Joseph, and Nicodemus, and Mary Magdalene, not to mention Peter and John and the other disciples.
It is by His death, burial, and resurrection that Jesus Christ saves us from our sins, and from the penalty of death. Have you trusted in Him, in His death on the cross of Calvary for your sins, and His resurrection from the dead, so that you may have eternal life? Let me invite you to do so this very hour. May the truth of this text be a turning point in your life, to His glory and to your eternal good.
188 D. A. Carson, The Gospel According to John (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1991), p. 629.
189 From Luke 23:49, it would appear that some or all of Jesus’ disciples watched the crucifixion from a distance, with the exception of John, who stood near our Lord, along with some of the women who followed Him (John 19:26-27).
190 Ironically, the religious leaders must have been pleased to learn that Jesus’ body had been secured by Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus and placed in a grave hewn out of stone, with a large stone sealing the entrance. This was the perfect place to “secure” the body of our Lord.
191 I am impressed by the term “for” here, and am tempted to say that the angel somehow employed the earthquake to move the stone. I know that we might be inclined to think that the angel put his shoulder to the stone and moved it, but it almost seems that he simply summoned an earthquake, the rolling motion of which would make short work of this massive stone. It may be worth noting that the word John uses (rendered “moved away” in John 20:1) is not the normal word for rolling (as the Synoptic Gospels describe it), but a word which can mean “lifted” or “removed,” among other things. We think in terms of “rolling” a great stone because of its mass and our human weakness. God is able to dispose of such things with the greatest of ease. It seems that the earthquake was the means of moving this great stone, and the angel appears to have dispatched it.
192 In the Greek text, there is a repetition of the word “to” in John 20:2: “So she went running to Simon Peter and to the other disciple whom Jesus loved and told them, …” This implies that Peter and John were staying at two different places.
| Joseph of Arimathea |
In which Austrian city was the composer Mozart born? | The Burial of Christ's Body : Christian Courier
The Burial of Christ’s Body
by Wayne Jackson
While it is common to stress the death and resurrection of Christ, little attention generally is paid to the matter of the Lord’s burial, as though minimal significance is attached to that circumstance, in contrast to these other events. That is not true. Paul declares that the gospel of Christ involves the death, burial, and resurrection of the Savior (1 Corinthians 15:3-4).
After the death of Jesus Christ upon the cross, his body was removed and placed in the new (unused) tomb of a wealthy gentleman who was a member of the Hebrew Sanhedrin, Joseph of Arimathaea. The apostle Matthew wrote:
And when evening was come, there came a rich man from Arimathaea, named Joseph, who also himself was Jesus’ disciple: this man went to Pilate, and asked for the body of Jesus. Then Pilate commanded it to be given up. And Joseph took the body, and wrapped it in a clean linen cloth, and laid it in his own new tomb, which he had cut out in the rock: and he rolled a great stone to the door of the tomb, and departed (Matthew 27:57-60; cf. Mark 15:43).
The Bodies of Criminals
From a strictly human vantage point, the burial of Jesus’ body in the manner described above was a radically unusual procedure. Christ was crucified by Roman authorities (at the behest of rebellious Jews – Acts 2:23). According to the Latin poet, Horace, it was the Roman practice to leave a body upon the cross until it decayed. He spoke about crucified slaves “feeding crows on the cross” (Epistle 1.16.46-48).
On the other hand, it was the custom of the Jews that any sentenced to death by the Sanhedrin was “not to be buried in the sepulchers of their fathers; but two burying places were appointed by the council, one for those that were slain by the sword and strangled, the other for those that were stoned who also were hanged and burnt” (Lightfoot, 2.374; emp. original).
The Jewish historian Josephus wrote: “We consider it a duty to bury even our enemies” (Wars 3.8.5). But, as one scholar has observed, an “area far outside the city of Jerusalem had been consigned for the burial of executed criminals” (Lane, 578). Professor Lane cites ancient Jewish sources in support of his statement.
Additionally, it has been noted that for Pilate “to release the body of a condemned criminal — especially one condemned of high treason — to someone other than a relative was highly unusual” (Wessel, 8.785).
Why would the governor permit the corpse of this Jesus, who had created such an upheaval throughout the region, to be released to anyone — particularly in view of the fact that Christ had foretold his own resurrection? Great care, therefore, would have been taken to prevent any confiscation of the body. As the chief priests and Pharisees explained the matter to Pilate:
Sir, we remember that that deceiver said while he was yet alive, “After three days I will rise again.” Command therefore that the sepulcher be made sure until the third day, lest haply his disciples come and steal him away, and say unto the people, “He is risen from the dead”: and the last deception will be worse than the first (Matthew 27:63-64).
Burial of Christ
The burial of the Savior’s body conformed to neither Jewish nor Roman custom, in terms of how the remains of criminals were dispatched. Why was this the case?
The immediate explanation lies in the fact that Joseph was an influential Jew of “honorable estate” (Mark 15:43), who “asked for the body of Jesus.” And Pilate, the Roman governor, for reasons not explained in the biblical text, “commanded it to be given up” (Matthew 27:58).
The ultimate explanation, however, is to be found in the fact that divine prophecy foretold that though Jehovah’s suffering Servant would be “assigned a grave with the wicked” (NIV), nonetheless he would be buried “with a rich man in his death” (Isaiah 53:9). Divine providence clearly was at work in the fulfillment of this prophecy.
Liberal scholars attempt to evade the thrust of this prophecy by making the term “rich” a mere allusion to Jesus’ enemies, or else that of an elaborate burial; but Motyer forcefully points out:
Wicked ... rich: the former is plural and the latter is singular. If Isaiah had merely intended the contrast between a shameful and a sumptuous burial, he would have used two singulars. The use of a plural and a singular suggests that he is talking not about categories but about actual individuals (337).
He goes on to point out that only Matthew’s record of Jesus’ burial in Joseph’s tomb can be the fulfillment of the prophecy.
Divine Overruling
Though Christ’s enemies doubtless intended that his grave be that of a common criminal (he was crucified between two thieves), it is absolutely remarkable that a prophet, seven hundred years earlier, foretold that the Lord would be buried with the “rich.” As observed already, this clearly is at variance with a reasonable expectation.
How could such a prediction possibly have happened by chance? It could not have. Ordinary human beings are unable to predict the future — no matter how many ridiculous claims there are to the contrary.
However, He who knows “the end from the beginning” is able to see the future, cause it to be written, and finally fulfilled (Isaiah 46:10).
It was essential that the location of the tomb be readily known, in view of the fact that some, likely in their opposition to the doctrine of the resurrection, would protest that Christ had not been raised, but the location of his grave simply was unknown, or had been misidentified. This futile explanation has been attempted many times across the centuries. But that view cannot be valid in view of the Jerusalem circumstances; Christ was buried in the tomb of a very prominent man. His tomb was not shrouded in obscurity.
The Seal
Further, the tomb was marked and authenticated with a Roman seal.
If a door had to be sealed, it was first fastened with some ligament, over which was placed some well-compacted clay [or wax], and then impressed with the seal, so that any violation of it would be discovered at once (Job 38:14; Song of Solomon 4:12; Matthew 27:66) (McClintock, 9.492-493).
It would be absurd to assume that the Romans kept no records of such important documentation.
The burial of Jesus, therefore, is a matter of supreme importance — intricately related to both the Savior’s death and his resurrection. And it should not be passed over lightly.
The “Embalming”
There is a final matter that warrants some reflection. It is commonly asserted that Jesus’ body was “embalmed.” That term is nowhere used with reference to the preparation of the Lord’s body. Certainly it was not an “embalming” analogous to what the Egyptians practiced, where there was a mutilation of the remains (see Morris, 496, 730). Among the Jews there was an anointing with spices, when such could be afforded, to retard the stench of decomposition (cf. John 11:39; see Borchert, 282).
Here is an important observation. The fact that the friends of Christ provided spices, and anointed his body for burial, clearly reveals that they had not grasped the significance of Psalm 16:10, namely that his flesh would not experience “corruption” (cf. Acts 2:25-28) because he would be raised. What is the importance of this point?
After Jesus’ death, the disciples did not concoct some outlandish plan to steal the body and proclaim that he had been resurrected! They did not anticipate the resurrection. They fully expected the corpse to decay and return to the dust. It was only seeing him on that Sunday following his death (and subsequently for 40 days) that generated their faith in a “risen Lord.” This is extremely powerful circumstantial evidence of the genuine resurrection of the Savior’s body.
Christianity is based upon a buried and resurrected Lord; the religion is genuine and stands unique, in contrast to all other religious systems — either ancient or modern.
References
Borchert, Gerald L. (2002), The New American Commentary – John 12:21 (Nashville: Broadman & Holman).
Lane, William L. (1974) The Gospel of Mark (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans)
Lightfoot, John (1976), A Commentary on the New Testament from the Talmud and Hebraica (Grand Rapids: Baker).
McClintock, John and Strong, James (1970), Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature (Grand Rapids: Baker).
Morris, Leon (1995), The Gospel According to John – Revised (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans).
Motyer, J. Alec (1999), Isaiah – Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press).
Wessel, Walter (1984), “Mark,†The Expositor’s Bible Commentary (Grand Rapids: Zondervan).
Scripture References
1 Corinthians 15:3-4; Matthew 27:57-60; Mark 15:43; Acts 2:23; Matthew 27:63-64; Matthew 27:58; Isaiah 53:9; Isaiah 46:10; Job 38:14; Matthew 27:66; John 11:39; Psalm 16:10; Acts 2:25-28
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Who was the only Romanian chosen by Pele on the aforementioned 'FIFA 100' list? | Wonderful originally signed and frame photo of Romanian soccer legend Gheorghe Hagi + Certificate of Authencity - Catawiki
The Maradona of the Carpathians
Wonderful originally signed and frame photo of Romanian soccer legend Gheorghe Hagi + Certificate of Authencity
Gheorghe Hagi (Săcele, 5 February 1965) is a former professional soccer player from Romania.
During his career he aquired the nickname 'Maradona of the Carpathians' and in his own country, Hagi was chosen as the country's best soccer player six times.
He also became notorious for the number of yellow cards he received, he always got these when he was criticizing the referees.
His departure as international soccer player, considering his reputation with penalty cards, was characteristic: Hagi got a red card in the match of his Romania against Italy during the European quarter final match on Saturday 24th June 2000, which was lost by the Romanians. Hagi was also mentioned on the List of FIFA 100 best players set up by Pelé in March 2004.
Many Romanians regard Hagi as the best Romanian soccer player ever. The Gheorghe Hagi Stadion in Constanța is named after him.
Size of signed photos: 12 x 8 inch (approx. 20 x 30 cm).
Photo comes with our certificate of authenticity (West Side Autographs).
This certificate mentions our information that guarantees the authenticity of the certificate and of the signed photo.
The certificate comes with the originally signed and framed photo.
Member since:
August 2, 2013
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Helemaal goed...keurig verpakt en snelle levering....happy
jandegroot1 January 19, 2017
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top verkoper en snel in huis
sjaak45elvis January 11, 2017
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Perfekt ich bin sehr zufrieden danke!!!!!
Grafjo January 9, 2017
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In the Book of Genesis, to which land to the east of Eden was Cain banished after killing his brother Abel? | The 100 Best Footballers of All Time | Bleacher Report
The 100 Best Footballers of All Time
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Comments
Who is the greatest soccer player of all time?
Fans, pundits and players have hotly debated the question since the game's inception, arranging and rearranging the hierarchies with every generation of exhausted talent. But besides the insuperable subjectivity of the query itself (meaning that everyone will have there own opinion, thank you very much), several factors further complicate the question—of the vast span of time in which professional soccer has been played, the degree of global exposure between, say, Real Madrid and Penarol and the lack of concrete evidence from soccer's early era. One cannot honestly compare the '30's player of which there is no video evidence with a star like Cantona, living from first to last in front of the camera. That said, there are a few benchmarks that do make such distinctions possible.
On my scale, three factors matter. First, pure ability—easy. Second, length of career. Three—and this is usually for tiebreakers—permanence of contribution to sport. World Cups, Continental Cups, championships, Golden Balls, etc. also play a part. I should also note that their are no players listed who still play in Europe—so no Messi etc. There are a few who are still active-in less challenging or at least less prestigious leagues-whose contributions to soccer history are essentially finished.
So that's that. I'm sure this list will either omit or misplace your favorite player, but that's how it is. Please forgive the liberal use of superlatives and feel free to comment should the urge strike you.
And now, in your correspondent's humble opinion, the 100 greatest players of all time.
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94. Elias Figueroa
A centerback averse to violence, Elias Figuero excelled in the heart of the defense with an elegant tactically awareness and constant interception of the opposition’s passes. The best player to ever emerge from the nation of Chile, he represented his country 47 time throughout his career and through three different World Cups. He played for several clubs during his long career, notably his hometown club Santiago Wanderers, Brazilian club Internacional and Uruguayan club Penarol. Despite playing an underappreciated defensive position, he was twice awarded the Brazilian Player of the year whilst playing for as well as the South American Footballer of the Year three times in a row.
91. Claudio Taffarel
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Brazil’s best goalkeeper ever, Taffarel has distinguished himself as the ultimate stopper in the land of plenty (of goals). Domestically, Taffarel played at Internacional, Parma, Reggianoa and Atletico Mineiro, but it would be at Galatasary that he would enjoy his greatest club successes, part of a team that dominated Turkish football for three years in row, won the UEFA Cup-beating out Arsenal, where Taffarel was decreed the man of the match and defeated Real Madrid in the Super Cup. Internationally, Taffarel remains Brazil’s most capped goalie, having played in three World Cup tournaments. In the ’94 WC, which Brazil would go on to win, Taffarel would allow a meager three goals from open play throughout the tournament. Finally, with Brazile, Taffarel would also win the Copa America twice.
85. Ruud Gullit
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Captain of of the Netherlands national team that was victorious at Euro 88, Gullit was a versatile player, bulky but balanced, with a poise that rendered him unerring in the penalty box. He broke out at PSV, scoring 46 goals in 68 league appearances and earning his first World Player of the Year award. Silvio Berlusconi shelled out a then world record price to bring Gullit to AC Milan where he, Van Basten and Rijkaard would lead the rossoneri to a half-decade of dominance at home and abroad, collecting three Scudetti and two European championships.
80. Jean-Pierre Papin
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Jean-Pierre Papin may not have been the fastest, not the prettiest player on the pitch, but the man could score almost at will. At Marseille, Papin began a phenomenal goal record that enable the team to win four French titles in a row and was the league’s top scorer for five consecutive seasons. Transferred to AC Milan for a record breaking 10 million pounds, with whom Papin would win two Scudetti and finish top scorer his first year. He would win the UEFA cup with Bayern Munich in ’96, though, playing a less pivotal role.
79. Paolo Rossi
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World champion in 1982 with the Italian national team, Paolo Rossi sealed his place in the history books with his sixth goal that won Italy the competition (and himself the Golden Ball). Only he, Mario Kempes and Ronaldo have won been World Cup winners, top scorers and Golden Ball recipients in the same year. His poacher's hat-trick against Brazil and the goal against West Germany in the final particularly stand out. At the club level with Juventus, he would win two Scudetti and the Champions Cup. In other news, he also participated in the most recent edition of the Italian version of Dancing with the Stars.
77. Mario Kempes
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Confusingly named both “The Bull” and “The Matador“ Kempes was nicknamed El toro and El Matador. An energetic whirlwind, Kempes would bewilder defenders by staying high and out of the box before surging forward at an opportune moment. Scoring 85 out of 105 appearances at local outfit Rosario Central, Kempes then moved to Valencia, where he won two consecutive Pichichi’s.
At Valencia, he won the Copa del Rey, the European Cup Winners' Cup and the UEFA Super Cup. For Argentina, he scored 43 caps for Argentina and scored 20 times, representing his country in three World Cups in 1974, 1978 and 1982 and winning the competition in 1978. He was the leading goal scorer in the 1978 tournament, scoring six goals, including two in the final itself. In ’78, he was voted South American Footballer of the year.
75. Emilio Butragueno
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Known as the Vulture for his tendency to hover at the edge of the offside trap Emilio Butragueno epitomized an era of Real Madrid football. Quietly industrious on the field and off, Butrageuno was content to let his lay speak for itself. With La Quinta del Buitre (The Vulture’s Cohort) at his side, Butragueno won six league titles, two Spanish Cups, two Spanish Super Cups, two UEFA Cups and a Spanish League Cup and topped it all of with the Pichichi trophy in 1990/91 season as the top scorer in La Liga. In all, he played 341 games and 123 goals for his main club.
69. Rivelino
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Nicknamed “Patada Atòmica” for his his concussive free kicks, passing, trickery (he invented the elasticò move made famous by Ronaldinho ) and a moustache that would put Super Mario to shame, Rivelino is, among many other things, credited with the fastest goal in football, scoring directly from kick-off when he noticed the opposing goalie still on his knees in pre-match prayer. Rivelino was one of the greatest offensive midfielders in the world in his prime and spent most of his career in Corinthians, scoring 141. He was an integral component to the WC-winning ’70 side, scoring a three, including the free-kick missile against the Czechs that got him his sobriquet.
67. Johann Neeskens
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Johann Neeskens, aka “Johann the Second” (Cruyff beinG number one), was a Dutch midfielder, proponent of Total football and part of the greatest team to never win the World Cup, the ’74 and ’78 Dutch Squad. After winning a hat-trick of UEFA cups with Ajax when the club was at the pinnacle of its success, Neeskens transferred to Barcelona with mentor Cruyff; their appearance is creditied with infusing the Catalan side with its attack-minded “tiki-taka” style for which they are now so famous. Check his goal against Brazil in the ’74 WC if you remain unimpressed.
65. Lillian Thuram
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A versatile man-marker and the most-capped French player ever, Thuram could play on the right as well as the center of the back four. For France, he won the '98 World Cup, quickly followed by the 2000 European title, being part of the first team to ever do so. He made his name at Parma, winning the UEFA cup, before sold to Juventus following the sale of Zinedine Zidane . He won four Scudetti with Juventus (two revoked) before moving on to Barcelona in the wake of Calciopoli. Now, Thuram fights racism and helps with volunteer efforts.
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63. Steve Bloomer
It takes a special person to organize a football match in the middle of a German internment camp. But that is exactly what “The Pride of Derby” did: When taken prisoner at the outbreak of WWI—Bloomer was coaching a German team—he set up a league among the 5,000 prisoners and guards that would attract up to 1,000 spectators. A legend at Derby County—his bust sits outside the stadium, and the anthem “Steve Bloomer’s Watchin’” is played before every home game—he would score 317 goals in 536 First Division games, many of them off his trademark “daisy-cutter”. He remains the second-highest goal-scorer of all-time in England.
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57. Luis Suarez
Not the homonymous player from Uruguay known for the errant hand. “Luisito” was the first Spanish player to win the European Player of the Year award, given for his contributions to Barcelona, where he won two leagues. Suarez excelled on the inside left of midfield, where he would collect the ball at the back and through invention and fleetness of foot would work it up to the attacker. At Inter—where he became the most expensive transfer in history, to that point—Suarez would win three Scudetti. He remains the only non-naturalized Spaniard to win the European Player of the Year award.
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55. Omar Sivori
His nickname “Big Head” says it all. Sivori came to fame as a member of Argentina’s “Trio of Death” that included Humberto Maschio and Antonio Angellini. Leaving River Plate one of the premier clubs in Argentina, Sivori transferred to a Juventus that would dominate the Italian league as well. A strutting, audaciously talented primadonna, Sivori formed a fearsome partnership with the Welshman John Charles and Giampiero Boniperti, leading the Turin side to three Scudetti. Sivori would win the Ballon D’Or while he was there and remains one of the team’s top scorers (he also holds the record for most goals in a single game, a staggering six).
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54. Silvio Piola
A hero and co-founder of the fanatical calcio craze in Italy, Piola singlehandedly inspired a nation to start kicking the ball around. Some 60 years after his retirement, Piola still holds the record for most goals in Serie A, at an insuperably high 274; second place is 49 goals back. He remains the highest-scoring player for three different teams: Pro Vercelli, Lazio and Novara. He has scored the most open-play goals in a single game in Serie A (six), and for good measure, he remains the oldest goal scorer in Serie A at 40 years of age. He is also apocryphally credited with inventing the bicycle-kick, though the authorship is disputed. Piola won Italy’s first World Cup in 1938, scoring two goals in the final. He is also the fourth highest on all-time appearances for Italy.
50. Gheorghe Hagi
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Nicknamed “the Maradona of the carpathians” as well as "the commander", Hagi cemented a reputation as one of the best attacking midfielders of all time. Hagi could outdribble an opponent only to lash in a stunning, one in a million left footers as well as incredible ball control and passing abilities. Holds second most Romania caps and most goals. A wandering goal scorer, Hagi was one of the few to play for both Madrid and Barcelona (sandwiching a stint at brescia), scoring in all, a whopping 236 goals. He won four titles and the UEFA cup.
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49. Lev Yashin
Lev Yashin was everything the Soviet Union could have wanted of an athlete proletarian. Born into the conflagration of world war, Yashin bulked up when he worked at a munitions depot. Following his stand-out play, he would be signed for Dinamo Moscow, the club he would stay at for his entire career. At Dinamo, Yashin would win the championship five times while personally being voted World’s Best Goalkeeper a record six times, keeping 270 clean sheets and putatively saving around 150 penalties in his career. To this day, he remains the only goalie to have won the “European Player of the Year” award.
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47. Giovanni Rivera
Giovanni Rivera, nicknamed “abatino” “little abbot” for his diminutive stature and pious appearance, was the first Italian to win the Ballon D’or, who played as a winger and playmaker for AC Milan. Winner of Euro ’68, Rivera militated in the red and black for 19 season, playing a staggering 658 games and scoring 164 goals despite his receded position. At AC, Rivera won three Scudetti and two European cups. Since 1987, Rivera has taken an active part in Italian politics and currently runs Italy’s Youth Federation. An idol of the Curva Sud, Rivera is named in at least four of Milan’s fight songs.
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45. Giacinto Facchetti
In a footballing era defined by a defensive immobility, Facchetti would mold the position of right back in his own image, transforming an ancillary rearguard hold into the critical attacking outlet it has become. A smooth, domineering right-back Facchetti played his entire career in “La Grande Inter” (The Great Inter) that would dominate the Italian peninsula throughout the ‘60’s and ‘70’s, making 643 appearances and scoring 75 goals. With Inter, Facchetti would win the European Cup twice in a row (‘64 and 65), a trophy that would not return to the nerazzuri until the arrival of a certain Portuguese loudmouth named Mourinho. Giacinto Facchetti would also play 94 times for Italy, 70 of which he would be captain.
42. Romario
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If Romario, Rio’s newest mayoral candidate, is as smooth a politician as he was a goalscorer, his opponents won’t stand a chance. The classic “have foot, will travel” goalscorer, Romario has played on no less five continents, scoring over 1000 goals in the process (Apocryphal. FIFA lists him at 929 goals). As that staggering number can attest, the man could put ‘em away- and in ‘94 he did it all year long. Spanish Cup, La Liga Top Scorer, World Player of the Year, Best Player of World Cup ‘94 and, of course, the World Cup itself...he probably pulled a muscle carrying all those awards. Unfortunately, the high water mark was just that- an all too temporary plateau. He would spend the better part of the next 13 years bouncing around the world, always consistent but never again tapping that magical vein of form that had captivated the world in US ‘94. That rollercoaster consistency-and the fact that he played a huge portion of his career in less competitive leagues- penalizes him in the hierarchy here, but there’s no denying how friggin’ good he was.
40. Zico
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Known as the "White Pelé" for his skill, finishing ability and passing quality, Zico’s direction of the ball remains legendary and quite possibly unsurpassed. Gifted with a curving free kick as well as a tactical genius, Zico lit up the early eighties and is often considered the greatest player of that era. Never imported to Europe, Zico remained in Brazil for his career (check). He would score 52 goals in 52 matches for Brazil, representing them at three different World Cups, none of which they won (though ’82 is considered one of the greatest Selecao sides ever). Given his lack of trophies, Zico is often considered one of the best players in football history to not have won the World Cup. In ’77, he was awarded South American Player of the Year, and in ’83, he would receive World Player of the Year.
38. Denis Law
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Buoyed by a flair for the game, Denis Law is the only Scottish player to win the Eurpean Footballer award (while at Manchest United). Manchester’s second highest goal scorer behind Bobby Charlton, a statue at Stratford End commemorates “The King” and his contribution to the Red Devil. During his 11 years at Manchester, he scored 237 goals in 409 and won two leagues and a European Cup. He is also holds the Man Utd’s record for most goals in a season with 46. Law played for Scotland a total of 55 times and jointly holds the Scottish record for goals at 30.
34. George Best
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When standing and sober, George Best did everything in his power to live up to the standards of his last name. A sturdy winger who could seemingly do everything, Best won the European Cup with Manchester United in addition to two league titles and European Footballer of the year. Unfortunately, while Best could do no wrong on the field, it seemed he could do no right off it. Constantly awash in “booze and birds”(as he termed them), Best’s career lasted a fragile six years at the pinnacle of the game before his salacious exploits took their toll. Best would die at the age of 59, after a forced liver transplant caused an infection.
32. Claudio Gentile
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In English, “gentile” means gentle. A misnomer if there ever was one. The Times listed Gentile as one of the roughest players ever, part of the deadly trio that included Bergomi and Tardelli. That said, Gentile was only sent off once in his career after receiving two yellow cards. A man-marking right’back, Gentile had perfect timing for the clean challenge and never refrained from the tough tackles. At Juventus he appeared almost 300 times, winning six national titles and two European titles. Gentile appeared for Italy in two World Cup tournaments and was on the field for the ’82 final won by the Italians. His marking of Maradona and Zico at that tournament remains legendary.
31. Luis Figo
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There are few players who have worn both the merengue and the blaugrana. Fewer still are those who did so with some success. Luis Figo of Portugal was one of these.
One of Portugal’s Golden Generation (tangent: does every country have its own Golden Generation? Seems like it), Luis Figo was a stunningly fast winger, equipped with the whole nine-yards- fancy step-overs, phenomenal first touch and a bomb shot (including free-kicks). Over the course of a twenty year first-team career (good lord) and between four different clubs (Sporting CP, Barcelona, Real Madrid and Inter) he won more awards than you could shake a very shakeable stick at. In abridged form: two La Liga titles with both Barcelona and Real Madrid (four total), four Serie A titles, a Champions League and a Ballon D’Or. Whew. Also, his transfer from Barcelona to Madrid set the world record at 65 million pounds, though not getting knifed for doing so seems like a bigger deal.
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When Maradona defines someone as “The best rival I’ve ever had," you listen.
Matthaus played in five World Cups, the most ever for an outfield player, and he holds the record for most WC matches ever played (25). Matthaus started his career as an attacking midfielder equipped with a positional clairvoyance and a watchmaker’s sense for timing; he pretty much could do anything.
As he aged, Matthaus gravitated further and further towards the bottom of the pitch, retaining a formidable influence over the run of play. In 1990, he captained West Germany to the 1990 World Cup, after which he was named European and World Footballer of the year. Besides the torrent of plaudits received at the international level, Matthaus won a scudetto with Inter Milan, four Bundesliga titles and two UEFA Championships. A harsh-spoken cankicker, Matthaus may not be the most personable of footballers, but his resume speaks for itself.
28. Bobby Moore
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One of the greatest English outfield players ever, Moore captained the England team that won their only World Cup in 1966. Second on the all-time caps list for England at 108, Moore also played every minute of every game he was capped for. The youngest man ever to captain England at the senior level (aged 22). Won the FA cup with West Ham as well as the UEFA Cup. Pele described him as the greatest defender he ever played, while Jock Stein, a famous Scottish manager said “There should be a law against him. He knows what's happening 20 minutes before everyone else.”
27. Ronaldinho
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How the mighty have fallen. A supremely talented individual player in his youth, Ronaldinho was a joy to watch: quick, superlatively talented on the ball and with a penchant for the cheeky and the audacious that made him a true crowd-pleaser, talents for which he would be draped in individual awards. With Brazil, he won the 2002 edition of the World Cup in which he scored his now famous free-kick to England's damage. At the club level, he won two La Ligas and a Champions League with Barcelona. Add on top the two FIFA World Player of the Year awards, just for good measure.
Unfortunately, Ronaldinho did not age well, his predilections for rum and late-night sambas taking a heavy toll that saw his form spiral quickly into mediocrity at AC MIlan and now Flamengo.
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25. Raymond Kopa
Before Kopa was a footballing hero, he shoveled coal in the deep underground shafts of the newly industrialized Northern France. Practicing his dribbles between breaks, he learned to leverage his small stature (5'6"), which gave him great balance and acceleration necessary to embarrass his lankier opponents.
Following an impressive two year stint at SCO Angers, Kopa transferred to Reims, with whom he won two French Leagues and lost a European final against, prophetically, his future employer Real Madrid. Immediately afterwards, he transferred to the Spanish capital, where he would win three more European Cups and two La Ligas.
24. Paolo Maldini
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Paolo Maldini, son of the manager Cesare Maldini, was the rare scion capable of eclipsing the glories of the father. Equally comfortable at the left and center of the defense, Maldini embodied the cool-headed, tactically astute defender at the forefront of an impregnable defense. A one-club man, Paolo spent 25 seasons in AC Milan’s black and red, winning five Champions Leagues, seven Serie A titles and a barrelful of personal accolades. Maldini holds the record for fastest goal in a UEFA club final (51 seconds), a goal that also made him the oldest player to score in a final. The second most capped player in Italian history (at 126), Paolo earned his first cap under his father in 1986 and played internationally until 2002. Paolo and Cesare are the only father son combo to have won the European Cub chapionship.
21. Kenny Dalglish
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Six league titles, three European Cups and five domestic cups. Record goals appearances for Scotland.YA bevvy of personal goals. And the holder of two hats—one of the only people to simultaneously be player and manager. Dalglsh’s exploits alongside the teenage Ian Rush expunged any memories of the departing Kevin Keegan. Within his first season, Dalglish had scored 31, including the winner of the ’78 European cup final. Over 13 years, that sum would grow to 118. Now Dalglish leads another Red resurgence, as Liverpooi strive to find their customary place at the top of the table once more.
20. Roberto Baggio
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Nicknamed “il divino codino” (the divine ponytail) for his questionable taste in coiffure, Baggio could unlock the steeliest of defenses through his speed and technical ability (see his goal against Czechozlavkia, which one can watch on repeat), redefined the Italian club and national scene renowned for their steely defense rather than artful trickery. Winner of the Ballon d’or and world player of the year in 1993, Baggio has also scored in three world cups, the only Italian to do so. He has never collected a trophy internationally, having missed the crucial penalty against Brazil in 1994 (in the final).
17. Gerd Muller
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Tell a Dutchman your favorite player ever is Gerd Muller, and you will have lost a friend. But the goal that wrested the ‘74 World Cup from the best Netherlands side in history was one of very, very many. 398 for Bayern Munich and 68 for West Germany (out of only 62 appearances), to be exact. His tally stills stand as the highest in Germany; his competitor is 97 goals back.
Not the most physically imposing of players, Muller invented the penalty area predator mold that would serve Inzaghi and Raul so well and finessed it to such a degree that he won the German top scoring mark seven times out of 11 years. Add to that the Golden Boot at the ’70 World Cup, the Champions Cup top scorer four times, the Euro top scorer in ’72…It goes on.
Bayern would win four Bundesliga titles and three European Champions cups while he was there, cementing the place of Bayern in the international scene. No less than Franz Beckenbauer has proclaimed that “Everything that FC Bayern has become is due to Gerd Muller and his goals."
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15. Ferenc Puskàs
The player for whom the competition of most beautiful goal is named. And not by chance. The list of accomplishments is staggering. Scoring 84 goals from 85 appearances for Hungary, or the 157 out of 182 for real Madrid-despite signing for Madrid at the ripe age of 31, or winning the Pichichi four times out of five years, five Spanish leagues, five Hungarian championships,seven goals in two European championship finals, it keeps going on. In short, Puskas, along with Di Stefano, formed Real Madrid into the European juggernaut it is today. That makes Rea 35 out of 39. He was also an ex-Army Major who had to fend off an angry Brazilian squad that the Hungarians had just knocked out of the ’54 World Cup with a cleat and a bottle.
14. Franco Baresi
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The name Baresi has become synonymous with the regal physicality of impregnable defenses. Francesco Baresi played with a singular style, powerful, imperious, ruthless. Gianni Brera said that he would attack a ball as the wolf attacks the lamb. An unparalleled libero roaming the itch, Baresi could intercept or interdict the opponent’s play and immediately command a counter-attack.
Throughout the whole of his career, he would only wear the colors of AC Milan—staying with them through double relegation—and Italy, with both of whom he would go onto win glory. Over 20 seasons at Milan, he would win six Scudetti, three Champions Cups, two International Cups, two European Supercups and four Italian Super Cups. He was included in the ’82 Italian squad that won the World Cup, though he didn’t play a minute. Immediately afterwards, he would captain the team at an unprecedented 22 years of age.
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13. Eusebio
Best. Portuguese. player. Ever. I mean, his nickname was “the black panther”, for his slinky acceleration and ability to sink the ball. Eusebio’s name would became synonymous with hisclub of heart, Benfica, where he would score a mindboggling 320 goals out of 312 appearances.
Benfica would go on to win 11 Primeira Ligas and undo the imperious Real Madrid of the Di Stefano era to claim the European cup. Named European footballer of the year in ’65, he’d go on to win the European boot in ’68 and ’73 as well and was the top Portuguese goal scorer seven seasons out of nine. Crazy talk.
12. Zinedine Zidane
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He was the iconic figure of a generation of French players that won the 1998 World Cup and 2000 European Championship. After a brief international retirement, he returned to the national team in 2005 and captained France to the 2006 World Cup Final, where he won the Golden Ball as the tournament's most outstanding player.
At club level, Zidane won the La Liga and the UEFA Champions League with Real Madrid, two Serie A league championships with Juventus, an Intercontinental Cup and a UEFA Super Cup each with both aforementioned sides. He is, alongside Brazilian striker Ronaldo, the only three-time FIFA World Player of the Year winner; he also won the Ballon d'Or in 1998. Inizia come terzino sinistro nel Cannes.
Divenuto poi centrocampista e trequartista, allo straordinario talento calcistico univa tecnica incredibile e una superiore intelligenza tattica. Zidane era famoso per i suoi dribbling funambolici e gli stop eleganti in cui riusciva con qualsiasi parte del corpo.[5] Il colpo che può esser definito quale suo marchio di fabbrica è sicuramente la "ruleta", detta anche "veronica". Poteva inoltre ricoprire quasi tutti i ruoli offensivi, dal mediano al centrocampista, dal centrocampista di fascia al trequartista, suo ruolo prediletto; all'occorrenza poteva anche essere impiegato come seconda punta. Possedeva una straordinaria visione di gioco, un controllo di palla eccezionale con entrambi i piedi e precisione nei passaggi e nei lanci; ottima anche l'abilità nei calci piazzati. Tutte qualità grazie alle quali è considerato uno dei calciatori più forti di tutti i tempi. 2 scudetti, one liga, one champion league. One wc, euro. Best euro 00 player. Golden ball wc 2006. 95 out of 506. 31 out of 108 for france
11. Marco Van Basten
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Another footballing career abruptly truncated through injury, in his prime, Marco Van Basten and his Milan played some of the most jaw-unhinging football ever recorded. Signed by Silvio Berlusconi thanks to his sublime volleys, velvet touch and torrent of goals, Van Basten would win the European Footballer of the Year three times (1988, '89 and '92) and FIFA World Player of the Year in 1992, scoring 277 goals in 11 pro years, in two of which he finished as the capocannoniere. He would become the first player to score four goals in a Champions League match, winning two European cups in a row.
10. Bobby Charlton
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Had Bobby Charlton not survived the Munich air disaster, Manchester United would simply not be a team of the caliber they are today. Renowned for a keen offensive instinct and long-range bombshells, Charlton collected a World Cup trophy after a personal performance earned a European Footballer of the Year award and the Golden Ball. Charlton won the English league three times with the Red Devils, then captained the team to a European cup in 1968. He has scored more goals for England and United than any other player. He is also second behind Ryan Giggs with most appearances for United.
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9. Garrincha
In Brazil, Pelè may have been “O Roi” (the king), but Garrincha was “O alegria de povo” (the Joy of the People). A winger of talent in abundance, equal to if not exceeding (fleetingly) that of his more famous and enduring compatriot, Garrincha was the most naturally gifted of players, though declared crippled at birth. Looking back at his footage, it appears his bowed legs somehow contributed, abetted his wholly idiosyncratic, mesmerizing style of play. It was said that Garrincha would beat a defender easily, wait for him to catch up, then do it all over again, just for the fun of it.
After winning the World Cup in ’58 along the eternal talisman Pelè, Garrincha dragged the Selecao to an immediate second despite losing his more celebrated companion to injury. In ’62, Garrincha won the World Cup, personally scoring six and winning the World Footballer of the Year award. Unfortunately, a dissolute and lackadaisical regard to training, combined with a heavy drinking problem, withered one of the greatest talents of all time.
7. Alfredo Di Stefano
Di Stefano scoring his back-heel against Manchester United
Alfredo Di Stefano made Real Madrid the merengues, a team whose all-white kit and untouchable quality of play defined an era of Spanish and continental football. Argentine by birth, Spaniard by choice and attacker by trade, “The Blonde Arrow” unleashed the balletic technique that characterized the South American game on a sluggish, dormant Europe.
Besides the finesse shot, he brought the playmaker’s omniscience to a continent occluded and obsessed with the long ball. Madrid would win the European Cup a staggering five times in a row playing a spectacular, squeaky clean game. The backheel goal against Manchester United remains a paragon of skill and sheer nerve, while the terrifying trident of Puskas, Di Stefano and Kopa are memorialized as one of the most potent front lines in history. Recognized as the greatest Spanish player of the 20th century, he is truly one of the best and most influential players to strap on cleats.
6. Ronaldo
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Love him or hate him, there is no defining the phenomenon that was “The Phenomenon”—the original Ronaldo. A complete player, at ease with either foot, and a truly unparalleled ability to finish from every angle possible, Ronaldo has carved himself a place in the history books as the most effective pure goal scorer of the last 50 years, if not of all time.
The awards won, both personal and collectively are mindboggling. The youngest player to receive FIFA’s World Player award—his first of three, age 20—Ronaldo also won two Ballon D’Or’s, two World Cups and holds the record for most goals scored in the World Cup. At a club level, he scored 247 goals out of 343 appearances for various clubs. In 96-’97, Ronaldo scored an absurd 47 goals in 49 games for Barça, then winning the La Liga top scorer award in 1997 with 34 goals in 37 games followed by a slew of international trophies. He would win the Pichichi again with Madrid and the UEFA Cup with Inter. Unbelievably talented.
5. Franz Beckenbauer
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The defender of the century. Beckenbauer is the only man to have won the World Cup both playing and managing. Drawing on, then eclipsing, the free-roaming styles of Baresi and Facchetti, Beckenbauer could menace a team at any place on the pitch through a thoughtful, vivid reading of the game. Besides the WC and Euro championship earned on the field with Germany, Beckenbauer is also the only person to captain a team to three consecutive European Cup championships. “The Kaizer," besides dabbling in politics, went on to coach his alma mater Bayern Munich and then on to serve as its president. In 1999, IFFHS voted him the world’s third best player of the century.
4. Michel Platini
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Before he was a bureaucrat, he was "Le Roi” (The King). Now the head of UEFA, Michel Platini was, in his day, the undisputed master of the pitch. He is considered one of the best passers and free-kick artists ever and, despite being a midfielder, has scored the second most goals for the French National team (after Henry).
Over the course of four short years at Juventus, he won two league championships, one European Cup (marred by the Heysel tragedy), one Cup winners Cup, one European Super Cup and one Intercontinental Cup title. Despite being a midfielder, he was Serie A's topscorer three times and was awarded three Ballon D'Ors back-to-back-to-back. For France, he won the '84 European Championship, a competition in which he finished top-scorer with nine goals, a sum as of yet unequaled.
He retired at the early age of 32 and now helms one of the most important sporting organizations in the world.
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Wondering where this guy was going to slot in, eh?
All the Argentine and Napoli fans will likely hate me for not listing him as number one, but I stand by my decision. Yes, he was very, very, very good and one of the best, if not the best, individual players; there's no denying. That he played his best football in one of the most defensive leagues at the pinnacle of its prestige makes his accomplishments all the more impressive. El Pibe de Oro won Napoli their only two Serie A titles, but achieved his apotheosis by producing the most awesome World Cup goal in the competition's history—the Goal of the Century—striding, ducking and dodging through a statuesque English backline. In all, he scored 258 goals in a club career spanning three countries and six different clubs.
But for all his winding runs, delicate assists and trophy-winning hand balls, Maradona did not have the influence over the shape and philosophy of a team that would have lifted him to first place.
2. Pelè
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King of kings...the name synonymous with the joga bonita, with dauntless ability, with ingenious sleights of foot and with the greatest goal-scoring record in history: 1,281 goals in 1,363 games. Pelè had the kind of talent that didn't outshine those sharing the field but rather an entire generation of player. He was, and is, a remarkable athlete and ambassador of the game.
The classic number 10 (literally, the number 10 achieved its significance because it belonged to Pelè), he was an inside forward and playmaker that dashed between the opposing lines—gifted with a powerful shot, speed and grace to outdance defenders and tactically aware of his teammates on the pitch..
"The King" was a one-club man for much of his career, starting for Santos at the age of 16 and remaining for nearly two decades, over the course of which he won 10 Paulista Championships, two Copa Libertadores and two Intercontinental Cups (at the expense of Eusebio's Benfica and Gianni Rivera's AC Milan). He was the Brazilian League's top scorer 11 times—nine of which were consecutive
Brazil's top goal scorer of all-time (77 out of 92 appearance), Pelè is the only footballer to be part of three different World Cup winning squads (though he was awarded the '62 honor retroactively, having been injured early on in the competition). He is also only one of two people to have scored in four different World Cup tournaments.
Pelè played with an adolescent's infatuation his entire career—uncynical, inventive, incessantly accomplishing the impossible, the never-before-attempted. For this especially, he sits in at number two.
1. Johan Cruyff
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Whoa whoa whoa...all you Pelè and Maradona devotees, put down the axes and pitchforks and listen to me. The reasoning behind my choice for numero uno doesn't come down to purely technical abilities or international exploits: you can still safely say that both Pelè and Maradona were better (but just barely) individual players, but neither bequeathed anything as as revolutionary or enduring as Cruyff's vision of "Total Football": a style of play characterized by "tiki-taka" passing, commanding possession and the interchangeability of the outfield players now particularly in evidence at Barcelona.
"But!", you may cry, "What about Rinus Michels?!" Yes, Michels was the man who imparted the theory that was Totaalvoetbal. It was his big beautiful baby. But Cruyff became its high priest and practitioner and it was through Cruyff that Michel'sTotal Football flowed. To quote Star Wars, "The student has become the master".
Pelè may have won three World Cups, but he did so with the aid of players like Garrincha, Rivelino and Jairzinho. Admittedly, Maradona dragged a mediocre Argentina side to the '86 World Cup, but he did so through singular, physical ability bereft of any real tactical comprehension. When drugs and late-night partying finally got to Diego, he quickly atrophied into a husk of his former self.
Side note: Besides his tactical legacy, I'd like to point out that Cruyff was very, very good. Between 1971 and 1974, he won three Ballon D'Ors (a record shared with compatriot Van Basten and Platini) as well as the Golden Ball of World Cup '74. He employed a close control of the ball, which, combined with bursting acceleration, allowed him to dance through defensive lines. He is most famous for the eponymous "Cruyff Turn." Plus he is responsible for this masterpiece . And this one .
But he was called "Pythagoras in Boots" for his perception of teammates' movement. Though nominally a center-forward, he would often swap roles, dropping deep into his own half or out onto the wing to then exploit opponents' confusion.
With Ajax, he won eight Eredivise titles and three European Cups in a row, scoring a total of 190 goals. As a player his stint at Barcelona earned him a lonely La Liga title, a dearth he would later rectify as the club's manager, when he won four Liga's in a row as well as the European Cup.
In essence, Cruyff modernized the game of football.
And while Pelè and Maradona possessed unparalleled individual abilities (that even Cruyff could not measure up to) Johan had the rare ability to elevate the level of his teammates to his own. Cruyff was great because he could make others appear great.
For these titles, abilities and legacies, Cruyff deserves to be recognized as the greatest player of all time.
So there you have it, the top 100 players ever. Enjoy.
| i don't know |
Epistaxis is the medical name for which minor complaint? | Nosebleed : MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia
Nosebleed can be caused by:
Irritation due to allergies, colds, sneezing or sinus problems
Very cold or dry air
Blowing the nose very hard, or picking the nose
Injury to nose, including a broken nose , or an object stuck in the nose
Deviated septum
Chemical irritants
Overuse of decongestant nasal sprays
Repeated nosebleeds may be a symptom of another disease such as high blood pressure, a bleeding disorder, or a tumor of the nose or sinuses. Blood thinners, such as warfarin (Coumadin), clopidogrel (Plavix), or aspirin, may cause or worsen nosebleeds.
Home Care
To stop a nosebleed:
Sit down and gently squeeze the soft portion of the nose between your thumb and finger (so that the nostrils are closed) for a full 10 minutes.
Lean forward to avoid swallowing the blood and breathe through your mouth.
Wait at least 10 minutes before checking if the bleeding has stopped. Be sure to allow enough time for the bleeding to stop.
It may help to apply cold compresses or ice across the bridge of the nose. Do not pack the inside of the nose with gauze.
Lying down with a nosebleed is not recommended. You should avoid sniffing or blowing your nose for several hours after a nosebleed. If bleeding persists, a nasal spray decongestant (Afrin, Neo-Synephrine) can sometimes be used to close off small vessels and control bleeding.
Things you can do to prevent frequent nosebleeds include:
Keep the home cool and use a vaporizer to add moisture to the inside air.
Use nasal saline spray and water-soluble jelly (such as Ayr gel) to prevent nasal linings from drying out in the winter.
When to Contact a Medical Professional
Get emergency care if:
Bleeding does not stop after 20 minutes.
Nose bleeding occurs after a head injury. This may suggest a skull fracture, and x-rays should be taken.
Your nose may be broken (for example, it looks crooked after a hit to the nose or other injury).
Call your health care provider if:
You or your child has frequent nosebleeds
Nosebleeds are not associated with a cold or other minor irritation
What to Expect at Your Office Visit
The provider will perform a physical exam. In some cases, you may be watched for signs and symptoms of low blood pressure from losing blood, also called hypovolemic shock .
You may have the following tests:
Reducing a broken nose or removing a foreign body
Reducing the amount of blood thinner medicine or stopping aspirin
Treating problems that keeps your blood from clotting normally
You may need to see an ear, nose, and throat (ENT) specialist for further tests and treatment.
Alternative Names
Bleeding from the nose; Epistaxis
Images
Nosebleed
References
Pfaff JA, Moore GP. Otolaryngology. In: Marx JA, Hockberger RS, Walls RM, et al, eds. Rosen's Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice. 8th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Mosby; 2014:chap 72.
Simmen D, Jones NS. Epistaxis. In: Flint PW, Haughey BH, Lund LJ, et al, eds. Cummings Otolaryngology: Head & Neck Surgery. 6th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2015:chap 42.
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| Nosebleed |
Which small wildcat, found in South and Central America and Mexico, is also known as the 'Dwarf Leopard' as its fur is said to resemble that of the larger cat? | Nosebleed - Treatment - NHS Choices
Nosebleed - Treatment
Nosebleed Treatment
Treating a nosebleed
Most nosebleeds can be stopped without the need for medical attention, but occasionally further treatment may be required.
What to do
To stop a nosebleed:
sit down and firmly pinch the soft part of your nose, just above your nostrils, for at least 10-15 minutes
lean forward and breathe through your mouth – this will drain blood down your nose instead of down the back of your throat
place an ice pack or bag of frozen vegetables covered by a towel on the bridge of your nose
stay upright, rather than lying down as this reduces the blood pressure in the blood vessels of your nose and will discourage further bleeding
If the bleeding eventually stops, you won't usually need to seek medical advice. However, you should still follow the recovery advice outlined below.
When to seek medical advice
Contact your GP or call NHS 111 if:
you're taking a blood-thinning medicine ( anticoagulant ) such as warfarin or have a clotting disorder such as haemophilia and the bleeding doesn't stop
you have symptoms of anaemia such as heart palpitations , shortness of breath and a pale complexion
a child under two years of age has a nosebleed (this is rare and there's a chance it's caused by something serious)
you have nosebleeds that come and go regularly
Ask someone to drive you to your nearest accident and emergency (A&E) department or call 999 for an ambulance if:
the bleeding continues for longer than 20 minutes
the bleeding is heavy and you've lost a lot of blood
you're having difficulty breathing
you swallow a large amount of blood that makes you vomit
the nosebleed developed after a serious injury, such as a car crash
Find your nearest A&E department .
Medical treatment
If you see your GP or go to hospital with a nosebleed, you will be assessed to determine how serious your condition is and what's likely to have caused it. This may involve looking inside your nose, measuring your pulse and blood pressure, carrying out blood tests and asking about any other symptoms you have.
The two main treatments that your GP or hospital doctor may use to stop your nose bleeding are cautery and nasal packing. These are described below.
Cautery
If your doctor is able to identify exactly where the bleeding is coming from, they may carry out a minor procedure to seal the bleeding blood vessel by cauterising (burning) it.
This is normally done using a stick of a chemical called silver nitrate. A local anaesthetic will be sprayed into your nose to numb it and the silver nitrate stick will be held against the bleeding point for up to 10 seconds.
Nasal packing
If cautery is ineffective or your doctor is unable to identify a specific bleeding point, they may recommend packing your nose with gauze or special nasal sponges to stop the flow of blood by applying pressure to the source of the bleeding.
Packing will usually be carried out after local anaesthetic has been sprayed into your nose. The gauze or sponges often need to be left in place for 24-48 hours before being removed by a health professional. You'll usually need to be admitted to hospital to be monitored during this time.
Further treatment
If the treatments above don't help, you may be referred to a hospital specialist such as an ear, nose and throat (ENT) doctor for further treatment.
Additional treatments that may be used in hospital include:
electrocautery – an electric current running through a wire is used to cauterise the blood vessel where the bleeding is coming from
blood transfusions – a procedure to replace the blood you've lost
tranexamic acid – medication that can reduce bleeding by helping your blood to clot
packing under anaesthetic – your nose is carefully packed with gauze while you are unconscious from general anaesthetic
ligation – an operation using small instruments to tie off bleeding blood vessels in the back of your nose
Recovery
Once your nose has stopped bleeding, you should follow the advice below to reduce the risk of your nose bleeding again and to stop you picking up an infection:
avoid blowing or picking your nose, heavy lifting, strenuous exercise, lying flat, and drinking alcohol or hot drinks for 24 hours
don't remove any crusts that form inside your nose – these may be unpleasant, but they're a useful part of the healing process
if you need to sneeze, try to sneeze with your mouth open to reduce the pressure in your nose
avoid people with coughs and colds
If you see a GP or a hospital doctor about your nosebleed, they may give you a prescription for an antiseptic nasal cream once the bleeding stops. This should be applied to the inside of your nostrils several times a day for up to two weeks to help prevent further bleeding.
If your nose does start to bleed again, follow the first aid advice above and seek medical advice if the bleeding doesn't stop.
Page last reviewed: 21/04/2015
| i don't know |
Fought in the Pyrenees Mountains on the border between Spain and France, at which battle of 778 AD did the Basques defeat the forces of Roland, commander of the rear guard of Charlemagne's army? | FOR TEACHERS
Major Battles
The contest of Muslim and Christian Spain played out over nine centuries. While individuals and communities sought ways to thrive and cooperate in day-to-day life, larger forces were always at work.
Conflict took the more mundane form of battles fought for material gain and prestige. And, as often as Muslim and Christian leaders fought against each other, they fought against rivals who were their co-religionists.
For much of Medieval Spain's history, leaders also were more concerned with maintaining economic and military power -- just as other rulers worldwide -- than on the rhetoric of crusade and jihad.
The following key battles involving Muslim and Christian forces in Al-Andalus reveal the complexity of military affairs. Each encounter represents a unique moment in the history of Al-Andalus, leading ultimately to its demise.
Revolt of the Alpujarras
Battle of Guadalete (July 19, 711)
This battle took place close to the Guadalete River near the southern coast of the Iberian peninsula, between Muslim and Visigothic forces. An Arab and Amazigh (Berber) Muslim army of 7,000-10,000 soldiers crossed to Spain -- �the land of the Vandals� or Andalus as they called it -- from North Africa. The Amazighs (Berbers) possibly received the help of the governor of Ceuta, Count Julian. He confirmed that the peninsula offered numerous riches. The forces landed near a large mountain. It was later named Gibraltar (jabal Tariq, or Tariq�s mountain) in homage to the army commander, Tariq ibn Ziyad.
According to one account, Tariq burned the ships used for the crossing and stirred his troops with the words: �O People! There is nowhere to run away! The sea is behind you, and the enemy is before you. I swear to God, you have only sincerity and patience.�
Roderic was a Visigothic nobleman recently chosen as king. He had been fighting Basques in the north. Upon hearing of the new threat in the south, he rushed to meet the Muslims. His army is said to have been nearly 10 times larger than the Muslim forces. However, exhaustion from the long march and treachery on the part of other Visigothic rivals led to Roderic�s defeat.
With the routing of the Visigothic army -- including many prominent nobles -- the Muslim forces continued northward unhindered. They established garrisons in major cities and conquered many regions. Within a few years, virtually the entire peninsula came under Muslim rule.
The Visigothic kingdom came to an abrupt end. However, a local Asturian strong man named Pelayo fled to the extreme north beyond the reach of Muslim armies. (See below.) There, he founded the Kingdom of Asturias. In subsequent centuries, Asturias was regarded as the origin point for the Reconquista.
Battle of Covadonga (summer of 722)
Seven years after the Muslim conquest of Iberia, a local Asturian strong man named Pelayo fled to the extreme north of the peninsula. There, he established the Kingdom of Asturias.
The Umayyad rulers based in C�rdoba were unable to extend their power into Frankish territory. So, they decided to consolidate their power in Iberia. Meanwhile, Muslim forces made periodic incursions into Asturias.
In the late summer of 722, a Muslim army overran much of Pelayo's territory, forcing him to retreat deep into the mountains. Pelayo and 300 men retired into a narrow valley at Covadonga. There, they could defend against a broad frontal attack. Pelayo�s forces routed the Muslim army, inspiring local villagers to take up arms, as well. Despite further attempts, the Muslims were unable to conquer Pelayo's mountainous stronghold. Pelayo's victory at Covadonga is hailed by some as the first stage of the Reconquista.
Battle of Tours/Poitiers (October 10, 732)
This encounter took place near the border between the Frankish realm and the independent region of Aquitaine. Frankish and Burgundian forces -- under Mayor of the Palace Charles Martel's command -- fought against an Umayyad army led by al-Ghafiqi, the governor of Al-Andalus.
In the preceding decades, the Muslims had conquered Iberia. They were making tentative expeditions in southern France. They were pushing the limits of their expansion far from the regional capital of C�rdoba . At the battle, Martel's forces defeated Al-Ghafiqi�s contingent. It included about 70 Muslim families unprepared for warfare.
The battle's location is described in Arabic historical works as �The Plain of the Martyrs.� Historians give little attention to the engagement itself as a minor skirmish. However, European chroniclers increasingly began to praise Charles Martel as the champion of Christianity.
What's more, 18th and 19th century historians came to characterize this battle as a decisive turning point in the struggle against Islam. Modern historians are divided as to whether the victory should be considered a landmark event that saved Christianity and halted the conquest of Europe by the Muslims.
Battle of Roncesvalles (August 15, 778)
Roncesvalles is situated in the Spanish region of Navarre, close to the French border in the Pyrenees Mountains. The army of the Frankish king, Charlemagne, had entered northern Spain. He hoped to extend his empire�s boundaries into Iberia, capturing Barcelona and Pamplona.
Frankish commander Roland and his troops -- comprising the army�s rear guard -- were returning to France across the Pyrenees. Suddenly, local Basque Christian tribes attacked Roland and his army unexpectedly. Though poorly equipped, these tribes knew their terrain well and defeated Roland�s forces at the Pass of Roncesvalles in 778.
The famous Song of Roland, dated about 1100, immortalizes his valor. It is the earliest existing French epic poem (chanson de geste). However, the poem relates that a Muslim (Saracen) army of 400,000 attacked Roland and the rear guard. Roland could not repeal the onslaught. His comrade urged him to summon aid from Charlemagne by sounding his horn, but it was too late. Handed down by oral tradition, this minor battle was romanticized into a major conflict between Christians and Muslims.
Battle of Zallaqa/Sagrajas (October 23, 1086)
On May 25, 1085, Alfonso VI of Castile took Toledo. He established direct personal control over the Muslim city from which he had been exacting tribute. This turn of events alarmed the rulers of other petty kingdoms. They began to realize their own disunity had strengthened Christian states in the north.
In order to counterhalt the Christian advance, the Muslims needed assistance from determined and capable warriors. Three of the petty kings, including al-Mu'tamid of Seville, decided to invite Almoravid leader Yusuf ibn Tashufin. He was the head of a new religious and political movement in North Africa. They agreed to have him come to Andalus and help them fight the Christians. Afterwards, they expected him to return to his capital at Marrakesh.
Ibn Tashfin agreed to help the Andalusians. He crossed over to Iberia with 7,000 warriors. He marched north to al-Zallaqa. There, the petty kings' forces joined his troop. By then, the Muslim army reached 30,000 soldiers.
Alfonso VI of Castile arrived at the battleground with his large army. Using a variety of tactics, the Muslim forces were able to defeat the Christians. The casualties of Alfonso's troops were tremendous: only 100 knights returned to Castile, including Alfonso himself.
Following the battle, Ibn Tashufin kept his word and returned to North Africa, only to be called back again to help hamper renewed threats. His return led to Andalus' inclusion in the Amazigh (Berber) Almoravid Empire.
Battle of Alarcos (July 18, 1195)
The Almohads were a Amazigh (Berber) religious and political reform group founded by Ibn Tumart. They came to power in North Africa in the mid-12th century.
Ibn Tumart's disciple, Abd al-Mu'min, led the Almohads in conquering Marrakesh and overthrowing the Almoravids. In 1149, the Almohads replaced Almoravid rule in Al-Andalus.
King Alfonso VIII of Castile decided to attack the region of Seville. He had the support of the military Order of Calatrava. The attack ravaged the province, taking much war booty.
Almohad ruler Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur crossed to Spain to lead a retaliatory expedition against the Christians. Local governors and a small Christian cavalry under Pedro Fern�ndez de Castro, who opposed Alfonso, raised the troops that reinforced Al-Mansur.
The two sides met at Alarcos (al-Arak in Arabic), near the Guadiana River. Al-Mansur's army severely outnumbered Alfonso's troops. But, Alfonso entered battle rather than retreating and waiting for reinforcements. The Almohads were victorious, although there were significant casualties on both sides.
The battle's outcome threatened the Kingdom of Castile's stability for some time. The Christians abandoned or surrendered all nearby castles.
Abu Yusuf settled in Seville to consolidate Muslim holdings, rather than attempt conquests northward. He took the title of al-Mansur Billah ("Victorious by the Grace of God"). He initiated the construction of the Great Mosque of Seville, including the massive minaret (later known as the Giralda).
In 1198, he returned to North Africa. After Al-Mansur's death in February 1199, the Almohad Empire began to falter. The empire's decline opened the way for renewed Christian expansion into southern Spain.
Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (July 16, 1212)
Following their victory at Alarcos, the Almohads conquered such key cities as Trujillo, Plasencia, Talavera, Cuenca, and Ucl�s. They also took a stronghold of the Calatrava Knights.
The Almohad threat prompted Pope Innocent III to call for a crusade in Iberia. The Pope convinced King Alfonso VIII of Castile and his Christian rivals -- Sancho VII of Navarre, Afonso II of Portugal, and Peter II of Aragon -- to set aside any enmity and join forces against the Muslim south.
Almohad ruler Muhammad al-Nasir brought together troops from his extensive North African domains and Al-Andalus. They engaged the Christian coalition at Las Navas de Tolosa. The battle took place near a pass separating southern Spain from the central meseta.
Alfonso's forces caught the Muslim army by surprise. The Muslims suffered a great many casualties. Al-Nasir escaped and returned to Marrakesh, where he died soon afterward.
The Muslim forces were unable to recover from this defeat, called al-Uqab in Arabic (�the great tragedy�). As a result, Andalusi cities such as Ja�n, C�rdoba , Seville, Jerez, and others were exposed to Christian attack in the mid-13th century.
Battle of the Rio Salado (October 30, 1340)
King Alfonso XI of Castile and King Afonso IV of Portugal joined forces to resist the combined army of Nasrid ruler Yusuf I of Granada and Marinid ruler Abu al-Hasan Ali from North Africa.
The Granadan rulers allied with the Marinid Dynasty in Fes, because they were not strong enough on their own to engage the Christian states.
The Nasrid-Marinid alliance represented an effort to reclaim lost territories in southern Spain. There, substantial numbers of Muslims still lived as Mudejars in communities under Christian rule. But the Granadans were wary not to allow the Marinids too much influence in the shrinking territory of Al-Andalus.
The battle took place near the River Salado. There, the Christians decisively defeated the Marinids, who made up the bulk of the forces. The Marinids then returned to North Africa.
Subsequently, Alfonso XI's son, Pedro of Castile, maintained cordial relations with the Nasrids of Granada. He admired their courtly culture so much that he called craftsman from Granada to upgrade the Alc�zar of Seville in the style of the Alhambra palace.
Conquest of Granada (January 2, 1492)
Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon married in 1469. Their marriage instituted a policy of extending the Catholic faith throughout the peninsula.
The Kingdom of Granada remained as the sole Muslim domain in Spain. Yet, it no longer thrived as it once did. Thus, it was less probable to offer tribute to the Christians in lieu of conquest.
The Catholic Monarchs amassed their armies on the plains west of Granada at a place they named Santa Fe. The Granadans contemplated a course of action. The elders of Granada signed a treaty of surrender, with a promise from the Christians to be granted freedom of religion and personal safety.
The twenty-third and final Nasrid ruler, Abu Abd Allah (Boabdil), delivered the city into the hands of Ferdinand and Isabella to end the city's siege. The Catholic Monarchs hoisted their banner from atop the Alhambra's citadel, proclaiming their victory.
It is often depicted that Boabdil and his entourage headed into exile, glancing wistfully back upon the once shining city that his dynasty had ruled for 250 years. However, Boabdil accepted his new status as King of the Alpujjaras. About a year later, he decided to abandon his people and go into exile.
Revolt of the Alpujarras (1568-1571)
The policies of Cardinal Jimenez de Cisneros increasingly pressured Granada's Muslim population -- initially Mudejars -- to convert to Christianity. As new Christians, they were called Moriscos (or "Moroccan-like").
The Hapsburg ruler of Spain, Philip II (son of Charles V), introduced laws prohibiting the practice of Muslim religion and customs to accelerate conversion. However, many Moriscos continued to practice Islam in secret. They began organizing opposition to the restrictive policies.
In 1568, the Moriscos rallied under the leadership of Ibn Humeya. They initiated a guerrilla war against Spanish authorities. This uprising took place in the Alpujarra Mountains south of Granada. Castilian troops -- led by Philip's half-brother Don Juan de Austria suppressed the revolt -- ending it in 1571.
Conflicts between Moriscos and Christians continued. As a result, in 1609, Philip III issued a decree of expulsion of the Moriscos. Similarly, in 1492, the Catholic monarchs' decree of expulsion forced the Jews to seek a more tolerant environment.
| Battle of Roncevaux Pass |
In the TV show 'South Park', what is the name of the boys' handicapped classmate whose vocabulary is mostly limited to the enthusiastic shouting of his own name? | Business: THE SONG OF ROLAND: The Battle of Roncevaux Pass
The Battle of Roncevaux Pass
In his 46 year reign as the king of the Franks and emperor of the Romans, Charlemagne engineered glorious military victories but, in August 778, he suffered one stunning defeat. This great battle—the Battle of Roncevaux Pass—is best remembered through the oldest extant piece of French literature, the Song of Roland. The Song of Roland was written several centuries after the actual battle and greatly mythologizes the real events of 15 August 778.
By the eighth century, the Muslims had gained a strong foothold in Europe on the Iberian Peninsula, with the Umayyad capital at Córdoba. In 711, Charlemagne’s grandfather Charles Martel routed the invading Muslims in southwest France at the Battle of Tours (sometimes referred to as the Battle of Poitiers). Pepin the Short, father of Charlemagne and son of Martel, assured Frankish control north of the Pyrenees by subduing Aquitaine in 759. Charlemagne later assumed the title Duke of Aquitaine.
It was against this backdrop that around 777 the anti-Umayyad governor of Barcelona and Girona, Sulayman al-Arabi, requested military help from Charlemagne in return for his submission as well as that of the governors of Zaragoza and Huesca. The Umayyad ruler, Abd ar-Rahman I, had the upper hand in Iberia and there were indications that another anti-Umayyad force would soon arrive from Baghdad.
After a Muslim invasion in 711 and the rise of the Carolingians , the Duchy of Vasconia and Aquitaine had been severely punished by both sides. The last double Duke, Waifer , had been defeated by Pepin the Short and the Frankish domain north of the Pyrenees seemed consolidated.
Sulayman al-Arabi , the pro- Abbasid Wali (governor) of Barcelona and Girona , sent a delegation to Charlemagne in Paderborn , offering his submission, along with the allegiance of Husayn of Zaragoza and Abu Taur of Huesca in return for military aid. Their masters had been cornered in the Iberian peninsula by Abd ar-Rahman I , the Umayyad emir of Córdoba . The three rulers also conveyed that the caliph of Baghdad , Muhammad al-Mahdi , was preparing an invasion force against Abd ar-Rahman.
Seeing an opportunity to extend Christendom and his own power and believing the Saxons to be a fully conquered nation, Charlemagne agreed to go to Spain. It seems that al-Arabi induced him to invade Al Andalus by promising him an easy surrender of its Upper March, of which Zaragoza was the capital. The King did not make up his mind until the winter, but he finally decided to launch an expedition into the Iberian peninsula the next year.
Following the sealing of this alliance at Paderborn, Charlemagne marched across the Pyrenees in 778 "at the head of all the forces he could muster". Charlemagne led the Neustrian army across the Western Pyrenees that crossed Vasconia and went into the Basque Country , while the Austrasians , Lombards , and Burgundians passed over the Eastern Pyrenees through Catalonia . His troops were welcomed in Barcelona and Girona by Sulayman al-Arabi. As he moved towards Zaragoza , the troops of Charlemagne were joined by troops led by al-Arabi.
Abd ar-Rahman of Córdoba sent his most trusted general, Thalaba Ibn Obeid , to take control of the possibly rebellious city and to prevent the Frankish invasion. Husayn and Ibn Obeid clashed repeatedly; eventually Husayn managed to defeat and to imprison Ibn Obeid.
Reinforced in his autonomous position, Husayn became reluctant to yield his new privileged status to the Frankish monarch and refused to surrender the city to Charlemagne, claiming that he had never promised Charlemagne his allegiance. He seems to have tried to appease Charlemagne by giving him the prisoner General Ibn Obeid and a large tribute of gold, but Charlemagne was not easily satisfied, putting Sulayman al-Arabi in chains.
Meanwhile, the force sent by the Baghdad caliphate seems to have been stopped near Barcelona . [7] After a month of siege at Zaragoza, Charlemagne decided to return to his kingdom. [8]
The retreat
As the Frankish army retreated towards Pamplona they suffered an ambush led by the relatives of al-Arabi. Sulayman al-Arabi was liberated and brought to Zaragoza, where both conspirators jointly resisted a new attack by Abd ar-Rahman. Sulayman al-Arabi would eventually be murdered by al Ansari.
Charlemagne also suffered an attack from the Basques in central Navarra . After stopping at Pamplona, Charlemagne ordered the walls of this strategic city be destroyed, possibly fearing that it could be used by the Basques in future rebellions. Some primary sources suggest that he destroyed the city altogether. Thereafter, Charlemagne marched for the Pyrenees and home. In the mountains, the army's rear guard was attacked.
The battle itself took place in the evening of Saturday 15 August 778, causing numerous losses among the Frankish troops, including several most important aristocrats and the sack of the baggage, probably with all the gold given by the Muslims at Zaragoza. After their success, the attackers took advantage of the night to flee.
The sources are somewhat contradictory, yet the second version of the Annales Regii (falsely attributed to Eginhard) reads: [10]
Having decided to return, [Charlemagne] entered the mountains of the Pyrenees, in whose summits the Vascones had set up an ambush. They attacked the rearguard, causing confusion which spread to all the army. And, while the Franks were superior to the Vascones both in armament and in courage, the roughness of the terrain and the difference in the style of combat made them generally weaker. In this battle were killed the majority of the paladins that the King had placed in command of his forces. The baggage was sacked, and suddenly the enemy vanished, thanks to their knowledge of the terrain. The memory of the injury so produced overshadowed in the King's heart that of the feats done in Hispania.
The Vita Karoli mentions the names of the most important paladins killed among many others: Eggihard, Mayor of the Palace , Anselmus, Palatine Count and Roland, Prefect of the March of Brittany .
The Basque army
The guerrilla army of the Basques is not well known. A later source, the anonymous Saxon Poet, talks of the Basque spears, which fits with the Pyrenean and Basque tradition that would be present much later among the almogavars . A typical such mountain warrior would have two short spears and a knife or short sword as his main weapons, and would not normally wear armour.
Pierre de Marca , a Béarnese author, suggests that the attackers were a reduced number of mostly local Low Navarrese , Souletines , and Baztanese , whose main motivation may well have been plunder. Nevertheless he also suggests that the Duke of Vasconia, Lop , may have been their commander. [12] This opinion is also held by the authors of the General History of Languedoc who claim that Duke Lop was the leader of the Gascons that attacked Charlemagne.
The presence of people from other areas beyond those mentioned by de Marca is very likely anyhow. It is difficult to imagine why Bazatanese were there and not, for instance, the people of the nearby Aezkoa or Salazar valleys. There are even attributions to Guipuzcoans, such as a dedication in a chapel of Pasaia that gives thanks to Our Lady of Piety because of her support to their alleged participation in this battle (although the date mentioned (814) may be that of the Second Battle of Roncevaux: see below).
[ edit ] Location
Map of the Roman roads in Hispania. A suggested location for the battle is on the road Via Caesar Augusta that led from Caesaraugusta to Benearnum and joined another to Burdigala. This crossed the Pyrenees through the valley of Hecho . On the other hand, the pass of Roncesvalles is located on the Ab Asturica Burdigalam road that started in Castra Legiones and went on to Benearnum , where it joined the first-mentioned road to Burdigala .
Ibaineta (Roncevaux) pass
There have been many different theories as to where this battle actually took place, some suggesting various places in the High Pyrenees ranging from Navarre and Aragon to as far as Catalonia . The mainstream opinion is that the battle took place somewhere not far from Roncevaux itself, as it is not just on one of the easiest routes but also the traditional one. Indeed, the Roman road "Via ab Asturica Burdigalam" which started in Castra Legiones (current León) and went to Benearnum , crossed the Pyrenees through Roncevaux. However, the traditional Roman road (also called the Route of Napoleon) followed a route different from that of the modern one, not crossing at Ibaineta (the traditional location) but heading eastwards and crossing instead the Lepoeder and Bentartea passes, not far from the mountain of Urkuilu, at Aezkoa. It might well have been at one of these narrow passages that the actual battle took place.
Another possible location that has been suggested for the battle is that of the Selva de Oza pass, in the valley of Hecho , on the border between Aragon and Navarre, since the old Roman road called "Via Caesar Augusta" that led from Caesaraugusta ( Zaragoza ) to Benearnum ( Béarn ) crosses the Pyrenees there. Since Charlemagne was retreating from Caesaraugusta, it has been seen as a very possible location. Apart from tradition, which points to Roncesvaux as the place of the battle, the main argument provided against the Selva de Oza location is that according to the chronicles, Charlemagne retreated from Pamplona after arriving there from Zaragoza. This would suggest that he took the "Ab Asturica Burdigalam" road which passed through Pamplona, instead of that coming from Zaragoza. However, when physical descriptions of the battle site are taken on account, the Selva de Oza location seems to fit descriptions that tell about gorge-like passages wide enough for an army to pass easily and with several high vantage points from which to attack the enemy, whereas the Roncevaux pass is regarded as dubious, being too narrow or difficult to permit an attack. Nevertheless, the Roncesvaux and Selva de Oza passes are only about 30 kilometers apart.
Other locations have also been suggested, some as far away as in Catalonia, indicating that it is not established that Charlemagne took any of the Roman roads when retreating, nor that he retreated directly from Pamplona. Indeed, the routes that crossed the Pyrenees through Catalonia (crossing the valley of Llívia) are traditionally the easiest, though a Basque attack taking place so far from their heartland is seen as dubious.
[ edit ] Consequences
The Franks failed in capturing Zaragoza and suffered significant losses at the hands of the Basques. They would only be able to establish the Marca Hispanica a decade later, when Barcelona was finally captured. Zaragoza remained an important Muslim city, capital of the Upper March and later of an independent emirate , until the 11th century.
Defenceless Pamplona was captured by the Muslims soon after and held by them for some years, until in 798-801 a rebellion expelled them as well and helped to consolidate the Banu Qasi realm and eventually the constitution of the independent Kingdom of Pamplona in 824.
Legend
Over the years, this battle was romanticized by oral tradition into a major conflict between Christians and Muslims , although, in fact, both sides in the battle were Christian. In the tradition, the Basques are replaced by a force of 400,000 Saracens . (Charlemagne did fight the Saracens in Iberia, though not in the Pyrenees.) The Song of Roland , which commemorates the battle, was written by an unknown poet of the 11th century. It is the earliest surviving of the chansons de geste or epic poems of medieval France in the langue d'oïl , of what would become the French language. There is a tombstone near the Roncevaux Pass commemorating the area where it is traditionally held that Roland died. Several traditions also state that Roland was slain by a child who, in time, would become the very first king of Navarre: Iñigo Arista
There is an alternate medieval Iberian legend involving Bernardo del Carpio , a medieval Leonese hero, whom some stories hold to be the vanquisher of Roland at Roncevaux.
Charlemagne the Opportunist
Charlemagne, ever the savvy opportunist, saw a chance to expand the bounds of Christendom (and his own power) into Spain. He turned his attention away from the Saxons and prepared to head west. He marched across the Pyrenees with an amassed force—one portion going south through Catalonia and another going north through Gascony and the Basque Country. From there, al-Arabi added his own forces to those of Charlemagne. At about the same time, the governor of Zaragoza made an advance of his own against the Umayyads and decided his position of power had increased such that he did not need an alliance with the Franks and claimed to never have pledged allegiance to Charlemagne. Charlemagne then laid siege to Zaragoza and, after a month of the siege, decided to turn back and head home.
Roncevaux Pass
So, the Frankish retreat began and on the way Charlemagne ordered the defensive walls of Pamplona to be destroyed. Enemies of the Franks began to form together. When the task at Pamplona was complete, the Franks again entered the Pyrenees proceeding through the narrow and heavily wooded Roncevaux Pass. It was here, on the evening of 15 August 778, that Charlemagne’s army was attacked from behind by a force composed mainly of Basques. The heavy arms and armor carried by the Frankish army put them at a further disadvantage in the cramped situation at Roncevaux.
The Death of Roland
The Franks were caught so off-guard and unready that the ambush became a slaughter of the rearguard. Among the many killed were a number of noble military commanders including Roland, the governor of the Breton March, and Eggihard, an important mayor of the palace (a high-ranking Frankish government official).
The Song of Roland turned this rout into an epic battle between 400,000 Muslim Saracens and Charlemagne’s substantial army. The Basques were, in fact, a Christian people and certainly not Saracen and there were almost certainly not 400,000 of them present that day at Roncevaux. Pictured is the moment of Roland's death, Le Mort de Roalnd, by Jean Fouquet (1420-1480)
Nonetheless, the loss was large and embarrassing enough for Charlemagne to remain absent from the Iberian Peninsula for a number of years following. The chroniclers of Charlemagne’s life often avoided detracting from his remarkable reputation, but they did not remain silent about this defeat. The Battle of Roncevaux Pass did blemish the reign of Charlemagne somewhat, though perhaps not as much as purported by the Song of Roland. Nevertheless, the military career of “Father of Europe” before and after Roncevaux is no trifling matter and the Frankish army stands as one of the most dominant forces the world has ever seen.
The Song of Roland ( French : La Chanson de Roland) is the oldest surviving major work of French literature . It exists in various different manuscript versions which testify to its enormous and enduring popularity in the 12th to 14th centuries. The oldest of these is the Oxford manuscript which contains a text of some 4004 lines (the number varies slightly in different modern editions) and is usually dated to the middle of the twelfth century (between 1140 and 1170). The epic poem is the first and most outstanding example of the chanson de geste , a literary form that flourished between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries and celebrated the legendary deeds of a hero.
Roland pledges loyalty to the king Charlemagne
There are nine extant manuscripts of the Song of Roland in Old French . The oldest of these manuscripts is held at the Bodleian Library at Oxford . This copy dates between 1140 and 1170 and was written in Anglo-Norman .
Scholars estimate that the poem was written between approximately 1040 and 1115, and most of the alterations were performed by about 1098. Some favor an earlier dating, because it allows one to say that the poem was inspired by the Castilian campaigns of the 1030s, and that the poem went on to be a major influence in the First Crusade . Those who prefer a later dating do so on grounds of the brief references made in the poem to events of the First Crusade . In one section, Palestine is named Outremer , its Crusader name – but is presented as a Muslim land where there are no Christians.
The death of Roland at the Battle of Roncevaux , from an illuminated manuscript c.1455–1460.
For seven years, the valiant Christian king Charlemagne has made war against the Saracens in Spain . Only one Muslim stronghold remains: the city of Saragossa , under the rule of King Marsile and Queen Bramimonde . Marsile, certain that defeat is inevitable, hatches a plot to rid Spain of Charlemagne. He will promise to be Charlemagne's vassal and a Christian convert in exchange for Charlemagne's departure. But once Charlemagne is back in France, Marsile will renege on his promises. Charlemagne and his vassals, weary of the long war, receive Marsile's messengers and try to choose an envoy to negotiate at Marsile's court on Charlemagne's behalf.
Roland, a courageous knight and Charlemagne's nephew, nominates his stepfather, Ganelon . Ganelon is enraged, thinking that Roland has nominated him for this dangerous mission in an attempt to be rid of him for good. Ganelon has long been jealous of Roland, and on his diplomatic mission he plots with the Saracens, telling them that they could ambush Charlemagne's rear guard as Charlemagne leaves Spain. Roland will undoubtedly lead the rearguard, and Ganelon promises that with Roland dead, Charlemagne will lose the will to fight.
After Ganelon returns with assurances of Marsile's good faith, Roland, as predicted, ends up leading the rearguard. The twelve peers, later known as the Paladins , Charlemagne's greatest and most beloved vassals, go with him. Among them is Oliver , a wise and prudent man and Roland's best friend. Also in the rearguard is the fiery Archbishop Turpin , a clergyman who also is a great warrior. At the pass of Roncevaux , the twenty thousand Christians of the rearguard are ambushed by a vastly superior force, numbering four hundred thousand. Oliver counsels Roland to blow his olifant horn, to call back Charlemagne's main force, but Roland refuses. The Franks fight valiantly, but in the end they are killed to the man. Roland gives three long mighty blasts on his oliphant so that Charlemagne will return and avenge them. His temples burst from the force required, and he presently expires. He positions himself so as to face toward the enemy's land before dying, and his soul is escorted to heaven by Saint Gabriel, Saint Michael and assorted cherubim.
Image of the devastation of the frank troops (from a book of the song of Roland)
Charlemagne arrives, and he and his men are overwhelmed with grief at the sight of the massacre. He pursues the pagan force, aided by a miracle of God; the sun is held in place in the sky so that the enemy will not have cover of night. The Franks push the Saracens into the river Ebro , where those who are not chopped to pieces are drowned.
Marsile has escaped, though Roland succeeded in cutting off his right hand in battle. Wounded and demoralised, he returns to Saragossa, where the remaining Saracens are plunged into despair by their losses. But Baligant , the incredibly powerful emir of Babylon , has arrived to help his vassal. The emir goes to Roncevaux where the Franks are mourning and burying their dead. There is a terrible battle which climaxes with a one-on-one clash between Baligant and Charlemagne. With a touch of divine aid, Charlemagne slays Baligant, and the Saracens retreat. The Franks take Saragossa, where they destroy all Jewish and Muslim religious items and force the conversion of everyone in the city with the exception of Queen Bramimonde. Charlemagne wants her to come to Christ through the agency of love. With her as a captive, the Franks return to their capital, Aachen or Aix-la-Chapelle .
Ganelon is put on trial for treason. Pinabel , Ganelon's kinsman and a gifted speaker, nearly sways the judges to let Ganelon go. But Thierry, a brave but physically unimposing knight, says that Ganelon's revenge should not have been taken against a man in Charlemagne's service and constitutes treason. To decide the matter, Pinabel and Thierry fight. Though Pinabel is the stronger man, God intervenes and Thierry triumphs. The Franks give Ganelon a traitor's death: "Four chargers are brought out and tied to Ganelon's feet and hands...four sergeants drive them past the spectators towards a stream...Ganelon is lost, his ligaments will be stretched intolerably until all his limbs are torn apart." They also hang thirty of his kinsmen, not including Pinabel, who is already dead.
Charlemagne announces to all that Bramimonde has decided to become a Christian. Her baptism is celebrated, and all seems well. But that night the angel Gabriel comes to Charlemagne in a dream and tells him that he must depart for yet another war against the pagans. Weary and weeping, but resigned to the will of God, Charlemagne inwardly prepares himself for what is to come.
Karlomagno finds Roland dead (XIV. mendeko miniatura)
The poem is written in stanzas of irregular length known as laisses . The lines are decasyllabic (containing ten syllables), and each is divided by a strong caesura which generally falls after the fourth syllable . The last stressed syllable of each line in a laisse has the same vowel sound as every other end-syllable in that laisse. The laisse is therefore an assonal , not a rhyming stanza.
On a narrative level, the Song of Roland features extensive use of repetition, parallelism, and thesis-antithesis pairs. Unlike later Renaissance and Romantic literature , the poem focuses on action rather than introspection.
The author gives few explanations for characters' behavior. The warriors are stereotypes defined by a few salient traits; for example, Roland is loyal and trusting while Ganelon, though brave, is traitorous and vindictive.
The story moves at a fast pace, occasionally slowing down and recounting the same scene up to three times but focusing on different details or taking a different perspective each time. The effect is similar to a film sequence shot at different angles so that new and more important details come to light with each shot.
In The Song of Roland, the French epic written down in the last years of the 11 th century, good and evil are clearly delineated and understood. On the battlefield that is the setting for much of the poem, super-mortal forces fight for control of the Earth, utilizing the bodies of the warring Christians and pagans as pawns in a game of cosmological significance. While there is truth at the base of The Song of Roland, much of the history behind the work was “edited” in the three centuries that transpired between the battle of Roncevaux and the recording of the poem. It is true, as the poem claims, that in 778 the rear guard of Charlemagne’s army was massacred at Roncevaux. But in reality— and in contrast to the claims of the song—the Basques, and not the Muslims, destroyed the rear guard of the Frankish forces (Kalchoff, 46). In actuality, the campaign the Franks were waging in Spain was not a holy war: the year before the massacre, Sulayman ibn a l cArabi came to Charles in revolt against the Emir, cAbd ar- R a h m a n . They asked the chief of the Franks for aid. Charles granted it to them, and he prepared a great army to traverse the Pyrenees, to place Sulayman on the throne, and to receive Iberia as a fief (Lafont, 123-128). The re-writing of history we see in The Song of Roland is that which Paul Aebischer calls the “mythification” of events:
[D]ans la souci de la censure impÈriale de cacher le dÈsastre des PyrÈnÈes, d’en minimiser les consÈquences, de conserver au roi sa rÈputation de chef invincible... nous ne sommes pas plus dans l’histoire, mais dans la lÈgende, dans une atmosphËre mythique. (Aebischer, 3)
In the attempt of imperial censure to conceal the disaster of the Pyrenees, to minimize the consequences, to preserve the reputation of the king as invincible head of state... we are no longer in the realm of history, but in that of legend, in a mythic atmosphere.
In a world of myth, symbols occupy a special place, one more important than that of concrete fact. The Song of Roland, as national epic, gives religious significance to secular acts, appropriating the campaign of 778 not only as holy war but as war between God and Satan. Anne Lombard-Jourdan notes that there is a long tradition of appropriation and transformation of pagan symbols by the Christian monarchs of France, for “les rois Ètaient dÈsireux de conserver les anciens emblËmes qui assurent aux yeux de tous leur lÈgitimité [The kings were desirous to conserve the ancient emblems that assured in the eyes of all their legitimacy]” (Lombard-Jourdan, 13). The case with the battle of Roncevaux is the same: after the result of the battle slipped out of living memory, the campaign of 778 was rewritten as a battle between good and evil in order to give to the French kings—the heirs to the legacy of Charlemagne—a moral imperative to justify their rule and to give the church a brilliant past history to inspire its soldiers as they marched eastward on the First Crusade.
Narrative Perspective
The authors of the Frankish epic shaped the reaction of their audience by diverging from the traditional narrative structure found in The Iliad and The Aeneid; the two classical epics valorize both warring factions, heightening the station of the victor, whereas the perspective of the medieval poem is entirely Christian: “Its story is narrated from a valorial position which is that of the Christians as against the Saracens. The latter are to be converted or to be killed: there is no empathy for alterity in this text” (Haidu, 37). More anti-Christian than Muslim, the pagans in the poem “do not bear any ‘real’relationship to their presumed referents: they do not ‘refer’ to the concrete, historical societies that occupied either Spain or the Near East” (Haidu, 36). According to the theories of Edward Said, the authors of The Song of Roland projected Christianity onto the pagans in a trope common to occidental literature in order to create a new society—a society marked specifically as anti-Christian. This anti-Christian society, according to Norman Daniel, is constructed to convince, or perhaps to amuse, Christians, but has little resemblance to actual Arabs or the actual Arab world. This is a case of what Said calls the “theater of the Orient,” in which caricatures of Orientals take the place of actual men:
The idea of representation is a theatrical one: the Orient is the stage on which the whole East is confined. On this stage will appear figures whose role it is to represent the larger whole from which they emanate. The Orient then seems to be, not an unlimited extension beyond the familiar European world, but rather a closed field, a theatrical stage affixed to Europe. (Daniel, 259-260 in Said, 6365)
In Roland, the Orient is defined as anti-Occident. If Occidentals have positive value—and they do—Orientals have none. Thus in the Frankish epic, the pagans are never unconditionally praised as we see in Greek and Latin epics such as the Iliad:
There the Trojans and their companions were marshaled in order.
Tall Hektor of the shining helm was leader of the Trojans,
Priam’s son; and with him far the best and the bravest
Fighting men were armed and eager to fight with the spear’s edge. (Lattimore, ll. 815-818)
In the poems of Homer, admitting the valor of the Trojans amplifies the Greek victory. But this is not the case in the French epic, in which valor in the pagan camp is noted only with a lamentation that the worthy pagan is not Christian:
Sa vasselage est suvent esprovet.
Deus! quel baron, s’o¸st chrestientet
His vassalage was certainly proven.
God! what a baron, were he but Christian! (v. 3163-3165)
When pagans are valorous, it is noted as a strictly individual characteristic. The enemies in Roland are collectively rewritten as “feluns” and “criminels,” giving the Frankish army a moral imperative to conquer.
However, the fact that the symbolic system of the pagans in the poem is simply the inverse of the Christian system complicates the issue and raises new questions. Peter Haidu sustains that during the Middle Ages “strictly human alterity could only be recognized as a negatively marked version of the self” (Haidu, 37). If we accept the theory of Haidu—that the Other is the negative version of oneself—we find that the pagans of Roland have more sins to account for: they are heretics. From the narrative viewpoint in the song, the pagans believe in a caricature of the true faith. They have a trinity of gods, named Apollin, Tervagant and Mahomet, whom the pagans beg to intercede for them in battle, much as the Christians do with respect to their God. The pagans’ belief in three gods—not one God in three persons—is closely allied with the beliefs of a number of heretical movements of 11th century France, which denied the existence of a Trinity (Wakefield & Evans, 21). One manifestation of this heresy, Catharism, subscribed to the belief that:
[L]e PËre, le Fils, le Saint-Esprit ne sont point, pour eux, un Dieu en trois personnes. Le PËre est plus grand que le Fils et que le Saint Esprit. (Nelli, 286)
The Father, the Son, the Holy Spirit are not, themselves, one God in three persons. The Father is greater than the Son and than the Holy Spirit.
The pagans also transform the Christian practice of veneration of idols into worship—another manifestation of their lack of comprehension of the true faith. As those who worship idols, they look towards and move towards nothingness. According to Saint Paul: “nous savons que l’idole n’est rien—ou est le Rien— en ce monde [we know that the idol is nothing–moreover the Nothingness–in this world]” (I Corinthians 8:4), and Saint Augustine states that before he found religion, he tended towards nothingness like an idol (Soliloquies, 167). But the greatest sin in the pagan camp is the rejection of Christ. Since they have rejected the mercy brought by the voluntary death of the son of God, they are still marked by the stain of Original Sin:
Difatti noi abbiamo offeso (Dio) nel primo Adamo, non osservando il suo precetto; perÚ siamo stati riconciliati nel secondo Adamo, diventati obbedienti fino al morte. (Testa, 5)
In fact we offended God with the first Adam, not observing his precept; but we have been reconciled by the second Adam, following obediently to the death.
All are culpable for the sin of Adam, save the Christians who accepted the saving grace of Christ. Culpability for this sin, among the others, rests with the pagans until they accept the true faith.
Symbolic Systems
By not ascribing to the Christian faith, the pagans become evil in the theological system of the Middle Ages. Evil, according to Augustine, comes from the improper usage of the free will God gave to mankind. Boethius expanded upon Augustine’s thesis, reaching the conclusion that good emanates from God into all things. Normally, beings tend towards the good because it is nature for a being to desire the good. It is, however, possible for a being to be deceived into wishing for evil—that is, to act against God’s will (Nash-Marsh, 210-218). In Boethius’s schema, evil can come from lack of knowledge, from fortune, and from lack of divine order (Boethius, 67-68). In The Song of Roland, one finds proof of the lack of knowledge on the part of the pagans: “«o est une gent ki unches ben ne volt. AOI [This is a sort of which has never seen goodness. AOI]” (v. 3231). According to the philosophical system of Boethius, to tend towards evil (or away from good) is to tend towards a state of non-being:
Historical Time Line of Charlemagne's Life
St James appears to Charlemagne
Carolingians and the Papacy
7 15-741 - Pope Gregory II was the first Roman pope to be elected after seven popes who were either Greek or Syrian. Map of Meditteranean
732 Arabs are defeated at Tours (Poitiers) by Charles Martel
731-728 - Pope Gregory III was a Syrian who was equally skilled in Latin and Greek. He threatened to excommunicate the Byzantine Emperor Leo III (717-741) who had promulgated a decree that prohibited sacred images in churches (Iconoclastic Controversy).
741-752 - Pope Zacharias a Greek from Southern Italy was the last of the Greek popes. He was also the last pope who sent envoys to Constantinople to inform the emperor and the patriarch of his election
742 AD - Pepin the Short's son Carolus Magnus (Charlemagne in French) or Charles the Great is born in Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) on April 2.
751 - Pepin the Short dethrones the last Merovingian king and takes the throne for himself.
753 - Pope Stephen II (752-757) appealed to the Byzantine emperor for military help against the Lombards. When his appeal failed he turned to Pepin the Short in 754. Pepin led a military expedition against the Lombards and defeated the Lombard King Aistulf. Pope Stephen recognized the legitimacy of Pepin's claim to be king of the Franks. Pepin gave the pope dominion over the lands of Central Italy and established the legal foundation of the Papal States ( Patrimony of St Peter ). Stephen also used the Donation of Constantine to support his claim to rule over central Italy.
754 - Pope Stephen crowns Pepin the Short.
756 - Aistulf attacks Rome. Pepin the Short rushes to protect Pope Stephen II again from the Lombards. Pepin strips the Byzantines of control of Ravenna.
760 - Charlemagne accompanies his father during his military efforts to conquer the lands south the Loire River, or Aquitaine as they are more commonly known.
768 - Pepin the Short dies and his kingdom is divided up between Charles and his brother Carloman.
770 - Charlemagne marries Desiderata, daughter of the Lombard King Desiderius. The Lombards virtually surrounded Papal states, and this marriage worried the Pope and Charlemagne's brother.
771 - Carloman dies, and Charlemagne unites the Frankish Empire quickly. There is some speculation as to the cause of Carloman's death, but there is no evidence to indicate Charlemagne had any knowledge of wrong- doing.
774 - Reacting to the Pope's plea for help, Charlemagne conquered the lands of his brief father-in-law after a lengthy siege of Pavia. Charlemagne spent the following Easter in Rome and reaffirmed his vow to protect Papal lands.
Expansion of Charlemagne's Kingdom and Christianization of Northeastern Germany
775 - Charlemagne begins new attacks against the Saxons and their leader Widukind.
778 - The events surrounding the Song of Roland take place as Charlemagne's rear guard leaves Spain in Gascon territory. Though somewhat romanticized in the 4000 line epic, the defeat of Roland is the most important epic literature to come from the Middle Ages.
782 - In response to Widukind 's attacks, Charlemagne orders the execution of 4500 Saxon prisoners in one day. Return to Topic Four
783 - On April 30, Hildegarde dies in childbirth, and Charlemagne's mother Bertrada dies three months later. Charles also begins the final three year campaign to conquer Saxony. The Saxons are finally crushed, and Charlemagne imposes strict new rules to govern all areas of their lives, laws that only the Christian Church in Saxony could remove.
788 - Charles overpowers the Bavarians.
791 - 796 - Charlemagne conquers the empire of the Avars (modern Hungary and Austria.)
Charlemagne and the Papacy: Pope Leo III (795-816)
795 - On Christmas day , Pope Hadrian dies and Leo the Third is named the new Pope.
799 - Leo III was attacked while on a religious procession in Rome. After returning to health with Charlemagne, the Pope is sent back to Rome.
800 - Charles decides that the Papal situation in Rome needs his personal attention, so he and his entourage (including his children) went to Rome. After arriving, Charlemagne immediately called to order a trial for the Pope. There was a rebellion in Rome against the Pope, and the trial could neither condemn the Pope or find him innocent. Then however, Pope Leo took an oath of innocence near the holy tomb of Saint Peter.
Christmas Day, 800 - Charlemagne, after greatly helping Pope Leo III, is crowned Holy Roman Emperor. With much splendor and drama in Saint Peter's Basilica, Leo presented Charles with a gold crown. Emperor Charles V (1550-1558) was the last emperor to be crowned by the pope; Francis II (abdicated in 1806) was the last Holy Roman Emperor. Napoleon crowned himself .
813 - Charlemagne delegates power to his only surviving son Louis.
814 - Charlemagne dies on January 28.
Type of plot: Chivalric romance
Time of plot: About A.D. 800
Locale: Western Europe
First published: Chanson de Roland, twelfth century
Loosely based upon an eighth century military incident involving a part of Charlemagne's army, The Song of Roland, one of the great medieval chansons de geste, is a composite of several hero legends interlaced with Christian moral sentiments.
Principal Characters
Emperor Charlemagne, also called King Charles
and Carlon, represented as being two hundred years old, with a flowing white beard, regal bearing, and undimin-ished vigor. He presides democratically over his court in an orchard near Cordova and accepts the majority view in favor of what proves to be a false peace pact with the Saracens. His militant zeal for Christianizing pagans is offset by his humble submission to fate when his beloved nephew Roland and twenty thousand of his troops are killed by Moorish forces in the Pass of Roncevaux. He laments the deaths of his men before taking terrible vengeance on their conquerors, but he is completely unmoved by the pleas of Ganelon, the traitor knight.
Roland, Duke of the Marches of Brittany and nephew of Charlemagne. The favorite of his uncle, he glories in his post as leader of the emperor's rearguard, the exposed flank of the French army on its homeward march from Spain. Roland is the most outspoken of the Twelve Peers, a hater of all pagans, and the enemy of Ganelon, his stepfather; and his suggestion that Ganelon be sent to negotiate the truce proposed by the Saracens seems designed as a test of that knight's loyalty and honor. Brave in battle, Roland is also rash to the point of folly and lacking in foresight. He is the owner of the famous sword Durendal and the horn called Oliphant, both possessing supernatural powers. When Saracens attack the French force in the Pass of Roncevaux, he refuses to blow his horn and summon the main army until it is too late. Relying on his own Durendal and Christian supremacy over pagan knights, he dies by his simple chivalric code after facing the enemy and performing prodigious feats of valor.
Oliver, Roland's friend and fellow Peer. His prudence is balanced against Roland's impetuosity, but his warnings are unable to save the day when the Saracen army attacks the French forces at Roncevaux. After estimating the enemy's strength he urges Roland to blow his horn, Oliphant, in order to summon Charlemagne and the chivalry of France riding ahead. Dismounted, he dies with honor, a ring of dead enemies piled about him.
Ganelon, also called Guenes, the traitor knight who nurses so deep a grudge against his stepson Roland that he conspires with Marsilion, the Saracen King of Sara-gossa, to betray the rearguard of the French army to the enemy. When Charlemagne hears the blast of Roland's horn, blown to summon aid of the emperor, Ganelon derides his ruler. Later he is arrested and charged with treason. After his champion has been defeated in an ordeal by combat, he is tied to four stallions that tear his body apart as they pursue a galloping mare.
Archbishop Turpin, the militant churchman of Rheims, killed at Roncevaux. He absolves Charlemagne's host of sin before the battle and urges all to die like Christian soldiers. It is he who finally persuades Roland to blow his horn, Oliphant (a blast that bursts Roland's temples and hurries his death), and it is he who survives long enough to arrange the bodies of the Twelve Peers so that Charlemagne will find them, avenge them, and give them Christian burial. Charlemagne orders his heart, like those of Roland and Oliver, preserved in urns.
Gerin, Gerier, Ives, Ivor, Othon, Berenger, Anseis, Samson, Gerard of Roussillon, and Engelier of Bordeaux, Charlemagne's Peers, also slain with Roland and Oliver.
Pinabel of Sorence, the knight who defends Ganelon, accused of treason, in an ordeal by battle.
Thierry, the younger brother of Duke Geoffrey of Anjou. He fights with and defeats Pinable of Sorence in the ordeal by battle that decides Ganelon's guilt.
Duke Naimon, Geoffrey, Duke of Anjou, Ogier the Dane, Count Jozeran of Provence, and Antelme of Mayence, Charlemagne's loyal vassels and trusted advisers.
Walter de Hum, a valorous French knight killed at Roncevaux.
Marsilion, also called Marsile, the Saracen King of Saragossa. Acting on the advice of one of his nobles, he sends envoys to Charlemagne with promises that he will
sign a treaty of peace and receive Christian baptism if the emperor will withdraw his army from Spain. He leads the Saracen host against the French rearguard at Ron-cevaux. After Roland severs his sword hand as they struggle in hand-to-hand combat, Marsilion leaves the battle. Later he dies in his castle at Saragossa.
Blancandrin, the crafty Saracen knight who suggests the treacherous proposal that King Marsilion makes to Charlemagne. Ganelon plots with Blancandrin the destruction of the Twelve Peers and the French host at Roncevaux.
Adelroth, the nephew of King Marsilion, Duke Fal-saron, King Corsablis, Malprimis of Brigale, The Emir of Balaguet, The Lord of Moriana, Turgis of Torte-losa, Escremiz of Valterne, Estorgan, Estramarin, Margaris of Seville, and Chernubles of Munigre, King Marsilion's Twelve Champions killed by the Twelve Peers at Roncevaux.
Baligant, the Emir of Babylon and the ally of King Marsilion. He brings a mighty army to attack the French under Emperor Charlemagne. After a fierce battle that lasts from early morning until dusk the Emir and Charlemagne engage in single combat. Charlemagne, wounded, is heartened by Saint Gabriel. His strength renewed, he strikes with his sword the helmet of his enemy and cleaves him to his beard. The Saracens, seeing their leader dead, flee.
Aude, betrothed to Roland. Hearing that her lover is dead, she falls at Charlemagne's feet and dies.
Bramimond, the widow of King Marsilion. Charlemagne takes her with him when he returns to France, where she is baptized and given a Christian name, Juliana.
The Story
The boy Roland grew up far from his home country and lived with his penniless mother in a cave formerly occupied by a lonely monk. Nevertheless, his mother had taught him that some day he should be a brave hero like his father, Milon, and serve with the great army of Charlemagne. When he asked his mother to tell him the story of his birth, he learned that through his father he was descended from great heroes of old, Trojan Hector on one side and Wotan, king of the Norse gods, on the other. His father, Milon, having incurred the wrath of Charlemagne for taking the king's sister, the Princess Bertha, as his wife, had come to Italy and there had died fighting pagans in single-handed combat.
One summer, when he was still only a lad, his friend Oliver, the son of a local prince, met him, and the two watched the coming of the great Charlemagne into Italy, where the king was to receive the blessing of the pope at Rome.
Roland was impressed by the royal pageant but not overawed. That night, he walked into Charlemagne's banquet hall and demanded his rights for himself and his mother. Amused by the boy's daring, Charlemagne ordered that Bertha be brought to him. When the emperor recognized his long-lost sister, he rejoiced and gave her and her son a place of honor in his court.
Roland's boyhood years passed quickly and with increasing honors. At first he was merely a page in the court—attending the ladies, carrying messages, and learning court etiquette. He was permitted to accompany the king's knights during war with the Saxons, and he was present when the swan knight, of the race of Lohengrin, appeared at the court of Charlemagne.
When Roland was fourteen years old, he became a squire and made the acquaintance of Ogier the Dane, a hostage prince at Charlemagne's court. The two boys became great friends. Then, urged by a new queen, Ogier's father, Duke Godfrey, planned a revolt against Charlemagne. In retaliation Charlemagne threatened to kill Ogier. Roland intervened and saved his friend's life.
In the meantime barbarians attacked Rome. In an effort to save the pope, Charlemagne ignored the rebellion of the Danes and set off to the south, taking Ogier with him as a prisoner. The great army was assisted on its passage across the Alps when a magnificent white stag appeared to lead the army through the mountain passes.
In the battles that followed, Charlemagne's army was divided. One force, led by the cowardly son of Charlemagne and the false knight Alory, attempted to retreat and placed the emperor's life in jeopardy. Roland and Ogier, aided by other squires, donned the garments of the cowards and saved the day. Charlemagne knighted them upon the battlefield.
One of the pagan knights proposed a personal combat. In this encounter Chariot, a son of Charlemagne, and Ogier met two barbarians, Prince Sadone and Karaheut. The pagans trapped Ogier and threatened to put him to death, but Chariot escaped. Karaheut, who was to have fought Ogier, rebelled against the unchivalrous action of his pagan prince and surrendered to Charlemagne, to be treated exactly as Ogier would be treated. Reinforcements came to the pagans, among them the giant king of Maiolgre. In a dispute over the marriage of Glorianda, a Danish prisoner, Ogier fought for Glorianda and put his enemy to rout. Charlemagne attacked at the same time. Ogier and Roland were reunited. The pope was restored to his throne.
Roland was invested with royal arms. His sword was the famous Durandal; his battle horn was the horn of his grandfather, Charles the Hammer. None but Roland could blow that horn. His armor was the best in the kingdom.
A new war began when Count Gerard refused homage to the emperor. Oliver, grandson of the count, was among the knights opposed to Charlemagne. After the French had besieged the fortress of Viana for seven months, it was decided to settle the war by encounter between a champion from each army. Roland was chosen to fight for Charlemagne. Unknown to him, his adversary was to be Oliver, his boyhood friend. When the two discovered each other's identity, they embraced.
A few weeks later on a boar hunt near Viana, Charlemagne was captured by Count Gerard. The two leaders declared a truce, and Count Gerard agreed to be a faithful liege man of the emperor thereafter. Roland met Oliver's sister, Alda, and became betrothed to her.
At Christmastime the Princess of Cathay arrived with her brothers at Charlemagne's court. She proposed a contest between a Christian knight and her brother Argalia. If one of Charlemagne's knights were the victor, he should have her hand in marriage. If the knight were defeated, he should become a hostage. Malagis, the wizard, discovered that the princess and her brothers really sought by sorcery to destroy Charlemagne. He visited the apartment of the foreigners but was discovered by them. They complained and Charlemagne, not understanding the wizard's desire to help him, sentenced Malagis to be imprisoned in a hollow rock beneath the sea forever.
The jousts began. After Argalia had defeated the first knight, Ferrau, the fierce Moor, began combat. Unhorsed, the Moor fought Argalia on foot and overpowered him. Then the princess became invisible, and Argalia rode away, the Moor in pursuit.
In the forest of Ardennes, the Moor discovered Argalia sleeping, killed him without honor, and seized his wonderful helmet. Roland, having followed them, discovered the murder of Argalia and sought the Moor to punish him for his unknightly deed.
Reinold of Montalban found the Princess of Cathay in the forest after he had drunk from the waters of the fountain of Merlin, and the effect of this water was to make him see the princess as an ugly crone. She thought him handsome, but he felt disgust and hurried away. Roland discovered the Moor and challenged him to combat, but the Moor suddenly remembered that his liege lord in Spain was in need of his help and did not remain to fight with Roland.
When the Princess of Cathay saw the Moor wearing her brother's helmet, she knew a tragedy had occurred, and she transported herself by magic to her father's kingdom.
Roland went on a quest to the Far East in search of the complete armor of Trojan Hector. Whether by chance or by evil design, he came to a fountain and there drank the water of forgetfulness. He was rescued by the Princess of Cathay and fought many battles for her sake, even though she was a pagan princess.
At last he came to the castle of the fairy queen, Morgan le Fay, where the armor of Trojan Hector was said to be hidden. Overcome for the first time, he failed to gain the armor and was ordered to return to the court of Charlemagne.
He arrived home in time to help the Danes resist an invasion of their country. When Ogier's father, Duke Godfrey, summoned help, Ogier and Roland set out for Denmark. The invaders fled. At the same time Ogier's father died, but Ogier, on the advice of Morgan le Fay, renounced his rights to his father's holdings in favor of his younger brother.
On his way back to France, Roland heard of a fierce ore said to be the property of Proteus. The ore devoured one beautiful maiden each day until Roland overcame it and was rewarded by Oberto, the king of Ireland, whose daughter he had saved.
In the meantime Charlemagne's forces were being attacked by the Saracens, and Roland set out to help Charlemagne's knights. On the way he was trapped in a wizard's castle. He was saved from this captivity by Bra-damant, a warrior maiden. She, having won a magic ring from the Princess of Cathay, overcame the wizard and released all the knights and ladies held prisoner in the wizard's castle.
Ferrau, the Moorish knight, lost the helmet he had stolen from Argalia and vowed he would never again wear a helmet until he should wear that of Roland. By trickery he managed to get Roland's helmet.
Roland was set upon by Mandricardo, the fierce knight to whom fortune had awarded the arms of Trojan Hector. They fought for the possession of Durandal, Roland's sword, the only part of Trojan Hector's equipment which Mandricardo did not possess. At last Mandricardo was forced to flee for his life.
Roland visited the forest where the Princess of Cathay and Medoro, a Moorish prince, had fallen in love. Some declared it was jealousy for the princess, but others declared it was sheer exhaustion which caused Roland now to lose his mind. He cast his armor away from him and went wandering helplessly through the forest. Mandricardo seized Durandal and made Roland his prisoner.
Astolpho and Oliver set out from the court of Charlemagne to save Roland. Astolpho journeyed on the back of a flying horse to the fabulous land of Prester John. Having freed Prester John from a flock of harpies, Astolpho journeyed to the rim of the moon and there saw stored all the things lost on earth. There he found Roland's common sense, which he brought back with him and returned to Roland so that the knight became his former self.
In a battle against the Saracens, the wicked Ganelon betrayed the knights of Charlemagne. Greatly outnumbered, they fell one by one to their enemies.
Roland, unwilling to call for help, refused to use his famous horn to summon aid, and he died last of all. Charlemagne, discovering the dead hero, declared a great day of mourning. Alda, the betrothed of Roland, fell dead and was buried with many honors. Then Charlemagne died and was buried with great pomp. Only Ogier the Dane remained, and it is said that Morgan le Fay carried him to Avalon where he lives in company with Arthur of the Round Table.
It is also said that Charlemagne dwells inside a vast mountain cave with all of his heroes gathered around him. There they wait for the day when they shall march out to avenge the wrongs of the world.
Critical Evaluation
The Song of Roland is loosely associated with the romance literature—the adventure narratives—of medieval France. The romance is divided into three types on the basis of content. The first is the "Matter of Britain," dealing with Arthurian legend and Celtic lore. The second is the "Matter of Antiquity," taking its cue from the legends of Thebes, the legends of Troy (such as Geoffrey Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde, 1382), and the legends about Alexander the Great. The third is the "Matter of France," focusing on stories of Charlemagne and his circle as well as stories of William of Orange, drawn from the chansons de geste, or songs of great deeds. It is here that the Song of Roland becomes important, for it is, properly speaking, one of the songs of great deeds.
The chansons de geste are epic in nature, although the precise origins of the form are unknown. A popular literary form between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries, they are written in French verse—as were early romances; late romances were written in prose—using first a ten-syllable than a twelve-syllable (Alexandrine) line and assonance. Rhyme was substituted for assonance in the late chansons. The lines are grouped in stanzas—called laisses or tirades—of varying lengths, and series of chansons developed into story cycles dealing with a particular person, such as Charlemagne, or a particular theme, such as the conflict between Christians and Saracens. Like the classical epics, the chansons de geste concentrate—as implied by the name—on battles, heroic feats, and knightly ideals. Scant notice is paid to women or the theme of love. These tales furnish the material for the medieval romance; however, in the romance, the emphasis shifts from the heroic to the chivalric, from war to love, and from tragic seriousness to lighthearted adventure. Thus the Song of Roland, a chanson de geste, is a narrative of knights in battle, but Lodovico Ariosto's sixteenth century Orlando furioso (1516, 1521, 1532) concerns itself with a smitten Roland (Orlando) gone mad over hopeless infatuation with the faithless Angelica, the Princess of Cathay.
Some verification for the events narrated in the Song of Roland is provided independently of the poem in the "Annales regni Francorum" of Einhard (or Eginhard), Charlemagne's biographer and chronicler. On this basis, it is possible to pinpoint the essential Roland story as a Basque ambush, in A.D. 778, of the rearguard of Charlemagne's army during a retreat through the Pyrenees. One unusual aspect of the story is that it tells of a defeat— not that defeat was a total stranger in the epic world of chansons de geste, but rather the heroic ambience which pervaded the chansons precluded much talk of defeat. Several hypotheses have been offered to explain the apparent anomaly. One scholar traces the place-names mentioned in the poem to the pilgrimage route to the shrine of St. James of Compostella, theorizing that clerics on pilgrimage knitted the stories of Roland's defeat into an intrinsically Christian epic—in effect, an adaptation of history to a Christian poem. Another scholar construes the poem as a tribute to courage, loyalty, patriotism, and devotion in the face of overwhelming odds— in other words, a celebration of heroic ideals. A third scholar more plausibly approaches the problem by way of the poem's purpose. If, so the reasoning goes, the poem was written to glorify Charlemagne and Christianity, then Roland dies a martyr's death and Charlemagne's vengeance redounds to his credit as a Defender of the Faith. Whatever their other merits, these theories suggest two recurring themes in any reading of the Song of Roland: the religious and the heroic, both of them major preoccupations of the High Middle Ages.
The religious theme pits Christians against Saracens, imbuing the story with a strong crusading spirit. On the one hand, Charlemagne and his Peers display most, if not all, of the Seven Cardinal Virtues. Even the proud Roland dies humble and contrite, and Charlemagne's early indecision is resolved later in the poem when he becomes a courageous leader. The pagans, on the other hand, embody the Seven Deadly Sins. They are treacherous and greedy, fighting for personal glory or material gain rather than principle or faith. In this world of black-and-white morality, there are no good pagans, and the treasonous, deceitful Ganelon is severely punished for his perfidy. By contrast, the good Charlemagne is rewarded by the direct intervention of the Archangel Gabriel, who deals the pagan Saracens a final defeat by slaying their leader, Baligant, while God makes the sun stand still. Divine intervention even affects the trial of Ganelon. The Christian cause is never questioned, nor is there any doubt about its justice. The forced baptism of the Saracen captives is described without qualm, just as is the battlefield bloodshed. If contradictions appear to the modern reader, they certainly did not occur to the medieval mind, for religious faith—by no means the least of the Cardinal Virtues—obliterated any inconsistencies between, for example, the virtue of temperance and the slaughter of pagans.
The heroic theme in the Song of Roland is closely linked to the religious, since most heroic deeds are performed in the name of religious principle. The hero's role, however, requires dedication to ideals that have only peripheral, if any, relationship to religious precepts. Loyalty and bravery, for example, are held in high esteem, but they are such basic heroic ideals that they are more implicit than explicit in the poem. Decision of major issues and even major battles by single combat is another heroic ideal which often manifests itself in the poem. In addition, the motifs of victory-defeat and treason-vengeance weigh heavily in the balance of heroic ideals. Still another factor, which the modern reader might call "team spirit," is the knightly obligation to subsume individual or personal honor and glory in furtherance of the cause. Thus Roland's early pride, especially his insistence upon the force to subdue the Saracens and his subsequent refusal to blow his horn to summon Charlemagne's aid until all were dead or dying, was later brought low. Finally Roland regretted his stubborn pride in a vivid demonstration of the need for that heroic ideal, teamwork. Not all is a self-evident exercise in primitive democracy. Charlemagne's word was still law, although the most powerful peers insisted upon a voice in decision making; nor is there much attention paid to morality (as distinct from ethics) or to social courtesies. In fact, a pristine system of social and political justice characterized Charlemagne's court as an essential ingredient in the heroic ideal, quite apart from religious considerations altogether. Thus, the unique features of the heroic ideal are distinguishable from religious precepts.
All in all, the Song of Roland is a remarkable panorama of medieval life and thought, imaginatively perceived. To those who would say that it is false history, one can answer only with the cliche that fiction is often truer than history, for in the Song of Roland such is the case. The poem affords so vivid a picture of medieval reality that its historical accuracy is irrelevant; it presents psychological, emotional, and sociological realities that transcend factual data to reach a new plateau of reality, one reflecting the spirit of the times rather than the substance. In this sense the Song of Roland is, despite its ethical simplicities and its literary primitiveness, remarkably successful as a document of the medieval spirit, a characteristic that may explain its enduring popularity for nearly one thousand years.
Song of Roland
Translation of Charles Scott Moncrief
I
Charles the King, our Lord and Sovereign,
Full seven years hath sojourned in Spain,
Conquered the land, and won the western main,
Now no fortress against him doth remain,
No city walls are left for him to gain,
Save Sarraguce, that sits on high mountain.
Marsile its King, who feareth not God's name,
Mahumet's man, he invokes Apollin's aid,
Nor wards off ills that shall to him attain.
AOI.
King Marsilies he lay at Sarraguce,
Went he his way into an orchard cool;
There on a throne he sate, of marble blue,
Round him his men, full twenty thousand, stood.
Called he forth then his counts, also his dukes:
"My Lords, give ear to our impending doom:
That Emperour, Charles of France the Douce,
Into this land is come, us to confuse.
I have no host in battle him to prove,
Nor have I strength his forces to undo.
Counsel me then, ye that are wise and true;
Can ye ward off this present death and dule?"
What word to say no pagan of them knew,
Save Blancandrin, of th' Castle of Val Funde.
III
Blancandrins was a pagan very wise,
In vassalage he was a gallant knight,
First in prowess, he stood his lord beside.
And thus he spoke: "Do not yourself affright!
Yield to Carlun, that is so big with pride,
Faithful service, his friend and his ally;
Lions and bears and hounds for him provide,
Thousand mewed hawks, sev'n hundred camelry;
Silver and gold, four hundred mules load high;
Fifty wagons his wrights will need supply,
Till with that wealth he pays his soldiery.
War hath he waged in Spain too long a time,
To Aix, in France, homeward he will him hie.
Follow him there before Saint Michael's tide,
You shall receive and hold the Christian rite;
Stand honour bound, and do him fealty.
Send hostages, should he demand surety,
Ten or a score, our loyal oath to bind;
Send him our sons, the first-born of our wives; --
An he be slain, I'll surely furnish mine.
Better by far they go, though doomed to die,
Than that we lose honour and dignity,
And be ourselves brought down to beggary."
AOI.
Says Blancandrins: "By my right hand, I say,
And by this beard, that in the wind doth sway,
The Frankish host you'll see them all away;
Franks will retire to France their own terrain.
When they are gone, to each his fair domain,
In his Chapelle at Aix will Charles stay,
High festival will hold for Saint Michael.
Time will go by, and pass the appointed day;
Tidings of us no Frank will hear or say.
Proud is that King, and cruel his courage;
From th' hostage he'll slice their heads away.
Better by far their heads be shorn away,
Than that ourselves lose this clear land of Spain,
Than that ourselves do suffer grief and pain."
"That is well said. So be it." the pagans say.
V
The council ends, and that King Marsilie
Calleth aside Clarun of Balaguee,
Estramarin and Eudropin his peer,
And Priamun and Guarlan of the beard,
And Machiner and his uncle Mahee,
With Jouner, Malbien from over sea,
And Blancandrin, good reason to decree:
Ten hath he called, were first in felony.
"Gentle Barons, to Charlemagne go ye;
He is in siege of Cordres the city.
In your right hands bear olive-branches green
Which signify Peace and Humility.
If you by craft contrive to set me free,
Silver and gold, you'll have your fill of me,
Manors and fiefs, I'll give you all your need."
"We have enough," the pagans straight agree.
AOI.
King Marsilies, his council finishing,
Says to his men : "Go now, my lords, to him,
Olive-branches in your right hands bearing;
Bid ye for me that Charlemagne, the King,
In his God's name to shew me his mercy;
Ere this new moon wanes, I shall be with him;
One thousand men shall be my following;
I will receive the rite of christening,
Will be his man, my love and faith swearing;
Hostages too, he'll have, if so he will."
Says Blancandrins: "Much good will come of this."
AOI.
Ten snow-white mules then ordered Marsilie,
Gifts of a King, the King of Suatilie.
Bridled with gold, saddled in silver clear;
Mounted them those that should the message speak,
In their right hands were olive-branches green.
Came they to Charle, that holds all France in fee,
Yet cannot guard himself from treachery.
AOI.
Merry and bold is now that Emperour,
Cordres he holds, the walls are tumbled down,
His catapults have battered town and tow'r.
Great good treasure his knights have placed in pound,
Silver and gold and many a jewelled gown.
In that city there is no pagan now
But he been slain, or takes the Christian vow.
The Emperour is in a great orchard ground
Where Oliver and Rollant stand around,
Sansun the Duke and Anseis the proud,
Gefreid d'Anjou, that bears his gonfaloun;
There too Gerin and Geriers are found.
Where they are found, is seen a mighty crowd,
Fifteen thousand, come out of France the Douce.
On white carpets those knights have sate them down,
At the game-boards to pass an idle hour; --
Chequers the old, for wisdom most renowned,
While fence the young and lusty bachelours.
Beneath a pine, in eglantine embow'red,
l Stands a fald-stool, fashioned of gold throughout;
There sits the King, that holds Douce France in pow'r;
White is his beard, and blossoming-white his crown,
Shapely his limbs, his countenance is proud.
Should any seek, no need to point him out.
The messengers, on foot they get them down,
And in salute full courteously they lout.
IX
The foremost word of all Blancandrin spake,
And to the King: "May God preserve you safe,
The All Glorious, to Whom ye're bound to pray!
Proud Marsilies this message bids me say:
Much hath he sought to find salvation's way;
Out of his wealth meet presents would he make,
Lions and bears, and greyhounds leashed on chain,
Thousand mewed hawks, sev'n hundred dromedrays,
Four hundred mules his silver shall convey,
Fifty wagons you'll need to bear away
Golden besants, such store of proved assay,
Wherewith full tale your soldiers you can pay.
Now in this land you've been too long a day
Hie you to France, return again to Aix;
Thus saith my Lord, he'll follow too that way."
That Emperour t'wards God his arms he raised
Lowered his head, began to meditate.
AOI.
That Emperour inclined his head full low;
Hasty in speech he never was, but slow:
His custom was, at his leisure he spoke.
When he looks up, his face is very bold,
He says to them: "Good tidings have you told.
King Marsilies hath ever been my foe.
These very words you have before me told,
In what measure of faith am I to hold?"
That Sarrazin says, "Hostages he'll show;
Ten shall you take, or fifteen or a score.
Though he be slain, a son of mine shall go,
Any there be you'll have more nobly born.
To your palace seigneurial when you go,
At Michael's Feast, called in periculo;
My Lord hath said, thither will he follow
Ev'n to your baths, that God for you hath wrought;
There is he fain the Christian faith to know."
Answers him Charles: "Still may he heal his soul."
AOI.
Clear shone the sun in a fair even-tide;
Those ten men's mules in stall he bade them tie.
Also a tent in the orchard raise on high,
Those messengers had lodging for the night;
Dozen serjeants served after them aright.
Darkling they lie till comes the clear daylight.
That Emperour does with the morning rise;
Matins and Mass are said then in his sight.
Forth goes that King, and stays beneath a pine;
Barons he calls, good counsel to define,
For with his Franks he's ever of a mind.
AOI.
That Emperour, beneath a pine he sits,
Calls his barons, his council to begin:
Oger the Duke, that Archbishop Turpin,
Richard the old, and his nephew Henry,
From Gascony the proof Count Acolin,
Tedbald of Reims and Milun his cousin:
With him there were Gerers, also Gerin,
And among them the Count Rollant came in,
And Oliver, so proof and so gentil.
Franks out of France, a thousand chivalry;
Guenes came there, that wrought the treachery.
The Council then began, which ended ill.
AOI.
"My Lords Barons," says the Emperour then, Charles,
"King Marsilies hath sent me his messages;
Out of his wealth he'll give me weighty masses.
Greyhounds on leash and bears and lions also,
Thousand mewed hawks and seven hundred camels,
Four hundred mules with gold Arabian charged,
Fifty wagons, yea more than fifty drawing.
But into France demands he my departure;
He'll follow me to Aix, where is my Castle;
There he'll receive the law of our Salvation:
Christian he'll be, and hold from me his marches.
But I know not what purpose in his heart is."
Then say the Franks: "Beseems us act with caution!"
AOI.
That Emperour hath ended now his speech.
The Count Rollanz, he never will agree,
Quick to reply, he springs upon his feet;
And to the King, "Believe not Marsilie.
Seven years since, when into Spain came we,
I conquer'd you Noples also Commibles,
And took Valterne, and all the land of Pine,
And Balaguet, and Tuele, and Sezilie.
Traitor in all his ways was Marsilies;
Of his pagans he sent you then fifteen,
Bearing in hand their olive-branches green:
Who, ev'n as now, these very words did speak.
You of your Franks a Council did decree,
Praised they your words that foolish were in deed.
Two of your Counts did to the pagan speed,
Basan was one, and the other Basilie:
Their heads he took on th' hill by Haltilie.
War have you waged, so on to war proceed,
To Sarraguce lead forth your great army.
All your life long, if need be, lie in siege,
Vengeance for those the felon slew to wreak."
AOI.
That Emperour he sits with lowering front,
He clasps his chin, his beard his fingers tug,
Good word nor bad, his nephew not one.
Franks hold their peace, but only Guenelun
Springs to his feet, and comes before Carlun;
Right haughtily his reason he's begun,
And to the King: "Believe not any one,
My word nor theirs, save whence your good shall come.
Since he sends word, that King Marsiliun,
Homage he'll do, by finger and by thumb;
Throughout all Spain your writ alone shall run
Next he'll receive our rule of Christendom
Who shall advise, this bidding be not done,
Deserves not death, since all to death must come.
Counsel of pride is wrong: we've fought enough.
Leave we the fools, and with the wise be one."
AOI.
And after him came Neimes out, the third,
Better vassal there was not in the world;
And to the King: "Now rightly have you heard
Guenes the Count, what answer he returned.
Wisdom was there, but let it well be heard.
King Marsilies in war is overturned,
His castles all in ruin have you hurled,
With catapults his ramparts have you burst,
Vanquished his men, and all his cities burned;
Him who entreats your pity do not spurn,
Sinners were they that would to war return;
With hostages his faith he would secure;
Let this great war no longer now endure."
"Well said the Duke." Franks utter in their turn.
AOI.
"My lords barons, say whom shall we send up
To Sarraguce, to King Marsiliun?"
Answers Duke Neimes: "I'll go there for your love;
Give me therefore the wand, also the glove."
Answers the King: "Old man of wisdom pruff;
By this white beard, and as these cheeks are rough,
You'll not this year so far from me remove;
Go sit you down, for none hath called you up."
XVIII
"My lords barons, say whom now can we send
To th' Sarrazin that Sarraguce defends?"
Answers Rollanz: "I might go very well."
"Certes, you'll not," says Oliver his friend,
"For your courage is fierce unto the end,
I am afraid you would misapprehend.
If the King wills it I might go there well."
Answers the King: "Be silent both on bench;
Your feet nor his, I say, shall that way wend.
Nay, by this beard, that you have seen grow blench,
The dozen peers by that would stand condemned.
Franks hold their peace; you'd seen them all silent.
XIX
Turpins of Reins is risen from his rank,
Says to the King: "In peace now leave your Franks.
For seven years you've lingered in this land
They have endured much pain and sufferance.
Give, Sire, to me the clove, also the wand,
I will seek out the Spanish Sarazand,
For I believe his thoughts I understand."
That Emperour answers intolerant:
"Go, sit you down on yonder silken mat;
And speak no more, until that I command."
AOI.
"Franks, chevaliers," says the Emperour then, Charles,
"Choose ye me out a baron from my marches,
To Marsilie shall carry back my answer."
Then says Rollanz: "There's Guenes, my goodfather."
Answer the Franks: "For he can wisely manage;
So let him go, there's none you should send rather."
And that count Guenes is very full of anguish;
Off from his neck he flings the pelts of marten,
And on his feet stands clear in silken garment.
Proud face he had, his eyes with colour, sparkled;
Fine limbs he had, his ribs were broadly arched
So fair he seemed that all the court regarded.
Says to Rollant: "Fool, wherefore art so wrathful?
All men know well that I am thy goodfather;
Thou hast decreed, to Marsiliun I travel.
Then if God grant that I return hereafter,
I'll follow thee with such a force of passion
That will endure so long as life may last thee."
Answers Rollanz: "Thou'rt full of pride and madness.
All men know well, I take no thought for slander;
But some wise man, surely, should bear the answer;
If the King will, I'm ready to go rather."
AOI.
Answers him Guene: "Thou shalt not go for me.
Thou'rt not my man, nor am I lord of thee.
Charles commnds that I do his decree,
To Sarraguce going to Marsilie;
There I will work a little trickery,
This mighty wrath of mine I'll thus let free."
When Rollanz heard, began to laugh for glee.
AOI.
When Guenes sees that Rollant laughs at it,
Such grief he has, for rage he's like to split,
A little more, and he has lost his wit:
Says to that count: "I love you not a bit;
A false judgement you bore me when you chid.
Right Emperour, you see me where you sit,
I will your word accomplish, as you bid.
AOI.
"To Sarraguce I must repair, 'tis plain;
Whence who goes there returns no more again.
Your sister's hand in marriage have I ta'en;
And I've a son, there is no prettier swain:
Baldwin, men say he shews the knightly strain.
To him I leave my honours and domain.
Care well for him; he'll look for me in vain."
Answers him Charles: "Your heart is too humane.
When I command, time is to start amain."
AOI.
Then says the King: "Guenes, before me stand;
And take from me the glove, also the wand.
For you have heard, you're chosen by the Franks,"
"Sire," answers Guenes, " all this is from Rollanz;
I'll not love him, so long as I'm a man,
Nor Oliver, who goes at his right hand;
The dozen peers, for they are of his band,
All I defy, as in your sight I stand."
Then says the King: "Over intolerant.
Now certainly you go when I command."
"And go I can; yet have I no warrant
Basile had none nor his brother Basant."
XXV
His right hand glove that Emperour holds out;
But the count Guenes elsewhere would fain be found ;
When he should take, it falls upon the ground.
Murmur the Franks: "God! What may that mean now?
By this message great loss shall come about."
"Lordings," says Guene, "You'll soon have news enow."
XXVI
"Now," Guenes said, "give me your orders, Sire;
Since I must go, why need I linger, I?"
Then said the King "In Jesu's Name and mine!"
With his right hand he has absolved and signed,
Then to his care the wand and brief confides.
XXVII
Guenes the count goes to his hostelry,
Finds for the road his garments and his gear,
All of the best he takes that may appear:
Spurs of fine gold he fastens on his feet,
And to his side Murgles his sword of steel.
On Tachebrun, his charger, next he leaps,
His uncle holds the stirrup, Guinemere.
Then you had seen so many knights to weep,
Who all exclaim: "Unlucky lord, indeed!
In the King's court these many years you've been,
Noble vassal, they say that have you seen.
He that for you this journey has decreed
King Charlemagne will never hold him dear.
The Count Rollant, he should not so have deemed,
Knowing you were born of very noble breed."
After they say: "Us too, Sire, shall he lead."
Then answers Guenes: "Not so, the Lord be pleased!
Far better one than many knights should bleed.
To France the Douce, my lords, you soon shall speed,
On my behalf my gentle wife you'll greet,
And Pinabel, who is my friend and peer,
And Baldewin, my son, whom you have seen;
His rights accord and help him in his need."
-- Rides down the road, and on his way goes he.
AOI.
Guenes canters on, and halts beneath a tree;
Where Sarrazins assembled he may see,
With Blancandrins, who abides his company.
Cunning and keen they speak then, each to each,
Says Blancandrins: "Charles, what a man is he,
Who conquered Puille and th'whole of Calabrie;
Into England he crossed the bitter sea,
To th' Holy Pope restored again his fee.
What seeks he now of us in our country?"
Then answers Guene "So great courage hath he;
Never was man against him might succeed."
AOI.
Says Blancandrins "Gentle the Franks are found;
Yet a great wrong these dukes do and these counts
Unto their lord, being in counsel proud;
Him and themselves they harry and confound."
Guenes replies: "There is none such, without
Only Rollanz, whom shame will yet find out.
Once in the shade the King had sate him down;
His nephew came, in sark of iron brown,
Spoils he had won, beyond by Carcasoune,
Held in his hand an apple red and round.
"Behold, fair Sire," said Rollanz as he bowed,
"Of all earth's kings I bring you here the crowns."
His cruel pride must shortly him confound,
Each day t'wards death he goes a little down,
When he be slain, shall peace once more abound."
AOI.
Says Blancandrins: "A cruel man, Rollant,
That would bring down to bondage every man,
And challenges the peace of every land.
With what people takes he this task in hand?"
And answers Guene: "The people of the Franks;
They love him so, for men he'll never want.
Silver and gold he show'rs upon his band,
Chargers and mules, garments and silken mats.
The King himself holds all by his command;
From hence to the East he'll conquer sea and land."
AOI.
Cantered so far then Blancandrins and Guene
Till each by each a covenant had made
And sought a plan, how Rollant might be slain.
Cantered so far by valley and by plain
To Sarraguce beneath a cliff they came.
There a fald-stool stood in a pine-tree's shade,
Enveloped all in Alexandrin veils;
There was the King that held the whole of Espain,
Twenty thousand of Sarrazins his train;
Nor was there one but did his speech contain,
Eager for news, till they might hear the tale.
Haste into sight then Blancandrins and Guene.
XXXII
Holding the hand of county Guenelun;
Says to the King "Lord save you, Sire, Mahum
And Apollin, whose holy laws here run!
Your message we delivered to Charlun,
Both his two hands he raised against the sun,
Praising his God, but answer made he none.
He sends you here his noblest born barun,
Greatest in wealth, that out of France is come;
From him you'll hear if peace shall be, or none."
"Speak," said Marsile: "We'll hear him, every one."
AOI.
But the count Guenes did deeply meditate;
Cunning and keen began at length, and spake
Even as one that knoweth well the way;
And to the King: "May God preserve you safe,
The All Glorious, to whom we're bound to pray
Proud Charlemagne this message bids me say:
You must receive the holy Christian Faith,
And yield in fee one half the lands of Spain.
If to accord this tribute you disdain,
Taken by force and bound in iron chain
You will be brought before his throne at Aix;
Judged and condemned you'll be, and shortly slain,
Yes, you will die in misery and shame."
King Marsilies was very sore afraid,
Snatching a dart, with golden feathers gay,
He made to strike: they turned aside his aim.
AOI.
King Marsilies is turn'ed white with rage,
His feathered dart he brandishes and shakes.
Guenes beholds: his sword in hand he takes,
Two fingers' width from scabbard bares the blade;
And says to it: "O clear and fair and brave;
Before this King in court we'll so behave,
That the Emperour of France shall never say
In a strange land I'd thrown my life away
Before these chiefs thy temper had essayed."
"Let us prevent this fight:" the pagans say.
XXXV
Then Sarrazins implored him so, the chiefs,
On the faldstoel Marsillies took his seat.
"Greatly you harm our cause," says the alcaliph:
"When on this Frank your vengeance you would wreak;
Rather you should listen to hear him speak."
"Sire," Guenes says, "to suffer I am meek.
I will not fail, for all the gold God keeps,
Nay, should this land its treasure pile in heaps,
But I will tell, so long as I be free,
What Charlemagne, that Royal Majesty,
Bids me inform his mortal enemy."
Guenes had on a cloke of sable skin,
And over it a veil Alexandrin;
These he throws down, they're held by Blancandrin;
But not his sword, he'll not leave hold of it,
In his right hand he grasps the golden hilt.
The pagans say. "A noble baron, this."
AOI.
Before the King's face Guenes drawing near
Says to him "Sire, wherefore this rage and fear?
Seeing you are, by Charles, of Franks the chief,
Bidden to hold the Christians' right belief.
One half of Spain he'll render as your fief
The rest Rollanz, his nephew, shall receive,
Proud parcener in him you'll have indeed.
If you will not to Charles this tribute cede,
To you he'll come, and Sarraguce besiege;
Take you by force, and bind you hands and feet,
Bear you outright ev'n unto Aix his seat.
You will not then on palfrey nor on steed,
Jennet nor mule, come cantering in your speed;
Flung you will be on a vile sumpter-beast;
Tried there and judged, your head you will not keep.
Our Emperour has sent you here this brief."
He's given it into the pagan's nief.
XXXVII
Now Marsilies, is turn'ed white with ire,
He breaks the seal and casts the wax aside,
Looks in the brief, sees what the King did write:
"Charles commands, who holds all France by might,
I bear in mind his bitter grief and ire;
'Tis of Basan and 's brother Basilye,
Whose heads I took on th' hill by Haltilye.
If I would save my body now alive,
I must despatch my uncle the alcalyph,
Charles will not love me ever otherwise."
After, there speaks his son to Marsilye,
Says to the King: "In madness spoke this wight.
So wrong he was, to spare him were not right;
Leave him to me, I will that wrong requite."
When Guenes hears, he draws his sword outright,
Against the trunk he stands, beneath that pine.
XXXVIII
The King is gone into that orchard then;
With him he takes the best among his men;
And Blancandrins there shews his snowy hair,
And Jursalet, was the King's son and heir,
And the alcaliph, his uncle and his friend.
Says Blancandrins: "Summon the Frank again,
In our service his faith to me he's pledged."
Then says the King: "So let him now be fetched."
He's taken Guenes by his right finger-ends,
And through the orchard straight to the King they wend.
Of treason there make lawless parliament.
AOI.
"Fair Master Guenes," says then King Marsilie,
"I did you now a little trickery,
Making to strike, I shewed my great fury.
These sable skins take as amends from me,
Five hundred pounds would not their worth redeem.
To-morrow night the gift shall ready be."
Guene answers him: "I'll not refuse it, me.
May God be pleased to shew you His mercy."
AOI.
Then says Marsile "Guenes, the truth to ken,
Minded I am to love you very well.
Of Charlemagne I wish to hear you tell,
He's very old, his time is nearly spent,
Two hundred years he's lived now, as 'tis said.
Through many lands his armies he has led,
So many blows his buckled shield has shed,
And so rich kings he's brought to beg their bread;
What time from war will he draw back instead?"
And answers Guenes: "Not so was Charles bred.
There is no man that sees and knows him well
But will proclaim the Emperour's hardihead.
Praise him as best I may, when all is said,
Remain untold, honour and goodness yet.
His great valour how can it be counted?
Him with such grace hath God illumined,
Better to die than leave his banneret."
XLI
The pagan says: "You make me marvel sore
At Charlemagne, who is so old and hoar;
Two hundred years, they say, he's lived and more.
So many lands he's led his armies o'er,
So many blows from spears and lances borne,
And so rich kings brought down to beg and sorn,
When will time come that he draws back from war?"
"Never," says Guenes, "so long as lives his nephew;
No such vassal goes neath the dome of heaven;
And proof also is Oliver his henchman;
The dozen peers, whom Charl'es holds so precious,
These are his guards, with other thousands twenty.
Charles is secure, he holds no man in terror."
AOI.
Says Sarrazin: "My wonder yet is grand
At Charlemagne, who hoary is and blanched.
Two hundred years and more, I understand,
He has gone forth and conquered many a land,
Such blows hath borne from many a trenchant lance,
Vanquished and slain of kings so rich a band,
When will time come that he from war draws back?"
"Never," says Guene, "so long as lives Rollanz,
From hence to the East there is no such vassal;
And proof also, Oliver his comrade;
The dozen peers he cherishes at hand,
These are his guard, with twenty thousand Franks.
Charles is secure, he fears no living man."
AOI.
"Fair Master Guenes," says Marsilies the King,
"Such men are mine, fairer than tongue can sing,
Of knights I can four hundred thousand bring
So I may fight with Franks and with their King."
Answers him Guenes: "Not on this journeying
Save of pagans a great loss suffering.
Leave you the fools, wise counsel following;
To the Emperour such wealth of treasure give
That every Frank at once is marvelling.
For twenty men that you shall now send in
To France the Douce he will repair, that King;
In the rereward will follow after him
Both his nephew, count Rollant, as I think,
And Oliver, that courteous paladin;
Dead are the counts, believe me if you will.
Charles will behold his great pride perishing,
For battle then he'll have no more the skill.
AOI.
Fair Master Guene," says then King Marsilie,
"Shew the device, how Rollant slain may be."
Answers him Guenes: "That will I soon make clear
The King will cross by the good pass of Size,
A guard he'll set behind him, in the rear;
His nephew there, count Rollant, that rich peer,
And Oliver, in whom he well believes;
Twenty thousand Franks in their company
Five score thousand pagans upon them lead,
Franks unawares in battle you shall meet,
Bruised and bled white the race of Franks shall be;
I do not say, but yours shall also bleed.
Battle again deliver, and with speed.
So, first or last, from Rollant you'll be freed.
You will have wrought a high chivalrous deed,
Nor all your life know war again, but peace.
AOI.
"Could one achieve that Rollant's life was lost,
Charle's right arm were from his body torn;
Though there remained his marvellous great host,
He'ld not again assemble in such force;
Terra Major would languish in repose."
Marsile has heard, he's kissed him on the throat;
Next he begins to undo his treasure-store.
AOI.
Said Marsilie -- but now what more said they? --
"No faith in words by oath unbound I lay;
Swear me the death of Rollant on that day."
Then answered Guene: "So be it, as you say."
On the relics, are in his sword Murgles,
Treason he's sworn, forsworn his faith away.
AOI.
Was a fald-stool there, made of olifant.
A book thereon Marsilies bade them plant,
In it their laws, Mahum's and Tervagant's.
He's sworn thereby, the Spanish Sarazand,
In the rereward if he shall find Rollant,
Battle to himself and all his band,
And verily he'll slay him if he can.
And answered Guenes: "So be it, as you command!"
AOI.
In haste there came a pagan Valdabrun,
Warden had been to King Marsiliun,
Smiling and clear, he's said to Guenelun,
"Take now this sword, and better sword has none;
Into the hilt a thousand coins are run.
To you, fair sir, I offer it in love;
Give us your aid from Rollant the barun,
That in rereward against him we may come."
Guenes the count answers: "It shall-be done."
Then, cheek and chin, kissed each the other one.
XLIX
After there came a pagan, Climorins,
Smiling and clear to Guenelun begins:
"Take now my helm, better is none than this;
But give us aid, on Rollant the marquis,
By what device we may dishonour bring."
"It shall be done." Count Guenes answered him;
On mouth and cheek then each the other kissed.
AOI.
In haste there came the Queen forth, Bramimound;
"I love you well, sir," said she to the count,
"For prize you dear my lord and all around;
Here for your wife I have two brooches found,
Amethysts and jacynths in golden mount;
More worth are they than all the wealth of Roum;
Your Emperour has none such, I'll be bound."
He's taken them, and in his hosen pouched.
AOI.
The King now calls Malduiz, that guards his treasure.
"Tribute for Charles, say, is it now made ready?"
He answers him: "Ay, Sire, for here is plenty
Silver and gold on hundred camels seven,
And twenty men, the gentlest under heaven."
AOI.
Marsilie's arm Guene's shoulder doth enfold;
He's said to him: "You are both wise and bold.
Now, by the law that you most sacred hold,
Let not your heart in our behalf grow cold!
Out of my store I'll give you wealth untold,
Charging ten mules with fine Arabian gold;
I'll do the same for you, new year and old.
Take then the keys of this city so large,
This great tribute present you first to Charles,
Then get me placed Rollanz in the rereward.
If him I find in valley or in pass,
Battle I'll give him that shall be the last."
Answers him Guenes: "My time is nearly past."
His charger mounts, and on his journey starts.
AOI.
That Emperour draws near to his domain,
He is come down unto the city Gailne.
The Count Rollanz had broken it and ta'en,
An hundred years its ruins shall remain.
Of Guenelun the King for news is fain,
And for tribute from the great land of Spain.
At dawn of day, just as the light grows plain,
Into their camp is come the county Guene.
AOI.
In morning time is risen the Emperere,
Mattins and Mass he's heard, and made his prayer;
On the green grass before the tent his chair,
Where Rollant stood and that bold Oliver,
Neimes the Duke, and many others there.
Guenes arrived, the felon perjurer,
Begins to speak, with very cunning air,
Says to the King: "God keep you, Sire, I swear!
Of Sarraguce the keys to you I bear,
Tribute I bring you, very great and rare,
And twenty men; look after them with care.
Proud Marsilies bade me this word declare
That alcaliph, his uncle, you must spare.
My own eyes saw four hundred thousand there,
In hauberks dressed, closed helms that gleamed in the air,
And golden hilts upon their swords they bare.
They followed him, right to the sea they'll fare;
Marsile they left, that would their faith forswear,
For Christendom they've neither wish nor care.
But the fourth league they had not compassed, ere
Brake from the North tempest and storm in the air;
Then were they drowned, they will no more appear.
Were he alive, I should have brought him here.
The pagan king, in truth, Sire, bids you hear,
Ere you have seen one month pass of this year
He'll follow you to France, to your Empire,
He will accept the laws you hold and fear;
Joining his hands, will do you homage there,
Kingdom of Spain will hold as you declare."
Then says the King: "Now God be praised, I swear!
Well have you wrought, and rich reward shall wear."
Bids through the host a thousand trumpets blare.
Franks leave their lines; the sumpter-beasts are yare
T'wards France the Douce all on their way repair.
AOI.
Charles the Great that land of Spain had wasted,
Her castles ta'en, her cities violated.
Then said the King, his war was now abated.
Towards Douce France that Emperour has hasted.
Upon a lance Rollant his ensign raised,
High on a cliff against the sky 'twas placed;
The Franks in camp through all that country baited.
Cantered pagans, through those wide valleys raced,
Hauberks they wore and sarks with iron plated,
Swords to their sides were girt, their helms were laced,
Lances made sharp, escutcheons newly painted:
There in the mists beyond the peaks remained
The day of doom four hundred thousand waited.
God! what a grief. Franks know not what is fated.
AOI.
Passes the day, the darkness is grown deep.
That Emperour, rich Charles, lies asleep;
Dreams that he stands in the great pass of Size,
In his two hands his ashen spear he sees;
Guenes the count that spear from him doth seize,
Brandishes it and twists it with such ease,
That flown into the sky the flinders seem.
Charles sleeps on nor wakens from his dream.
LVII
And after this another vision saw,
In France, at Aix, in his Chapelle once more,
That his right arm an evil bear did gnaw;
Out of Ardennes he saw a leopard stalk,
His body dear did savagely assault;
But then there dashed a harrier from the hall,
Leaping in the air he sped to Charles call,
First the right ear of that grim bear he caught,
And furiously the leopard next he fought.
Of battle great the Franks then seemed to talk,
Yet which might win they knew not, in his thought.
Charles sleeps on, nor wakens he for aught.
AOI.
Passes the night and opens the clear day;
That Emperour canters in brave array,
Looks through the host often and everyway;
"My lords barons," at length doth Charles say,
"Ye see the pass along these valleys strait,
Judge for me now, who shall in rereward wait."
"There's my good-son, Rollanz," then answers Guenes,
"You've no baron whose valour is as great."
When the King hears, he looks upon him straight,
And says to him: "You devil incarnate;
Into your heart is come a mortal hate.
And who shall go before me in the gate?"
"Oger is here, of Denmark;" answers Guenes,
"You've no baron were better in that place."
AOI.
The count Rollanz hath heard himself decreed;
Speaks then to Guenes by rule of courtesy:
"Good-father, Sir, I ought to hold you dear,
Since the rereward you have for me decreed.
Charles the King will never lose by me,
As I know well, nor charger nor palfrey,
Jennet nor mule that canter can with speed,
Nor sumpter-horse will lose, nor any steed;
But my sword's point shall first exact their meed."
Answers him Guenes: "I know; 'tis true in-deed."
AOI.
When Rollant heard that he should be rerewarden
Furiously he spoke to his good-father:
"Aha! culvert; begotten of a bastard.
Thinkest the glove will slip from me hereafter,
As then from thee the wand fell before Charles?"
AOI.
"Right Emperour," says the baron Rollanz,
"Give me the bow you carry in your hand;
Neer in reproach, I know, will any man
Say that it fell and lay upon the land,
As Guenes let fall, when he received the wand."
That Emperour with lowered front doth stand,
He tugs his beard, his chin is in his hand
Tears fill his eyes, he cannot them command.
LXII
And after that is come duke Neimes furth,
(Better vassal there was not upon earth)
Says to the King: "Right well now have you heard
The count Rollanz to bitter wrath is stirred,
For that on him the rereward is conferred;
No baron else have you, would do that work.
Give him the bow your hands have bent, at first;
Then find him men, his company are worth."
Gives it, the King, and Rollant bears it furth.
LXIII
That Emperour, Rollanz then calleth he:
"Fair nephew mine, know this in verity;
Half of my host I leave you presently;
Retain you them; your safeguard this shall be."
Then says the count: "I will not have them, me I
Confound me God, if I fail in the deed!
Good valiant Franks, a thousand score I'll keep.
Go through the pass in all security,
While I'm alive there's no man you need fear."
AOI.
The count Rollanz has mounted his charger.
Beside him came his comrade Oliver,
Also Gerins and the proud count Geriers,
And Otes came, and also Berengiers,
Old Anseis, and Sansun too came there;
Gerart also of Rossillon the fierce,
And there is come the Gascon Engeliers.
"Now by my head I'll go!" the Archbishop swears.
"And I'm with you," says then the count Gualtiers,
"I'm Rollant's man, I may not leave him there."
A thousand score they choose of chevaliers.
AOI.
Gualter del Hum he calls, that Count Rollanz;
"A thousand Franks take, out of France our land;
Dispose them so, among ravines and crags,
That the Emperour lose not a single man."
Gualter replies: "I'll do as you command."
A thousand Franks, come out of France their land,
At Gualter's word they scour ravines and crags;
They'll not come down, howe'er the news be bad,
Ere from their sheaths swords seven hundred flash.
King Almaris, Belserne for kingdom had,
On the evil day he met them in combat.
AOI.
High are the peaks, the valleys shadowful,
Swarthy the rocks, the narrows wonderful.
Franks passed that day all very sorrowful,
Fifteen leagues round the rumour of them grew.
When they were come, and Terra Major knew,
Saw Gascony their land and their seigneur's,
Remembering their fiefs and their honours,
Their little maids, their gentle wives and true;
There was not one that shed not tears for rue.
Beyond the rest Charles was of anguish full,
In Spanish Pass he'd left his dear nephew;
Pity him seized; he could but weep for rue.
AOI.
The dozen peers are left behind in Spain,
Franks in their band a thousand score remain,
No fear have these, death hold they in disdain.
That Emperour goes into France apace;
Under his cloke he fain would hide his face.
Up to his side comes cantering Duke Neimes,
Says to the King: "What grief upon you weighs?"
Charles answers him: "He's wrong that question makes.
So great my grief I cannot but complain.
France is destroyed, by the device of Guene:
This night I saw, by an angel's vision plain,
Between my hands he brake my spear in twain;
Great fear I have, since Rollant must remain:
I've left him there, upon a border strange.
God! If he's lost, I'll not outlive that shame."
AOI.
Charles the great, he cannot but deplore.
And with him Franks an hundred thousand mourn,
Who for Rollanz have marvellous remorse.
The felon Guenes had treacherously wrought;
From pagan kin has had his rich reward,
Silver and gold, and veils and silken cloths,
Camels, lions, with many a mule and horse.
Barons from Spain King Marsilies hath called,
Counts and viscounts and dukes and almacours,
And the admirals, and cadets nobly born;
Within three days come hundreds thousands four.
In Sarraguce they sound the drums of war;
Mahum they raise upon their highest tow'r,
Pagan is none, that does not him adore.
They canter then with great contention
Through Certeine land, valleys and mountains, on,
Till of the Franks they see the gonfalons,
Being in rereward those dozen companions;
They will not fail battle to do anon.
LXIX
Marsile's nephew is come before the band,
Riding a mule, he goads it with a wand,
Smiling and clear, his uncle's ear demands:
"Fair Lord and King, since, in your service, glad,
I have endured sorrow and sufferance,
Have fought in field, and victories have had.
Give me a fee: the right to smite Rollanz!
I'll slay him clean with my good trenchant lance,
If Mahumet will be my sure warrant;
Spain I'll set free, deliver all her land
From Pass of Aspre even unto Durestant.
Charles will grow faint, and recreant the Franks;
There'll be no war while you're a living man."
Marsilie gives the glove into his hand.
AOI.
Marsile's nephew, holding in hand the glove,
His uncle calls, with reason proud enough:
"Fair Lord and King, great gift from you I've won.
Choose now for me eleven more baruns,
So I may fight those dozen companions."
First before all there answers Falfarun;
-- Brother he was to King Marsiliun --
"Fair sir nephew, go you and I at once
Then verily this battle shall be done;
The rereward of the great host of Carlun,
It is decreed we deal them now their doom."
AOI.
King Corsablis is come from the other part,
Barbarian, and steeped in evil art.
He's spoken then as fits a good vassal,
For all God's gold he would not seem coward.
Hastes into view Malprimis of Brigal,
Faster than a horse, upon his feet can dart,
Before Marsile he cries with all his heart:
"My body I will shew at Rencesvals;
Find I Rollanz, I'll slay him without fault."
LXXII
An admiral is there of Balaguet;
Clear face and proud, and body nobly bred;
Since first he was upon his horse mounted,
His arms to bear has shewn great lustihead;
In vassalage he is well famoused;
Christian were he, he'd shewn good baronhead.
Before Marsile aloud has he shouted:
"To Rencesvals my body shall be led;
Find I Rollanz, then is he surely dead,
And Oliver, and all the other twelve;
Franks shall be slain in grief and wretchedness.
Charles the great is old now and doted,
Weary will be and make no war again;
Spain shall be ours, in peace and quietness."
King Marsilies has heard and thanks him well.
AOI.
An almacour is there of Moriane,
More felon none in all the land of Spain.
Before Marsile his vaunting boast hath made:
"To Rencesvals my company I'll take,
A thousand score, with shields and lances brave.
Find I Rollanz, with death I'll him acquaint;
Day shall not dawn but Charles will make his plaint."
AOI.
From the other part, Turgis of Turtelose,
He was a count, that city was his own;
Christians he would them massacre, every one.
Before Marsile among the rest is gone,
Says to the King: "Let not dismay be shewn!
Mahum's more worth than Saint Peter of Rome;
Serve we him well, then fame in field we'll own.
To Rencesvals, to meet Rollanz I'll go,
From death he'll find his warranty in none.
See here my sword, that is both good and long
With Durendal I'll lay it well across;
Ye'll hear betimes to which the prize is gone.
Franks shall be slain, whom we descend upon,
Charles the old will suffer grief and wrong,
No more on earth his crown will he put on."
LXXV
From the other part, Escremiz of Valtrenne,
A Sarrazin, that land was his as well.
Before Marsile he cries amid the press:
"To Rencesvals I go, pride to make less;
Find I Rollanz, he'll not bear thence his head,
Nor Oliver that hath the others led,
The dozen peers condemned are to death;
Franks shall be slain, and France lie deserted.
Of good vassals will Charles be richly bled."
AOI.
From the other part, a pagan Esturganz;
Estramariz also, was his comrade;
Felons were these, and traitors miscreant.
Then said Marsile: "My Lords, before me stand!
Into the pass ye'll go to Rencesvals,
Give me your aid, and thither lead my band."
They answer him: "Sire, even as you command.
We will assault Olivier and Rollant,
The dozen peers from death have no warrant,
For these our swords are trusty and trenchant,
In scalding blood we'll dye their blades scarlat.
Franks shall be slain, and Chares be right sad.
Terra Major we'll give into your hand;
Come there, Sir King, truly you'll see all that
Yea, the Emperour we'll give into your hand."
LXXVII
Running there came Margariz of Sibile,
Who holds the land by Cadiz, to the sea.
For his beauty the ladies hold him dear;
Who looks on him, with him her heart is pleased,
When she beholds, she can but smile for glee.
Was no pagan of such high chivalry.
Comes through the press, above them all cries he,
"Be not at all dismayed, King Marsilie!
To Rencesvals I go, and Rollanz, he
Nor Oliver may scape alive from me;
The dozen peers are doomed to martyry.
See here the sword, whose hilt is gold indeed,
I got in gift from the admiral of Primes;
In scarlat blood I pledge it shall be steeped.
Franks shall be slain, and France abased be.
To Charles the old, with his great blossoming beard,
Day shall not dawn but brings him rage and grief,
Ere a year pass, all France we shall have seized,
Till we can lie in th' burgh of Saint Denise."
The pagan king has bowed his head down deep.
AOI.
From the other part, Chemubles of Muneigre.
Right to the ground his hair swept either way;
He for a jest would bear a heavier weight
Than four yoked mules, beneath their load that strain.
That land he had, God's curse on it was plain.
No sun shone there, nor grew there any grain,
No dew fell there, nor any shower of rain,
The very stones were black upon that plain;
And many say that devils there remain.
Says Chemubles "My sword is in its place,
At Rencesvals scarlat I will it stain;
Find I Rollanz the proud upon my way,
I'll fall on him, or trust me not again,
And Durendal I'll conquer with this blade,
Franks shall be slain, and France a desert made."
The dozen peers are, at this word, away,
Five score thousand of Sarrazins they take;
Who keenly press, and on to battle haste;
In a fir-wood their gear they ready make.
LXXIX
Ready they make hauberks Sarrazinese,
That folded are, the greater part, in three;
And they lace on good helms Sarragucese;
Gird on their swords of tried steel Viennese;
Fine shields they have, and spears Valentinese,
And white, blue, red, their ensigns take the breeze,
They've left their mules behind, and their palfreys,
Their chargers mount, and canter knee by knee.
Fair shines the sun, the day is bright and clear,
Light bums again from all their polished gear.
A thousand horns they sound, more proud to seem;
Great is the noise, the Franks its echo hear.
Says Oliver: "Companion, I believe,
Sarrazins now in battle must we meet."
Answers Rollanz :"God grant us then the fee!
For our King's sake well must we quit us here;
Man for his lord should suffer great disease,
Most bitter cold endure, and burning heat,
His hair and skin should offer up at need.
Now must we each lay on most hardily,
So evil songs neer sung of us shall be.
Pagans are wrong: Christians are right indeed.
Evil example will never come of me."
AOI.
Oliver mounts upon a lofty peak,
Looks to his right along the valley green,
The pagan tribes approaching there appear;
He calls Rollanz, his companion, to see:
"What sound is this, come out of Spain, we hear,
What hauberks bright, what helmets these that gleam?
They'll smite our Franks with fury past belief,
He knew it, Guenes, the traitor and the thief,
Who chose us out before the King our chief."
Answers the count Rollanz: "Olivier, cease.
That man is my good-father; hold thy peace."
LXXXI
Upon a peak is Oliver mounted,
Kingdom of Spain he sees before him spread,
And Sarrazins, so many gathered.
Their helmets gleam, with gold are jewelled,
Also their shields, their hauberks orfreyed,
Also their swords, ensigns on spears fixed.
Rank beyond rank could not be numbered,
So many there, no measure could he set.
In his own heart he's sore astonished,
Fast as he could, down from the peak hath sped
Comes to the Franks, to them his tale hath said.
LXXXII
Says Oliver: "Pagans from there I saw;
Never on earth did any man see more.
Gainst us their shields an hundred thousand bore,
That laced helms and shining hauberks wore;
And, bolt upright, their bright brown spearheads shone.
Battle we'll have as never was before.
Lords of the Franks, God keep you in valour!
So hold your ground, we be not overborne!"
Then say the Franks "Shame take him that goes off:
If we must die, then perish one and all."
AOI.
Says Oliver: "Pagans in force abound,
While of us Franks but very few I count;
Comrade Rollanz, your horn I pray you sound!
If Charles hear, he'll turn his armies round."
Answers Rollanz: "A fool I should be found;
In France the Douce would perish my renown.
With Durendal I'll lay on thick and stout,
In blood the blade, to its golden hilt, I'll drown.
Felon pagans to th' pass shall not come down;
I pledge you now, to death they all are bound.
AOI.
"Comrade Rollanz, sound the olifant, I pray;
If Charles hear, the host he'll turn again;
Will succour us our King and baronage."
Answers Rollanz: "Never, by God, I say,
For my misdeed shall kinsmen hear the blame,
Nor France the Douce fall into evil fame!
Rather stout blows with Durendal I'll lay,
With my good sword that by my side doth sway;
Till bloodied o'er you shall behold the blade.
Felon pagans are gathered to their shame;
I pledge you now, to death they're doomed to-day."
LXXXV
"Comrade Rollanz, once sound your olifant!
If Charles hear, where in the pass he stands,
I pledge you now, they'll turn again, the Franks."
"Never, by God," then answers him Rollanz,
"Shall it be said by any living man,
That for pagans I took my horn in hand!
Never by me shall men reproach my clan.
When I am come into the battle grand,
And blows lay on, by hundred, by thousand,
Of Durendal bloodied you'll see the brand.
Franks are good men; like vassals brave they'll stand;
Nay, Spanish men from death have no warrant."
LXXXVI
Says Oliver: "In this I see no blame;
I have beheld the Sarrazins of Spain;
Covered with them, the mountains and the vales,
The wastes I saw, and all the farthest plains.
A muster great they've made, this people strange;
We have of men a very little tale."
Answers Rollanz: "My anger is inflamed.
Never, please God His Angels and His Saints,
Never by me shall Frankish valour fail!
Rather I'll die than shame shall me attain.
Therefore strike on, the Emperour's love to gain."
LXXXVII
Pride hath Rollanz, wisdom Olivier hath;
And both of them shew marvellous courage;
Once they are horsed, once they have donned their arms,
Rather they'd die than from the battle pass.
Good are the counts, and lofty their language.
Felon pagans come cantering in their wrath.
Says Oliver: "Behold and see, Rollanz,
These are right near, but Charles is very far.
On the olifant deign now to sound a blast;
Were the King here, we should not fear damage.
Only look up towards the Pass of Aspre,
In sorrow there you'll see the whole rereward.
Who does this deed, does no more afterward."
Answers Rollanz: "Utter not such outrage!
Evil his heart that is in thought coward!
We shall remain firm in our place installed;
From us the blows shall come, from us the assault."
AOI.
When Rollant sees that now must be combat,
More fierce he's found than lion or leopard;
The Franks he calls, and Oliver commands:
"Now say no more, my friends, nor thou, comrade.
That Emperour, who left us Franks on guard,
A thousand score stout men he set apart,
And well he knows, not one will prove coward.
Man for his lord should suffer with good heart,
Of bitter cold and great heat bear the smart,
His blood let drain, and all his flesh be scarred.
Strike with thy lance, and I with Durendal,
With my good sword that was the King's reward.
So, if I die, who has it afterward
Noble vassal's he well may say it was."
LXXXIX
From the other part is the Archbishop Turpin,
He pricks his horse and mounts upon a hill;
Calling the Franks, sermon to them begins:
"My lords barons, Charles left us here for this;
He is our King, well may we die for him:
To Christendom good service offering.
Battle you'll have, you all are bound to it,
For with your eyes you see the Sarrazins.
Pray for God's grace, confessing Him your sins!
For your souls' health, I'll absolution give
So, though you die, blest martyrs shall you live,
Thrones you shall win in the great Paradis."
The Franks dismount, upon the ground are lit.
That Archbishop God's Benediction gives,
For their penance, good blows to strike he bids.
XC
The Franks arise, and stand upon their feet,
They're well absolved, and from their sins made clean,
And the Archbishop has signed them with God's seal;
And next they mount upon their chargers keen;
By rule of knights they have put on their gear,
For battle all apparelled as is meet.
The count Rollant calls Oliver, and speaks
"Comrade and friend, now clearly have you seen
That Guenelun hath got us by deceit;
Gold hath he ta'en; much wealth is his to keep;
That Emperour vengeance for us must wreak.
King Marsilies hath bargained for us cheap;
At the sword's point he yet shall pay our meed."
AOI.
To Spanish pass is Rollanz now going
On Veillantif, his good steed, galloping;
He is well armed, pride is in his bearing,
He goes, so brave, his spear in hand holding,
He goes, its point against the sky turning;
A gonfalon all white thereon he's pinned,
Down to his hand flutters the golden fringe:
Noble his limbs, his face clear and smiling.
His companion goes after, following,
The men of France their warrant find in him.
Proudly he looks towards the Sarrazins,
And to the Franks sweetly, himself humbling;
And courteously has said to them this thing:
"My lords barons, go now your pace holding!
Pagans are come great martyrdom seeking;
Noble and fair reward this day shall bring,
Was never won by any Frankish King."
Upon these words the hosts are come touching.
AOI.
Speaks Oliver: "No more now will I say.
Your olifant, to sound it do not deign,
Since from Carlun you'll never more have aid.
He has not heard; no fault of his, so brave.
Those with him there are never to be blamed.
So canter on, with what prowess you may!
Lords and barons, firmly your ground maintain!
Be minded well, I pray you in God's Name,
Stout blows to strike, to give as you shall take.
Forget the cry of Charles we never may."
Upon this word the Franks cry out amain.
Who then had heard them all "Monjoie!" acclaim
Of vassalage might well recall the tale.
They canter forth, God! with what proud parade,
Pricking their spurs, the better speed to gain;
They go to strike,-- what other thing could they? --
But Sarrazins are not at all afraid.
Pagans and Franks, you'ld see them now engaged.
XCIII
Marsile's nephew, his name is Aelroth,
First of them all canters before the host,
Says of our Franks these ill words as he goes:
"Felons of France, so here on us you close!
Betrayed you has he that to guard you ought;
Mad is the King who left you in this post.
So shall the fame of France the Douce be lost,
And the right arm from Charles body torn."
When Rollant hears, what rage he has, by God!
His steed he spurs, gallops with great effort;
He goes, that count, to strike with all his force,
The shield he breaks, the hauberk's seam unsews,
Slices the heart, and shatters up the bones,
All of the spine he severs with that blow,
And with his spear the soul from body throws
So well he's pinned, he shakes in the air that corse,
On his spear's hilt he's flung it from the horse:
So in two halves Aeroth's neck he broke,
Nor left him yet, they say, but rather spoke:
"Avaunt, culvert! A madman Charles is not,
No treachery was ever in his thought.
Proudly he did, who left us in this post;
The fame of France the Douce shall not be lost.
Strike on, the Franks! Ours are the foremost blows.
For we are right, but these gluttons are wrong."
AOI.
A duke there was, his name was Falfarun,
Brother was he to King Marsiliun,
He held their land, Dathan's and Abirun's;
Beneath the sky no more encrimed felun;
Between his eyes so broad was he in front
A great half-foot you'ld measure there in full.
His nephew dead he's seen with grief enough,
Comes through the press and wildly forth he runs,
Aloud he shouts their cry the pagans use;
And to the Franks is right contrarious:
"Honour of France the Douce shall fall to us!"
Hears Oliver, he's very furious,
His horse he pricks with both his golden spurs,
And goes to strike, ev'n as a baron doth;
The shield he breaks and through the hauberk cuts,
His ensign's fringe into the carcass thrusts,
On his spear's hilt he's flung it dead in dust.
Looks on the ground, sees glutton lying thus,
And says to him, with reason proud enough:
"From threatening, culvert, your mouth I've shut.
Strike on, the Franks! Right well we'll overcome."
"Monjoie," he shouts, 'twas the ensign of Carlun.
AOI.
A king there was, his name was Corsablix,
Barbarian, and of a strange country,
He's called aloud to the other Sarrazins:
"Well may we join battle upon this field,
For of the Franks but very few are here;
And those are here, we should account them cheap,
From Charles not one has any warranty.
This is the day when they their death shall meet."
Has heard him well that Archbishop Turpin,
No man he'ld hate so much the sky beneath;
Spurs of fine gold he pricks into his steed,
To strike that king by virtue great goes he,
The hauberk all unfastens, breaks the shield,
Thrusts his great spear in through the carcass clean,
Pins it so well he shakes it in its seat,
Dead in the road he's flung it from his spear.
Looks on the ground, that glutton lying sees,
Nor leaves him yet, they say, but rather speaks:
"Culvert pagan, you lied now in your teeth,
Charles my lord our warrant is indeed;
None of our Franks hath any mind to flee.
Your companions all on this spot we'll keep,
I tell you news; death shall ye suffer here.
Strike on, the Franks! Fail none of you at need!
Ours the first blow, to God the glory be!"
"Monjoie!" he cries, for all the camp to hear.
XCVI
And Gerins strikes Malprimis of Brigal
So his good shield is nothing worth at all,
Shatters the boss, was fashioned of crystal,
One half of it downward to earth flies off;
Right to the flesh has through his hauberk torn,
On his good spear he has the carcass caught.
And with one blow that pagan downward falls;
The soul of him Satan away hath borne.
AOI.
And his comrade Gerers strikes the admiral,
The shield he breaks, the hauberk unmetals,
And his good spear drives into his vitals,
So well he's pinned him, clean through the carcass,
Dead on the field he's flung him from his hand.
Says Oliver: "Now is our battle grand."
XCVIII
Sansun the Duke goes strike that almacour,
The shield he breaks, with golden flowers tooled,
That good hauberk for him is nothing proof,
He's sliced the heart, the lungs and liver through,
And flung him dead, as well or ill may prove.
Says the Archbishop: "A baron's stroke, in truth."
XCIX
And Anseis has let his charger run;
He goes to strike Turgis of Turtelus,
The shield he breaks, its golden boss above,
The hauberk too, its doubled mail undoes,
His good spear's point into the carcass runs,
So well he's thrust, clean through the whole steel comes,
And from the hilt he's thrown him dead in dust.
Then says Rollant: "Great prowess in that thrust."
C
And Engelers the Gascoin of Burdele
Spurs on his horse, lets fall the reins as well,
He goes to strike Escremiz of Valtrene,
The shield he breaks and shatters on his neck,
The hauberk too, he has its chinguard rent,
Between the arm-pits has pierced him through the breast,
On his spear's hilt from saddle throws him dead;
After he says "So are you turned to hell."
AOI.
And Otes strikes a pagan Estorgant
Upon the shield, before its leathern band,
Slices it through, the white with the scarlat;
The hauberk too, has torn its folds apart,
And his good spear thrusts clean through the carcass,
And flings it dead, ev'n as the horse goes past;
He says: "You have no warrant afterward."
CII
And Berenger, he strikes Estramariz,
The shield he breaks, the hauberk tears and splits,
Thrusts his stout spear through's middle, and him flings
Down dead among a thousand Sarrazins.
Of their dozen peers ten have now been killed,
No more than two remain alive and quick,
Being Chernuble, and the count Margariz.
CIII
Margariz is a very gallant knight,
Both fair and strong, and swift he is and light;
He spurs his horse, goes Oliver to strike,
And breaks his shield, by th'golden buckle bright;
Along his ribs the pagan's spear doth glide;
God's his warrant, his body has respite,
The shaft breaks off, Oliver stays upright;
That other goes, naught stays him in his flight,
His trumpet sounds, rallies his tribe to fight.
CIV
Common the fight is now and marvellous.
The count Rollanz no way himself secures,
Strikes with his spear, long as the shaft endures,
By fifteen blows it is clean broken through
Then Durendal he bares, his sabre good
Spurs on his horse, is gone to strike Chemuble,
The helmet breaks, where bright carbuncles grew,
Slices the cap and shears the locks in two,
Slices also the eyes and the features,
The hauberk white, whose mail was close of woof,
Down to the groin cuts all his body through
To the saddle; with beaten gold 'twas tooled.
Upon the horse that sword a moment stood,
Then sliced its spine, no join there any knew,
Dead in the field among thick grass them threw.
After he said "Culvert, false step you moved,
From Mahumet your help will not come soon.
No victory for gluttons such as you."
CV
The count Rollanz, he canters through the field,
Holds Durendal, he well can thrust and wield,
Right great damage he's done the Sarrazines
You'd seen them, one on other, dead in heaps,
Through all that place their blood was flowing clear!
In blood his arms were and his hauberk steeped,
And bloodied o'er, shoulders and neck, his steed.
And Oliver goes on to strike with speed;
No blame that way deserve the dozen peers,
For all the Franks they strike and slay with heat,
Pagans are slain, some swoon there in their seats,
Says the Archbishop: "Good baronage indeed!"
"Monjoie" he cries, the call of Charles repeats.
AOI.
And Oliver has cantered through the crush;
Broken his spear, the truncheon still he thrusts;
Going to strike a pagan Malsarun;
Flowers and gold, are on the shield, he cuts,
Out of the head both the two eyes have burst,
And all the brains are fallen in the dust;
He flings him dead, sev'n hundred else amongst.
Then has he slain Turgin and Esturgus;
Right to the hilt, his spear in flinders flew.
Then says Rollant: "Companion, what do you?
In such a fight, there's little strength in wood,
Iron and steel should here their valour prove.
Where is your sword, that Halteclere I knew?
Golden its hilt, whereon a crystal grew."
Says Oliver: "I had not, if I drew,
Time left to strike enough good blows and true."
AOI.
Then Oliver has drawn his mighty sword
As his comrade had bidden and implored,
In knightly wise the blade to him has shewed;
Justin he strikes, that Iron Valley's lord,
All of his head has down the middle shorn,
The carcass sliced, the broidered sark has torn,
The good saddle that was with old adorned,
And through the spine has sliced that pagan's horse;
Dead in the field before his feet they fall.
Says Rollant: "Now my brother I you call;
He'll love us for such blows, our Emperor."
On every side "Monjoie" you'ld hear them roar.
AOI.
That count Gerins sate on his horse Sorel,
On Passe-Cerf was Gerers there, his friend;
They've loosed their reins, together spurred and sped,
And go to strike a pagan Timozel;
One on the shield, on hauberk the other fell;
And their two spears went through the carcass well,
A fallow field amidst they've thrown him dead.
I do not know, I never heard it said
Which of the two was nimbler as they went.
Esperveris was there, son of Borel,
And him there slew Engelers of Burdel.
And the Archbishop, he slew them Siglorel,
The enchanter, who before had been in hell,
Where Jupiter bore him by a magic spell.
Then Turpin says "To us he's forfeited."
Answers Rollanz: "The culvert is bested.
Such blows, brother Olivier, I like well."
CIX
The battle grows more hard and harder yet,
Franks and pagans, with marvellous onset,
Each other strike and each himself defends.
So many shafts bloodstained and shattered,
So many flags and ensigns tattered;
So many Franks lose their young lustihead,
Who'll see no more their mothers nor their friends,
Nor hosts of France, that in the pass attend.
Charles the Great weeps therefor with regret.
What profits that? No succour shall they get.
Evil service, that day, Guenes rendered them,
To Sarraguce going, his own to sell.
After he lost his members and his head,
In court, at Aix, to gallows-tree condemned;
And thirty more with him, of his kindred,
Were hanged, a thing they never did expect.
AOI.
Now marvellous and weighty the combat,
Right well they strike, Olivier and Rollant,
A thousand blows come from the Archbishop's hand,
The dozen peers are nothing short of that,
With one accord join battle all the Franks.
Pagans are slain by hundred, by thousand,
Who flies not then, from death has no warrant,
Will he or nill, foregoes the allotted span.
The Franks have lost the foremost of their band,
They'll see no more their fathers nor their clans,
Nor Charlemagne, where in the pass he stands.
Torment arose, right marvellous, in France,
Tempest there was, of wind and thunder black,
With rain and hail, so much could not be spanned;
Fell thunderbolts often on every hand,
And verily the earth quaked in answer back
From Saint Michael of Peril unto Sanz,
From Besencun to the harbour of Guitsand;
No house stood there but straight its walls must crack:
In full mid-day the darkness was so grand,
Save the sky split, no light was in the land.
Beheld these things with terror every man,
And many said: "We in the Judgement stand;
The end of time is presently at hand."
They spake no truth; they did not understand;
'Twas the great day of mourning for Rollant.
CXI
The Franks strike on; their hearts are good and stout.
Pagans are slain, a thousandfold, in crowds,
Left of five score are not two thousands now.
Says the Archbishop: "Our men are very proud,
No man on earth has more nor better found.
In Chronicles of Franks is written down,
What vassalage he had, our Emperour."
Then through the field they go, their friends seek out,
And their eyes weep with grief and pain profound
For kinsmen dear, by hearty friendship bound.
King Marsilies and his great host draw round.
AOI.
King Marsilies along a valley led
The mighty host that he had gathered.
Twenty columns that king had numbered.
With gleaminag gold their helms were jewelled.
Shone too their shields and sarks embroidered.
Sounded the charge seven thousand trumpets,
Great was the noise through all that country went.
Then said Rollanz: "Olivier, brother, friend,
That felon Guenes hath sworn to achieve our death;
For his treason no longer is secret.
Right great vengeance our Emperour will get.
Battle we'll have, both long and keenly set,
Never has man beheld such armies met.
With Durendal my sword I'll strike again,
And, comrade, you shall strike with Halteclere.
These swords in lands so many have we held,
Battles with them so many brought to end,
No evil song shall e'er be sung or said."
AOI.
When the Franks see so many there, pagans,
On every side covering all the land,
Often they call Olivier and Rollant,
The dozen peers, to be their safe warrant.
And the Archbishop speaks to them, as he can:
"My lords barons, go thinking nothing bad!
For God I pray you fly not hence but stand,
Lest evil songs of our valour men chant!
Far better t'were to perish in the van.
Certain it is, our end is near at hand,
Beyond this day shall no more live one man;
But of one thing I give you good warrant:
Blest Paradise to you now open stands,
By the Innocents your thrones you there shall have."
Upon these words grow bold again the Franks;
There is not one but he "Monjoie" demands.
AOI.
A Sarrazin was there, of Sarraguce,
Of that city one half was his by use,
'Twas Climborins, a man was nothing proof;
By Guenelun the count an oath he took,
And kissed his mouth in amity and truth,
Gave him his sword and his carbuncle too.
Terra Major, he said, to shame he'ld put,
From the Emperour his crown he would remove.
He sate his horse, which he called Barbamusche,
Never so swift sparrow nor swallow flew,
He spurred him well, and down the reins he threw,
Going to strike Engelier of Gascune;
Nor shield nor sark him any warrant proved,
The pagan spear's point did his body wound,
He pinned him well, and all the steel sent through,
From the hilt flung him dead beneath his foot.
After he said: "Good are they to confuse.
Pagans, strike on, and so this press set loose!"
"God!" say the Franks, "Grief, such a man to lose!"
AOI.
The count Rollanz called upon Oliver:
"Sir companion, dead now is Engeler;
Than whom we'd no more valiant chevalier."
Answered that count: "God, let me him avenge!"
Spurs of fine gold into his horse drove then,
Held Halteclere, with blood its steel was red,
By virtue great to strike that pagan went,
Brandished his blade, the Sarrazin upset;
The Adversaries of God his soul bare thence.
Next he has slain the duke Alphaien,
And sliced away Escababi his head,
And has unhorsed some seven Arabs else;
No good for those to go to war again.
Then said Rollanz: "My comrade shews anger,
So in my sight he makes me prize him well;
More dear by Charles for such blows are we held."
Aloud he's cried: "Strike on, the chevaliers!"
AOI.
From the other part a pagan Valdabron.
Warden he'd been to king Marsilion,
And lord, by sea, of four hundred dromonds;
No sailor was but called his name upon;
Jerusalem he'd taken by treason,
Violated the Temple of Salomon,
The Partiarch had slain before the fonts.
He'd pledged his oath by county Guenelon,
Gave him his sword, a thousand coins thereon.
He sate his horse, which he called Gramimond,
Never so swift flew in the air falcon;
He's pricked him well, with sharp spurs he had on,
Going to strike e'en that rich Duke, Sanson;
His shield has split, his hauberk has undone,
The ensign's folds have through his body gone,
Dead from the hilt out of his seat he's dropt:
"Pagans, strike on, for well we'll overcome!"
"God!" say the Franks, "Grief for a brave baron!"
AOI.
The count Rollanz, when Sansun dead he saw,
You may believe, great grief he had therefor.
His horse he spurs, gallops with great effort,
Wields Durendal, was worth fine gold and more,
Goes as he may to strike that baron bold
Above the helm, that was embossed with gold,
Slices the head, the sark, and all the corse,
The good saddle, that was embossed with gold,
And cuts deep through the backbone of his horse;
He's slain them both, blame him for that or laud.
The pagans say: "'Twas hard on us, that blow."
Answers Rollanz: "Nay, love you I can not,
For on your side is arrogance and wrong."
AOI.
Out of Affrike an Affrican was come,
'Twas Malquiant, the son of king Malcud;
With beaten gold was all his armour done,
Fore all men's else it shone beneath the sun.
He sate his horse, which he called Salt-Perdut,
Never so swift was any beast could run.
And Anseis upon the shield he struck,
The scarlat with the blue he sliced it up,
Of his hauberk he's torn the folds and cut,
The steel and stock has through his body thrust.
Dead is that count, he's no more time to run.
Then say the Franks: "Baron, an evil luck!"
CXIX
Swift through the field Turpin the Archbishop passed;
Such shaven-crown has never else sung Mass
Who with his limbs such prowess might compass;
To th'pagan said "God send thee all that's bad!
One thou hast slain for whom my heart is sad."
So his good horse forth at his bidding ran,
He's struck him then on his shield Toledan,
Until he flings him dead on the green grass.
CXX
From the other part was a pagan Grandones,
Son of Capuel, the king of Capadoce.
He sate his horse, the which he called Marmore,
Never so swift was any bird in course;
He's loosed the reins, and spurring on that horse
He's gone to strike Gerin with all his force;
The scarlat shield from's neck he's broken off,
And all his sark thereafter has he torn,
The ensign blue clean through his body's gone,
Until he flings him dead, on a high rock;
His companion Gerer he's slain also,
And Berenger, and Guiun of Santone;
Next a rich duke he's gone to strike, Austore,
That held Valence and the Honour of the Rhone;
He's flung him dead; great joy the pagans shew.
Then say the Franks: "Of ours how many fall."
CXXI
The count Rollanz, his sword with blood is stained,
Well has he heard what way the Franks complained;
Such grief he has, his heart would split in twain:
To the pagan says: "God send thee every shame!
One hast thou slain that dearly thou'lt repay."
He spurs his horse, that on with speed doth strain;
Which should forfeit, they both together came.
CXXII
Grandonie was both proof and valiant,
And virtuous, a vassal combatant.
Upon the way there, he has met Rollant;
He'd never seen, yet knew him at a glance,
By the proud face and those fine limbs he had,
By his regard, and by his contenance;
He could not help but he grew faint thereat,
He would escape, nothing avail he can.
Struck him the count, with so great virtue, that
To the nose-plate he's all the helmet cracked,
Sliced through the nose and mouth and teeth he has,
Hauberk close-mailed, and all the whole carcass,
Saddle of gold, with plates of silver flanked,
And of his horse has deeply scarred the back;
He's slain them both, they'll make no more attack:
The Spanish men in sorrow cry, "Alack!"
Then say the Franks: "He strikes well, our warrant."
CXXIII
Marvellous is the battle in its speed,
The Franks there strike with vigour and with heat,
Cutting through wrists and ribs and chines in-deed,
Through garments to the lively flesh beneath;
On the green grass the clear blood runs in streams.
The pagans say: "No more we'll suffer, we.
Terra Major, Mahummet's curse on thee!
Beyond all men thy people are hardy!"
There was not one but cried then: "Marsilie,
Canter, O king, thy succour now we need!"
CXXIV
Marvellous is the battle now and grand,
The Franks there strike, their good brown spears in hand.
Then had you seen such sorrowing of clans,
So many a slain, shattered and bleeding man!
Biting the earth, or piled there on their backs!
The Sarrazins cannot such loss withstand.
Will they or nill, from off the field draw back;
By lively force chase them away the Franks.
AOI.
Their martyrdom, his men's, Marsile has seen,
So he bids sound his horns and his buccines;
Then canters forth with all his great army.
Canters before a Sarrazin, Abisme,
More felon none was in that company;
Cankered with guile and every felony,
He fears not God, the Son of Saint Mary;
Black is that man as molten pitch that seethes;
Better he loves murder and treachery
Than to have all the gold of Galicie;
Never has man beheld him sport for glee;
Yet vassalage he's shown, and great folly,
So is he dear to th' felon king Marsile;
Dragon he bears, to which his tribe rally.
That Archbishop could never love him, he;
Seeing him there, to strike he's very keen,
Within himself he says all quietly:
"This Sarrazin great heretick meseems,
Rather I'ld die, than not slay him clean,
Neer did I love coward nor cowardice."
AOI.
That Archbishop begins the fight again,
Sitting the horse which he took from Grossaille
-- That was a king he had in Denmark slain; --
That charger is swift and of noble race;
Fine are his hooves, his legs are smooth and straight,
Short are his thighs, broad crupper he displays,
Long are his ribs, aloft his spine is raised,
White is his tail and yellow is his mane,
Little his ears, and tawny all his face;
No beast is there, can match him in a race.
That Archbishop spurs on by vassalage,
He will not pause ere Abisme he assail;
So strikes that shield, is wonderfully arrayed,
Whereon are stones, amethyst and topaze,
Esterminals and carbuncles that blaze;
A devil's gift it was, in Val Metase,
Who handed it to the admiral Galafes;
So Turpin strikes, spares him not anyway;
After that blow, he's worth no penny wage;
The carcass he's sliced, rib from rib away,
So flings him down dead in an empty place.
Then say the Franks: "He has great vassalage,
With the Archbishop, surely the Cross is safe."
CXXVII
The count Rollanz calls upon Oliver:
"Sir companion, witness you'll freely bear,
The Archbishop is a right good chevalier,
None better is neath Heaven anywhere;
Well can he strike with lance and well with spear."
Answers that count: "Support to him we'll bear!"
Upon that word the Franks again make yare;
Hard are the blows, slaughter and suffering there,
For Christians too, most bitter grief and care.
Who could had seen Rollanz and Oliver
With their good swords to strike and to slaughter!
And the Archbishop lays on there with his spear.
Those that are dead, men well may hold them dear.
In charters and in briefs is written clear,
Four thousand fell, and more, the tales declare.
Gainst four assaults easily did they fare,
But then the fifth brought heavy griefs to bear.
They all are slain, those Frankish chevaliers;
Only three-score, whom God was pleased to spare,
Before these die, they'll sell them very dear.
AOI.
The count Rollant great loss of his men sees,
His companion Olivier calls, and speaks:
"Sir and comrade, in God's Name, That you keeps,
Such good vassals you see lie here in heaps;
For France the Douce, fair country, may we weep,
Of such barons long desolate she'll be.
Ah! King and friend, wherefore are you not here?
How, Oliver, brother, can we achieve?
And by what means our news to him repeat?"
Says Oliver: "I know not how to seek;
Rather I'ld die than shame come of this feat."
AOI.
Then says Rollanz: "I'll wind this olifant,
If Charles hear, where in the pass he stands,
I pledge you now they will return, the Franks."
Says Oliver: "Great shame would come of that
And a reproach on every one, your clan,
That shall endure while each lives in the land,
When I implored, you would not do this act;
Doing it now, no raise from me you'll have:
So wind your horn but not by courage rash,
Seeing that both your arms with blood are splashed."
Answers that count: "Fine blows I've struck them back."
AOI.
Then says Rollant: "Strong it is now, our battle;
I'll wind my horn, so the King hears it, Charles."
Says Oliver: "That act were not a vassal's.
When I implored you, comrade, you were wrathful.
Were the King here, we had not borne such damage.
Nor should we blame those with him there, his army."
Says Oliver: "Now by my beard, hereafter
If I may see my gentle sister Alde,
She in her arms, I swear, shall never clasp you."
AOI.
Then says Rollanz: "Wherefore so wroth with me?"
He answers him: "Comrade, it was your deed:
Vassalage comes by sense, and not folly;
Prudence more worth is than stupidity.
Here are Franks dead, all for your trickery;
No more service to Carlun may we yield.
My lord were here now, had you trusted me,
And fought and won this battle then had we,
Taken or slain were the king Marsilie.
In your prowess, Rollanz, no good we've seen!
Charles the great in vain your aid will seek --
None such as he till God His Judgement speak; --
Here must you die, and France in shame be steeped;
Here perishes our loyal company,
Before this night great severance and grief."
AOI.
That Archbishop has heard them, how they spoke,
His horse he pricks with his fine spurs of gold,
Coming to them he takes up his reproach:
"Sir Oliver, and you, Sir Rollant, both,
For God I pray, do not each other scold!
No help it were to us, the horn to blow,
But, none the less, it may be better so;
The King will come, with vengeance that he owes;
These Spanish men never away shall go.
Our Franks here, each descending from his horse,
Will find us dead, and limb from body torn;
They'll take us hence, on biers and litters borne;
With pity and with grief for us they'll mourn;
They'll bury each in some old minster-close;
No wolf nor swine nor dog shall gnaw our bones."
Answers Rollant: "Sir, very well you spoke."
AOI.
Rollant hath set the olifant to his mouth,
He grasps it well, and with great virtue sounds.
High are those peaks, afar it rings and loud,
Thirty great leagues they hear its echoes mount.
So Charles heard, and all his comrades round;
Then said that King: "Battle they do, our counts!"
And Guenelun answered, contrarious:
"That were a lie, in any other mouth."
AOI.
The Count Rollanz, with sorrow and with pangs,
And with great pain sounded his olifant:
Out of his mouth the clear blood leaped and ran,
About his brain the very temples cracked.
Loud is its voice, that horn he holds in hand;
Charles hath heard, where in the pass he stands,
And Neimes hears, and listen all the Franks.
Then says the King: "I hear his horn, Rollant's;
He'ld never sound, but he were in combat."
Answers him Guenes "It is no battle, that.
Now are you old, blossoming white and blanched,
Yet by such words you still appear infant.
You know full well the great pride of Rollant
Marvel it is, God stays so tolerant.
Noples he took, not waiting your command;
Thence issued forth the Sarrazins, a band
With vassalage had fought against Rollant;
A He slew them first, with Durendal his brand,
Then washed their blood with water from the land;
So what he'd done might not be seen of man.
He for a hare goes all day, horn in hand;
Before his peers in foolish jest he brags.
No race neath heav'n in field him dare attack.
So canter on! Nay, wherefore hold we back?
Terra Major is far away, our land."
AOI.
The count Rollanz, though blood his mouth doth stain,
And burst are both the temples of his brain,
His olifant he sounds with grief and pain;
Charles hath heard, listen the Franks again.
"That horn," the King says, "hath a mighty strain!"
Answers Duke Neimes: "A baron blows with pain!
Battle is there, indeed I see it plain,
He is betrayed, by one that still doth feign.
Equip you, sir, cry out your old refrain,
That noble band, go succour them amain!
Enough you've heard how Rollant doth complain."
CXXVI
That Emperour hath bid them sound their horns.
The Franks dismount, and dress themselves for war,
Put hauberks on, helmets and golden swords;
Fine shields they have, and spears of length and force
Scarlat and blue and white their ensigns float.
His charger mounts each baron of the host;
They spur with haste as through the pass they go.
Nor was there one but thus to 's neighbour spoke:
"Now, ere he die, may we see Rollant, so
Ranged by his side we'll give some goodly blows."
But what avail? They've stayed too long below.
CCXXXVII
That even-tide is light as was the day;
Their armour shines beneath the sun's clear ray,
Hauberks and helms throw off a dazzling flame,
And blazoned shields, flowered in bright array,
Also their spears, with golden ensigns gay.
That Emperour, he canters on with rage,
And all the Franks with wonder and dismay;
There is not one can bitter tears restrain,
And for Rollant they're very sore afraid.
The King has bid them seize that county Guene,
And charged with him the scullions of his train;
The master-cook he's called, Besgun by name:
"Guard me him well, his felony is plain,
Who in my house vile treachery has made."
He holds him, and a hundred others takes
From the kitchen, both good and evil knaves;
Then Guenes beard and both his cheeks they shaved,
And four blows each with their closed fists they gave,
They trounced him well with cudgels and with staves,
And on his neck they clasped an iron chain;
So like a bear enchained they held him safe,
On a pack-mule they set him in his shame:
Kept him till Charles should call for him again.
AOI.
High were the peaks and shadowy and grand,
The valleys deep, the rivers swiftly ran.
Trumpets they blew in rear and in the van,
Till all again answered that olifant.
That Emperour canters with fury mad,
And all the Franks dismay and wonder have;
There is not one but weeps and waxes sad
And all pray God that He will guard Rollant
Till in the field together they may stand;
There by his side they'll strike as well they can.
But what avail? No good there is in that;
They're not in time; too long have they held back.
AOI.
In his great rage on canters Charlemagne;
Over his sark his beard is flowing plain.
Barons of France, in haste they spur and strain;
There is not one that can his wrath contain
That they are not with Rollant the Captain,
Whereas he fights the Sarrazins of Spain.
If he be struck, will not one soul remain.
-- God! Sixty men are all now in his train!
Never a king had better Capitains.
AOI.
Rollant regards the barren mountain-sides;
Dead men of France, he sees so many lie,
And weeps for them as fits a gentle knight:
"Lords and barons, may God to you be kind!
And all your souls redeem for Paradise!
And let you there mid holy flowers lie!
Better vassals than you saw never I.
Ever you've served me, and so long a time,
By you Carlon hath conquered kingdoms wide;
That Emperour reared you for evil plight!
Douce land of France, o very precious clime,
Laid desolate by such a sour exile!
Barons of France, for me I've seen you die,
And no support, no warrant could I find;
God be your aid, Who never yet hath lied!
I must not fail now, brother, by your side;
Save I be slain, for sorrow shall I die.
Sir companion, let us again go strike!"
CXLI
The count Rollanz, back to the field then hieing
Holds Durendal, and like a vassal striking
Faldrun of Pui has through the middle sliced,
With twenty-four of all they rated highest;
Was never man, for vengeance shewed such liking.
Even as a stag before the hounds goes flying,
Before Rollanz the pagans scatter, frightened.
Says the Archbishop: "You deal now very wisely!
Such valour should he shew that is bred knightly,
And beareth arms, and a good charger rideth;
In battle should be strong and proud and sprightly;
Or otherwise he is not worth a shilling,
Should be a monk in one of those old minsters,
Where, day, by day, he'ld pray for us poor sinners."
Answers Rollant: "Strike on; no quarter give them!"
Upon these words Franks are again beginning;
Very great loss they suffer then, the Christians.
CXLII
The man who knows, for him there's no prison,
In such a fight with keen defence lays on;
Wherefore the Franks are fiercer than lions.
Marsile you'd seen go as a brave baron,
Sitting his horse, the which he calls Gaignon;
He spurs it well, going to strike Bevon,
That was the lord of Beaune and of Dijon,
His shield he breaks, his hauberk has undone,
So flings him dead, without condition;
Next he hath slain Yvoerie and Ivon,
Also with them Gerard of Russillon.
The count Rollanz, being not far him from,
To th'pagan says: "Confound thee our Lord God!
So wrongfully you've slain my companions,
A blow you'll take, ere we apart be gone,
And of my sword the name I'll bid you con."
He goes to strike him, as a brave baron,
And his right hand the count clean slices off;
Then takes the head of Jursaleu the blond;
That was the son of king Marsilion.
Pagans cry out "Assist us now, Mahom!
God of our race, avenge us on Carlon!
Into this land he's sent us such felons
That will not leave the fight before they drop."
Says each to each: "Nay let us fly!" Upon
That word, they're fled, an hundred thousand gone;
Call them who may, they'll never more come on.
AOI.
But what avail? Though fled be Marsilies,
He's left behind his uncle, the alcaliph
Who holds Alferne, Kartagene, Garmalie,
And Ethiope, a cursed land indeed;
The blackamoors from there are in his keep,
Broad in the nose they are and flat in the ear,
Fifty thousand and more in company.
These canter forth with arrogance and heat,
Then they cry out the pagans' rallying-cheer;
And Rollant says: "Martyrdom we'll receive;
Not long to live, I know it well, have we;
Felon he's named that sells his body cheap!
Strike on, my lords, with burnished swords and keen;
Contest each inch your life and death between,
That neer by us Douce France in shame be steeped.
When Charles my lord shall come into this field,
Such discipline of Sarrazins he'll see,
For one of ours he'll find them dead fifteen;
He will not fail, but bless us all in peace."
AOI.
When Rollant sees those misbegotten men,
Who are more black than ink is on the pen
With no part white, only their teeth except,
Then says that count: "I know now very well
That here to die we're bound, as I can tell.
Strike on, the Franks! For so I recommend."
Says Oliver: "Who holds back, is condemned!"
Upon those words, the Franks to strike again.
CXLV
Franks are but few; which, when the pagans know,
Among themselves comfort and pride they shew;
Says each to each: "Wrong was that Emperor."
Their alcaliph upon a sorrel rode,
And pricked it well with both his spurs of gold;
Struck Oliver, behind, on the back-bone,
His hauberk white into his body broke,
Clean through his breast the thrusting spear he drove;
After he said: "You've borne a mighty blow.
Charles the great should not have left you so;
He's done us wrong, small thanks to him we owe;
I've well avenged all ours on you alone."
CXLVI
Oliver feels that he to die is bound,
Holds Halteclere, whose steel is rough and brown,
Strikes the alcaliph on his helm's golden mount;
Flowers and stones fall clattering to the ground,
Slices his head, to th'small teeth in his mouth;
So brandishes his blade and flings him down;
After he says: "Pagan, accurst be thou!
Thou'lt never say that Charles forsakes me now;
Nor to thy wife, nor any dame thou'st found,
Thou'lt never boast, in lands where thou wast crowned,
One pennyworth from me thou'st taken out,
Nor damage wrought on me nor any around."
After, for aid, "Rollant!" he cries aloud.
AOI.
Oliver feels that death is drawing nigh;
To avenge himself he hath no longer time;
Through the great press most gallantly he strikes,
He breaks their spears, their buckled shields doth slice,
Their feet, their fists, their shoulders and their sides,
Dismembers them: whoso had seen that sigh,
Dead in the field one on another piled,
Remember well a vassal brave he might.
Charles ensign he'll not forget it quite;
Aloud and clear "Monjoie" again he cries.
To call Rollanz, his friend and peer, he tries:
"My companion, come hither to my side.
With bitter grief we must us now divide."
AOI.
Then Rollant looked upon Olivier's face;
Which was all wan and colourless and pale,
While the clear blood, out of his body sprayed,
Upon the ground gushed forth and ran away.
"God!" said that count, "What shall I do or say?
My companion, gallant for such ill fate!
Neer shall man be, against thee could prevail.
Ah! France the Douce, henceforth art thou made waste
Of vassals brave, confounded and disgraced!
Our Emperour shall suffer damage great."
And with these words upon his horse he faints.
AOI.
You'd seen Rollant aswoon there in his seat,
And Oliver, who unto death doth bleed,
So much he's bled, his eyes are dim and weak;
Nor clear enough his vision, far or near,
To recognise whatever man he sees;
His companion, when each the other meets,
Above the helm jewelled with gold he beats,
Slicing it down from there to the nose-piece,
But not his head; he's touched not brow nor cheek.
At such a blow Rollant regards him keen,
And asks of him, in gentle tones and sweet:
"To do this thing, my comrade, did you mean?
This is Rollanz, who ever held you dear;
And no mistrust was ever us between."
Says Oliver: "Now can I hear you speak;
I see you not: may the Lord God you keep!
I struck you now: and for your pardon plead."
Answers Rollanz: "I am not hurt, indeed;
I pardon you, before God's Throne and here."
Upon these words, each to the other leans;
And in such love you had their parting seen.
CL
Oliver feels death's anguish on him now;
And in his head his two eyes swimming round;
Nothing he sees; he hears not any sound;
Dismounting then, he kneels upon the ground,
Proclaims his sins both firmly and aloud,
Clasps his two hands, heavenwards holds them out,
Prays God himself in Paradise to allow;
Blessings on Charles, and on Douce France he vows,
And his comrade, Rollanz, to whom he's bound.
Then his heart fails; his helmet nods and bows;
Upon the earth he lays his whole length out:
And he is dead, may stay no more, that count.
Rollanz the brave mourns him with grief profound;
Nowhere on earth so sad a man you'd found.
CLI
So Rollant's friend is dead whom when he sees
Face to the ground, and biting it with's teeth,
Begins to mourn in language very sweet:
"Unlucky, friend, your courage was indeed!
Together we have spent such days and years;
No harmful thing twixt thee and me has been.
Now thou art dead, and all my life a grief."
And with these words again he swoons, that chief,
Upon his horse, which he calls Veillantif;
Stirrups of gold support him underneath;
He cannot fall, whichever way he lean.
CLII
Soon as Rollant his senses won and knew,
Recovering and turning from that swoon.
Bitter great loss appeared there in his view:
Dead are the Franks; he'd all of them to lose,
Save the Archbishop, and save Gualter del Hum;
He is come down out of the mountains, who
Gainst Spanish men made there a great ado;
Dead are his men, for those the pagans slew;
Will he or nill, along the vales he flew,
And called Rollant, to bring him succour soon:
"Ah! Gentle count, brave soldier, where are you?
For By thy side no fear I ever knew.
Gualter it is, who conquered Maelgut,
And nephew was to hoary old Drouin;
My vassalage thou ever thoughtest good.
Broken my spear, and split my shield in two;
Gone is the mail that on my hauberk grew;
This body of mine eight lances have gone through;
I'm dying. Yet full price for life I took."
Rollant has heard these words and understood,
Has spurred his horse, and on towards him drew.
AOI.
Grief gives Rollanz intolerance and pride;
Through the great press he goes again to strike;
To slay a score of Spaniards he contrives,
Gualter has six, the Archbishop other five.
The pagans say: "Men, these, of felon kind!
Lordings, take care they go not hence alive!
Felon he's named that does not break their line,
Recreant, who lets them any safety find!"
And so once more begin the hue and cry,
From every part they come to break the line.
AOI.
Count Rollant is a noble and brave soldier,
Gualter del Hum's a right good chevalier,
That Archbishop hath shewn good prowess there;
None of them falls behind the other pair;
Through the great press, pagans they strike again.
Come on afoot a thousand Sarrazens,
And on horseback some forty thousand men.
But well I know, to approach they never dare;
Lances and spears they poise to hurl at them,
Arrows, barbs, darts and javelins in the air.
With the first flight they've slain our Gualtier;
Turpin of Reims has all his shield broken,
And cracked his helm; he's wounded in the head,
From his hauberk the woven mail they tear,
In his body four spear-wounds doth he bear;
Beneath him too his charger's fallen dead.
Great grief it was, when that Archbishop fell.
AOI.
Turpin of Reims hath felt himself undone,
Since that four spears have through his body come;
Nimble and bold upon his feet he jumps;
Looks for Rollant, and then towards him runs,
Saying this word: "I am not overcome.
While life remains, no good vassal gives up."
He's drawn Almace, whose steel was brown and rough,
Through the great press a thousand blows he's struck:
As Charles said, quarter he gave to none;
He found him there, four hundred else among,
Wounded the most, speared through the middle some,
Also there were from whom the heads he'd cut:
So tells the tale, he that was there says thus,
The brave Saint Giles, whom God made marvellous,
Who charters wrote for th' Minster at Loum;
Nothing he's heard that does not know this much.
CLVI
The count Rollanz has nobly fought and well,
But he is hot, and all his body sweats;
Great pain he has, and trouble in his head,
His temples burst when he the horn sounded;
But he would know if Charles will come to them,
Takes the olifant, and feebly sounds again.
That Emperour stood still and listened then:
"My lords," said he, "Right evilly we fare!
This day Rollanz, my nephew shall be dead:
I hear his horn, with scarcely any breath.
Nimbly canter, whoever would be there!
Your trumpets sound, as many as ye bear!"
Sixty thousand so loud together blare,
The mountains ring, the valleys answer them.
The pagans hear, they think it not a jest;
Says each to each: "Carlum doth us bestead."
AOI.
The pagans say: "That Emperour's at hand,
We hear their sound, the trumpets of the Franks;
If Charles come, great loss we then shall stand,
And wars renewed, unless we slay Rollant;
All Spain we'll lose, our own clear father-land."
Four hundred men of them in helmets stand;
The best of them that might be in their ranks
Make on Rollanz a grim and fierce attack;
Gainst these the count had well enough in hand.
AOI.
The count Rollanz, when their approach he sees
Is grown so bold and manifest and fierce
So long as he's alive he will not yield.
He sits his horse, which men call Veillantif,
Pricking him well with golden spurs beneath,
Through the great press he goes, their line to meet,
And by his side is the Archbishop Turpin.
"Now, friend, begone!" say pagans, each to each;
"These Frankish men, their horns we plainly hear
Charle is at hand, that King in Majesty."
CLIX
The count Rollanz has never loved cowards,
Nor arrogant, nor men of evil heart,
Nor chevalier that was not good vassal.
That Archbishop, Turpins, he calls apart:
"Sir, you're afoot, and I my charger have;
For love of you, here will I take my stand,
Together we'll endure things good and bad;
I'll leave you not, for no incarnate man:
We'll give again these pagans their attack;
The better blows are those from Durendal."
Says the Archbishop: "Shame on him that holds back!
Charle is at hand, full vengeance he'll exact."
CLX
The pagans say: "Unlucky were we born!
An evil day for us did this day dawn!
For we have lost our peers and all our lords.
Charles his great host once more upon us draws,
Of Frankish men we plainly hear the horns,
"Monjoie " they cry, and great is their uproar.
The count Rollant is of such pride and force
He'll never yield to man of woman born;
Let's aim at him, then leave him on the spot!"
And aim they did: with arrows long and short,
Lances and spears and feathered javelots;
Count Rollant's shield they've broken through and bored,
The woven mail have from his hauberk torn,
But not himself, they've never touched his corse;
Veillantif is in thirty places gored,
Beneath the count he's fallen dead, that horse.
Pagans are fled, and leave him on the spot;
The count Rollant stands on his feet once more.
AOI.
Pagans are fled, enangered and enraged,
Home into Spain with speed they make their way;
The count Rollanz, he has not given chase,
For Veillantif, his charger, they have slain;
Will he or nill, on foot he must remain.
To the Archbishop, Turpins, he goes with aid;
I He's from his head the golden helm unlaced,
Taken from him his white hauberk away,
And cut the gown in strips, was round his waist;
On his great wounds the pieces of it placed,
Then to his heart has caught him and embraced;
On the green grass he has him softly laid,
Most sweetly then to him has Rollant prayed:
"Ah! Gentle sir, give me your leave, I say;
Our companions, whom we so dear appraised,
Are now all dead; we cannot let them stay;
I will go seek and bring them to this place,
Arrange them here in ranks, before your face."
Said the Archbishop: "Go, and return again.
This field is yours and mine now; God be praised!"
CLXII
So Rollanz turns; through the field, all alone,
Searching the vales and mountains, he is gone;
He finds Gerin, Gerers his companion,
Also he finds Berenger and Otton,
There too he finds Anseis and Sanson,
And finds Gerard the old, of Rossillon;
By one and one he's taken those barons,
To the Archbishop with each of them he comes,
Before his knees arranges every one.
That Archbishop, he cannot help but sob,
He lifts his hand, gives benediction;
After he's said: "Unlucky, Lords, your lot!
But all your souls He'll lay, our Glorious God,
In Paradise, His holy flowers upon!
For my own death such anguish now I've got;
I shall not see him, our rich Emperor."
CLXIII
So Rollant turns, goes through the field in quest;
His companion Olivier finds at length;
He has embraced him close against his breast,
To the Archbishop returns as he can best;
Upon a shield he's laid him, by the rest;
And the Archbishop has them absolved and blest:
Whereon his grief and pity grow afresh.
Then says Rollanz: "Fair comrade Olivier,
You were the son of the good count Reinier,
Who held the march by th' Vale of Runier;
To shatter spears, through buckled shields to bear,
And from hauberks the mail to break and tear,
Proof men to lead, and prudent counsel share,
Gluttons in field to frighten and conquer,
No land has known a better chevalier."
CLXIV
The count Rollanz, when dead he saw his peers,
And Oliver, he held so very dear,
Grew tender, and began to shed a tear;
Out of his face the colour disappeared;
No longer could he stand, for so much grief,
Will he or nill, he swooned upon the field.
Said the Archbishop: "Unlucky lord, indeed!"
CLXV
When the Archbishop beheld him swoon, Rollant,
Never before such bitter grief he'd had;
Stretching his hand, he took that olifant.
Through Rencesvals a little river ran;
He would go there, fetch water for Rollant.
Went step by step, to stumble soon began,
So feeble he is, no further fare he can,
For too much blood he's lost, and no strength has;
Ere he has crossed an acre of the land,
His heart grows faint, he falls down forwards and
Death comes to him with very cruel pangs.
CLXVI
The count Rollanz wakes from his swoon once more,
Climbs to his feet; his pains are very sore;
Looks down the vale, looks to the hills above;
On the green grass, beyond his companions,
He sees him lie, that noble old baron;
'Tis the Archbishop, whom in His name wrought God;
There he proclaims his sins, and looks above;
Joins his two hands, to Heaven holds them forth,
And Paradise prays God to him to accord.
Dead is Turpin, the warrior of Charlon.
In battles great and very rare sermons
Against pagans ever a champion.
God grant him now His Benediction!
AOI.
The count Rollant sees the Archbishop lie dead,
Sees the bowels out of his body shed,
And sees the brains that surge from his forehead;
Between his two arm-pits, upon his breast,
Crossways he folds those hands so white and fair.
Then mourns aloud, as was the custom there:
"Thee, gentle sir, chevalier nobly bred,
To the Glorious Celestial I commend;
Neer shall man be, that will Him serve so well;
Since the Apostles was never such prophet,
To hold the laws and draw the hearts of men.
Now may your soul no pain nor sorrow ken,
Finding the gates of Paradise open!"
CLXVIII
Then Rollanz feels that death to him draws near,
For all his brain is issued from his ears;
He prays to God that He will call the peers,
Bids Gabriel, the angel, t' himself appear.
Takes the olifant, that no reproach shall hear,
And Durendal in the other hand he wields;
Further than might a cross-bow's arrow speed
Goes towards Spain into a fallow-field;
Climbs on a cliff; where, under two fair trees,
Four terraces, of marble wrought, he sees.
There he falls down, and lies upon the green;
He swoons again, for death is very near.
CLXIX
High are the peaks, the trees are very high.
Four terraces of polished marble shine;
On the green grass count Rollant swoons thereby.
A Sarrazin him all the time espies,
Who feigning death among the others hides;
Blood hath his face and all his body dyed;
He gets afoot, running towards him hies;
Fair was he, strong and of a courage high;
A mortal hate he's kindled in his pride.
He's seized Rollant, and the arms, were at his side,
"Charles nephew," he's said, "here conquered lies.
To Araby I'll bear this sword as prize."
As he drew it, something the count descried.
CLXX
So Rollant felt his sword was taken forth,
Opened his eyes, and this word to him spoke
"Thou'rt never one of ours, full well I know."
Took the olifant, that he would not let go,
Struck him on th' helm, that jewelled was with gold,
And broke its steel, his skull and all his bones,
Out of his head both the two eyes he drove;
Dead at his feet he has the pagan thrown:
After he's said: "Culvert, thou wert too bold,
Or right or wrong, of my sword seizing hold!
They'll dub thee fool, to whom the tale is told.
But my great one, my olifant I broke;
Fallen from it the crystal and the gold."
CLXXI
Then Rollanz feels that he has lost his sight,
Climbs to his feet, uses what strength he might;
In all his face the colour is grown white.
In front of him a great brown boulder lies;
Whereon ten blows with grief and rage he strikes;
The steel cries out, but does not break outright;
And the count says: "Saint Mary, be my guide
Good Durendal, unlucky is your plight!
I've need of you no more; spent is my pride!
We in the field have won so many fights,
Combating through so many regions wide
That Charles holds, whose beard is hoary white!
Be you not his that turns from any in flight!
A good vassal has held you this long time;
Never shall France the Free behold his like."
CLXXII
Rollant hath struck the sardonyx terrace;
The steel cries out, but broken is no ways.
So when he sees he never can it break,
Within himself begins he to complain:
"Ah! Durendal, white art thou, clear of stain!
Beneath the sun reflecting back his rays!
In Moriane was Charles, in the vale,
When from heaven God by His angel bade
Him give thee to a count and capitain;
Girt thee on me that noble King and great.
I won for him with thee Anjou, Bretaigne,
And won for him with thee Peitou, the Maine,
And Normandy the free for him I gained,
Also with thee Provence and Equitaigne,
And Lumbardie and all the whole Romaigne,
I won Baivere, all Flanders in the plain,
Also Burguigne and all the whole Puillane,
Costentinnople, that homage to him pays;
In Saisonie all is as he ordains;
With thee I won him Scotland, Ireland, Wales,
England also, where he his chamber makes;
Won I with thee so many countries strange
That Charles holds, whose beard is white with age!
For this sword's sake sorrow upon me weighs,
Rather I'ld die, than it mid pagans stay.
Lord God Father, never let France be shamed!"
CLXXIII
Rollant his stroke on a dark stone repeats,
And more of it breaks off than I can speak.
The sword cries out, yet breaks not in the least,
Back from the blow into the air it leaps.
Destroy it can he not; which when he sees,
Within himself he makes a plaint most sweet.
"Ah! Durendal, most holy, fair indeed!
Relics enough thy golden hilt conceals:
Saint Peter's Tooth, the Blood of Saint Basile,
Some of the Hairs of my Lord, Saint Denise,
Some of the Robe, was worn by Saint Mary.
It is not right that pagans should thee seize,
For Christian men your use shall ever be.
Nor any man's that worketh cowardice!
Many broad lands with you have I retrieved
Which Charles holds, who hath the great white beard;
Wherefore that King so proud and rich is he."
CLXXIV
But Rollant felt that death had made a way
Down from his head till on his heart it lay;
Beneath a pine running in haste he came,
On the green grass he lay there on his face;
His olifant and sword beneath him placed,
Turning his head towards the pagan race,
Now this he did, in truth, that Charles might say
(As he desired) and all the Franks his race; --
'Ah, gentle count; conquering he was slain!' --
He owned his faults often and every way,
And for his sins his glove to God upraised.
AOI.
But Rollant feels he's no more time to seek;
Looking to Spain, he lies on a sharp peak,
And with one hand upon his breast he beats:
"Mea Culpa! God, by Thy Virtues clean
Me from my sins, the mortal and the mean,
Which from the hour that I was born have been
Until this day, when life is ended here!"
Holds out his glove towards God, as he speaks
Angels descend from heaven on that scene.
AOI.
The count Rollanz, beneath a pine he sits,;
Turning his eyes towards Spain, he begins
Remembering so many divers things:
So many lands where he went conquering,
And France the Douce, the heroes of his kin,
And Charlemagne, his lord who nourished him.
Nor can he help but weep and sigh at this.
But his own self, he's not forgotten him,
He owns his faults, and God's forgiveness bids:
"Very Father, in Whom no falsehood is,
Saint Lazaron from death Thou didst remit,
And Daniel save from the lions' pit;
My soul in me preserve from all perils
And from the sins I did in life commit!"
His right-hand glove, to God he offers it
Saint Gabriel from's hand hath taken it.
Over his arm his head bows down and slips,
He joins his hands: and so is life finish'd.
God sent him down His angel cherubin,
And Saint Michael, we worship in peril;
And by their side Saint Gabriel alit;
So the count's soul they bare to Paradis.
CLXXVII
Rollant is dead; his soul to heav'n God bare.
That Emperour to Rencesvals doth fare.
There was no path nor passage anywhere
Nor of waste ground no ell nor foot to spare
Without a Frank or pagan lying there.
Charles cries aloud: "Where are you, nephew fair?
Where's the Archbishop and that count Oliviers?
Where is Gerins and his comrade Gerers?
Otes the Duke, and the count Berengiers
And Ivorie, and Ive, so dear they were?
What is become of Gascon Engelier,
Sansun the Duke and Anseis the fierce?
Where's old Gerard of Russillun; oh, where
The dozen peers I left behind me here?"
But what avail, since none can answer bear?
"God!" says the King, "Now well may I despair,
I was not here the first assault to share!"
Seeming enraged, his beard the King doth tear.
Weep from their eyes barons and chevaliers,
A thousand score, they swoon upon the earth;
Duke Neimes for them was moved with pity rare.
CLXXVIII
No chevalier nor baron is there, who
Pitifully weeps not for grief and dule;
They mourn their sons, their brothers, their nephews,
And their liege lords, and trusty friends and true;
Upon the ground a many of them swoon.
Thereon Duke Neimes doth act with wisdom proof,
First before all he's said to the Emperour:
"See beforehand, a league from us or two,
From the highways dust rising in our view;
Pagans are there, and many them, too.
Canter therefore! Vengeance upon them do!"
"Ah, God!" says Charles, "so far are they re-moved!
Do right by me, my honour still renew!
They've torn from me the flower of France the Douce."
The King commands Gebuin and Otun,
Tedbalt of Reims, also the count Milun:
"Guard me this field, these hills and valleys too,
Let the dead lie, all as they are, unmoved,
Let not approach lion, nor any brute,
Let not approach esquire, nor any groom;
For I forbid that any come thereto,
Until God will that we return anew."
These answer him sweetly, their love to prove:
"Right Emperour, dear Sire, so will we do."
A thousand knights they keep in retinue.
AOI.
That Emperour bids trumpets sound again,
Then canters forth with his great host so brave.
Of Spanish men, whose backs are turned their way,
Franks one and all continue in their chase.
When the King sees the light at even fade,
On the green grass dismounting as he may,
He kneels aground, to God the Lord doth pray
That the sun's course He will for him delay,
Put off the night, and still prolong the day.
An angel then, with him should reason make,
Nimbly enough appeared to him and spake:
"Charles, canter on! Light needst not thou await.
The flower of France, as God knows well, is slain;
Thou canst be avenged upon that crimeful race."
Upon that word mounts the Emperour again.
AOI.
For Charlemagne a great marvel God planned:
Making the sun still in his course to stand.
So pagans fled, and chased them well the Franks
Through the Valley of Shadows, close in hand;
Towards Sarraguce by force they chased them back,
And as they went with killing blows attacked:
Barred their highways and every path they had.
The River Sebre before them reared its bank,
'Twas very deep, marvellous current ran;
No barge thereon nor dromond nor caland.
A god of theirs invoked they, Tervagant.
And then leaped in, but there no warrant had.
The armed men more weighty were for that,
Many of them down to the bottom sank,
Downstream the rest floated as they might hap;
So much water the luckiest of them drank,
That all were drowned, with marvellous keen pangs.
"An evil day," cry Franks, "ye saw Rollant!"
CLXXXI
When Charles sees that pagans all are dead,
Some of them slain, the greater part drowned;
(Whereby great spoils his chevaliers collect)
That gentle King upon his feet descends,
Kneels on the ground, his thanks to God presents.
When he once more rise, the sun is set.
Says the Emperour "Time is to pitch our tents;
To Rencesvals too late to go again.
Our horses are worn out and foundered:
Unsaddle them, take bridles from their heads,
And through these meads let them refreshment get."
Answer the Franks: "Sire, you have spoken well."
AOI.
That Emperour hath chosen his bivouac;
The Franks dismount in those deserted tracts,
Their saddles take from off their horses' backs,
Bridles of gold from off their heads unstrap,
Let them go free; there is enough fresh grass --
No service can they render them, save that.
Who is most tired sleeps on the ground stretched flat.
Upon this night no sentinels keep watch.
CLXXXIII
That Emperour is lying in a mead;
By's head, so brave, he's placed his mighty spear;
On such a night unarmed he will not be.
He's donned his white hauberk, with broidery,
Has laced his helm, jewelled with golden beads,
Girt on Joiuse, there never was its peer,
Whereon each day thirty fresh hues appear.
All of us know that lance, and well may speak
Whereby Our Lord was wounded on the Tree:
Charles, by God's grace, possessed its point of steel!
His golden hilt he enshrined it underneath.
By that honour and by that sanctity
The name Joiuse was for that sword decreed.
Barons of France may not forgetful be
Whence comes the ensign "Monjoie," they cry at need;
Wherefore no race against them can succeed.
CLXXXIV
Clear was the night, the moon shone radiant.
Charles laid him down, but sorrow for Rollant
And Oliver, most heavy on him he had,
For's dozen peers, for all the Frankish band
He had left dead in bloody Rencesvals;
He could not help, but wept and waxed mad,
And prayed to God to be their souls' Warrant.
Weary that King, or grief he's very sad;
He falls on sleep, he can no more withstand.
Through all those meads they slumber then, the Franks;
Is not a horse can any longer stand,
Who would eat grass, he takes it lying flat.
He has learned much, can understand their pangs.
CLXXXV
Charles, like a man worn out with labour, slept.
Saint Gabriel the Lord to him hath sent,
Whom as a guard o'er the Emperour he set;
Stood all night long that angel by his head.
In a vision announced he to him then
A battle, should be fought against him yet,
Significance of griefs demonstrated.
Charles looked up towards the sky, and there
Thunders and winds and blowing gales beheld,
And hurricanes and marvellous tempests;
Lightnings and flames he saw in readiness,
That speedily on all his people fell;
Apple and ash, their spear-shafts all burned,
Also their shields, e'en the golden bosses,
Crumbled the shafts of their trenchant lances,
Crushed their hauberks and all their steel helmets.
His chevaliers he saw in great distress.
Bears and leopards would feed upon them next;
Adversaries, dragons, wyverns, serpents,
Griffins were there, thirty thousand, no less,
Nor was there one but on some Frank it set.
And the Franks cried: "Ah! Charlemagne, give help!"
Wherefore the King much grief and pity felt,
He'ld go to them but was in duress kept:
Out of a wood came a great lion then,
'Twas very proud and fierce and terrible;
His body dear sought out, and on him leapt,
Each in his arms, wrestling, the other held;
But he knew not which conquered, nor which fell.
That Emperour woke not at all, but slept.
CLXXXVI
And, after that, another vision came:
Himseemed in France, at Aix, on a terrace,
And that he held a bruin by two chains;
Out of Ardenne saw thirty bears that came,
And each of them words, as a man might, spake
Said to him: "Sire, give him to us again!
It is not right that he with you remain,
He's of our kin, and we must lend him aid."
A harrier fair ran out of his palace,
Among them all the greatest bear assailed
On the green grass, beyond his friends some way.
There saw the King marvellous give and take;
But he knew not which fell, nor which o'ercame.
The angel of God so much to him made plain.
Charles slept on till the clear dawn of day.
CLXXXVII
King Marsilies, fleeing to Sarraguce,
Dismounted there beneath an olive cool;
His sword and sark and helm aside he put,
On the green grass lay down in shame and gloom;
For his right hand he'd lost, 'twas clean cut through;
Such blood he'd shed, in anguish keen he swooned.
Before his face his lady Bramimunde
Bewailed and cried, with very bitter rue;
Twenty thousand and more around him stood,
All of them cursed Carlun and France the Douce.
Then Apollin in's grotto they surround,
And threaten him, and ugly words pronounce:
"Such shame on us, vile god!, why bringest thou?
This is our king; wherefore dost him confound?
Who served thee oft, ill recompense hath found."
Then they take off his sceptre and his crown,
With their hands hang him from a column down,
Among their feet trample him on the ground,
With great cudgels they batter him and trounce.
From Tervagant his carbuncle they impound,
And Mahumet into a ditch fling out,
Where swine and dogs defile him and devour.
CLXXXVIII
Out of his swoon awakens Marsilies,
And has him borne his vaulted roof beneath;
Many colours were painted there to see,
And Bramimunde laments for him, the queen,
Tearing her hair; caitiff herself she clepes;
Also these words cries very loud and clear:
"Ah! Sarraguce, henceforth forlorn thou'lt be
Of the fair king that had thee in his keep!
All those our gods have wrought great felony,
Who in battle this morning failed at need.
That admiral will shew his cowardice,
Unless he fight against that race hardy,
Who are so fierce, for life they take no heed.
That Emperour, with his blossoming beard,
Hath vassalage, and very high folly;
Battle to fight, he will not ever flee.
Great grief it is, no man may slay him clean."
CLXXXIX
That Emperour, by his great Majesty,
I Full seven years in Spain now has he been,
And castles there, and many cities seized.
King Marsilies was therefore sore displeased;
In the first year he sealed and sent his brief
To Baligant, into Babilonie:
('Twas the admiral, old in antiquity,
That clean outlived Omer and Virgilie,)
To Sarraguce, with succour bade him speed,
For, if he failed, Marsile his gods would leave,
All his idols he worshipped formerly;
He would receive blest Christianity
And reconciled to Charlemagne would be.
Long time that one came not, far off was he.
Through forty realms he did his tribes rally;
His great dromonds, he made them all ready,
Barges and skiffs and ships and galleries;
Neath Alexandre, a haven next the sea,
In readiness he gat his whole navy.
That was in May, first summer of the year,
All of his hosts he launched upon the sea.
CXC
Great are the hosts of that opposed race;
With speed they sail, they steer and navigate.
High on their yards, at their mast-heads they place
Lanterns enough, and carbuncles so great
Thence, from above, such light they dissipate
The sea's more clear at midnight than by day.
And when they come into the land of Spain
All that country lightens and shines again:
Of their coming Marsile has heard the tale.
AOI.
The pagan race would never rest, but come
Out of the sea, where the sweet waters run;
They leave Marbris, they leave behind Marbrus,
Upstream by Sebre doth all their navy turn.
Lanterns they have, and carbuncles enough,
That all night long and very clearly burn.
Upon that day they come to Sarragus.
AOI.
Clear is that day, and the sun radiant.
Out of his barge issues their admiral,
Espaneliz goes forth at his right hand,
Seventeen kings follow him in a band,
Counts too, and dukes; I cannot tell of that.
Where in a field, midway, a laurel stands,
On the green grass they spread a white silk mat,
Set a fald-stool there, made of olifant;
Sits him thereon the pagan Baligant,
And all the rest in rows about him stand.
The lord of them speaks before any man:
"Listen to me, free knights and valiant!
Charles the King, the Emperour of the Franks,
Shall not eat bread, save when that I command.
Throughout all Spain great war with me he's had;
I will go seek him now, into Douce France,
I will not cease, while I'm a living man,
Till be slain, or fall between my hands."
Upon his knee his right-hand glove he slaps.
CXCIII
He is fast bound by all that he has said.
He will not fail, for all the gold neath heav'n,
But go to Aix, where Charles court is held:
His men applaud, for so they counselled.
After he called two of his chevaliers,
One Clarifan, and the other Clarien:
"You are the sons of king Maltraien,
Freely was, wont my messages to bear.
You I command to Sarraguce to fare.
Marsiliun on my part you shall tell
Against the Franks I'm come to give him help,
Find I their host, great battle shall be there;
Give him this glove, that's stitched with golden thread,
On his right hand let it be worn and held;
This little wand of fine gold take as well,
Bid him come here, his homage to declare.
To France I'll go, and war with Charles again;
Save at my feet he kneel, and mercy beg,
Save all the laws of Christians he forget,
I'll take away the crown from off his head."
Answer pagans: "Sire, you say very well."
CXCIV
Said Baligant: "But canter now, barons,
Take one the wand, and the other one the glove!"
These answer him: "Dear lord, it shall be done."
Canter so far, to Sarraguce they come,
Pass through ten gates, across four bridges run,
Through all the streets, wherein the burghers crowd.
When they draw nigh the citadel above,
From the palace they hear a mighty sound;
About that place are seen pagans enough,
Who weep and cry, with grief are waxen wood,
And curse their gods, Tervagan and Mahum
And Apolin, from whom no help is come.
Says each to each: "Caitiffs! What shall be done?
For upon us confusion vile is come,
Now have we lost our king Marsiliun,
For yesterday his hand count Rollanz cut;
We'll have no more Fair Jursaleu, his son;
The whole of Spain henceforward is undone."
Both messengers on the terrace dismount.
CXCV
Horses they leave under an olive tree,
Which by the reins two Sarrazins do lead;
Those messengers have wrapped them in their weeds,
To the palace they climb the topmost steep.
When they're come in, the vaulted roof beneath,
Marsilium with courtesy they greet:
"May Mahumet, who all of us doth keep,
And Tervagan, and our lord Apoline
Preserve the, king and guard from harm the queen!"
Says Bramimunde "Great foolishness I hear:
Those gods of ours in cowardice are steeped;
In Rencesvals they wrought an evil deed,
Our chevaliers they let be slain in heaps;
My lord they failed in battle, in his need,
Never again will he his right hand see;
For that rich count, Rollanz, hath made him bleed.
All our whole Spain shall be for Charles to keep.
Miserable! What shall become of me?
Alas! That I've no man to slay me clean!"
AOI.
Says Clarien: "My lady, say not that!
We're messengers from pagan Baligant;
To Marsilies, he says, he'll be warrant,
So sends him here his glove, also this wand.
Vessels we have, are moored by Sebres bank,
Barges and skiffs and gallies four thousand,
Dromonds are there -- I cannot speak of that.
Our admiral is wealthy and puissant.
And Charlemagne he will go seek through France
And quittance give him, dead or recreant."
Says Bramimunde: "Unlucky journey, that!
Far nearer here you'll light upon the Franks;
For seven years he's stayed now in this land.
That Emperour is bold and combatant,
Rather he'ld die than from the field draw back;
No king neath heav'n above a child he ranks.
Charles hath no fear for any living man.
CXCVII
Says Marsilies the king: "Now let that be."
To th'messengers: "Sirs, pray you, speak to me.
I am held fast by death, as ye may see.
No son have I nor daughter to succeed;
That one I had, they slew him yester-eve.
Bid you my lord, he come to see me here.
Rights over Spain that admiral hath he,
My claim to him, if he will take't, I yield;
But from the Franks he then must set her free.
Gainst Charlemagne I'll shew him strategy.
Within a month from now he'll conquered be.
Of Sarraguce ye'll carry him the keys,
He'll go not hence, say, if he trusts in me."
They answer him: "Sir, 'tis the truth you speak."
AOI.
Then says Marsile: "The Emperour, Charles the Great
Hath slain my men and all my land laid waste,
My cities are broken and violate;
He lay this night upon the river Sebre;
I've counted well, 'tis seven leagues away.
Bid the admiral, leading his host this way,
Do battle here; this word to him convey."
Gives them the keys of Sarraguce her gates;
Both messengers their leave of him do take,
Upon that word bow down, and turn away.
CXCIX
Both messengers did on their horses mount;
From that city nimbly they issued out.
Then, sore afraid, their admiral they sought,
To whom the keys of Sarraguce they brought.
Says Baligant: "Speak now; what have ye found?
Where's Marsilies, to come to me was bound?"
Says Clarien : "To death he's stricken down.
That Emperour was in the pass but now;
To France the Douce he would be homeward-bound,
Rereward he set, to save his great honour:
His nephew there installed, Rollanz the count,
And Oliver; the dozen peers around;
A thousand score of Franks in armour found.
Marsile the king fought with them there, so proud;
He and Rollanz upon that field did joust.
With Durendal he dealt him such a clout
From his body he cut the right hand down.
His son is dead, in whom his heart was bound,
And the barons that service to him vowed;
Fleeing he came, he could no more hold out.
That Emperour has chased him well enow.
The king implores, you'll hasten with succour,
Yields to you Spain, his kingdom and his crown."
And Baligant begins to think, and frowns;
Such grief he has, doth nearly him confound.
AOI.
"Sir admiral," said to him Clariens,
"In Rencesvals was yesterday battle.
Dead is Rollanz and that count Oliver,
The dozen peers whom Charle so cherished,
And of their Franks are twenty thousand dead.
King Marsilie's of his right hand bereft,
And the Emperour chased him enow from thence.
Throughout this land no chevalier is left,
But he be slain, or drowned in Sebres bed.
By river side the Franks have pitched their tents,
Into this land so near to us they've crept;
But, if you will, grief shall go with them hence."
And Baligant looked on him proudly then,
In his courage grew joyous and content;
From the fald-stool upon his feet he leapt,
Then cried aloud: "Barons, too long ye've slept;
Forth from your ships issue, mount, canter well!
If he flee not, that Charlemagne the eld,
King Marsilies shall somehow be avenged;
For his right hand I'll pay him back an head."
CCI
Pagan Arabs out of their ships issue,
Then mount upon their horses and their mules,
And canter forth, (nay, what more might they do?)
Their admiral, by whom they all were ruled,
Called up to him Gemalfin, whom he knew:
"I give command of all my hosts to you."
On a brown horse mounted, as he was used,
And in his train he took with him four dukes.
Cantered so far, he came to Sarraguce.
Dismounted on a floor of marble blue,
Where four counts were, who by his stirrup stood;
Up by the steps, the palace came into;
To meet him there came running Bramimunde,
Who said to him: "Accursed from the womb,
That in such shame my sovran lord I lose!
Fell at his feet, that admiral her took.
In grief they came up into Marsile's room.
AOI.
King Marsilies, when he sees Baligant,
Calls to him then two Spanish Sarazands:
"Take me by the arms, and so lift up my back."
One of his gloves he takes in his left hand;
Then says Marsile: "Sire, king and admiral,
Quittance I give you here of all my land,
With Sarraguce, and the honour thereto hangs.
Myself I've lost; my army, every man."
He answers him: "Therefore the more I'm sad.
No long discourse together may we have;
Full well I know, Charles waits not our attack,
I take the glove from you, in spite of that."
He turned away in tears, such grief he had.
Down by the steps, out of the palace ran,
Mounted his horse, to's people gallopped back.
Cantered so far, he came before his band;
From hour to hour then, as he went, he sang:
"Pagans, come on: already flee the Franks!"
AOI.
In morning time, when the dawn breaks at last,
Awakened is that Emperour Charles.
Saint Gabriel, who on God's part him guards,
Raises his hand, the Sign upon him marks.
Rises the King, his arms aside he's cast,
The others then, through all the host, disarm.
After they mount, by virtue canter fast
Through those long ways, and through those roads so large;
They go to see the marvellous damage
In Rencesvals, there where the battle was.
AOI.
In Rencesvals is Charles entered,
Begins to weep for those he finds there dead;
Says to the Franks: "My lords, restrain your steps,
Since I myself alone should go ahead,
For my nephew, whom I would find again.
At Aix I was, upon the feast Noel,
Vaunted them there my valiant chevaliers,
Of battles great and very hot contests;
With reason thus I heard Rollant speak then:
He would not die in any foreign realm
Ere he'd surpassed his peers and all his men.
To the foes' land he would have turned his head,
Conqueringly his gallant life he'ld end."
Further than one a little wand could send,
Before the rest he's on a peak mounted.
CCV
When the Emperour went seeking his nephew,
He found the grass, and every flower that bloomed,
Turned scarlat, with our barons' blood imbrued;
Pity he felt, he could but weep for rue.
Beneath two trees he climbed the hill and looked,
And Rollant's strokes on three terraces knew,
On the green grass saw lying his nephew;
`Tis nothing strange that Charles anger grew.
Dismounted then, and went -- his heart was full,
In his two hands the count's body he took;
With anguish keen he fell on him and swooned.
CCVI
That Emperour is from his swoon revived.
Naimes the Duke, and the count Aceline,
Gefrei d'Anjou and his brother Tierry,
Take up the King, bear him beneath a pine.
There on the ground he sees his nephew lie.
Most sweetly then begins he to repine:
"Rollant, my friend, may God to thee be kind!
Never beheld any man such a knight
So to engage and so to end a fight.
Now my honour is turned into decline!"
Charle swoons again, he cannot stand upright.
AOI.
Charles the King returned out of his swoon.
Him in their hands four of his barons took,
He looked to the earth, saw lying his nephew;
All colourless his lusty body grew,
He turned his eyes, were very shadowful.
Charles complained in amity and truth:
"Rollant, my friend, God lay thee mid the blooms
Of Paradise, among the glorious!
Thou cam'st to Spain in evil tide, seigneur!
Day shall not dawn, for thee I've no dolour.
How perishes my strength and my valour!
None shall I have now to sustain my honour;
I think I've not one friend neath heaven's roof,
Kinsmen I have, but none of them's so proof."
He tore his locks, till both his hands were full.
Five score thousand Franks had such great dolour
There was not one but sorely wept for rue.
AOI.
"Rollant, my friend, to France I will away;
When at Loum, I'm in my hall again,
Strange men will come from many far domains,
Who'll ask me, where's that count, the Capitain;
I'll say to them that he is dead in Spain.
In bitter grief henceforward shall I reign,
Day shall not dawn, I weep not nor complain.
CCIX
"Rollant, my friend, fair youth that bar'st the bell,
When I arrive at Aix, in my Chapelle,
Men coming there will ask what news I tell;
I'll say to them: `Marvellous news and fell.
My nephew's dead, who won for me such realms!'
Against me then the Saxon will rebel,
Hungar, Bulgar, and many hostile men,
Romain, Puillain, all those are in Palerne,
And in Affrike, and those in Califerne;
Afresh then will my pain and suffrance swell.
For who will lead my armies with such strength,
When he is slain, that all our days us led?
Ah! France the Douce, now art thou deserted!
Such grief I have that I would fain be dead."
All his white beard he hath begun to rend,
Tore with both hands the hair out of his head.
Five score thousand Franks swooned on the earth and fell.
CCX
"Rollant, my friend, God shew thee His mercy!
In Paradise repose the soul of thee!
Who hath thee slain, exile for France decreed.
I'ld live no more, so bitter is my grief
For my household, who have been slain for me.
God grant me this, the Son of Saint Mary,
Ere I am come to th' master-pass of Size,
From my body my soul at length go free!
Among their souls let mine in glory be,
And let my flesh upon their flesh be heaped."
Still his white beard he tears, and his eyes weep.
Duke Naimes says: "His wrath is great indeed."
AOI.
"Sire, Emperour," Gefrei d'Anjou implored,
"Let not your grief to such excess be wrought;
Bid that our men through all this field be sought,
Whom those of Spain have in the battle caught;
In a charnel command that they be borne."
Answered the King: "Sound then upon your horn."
AOI.
Gefreid d'Anjou upon his trumpet sounds;
As Charles bade them, all the Franks dismount.
All of their friends, whose bodies they have found
To a charnel speedily the bring down.
Bishops there are, and abbots there enow,
Canons and monks, vicars with shaven crowns;
Absolution in God's name they've pronounced;
Incense and myrrh with precious gums they've ground,
And lustily they've swung the censers round;
With honour great they've laid them in the ground.
They've left them there; what else might they do now?
AOI.
That Emperour sets Rollant on one side
And Oliver, and the Archbishop Turpine;
Their bodies bids open before his eyes.
And all their hearts in silken veils to wind,
And set them in coffers of marble white;
After, they take the bodies of those knights,
Each of the three is wrapped in a deer's hide;
They're washen well in allspice and in wine.
The King commands Tedbalt and Gebuin,
Marquis Otun, Milun the count besides:
Along the road in three wagons to drive.
They're covered well with carpets Galazine.
AOI.
Now to be off would that Emperour Charles,
When pagans, lo! comes surging the vanguard;
Two messengers come from their ranks forward,
From the admiral bring challenge to combat:
"'Tis not yet time, proud King, that thou de-part.
Lo, Baligant comes cantering afterward,
Great are the hosts he leads from Arab parts;
This day we'll see if thou hast vassalage."
Charles the King his snowy beard has clasped,
Remembering his sorrow and damage,
Haughtily then his people all regards,
In a loud voice he cries with all his heart:
"Barons and Franks, to horse, I say, to arms!"
AOI.
First before all was armed that Emperour,
Nimbly enough his iron sark indued,
Laced up his helm, girt on his sword Joiuse,
Outshone the sun that dazzling light it threw,
Hung from his neck a shield, was of Girunde,
And took his spear, was fashioned at Blandune.
On his good horse then mounted, Tencendur,
Which he had won at th'ford below Marsune
When he flung dead Malpalin of Nerbune,
Let go the reins, spurred him with either foot;
Five score thousand behind him as he flew,
Calling on God and the Apostle of Roum.
AOI.
Through all the field dismount the Frankish men,
Five-score thousand and more, they arm themselves;
The gear they have enhances much their strength,
Their horses swift, their arms are fashioned well;
Mounted they are, and fight with great science.
Find they that host, battle they'll render them.
Their gonfalons flutter above their helms.
When Charles sees the fair aspect of them,
He calls to him Jozeran of Provence,
Naimon the Duke, with Antelme of Maience:
"In such vassals should man have confidence,
Whom not to trust were surely want of sense;
Unless the Arabs of coming here repent,
Then Rollant's life, I think, we'll dearly sell."
Answers Duke Neimes: "God grant us his consent!"
AOI.
Charles hath called Rabel and Guineman;
Thus said the King: "My lords, you I command
To take their place, Olivier and Rollant,
One bear the sword and the other the olifant;
So canter forth ahead, before the van,
And in your train take fifteen thousand Franks,
Young bachelors, that are most valiant.
As many more shall after them advance,
Whom Gebuins shall lead, also Lorains."
Naimes the Duke and the count Jozerans
Go to adjust these columns in their ranks.
Find they that host, they'll make a grand attack.
AOI.
Of Franks the first columns made ready there,
After those two a third they next prepare;
In it are set the vassals of Baiviere,
Some thousand score high-prized chevaliers;
Never was lost the battle, where they were:
Charles for no race neath heaven hath more care,
Save those of France, who realms for him conquered.
The Danish chief, the warrior count Oger,
Shall lead that troop, for haughty is their air.
AOI.
Three columns now, he has, the Emperour Charles.
Naimes the Duke a fourth next sets apart
Of good barons, endowed with vassalage;
Germans they are, come from the German March,
A thousand score, as all said afterward;
They're well equipped with horses and with arms,
Rather they'll die than from the battle pass;
They shall be led by Hermans, Duke of Trace,
Who'll die before he's any way coward.
AOI.
Naimes the Duke and the count Jozerans
The fifth column have mustered, of Normans,
A thousand score, or so say all the Franks;
Well armed are they, their horses charge and prance;
Rather they'ld die, than eer be recreant;
No race neath heav'n can more in th'field compass.
Richard the old, lead them in th'field he shall,
He'll strike hard there with his good trenchant lance.
AOI.
The sixth column is mustered of Bretons;
Thirty thousand chevaliers therein come;
These canter in the manner of barons,
Upright their spears, their ensigns fastened on.
The overlord of them is named Oedon,
Who doth command the county Nevelon,
Tedbald of Reims and the marquis Oton:
"Lead ye my men, by my commission."
AOI.
That Emperour hath now six columns yare
Naimes the Duke the seventh next prepares
Of Peitevins and barons from Alverne;
Forty thousand chevaliers might be there;
Their horses good, their arms are all most fair.
They're neath a cliff, in a vale by themselves;
With his right hand King Charles hath them blessed,
Them Jozerans shall lead, also Godselmes.
AOI.
And the eighth column hath Naimes made ready;
Tis of Flamengs, and barons out of Frise;
Forty thousand and more good knights are these,
Nor lost by them has any battle been.
And the King says: "These shall do my service."
Between Rembalt and Hamon of Galice
Shall they be led, for all their chivalry.
AOI.
Between Naimon and Jozeran the count
Are prudent men for the ninth column found,
Of Lotherengs and those out of Borgoune;
Fifty thousand good knights they are, by count;
In helmets laced and sarks of iron brown,
Strong are their spears, short are the shafts cut down;
If the Arrabits demur not, but come out
And trust themselves to these, they'll strike them down.
Tierris the Duke shall lead them, of Argoune.
AOI.
The tenth column is of barons of France,
Five score thousand of our best capitans;
Lusty of limb, and proud of countenance,
Snowy their heads are, and their beards are blanched,
In doubled sarks, and in hauberks they're clad,
Girt on their sides Frankish and Spanish brands
And noble shields of divers cognisance.
Soon as they mount, the battle they demand,
"Monjoie" they cry. With them goes Charlemagne.
Gefreid d'Anjou carries that oriflamme;
Saint Peter's twas, and bare the name Roman,
But on that day Monjoie, by change, it gat.
AOI.
That Emperour down from his horse descends;
To the green grass, kneeling, his face he bends.
Then turns his eyes towards the Orient,
Calls upon God with heartiest intent:
"Very Father, this day do me defend,
Who to Jonas succour didst truly send
Out of the whale's belly, where he was pent;
And who didst spare the king of Niniven,
And Daniel from marvellous torment
When he was caged within the lions' den;
And three children, all in a fire ardent:
Thy gracious Love to me be here present.
In Thy Mercy, if it please Thee, consent
That my nephew Rollant I may avenge.
When he had prayed, upon his feet he stepped,
With the strong mark of virtue signed his head;
Upon his swift charger the King mounted
While Jozerans and Neimes his stirrup held;
He took his shield, his trenchant spear he kept;
Fine limbs he had, both gallant and well set;
Clear was his face and filled with good intent.
Vigorously he cantered onward thence.
In front, in rear, they sounded their trumpets,
Above them all boomed the olifant again.
Then all the Franks for pity of Rollant wept.
CCXXVII
That Emperour canters in noble array,
Over his sark all of his beard displays;
For love of him, all others do the same,
Five score thousand Franks are thereby made plain.
They pass those peaks, those rocks and those mountains,
Those terrible narrows, and those deep vales,
Then issue from the passes and the wastes
Till they are come into the March of Spain;
A halt they've made, in th'middle of a plain.
To Baligant his vanguard comes again
A Sulian hath told him his message:
"We have seen Charles, that haughty sovereign;
Fierce are his men, they have no mind to fail.
Arm yourself then: Battle you'll have to-day."
Says Baligant: "Mine is great vassalage;
Let horns this news to my pagans proclaim."
CCXXVIII
Through all the host they have their drums sounded,
And their bugles, and, very clear trumpets.
Pagans dismount, that they may arm themselves.
Their admiral will stay no longer then;
Puts on a sark, embroidered in the hems,
Laces his helm, that is with gold begemmed;
After, his sword on his left side he's set,
Out of his pride a name for it he's spelt
Like to Carlun's, as he has heard it said,
So Preciuse he bad his own be clept;
Twas their ensign when they to battle went,
His chevaliers'; he gave that cry to them.
His own broad shield he hangs upon his neck,
(Round its gold boss a band of crystal went,
The strap of it was a good silken web;)
He grasps his spear, the which he calls Maltet; --
So great its shaft as is a stout cudgel,
Beneath its steel alone, a mule had bent;
On his charger is Baligant mounted,
Marcules, from over seas, his stirrup held.
That warrior, with a great stride he stepped,
Small were his thighs, his ribs of wide extent,
Great was his breast, and finely fashioned,
With shoulders broad and very clear aspect;
Proud was his face, his hair was ringleted,
White as a flow'r in summer was his head.
His vassalage had often been proved.
God! what a knight, were he a Christian yet!
His horse he's spurred, the clear blood issued;
He's gallopped on, over a ditch he's leapt,
Full fifty feet a man might mark its breadth.
Pagans cry out: "Our Marches shall be held;
There is no Frank, may once with him contest,
Will he or nill, his life he'll soon have spent.
Charles is mad, that he departs not hence."
AOI.
That admiral to a baron's like enough,
White is his beard as flowers by summer burnt;
In his own laws, of wisdom hath he much;
And in battle he's proud and arduous.
His son Malprimes is very chivalrous,
He's great and strong; -- his ancestors were thus.
Says to his sire: "To canter then let us!
I marvel much that soon we'll see Carlun."
Says Baligant: " Yea, for he's very pruff;
In many tales honour to him is done;
He hath no more Rollant, his sister's son,
He'll have no strength to stay in fight with us."
AOI.
"Fair son Malprimes," then says t'him Baligant,
"Was slain yestreen the good vassal Rollanz,
And Oliver, the proof and valiant,
The dozen peers, whom Charles so cherished, and
Twenty thousand more Frankish combatants.
For all the rest I'ld not unglove my hand.
But the Emperour is verily come back,
-- So tells me now my man, that Sulian --
Ten great columns he's set them in their ranks;
He's a proof man who sounds that olifant,
With a clear call he rallies his comrades;
These at the head come cantering in advance,
Also with them are fifteen thousand Franks,
Young bachelors, whom Charles calls Infants;
As many again come following that band,
Who will lay on with utmost arrogance."
Then says Malprimes: "The first blow I demand."
AOI.
"Fair son Malprimes," says Baligant to him,
"I grant it you, as you have asked me this;
Against the Franks go now, and smite them quick.
And take with you Torleu, the Persian king
And Dapamort, another king Leutish.
Their arrogance if you can humble it,
Of my domains a slice to you I'll give
From Cheriant unto the Vale Marquis."
"I thank you, Sire!" Malprimes answers him;
Going before, he takes delivery;
'Tis of that land, was held by king Flurit.
After that hour he never looked on it,
Investiture gat never, nor seizin.
CCXXXII
That admiral canters among his hosts;
After, his son with's great body follows,
Torleus the king, and the king Dapamort;
Thirty columns most speedily they form.
They've chevaliers in marvellous great force;
Fifty thousand the smallest column holds.
The first is raised of men from Butenrot,
The next, after, Micenes, whose heads are gross;
Along their backs, above their spinal bones,
As they were hogs, great bristles on them grow.
The third is raised from Nubles and from Blos;
The fourth is raised from Bruns and Esclavoz;
The fifth is raised from Sorbres and from Sorz;
The sixth is raised from Ermines and from Mors;
The seventh is the men of Jericho;
Negroes are the eighth; the ninth are men of Gros;
The tenth is raised from Balide the stronghold,
That is a tribe no goodwill ever shews.
That admiral hath sworn, the way he knows,
By Mahumet, his virtues and his bones:
"Charles of France is mad to canter so;
Battle he'll have, unless he take him home;
No more he'll wear on's head that crown of gold."
CCXXXIII
Ten great columns they marshal thereafter;
Of Canelious, right ugly, is the first,
Who from Val-Fuit came across country there;
The next's of Turks; of Persians is the third;
The fourth is raised of desperate Pinceners,
The fifth is raised from Soltras and Avers;
The sixth is from Ormaleus and Eugez;
The seventh is the tribe of Samuel;
The eighth is from Bruise; the ninth from Esclavers;
The tenth is from Occiant, the desert,
That is a tribe, do not the Lord God serve,
Of such felons you never else have heard;
Hard is their hide, as though it iron were,
Wherefore of helm or hauberk they've no care;
In the battle they're felon murderers.
AOI.
That admiral ten columns more reviews;
The first is raised of Giants from Malpruse;
The next of Huns; the third a Hungar crew;
And from Baldise the Long the fourth have trooped;
The fifth is raised of men from Val-Penuse;
The sixth is raised of tribesmen from Maruse;
The seventh is from Leus and Astrimunes;
The eighth from Argoilles; the ninth is from Clarbune;
The tenth is raised of beardsmen from Val-Frunde,
That is a tribe, no love of God e'er knew.
Gesta Francor' these thirty columns prove.
Great are the hosts, their horns come sounding through.
Pagans canter as men of valour should.
AOI.
That admiral hath great possessions;
He makes them bear before him his dragon,
And their standard, Tervagan's and Mahom's,
And his image, Apollin the felon.
Ten Canelious canter in the environs,
And very loud the cry out this sermon:
"Let who would from our gods have garrison,
Serve them and pray with great affliction."
Pagans awhile their heads and faces on
Their breasts abase, their polished helmets doff.
And the Franks say: "Now shall you die, gluttons;
This day shall bring you vile confusion!
Give warranty, our God, unto Carlon!
And in his name this victory be won!"
AOI.
That admiral hath wisdom great indeed;
His son to him and those two kings calls he:
My lords barons, beforehand canter ye,
All my columns together shall you lead;
But of the best I'll keep beside me three:
One is of Turks; the next of Ormaleis;
And the third is the Giants of Malpreis.
And Occiant's, they'll also stay with me,
Until with Charles and with the Franks they meet.
That Emperour, if he combat with me,
Must lose his head, cut from his shoulders clean;
He may be sure naught else for him's decreed.
AOI.
Great are the hosts, and all the columns fair,
No peak nor vale nor cliff between them there,
Thicket nor wood, nor ambush anywhere;
Across the plain they see each other well.
Says Baligant: "My pagan tribes adverse,
Battle to seek, canter ye now ahead!"
Carries the ensign Amboires of Oluferne;
Pagans cry out, by Preciuse they swear.
And the Franks say: "Great hurt this day you'll get!"
And very loud "Monjoie!" they cry again.
That Emperour has bid them sound trumpets;
And the olifant sounds over all its knell.
The pagans say: "Carlun's people are fair.
Battle we'll have, bitter and keenly set."
AOI.
Great is that plain, and wide is that country;
Their helmets shine with golden jewellery,
Also their sarks embroidered and their shields,
And the ensigns fixed on all their burnished spears.
The trumpets sound, their voice is very clear,
And the olifant its echoing music speaks.
Then the admiral, his brother calleth he,
'Tis Canabeus, the king of Floredee,
Who holds the land unto the Vale Sevree;
He's shewn to him Carlun's ten companies:
"The pride of France, renowned land, you see.
That Emperour canters right haughtily,
His bearded men are with him in the rear;
Over their sarks they have thrown out their beards
Which are as white as driven snows that freeze.
Strike us they will with lances and with spears:
Battle with them we'll have, prolonged and keen;
Never has man beheld such armies meet."
Further than one might cast a rod that's peeled
Goes Baligant before his companies.
His reason then he's shewn to them, and speaks:
"Pagans, come on; for now I take the field."
His spear in hand he brandishes and wields,
Towards Carlun has turned the point of steel.
AOI.
Charles the Great, when he sees the admiral
And the dragon, his ensign and standard; --
(In such great strength are mustered those Arabs
Of that country they've covered every part
Save only that whereon the Emperour was.)
The King of France in a loud voice has called:
"Barons and Franks, good vassals are ye all,
Ye in the field have fought so great combats;
See the pagans; they're felons and cowards,
No pennyworth is there in all their laws.
Though they've great hosts, my lords, what matters that?
Let him go hence, who'ld fail me in the attack."
Next with both spurs he's gored his horse's flanks,
And Tencendor has made four bounds thereat.
Then say the Franks: "This King's a good vassal.
Canter, brave lord, for none of us holds back."
CCXL
Clear is the day, and the sun radiant;
The hosts are fair, the companies are grand.
The first columns are come now hand to hand.
The count Rabel and the count Guinemans
Let fall the reins on their swift horses' backs,
Spurring in haste; then on rush all the Franks,
And go to strike, each with his trenchant lance.
AOI.
That count Rabel, he was a hardy knight,
He pricked his horse with spurs of gold so fine,
The Persian king, Torleu, he went to strike.
Nor shield nor sark could such a blow abide;
The golden spear his carcass passed inside;
Flung down upon a little bush, he died.
Then say the Franks: "Lord God, be Thou our Guide!
Charles we must not fail; his cause is right."
AOI.
And Guineman tilts with the king Leutice;
Has broken all the flowers on his shield,
Next of his sark he has undone the seam,
All his ensign thrust through the carcass clean,
So flings him dead, let any laugh or weep.
Upon that blow, the Franks cry out with heat:
"Strike on, baron, nor slacken in your speed!
Charle's in the right against the pagan breed;
God sent us here his justice to complete."
AOI.
Pure white the horse whereon Malprimes sate;
Guided his corse amid the press of Franks,
Hour in, hour out, great blows he struck them back,
And, ever, dead one upon others packed.
Before them all has cried out Baligant:
"Barons, long time I've fed you at my hand.
Ye see my son, who goes on Carlun's track,
And with his arms so many lords attacks;
Better vassal than him I'll not demand.
Go, succour him, each with his trenchant lance!"
Upon that word the pagans all advance;
Grim blows they strike, the slaughter's very grand.
And marvellous and weighty the combat:
Before nor since was never such attack.
AOI.
Great are the hosts; the companies in pride
Come touching, all the breadth of either side;
And the pagans do marvellously strike.
So many shafts, by God! in pieces lie
And crumpled shields, and sarks with mail untwined!
So spattered all the earth there would you find
That through the field the grass so green and fine
With men's life-blood is all vermilion dyed.
That admiral rallies once more his tribe:
"Barons, strike on, shatter the Christian line."
Now very keen and lasting is the fight,
As never was, before or since that time;
The finish none shall reach, unless he die.
AOI.
That admiral to all his race appeals:
"Pagans, strike on; came you not therefore here?
I promise you noble women and dear,
I promise you honours and lands and fiefs."
Answer pagans: "We must do well indeed."
With mighty blows they shatter all their spears;
Five score thousand swords from their scabbards leap,
Slaughter then, grim and sorrowful, you'd seen.
Battle he saw, that stood those hosts between.
AOI.
That Emperour calls on his Franks and speaks:
"I love you, lords, in whom I well believe;
So many great battles you've fought for me,
Kings overthrown, and kingdoms have redeemed!
Guerdon I owe, I know it well indeed;
My lands, my wealth, my body are yours to keep.
For sons, for heirs, for brothers wreak
Who in Rencesvals were slaughtered yester-eve!
Mine is the right, ye know, gainst pagan breeds."
Answer the Franks: "Sire, 'tis the truth you speak."
Twenty thousand beside him Charles leads,
Who with one voice have sworn him fealty;
In straits of death they never will him leave.
There is not one thenceforth employs his spear,
But with their swords they strike in company.
The battle is straitened marvellously.
AOI.
Across that field the bold Malprimes canters;
Who of the Franks hath wrought there much great damage.
Naimes the Duke right haughtily regards him,
And goes to strike him, like a man of valour,
And of his shield breaks all the upper margin,
Tears both the sides of his embroidered ha'berk,
Through the carcass thrusts all his yellow banner;
So dead among sev'n hundred else he casts him.
CCXLVIII
King Canabeus, brother of the admiral,
Has pricked his horse with spurs in either flank;
He's drawn his sword, whose hilt is of crystal,
And strikes Naimun on's helmet principal;
Away from it he's broken off one half,
Five of the links his brand of steel hath knapped;
No pennyworth the hood is after that;
Right to the flesh he slices through the cap;
One piece of it he's flung upon the land.
Great was the blow; the Duke, amazed thereat,
Had fallen ev'n, but aid from God he had;
His charger's neck he clasped with both his hands.
Had the pagan but once renewed the attack,
Then was he slain, that noble old vassal.
Came there to him, with succour, Charles of France.
AOI.
Keen anguish then he suffers, that Duke Naimes,
And the pagan, to strike him, hotly hastens.
"Culvert," says Charles, "You'll get now as you gave him!"
With vassalage he goes to strike that pagan,
Shatters his shield, against his heart he breaks it,
Tears the chin-guard above his hauberk mailed;
So flings him dead: his saddle shall be wasted.
CCL
Bitter great grief has Charlemagne the King,
Who Duke Naimun before him sees lying,
On the green grass all his clear blood shedding.
Then the Emperour to him this counsel gives:
"Fair master Naimes, canter with me to win!
The glutton's dead, that had you straitly pinned;
Through his carcass my spear I thrust once in."
Answers the Duke: "Sire, I believe it, this.
Great proof you'll have of valour, if I live."
They 'ngage them then, true love and faith swearing;
A thousand score of Franks surround them still.
Nor is there one, but slaughters, strikes and kills.
AOI.
Then through the field cantered that admiral,
Going to strike the county Guineman;
Against his heart his argent shield he cracked,
The folds of his hauberk apart he slashed,
Two of his ribs out of his side he hacked,
So flung him dead, while still his charger ran.
After, he slew Gebuin and Lorain,
Richard the old, the lord of those Normans.
"Preciuse," cry pagans, "is valiant!
Baron, strike on; here have we our warrant!"
AOI.
Who then had seen those Arrabit chevaliers,
From Occiant, from Argoille and from Bascle!
And well they strike and slaughter with their lances;
But Franks, to escape they think it no great matter;
On either side dead men to the earth fall crashing.
Till even-tide 'tis very strong, that battle;
Barons of France do suffer much great damage,
Grief shall be there ere the two hosts be scattered.
AOI.
Right well they strike, both Franks and Arrabies,
Breaking the shafts of all their burnished spears.
Whoso had seen that shattering of shields,
Whoso had heard those shining hauberks creak,
And heard those shields on iron helmets beat,
Whoso had seen fall down those chevaliers,
And heard men groan, dying upon that field,
Some memory of bitter pains might keep.
That battle is most hard to endure, indeed.
And the admiral calls upon Apollin
And Tervagan and Mahum, prays and speaks:
"My lords and gods, I've done you much service;
Your images, in gold I'll fashion each;
Against Carlun give me your warranty!"
Comes before him his dear friend Gemalfin,
Evil the news he brings to him and speaks:
"Sir Baliganz, this day in shame you're steeped;
For you have lost your son, even Malprime;
And Canabeus, your brother, slain is he.
Fairly two Franks have got the victory;
That Emperour was one, as I have seen;
Great limbs he has, he's every way Marquis,
White is his beard as flowers in April."
That admiral has bent his head down deep,
And thereafter lowers his face and weeps,
Fain would he die at once, so great his grief;
He calls to him Jangleu from over sea.
AOI.
Says the admiral, "Jangleu, beside me stand!
For you are proof, and greatly understand,
Counsel from you I've ever sought to have.
How seems it you, of Arrabits and Franks,
Shall we from hence victorious go back?"
He answers him: "Slain are you, Baligant!
For from your gods you'll never have warrant.
So proud is Charles, his men so valiant,
Never saw I a race so combatant.
But call upon barons of Occiant,
Turks and Enfruns, Arrabits and Giants.
No more delay: what must be, take in hand."
CCLV
That admiral has shaken out his beard
That ev'n so white as thorn in blossom seems;
He'll no way hide, whateer his fate may be,
Then to his mouth he sets a trumpet clear,
And clearly sounds, so all the pagans hear.
Throughout the field rally his companies.
From Occiant, those men who bray and bleat,
And from Argoille, who, like dogs barking, speak;
Seek out the Franks with such a high folly,
Break through their line, the thickest press they meet
Dead from that shock they've seven thousand heaped.
CCLVI
The count Oger no cowardice e'er knew,
Better vassal hath not his sark indued.
He sees the Franks, their columns broken through,
So calls to him Duke Tierris, of Argune,
Count Jozeran, and Gefreid, of Anjou;
And to Carlun most proud his reason proves:
"Behold pagans, and how your men they slew!
Now from your head please God the crown remove
Unless you strike, and vengeance on them do!"
And not one word to answer him he knew;
They spurred in haste, their horses let run loose,
And, wheresoeer they met the pagans, strook.
AOI.
Now very well strikes the King Charlemagne,
Naimes the Duke, also Oger the Dane,
Geifreid d'Anjou, who that ensign displays.
Exceeding proof is Don Oger, the Dane;
He spurs his horse, and lets him run in haste,
So strikes that man who the dragon displays.
Both in the field before his feet he breaks
That king's ensign and dragon, both abased.
Baligant sees his gonfalon disgraced,
And Mahumet's standard thrown from its place;
That admiral at once perceives it plain,
That he is wrong, and right is Charlemain.
Pagan Arabs coyly themselves contain;
That Emperour calls on his Franks again:
"Say, barons, come, support me, in God's Name!"
Answer the Franks, "Question you make in vain;
All felon he that dares not exploits brave!"
AOI.
Passes that day, turns into vesper-tide.
Franks and pagans still with their swords do strike.
Brave vassals they, who brought those hosts to fight,
Never have they forgotten their ensigns;
That admiral still "Preciuse" doth cry,
Charles "Monjoie," renowned word of pride.
Each the other knows by his clear voice and high;
Amid the field they're both come into sight,
Then, as they go, great blows on either side
They with their spears on their round targes strike;
And shatter them, beneath their buckles wide;
And all the folds of their hauberks divide;
But bodies, no; wound them they never might.
Broken their girths, downwards their saddles slide;
Both those Kings fall, themselves aground do find;
Nimbly enough upon their feet they rise;
Most vassal-like they draw their swords outright.
From this battle they'll ne'er be turned aside
Nor make an end, without that one man die.
AOI.
A great vassal was Charles, of France the Douce;
That admiral no fear nor caution knew.
Those swords they had, bare from their sheaths they drew;
Many great blows on 's shield each gave and took;
The leather pierced, and doubled core of wood;
Down fell the nails, the buckles brake in two;
Still they struck on, bare in their sarks they stood.
From their bright helms the light shone forth anew.
Finish nor fail that battle never could
But one of them must in the wrong be proved.
AOI.
Says the admiral: "Nay, Charles, think, I beg,
And counsel take that t'wards me thou repent!
Thou'st slain my son, I know that very well;
Most wrongfully my land thou challengest;
Become my man, a fief from me thou'lt get;
Come, serving me, from here to the Orient!"
Charle answers him: "That were most vile offence;
No peace nor love may I to pagan lend.
Receive the Law that God to us presents,
Christianity, and then I'll love thee well;
Serve and believe the King Omnipotent!"
Says Baligant: "Evil sermon thou saist."
They go to strikewith th'swords, are on their belts.
AOI.
In the admiral is much great virtue found;
He strikes Carlun on his steel helm so brown,
Has broken it and rent, above his brow,
Through his thick hair the sword goes glancing round,
A great palm's breadth and more of flesh cuts out,
So that all bare the bone is, in that wound.
Charles tottereth, falls nearly to the ground;
God wills not he be slain or overpow'red.
Saint Gabriel once more to him comes down,
And questions him "Great King, what doest thou?"
CCLXII
Charles, hearing how that holy Angel spake,
Had fear of death no longer, nor dismay;
Remembrance and a fresh vigour he's gained.
So the admiral he strikes with France's blade,
His helmet breaks, whereon the jewels blaze,
Slices his head, to scatter all his brains,
And, down unto the white beard, all his face;
So he falls dead, recovers not again.
"Monjoie," cries Charles, that all may know the tale.
Upon that word is come to him Duke Naimes,
Holds Tencendur, bids mount that King so Great.
Pagans turn back, God wills not they remain.
And Franks have all their wish, be that what may.
CCLXIII
Pagans are fled, ev'n as the Lord God wills;
Chase them the Franks, and the Emperour therewith.
Says the King then: "My Lords, avenge your ills,
Unto your hearts' content, do what you will!.
For tears, this morn, I saw your eyes did spill."
Answer the Franks: "Sir, even so we will."
Then such great blows, as each may strike, he gives
That few escape, of those remain there still.
CCLXIV
Great was the heat, the dust arose and blew;
Still pagans fled, and hotly Franks pursued.
The chase endured from there to Sarraguce.
On her tower, high up clomb Bramimunde,
Around her there the clerks and canons stood
Of the false law, whom God ne'er loved nor knew;
Orders they'd none, nor were their heads tonsured.
And when she saw those Arrabits confused
Aloud she cried: "Give us your aid, Mahume!
Ah! Noble king, conquered are all our troops,
And the admiral to shameful slaughter put!"
When Marsile heard, towards the wall he looked,
Wept from his eyes, and all his body stooped,
So died of grief. With sins he's so corrupt;
The soul of him to Hell live devils took.
CCLXV
Pagans are slain; the rest are put to rout
Whom Charles hath in battle overpowered.
Of Sarraguce the gates he's battered down,
For well he knows there's no defence there now;
In come his men, he occupies that town;
And all that night they lie there in their pow'r.
Fierce is that King, with 's hoary beard, and proud,
And Bramimunde hath yielded up her towers;
But ten ere great, and lesser fifty around.
Great exploits his whom the Lord God endows!
CCLXVI
Passes the day, the darkness is grown deep,
But all the stars burn, and the moon shines clear.
And Sarraguce is in the Emperour's keep.
A thousand Franks he bids seek through the streets,
The synagogues and the mahumeries;
With iron malls and axes which they wield
They break the idols and all the imageries;
So there remain no fraud nor falsity.
That King fears God, and would do His service,
On water then Bishops their blessing speak,
And pagans bring into the baptistry.
If any Charles with contradiction meet
Then hanged or burned or slaughtered shall he be.
Five score thousand and more are thus redeemed,
Very Christians; save that alone the queen
To France the Douce goes in captivity;
By love the King will her conversion seek.
CCLXVII
Passes the night, the clear day opens now.
Of Sarraguce Charles garrisons the tow'rs;
A thousand knights he's left there, fighters stout;
Who guard that town as bids their Emperour.
After, the King and all his army mount,
And Bramimunde a prisoner is bound,
No harm to her, but only good he's vowed.
So are they come, with joy and gladness out,
They pass Nerbone by force and by vigour,
Come to Burdele, that city of high valour.
Above the altar, to Saint Sevrin endowed,
Stands the olifant, with golden pieces bound;
All the pilgrims may see it, who thither crowd.
Passing Girunde in great ships, there abound,
Ev'n unto Blaive he's brought his nephew down
And Oliver, his noble companioun,
And the Archbishop, who was so wise and proud.
In white coffers he bids them lay those counts
At Saint Romain: So rest they in that ground.
Franks them to God and to His Angels vow.
Charles canters on, by valleys and by mounts,
Not before Aix will he not make sojourn;
Canters so far, on th'terrace he dismounts.
When he is come into his lofty house,
By messengers he seeks his judges out;
Saxons, Baivers, Lotherencs and Frisouns,
Germans he calls, and also calls Borgounds;
From Normandy, from Brittany and Poitou,
And those in France that are the sagest found.
Thereon begins the cause of Gueneloun.
CCLXVIII
That Emperour, returning out of Spain,
Arrived in France, in his chief seat, at Aix,
Clomb to th' Palace, into the hall he came.
Was come to him there Alde, that fair dame;
Said to the King: "Where's Rollanz the Captain,
Who sware to me, he'ld have me for his mate?"
Then upon Charles a heavy sorrow weighed,
And his eyes wept, he tore his beard again:
"Sister, dear friend, of a dead man you spake.
I'll give you one far better in exchange,
That is Loewis, what further can I say;
He is my son, and shall my marches take."
Alde answered him: "That word to me is strange.
Never, please God, His Angels and His Saints,
When Rollant's dead shall I alive remain!"
Her colour fails, at th' feet of Charlemain,
She falls; she's dead. Her soul God's Mercy awaits!
Barons of France weep therefore and complain.
CCLXIX
Alde the fair is gone now to her rest.
Yet the King thought she was but swooning then,
Pity he had, our Emperour, and wept,
Took her in's hands, raised her from th'earth again;
On her shoulders her head still drooped and leant.
When Charles saw that she was truly dead
Four countesses at once he summoned;
To a monast'ry of nuns they bare her thence,
All night their watch until the dawn they held;
Before the altar her tomb was fashioned well;
Her memory the King with honour kept.
AOI.
That Emperour is now returned to Aix.
The felon Guene, all in his iron chains
Is in that town, before the King's Palace;
Those serfs have bound him, fast upon his stake,
In deer-hide thongs his hands they've helpless made,
With clubs and whips they trounce him well and baste:
He has deserved not any better fate;
In bitter grief his trial there he awaits.
CCLXXI
Written it is, and in an ancient geste
How Charles called from many lands his men,
Assembled them at Aix, in his Chapelle.
Holy that day, for some chief feast was held,
Saint Silvester's that baron's, many tell.
Thereon began the trial and defence
Of Guenelun, who had the treason spelt.
Before himself the Emperour has him led.
AOI.
"Lords and barons," Charles the King doth speak,
"Of Guenelun judge what the right may be!
He was in th'host, even in Spain with me;
There of my Franks a thousand score did steal,
And my nephew, whom never more you'll see,
And Oliver, in 's pride and courtesy,
And, wealth to gain, betrayed the dozen peers."
"Felon be I," said Guenes, "aught to conceal!
He did from me much gold and wealth forfeit,
Whence to destroy and slay him did I seek;
But treason, no; I vow there's not the least."
Answer the Franks: "Take counsel now must we."
CCLXXIII
So Guenelun, before the King there, stood;
Lusty his limbs, his face of gentle hue;
Were he loyal, right baron-like he'd looked.
He saw those Franks, and all who'ld judge his doom,
And by his side his thirty kinsmen knew.
After, he cried aloud; his voice was full:
"For th' Love of God, listen to me, baruns!
I was in th' host, beside our Emperour,
Service I did him there in faith and truth.
Hatred of me had Rollant, his nephew;
So he decreed death for me and dolour.
Message I bare to king Marsiliun;
By my cunning I held myself secure.
To that fighter Rollant my challenge threw,
To Oliver, and all their comrades too;
Charles heard that, and his noble baruns.
Vengeance I gat, but there's no treason proved."
Answered the Franks: "Now go we to the moot.
CCLXXIV
When Guenes sees, his great cause is beginning,
Thirty he has around him of his kinsmen,
There's one of them to whom the others listen,
'Tis Pinabel, who in Sorence castle liveth;
Well can he speak, soundly his reasons giving,
A good vassal, whose arm to fight is stiffened.
Says to him Guenes: "In you my faith is fixed.
Save me this day from death, also from prison."
Says Pinabel: "Straightway you'll be delivered.
Is there one Frank, that you to hang committeth?
Let the Emperour but once together bring us,
With my steel brand he shall be smartly chidden."
Guenes the count kneels at his feet to kiss them.
CCLXXV
To th' counsel go those of Bavier and Saxe,
Normans also, with Poitevins and Franks;
Enough there are of Tudese and Germans.
Those of Alverne the greatest court'sy have,
From Pinabel most quietly draw back.
Says each to each: "'Twere well to let it stand.
Leave we this cause, and of the King demand
That he cry quits with Guenes for this act;
With love and faith he'll serve him after that.
Since he is dead, no more ye'll see Rollanz,
Nor any wealth nor gold may win him back.
Most foolish then is he, would do combat."
There is but one agrees not to their plan;
Tierri, brother to Don Geifreit, 's that man.
AOI.
Then his barons, returning to Carlun,
Say to their King: "Sire, we beseech of you
That you cry quits with county Guenelun,
So he may serve you still in love and truth;
Nay let him live, so noble a man 's he proved.
Rollant is dead, no longer in our view,
Nor for no wealth may we his life renew."
Then says the King: "You're felons all of you!"
AOI.
When Charles saw that all of them did fail,
Deep down he bowed his head and all his face
For th' grief he had, caitiff himself proclaimed.
One of his knights, Tierris, before him came,
Gefrei's brother, that Duke of Anjou famed;
Lean were his limbs, and lengthy and delicate,
Black was his hair and somewhat brown his face;
Was not too small, and yet was hardly great;
And courteously to the Emperour he spake:
"Fair' Lord and King, do not yourself dismay!
You know that I have served you many ways:
By my ancestors should I this cause maintain.
And if Rollant was forfeited to Guenes
Still your service to him full warrant gave.
Felon is Guene, since th' hour that he betrayed,
And, towards you, is perjured and ashamed:
Wherefore I judge that he be hanged and slain,
His carcass flung to th' dogs beside the way,
As a felon who felony did make.
But, has he a friend that would dispute my claim
With this my sword which I have girt in place
My judgement will I warrant every way."
Answer the Franks: "Now very well you spake."
CCLXXVIII
Before the King is come now Pinabel;
Great is he, strong, vassalous and nimble;
Who bears his blow has no more time to dwell:
Says to him: "Sire, on you this cause depends;
Command therefore this noise be made an end.
See Tierri here, who hath his judgment dealt;
I cry him false, and will the cause contest."
His deer-hide glove in the King's hand he's left.
Says the Emperour: "Good pledges must I get."
Thirty kinsmen offer their loyal pledge.
"I'll do the same for you," the King has said;
Until the right be shewn, bids guard them well.
AOI.
When Tierri sees that battle shall come after,
His right hand glove he offereth to Chares.
That Emperour by way of hostage guards it;
Four benches then upon the place he marshals
Where sit them down champions of either party.
They're chos'n aright, as the others' judgement cast them;
Oger the Dane between them made the parley.
Next they demand their horses and their armour.
AOI.
For battle, now, ready you might them see,
They're well confessed, absolved, from sin set free;
Masses they've heard, Communion received,
Rich offerings to those minsters they leave.
Before Carlun now both the two appear:
They have their spurs, are fastened on their feet,
And, light and strong, their hauberks brightly gleam;
Upon their heads they've laced their helmets clear,
And girt on swords, with pure gold hilted each;
And from their necks hang down their quartered shields;
In their right hands they grasp their trenchant spears.
At last they mount on their swift coursing steeds.
Five score thousand chevaliers therefor weep,
For Rollant's sake pity for Tierri feel.
God knows full well which way the end shall be.
CCLXXXI
Down under Aix there is a pasture large
Which for the fight of th' two barons is marked.
Proof men are these, and of great vassalage,
And their horses, unwearied, gallop fast;
They spur them well, the reins aside they cast,
With virtue great, to strike each other, dart;
All of their shields shatter and rend apart.
Their hauberks tear; the girths asunder start,
The saddles slip, and fall upon the grass.
Five score thousand weep, who that sight regard.
AOI.
Upon the ground are fallen both the knights;
Nimbly enough upon their feet they rise.
Nimble and strong is Pinabels, and light.
Each the other seeks; horses are out of mind,
But with those swords whose hilts with gold are lined
Upon those helms of steel they beat and strike:
Great are the blows, those helmets to divide.
The chevaliers of France do much repine.
"O God!" says Charles, "Make plain to us the right!"
CCLXXXIII
Says Pinabel "Tierri, I pray thee, yield:
I'll be thy man, in love and fealty;
For the pleasure my wealth I'll give to thee;
But make the King with Guenelun agree."
Answers Tierri: "Such counsel's not for me.
Pure felon I, if e'er I that concede!
God shall this day the right shew, us between!"
AOI.
Then said Tierri "Bold art thou, Pinabel,
Thou'rt great and strong, with body finely bred;
For vassalage thy peers esteem thee well:
Of this battle let us now make an end!
With Charlemagne I soon will have thee friends;
To Guenelun such justice shall be dealt
Day shall not dawn but men of it will tell."
"Please the Lord God, not so!" said Pinabel.
"I would sustain the cause of my kindred
No mortal man is there from whom I've fled;
Rather I'ld die than hear reproaches said."
Then with their swords began to strike again
Upon those helms that were with gold begemmed
Into the sky the bright sparks rained and fell.
It cannot be that they be sundered,
Nor make an end, without one man be dead.
AOI.
He's very proof, Pinabel of Sorence,
Tierri he strikes, on 's helmet of Provence,
Leaps such a spark, the grass is kindled thence;
Of his steel brand the point he then presents,
On Tierri's brow the helmet has he wrenched
So down his face its broken halves descend;
And his right cheek in flowing blood is drenched;
And his hauberk, over his belly, rent.
God's his warrant, Who death from him prevents.
AOI.
Sees Tierris then 'that in the face he's struck,
On grassy field runs clear his flowing blood;
Strikes Pinabel on 's helmet brown and rough,
To the nose-piece he's broken it and cut,
And from his head scatters his brains in th' dust;
Brandishes him on th' sword, till dead he's flung.
Upon that blow is all the battle won.
Franks cry aloud: "God hath great virtue done.
It is proved right that Guenelun be hung.
And those his kin, that in his cause are come."
AOI.
Now that Tierris the battle fairly wins,
That Emperour Charles is come to him;
Forty barons are in his following.
Naimes the Duke, Oger that Danish Prince,
Geifrei d'Anjou, Willalme of Blaive therewith.
Tierri, the King takes in his arms to kiss;
And wipes his face with his great marten-skins;
He lays them down, and others then they bring;
The chevaliers most sweetly disarm him;
An Arab mule they've brought, whereon he sits.
With baronage and joy they bring him in.
They come to Aix, halt and dismount therein.
The punishment of the others then begins.
CCLXXXVIII
His counts and Dukes then calls to him Carlun:
"With these I guard, advise what shall be done.
Hither they came because of Guenelun;
For Pinabel, as pledges gave them up."
Answer the Franks: "Shall not of them live one."
The King commands his provost then, Basbrun:
"Go hang them all on th' tree of cursed wood!
Nay, by this beard, whose hairs are white enough,
If one escape, to death and shame thou'rt struck!"
He answers him: "How could I act, save thus?"
With an hundred serjeants by force they come;
Thirty of them there are, that straight are hung.
Who betrays man, himself and 's friends undoes.
AOI.
Then turned away the Baivers and Germans
And Poitevins and Bretons and Normans.
Fore all the rest, 'twas voted by the Franks
That Guenes die with marvellous great pangs;
So to lead forth four stallions they bade;
After, they bound his feet and both his hands;
Those steeds were swift, and of a temper mad;
Which, by their heads, led forward four sejeants
Towards a stream that flowed amid that land.
Sones fell Gue into perdition black;
All his sinews were strained until they snapped,
And all the limbs were from his body dragged.
On the green grass his clear blood gushed and ran.
Guenes is dead, a felon recreant.
Who betrays man, need make no boast of that.
CCXC
When the Emperour had made his whole vengeance,
He called to him the Bishops out of France,
Those of Baviere and also the Germans:
"A dame free-born lies captive in my hands,
So oft she's heard sermons and reprimands,
She would fear God, and christening demands.
Baptise her then, so God her soul may have."
They answer him: "Sponsors the rite demands,
Dames of estate and long inheritance."
The baths at Aix great companies attract;
There they baptised the Queen of Sarazands,
And found for her the name of Juliane.
Christian is she by very cognisance.
CCXCI
| i don't know |
Which small wildcat, native to Central and South America, is sometimes known as the 'Tree Ocelot' because of its skill in climbing? | SMALL WILD CAT SPECIES
SMALL WILD CAT SPECIES
Most people are relatively familiar with the big cats of the world (lion, tiger, puma, leopard, snow leopard jaguar, cheetah, lynx), but there are a large number of small wild cats, closer in size to our domestic cats.
CURRENT FELID CLASSIFICATION
There are 2 main schools of taxonomy - lumpers and splitters. In simplest terms, lumpers like to lump species together into fewer genera based on shared traits. Splitters like to split genera into multiple sub-genera or species (and species into sub-species) based on small differences. Until recently, classification was based on analysis of physical features to determine which species belonged where; with the pitfall of convergent evolution muddling the results. Recent DNA studies are giving a more precise picture of relatedness of species. As a result there are often several alternative taxonomies at genus, species and sub-species level! The following table is therefore a compromise.
GENUS
African Golden Cat
(Profelis/Catopuma aurata)
The African Golden cat is about twice the size of a domestic cat. It inhabits the tropical rainforests of equatorial Africa and has also been found in dry tropical forests and savannah grasslands. The African Golden Cat is heavily built with stocky, long-legs, large paws and a long, black-tipped tail. Its rounded heads appears small in relation to its body size. There are two colour forms: the red form (golden to rusty brown) and the grey form plus melanistic (black) forms. They can also be spotted or non-spotted. Spotting, where present, ranges from faded tan to heavy black in colour; the pattern of spotting varies between the two subspecies of African Golden Cat.. They prey on small mammals, small antelope, birds and will also take small monkeys and domestic poultry and livestock..
Andean Mountain Cat
(Oreailurus jacobita)
About the size of a domestic cat, the Andean Mountain Cat inhabits the high South American Andes Mountain range in Chile, Argentina, Peru, and Bolivia. Very little is known about their habits. They are found in the cold, dry and windy treeless terrain at very high altitudes (10,000 ft [3000 m] above sea level). The Andean Mountain Cat is silvery grey with darker grey ticking on its back and pale underparts. It has fine, very long hair forming a thick, soft coat. Its thick tail is banded with dark brown and its body has spots that run in diagonal lines; these are black on the legs, brown on the body, and orange on the back. It is believed to hunt chinchillas and viscachas and possibly small birds and reptiles.
Asian Golden Cat / Temminck's Golden Cat
(Profelis/Catopuma temmincki)
About twice the size of the domestic cat, Temminck's Golden Cat was once believed to be an ancestor (through hybridisation) of the Siamese cat. An agile climber, it inhabits tropical and sub-tropical forest and deciduous woodlands in southeast Asia. They are usually golden brown, greyish, or reddish brown with brown stripes on their cheeks and black markings on their foreheads; not all have spots. Melanistic (black) forms also occur; one was exhibited at Basle zoo in Switzerland. They are opportunistic feeders and eat muntjac, rats and snakes.
Black Footed Cat
(Felis nigripes)
One of the smallest cats (5 lb / 2.3 kg) with males being one third larger than females. They are found in semi-desert and arid brushland in southern Africa. As their name suggests, they have black markings on their paws and the soles of their feet. Their fur is yellowish brown with black bars extending across their shoulders, legs, and on their short tail. They eat small rodents, small reptiles, birds, eggs, invertebrates (spiders, insects) and carrion, but these aggressive and tenacious cats will attempt much larger prey. Its habit of eating carrion makes them vulnerable to poison bait laid for jackals.
Bobcat
(Lynx rufus)
An adaptable North American cat found in a variety of habitats and able to tolerate living near to humans. It is closely related to the Lynx, but only half the size and is considered more aggressive and harder to tame. It has been hybridised with domestic cats. Its black ear tufts and its ruff are less prominent than those of the Lynx and its short tail lacks a black tip. The colour ranges from light grey to reddish brown, though melanistic, albino (blue-eyed white) and leucistic (dark-eyed white) Bobcats have been found. It has black spots on the legs and black markings on the face (black-nosed Bobcats have been reported). Bobcats are opportunistic feeders taking small mammals (especially hare), birds, carrion and any almost other creature they can catch, including domestic poultry. Bobcat are killed and eaten by larger North American wild cats: Jaguar, Lynx and Puma. (Photo: Mindy Stinner, Conservators Center, Inc)
Bornean Bay Cat / Bay Cat
(Catopuma badia)
Found only on the small Indonesian island of Borneo where they inhabit limestone rock that borders forests and in the jungles. They resemble small Asian Golden Cats and have two colour forms: reddish brown and grey. The paler underparts have dark spots and the forehead and cheeks are marked with pale lines. Its teeth are also unusual, with the first upper premolar being reduced in size (in evolutionary terms, this tooth may be on its way to being lost). It is rarely seen and almost nothing is known of its habits. It probably feeds on small mammals, monkeys, birds and carrion.
Canadian Lynx / North American Lynx
(Lynx canadensis)
The Canadian Lynx inhabits forested regions of Canada and the more northern states of the USA. It is about half the size of the Eurasian Lynx and twice the size of a Bobcat. It has a huge ruff and characteristic black ear tufts, long legs, large paws and a short black-tipped tail. The coat is reddish, tipped with white and it may have ghost spotting. A pale grey, almost white, form also occurs and is known as the Blue Lynx. It preys almost exclusively on Showshoe Hare and suffers population crashes when the Showshoe Hare's population periodically drops. Although it will supplement its diet with small rodents, red deer and ptarmigan, it appears to be too highly specialised to switch to alternative prey when Snowshoe Hare populations are in decline.
Caracal / Desert Lynx
Caracal (Photo: Mindy Stinner, Conservators Center, Inc)
Caracal (Photo: Mindy Stinner, Conservators Center, Inc)
The caracal ranges throughout sub-Saharan Africa and the Arabian peninsula. They are found in arid country i.e. woodland, savannah, steppes and acacia scrub, but not in rainforest or desert. Its most prominent feature is its long (2 inch) black ear tufts. It is smaller than a Lynx and has short, reddish-brown fur with no markings. Melanistic (black) forms occur. A greyish form occurs in Israel. It is slender with a short tail (longer than the Lynx) and no ruff. Its diet includes birds, small mammals and antelope fawns. They will jump to catch birds and will take small livestock such as goats. They are agile climbers and have been known to take their prey up a tree to avoid it being stolen. They can be tamed and trained to chase and catch prey. In captivity, they have been hybridised with Servals (creating Caravals and Servicals) for the pet market and there is one documented case of hybridisation with a domestic cat.
Chinese Mountain Cat / Chinese Desert Cat
(Felis bieti)
Approximately the size of a domestic cat, the Chinese Mountain Cat inhabits the steppe and mountain regions of south-western China and north-eastern Mongolia. It was formerly called the Chinese Desert Cat, but does not occur in the desert; the confusion was due to misidentification of Asian wildcats (Felis sylvestris ornata) as Chinese Desert Cats. It has thick, dense yellowish-brown fur with darker fur on its back and a black-tipped tail ringed with dark bands. It has furry paw-pads and short ear-tufts. Little is known of its habits in the wild. It seems to be solitary, living in burrows and appears to rely on hearing for locating prey. It hunts small mammals, especially mole rats and pika, and birds. It is believed to be closely related to the Jungle Cat (Felis chaus) and the Wild cat (Felis silvestris), but it is not known if it will interbreed with domestic cats.
Clouded Leopard
(Neofelis nebulosa)
The Clouded Leopard is not a small cat, but the smallest of the big cats and different enough from other cats to have its own genus. It inhabits tropical rainforests in lower altitudes of southeast Asia and is arboreal. It has the body size and shape of a small cat, but the teeth and skull structure of a big cat. It is long-bodied and stocky with short legs, large paws and a thick, long tail almost as long as its body. It has a rounded head with a long muzzle. Clouded Leopards are brownish to rich gold in colour, marked with huge, dark blotches, hence the name "clouded" (the Latin name means "fogged"). The face has dark spots with two black bands running across their cheeks. The ears are short and rounded. Unusually for a cat, the pupil of the eye is oblong rather than slitted or rounded. They have the longest canine teeth relative to body size of any living cat with a large gap between the canines and premolars to enable them to take large bits out of their prey. It is an opportunistic feeder, taking monkeys, orang-utans, deer, wild pigs and fish. Prey is ambushed; the Clouded Leopard hangs from trees by its hind legs falls on it. On the ground, its short legs make it rather clumsy.
Norway lynx at Rothschild Zoological Museum
Siberian Lynx (Photo: Mindy Stinner, Conservators Center, Inc)
The Eurasian lynx inhabits forest and scrubland regions of western Europe, Scandinavia, Russia, Mongolia, Manchuria, Iran, Iraq, and Asia minor. They used to be more widespread and conservationists want to reintroduce it to France, Switzerland and Italy (a move opposed by livestock farmers). It is about twice the size of the Canadian/North American lynx. It is yellowish brown to a reddish grey, with black spots and black markings on the face and paler underbelly. It has a large ruff, long black ear-tufts, large feet and a short black-tipped tail. Eurasian Lynx from colder regions are only lightly spotted; those from other regions have lighter spotting in winter. It takes a wider range of prey than the Canadian Lynx: rabbits, hares, deer and reindeer and will also take livestock. In regions where the main prey is Arctic Hare, their populations fluctuate due to fluctuations in prey availability.
Fishing Cat
(Prionailurus viverrinus)
The Fishing Cat occurs in India, China, Vietnam, Thailand, Sumatra and Java, inhabiting areas where there are fresh-water streams and rivers, usually those covered by reeds, swamps, mangroves and marsh. It resembles the Civet, hence the name "viverrina" and is a sturdily built, strong-looking powerful cat with a short broad muzzle, strong jaws, very small rounded ears, rounded head and thick neck. They have short, sturdy legs, a short thick tail and heavy-set body. The front toes are webbed and the front claws do not fully retract; adaptations to catching fish. It is greyish-brown with black bars running along their neck and face, and dark brown spots in rows on their body. It eats mostly fish, but will take frogs, crustaceans, birds, small mammals and carrion. It generally fishes from the shore, scooping the fish out, but will dive for fish. They have a reputation for ferocity (a large male escaped from its cage and killed the leopard in an adjacent cage) and have been blamed for carrying off babies. They have been kept as pets and are currently being hybridised with domestic cats to create the Machbagral and Viverral
Flat Headed Cat
(Prionailurus planiceps)
The uncommon Flat-Headed Cat (left)inhabits low-lying tropical forest and scrubland of the Malay peninsula, Indonesia, Sumatra and Borneo, in areas near water. It has a broad, flat head with very small low-set ears (similar to the Manul/Pallas's Cat). It has very large eyes, short legs and a short thick tail. It is reddish-brown, with white underparts, and has thick, soft fur. The flanks and belly are brown-spotted. Two white stripes run from the sides of the nose towards the forehead. Young Flat-headed Cats are more greyish, turning reddish-brown at about a year old. Flat headed Cats cannot fully retract their claws. They also have unusual teeth - all their teeth are pointed, not just the canines. They mostly eat fish, frogs and water animals (the teeth, claws and general shape being adaptations for this), but will take domestic poultry, eat fruit and unearth roots. Very little is known of their habits.
Geoffroy's Cat
(Oncifelis geoffroyi) (Right)
The Geoffrey's cat lives in wooded and scrub regions of Bolivia, Argentina, southern Brazil and Paraguay in South America. It is a little larger than a domestic cat and is golden yellow with black spots all over. The face is marked with black bars running from the corner of the eyes and mouth to the ears, and vertically on the forehead. Melanistic individuals have been reported. Geoffroy's Cat has relatively large eyes set low on the face, making its head look wider than it really is. It hunts small birds, lizards, insects and rodents. Geoffroy's Cats are arboreal, hunting and sleeping in trees. They can be tamed and have been crossed with domestic cats to create the Safari breed, a large, spotted wild/domestic hybrid. Some Geoffroy's Cats found in the vicinity of humans are reported to be hybrids with domestic farm cats.
Iberian Lynx / Spanish Lynx
(Lynx pardinus) (LEFT)
The Iberian, or Spanish, Lynx inhabits wooded areas of the mountains in southwest Spain. There are scattered populations in Portugal. It resembles the Eurasian Lynx, but is about half the size, lighter in colour and has more noticeable spots. In common with other Lynx species, it has a ruff (sideburns), black ear tufts, wide fet and a short, black-tipped tail. It preys mostly on rabbits and hares, but will take fallow deer fawns, ducks and fish. It is endangered due to catastrophic crashes of European hares and rabbits through introduced diseases.
Iriomote Cat
(Prionailurus bengalensis iriomotensis)
Discovered in 1967, the Iriomote cat is found on the 113 square mile (292 sq km) Iriomote Island of Japan, south of Japan and just east of Taiwan. It inhabits a wide variety of habitats on the island, ranging from wooded mountainous areas to open country, and even beaches. It is similar in size to a domestic cat. It is built low (for moving through underbrush), with dark brown with horizontally aligned rows of darker brown spots, small rounded ears and a dark-ringed thick, bushy tail. Its claws do not fully retract and it has slightly webbed feet; unsurprisingly it swims well and can catch fish. It relies mainly on sight for hunting and as well as fish, it takes birds, rodents, fruit bats, reptiles, amphibians and crabs. It is preyed upon by venomous snakes. . It was originally considered a subspecies of Leopard Cat in common with the Tsushima Cat found in the same area. It shares structural similarities with the Marbled cat and the Golden Cats, skull similarities with the Leopard Cat and some similarities with the big cats. It has not yet been established whether it is a separate species.
Jaguarundi
(Herpailurus yaguarondi)
The Jaguarundi ranges from the coast of Mexico, throughout Central America, northwest Argentina, Peru and Paraguay with a small population as far north as Texas, USA. They inhabit lowland areas: swamp, forest and scrub and avoid the open countryside. Its name is from the German for weasel-cat, referring to their otter-like appearance. The Jaguarundi has an almost round head, small semi-circular ears, round eye pupils and short muzzle. It has a long body, short stocky legs and long, slender tail. The fur is short and sleek, ranging from greyish to reddish brown. It is unspotted. There are two colour phase: the greyish phase was known as the Jaguarundi, while the reddish phase was known as the Eyra and believed to be a separate species. The round eye pupils suggest common ancestry with big cats. It mainly hunts during the day and takes small mammals and birds (including domestic poultry), supplementing its diet with fruit. Despite its low-slung build it is an agile cat; it is mostly terrestrial but will climb trees. For centuries, they have been tamed and kept as pets by native South Americans, when content they will purr and chirrup. It is currently in decline, possibly due to habitat loss or because they frequently prey on poultry.
Jungle Cat / Swamp Cat / Reed Cat
(Felis chaus)
A little large than the domestic cat, the Jungle Cat is found in the jungles and swamps of Egypt, around the Russian Caspian Sea, Afghanistan and parts of Asia and southeast China. Northern Jungle Cats are greyish-brown, while southern races are a tawny colour. They have ticked fur with barred markings on the face and legs and dark-tipped ears. They prey on small mammals, including hares and deer fawns, snakes, frogs and large birds such as pheasants. They can leap high in the air to snatch birds taking off and were trained by ancient Egyptians to hunt water fowl. Their similarity of colour and markings to Abyssinians has led some to believe they hybridised with F silvestris lybica during the evolution of domestic cats. In more recent times they have been hybridised with domestic cats to create the Chausie breed and with European Wild Cats to create the Euro-Chaus, an exotic pet. (Photo: Mindy Stinner, Conservators Center, Inc).
Kodkod
(Oncifelis guigna)
The rare Kodkod occurs in small numbers in the in the countryside and wooded areas in Patagonia and Chile, South America and is the smallest of the New World cats. It is smaller than the domestic cat, greyish brown with dense black spots that often merge into stripes, especially on its tail and back. It is largely arboreal and has large claws and feet for climbing. Its short, thick tail is ringed with black. Melanistic Kodkods are also found. It hunts small mammals, small reptiles and birds and will take domestic poultry. The Patagonian/Southern Chilian subspecies lacks spotted feet and is more drab than the Central Chilean form.
Leopard Cat
(Prionailurus bengalensis)
The Leopard Cat inhabits the forests and plains of the Indian subcontinent, Malay peninsula, Philippines, Indonesia and there are small populations in China. It is similar in size to the domestic cat, but has longer legs. It ranges from pale yellow, to golden yellow, reddish or greyish yellow and has large, solid, black spots and blotches over the entire body; the spots on the neck and back often join up into short stripes. Their under belly and underside of their face is white. Pink-eyed albino Leopard cats also occur (photographed 2002, by Musa Kiana, Chelmsford, UK). They prey on small mammals including small deer, birds, reptiles, fish and domestic poultry. They have been hybridised to create the popular Bengal breed and the Amur subspecies ("Amur Forest Cat") of Russia is believed to have hybridised naturally, giving rise to the Ussuri domestic breed (itself very rare due to breeding with other domestic varieties).
Tsushima Cat (subspecies)
The Tsushima Cat is a recently identified subspecies of Leopard Cat. It lives in forests on the mountains of Tsushima, a small island between Japan and Korea. It is considered to be the same subspecies as the Manchurian subspecies of Leopard Cat, except just a little darker in coloration.
Marbled Cat
(Pardofelis marmorata)
The Marbled Cat inhabits the forests of southeast Asia, from northern India, Malay peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo. They resemble the Clouded Leopard, having thick soft fur with a similar clouded pattern. The background colour is golden, the large spots fade off to one side. Like the Clouded Leopard, they have very long canine teeth. Though the head resembles that of small cats, it is closely related to the big cats. Little is known about the marbled Cat's habits. They are probably mainly arboreal (deduced from their short legs, long thick tail and structure of the feet), preying on squirrels, fruit bats, birds, reptiles and frogs.
Margay
(Leopardus wiedii)
The Margay inhabits tropical rainforests in Mexico, Central America, and South America east of the Andes mountains. They resemble small Ocelots, having large black spots on a golden background, but are only half the size. The Margay has a short rounded head, very large eyes and a very long tail to provide balance. Their are arboreal and can rotate their ankles around 180� in order to descend trees head first (most cats must descend backwards). They prey on rodents, monkeys, lizards, birds and tree frogs. They breed poorly in captivity, but this has not stopped them from being popular exotic pets and they have been hybridised with domestic cats to create the "Bristol" breed (now extinct). They have also been hybridised with Ocelots, creating "Marlots".
Ocelot
(Leopardus pardalis)
The Ocelot inhabits the forests and scrublands of Mexico, Central America, and northeastern South America. They range from light yellow, to gold, reddish grey or greyish gold with black spots and stripes along their sides and face, and rosettes on their back. They are twice the size of the similar-looking Margay and prey on deer, peccaries (forest pigs), monkeys, snakes, and small rodents. They have been hybridised with Margays in captivity to create "Marlots" and there is a documented case of several litters of Ocelot-Puma hybrids in captivity. There have been unsuccessful attempts to create Ocelot/domestic hybrids.
Ocelots at Amazon World, Isle of Wight
Oncilla / Tiger Cat / Little Spotted Cat
(Leopardus tigrinus)
The Little Spotted Cat/Oncilla inhabits wooded regions of Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana, Colombia, Peru, Paraguay, Ecuador and Uraguay, but is rare throughout its range. It is generally smaller than the domestic cat, with larger males reaching only 6 lb (2.8 kg). They are the smallest of the three cats in the genus Leopardus, the other members being the Ocelot and Margay. They have thick, soft fur that is a yellow ochre colour with black blotchy spots, black-ringed tail and paler facial markings. Melanistic (all-black) forms are relatively common. They prey on small animals like birds and rodents. Although diminutive, they are highly aggressive. Oncillas have been kept as exotic pets and have been crossed with domestic Abyssinian cats in captivity; the hybrids were not developed into a breed.
Pallas' Cat / Manul
(Otocolobus manul)
Pallas' cat inhabits the rocky steppes of the Caspian Sea area, Iran, China, Russia, Mongolia, Tibet, and Kazakhstan. It is about the size of an average domestic cat. Their resemblance to grey-tabby Persian Longhairs meant they were once wrongly believed to be the ancestors of Persian cats. Pallas' Cat has a very short broad head, very small round low-set ears, large yellow eyes and a heavy-set body on stocky legs. They have the longest coat of any species of wild cat; this is greyish with white tips to the hairs. They have small black spots over their body and head, and two black bars on the sides of their face. Pallas' Cats prey on pikas, marmots and small mammals, relying on sight to locate prey. They fall prey to toxoplasmosis contracted from their prey and poison used to control pikas. There are reports of Manul hybridising with domestic cats, but none have been authenticated.
Pampas Cat
(Oncifelis colocolo)
The Pampas Cat ranges along the south-western (but not coastal) area of Chile, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia, Argentina and Patagonia in South America. They are found in grasslands (pampas), forests and high altitude regions. They have broad faces, pointed ears, long hair, a small mane down their backs and bushy tails. When frightened, they fluff up their manes and tails to make themselves look larger. There are three main colour forms, these being found in different parts of the pampas Cat's range. The silvery-grey form has reddish bands running over its legs and body; this also produces some melanistic individuals. The red form has black bands on the legs. The paler tan form has spots on the back and stripes on the legs. They prey on guinea pigs and ground dwelling birds and will take poultry. Little is known about their habits and they are reported to be aggressive and not amenable to taming.
Rusty Spotted Cat
(Prionailurus rubignosus)
The rusty spotted cat inhabits the forests and mountains of Sri Lanka and the scrublands of India. It is one of the smallest felids, being similar in size to the Black-Footed Cat. As its name suggests, it is rusty coloured. It has dark brown spots on the back and rusty coloured spots on the paler underparts. The head is rounded with huge eyes and small ovular ears set obliquely on the top of their head. It is long-bodied with short legs and a very long, thick tail. It is believed to prey on mice, rats and birds and can be found around human habitations. If taken young enough, they can make good house cats. They are reported to hybridise with domestic cats around villages, but this has not been authenticated.
Sand Cat
(Felis margarita)
The Sand Cat inhabits the arid regions in the Middle East. There are five distinct populations: two in the Sahara desert of northern Africa, one in southern Saudi Arabia, one around the Caspian Sea in Russia, and one in Pakistan. It is a very small, short-legged cat with a very large wide head, and huge low-set ears. The dense soft fur ranges from sandy to light grey, with bands of dark brown to black around the leg, dark mascara lines and black tabby markings on the face and body. The pads of the feet are thickly furred to protect against hot sands. It is nocturnal and its large ears, which aid cooling, enable it to locate prey. Prey includes jerboas, lizards, rabbits and birds. They are adapted to getting most of their water requirements from their prey. They are preyed upon by venomous snakes, birds of prey, wild dogs and humans (for sport, for pets and for pelts). The encroachment of humans and domestic cats and dogs further endangers them.
Serval
(Leptailurus serval)
The Serval inhabits the plains and forests of Algeria and Morocco, central and southern Africa (excluding the southern-most tip and the rainforest belt in central Africa). It has a relatively small head with huge rounded ears set on top of the head and almost touching each other at their bases. The tail is very short. They are yellow-buff in colour with black markings all over; the markings comprise bars on the chest and legs, spots on the body, and tabby stripes on the face. It is sometimes called the Poor Man's Cheetah as it is long-legged, small-headed and similar in colour. Servals in the grasslands have larger spots than those from forest regions. A colour form peppered with numerous small spots is known as the Servaline and was once believed to be a separate species. Melanistic (all-black) servals are found at higher elevations and on the borders of rainforests. White servals exist in captivity; these are white or creamy colored, often with a lilac tint, with normal and pale spots. Servals rely on their keen hearing to locate prey such as small rodents, birds, young antelope, and lizards and make spectacular pounces. Servals are preyed on by leopards, dogs and humans. In captivity they have been crossed with Caracals to create Caravals and Servicals as exotic hybrid pets. They are hybridised with domestic cats to create the Savannah breed; in addition to black-spotted golden hybrids, breeders also replicate the melanistic and albino forms by using appropriately coloured domestic cats in the breeding programme.
| Margay |
In the TV show 'South Park', the boys' classmate 'Leopold Stotch', often the butt of many jokes and pranks, is better known by what one word nickname? | Mammals of Costa Rica
Sloth by Adrian Hepworth
Before man hunted them to extinction, there were many more mammal species. Even today all large- and many small-mammal populations are subject to extreme pressure from hunting or habitat destruction, and it is only recently that large-mammal populations in the national parks are beginning to recover.
Early morning and late afternoon are the best times for wildlife viewing, particularly around water holes (the dry regions of Guanacaste offer prime locations).
Anteaters
Anteaters are common in lowland and middle-elevation habitats throughout Costa Rica. Anteaters are purists and subsist solely on a diet of ants and termites, plus a few unavoidable bits of dirt. There is no doubt about what the best tool is for the job--a long tongue with zillions of microscopic spines. The anteater's toothless jaw is one long tube. When it feeds using its powerful forearms and claws to rip open ant and termite nests, its thong of a tongue flicks in and out of its tiny mouth, running deep into the galleries. Each time it withdraws, it brings with it a load of ants, which are scraped off inside the tunnel of its mouth and swallowed, ground down by small quantities of sand and gravel in its stomach.
The most commonly seen of Costa Rica's three anteater species is the tree-dwelling lesser anteater (or tamandua locally), a beautiful creature with a prehensile tail and the gold-and-black coloration of a panda bear. It can grow to 1.5 meters and weigh up to eight kilograms. One of my fondest memories is seeing a tamandua climbing down a tree in Santa Rosa National Park. When it saw me, it climbed back up again!
The giant anteater, with its huge, bushy tail and astonishingly long proboscis, is now restricted to the less sparsely forested areas of the Osa Peninsula. It can grow to two meters long and when threatened rears itself on its hind legs and slashes wildly with its claws. It also raises its tail over its head. Even machetes cannot cut through the tough bristles; thus the fearsome critter is revered among campesinos for its magical abilities.
At night you may with luck see the strictly arboreal, cat-sized silky anteater, which can hang from its strong prehensile tail.
Bats
The most numerous mammals by far are the bats, found throughout Costa Rica. You may easily come across them slumbering by day halfway up a tree or roosting in a shed. In true Dracula fashion, most bats are lunarphobic: they avoid the bright light. On nights one week before and after the full moon, they suspend foraging completely and stay in their roosts while the moon is at its peak, probably for fear of owls.
Many bat species--like the giant Jamaican fruit bat (murciélago frútero), with a wingspan of more than 50 cm--are frugivores (fruit eaters) or insectivores, and quite harmless. The Jamaican bat favors figs, taken on the wing.
The vampire bats (Ticos call them vampiros)--which belong to the Neotropics, not Transylvania--are a different matter: they inflict an estimated $100 million of damage on domestic farm animals throughout Central and South America by transmitting rabies and other diseases. The vampire bat's modus operandi is almost as frightening as the stuff of Bram Stoker's Dracula. It lands on or close to a sleeping mammal, such as a cow. Using its two razor-sharp incisors, it then punctures the unsuspecting beast and, with the aid of an anticoagulant saliva, merrily squats beside the wound and laps up the blood while it flows. They're pretty much harmless to humans.
The most interesting of bats, however, and one easily seen in Tortuguero, is the fishing bulldog bat (murciélago pescador), with its huge wingspan (up to 60 cm across) and great gaff-shaped claws with which it hooks fish. It fishes by sonar. Skimming the water surface it is able to detect slight ripples ahead. The bat then drops its hooked feet at just the right moment and--presto!--supper.
Cats
Costa Rica boasts six endangered members of the cat family. All are active by day and night, but are rarely seen. Although they are legally protected and spotted cat trophies cannot be imported into the U.S., hunting of cats still occurs in Costa Rica. However, the main threat to the remaining populations is deforestation.
One of the rarest cats is the jaguarundi (called león breñero locally), a dark-brown or tawny critter about the size of a large house cat. It has a long, slender body, short stocky legs, and a venal face with yellow eyes suggesting a nasty temperament. Pumas (león) also inhabit a variety of terrains, though they are rarely seen. This large cat--also called the "mountain lion"--is generally dun-colored, though coloration varies markedly among individuals and from region to region.
The spotted cats include the cute-looking, house-cat-sized margay (caucel), which has a special joint that permits it to rotate its foot backwards, and its smaller cousin, the oncilla. Both wear an ocher coat spotted with black and brown spots, like tiny leopards. Their chests are white. The most commonly seen cat is the exquisitely spotted ocelot (manigordo), their larger cousin, which is well-distributed throughout the country and among various habitats; it grows to the size of a large dog.
Image © Bob Race
Worshiped as a god in pre-Columbian civilizations, the jaguar is the symbol of the Central American jungle. Panthera onca (or tigre to locals) was once abundant in the dense forests, coastal mangroves, and lowland savannas of Central America. Today this magnificent and noble beast is an endangered species, rare except in parts of the larger reserves: Santa Rosa, Tortuguero, and Corcovado National Parks, the Río Macho Forest Reserve, and lower levels of the Cordillera Talamanca. In recent years, fortunately, jaguar sightings have been more common, suggesting that better preservation of their habitat is paying dividends.
While a few of the famous black "panther" variety exist, most Central American jaguars are a rich yellow, spotted with large black rosettes. Jaguars are the largest and most powerful of the American members of the cat family--a mature jaguar measures over two meters, stands 60 cm at the shoulders, and weighs up to 90 kg. The animal's head and shoulders are massive, the legs relatively short and thick. An adept climber and swimmer, the beast is a versatile hunter, at home in trees, on ground, and even in water. Not surprisingly, it feeds on a wide range of arboreal, terrestrial, and aquatic animals and is powerful enough to kill a full-grown cow.
Don't be surprised if you come across a jaguar's footprints alongside a mangrove islet or streambed in the gallery forest. Don't get your hopes up, however. You're not likely to see one prowling its territory or lying lazily by the riverbank (a favorite pastime), one paw dangling in the water, as it waits to flip out a passing fish or turtle.
Like all wild cats, jaguars are extremely shy, not particularly dangerous, and attack humans very rarely. When roads penetrate the primeval forest, the jaguar is among the first large mammals to disappear.
These splendid beasts are easily seen at the Las Pumas Zoo outside Cañas, where injured and orphaned cats are nursed back to health and/or prepared for a second life in the wild. Similarly, the Profelis Wildcat Center, near Dominical, welcomes tourists.
Deer
Yes, Costa Rica has two species of deer: the red brocket deer (called cabro de monte), which favors the rainforests, and the larger, more commonly seen white-tailed deer (venado), widely dispersed in habitats throughout the country, but especially Guanacaste. The former is slightly hump-backed and bronze. Males have single-prong horns. The latter--a smaller variant of its North American counterpart--varies from gray to red, normally with a white belly and a white dappled throat and face. Males have branched antlers.
Image © Ben Dwyer
Manatees
Anyone venturing to Tortuguero National Park or Gandoca-Manzanillo National Park will no doubt hope to see a West Indian manatee (manati). This herbivorous marine mammal has long been hunted for its flesh, which is supposedly tender and delicious, and for its very tough hide, once used for machine belts and high-pressure hoses. The heavily wrinkled beast looks like a tuskless walrus, with small round eyes, fleshy lips that hang over the sides of its mouth, and no hind limbs, just a large, flat, spatulate tail. Now endangered throughout their former range, these creatures once inhabited brackish rivers and lagoons along the whole coast of Central America's Caribbean shoreline. Today, only a few remain in the most southerly waters of the U.S. and isolated pockets of Central America. Tortuguero, where the animals are legally protected, has one of the few significant populations.
They are not easy to spot, for they lie submerged with only nostrils showing. Watch for rising bubbles in the water: manatees suffer from flatulence, a result of eating up to 45 kg of water hyacinths and other aquatic flora daily. The animals, sometimes called sea cows, can be huge, growing to four meters long and weighing as much as a ton. Good fortune may even provide an encounter with groups of manatees engaged in courtship ritual. Interestingly, the manatee is one of few species in which males engage in homosexual activity. Affectionate animals, they kiss each other, sometimes swim with linked flippers, and always make solicitous parents.
Monkeys
Costa Rica has four species of monkeys: the cebus (or capuchin), howler, spider, and squirrel. Along with approximately 50 other species, they belong to a group called New World monkeys, which evolved from a single simian group that appeared about 40 million years ago in Africa and Asia. Some of these early primates migrated to North America and then down the land bridge to Central and South America.
Though the North American monkeys gradually died out, their southern cousins flourished and evolved along lines that differ markedly from those of their ancestors in the Old World. While African and Asian monkeys have narrow noses with nostrils that point down (much like human noses), New World monkeys evolved broad, widely spaced nostrils. New World females, too, evolved a singular ability to bear twins. And, perhaps most important, some New World species--notably the cebus, howler, and spider monkeys--developed long prehensile tails for added purchase and balance in the high treetops.
They inhabit a wide range of habitats, from the rainforest canopy to the scrubby undergrowth of the dry forests, though each species occupies its own niche and the species seldom meet. Together, they are the liveliest and most vocal jungle tenants. Beyond the reach of most predators, they have little inhibition in announcing their presence with their roughhousing and howls, chatterings, and screeches. The sudden explosive roar of the howler monkey--a sound guaranteed to make your hair stand on end--is said to be the loudest sound in the animal kingdom.
The distinctive-looking capuchin, or white-faced monkey (mono cara blanca), is the smartest and most inquisitive of Central American simians. It derives its name from its black body and monklike white cowl. You've probably seen them dancing at the end of a tether at street fairs in Europe or South America--they're the little guys favored by organ grinders worldwide. Capuchins range widely throughout the wet lowland forests of the Caribbean coast and the deciduous dry forests of the Pacific Northwest below 1,500 meters. Two excellent places to see them are Santa Rosa and Manuel Antonio National Parks, where family troops are constantly on the prowl, foraging widely through the treetops and over the forest floor.
These opportunistic feeders are fun to watch as they search under logs and leaves or tear off bark as they seek out insects and small lizards soon after dawn and again in late afternoon. Capuchins also steal birds' eggs and nestlings. Some crafty coastal residents, not content with grubs and insect larvae, have developed a taste for oysters and other mollusks, which they break open on rocks. The frugal capuchin sometimes hoards his food for "rainy days." While their taste is eclectic, they are fussy eaters: they'll meticulously pick out grubs from fruit, which they test for ripeness by smelling and squeezing. And capuchins are not averse to crop raiding, especially corn, as the farmers of Guanacaste will attest.
Image © Bob Race
The howler (mono congo) is the most abundant as well as the largest of Central American monkeys (it can weigh up to five kg). It inhabits both lowland and montane forests throughout Costa Rica. Fortunately, it is less sensitive to habitat destruction than the spider monkey and can be found clinging precariously to existence in many relic patches of forest.
While howlers are not particularly aggressive, they sure sound it! The stentorian males greet each new day with reveille calls that seem more like the explosive roars of lions than those of small arboreal leaf-eaters. The hair-raising vocalizations can carry for almost a mile in even the densest of jungle. The males sing in chorus again at dusk (or whenever trespassers get too close) as a spacing mechanism to keep rivals at a safe distance. Their Pavarotti-like vocal abilities are due to unusually large larynxes and throats that inflate into resonating balloons. Females generally content themselves with loud wails and groans--usually to signal distress or call a straying infant. This noisy yet sedentary canopy browser feeds on leaves (64 percent of its diet) and fruit. Although capable of eating anything that grows, howlers are extremely selective feeders.
The smallest Costa Rican primate, the squirrel monkey (mono titi), grows to 25-35 cm, plus a tail up to 45 cm. It is restricted to the rainforests of the southern Pacific lowlands. Always on the go, day and night, they scurry about in the jungle understory and forest floor on all fours, where they are safe from raptor predators. Squirrels are more gregarious than most other monkeys; bands of 40 individuals or more are not uncommon. Like the larger capuchins, the golden-orange titi (with its face of white and black) is the arboreal goat of the forest. It will eat almost anything: fruits, insects, small lizards. In times of abundance (May-October), the two species have been known to forage together. When food is scarce they become rivals; the heftier capuchin invariably is the victor. The titi is an endangered species well on its way to extinction.
The large, loose-limbed spider monkey (mono colorado)--the supreme acrobat of the forest--was once the most widespread of the Central American monkeys. Unfortunately, they are very sensitive to human intrusion and are among the first primate species to decline with disturbance. The last few decades have brought significant destruction of spider monkey habitats, and land clearance and hunting (their flesh is said to be tasty) have greatly reduced spider monkey populations throughout much of their former range. If you inadvertently come across them you'll soon know it: they often rattle the branches and bark and screech loudly to demonstrate their fearlessness.
These copper-colored acrobats can attain a length of a meter and a half. They have evolved extreme specialization for a highly mobile arboreal lifestyle. Long slender limbs allow spider monkeys to make spectacular leaps. But the spider's greatest secret is its extraordinary prehensile tail, which is longer than the combined length of its head and body. The underside is ridged like a human fingertip for added grip at the end of treetop leaps (it is even sensitive enough for probing and picking). You might even see individuals hanging like ripe fruit by their tails.
Gregarious by night (they often bed down in heaps), by day they are among the most solitary of primates. The males stay aloof from the females. While the latter tend to their young, which they carry on their backs, the males are busy marking their territory with secretions from their chest glands.
Image © Bob Race
Peccaries
With luck you may come upon peccaries, but preferably at a distance. These wild pigs are notoriously fickle and potentially aggressive creatures whose presence in the rainforest may be betrayed by their pungent, musky odor and by the churned-up ground from their grubbing. Gregarious beasts, they forage in herds and make a fearsome noise if frightened or disturbed. Like most animals, they prefer to flee from human presence. Occasionally, however, an aggressive male may show his bravado by threatening to have a go at you, usually in a bluff charge. Rangers advise that you should climb a tree if threatened. The more common collared peccary (saino) is marked by an ocher-colored band of hair running from its shoulders down to its nose; the rest of its body is dark brown. The larger white-lipped peccary (cariblanco), which can grow to one meter long, is all black, or brown, with a white mustache or "beard."
Raccoons
Raccoons, familiar to North Americans, are present throughout Costa Rica, where they are frequently seen begging tidbits from diners at hotel restaurants. The northern raccoon (mapache to Ticos) is a smaller but otherwise identical cousin of the North American raccoon, and can be found widely in Costa Rica's lowlands, predominantly in moist areas. The white-faced animal is unmistakable with its bandit-like black mask, and its tail of alternating black and white hoops. Don't mistake this animal with its cousin, the darker-colored crab-eating raccoon, found only along the Pacific coast.
Photo by Adrian Hepworth
Another endearing and commonly seen mammal is the long-nosed coatimundi (called pizote locally), the most diurnal member of the raccoon family, found throughout the country. Coatis wear many coats, from yellow to deepest brown, though all are distinguished by faintly ringed tails, white-tipped black snouts, and panda-like eye-rings. The animal is at home both on the ground and in the treetops, where it can sometimes be spotted moving from tree to tree. (The name coatimundi refers specifically to lone coatis; the animals are usually gregarious critters and are often seen in packs.) The animal has a fascinating defense technique against predators. When attacked, it raises itself on its hind leg, thrusts its tail between its legs, and waves its tail in front of its face. The attacker goes for the tail, giving the coati a chance to rake the predator in the eyes with its sharp claws. Yow! I've had several coatimundis walk past me without blinking an eye on wilderness trails.
Another charming member of the raccoon family is the small and totally nocturnal kinkajou (known to Ticos as the martilla) with its large limpid eyes and velvet-soft coat of golden brown. It's a superb climber (it can hang by its prehensile tail) and spends most of its life feeding on fruit, honey, and insects in the treetops. By day it is very drowsy; if picked up, its first instinct is to cuddle against your chest, bury its head to avoid the light, and drop back off to sleep. It's smaller cousins are the much rarer, grayish, bug-eyed olingo, with its slightly ringed-tail; and the cacomistle (cacomistle or olingo), identified by its panda-like white spectacled eyes, and a bushy white tail ringed with black hoops. The two are easily confused, but the cacomistle has pointier ears.
Rodents
The agouti (guatusa to Ticos) is a brown, cat-size rodent related to the guinea pig. It inhabits the forests up to 6,500 feet elevation, and is often seen by day feeding on the forest floor on fruits and nuts (the wet-forest agoutis are darker than their chestnut colored dry-forest cousins). It looks like a giant tailless squirrel with the thin legs and tip-toeing gait of a deer, but it sounds like a small dog. They are solitary critters that mark their turf with musk. They form monogamous pairs and produce two or three litters a year.
Agoutis have long been favored for their meat and are voraciously hunted by humans. Their nocturnal cousin, the paca (called tepezcuintle by locals) also makes good eating--and can grow to a meter long and weigh 10 kg, three times larger than the agouti--and is favored by a wide variety of predators. It is brown with rows of white spots along its side. Both are easily captured because of the strong anal musks they use to scent their territories and because of their habit of running in circles but never leaving their home turf (pacas, at least, are intelligent enough to leap into water and stay submerged for a considerable time). If you disturb one in the forest, you may hear its high-pitched alarm bark before you see it.
Costa Rica also has five squirrel species, including the ubiquitous variegated squirrel (chiza or ardilla tricolor to locals), whose black, white, and red coloration varies in form. The brown and chestnut red-tailed squirrel (ardilla roja) is also common.
Costa Rica has about 40 species of rats, mice, and gophers.
Image © Erin Dwyer
Sloths
Ask anyone to compile a list of the world's strangest creatures and the sloth, a creature that moves with the grace and deliberation of a tai chi master, would be right up there with the duck-billed platypus. The sloth, which grows to the size of a medium-size dog, has a small head and flat face with snub nose, beady eyes, and seemingly rudimentary ears (its reputation for poor hearing is entirely incorrect). Its long, bony arms are well developed, with curving clawsthat hook over and grasp the branches from which it spends almost its entire life suspended upside down.
The arboreal beast, which is actually related to the anteater and armadillo, pays plenty of attention to personal hygiene, despite the fact that its shaggy fur harbors an algae unique to the beast and which make the sloth greenly inconspicuous--wonderful camouflage from prowling jaguars and keen-eyed eagles, its chief predators (the sloth also eats the algae). The sloth even has communities of moths that live in the depths of its fur and also feed on the algae.
Lulled by its relative treetop security, the sloth, says naturalist David Attenborough, "has sunken into an existence just short of complete torpor." The creature spends up to 18 hours daily sleeping curled up with its feet drawn close together and its head tucked between the forelimbs.
Costa Rica has two species of sloths: the three-fingered sloth (perezoso de tres dedos) and the nocturnal, relatively omnivoros Hoffman's two-fingered sloth (perezoso de dos dedos). You're more likely to see the three-fingered sloth, which is active by day. The animals are more commonly incorrectly called "three-toed" and "two-toed." In fact, both species have three toes.
At top speed a sloth can barely cover a mile in four hours. On the ground, it is even more awkward and crawls with great difficulty. In fact, there's a very good reason sloths move at a rate barely distinguishable from rigor mortis.
A sloth's digestion works as slowly as its other bodily functions. Its metabolic rate is half that of other animals of similar size, and food remains in its stomach for up to a week. Hence, it has evolved a large ruminant-like stomach and intestinal tract to process large quantities of relatively indigestible food. To compensate, it has sacrificed heavy muscle mass--and, hence, mobility--to maximize body size in proportion to weight. Thus, the sloth has evolved as a compromise between a creature large enough to store and process large quantities of food and one light enough to move about in trees without breaking the branches. Sloths need warm weather to synthesize food. During long spells of cold weather, the animals may literally starve to death.
When nature calls (about once a week), the animal descends to ground level, where it digs a small hole with its hind limbs. It then defecates into the depression, urinates, covers the broth with leaves, and returns much relieved to its arboreal life. During this 30-minute period, the female "sloth moths" have been busy laying their eggs on the sloth dung. When hatched, the larvae feed and pulpate on the feces. The newly emerged adults then fly off to seek a new sloth.
Sloths, which may live up to 20 years or longer, reach sexual maturity at three years, a relatively old age for mammals of their size. Females screech to draw males, which have a bare orange patch on their back with unique sexual markings. Females give birth once a year (the gestation period is about six months) and spend half their adult lives pregnant. Although female sloths are never separated by choice from their offspring, they are peculiarly unsentimental about their young: if a baby tumbles, its plaintive distress calls go unheeded. And when the juvenile reaches six months of age, the mother simply turns tail on her youngster, which inherits her "home range" of trees.
An easy way to find sloths is to look up into the green foliage of cecropia trees, which form one of the sloth's favorite food staples. More adventurous individuals might even be basking in the sunlight, feigning death halfway up a tree. The sloth's heavy fur coat provides excellent insulation against heat loss. Still, its body temperature drops almost to the temperature of its surroundings at night and, much like cold-blooded reptiles, the sloth needs to take in the sun's rays to bring its temperature to normal mammalian levels. The sight of a sloth languishing in open cecropia crowns is a heavenly vision to harpy eagles, which swoop in to snatch the torpid creature much like plucking ripe fruit.
To learn more, pay a visit to Aviarios del Caribe Sloth Refuge, near Cahuita.
Photo by Adrian Hepworth
Tapirs
Another symbol of the New World tropics is the strange-looking Baird's tapir (danta locally), a solitary, ground-living, plant-eating, forest-dwelling, ungainly mixture of elephant, rhinoceros, pig, and horse. The tapir uses its short, highly mobile proboscis--an evolutionary forerunner to the trunk of the elephant--for plucking leaves and shoveling them into its mouth. This endangered species is the largest indigenous terrestrial land mammal in Central America. Like its natural predator the jaguar, the tapir has suffered severely at the hands of man. The animal was once common in Costa Rica and ranged far and wide in the lowland swamps and forests. It was even present in the bamboo thickets up to 3,000 meters elevation in the Talamanca mountains. Hunters have brought it to the edge of extinction.
Today, tapirs are found only in national parks and reserves where hunting is restricted, with the greatest density in Corcovado National Park, which has a population of fewer than 300. They have learned to be wary of man, and few travelers have the privilege of sighting them in the wild. Tapirs live in dense forests and swamps and rely on concealment for defense. They are generally found wallowing up to their knees in swampy waters. In fact, tapirs are rarely seen far from water, to which they rush precipitously at the first sign of danger. The animals make conspicuous trails in the forest, and because tapirs maintain territories marked with dung or scent, they are easily tracked by dogs.
Weasels
Costa Rica boasts seven members of the weasel family. The most ubiquitous is the skunk (zorro in local parlance), one of the most commonly seen--and smelled--mammal species, of which Costa Rica has three species. The black striped hog-nosed skunk, with its bushy white tail and white stripe along its rump, will be familiar to North Americans. The smaller spotted skunk and hooded skunk are more rarely seen. Their defense is a disgusting scent sprayed at predators from an anal gland.
Costa Rica is also home to a badger-like animal called the grison, another skunk-like member of the weasel family that can weigh three kg (seven pounds) and is often seen hunting alone or in groups in lowland rainforest during the day. The grison is gray, with a white stripe running across its forehead and ears, white eye patches, and a black nose, chest, and legs. It looks like a cross between a badger and an otter. Meter-long otters (perro de agua, or water-dog, to locals) are commonly seen in lowland rivers, especially in Tortuguero.
Its cousin, the sleek, long-haired, chocolate-brown tayra (locals call it tolumuco--a meter-long giant of the weasel family--resembles a mix of grison and otter. It is often seen in highland habitats throughout Costa Rica. Weighing up to five kg, the tayra habitually preys on rodents but can make quick work of small deer. Keep an eye off the ground, too, particularly in Santa Rosa National Park, where tayras can sometimes be seen stalking squirrels in the crowns of deciduous trees with a motion so fluid they seem to move like snakes.
Other Mammals
The mostly nocturnal and near-blind nine-banded armadillo (cusuco), an armor-plated oddity, and one of only two of the 20 or so species of edentates found in Costa Rica, will be familiar to anyone from Texas. The animal can grow to almost one meter long. They are terrestrial dwellers that grub about on the forest floor, feeding on insects and fungi. The female lays a single egg that, remarkably, divides to produce identical triplets. Its smaller cousin, the naked-tailed armadillo is far less frequently seen.
The dog family is represented by the brown-gray coyote and nocturnal gray fox, both found mostly in the dry northwestern regions.
The marsupials--mammals whose embryonic offspring crawl from the birth canal and are reared in an external pouch--are represented by nine species of opossums, including the black-and-gray banded, long-legged, water opossum and the two-toned, short-legged common opossum (zorro pelón), a large rat-like critter with a dark brown body and tan underside, and a more lively disposition than normal--this opossum defends itself rather than feigning dead.
The blunt-nosed, short-spined, prehensile-tailed porcupine (puerco espín) is also present, though being nocturnal and arboreal is rarely seen. There are also two species of rabbits (conejos).
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Suprematism
Suprematism
Suprematism, the invention of Russian artist Kazimir Malevich, was one of the earliest and most radical developments in abstract art. Inspired by a desire to experiment with the language of abstract form, and to isolate art's barest essentials, its artists produced austere abstractions that seemed almost mystical. It was an important influence on Constructivism.
Cubism
Cubism
Cubism was developed by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque between 1907-1911, and it continued to be highly influential long after its decline. This classic phase has two stages: 'Analytic', in which forms seem to be 'analyzed' and fragmented; and 'Synthetic', in which pre-existing materials such as newspaper and wood veneer are collaged to the surface of the canvas.
Futurism
Futurism
Futurism was the most influential Italian avant-garde movement of the twentieth century. Dedicated to the modern age, it celebrated speed, movement, machinery and violence. At first influenced by Neo-Impressionism, and later by Cubism, some of its members were also drawn to mass culture and nontraditional forms of art.
Impressionism
Impressionism
A movement in painting that first surfaced in France in the 1860s, it sought new ways to describe effects of light and movement, often using rich colors. The Impressionists were drawn to modern life and often painted the city, but they also captured landscapes and scenes of middle-class leisure-taking in the suburbs.
Post-Impressionism
Post-Impressionism
Post-Impressionism refers to a number of styles that emerged in reaction to Impressionism in the 1880s. The movement encompassed Symbolism and Neo-Impressionism before ceding to Fauvism around 1905. Its artists turned away from effects of light and atmosphere to explore new avenues such as color theory and personal feeling, often using colors and forms in intense and expressive ways.
Symbolism
Symbolism
Symbolism is an artistic and literary movement that first emerged in France in the 1880s. In the visual arts it is often considered part of Post-Impressionism. It is characterized by an emphasis on the mystical, romantic and expressive, and often by the use of symbolic figures.
Art Nouveau
Art Nouveau
Art Nouveau was a movement that swept through the decorative arts and architecture in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Generating enthusiasts throughout Europe, it was aimed at modernizing design and escaping the eclectic historical styles that had previously been popular. It drew inspiration from both organic and geometric forms, evolving elegant designs that united flowing, natural forms with more angular contours.
Wassily Kandinsky
Wassily Kandinsky
A member of the German Expressionist group Der Blaue Reiter, and later a teacher at the Bauhaus, Kandinsky is best known for his pioneering breakthrough into expressive abstraction in 1913. His work prefigures that of the American Abstract Expressionists.
David Burliuk
David Burliuk
David Burliuk was a Russian Futurist poet and painter. He was responsible for intensifying the debate on the primary function of fine art, believing deeply in the power of art as a reforming social force.
Mikhail Larionov
Mikhail Larionov
Mikhail Larionov was a Russian avant-garde painter and the founder of Rayonism, the first movement that celebrated Russian abstract painting. Larionov was also a major promoter of Post-Impressionist and Neo-Primitive art during the early twentieth century, and helped widen the international appeal of artists like Matisse, Van Gogh, and Gauguin.
Primitive Art
Primitive Art
Nineteenth- and twentieth-century artists in the West were greatly influenced by art they deemed 'primitive' or 'naïve', made by tribal or non-Western cultures. Such art, ranging from African and Native American to naive depictions of the French peasantry, was thought to be less civilized and thus closer to raw aesthetic and spiritual experience.
Cubo-Futurism
Cubo-Futurism
Cubo-Futurism was a painting and sculpture movement associated with the Russian Futurists, who in the early part of the twentieth century adopted the teachings and styles of the Italian Futurists and combined them with the Parisian Cubism of Picasso and Braque. Among the more well-known artists associated with Cubo-Futurism are Alexander Archipenko, Wladimir Baranoff-Rossine, and Sonia Terk.
Marc Chagall
Marc Chagall
Marc Chagall was a Russian-born, Jewish-French artist that reached great popularity during the twentieth century. Although his art is associated with several movements, Chagall is commonly grouped in with the German Expressionists. Much of his early work was credited with synthesizing visual elements of Cubism, Symbolism and Fauvism.
Social Realism
Social Realism
Social Realism refers to a style of figurative art with social concerns - generally left-wing. Inspired in part by nineteenth-century Realism, it emerged in various forms in the twentieth century. Political radicalism prompted its emergence in 1930s America, while distaste for abstract art encouraged many in Europe to maintain the style into the 1950s.
Alfred H. Barr, Jr.
Alfred H. Barr, Jr.
Alfred H. Barr, Jr. was an American art historian, collector, and the first director of The Museum of Modern Art. Barr was very influential in MoMA's early years, arranging seminal exhibitions of works by Van Gogh, Léger, the Post-Impressionists and the Cubists.
Lyubov Popova
Lyubov Popova
Lyubov Popova was an eminent Russian avant-garde artist, painter, and designer. Her work was important for several modern styles, including Cubism, Suprematism, and Constructivism.
Alexander Rodchenko
Alexander Rodchenko
Aleksander Rodchenko was a Russian artist, sculptor, photographer, and graphic designer. Concerned with the need for analytical-documentary photo series, he often shot his subjects from odd angles - usually high above or below - to shock the viewer and to postpone recognition. He was one of the founders of Constructivism and Russian design; he was married to the artist Varvara Stepanova.
El Lissitzky
El Lissitzky
El Lissitzky was a Russian avant-garde painter, photographer, architect and designer. Along with his mentor Kazimir Malevich, Lissitzky helped found Suprematism. His art often employed the use of clean lines and simple geometric forms, and expressed a fascination with Jewish culture. Lissitzky was also a major influence on the Bauhaus school of artists and the Constructivist movement.
Ad Reinhardt
Ad Reinhardt
Ad Reinhardt was an American abstract artist whose monochromatic canvases show side-by-side rectangles painted in subtle variations of the same color. Very much part of the New York scene in the 1940s, he nonetheless scorned the label and gestural ethos of Abstract Expressionism.
Minimalism
Minimalism
Minimalism emerged as a movement in New York in the 1960s, its leading figures creating objects which blurred the boundaries between painting and sculpture, and were characterized by unitary, geometric forms and industrial materials. Emphasizing cool anonymity over the passionate expression of the previous generation of painters, the Minimalists attempted to avoid metaphorical associations, symbolism, and suggestions of spiritual transcendence.
Paul Cézanne
Paul Cézanne
Paul Cézanne was an influential French Post-Impressionist painter whose depictions of the natural world, based on internal geometric planes, paved the way for Cubism and later modern art movements.
Pablo Picasso
Pablo Picasso
Picasso dominated European painting in the first half of the last century, and remains perhaps the century's most important, prolifically inventive, and versatile artist. Alongside Georges Braque, he pioneered Cubism. He also made significant contributions to Surrealist painting and media such as collage, welded sculpture, and ceramics.
Henri Matisse
Henri Matisse
Henri Matisse was a French painter and sculptor who helped forge modern art. From his early Fauvist works to his late cutouts, he emphasized expansive fields of color, the expressive potential of gesture, and the sensuality inherent in art-making.
Fauvism
Fauvism
Fauvism was an early twentieth-century art movement founded by Henri Matisse and André Derain. Labeled as "wild beasts", Fauve artists favored vibrant colors and winding gestural strokes across the canvas.
Byzantine Art
Byzantine Art
Byzantine Art is a broad category that covers work made within the Byzantine Empire, from the fourth to the fifteenth centuries. Mosaics, icons, and panel paintings frequently include hieratic depictions of Christian figures and symbols, and make use of a flattened, elongated style.
Marcel Duchamp
Marcel Duchamp
The French artist Marcel Duchamp was an instrumental figure in the avant-garde art worlds of Paris and New York. Moving through Dada, Surrealism, readymades, sculpture, and installation, his work involves conceptual play and an implicit attack on bourgeois art sensibilities.
Paul Klee
Paul Klee
The Swiss-born painter Paul Klee worked in a variety of styles, including Expressionism, geometric abstraction, and collage. His most famous works have a mystical quality and make use of linear and pictorial symbols.
Constructivism
Constructivism
Russian Constructivism emerged with the Revolution of 1917 and sought a new approach to making objects, one which abolished the traditional concern with composition and replaced it with 'construction,' which called for a new attention to the technical character of materials. It was hoped that these inquiries would yield ideas for mass production. The movement was an important influence on geometric abstraction.
Conceptual Art
Conceptual Art
Conceptual art describes an influential movement that first emerged in the mid-1960s and prized ideas over the formal or visual components of traditional works of art. The artists often challenged old concepts such as beauty and quality; they also questioned the conventional means by which the public consumed art; and they rejected the conventional art object in favor of diverse mediums, ranging from maps and diagrams to texts and videos.
| Suprematism |
In 1999, which became the newest of the territories of Canada when it was officially separated from the vast Northern Territories? | Fine Art and Design: Suprematist
Fine Art and Design
Suprematist
Who was the leader of the Fauves and what were their painting goals?
Les Fauves were a short-lived and loose grouping of early 20th century Modern artists whose works emphasized painterly qualities, and the imaginative use of deep color over the representational values retained by Impressionism. Fauvists simplified lines, made the subject of the painting easy to read, exaggerated perspectives and an interesting prescient prediction of the Fauves was expressed in 1888 by Paul Gauguin to Paul Sérusier. The name was given, humorously and not as a compliment, to the group by art critic Louis Vauxcelles. The French word, "Fauves" means "wild beasts". Gustave Moreau was the movement's inspirational teacher; a professor at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, and a Symbolist painter he pushed his students to think outside of the lines of formality and to follow their visions.
When Picasso painted “Les Desmoiselles d’Avigon” he started a new style of art known as Cubism. What is the meaning of this painting?
Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907), a pivotal work in the development of modern art and in The Museum of Modern Art's permanent collection. Les Demoiselles d'Avignon means The Young Ladies of Avignon in English is a celebrated painting by Pablo Picasso that depicts five prostitutes in a brothel, in the Avignon Street of Barcelona. Picasso painted it in France, and completed it in the summer of 1907. The eye-catching painting is one of Picasso's most famous. It now hangs in the Museum of Modern Art in New York City.
Picasso created over one hundred sketches and studies in preparation for this work, one of the most important in the early development of Cubism. Within the narrative of early modern art, it is widely held as a seminal work. This painting was stylized from his trips to Africa and the unique wood carving he found there.
Who was the leader of Die Brucke and what were their goals?
Die Brücke (The Bridge) was a group of German expressionist artists formed in Dresden. The group was one of the seminal ones, which in due course had a major impact on the evolution of modern art in the 20th century and created the style of Expressionism.
The founding members of Die Brücke in 1905 were four Jugendstil architecture students: Fritz Bleyl (1880-1966), Erich Heckel (1883-1970), Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1880-1938) and Karl Schmidt-Rottluff. They met through the Königliche Technische Hochschule (technical university) of Dresden, where Kirchner and Bleyl began studying in 1901 and became close friends in their first term. They discussed art together and also studied nature, having a radical outlook in common. Kirchner continued studies in Munich 1903–1904, returning to Dresden in 1905 to complete his degree. The institution provided a wide range of studies in addition to architecture, such as freehand drawing, perspective drawing and the historical study of art.
Who was the leader or key figure of Der Blau Reiter and what were the goals of this group?
Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider) was a group of artists from the Neue Künstlervereinigung München secessioning in Munich, Germany. Der Blaue Reiter was a German movement lasting from 1911 to 1914, fundamental to Expressionism, along with Die Brücke which was founded the previous decade in 1905. Wassily Kandinsky, Franz Marc, August Macke, Alexej von Jawlensky, Marianne von Werefkin, Lyonel Feininger, Albert Bloch and others founded the group in response to the rejection of Kandinsky's painting Last Judgement from an exhibition. Der Blaue Reiter lacked a central artistic manifesto, but was centred around Kandinsky and Marc. Artists Gabriele Münter and Paul Klee were also involved.
The name of the movement comes from a painting by Kandinsky created in 1903 (see illustration). It is also claimed that the name could have derived from Marc's enthusiasm for horses and Kandinsky's love of the colour blue. For Kandinsky, blue is the colour of spirituality: the darker the blue, the more it awakens human desire for the eternal (see his 1911 book On the Spiritual in Art).
Within the group, artistic approaches and aims varied from artist to artist; however, the artists shared a common desire to express spiritual truths through their art. They believed in the promotion of modern art; the connection between visual art and music; the spiritual and symbolic associations of colour; and a spontaneous, intuitive approach to painting. Members were interested in European medieval art and primitivism, as well as the contemporary, non-figurative art scene in France. As a result of their encounters with cubist, fauvist and Rayonist ideas, they moved towards abstraction.
Modern art came to America with the Armory Show of 1913. Which painting in that exhibition was called ‘an explosion in a shingle factory’ by a reviewer? Who painted it?
In 1913 the International Exhibition of Modern Art opened at the Sixty-Ninth Regiment Armory in New York City. Art historian Milton Brown calls it "the most important single exhibition ever held in America." Prior to what became known as the Armory Show, contemporary art and artists had received little attention from the American public, and this exhibition brought curious onlookers in numbers previously unimaginable. Displayed were works by avant-garde European artists such as Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, and Marcel Duchamp, all of whose abstract work had been shown in Europe beginning in 1905, with the Fauviste exhibition (where Gertrude Stein and her brother began collecting modern art). A similar exhibition in London in 1910 had prompted Virginia Woolf to tie a fundamental shift in the world to the display of those paintings, claiming that "on or about December 1910 human character changed." Cubism, a style of painting that emphasized the underlying geometric forms of objects, shocked American viewers, many of whom thought that the artists were trying to conceal their own lack of artistic talent or were simply insane. Marcel Duchamp's Nude Descending a Staircase caused the greatest public furor, standing for all that was wrong in modern art in the eyes of its critics. It became a target of public ridicule, and parodies of the work appeared in newspapers and journals. As Brown puts it, "American critics were as unprepared for the European visitation as they were for an exhibition of art from Mars." An art critic for the New York Times thought the work resembled "an explosion in a shingle factory."
Who was the leader or key figure of Suprematism and what were the goals of this group?
Suprematism is an art movement focused on fundamental geometric forms (squares and circles) which formed in Russia in 1915-1916.
When Kasimir Malevich originated Suprematism in 1915 he was an established painter having exhibited in the Donkey’s Tail and The Blue Rider exhibitions of 1912 with cubo-futurists works. The proliferation of new artistic forms in painting, poetry and theatre as well as a revival of interest in the traditional folk art of Russia were a rich environment in which a Modernists culture was being born.
He created a Suprematist 'grammar' based on fundamental geometric forms; the square and the circle. Malevich exhibited his early experiments in Suprematist painting. The centrepiece of his show was the Black square on white, placed in what is called the red/beautiful corner in Russian Orthodox tradition ; the place of the main icon in a house.
Another important influence on Malevich were the ideas of Russian mystic-mathematician who wrote of
'a fourth dimension beyond the three to which our ordinary senses have access'.
Abstractions of egg-like figures or birds were the subjects of which artist’s sculptures?
Constantin brancusi simplified his works, such as in the Newborn. He reduced his subject to an ovoid suggesting an egg. The form also resembles a head with the concave depression as the mouth releasing its first cry and the narrow triangle as the nose. Yet the whole is so abstract that we are left with a sense of the elemental ower of the marble which seems
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The 2001 film 'A Beautiful Mind', starring Russell Crowe, told the true story of which brilliant but disturbed mathematician? | A Beautiful Mind (2001) - IMDb
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After John Nash , a brilliant but asocial mathematician, accepts secret work in cryptography, his life takes a turn for the nightmarish.
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Title: A Beautiful Mind (2001)
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Won 4 Oscars. Another 33 wins & 65 nominations. See more awards »
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Storyline
From the heights of notoriety to the depths of depravity, John Forbes Nash, Jr. experienced it all. A mathematical genius, he made an astonishing discovery early in his career and stood on the brink of international acclaim. But the handsome and arrogant Nash soon found himself on a painful and harrowing journey of self-discovery. After many years of struggle, he eventually triumphed over his tragedy, and finally - late in life - received the Nobel Prize. Written by Universal Pictures and DreamWorks Pictures
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Taglines:
The Only Thing Greater Than the Power of the Mind is the Courage of the Heart See more »
Genres:
Rated PG-13 for intense thematic material, sexual content and a scene of violence | See all certifications »
Parents Guide:
4 January 2002 (USA) See more »
Also Known As:
Una mente brillante See more »
Filming Locations:
$2,501,096 (USA) (21 December 2001)
Gross:
Did You Know?
Trivia
John Nash is the co-inventor (independently from the Danish mathematician Piet Hein) of the strategy game Hex. This was caused by his frustration after he was defeated at Go, and he wanted to create a "perfect" game. The scenes where he does that were shot but then deleted from the final cut, and can be found in the DVD extras or online. See more »
Goofs
The light switch on the wall in the Nash house is of a modern design. See more »
Quotes
[first lines]
Helinger : Mathematicians won the war. Mathematicians broke the Japanese codes... and built the A-bomb. Mathematicians... like you. The stated goal of the Soviets is global Communism. In medicine or economics, in technology or space, battle lines are being drawn. To triumph, we need results. Publishable, applicable results. Now who among you will be the next Morse? The next Einstein? Who among you will be the vanguard of democracy, freedom, and discovery? Today, we bequeath America's future ...
– See all my reviews
I think its a good idea to know as little as possible about this movie before seeing it. Now that I've seen it, the commercials on television seem to be giving away too much. With that in mind DO NOT READ THIS IF YOU HAVEN'T SEEN IT!
Its a hard movie to pinpoint. Its not like any other movie I've ever seen, in that a character exists that is not real. John Nash's mind is the reality of the movie and its not until the movie is half over that you realize this and its jarring that you've been taken on a ride with this man's illness, and accepted it as the real world. Its also a very heartbreaking thing.
From the middle point, John and you see the world differently because he starts to receive treatment.
Russell Crowe does not overdo it for a minute and turns in his customary brilliant performance. Would not surprise me at all if he were to win his second Best Actor Oscar in March 2002. He really is that good.
Just as good but with less screen time is the beautiful and beautifully talent Jennifer Connelly, who the world may finally get to see in a mainstream movie. Her chemistry with Crowe is vital to the movie and neither of them disappoint the audience at all in that respect.
I enjoyed it immensely and felt like I had seen a movie when it was over. I was shown a person at their best and the worse and everything in between, by a masterful actor at the top of his game.
I am sure Ron Howard deserves a lot of credit that he won't get, too.
182 of 227 people found this review helpful. Was this review helpful to you?
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| John Forbes Nash, Jr. |
In June 2011, Ayman al-Zawahiri was appointed as the new leader of which organisation? | A Beautiful Mind Movie Review (2001) | Roger Ebert
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The Nobel Prize winner John Forbes Nash Jr. still teaches at Princeton, and walks to campus every day. That these commonplace statements nearly brought tears to my eyes suggests the power of "A Beautiful Mind," the story of a man who is one of the greatest mathematicians, and a victim of schizophrenia. Nash's discoveries in game theory have an impact on our lives every day. He also believed for a time that Russians were sending him coded messages on the front page of the New York Times.
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"A Beautiful Mind" stars Russell Crowe as Nash, and Jennifer Connelly as his wife, Alicia, who is pregnant with their child when the first symptoms of his disease become apparent. It tells the story of a man whose mind was of enormous service to humanity while at the same time betrayed him with frightening delusions. Crowe brings the character to life by sidestepping sensationalism and building with small behavioral details. He shows a man who descends into madness and then, unexpectedly, regains the ability to function in the academic world. Nash has been compared to Newton, Mendel and Darwin, but was also for many years just a man muttering to himself in the corner.
Director Ron Howard is able to suggest a core of goodness in Nash that inspired his wife and others to stand by him, to keep hope and, in her words in his darkest hour, "to believe that something extraordinary is possible." The movie's Nash begins as a quiet but cocky young man with a West Virginia accent, who gradually turns into a tortured, secretive paranoid who believes he is a spy being trailed by government agents. Crowe, who has an uncanny ability to modify his look to fit a role, always seems convincing as a man who ages 47 years during the film.
The early Nash, seen at Princeton in the late 1940s, calmly tells a scholarship winner "there is not a single seminal idea on either of your papers." When he loses at a game of Go, he explains: "I had the first move. My play was perfect. The game is flawed." He is aware of his impact on others ("I don't much like people and they don't much like me") and recalls that his first-grade teacher said he was "born with two helpings of brain and a half-helping of heart." It is Alicia who helps him find the heart. She is a graduate student when they meet, is attracted to his genius, is touched by his loneliness, is able to accept his idea of courtship when he informs her, "Ritual requires we proceed with a number of platonic activities before we have sex." To the degree that he can be touched, she touches him, although often he seems trapped inside himself; Sylvia Nasar , who wrote the 1998 biography that informs Akiva Goldsman's screenplay, begins her book by quoting Wordsworth about "a man forever voyaging through strange seas of Thought, alone." Nash's schizophrenia takes a literal, visual form. He believes he is being pursued by a federal agent ( Ed Harris ), and imagines himself in chase scenes that seem inspired by 1940s crime movies. He begins to find patterns where no patterns exist. One night he and Alicia stand under the sky and he asks her to name any object, and then connects stars to draw it. Romantic, but it's not so romantic when she discovers his office thickly papered with countless bits torn from newspapers and magazines and connected by frantic lines into imaginary patterns.
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The movie traces his treatment by an understanding psychiatrist ( Christopher Plummer ), and his agonizing courses of insulin shock therapy. Medication helps him improve somewhat--but only, of course, when he takes the medication. Eventually newer drugs are more effective, and he begins a tentative re-entry into the academic world at Princeton.
The movie fascinated me about the life of this man, and I sought more information, finding that for many years he was a recluse, wandering the campus, talking to no one, drinking coffee, smoking cigarettes, paging through piles of newspapers and magazines. And then one day he paid a quite ordinary compliment to a colleague about his daughter, and it was noticed that Nash seemed better.
There is a remarkable scene in the movie when a representative for the Nobel committee ( Austin Pendleton ) comes visiting, and hints that he is being "considered" for the prize. Nash observes that people are usually informed they have won, not that they are being considered: "You came here to find out if I am crazy and would screw everything up if I won." He did win, and did not screw everything up.
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The movies have a way of pushing mental illness into corners. It is grotesque, sensational, cute, funny, willful, tragic or perverse. Here it is simply a disease, which renders life almost but not quite impossible for Nash and his wife, before he becomes one of the lucky ones to pull out of the downward spiral.
When he won the Nobel, Nash was asked to write about his life, and he was honest enough to say his recovery is "not entirely a matter of joy." He observes: "Without his 'madness,' Zarathustra would necessarily have been only another of the millions or billions of human individuals who have lived and then been forgotten." Without his madness, would Nash have also lived and then been forgotten? Did his ability to penetrate the most difficult reaches of mathematical thought somehow come with a price attached? The movie does not know and cannot say.
(Note: For Nash's autobiographical statement, go to www.nobel.se/economics/laureates/1994/nash-autobio.html)
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Geoffrey Rush won an Academy Award for his portrayal of which Australian pianist in the 1996 film 'Shine'? | Geoffrey Rush | Australian actor | Britannica.com
Australian actor
Alternative Title: Geoffrey Roy Rush
Geoffrey Rush
Geoffrey Rush, in full Geoffrey Roy Rush (born July 6, 1951, Toowoomba , Queensland, Australia ), Australian film and theatre actor who deployed his craggy features and sly wit to memorable effect, particularly as villainous or unbalanced characters.
Geoffrey Rush, 2010.
Krista Kennell—Sipa Press/AP
Rush was raised in a suburb of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. In 1968 he joined a theatre troupe attached to the University of Queensland in Brisbane and enrolled at the university the next year. He was recruited by the Queensland Theatre Company (QTC) in 1971 and debuted in their production of Wrong Side of the Moon. He graduated with a bachelor’s degree in English in 1972, and, after a stint with QTC, enrolled in a directing course in London and a mime school in Paris. Upon returning to Australia in 1977, Rush resumed his relationship with QTC.
Rush made his film debut as a detective in the crime thriller Hoodwink in 1981, but he remained primarily a theatre actor for the next decade. He appeared in productions of A Midsummer Night’s Dream (1982, 1983), Twelfth Night (1984), and King Lear (1988) for Lighthouse (now called the State Theatre Company of South Australia) in Adelaide. In 1988 he toured Victoria state as Jack Worthing in the Melbourne Theatre Company’s production of The Importance of Being Earnest; he reprised the role for a national tour and a further production (1990–91, 1992). Rush was also acclaimed for his performances in Diary of a Madman (1989), an adaptation of a Nikolay Gogol short story staged by the Belvoir Street Theatre, and Oleanna (1993), for the Sydney Theatre Company.
Rush came to the attention of an international audience when he portrayed savant pianist David Helfgott in the film Shine (1996), a role for which he won an Academy Award for best actor. Rush then turned in nuanced interpretations of Inspector Javert in Les Misérables (1998) and spy master Sir Francis Walsingham in Elizabeth (1998); he reprised the latter role in the 2007 sequel. As theatre manager Philip Henslowe in Shakespeare in Love (1998) and as a supervillain in the spoof Mystery Men (1999), Rush demonstrated his comedic skills, which were on more subtle display in his impish rendering of the Marquis de Sade in Quills (2000).
Rush garnered further attention for his over-the-top portrayal of the pirate captain Hector Barbossa in the blockbuster Pirates of the Caribbean series: The Curse of the Black Pearl (2003), Dead Man’s Chest (2006), At World’s End (2007), and On Stranger Tides (2011). Rush also continued to appear onstage, and in 2009 he made his Broadway debut in Exit the King as the dying monarch Berenger I, for which he won the Tony Award for best actor. The following year he received additional acclaim for his performance as a speech therapist assisting King George VI of England in the film drama The King’s Speech ; Rush earned an Academy Award nomination for best supporting actor. He was also lauded for his comparatively muted performance in the World War II drama The Book Thief (2013), in which he played a German man who, with his wife, shelters an abandoned girl and a Jewish refugee.
Johnny Depp (right) with Geoffrey Rush and Keira Knightley in Pirates of the …
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(From left to right) Helena Bonham Carter, Colin Firth, and Geoffrey Rush in The …
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Britannica Stories
| David Helfgott |
In 2000, the International Hydrographic Organisation created Earth's fifth ocean from southern portions of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Which ocean? | Geoffrey Rush - Buy, Rent, and Watch Movies & TV on Flixster
Geoffrey Rush
Toowoomba, Queensland, Australia
Bio:
One of Australia's most popular and distinguished actors, Geoffrey Rush came to the attention of the international community in 1996 with his performance as pianist David Helfgott in Shine (1996). Rush won an Academy Award for Best Actor, Golden Globe, and Australian Film Institute Award for his work, and he subsequently began appearing in films that… More Bio:
One of Australia's most popular and distinguished actors, Geoffrey Rush came to the attention of the international community in 1996 with his performance as pianist David Helfgott in Shine (1996). Rush won an Academy Award for Best Actor, Golden Globe, and Australian Film Institute Award for his work, and he subsequently began appearing in films that would further make him known to audiences all over the world.
A Queensland native, Rush was born in Toowoomba on July 6, 1951. After taking an arts degree from the University of Queensland, he began his theater career at Brisbane's Queensland Theatre Company. In addition to honing his skills with the classics, Rush lived in Paris for two years, where he studied pantomime at the Jacques Lecoq School of Mime. After returning to Australia, the actor resumed his stage work, at one point co-starring in Waiting for Godot with former roommate Mel Gibson. He spent much of the early '80s as part of director Jim Sharman's Lighthouse troupe and he also began working in film; his debut came in the 1981 Hoodwink, which also featured a young Judy Davis. Rush continued to appear in Australian films and on the stage, directing a number of theatrical productions in addition to acting in them. His big international break came in the form of the aforementioned Shine; following the adulation surrounding his performance as the unbalanced piano prodigy, Rush began to garner substantial roles in a number of high-profile projects. First was Gillian Armstrong's Oscar and Lucinda (1997), in which he played Oscar's great-grandson. The following year the actor drew raves for his work in Elizabeth, which featured him as the Queen's casually sinister confidant, and Shakespeare in Love, for which he again donned tights, this time to play a debt-ridden theater owner. His work in that film scored him his second Oscar nomination, this time for Best Supporting Actor. The same year, he could also be seen as the dastardly Inspector Javert in Bille August's adaptation of Les Miserables.
In 1999, Rush exchanged the past for the future with Mystery Men. Starring as the dastardly Casanova Frankenstein, he shared the screen with an unlikely assortment of actors, including Greg Kinnear, Janeane Garofalo, Ben Stiller, and Paul Reubens. The same year, he starred as an eccentric millionaire who invites a few guests (including Bridgette Wilson, Taye Diggs, and Peter Gallagher) over for some tea and terror in the remake of William Castle's 1958 classic The House on Haunted Hill.
At this point audiences in the know were indeed well aware of Rush's versitility, and any actor able to move from the campy, big budget B-horror to the Oscar nominated art-house antics of Phil Kaufman's Quills had little need to prove himself to either critics or audiences. Though he may not have taken home the trophy at the 2001 Academy Awards, his performance as the Marquis de Sade in the Kaufman film drew praise from nearly every corner of the critical spectrum and Rush was now recognized as one of the premier talents of his generation. Whether appearing in such deadly serious independent drama as Frida or wide release cotton candy as The Banger Sisters, Rush was never anything less than fascinating to watch and his enthusiasm for his craft always managed to shine through into his performances. Though the film wasn't seen by the majority of stateside audiences, 2003's Swimming Upstream offered Rush in a meorable turn as the distant father of Australian swimmer Tony Figleton. After taking on one of Austrailia's most notorious outlaws in the 2003 drama Ned Kelley and offering vocal work for the popular Pixar family adventure Finding Nemo, Rush remained on this high seas - this time mostly above water - as the leader of an undead crew of pirates in the 2003 swashbuckler Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl. Though his menacing performance may have been slightly overshadowed by the flamboyant a
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Winning the US Open in 2006, who was the last Australian to win a Golf 'major'? | Australian Major Winners - Golf Australia
Australian Major Winners
A 'major' is one of the four most prestigious professional golf events played annually.
Men
Eleven Australian male golfers have won a major, they are:
5 - Peter Thomson - 1954, 1955, 1956, 1958, 1965 The Open Championship
2 - Greg Norman - 1986, 1993 The Open Championship
2 - David Graham - 1979 PGA Championship, 1981 US Open Championship
1 - Jim Ferrier - 1947 PGA Championship
1 - Kel Nagle - 1960 The Open Championship
1 - Wayne Grady - 1990 PGA Championship
1 - Ian Baker-Finch - 1991 The Open Championship
1 - Steve Elkington - 1995 PGA Championship
1 - Geoff Ogilvy - 2006 US Open
1 - Adam Scott - 2013 The Masters
1 - Jason Day - 2015 PGA Championship
Women
| Geoff Ogilvy |
Who was the founder of the People's Temple church, 914 of whose members committed suicide in the jungle of Guyana in 1978? | Top 10 Australian Golfers of All-Time
Top 10 Australian Golfers of All-Time
By Brent Kelley
Updated March 27, 2016.
Who are the best golfers to come from Down Under? Australia is a relatively small (in terms of population) country that has produced many good and great professional golfers. Here are our picks for the Top 10 Aussie golfers ever.
Peter Thomson (left) receives the Claret Jug in 1965 after his fifth British Open victory. Hulton Archive/Getty Images
1. Peter Thomson
In the eight years from 1951-58, Thomson won the British Open four times, was second twice and finished sixth the other time. For good measure, he added a fifth Open title in 1965, plus nine other Top 10 finishes in the tournament.
Thomson rarely played in the United States (not unusual for international players of his era), including the majors, but did have a fourth-place at the Masters and a fifth at the U.S. Open . He also won once on the PGA Tour in 1956.
As a senior golfer, he had one dominating Champions Tour year with nine victories in 1985 - one of the best seasons in that tour's history.
Thomson won 26 times on the European circuit that preceded formation of the European Tour, and 34 times in Australia and New Zealand. More »
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Profile of Jack Nicklaus
2. Greg Norman
Norman is probably so well-known for his losses - a combination of some chokes (such as the 1996 Masters ) and some rotten luck (such as the 1987 Masters ) - that his successes are often overlooked. But as Tom Watson once said, "A lot of guys who have never choked have never been in the position to do so."
Norman put himself in position a lot, and sometimes he failed to get the job done. But 20 times, he won on the PGA Tour, and twice he won the British Open . He was the PGA Tour's leading money winner three times, its scoring leader three times, and its Player of the Year in 1995. He was considered the best golfer in the world for long stretches during his career. He had 30 Top 10 finishes in majors.
Should he have won more? Yes. But he won a lot as it was, nearly 90 times around the world. More »
In 2006, Adam Scott won the PGA Tour's Tour Championship. Hunter Martin / Getty Images
3. Adam Scott
Scott had a pretty good career going - eight PGA Tour wins, including the 2004 Players Championship and a WGC win - but was stuck on those "best golfers without a major" lists. Then he won the 2013 Masters .
Scott has eight other wins on the European Tour (outside of the Masters and now two WGC victories). And after he won in back-to-back weeks in 2016 at the Honda Classic and WGC Cadillac Championship, was up to 13 total wins on the USPGA Tour.
Scott has also won in Asia, South Africa and Australia. His wins on the PGA Tour of Australasia include the 2009 Australian Open and the 2012 and 2013 Australian Masters. He's been a regular at the Presidents Cup throughout his career, been as high as second in the world rankings, and finished as high as third on the USPGA money list.
David Graham at the Suntory World match Play Championships in 1979. Steve Powell / Getty Images
4. David Graham
Graham had a reputation as a tough, big-tournament player. He finished in the Top 10 in majors 16 times, and that included two wins: the 1979 PGA Championship and the 1981 U.S. Open . At the PGA, Graham shot 65 in the final round to force a playoff, then beat Ben Crenshaw with a series of big putts. Graham won eight times on the USPGA, plus five times on the Champions Tour, and also had wins in Europe, Australia, South America, South Africa and Japan.
5. Steve Elkington
Elkington probably didn't achieve as much as he should have on the PGA Tour, his career hampered several times by battles with injuries and illness. But he did win 10 times, including the 1991 Players Championship. And the big one: the 1995 PGA Championship , where Elkington beat Colin Montgomerie in a playoff. Elkington was in another playoff at a major, but lost the 2002 British Open to Ernie Els (Stuart Appleby and Thomas Levet were also in the playoff). He had six other Top 5 finishes in majors.
Bruce Crampton plays during the 1993 PGA Seniors Championship. Gary Newkirk / Getty Images
6. Bruce Crampton
Bruce Crampton was one of the best golfers in the world in the first half of the 1970s. He won four times on the PGA Tour in 1973, and earned the PGA Tour's Vardon Trophy for low scoring average in 1973 and 1975. But he probably has nightmares about Jack Nicklaus . Crampton finished second in four majors during that period - the 1972 Masters and U.S. Open, the 1973 PGA Championship and 1975 PGA. Who beat him? All four times, he was runner-up to Nicklaus. So Crampton never won a major, but he did win 14 PGA Tour titles, plus another 20 on the Champions Tour.
Golfer Kel Nagle with the Claret Jug (and his wife) in 1960. Keystone / Hulton Archive / Getty Images
7. Kel Nagle
Arnold Palmer famously helped revitalize the British Open by crossing the pond to play the 1960 Open , at a time when most American stars rarely if ever played it. But Palmer finished second that year to Kel Nagle. Nagle was 39 years old but playing in a major for only the fourth time - he had played mostly on the Australasian Tour to that point (a tour on which he eventually won 61 times). So Nagle's best years were arguably already behind him. Yet he was competitive throughout his 40s. He was runner-up to Palmer at the 1961 Open, and lost a playoff to Gary Player at the 1965 U.S. Open . But he also won during the 1960s at the French Open and Canadian Open, among other titles, and from 1960-66 finished in the Top 5 at the British Open all but one year. More »
8. Jason Day
When Jason Day won the 2016 WGC Dell Match Play Championship, it was his second consecutive win on the PGA Tour. A week earlier, Day won the Arnold Palmer Invitational. Those two victories in the early part of 2016 put Day at nine career PGA Tour victories.
And one of those was the 2015 PGA Championship , which Day won with a final score of 20-under. He thus became the first golfer to finish a major at 20-under or better.
Day could go higher than this, but since he's still early in his career we'll err on the side of caution and put him at No. 8 for now.
9. Jim Ferrier
By the time Ferrier won the 1947 PGA Championship , he had taken up United States citizenship. But he was born in Manly, New South Wales, and won 10 times on the Australasian Tour in the 1930s. He moved to America to try the USPGA Tour in the 1940s, and he was winning tournaments there from 1944 through 1961 - 18 wins in all, including his one major. Ferrier was runner-up in three other majors.
Geoff Ogilvy plays during the 2013 Arnold Palmer Invitational. Sam Greenwood / Getty Images
10. Geoff Ogilvy
Ogilvy hasn't won a lot on the PGA Tour, and hasn't been all that consistent. But the tournaments he has won have mostly been marquee events. Of his eight wins through the 2015 season, three were WGC tournaments, twice he won the winners-only PGA Tour season-opener, and then there's that 2006 U.S. Open title. He finished inside the Top 10 on the money list twice.
... and honorable mentions go to Stuart Appleby, Graham Marsh, Bruce Devlin and Joe Kirkwood Sr.
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Published in 1895, which was Thomas Hardy's first novel? | 'Tess of the D'Urbervilles', Thomas Hardy - Quotes
Classic Literature Expert
By Esther Lombardi
Tess of the d'Urberville is a tragedy. The novel details the loss of innocence and the ultimate destruction of a young girl. The novel was one of the last novels by Thomas Hardy, who is also famous for Jude the Obscure. Here are a few quotes from Tess of the d'Urberville.
"I don't know; but I think so. They sometimes seem to be like the apples on our stubbard-tree. Most of them splendid and sound - a few blighted."
- Thomas Hardy, Tess of the d'Urberville, Chapter 4
"I won't sell his old body. When we d'Urbervilles was knights in the land, we didn't sell our chargers for cat's meat. Let 'em keep their shillings! He've served me well in his lifetime, and I won't part from him now."
- Thomas Hardy, Tess of the d'Urberville, Chapter 4
"Thus, the thing began. Had she perceived this meeting's import she might have asked why she was doomed to be seen and coveted that day by the wrong man, and not by some other man, the right and desired one in all respects..."
- Thomas Hardy, Tess of the d'Urberville, Chapter 5
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"Out of the frying pan into the fire!"
- Thomas Hardy, Tess of the d'Urberville, Chapter 10
"But some might say, where was Tess's guardian Angel ? Where was the providence of her simple faith? Perhaps... he was talking, or he was pursuing, or he was in a journey, or he was sleeping and not to be awaked... As Tess's own people down in those retreats are never tired of saying among each other in their fatalistic way: 'It was to be.'"
- Thomas Hardy, Tess of the d'Urberville, Chapter 11
"My life looks as if it had been wasted for want of chances! When I see what you know, what you have read, and seen, and thought, I feel what a nothing I am!"
- Thomas Hardy, Tess of the d'Urberville, Chapter 19
"I can't bear to let anybody have him but me! Yet it is wrong Tess him, and may kill him when he knows!"
- Thomas Hardy, Tess of the d'Urberville, Chapter 28
"Yes; at that dance on the green; but you would not dance with me. O, I hope that is no ill-omen for us now!"
- Thomas Hardy, Tess of the d'Urberville, Chapter 30
"you always courting me, and always thinking as much of me as you have done through the past summertime!"
- Thomas Hardy, Tess of the d'Urberville, Chapter 32
"You are very good. But it strikes me that there is a want of harmony between your present mood of self-sacrifice and your past mood of self-preservation."
- Thomas Hardy, Tess of the d'Urberville, Chapter 35
"I agree to the conditions, Angel; because you know best what my punishment ought to be; only - only - don't make it more than I can bear!"
- Thomas Hardy, Tess of the d'Urberville, Chapter 37
"She would have laid down her life for 'ee. I could do no more."
- Thomas Hardy, Tess of the d'Urberville, Chapter 40
"You, and those like you, take your fill of pleasure on earth by making the life of such as me bitter and black with sorrow; and then it is a fine thing, when you have had enough of that, to think of securing your pleasure in heaven by becoming converted!"
- Thomas Hardy, Tess of the d'Urberville, Chapter 45
"How can I pray for you, when I am forbidden to believe that the great Power who moves the world would alter his plans on my account?"
- Thomas Hardy, Tess of the d'Urberville, Chapter 46
"'You have been the cause of my backsliding,' he continued, stretching his arm towards her waist; 'you should be willing to share it, and leave that mule you call husband forever.'"
- Thomas Hardy, Tess of the d'Urberville, Chapter 47
"Remember, my lady, I was your master once! I will be your master again. If you are any man's wife you are mine!"
- Thomas Hardy, Tess of the d'Urberville, Chapter 47
"O why have you treated me so monstrously, Angel ! I do not deserve it. I have thought it all over carefully, and I can never, never forgive you! You know that I did not intend to wrong you - why have you so wronged me? You are cruel, cruel indeed! I will try to forget you. It is all injustice I have received at your hands!"
- Thomas Hardy, Tess of the d'Urberville, Chapter 51
"his original Tess had spiritually ceased to recognize the body before him as hers - allowing it to drift, like a corpse upon the current, in a direction disassociated from its living will."
- Thomas Hardy, Tess of the d'Urberville, Chapter 55
"O, you have torn my life all to pieces... made me be what I prayed you in pity not to make me be again!"
- Thomas Hardy, Tess of the d'Urberville, Chapter 56
"And the d'Urberville knights and dames slept on in their tombs unknowing."
- Thomas Hardy, Tess of the d'Urberville, Chapter 59
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Published in 1939, what was the title of James Joyce's final novel? | Thomas Hardy Society • Novels
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Novels
Hardy’s literary reputation – his fame and fortune – was based entirely upon his appeal as a novelist. Widespread public acclaim came with his fourth novel Far from the Madding Crowd (1874) – sufficient to allow him to abandon his architectural career in favour of the less certain path of a writer of imaginative fiction. Over the ensuing twenty years he published a further ten novels, variably received at the time. However in his final five novels – a sequence beginning with The Mayor of Casterbridge (1886) – he found his mature voice, producing fiction which upset Mrs Grundy and in one case (Jude) was burnt by a bishop but which ensured his place in the premier league of English novelists. Hardy’s professed desire
was to be a poet – and how frequently does the poet’s eye surface within his fiction – stating with typical (and ironic) modesty that he wished no more than to be considered ‘a good hand at a serial’. In accordance of with the habit of the time, his novels first appeared in monthly instalments in magazines before being published in three volume form.
This section contains a description and critical appreciation of each of Hardy’s novels – written by Professor Michael Irwin, distinguished Hardy Scholar and former Chairman of the Thomas Hardy Society.
The complete text of each Hardy novel is available via a link in the Resources section.
Tess of the d'Urbervilles
Tess of the d’Urbervilles first appeared in serialised form in the weekly magazine the Graphic, in the second half of 1891. It was published as a three-volume novel at the end of that year.
It tells the story of Tess Durbeyfield, at sixteen the eldest of several children of a poor family in the village of Marlott. After her feckless father has learnt, by chance, that he is a descendant of the ancient and once powerful d’Urberville line, Tess is persuaded to visit a wealthy old woman of that name, to claim kinship, and thereby perhaps to profit, directly or indirectly.
As it happens the woman is not a genuine d’Urberville: her deceased husband, a successful business-man, adopted the name at random to imply distinguished lineage. Her son Alec, a dissolute young dandy, is attracted to Tess and persuades Mrs d’Urberville to employ her in a humble capacity. The young girl repeatedly rejects his advances, but after some months a situation arises in which he is able to take advantage of her. Having submitted she confusedly assents to being his lover for some little time before leaving him in disgust and returning home.
She gives birth to his child; but the baby soon dies, leaving her crushed by grief and shame. Eventually she rallies, and travels to Talbothays, a dairy-farm, to take up work as a milk-maid, and begin a new life. There she meets Angel Clare, the son of a devout evangelical clergyman. Angel, having lost his religious faith, is gaining experience of agriculture with a view to becoming a farmer. Seeking new values he finds himself increasingly beguiled by the beauties of nature and by what he sees as the innocence and simplicity of country life. He falls in love with Tess partly or largely because she seems the epitome of such qualities. She is dazzled by him, but resists his advances, feeling that her ‘lapse’ with Alec makes her unworthy of him.
Her whole future course of life is determined by the conduct and the competing claims of these two suitors…
As originally submitted the novel was turned down by several editors. It was accepted by the Graphic after Hardy had cut or modified certain episodes that he realised had been felt to be too ‘shocking’ for a popular audience. Some of the material omitted he then published elsewhere ‘as episodic adventures of anonymous personages’. He reassembled the novel as he had first conceived it only when it was published in book form.
The critical response was in general very favourable: there was widespread recognition that Tess was an exceptional achievement. Commercially speaking, too, it proved to be Hardy’s most successful work to date. He was hurt and offended, however, perhaps disproportionately, by one or two reviewers who claimed that the novel was ‘disagreeable’ or immoral. When Jude the Obscure (1895) met with still greater hostility Hardy abandoned fiction and devoted himself to the writing of poetry.
Tessis now generally held to be one of the greatest – perhaps the greatest – of Hardy’s novels. It has been translated into numerous languages, and adapted for both the theatre and the operatic stage. The universality of its appeal was demonstrated in the popular 1979 film version, shot largely in Normandy and Brittany, directed by a Pole, Roman Polanski, and featuring the German actress Natassja Kinski in the title role.
Curiously it is a novel thathas somewhat changed in aspect since it first appeared. It could be, and often has been, approached as belonging to the tradition of social realism. Many another author of the of the period had been concerned with the fate of ‘the fallen woman’. Moreover the scenic descriptions, the strong sense of topography, and the detailed accounts of rural life and work all seemed to locate the story in the real world. But the novel has been increasingly recognised as in fact boldly experimental, even proto-modernist, its apparent realism repeatedly modified by stylisation and metaphor. For example the characterisation is often diagrammatic rather than three-dimensional. As in Jude the Obscure Hardy is writing of ‘a deadly war waged between flesh and spirit’; accordingly Alec d’Urberville, with his moustache and cigar, is a stereotype of the predatory dandy, whereas Angel, as his name suggests, is ‘more spiritual than animal’.
The numerous passages of physical description are frequently charged with metaphor. The death of Prince, the horse, prefigures the effectual ravishment of Tess; the fine weather at Talbothays and the harsh conditions at Flintcomb-Ash are expressionistic accounts of her state of mind. Throughout the novel narrative, in such ways, is enriched by suggestion. In Tess of the d’Urbervilles Hardy is simultaneously novelist and poet: to fully appreciate the work the reader must respond at both levels.
Desperate Remedies
As a young man, working in an architect’s off ice, Hardy aspired to be a poet. Only his failure to get any of his verses published induced him to try his hand at fiction. A first attempt, The Poor Man and the Lady, later described by the author as a ‘socialistic novel’, was also rejected several times, but was acknowledged by those who had read it to be a work of considerable promise. Encouraged, Hardy tried again. Desperate Remedies was published in 1871, though virtually at the author’s own expense.
George Meredith, who had read The Poor Man and the Lady for Chapman & Hall, had advised him to write something less contentious and more strongly plotted. Accordingly Hardy set out to produce a ‘sensation novel’ with a strong mystery element, very much in the vein of Wilkie Collins. It’s impossible to summarise the complicated plot without giving away information that would spoil the enjoyment of the new reader, but it involves concealed identity, unexpected and macabre deaths, cross-country chases and suspected murder.
As a thrillerDesperate Remedies still offers excellent value, even if the machinery of the plot creaks at times. But for all his eagerness to achieve publication Hardy was certainly not content merely to provide an entertainment. Contemporary readers looking for an exciting yarn might well have been put off by the many allusions to Shakespeare, Milton, Shelley and other poets. The extravagant story is made to incorporate a wide variety of ambitious material. He absorbed into his text, in prose form, several of his own as yet unpublished poems. Many of his episodes and descriptions are sufficiently striking in their own right to have graced any of the later Wessex novels. Students of Hardy will see everywhere anticipations of the later work, in terms of style, ideas and technical experiment. For a first novel it is an extraordinarily bold, yeasty, wide-ranging work. To read it is to be at once disabused of the idea that the author started his career as a naïve writer of pastoral. He was already questioning a whole variety of accepted fictional conventions and striking out in new directions of his own devising.
In his autobiography Hardy is dismissive of Desperate Remedies, referring to ‘the powerfully, not to say wildly, melodramatic situations…concocted in a style which was quite against his natural grain…’ It is an odd self-criticism, given that that his later novels were to deal lavishly in just such situations. There is a fairer assessment in his Prefatory Note to the 1889 edition: ‘The following story, the first published by the author, was written nineteen years ago, at a time when he was feeling his way to a method.’ The comparative unseriousness of his plot gave Hardy considerable freedom to experiment. There can be little doubt that he learnt a lot from the writing of Desperate Remedies.
Under the Greenwood Tree
Hardy wrote Under the Greenwood Tree, his second novel to be published, in the summer of 1871, and sent it to Macmillan’s. He took their response to be a rejection – though he later learned that he had misinterpreted it – and accordingly put the story aside. Having previously lost money on his first novel, Desperate Remedies, he was by now sufficiently discouraged to think that he should concentrate on his career as an architect and give up the writing of fiction altogether. However, a chance meeting with his previous publisher, William Tinsley, in the spring of 1872, led him to dig out the discarded manuscript. Tinsley published the story in the May of that year.
It is the shortest of all the Wessex novels, the plot consisting of two slender strands. One concerns the ousting of the Mellstock quire, or church band, in favour of an organist; the other involves the ups and downs of the courtship between Dick Dewy, the son of a ‘tranter’ (or carrier) - both father and son being members of that quire - and Fancy Day, the new village school-teacher, who is the organist in question. The lack of action is implicit in Hardy’s sub-title : ‘A Rural Painting of the Dutch School’: his book is rather rustic idyll than vigorous narrative. The adjective ‘Dutch’ implies the affectionate and knowledgeable realism of Ruysdael or Hobbema, as opposed to pastoral idealisation on the one hand or bucolic grotesquerie on the other. Such ‘story’ as there is serves as an armature for a sketch of village life as it had been in the eighteen-thirties, when Hardy’s father, himself a fiddle-player in the kind of quire described, was a young man. The narrative is divided into five sections, of which the last is a postscript, the first four being named for the seasons, running from winter through to autumn. There is scope for vivid descriptions of scenery, weather and village life, as also for leisurely, humorous dialect conversations with a Shakespearean flavour. This is the most cheerful and unproblematic of all Hardy’s novels.
On publication Under the Greenwood Tree received, in Hardy’s own words, ‘a very kindly and gentle reception’. The subsequent response to the work has in general been similarly appreciative. No doubt because of its calculated simplicity, however, the work has attracted comparatively little critical attention, even though it displays an agreeable humour and contains some striking passages of description. For readers new to Hardy it provides the ideal introduction.
A Pair of Blue Eyes
A Pair of Blue Eyes was the third of Hardy’s novels to be published and the first to be serialised, running in Tinsleys’ Magazine from the September of 1872 until the July of the following year. It appeared in three-volume form in May 1873, a year after the publication of Under the Greenwood Tree.
It is essentially a love-story. Elfride Swancourt, the blue-eyed heroine, lives with her widowed father, a clergyman, in a remote Cornish village. She is wooed successively by Stephen Smith, a young architect of humble birth, and Henry Knight, a successful man of letters, once a mentor to Stephen. In appearance, character and situation Elfride obviously has much in common with the young Emma Gifford, who was to become Hardy’s wife. The circumstances in which she and Smith meet recapitulate pretty exactly Emma’s first encounter with her future husband, when he came to Cornwall in March, 1870, on a church restoration project. In his Life, however, Hardy plays down the correspondences between himself and Smith, claiming that at the relevant time he had been closer in age and character to Knight.
The autobiographical element is in any case of limited interest. A Pair of Blue Eyes is chiefly significant as an experimental work of remarkable boldness and originality. In his Preface of 1895 Hardy was at pains to emphasise the importance of his setting, a remote corner of western England ‘where the wild and tragic features of the coast had long combined in perfect harmony with the crude Gothic art of the ecclesiastical buildings scattered along it’. The emotions of the lovers he is concerned with are ‘not without correspondence with these material circumstances’. He goes on to further description of this ‘region of dream and mystery’: ‘The ghostly birds, the pall-like sea, the frothy wind, the eternal soliloquy of the waters, the bloom of dark purple cast that seems to exhale from the shoreward precipices, in themselves lend to the scene an atmosphere like the twilight of a night vision.’
‘Vision’ is the key word here: A Pair of Blue Eyes is far larger than life. What might have been a realistic account of rivalry in love is translated into a series of extravagant episodes - rendered the stranger by effects of weather, light and landscape - which are made metaphorically expressive of the passions of the protagonists. Some of the happenings and descriptions are closer in spirit to grand opera than to most Victorian fiction in being hyperbolically proportioned to the intensity of the emotions of the characters concerned. In the dizzying central episode, the turning-point of the narrative, where Knight is clinging to a cliff-face in danger of plunging to his death, Hardy is working in multiple dimensions of space and time evoking, as background to the immediate melodramatic situation, a Darwinian vision of past millennia. The result is a scene at once recklessly ambitious yet immediately exhilarating to read.
By way of counterpoint the structure of the novel is artificial, even diagrammatic. Smith and Knight are the two central suitors in a series of four whom Elfride encounters in ascending social order. The contrasting courtships are cross-linked by coincidence, by patterning and by parallels of various kinds, so that the narrative as a whole becomes a dramatized meditation on the author’s favourite theme: the nature and the workings of romantic love.
A Pair of Blue Eyes is essential reading for anyone with a serious interest in Hardy. Not only is it a striking work in its own right: it instantly disposes of any lingering notion that the author was an unsophisticated traditionalist. To read it with understanding is to gain fresh insights into the way in which his apparently more orthodox novels should be read.
Hardy himself retained a fondness for this early work, partly for its personal associations. The poet Coventry Patmore wrote to the author praising its ‘unequalled beauty and power’ while expressing regret that it had not been written as verse. It was Tennyson’s favourite Hardy novel, and was also particularly admired by Marcel Proust.
Far from the Madding Crowd
Far from the Madding Crowd was published as a monthly serial in Cornhill Magazine, in 1874, before coming out in book form in the November of that same year.
The novel conveys a vivid sense of a vanishing tradition of country life and work. The heroine, Bathsheba Everdene, has at an early age to take charge of a farm inherited from an uncle. Being forceful and independent she makes a success of her new role, despite her inexperience. She is soon to be distracted, however, by the attentions of three contrasting suitors. Gabriel Oak had earlier proposed to her and been refused, when he was a rising sheep-farmer. Having lost his entire flock through accident he has by chance come to work for her as a shepherd. He proves a steady and devoted admirer. Boldwood, a wealthy middle-aged farmer, finds himself obsessed with Bathsheba after she has sent him a valentine card on a mischievous whim. Last on the scene comes Sergeant Troy, a dashing soldier and a carefree lady-killer. In broad outline each of the resulting relationships has the simplicity of a folk-ballad; but as in virtually all his fiction Hardy is concerned with minute shifts and surges and idiosyncrasies in the psychology of love.
Fare from the Madding Crowd should be read in the World’s Classics edition, because it restores a number of interesting passages which were deleted from the Cornhill version at the suggestion of Leslie Stephen.
The work marked a turning-point in Hardy’s literary career. His previous novels, Desperate Remedies, Under the Greenwood Tree and A Pair of Blue Eyes, had attracted some admiring attention, but he was still by no means established as an author. It was a great step forward for him to be invited to contribute to the distinguished Cornhill Magazine, edited by Leslie Stephen. Far from the Madding Crowd won him a wider readership, and was well received by the critics. For the first time he found his work fashionable. His improving financial situation enabled him to marry Emma Gifford, in the September of 1874, and to give up his architectural career to concentrate on making a living as a writer. Arguably, however, the novel did him one disservice in that it misleadingly tended to identify him as a naive writer of pastoral stories. A Pair of Blue Eyes should have shown conclusively that he was in fact already a sophisticated experimentalist. As he observes in the Life ‘he had not the slightest intention of writing for ever about sheepfarming, as the reading public was apparently expecting him to do…’
It was in Far from the Madding Crowd that Hardy first used ‘Wessex’ as a name for the area in which his story was set. Later he was to develop the idea and adapt all his novels to it, tantalising his readers with an approximate match between fictitious towns, areas and monuments and their real-life counterparts. The concept, to be expressed in the ambiguous map prefixed to all his novels, was well suited to the creation of what he called ‘a partly real, partly dream-country’. It accommodated the ‘reality’ of his scrupulously authentic record of topography, old customs and agricultural practices, while allowing him to experiment with melodrama and scenes that were metaphorically expressive.
Far from the Madding Crowd has remained one of Hardy’s most popular novels. A variety of adaptations have helped to keep the work in the public eye. It has been made into both a play and an opera. John Schlesinger directed a strongly-cast filmed version, in 1967. Posy Simmonds borrowed from Hardy’s story when shaping her graphic novel Tamara Drewe, which was then filmed in its own right. In 1998 there was a notable TV serialisation.
The Hand of Ethelberta
Following the success of Far from the Madding Crowd Hardy was invited to provide another serial for the Cornhill Magazine. Unwilling to be typecast as a writer of pastoral fiction he submitted, in his own words, ‘the beginning of a tale called The Hand of Ethelberta – A Comedy in Chapters which had nothing whatever in common with anything he had written before’. The serialisation began in July, 1875, and the novel was published in two-volume form in April, 1876.
It was an audacious work in several ways. Ethelberta Petherwin, the heroine, is the dominant figure in the narrative: beautiful, enterprising and outspoken, she becomes a social celebrity through her poetry and her performances as an oral story-teller. Her several wealthy admirers do not guess that her father is a butler and that various of her siblings are servants and labourers. She resourcefully assumes responsibility for the entire family, at one point in effect employing a number of them as domestic staff in her London home. The plot of the novel, as so often in Hardy, is eventually shaped by the heroine’s need to choose between competing suitors.
The central situation provides occasion for a good deal of subversive social comment, culminating in the irony of Ethelberta’s lower-class family desperately trying to prevent what they regard as her unsuitable marriage to a lord. Yet the novel is hardly situated in the real world. As Hardy himself later acknowledged in a Preface: ‘A high degree of probability was not attempted in the arrangement of the incidents, and there was expected of the reader a certain lightness of mood,..’. In fact the story is fantastical, and the narrative mode recurrently harks back to the stylised stage comedies of Congreve or Sheridan. Some of the characters actually have names derived from the theatre of manners – Menlove, Ladywell, Tipman, Neigh. Many a conversation is shaped into a exchange of epigrams. Hardy’s mixed medium is only intermittently successful: there is undoubtedly a tension between the sardonic social commentary and the brittle contrivances of the story-telling and some portions of the dialogue. Later, however, in such plays as Pygmalion and Mrs Warren’s Profession, Bernard Shaw was to produce striking social parables in very much this artificial vein. Hardy, perhaps not unreasonably, came to think that The Hand of Ethelberta ‘appeared thirty-five years too soon’.
The limitations of the work, however, have less to do with the problems posed by the mixture of modes than with uncertainties of pace and direction. Hardy has difficulty in holding his multifarious story together. The action can be haphazard: various narrative leads simply expire. Seemingly significant characters disappear for long stretches, or are left with nothing much to do. Others are hustled to and fro apparently at random. Particularly towards the end there is an effect of pure muddle: Hardy seems to be desperately improvising plot developments that will bulk out his novel to the required length and take it over some sort of finishing line.
Altogether The Hand of Ethelberta is an oddity - an intriguing and feisty experiment only intermittently in tune with the author’s talents.
The Return of the Native
The Return of the Native, which Hardy wrote with serial publication in mind, was turned down by both the Cornhill Magazine (which had published his two previous novels) and by Blackwood’s. Eventually accepted by the less distinguished Belgravia it appeared in monthly instalments between January and December 1878. It was published as a three-volume novel in the November of that same year.
Once again Hardy showed his willingness to experiment. His opening chapter is entirely devoted to a meditation on the strange bleakness of Egdon Heath, where the story is to unfold. The eight chapters that immediately follow are essentially set outdoors and at night. The effect is to establish as primary to the novel the dark, brooding environment in which the action takes place. There can be no agricultural work and very little in the way of social context on this desolate terrain of heath and furze. The main characters live in virtual isolation in their widely separated dwellings. Repeatedly they are depicted as solitaries in a sombre landscape.
It is in keeping with this narrative austerity that the notional hero of the novel does not put in appearance till a quarter of the way into the story. The returning native of the title is Clym Yeobright, who gives up well-paid but meretricious employment in Paris in the hope of finding ‘some rational occupation’, probably as a teacher, in the place where he grew up. As he sets about re-immersing himself in the subdued life of Egdon he attracts the love of a passionate local girl, Eustacia Vye. She is excited from the moment she hears of his arrival - ironically because he has come from an exotic place to which she longs to escape from what she feels to be the stifling oppressiveness of the Heath. Central to the story are the fatal misunderstandings, frustrations and disappointments to which this unlucky mismatch gives rise.
Even more than most of Hardy’s novels The Return of the Native is intensely episodic. It returns to the memory less as a developing story than as a sequence of vignettes, many of them nocturnal: the flaring bonfire of the opening chapters, Eustacia peering through the darkness with the aid of a telescope, Venn and Wildeve gambling by the light of glow-worms, Mrs. Yeobright’s walk across the Heath, Wildeve and Eustacia dancing under the moon. The often implausible plot is manipulated to enable such intensities, leaving the narrative connections between them sometimes strained or perfunctory. Despite this waywardness, and perhaps because of it, The Return of the Native contains some of the most powerful scenes in all Hardy’s fiction.
The Trumpet-Major
The Trumpet-Major appeared in monthly instalments in the magazine Good Words, running from January to December 1880. In October 1880 it was published by Smith, Elder & Co. in three-volume form.
Hardy was yet again experimenting: this was his first and only historical novel. The subject-matter had long appealed to his imagination. In the Life he describes how, at the age of eight, he found a copy of A History of the Wars, a periodical dating from Napoleonic times: ‘The torn pages of these contemporary numbers with their melodramatic prints of serried ranks, crossed bayonets, huge knapsacks, and dead bodies, were the first to set him on the train of ideas that led to The Trumpet-Major and The Dynasts.’ Clearly the events concerned remained of particular interest to Hardy throughout his life. Several times, on Waterloo day, he visited the Chelsea Hospital to talk to survivors from the war. He remarks in his Preface to The Dynasts on the influence of ‘three accidents of locality’:
It chanced that the writer was familiar with a part of England that lay within hail of the watering-place in which King George the Third had his favourite summer residence during the war with the first Napoléon… Secondly, this district, being also near the coast which had echoed with rumours of invasion in their intensest form while the descent threatened, was formerly animated by memories and traditions of the desperate military preparations for that contingency. Thirdly, the same countryside happened to include the village which was the birthplace of Nelson’s flag-captain at Trafalgar.
The plot of The Trumpet-Major, as often in Hardy, is in essence a simple one, the stuff of a folk-song. Anne Garland, the heroine, is wooed by two brothers, a soldier and a sailor. But since John Loveday – the Trumpet-Major of the title – is eventually to fight against Napoleon in Spain, while Bob Loveday is to take part in the battle of Trafalgar, Hardy has ample scope to meditate on the momentous doings of the period, as viewed from the Wessex coast. The soldiers are seen parading on the downs, and Anne, on Portland Bill, is able to watch the departure of the Victory.
The opening words of the novel are carefully chosen: ‘In the days of high-waisted and muslin-gowned women…’ It is to be, among other things, a costume-drama, an exercise in nostalgia, picturesque and full of colour. Perhaps for that very reason The Trumpet-Major has tended to be critically underrated. It seems to have a lot in common with certain light works of romantic historical fiction, and has therefore often been mistaken for one. But there is a good deal more to the novel than that: its complexity resides not so much in the story as in the telling. Hardy’s chief interest is in the processes of time and the workings of memory. He is looking back to the early years of the nineteenth century, but many of the descriptions he provides hark back to yet earlier times. Each layer of recollection is seen to be superimposed on another. There is an account of a chest contained moth-riddled costumes from a previous century. At Oxwell Hall, a decaying mansion, ‘The iron stanchions inside the windowpanes were eaten away to the size of wires…’ In Miller Loveday’s courtyard ‘were two worn-out mill-stones, made useful again by being let in level with the ground.’ Numerous of the objects and scenes concerned have a life – a past life – of their own, of a kind to have offered Hardy the material for a poem. Revealingly he makes a most uncharacteristic appearance in his own novel, when describing a social gathering at Overcombe Mill:
The present writer, to whom this party has been described times out of number by members of the Loveday family and other aged people now passed away, can never enter the old living-room of Overcombe Mill without beholding the genial scene through the mists of the seventy or eighty years that intervene between then and now.
The affection and the sense of personal engagement are in evidence throughout the novel, giving it a distinctive quality. The characters, though engaging enough, are little more than stereotypes, and the story rather loses direction towards the end, but these limitations were perhaps a price that Hardy was willing to pay in the interest of producing a work of an unusual kind, a meditation on the ways in which the past is preserved and transformed in our recollections of it.
A Laodicean
By the October of 1880 Hardy was at work on a new serial for Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, to be entitled A Laodicean. With several chapters written and the first instalment already printed he found himself ‘very unwell’. Doctors diagnosed ‘internal bleeding’, and told him that he would have to remain in bed for a considerable period if he was to avoid a serious operation. For the first few weeks he had ‘to lie on an inclined plane with the lower part of his body higher than his head’. From this ‘awkward position’ he stoically set out to dictate the rest of the novel to his wife – who was also his nurse. The limitations of the work, some of which are mentioned below, can surely be attributed largely to the wretched circumstances of composition. Hardy was not able to leave the house on foot until the following May, by which time the novel had been completed in draft form. It was serialised in Harper’s in thirteen instalments, running from December 1880 to December 1881. Sampson Low published a three-volume edition in December 1881.
The title of the novel, hardly self-explanatory to the twenty-first century reader, derives from Revelation 3, where the Laodiceans are denounced as being ‘lukewarm, and neither cold nor hot’. Hardy’s heroine, Paula Power, is describable in these terms for several reasons. Early in the novel she is seen turning back, at the last moment, from baptism by immersion – and this in the chapel which her late father, ‘a staunch Baptist’, had provided for his local village. He had made his fortune as a railway contractor, and purchased the ancient castle in which Paula now lives. She is caught between the old world, represented by her home, and the new, as typified by her father’s occupation and her very surname. Her ambivalence is further displayed when she hesitates between two suitors, George Somerset, a rising young architect, and Captain De Stancy, a descendant of the family that once owned her castle.
Theme and situation are promisingly Hardyesque, and precipitate some strong early encounters in the author’s liveliest vein. Gradually, however, the narrative is left becalmed for want of innate momentum. Hardy has repeatedly to prod it back into temporary motion by novelettish contrivances. Much of the second half of the story is taken up by inconsequential wanderings around Europe. Loose ends and improbabilities abound. Paula dwindles from a potentially interesting ‘modern woman’ to a mere coquette. The unfortunate Somerset, reduced from hero to victim, has nothing much to do. The reader is left with the feeling that Hardy, ill as he was, must have been relieved simply to get the novel somehow completed on time, and to the length required by the periodical.
Two on a Tower
Two on a Tower was first seen as a serial, in eight monthly instalments, in the magazine Atlantic Monthly. It ran from the May to the December of 1882. Sampson Low published the novel in three-volume form in the October of the same year.
As had earlier been suggested by the nocturnal description in the second chapter of Far from the Madding Crowd, Hardy had a keen interest in astronomy. Stars feature in every one of his novels and many of his poems. The purpose behind Two on a Tower is set out unambiguously in his 1895 Preface to the work:
This slightly-built romance was the outcome of a wish to set the emotional history of two infinitesimal lives against the stupendous background of the stellar universe, and to impart to readers the sentiment that of these contrasting magnitudes the smaller might be the greater to them as men.
The ‘romance’ concerned involves Lady Viviette Constantine, wife of a wealthy land-owner, and the young astronomer, Swithin St. Cleeve, some ten years her junior, who has been using a tower on her land as an observatory. Viviette, enduring a secluded life while her husband is away in Africa, feels drawn to Swithin and helps him financially with his research. When eventually the two fall in love their relationship is to be alternately constrained, encouraged and re-defined by shifting circumstances.
Early admirers of Hardy who read the first couple of instalments of the serial could well have thought that they were embarking on a masterpiece. The subject was strikingly original, and offered the author an even vaster context than the one he had exploited with such power in The Return of the Native. There were some wonderful accounts of ‘the stars and their interspaces’, and the central romantic situation promised interesting developments. Unfortunately the quality of those opening chapters was not to be fulfilled. Since the night sky, unlike Egdon Heath, could not bear directly upon the action, the astronomical descriptions had gradually to be abandoned in the interests of the story while unfortunately the story itself subsided into confusion. Hardy’s own adjective, ‘slightly-built’ is revealing in this context, perhaps fatally so. After the ambitious start the narrative is carried forward by random short-term crises and melodramatic contrivances of the kind nowadays commonplace in soap opera. The effect is to diminish the novel to a novelette and the lovers from potentially interesting characters to hapless victims.
Hardy’s intended theme is correspondingly undermined. Against ‘the stupendous background of the stellar universe’ is set, not an ‘emotional history’ that might have held its own in terms of perceived magnitude, but a flimsy assemblage of chances, mishaps and coincidences. What might have been a great novella becomes a sadly anti-climactic novel.
The Mayor of Casterbridge
In the June of 1883 Thomas Hardy and his wife, who since their marriage had lived at a variety of addresses in London and Dorset, moved to Dorchester, where they were to remain. Returned to his native town Hardy began work, appropriately enough, on The Mayor of Casterbridge, finishing it in the April of 1885. It came out in weekly instalments in the Graphic, from January to May 1886. Smith, Elder & Co. issued the work in two volumes in May 1886.
It is distinctive in two technical respects, each of which conduces to clarity of focus. As Hardy remarks in his 1895 Preface: ‘The story is more particularly a study of one man’s deeds and character than, perhaps, any other of those included in my Exhibition of Wessex Life.’ His sub-title makes the point explicitly: ‘A story of a Man of Character’. Michael Henchard, the hero of the novel is, for all his faults, energetic, decisive and whole-hearted, ready to take responsibility for his actions and shape his own fate. As the most forceful individual in any of Hardy’s novels he comes closest to the traditional status of ‘tragic hero’.
Also exceptional is the extent to which the action of the novel is confined within a single vividly evoked location - which becomes in effect an arena: the town of Casterbridge, Hardy’s fictionalised Dorchester. With the right guidance it is still possible to trace many of the streets, buildings and landmarks which feature in the novel and help to shape the action.
Both these factors conduced to unity. So also does the tautness of structure. Each of the four main characters – Henchard, Farfrae, Elizabeth-Jane and Lucetta, - is circumstantially and emotionally linked to each of the other three. A shift in any one of these relationships has implications for the others.
Altogether, then, The Mayor of Casterbridge is the most tightly-knit of all the Wessex novels. The author’s comment on it in the Life is therefore surprising:
It was a story which Hardy fancied he had damaged more recklessly as an artistic whole, in the interest of the newspaper in which it appeared serially, than perhaps any other of his novels, his aiming to get an incident into almost every week’s part causing him in his own judgement to add events to the narrative somewhat too freely.
There are plenty of ‘incidents’, but in most cases they are generated more plausibly from the evolving central situation than is usual in Hardy’s fiction. The author himself goes on to admit that the novel is ‘quite coherent and organic’.
The relative topographical confinement of the setting does not deny Hardy the larger perspective that he so often seeks. Here it is supplied by time:
Casterbridge announced old Rome in every street, alley, and precinct. It looked Roman, bespoke the art of Rome, concealed dead men of Rome. It was impossible to dig more than a foot or two deep about the town fields and gardens without coming upon some tall soldier or other of the Empire…
The reader is recurrently reminded that the story being told is but one among thousands that have been enacted over the centuries on this same plot of land. Casterbridge, as Hardy depicts it, is on the cusp of change: Soon agriculture will be mechanised, and traditional practices will give way to new methods; soon the Corn Laws will be passed and the market will change. The town is subject to endless evolution.
The Woodlanders
According to the Life Hardy had the idea for ‘a woodland story’ as early as 1875. Not for another ten years, however, was this conception developed into a novel. He completed The Woodlanders in February 1887. It was serialised in monthly instalments in Macmillan’s Magazine, running from May 1886 to April 1887. Macmillan published a three-volume version in March 1887.
Once again Hardy created a striking and defining context: his characters live, and in many cases work, in a remote area of woodland, centred on Little Hintock. Their lives and their various struggles are tacitly inter-connected with those of the trees in whose shadow they pass their days. In The Return of the Native Clym Yeobright is troubled by the ‘oppressive horizontality’ of the landscape. In The Woodlanders it is as though ‘oppressive verticality’ can have a comparable effect. The relationship between man and trees is a recurrent theme in Hardy’s work: variations on it appear in such poems as ‘The Ivy-Wife’, ‘Logs on the Hearth’ and ‘In a Wood’. In his Preface, however, the author chooses to put the emphasis on ‘matrimonial divergence, the immortal puzzle – given the man and woman, how to find a basis for their sexual relation…’ The lovers he writes of are mismatched and at cross-purposes – not surprisingly, since they are an oddly mixed group. Giles Winterbourne and Marty South are the only true ‘woodlanders’, natives of the region, who actually work with trees. Grace Melbury has grown up in that environment, but has since been to private school and stayed on for a time as a governess. Felice Charmond, a cosmopolitan beauty, lives a solitary life at Hintock House, and Dr. Fitzpiers has quixotically elected to set up a practice in this remote woodland village. Their lives become as entangled and mutually destructive as those of the surrounding plant life, among which ‘the lichen ate the vigour of the stalk, and the ivy slowly strangled to death the promising sapling’.
Hardy’s curious title, The Woodlanders, seems to define his human characters as fellow inhabitants with the trees. The concept provides occasion for some of his most strikingly expressive episodes and vignettes, showing man and nature symbiotically linked. But there is a price paid for these intensities in terms of the degree of realism necessary to sustain his story. Little Hintock is unimaginable as a village: the reader is made aware only of people and trees. On occasion it can seem that Hardy is actually impatient with the requirements of ‘story’ in the conventional sense. There are inconsistencies of time and distance and motivation. Even major characters can disappear from the narrative for long spells without explanation. In short The Woodlanders is a hybrid, part stylised vision, part contemporary novel. Occasional incongruities are inevitable.
The novel met with a mixed reception, but criticism tended to relate to what now seems the minor issue of the author’s failure to punish vice and reward merit as contemporary convention required. Hardy himself thought well of the work: ‘In after years he often said that in some respects The Woodlanders was his best novel.’
The most unlikely ‘woodlander’ is undoubtedly Fitzpiers, doctor and scientist, who quotes Shelley and Spinoza, and claims to know several languages. As an ‘intellectual’ he is a forerunner of Angel Clare, Jude Fawley and Sue Bridehead, characters who deal explicitly in ideas, and are therefore not easily assimilated into Hardy’s well-practised mode of metaphorical suggestion.
Jude the Obscure
The Simpletons or, as it was entitled after the first instalment, Hearts Insurgent, was serialised in Harper’s New Monthly Magazine in twelve instalments, running from December 1894 to November 1895. Hardy had been obliged by the editor to bowdlerise his text lest the readership should be offended. He undid most of these enforced alterations for the publication of the work in book form, by Osgood, McIlvaine, in November 1895, under the title Jude the Obscure.
In the Life Hardy identifies the probable ‘germ’ of the novel in a note recorded in April 1888: ‘A short story of a young man – “who could not go to Oxford” – His struggles and ultimate failure. Suicide.’ Jude’s career could be said to match all but the last word of this summary. In his Preface to the novel, however, the author proposes a different, or a further emphasis. He is writing about ‘a deadly war waged between flesh and spirit’. Jude, a self-educated young man from a humble rural background, cannot gain admission to Christminster (the fictionalised Oxford), but he has in any case been temporarily distracted from his educational ambitions by the claims of the flesh, as represented by the sensual Arabella. Later he falls in love with his cousin, Sue Bridehead, educated and daring, a ‘new woman’, but with a sexual instinct, in Hardy’s words ‘unusually weak and fastidious’. The situation, in short, is a mirror-image of that in Tess of the d’Urbervilles, with the man, in this case, caught between contrasting kinds of love. The plot is accordingly, as the author remarked in a letter to a friend ‘almost geometrically constructed’.
Jude differs from most of the Wessex novels in several essential respects: Hardy chooses not to make use of some of his characteristic strengths. So far from there being a presiding context, such as Casterbridge or Egdon Heath, the characters are shown to be constantly on the move. The titles of the various ‘Parts’ make this clear: ‘At Marygreen’, ‘At Christminster’, ‘At Melchester’ and so on. In consequence there is relatively little description of physical background. Nor does work feature: Jude is a stone-mason, but we are told nothing about his training or his professional capabilities.
Jude and his cousin Sue have both been well educated, if by different routes, and both are in general terms emancipated and progressive: Jude observes near the close that ‘our ideas were fifty years too soon to be any good to us’. Hardy’s concern is with the modern consciousness, which he explores partly through direct debate between troubled characters, and partly by bluntly expressionistic episodes and details. Incidental authorial comments make it clear that he shares the pessimism of his main characters. He remarks, as early as the second chapter, that Jude’s tender-heartedness means that he is set to be ‘the sort of man who was born to ache a good deal before the fall of the curtain upon his unnecessary life should signify that all was well with him again’. After this defining observation few readers will expect a happy ending. The interest is to lie in the ways in which the lives of Jude and Sue can go wrong, and the arguments, the protestations and the defeats that their misfortunes are to precipitate.
When it was first published the novel aroused a storm of protest on the grounds of its alleged indecency. The Bishop of Wakefield announced that he had burned his copy. Hardy claimed in his 1812 Preface to the work that this furore ‘completely [cured] me of further interest in novel-writing’.
A filmed version of the novel, directed by Michael Winterbottom, appeared in 1996, starring Christopher Eccleston and Kate Winslet as Jude and Sue.
The Well-Beloved
The Pursuit of the Well-Beloved was serialised in weekly instalments in the Illustrated London News, from October to December 1892. It was not published in book form, however, until January 1897, thus becoming technically the last of Hardy’s novels to appear. He had not only abbreviated the title, but re-written his text substantially, in particular fashioning a radically different ending.
The author rather ponderously observes, in his 1912 Preface, that the story differs from the other Wessex novels ‘in that the interest aimed at is of an ideal or subjective nature, and frankly imaginative, verisimilitude in the sequence of events [being] subordinated to the said aim.’ In other words it is a deliberately stylised work, a poetic parable. There are at least three substantial and interconnected ideas in play. One is quoted in the Life as a note made on February 19th, 1889:
The story of a face which goes through three generations or more, would make a fine novel or poem of the passage of Time. The differences in personality to be ignored. [This idea was to some extent carried out in the novel The Well-Beloved…]
Certainly that work features three generations of the same family, as the hero, Jocelyn Pierston, fall successively in love (at 20, at 40 and at 60) with a mother, her daughter and her grand-daughter. Hardy’s sub-title, however, ‘A Sketch of a Temperament’ seems to put the emphasis on the personality of the hero. In a letter to the poet Swinburne he describes The Well-Beloved as ‘a fanciful exhibition of the artistic nature’ – and Pierston is a sculptor. His art is animated by his persistent pursuit of his elusive ‘well-beloved’: ‘a spirit, a dream, a frenzy, a conception’. Yet the author also suggests in his Preface that Pierston’s quest for an ideal beauty, his ‘delicate dream’, may be ‘in a vaguer form…more or less common to all men, and is by no means new to Platonic philosophers.’ His theme may therefore be – alternatively or alternately – ‘the family face’, the artistic temperament or (as ever) the workings of romantic love. In the poem which bears the same title as the novel the unfortunate visionary is merely a lover, not an artist.
All this may sound forbiddingly abstract, but The Well-Beloved offers an entertaining read, featuring, as it does, some melodramatic episodes and lavish scenic descriptions in the author’s liveliest vein. It is also a salutary corrective to naïve realist readings of Hardy’s fiction in general, displaying in near-skeletal form the boldness of his experimentation. Elsewhere a seemingly straightforward story will from time to time precipitate a powerful metaphorical episode, as when Henchard sees his own effigy floating in the river below him, or John South fancies that his life is threatened by the tree in front of his house. In The Well-Beloved the method is reversed: the explicitly metaphorical story is only intermittently brought to full narrative life.
Hardy was later to note that Marcel Proust seemed to have endorsed and developed ‘the theory exhibited in The Well-Beloved’. He quotes Proust’s claim that when we fall in love it is essentially with a figment of our own invention.
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In Greek mythology, who did Zeus turn into a heifer in fear of the jealous wrath of Hera, his queen? | Hera | Greek Mythology Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
Mythology
Early Life
Hera was the youngest daughter of Kronos and Rhea . Since her father, Kronos, had made it a practice of eating his children once they were born, Hera was swallowed by him only moments after her birth.
Years later, Rhea and Hera's youngest brother, Zeus, managed to trick Kronos into consuming a special drink of mustard, salt, and nectar that he (Kronos) believed would make him unstoppable. Instead, he vomited up all five of the children whom he had swallowed. Since they were immortal, they could not be digested even after his consumption of them, and therefore had grown to their maturity in his stomach.
For ten years, Hera and her siblings fought against Kronos and his Titans for revenge as well as for the right to rule the world, and eventually Zeus managed to chop Kronos into pieces with his own sickle, and threw him into Tartarus .
Homecoming
Due to her being one of the most beautiful Goddesses ever seen, Zeus came to fall in love with her and asked her to be his Queen, but she rejected him, for she knew of his numerous love affairs and had no desire to become one of his conquests.
Slyly, Zeus generated a thunderstorm and transformed himself into a disheveled cuckoo. Pretending to be in severe distress from the storm, it flew to Hera, who felt sorry for it and held it close to her to keep it warm. Zeus then resumed his true form and forced himself upon her, though some accounts state that he finally managed to seduce her by being in such close proximity to her. She agreed to marry him.
Hera presides over the right ordering of marriage. The legitimate offspring of her union with Zeus are: Ares (the God of War), Hebe (the Goddess of Youth), Eris (the Goddess of Discord), Eileithyia (the Goddess of Childbirth), Enyo (the Goddess of Battle), and perhaps Hephaistos (the God of Fire and Blacksmiths).
Hephaestus
After Hera gave birth to Hephaestus, he was so ugly and lame that she threw him off of Olympus. He landed on an island and his legs were permanently damaged. He now has an awkward walk and his home is on the island that he landed on.
It is said she gave birth to Hephaistos without Zeus, because she was jealous of his love toward Athena. When Hephaistos was born she saw his ugliness and cast him from Olympus.
Hephaistos gained revenge against Hera for rejecting him by making her a magical throne which bound her and would not allow her to leave. At the bidding of Zeus, the other gods begged Hephaistos to let her go, but he repeatedly refused. Later Dionysos came to him and got him drunk and convinced him to release Hera from the thrown. After Hephaistos released Hera, Zeus gave him Aphrodite as his wife.
Later
When Zeus and Io were having an affair, he tried to hide it from Hera by creating thick clouds over them, so that Hera couldn't see down to him. However, Hera knew that Zeus must be under the clouds, so she went down to earth and went under the clouds. Zeus, worrying about Hera's wrath, turned his lover, Io, into a stunning white heifer . Hera was not fooled. She knew this was one of Zeus' tricks but she pretended that she didn't know. She asked Zeus if she could keep the cow and Zeus, not wanting her to find out, allowed Hera to take the cow to their palace in Olympus. Hera tied Io to a tree and set Argos to watch over her.
Argos was a faithful companion of Hera who was the best guard that there ever was. This was because his body was completely covered in one hundred blue eyes. Also, Argos never closed more than half of his eyes at once, so he never missed anything.
When Zeus could no longer stand Io 's distress, he sent Hermes , the sneakiest of gods, to set Io free. Hermes disguised himself as a shepherd and went to Argos, playing music on a pipe. Argos enjoyed the music and the company of another person as he was very bored watching a cow all day. After Hermes finished his tune he began to tell a very dull story. Eventually, fifty of Argos' eyes fell asleep and then one-by-one, his other fifty began to fall asleep as well. When all hundred were closed, Hermes touched each one with his wand, making them stay shut in eternal sleep. Hermes untied the cow and Io ran back to her father, who was a river god named Inachus. Inachus didn't recognize his daughter but when Io spelled out her name in the sand, her father understood. Inachus went to Zeus with extreme anger. Zeus killed Inachus with a thunderbolt, and ever since, the river bed of Inachus has been dry. Finally, when Hera saw Argos dead and Io gone, she became extremely angry. She sent a gadfly to chase the cow wherever she went and to continuously sting her. Io ran all over Greece, trying to get away from the fly. When Io arrived in Egypt, the Egyptians worshipped the beautiful cow and she became an Egyptian goddess. Hera told Zeus that he could turn Io back into a human if he promised to never look at her again.
After Io had been turned back, she became the goddess-queen of Egypt and her son with Zeus became the king after her.
Leto
When Hera found out that Zeus had impregnated Leto with a set of twins, she made all lands shun Leto so that she wouldn't be able to find a place to have her babies. However, Hera's brother, Poseidon , had recently created a piece of land that wasn't yet attached to the Earth, so it wasn't yet land. Leto went to this island and laid under a palm tree to give birth.
Semele
After Hera discovered that Zeus had impregnated Semele , a mortal princess, she went to Semele in the guise of an old woman and asked why the baby's father wasn't with her. Semele claimed that the father was the mighty Lord of the Sky, Zeus. Hera, still disguised as the old woman, asked Semele how she could be sure that her husband really was the Lord of the Sky as so many men claimed to be him. Hera told Semele that to be sure, she should ask Zeus to see him in all his true form.
When Zeus returned, Semele made him promise on the River Styx to grant her one wish. He did so but was shocked when she asked him to show her his true form. He begged her to change her wish but she refused. He did as she pleased and she was instantly incinerated. However, Zeus rushed down to Hades and took his son from Semele.
Zeus then gave their son, Dionysos , to Hermes to take him to a valley called Nysa that was located in faraway lands to hide him from Hera. Hermes did so and left him with the Maenads where he was raised with them, as well as tigers and leopards.
Punishment of Ixion
Ixion tried to have an affair with Hera. Zeus molded a cloud shaped like Hera, and when he showered it with affection, Zeus sent him away on a fired wheel.
Judgement of Italy
At the wedding of Thetis and Peleus, everyone was invited, except for the goddess of discord, Eris . She was angered by this and threw a golden apple of discord into the party that said "To The Fairest". Hera, Athena , and Aphrodite all took claim to this apple. Not being able to decide who it was for, they turned to Zeus, who sent them to Paris , a mortal shepherd. Each goddess offered him something but Paris took Aphrodite's offer of having Helen for his bride.
Family
Khiron
Depiction
Hera is usually depicted as a tall and stately figure who is either crowned with a diadem or wearing a wreath, and carrying a specter. Her throne, chariot, and sandals were all made completely of pure gold.
She was also said to be supremely beautiful, though her beauty is very different from that of Aphrodite's. Homer described her as "ox-eyed" and "white-armed", which meant that she had large, soft brown eyes that one could become lost in, as well as a clear, pure, and unblemished complexion that was as white as ivory. In fact, Zeus (who was a connoisseur of beautiful women) once confessed in a moment of pure passion that he considered Hera to be the most beautiful of all his lovers, and the only person who could truly inflame his sexual desires to their extremes.
Personality
Hera was notorious in Greek mythology for her jealousy and her vast capacity for vengeance.
Sacred Symbols and Animals
Pomegranate - Pomegranates are wedding symbols.
Diadem - Queens typically wear crowns or diadems.
Lotus-Tipped Staff - People of great power are typically shown with a staff.
Her animals include;
Heifer - Because cows are some of the most motherly animals. She chose this as her animal.
Peacock - Because she could see the eyes of Argus in that animal.
Cow - Because of one of Zeus' infidelities: Io
Trivia
Hera's name is the anagram of her mother's name, Rhea.
Hera often has grudges against Zeus' other lovers and his children that are not with her. She often tries to kill his other children like Herakles or Dionysos .
Her Roman name is Juno.
The month of June is named after Hera's Roman name: Juno. Because of Hera's status as the Goddess of Marriage, June is the month that is viewed as the best for weddings.
Gallery of Symbols of Hera & Things Sacred to Hera
Pomegranate
Gallery of Images of Hera
Hera, by Susan Seddon Boulet.
Bronze Sculpture of Hera with a Peacock (one of her sacred birds)
Jupiter and Juno by Annibale Carracci.
Bust of Hera
Hera, Athena and Aphrodite in Peter Paul Rubens' "The Judgement of Paris" (Hermes seen at Paris' side)
Add a photo to this gallery
Gigatomachy Gallery
Copy of part of a Black Figure Amphora depicting part of the fightiing during the Gigantomachia (showing by name Hyperbios & Agasthenes against Zeus, the fallen giant Ephialtes as well as Harpolykos against Hera)
Sketch of the other half of the opening battle during the Giant War which was shown in Black and White. Ares with a spear is shown striking down Mimon who was armed with a sword. Apollo who holds a bow in one hand and a sword in the other fights Ephialtes and Hera spear in hand prepares to finish Phoitos who holds only his spear (his shield seems to have fallen
Hera prepares to stab Phoitos
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Winning the US Open in 2005, who was the last New Zealander to win a Golf 'major'? | Hera | Encyclopedia of myths Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
Encyclopedia of Myths Wiki
Hera
He-RA
Of golden-throned Hera I sing, born of Rhea, queen of the gods, unexcelled in beauty, sister and glorious wife of loud-thundering Zeus.
— Homeric Hymn to Hera.
Hera with her sacred animal, the peacock.
Details
Aardvark, bird feather, cow, crane, cuckoo, diadem, lion, lotus, lotus-tipped staff, peacock, pomegranate and poppy.
Parents
Hestia, Demeter, Poseidon, Hades and Zeus
Consort(s)
Ares, Eris, Enyo, Eileithyia, Hephaestus & Hebe
External links
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In Ancient Greek religion , Hera was the goddess of women, family, motherhood, marriage, fertility, birth, air, sky, familial love and the starry heavens. She was the Queen of Olympus. Her Roman counterpart was Juno, and she was sometimes identified with the Egyptian Isis.
She was the youngest daughter of Kronos and Rhea, and the sister and consort of Zeus . Hera was known for her jealous and vengeful nature, most notably against Zeus's lovers and offspring, but also against mortals who crossed her, such as Pelias. Paris offended her by choosing Aphrodite as the most beautiful goddess, earning Hera's hatred.
Her symbols were the lotus and the cow, due to its maternal nature. Not wanting to be seen as plain and dull like the cow, Hera chose the peacock to resemble her vain nature and the lion for her shrewdness and powers of hunting out Zeus' affairs.
Contents
Name
Etymology
The name Hera has several etymologies; one possibility is to connect it with hōra (ὥρα), season, and to interpret it as ripe for marriage. [1] John Chadwick, a decipherer of Linear B, remarks "her name may be connected with hērōs, ἥρως, 'hero', but that is no help, since it too is etymologically obscure." [2] A.J. van Windekens, [3] offers "young cow, heifer", which is consonant with Hera's common epithet βοῶπις (boōpis, cow-eyed). E-ra appears in Mycenaean Linear B tablets.
Ephithets
Βοῶπις (Boṓpis) Cow-Eyed or Cow-Faced
Παρθένος (Parthénos) Virgin
Cult
Hera was especially worshiped at the sanctuary that stood between the former Mycenaean city-states of Argos and Mycenae, where festivals in her honor called Heraia were celebrated. Though Greek altars of classical times were always placed under the open sky, Hera may have been the first deity to whom an enclosed, roofed temple sanctuary was dedicated. The cosmopolitan nature of the early cult of Hera is also evidenced in her iconographic representations. In Hellenistic imagery, Hera's wagon was pulled by peacocks, birds not known to Greeks before the conquests of Alexander: Alexander's tutor, Aristotle, refers to it as "the Persian bird." Likewise, the Athenians, during the month of Gamelion ("month of marriage") took part in an annual festival commemorating the "Sacred Marriage of Zeus and Hera," and during Metageitnion, celebrated Hera alone, in her role as the "Goddess of Charm."
Worship
Khaos-Aer (the Air); Hemera (Day); Nyx (Night); Titanis Rheia (Flow);
Titanis Selene (the Moon); Titanis Eos (Dawn); Mother of Typhon (Typhoon, Smoke)
Hera in myth
Hera presides over the right ordering of marriage and is the archetype of the union in the marriage bed, but she is not notable as a mother. The legitimate offspring of her union with Zeus are Ares (the god of war), Hebe (the goddess of youth), Eris (the goddess of discord) and Eileithyia (goddess of childbirth). Enyo, a war goddess responsible with the destruction of cities and attendant of Ares, is also mentioned as a daughter of Zeus and Hera, though Homer equates her with Eris.
The Saga of the Gods
Pre-birth
The Castration of Ouranos
According to Hesiod, Ouranos (Sky) came every night to cover and mate with Gaia (Earth) but he hated the children she bore him. Hesiod named their first six sons and six daughters the Titans, the three one-hundred-armed giants the Hekatonkheires, and the one-eyed giants the Cyclopes.
Ouranos imprisoned Gaia's eldest children, the Cyclopes and the Hekatonkheires in Tartarus, deep within Earth, where they caused pain to Gaia. She shaped a great flint-bladed sickle and asked her sons to castrate Ouranos. Only the youngest Titan, Kronos, was wily enough to do it, on being offered the promise of the mightiest weapon of all, the thunderbolt after the completion of the deed. In the dark of the night, he ambushed Ouranos as he lay with Gaia, castrated him, and threw his testicles into the sea.
The Birth of Hera
Because both Ge (Earth) and Ouranos (Sky) had given him [Kronos] a prophetic warning that his rule would be overthrown by a son of his own stock, he took to swallowing his children at birth. He swallowed his first-born daughter Hestia, then Demeter and Hera, and after Plouton [Hades] and Poseidon ...
— Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1. 4 ff (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.)
After this fearful deed, Kronos re-imprisoned the Cyclopes and Hekatonkheires in Tartarus. Angry with the way she had been deceived, Gaia cursed Kronos that he would be deposed by his child in the same way as he had deposed his own father. Seething with fury, Gaia hid away the thunderbolt in the depths of her womb, where Kronos could not reach.
Now Kronos took for himself his sister Rhea as wife, and in fear of the curse swallowed the children he sired − Hestia , Demeter , Hera, Hades and Poseidon .
Rescue
When Zeus was about to be born, Rhea sought Gaia to devise a plan to save him, so that Kronos would get his retribution for his acts against Ouranos and his own children. Rhea covertly gave birth to Zeus in Crete, handing Kronos a rock wrapped in swaddling clothes, which he promptly swallowed.
With Kronos tricked, Rhea hid Zeus in a cave on Mount Ida in Crete, where he was raised by Amalthea and the shield clashing Kouretes. After reaching manhood, he learnt of his father through Gaia, who told him to seek the Titaness Metis' advice to save his brethren. Metis prepared an emetic, and gave it to Zeus to be mixed into Kronos' drink. With Gaia's help, he attained the position of cupbearer in Kronos' palace, and mixed the emetic into his wine. Kronos choked, and disgorged first the stone (which was set down at Pytho under the glens of Parnassus to be a sign to mortal men, the Omphalos), then Zeus' siblings in reverse order of swallowing.
Titanomachy
I [Hera] go now to the ends of the generous earth on a visit to Okeanos, whence the gods have risen, and Tethys our mother who brought me up kindly in their own house, and cared for me and took me from Rheia, at that time when Zeus of the wide brows drove Kronos underneath the earth and the barren water.
— Homer, Iliad 14. 200 ff (trans. Lattimore) (Greek epic C8th B.C.)
Hera was not involved in the ensuing battle [6] , the Titanomachy. During the battle, she delved into the realm of the kind Oceanus and Tethys, who remained neutral, and was raised by them throughout the years of the war.
Hera & Zeus
The Seduction of Hera
The presence of a cuckoo seated on the sceptre [of Hera] they explain by the story that when Zeus was in love with Hera in her maidenhood he changed himself into this bird, and she caught it to be her pet [in order to seduce her].
— Pausanias, Description of Greece 2. 17. 4 (trans. Jones) (Greek travelogue C2nd A.D.)
Hera grew up to be the most beautiful of the goddesses & Zeus decided to make her his bride. Initially, Hera was shy and very resistant of Zeus, but Zeus turned into a cuckoo, flew over to her window, and pretended to be in distress. Hera cuddled the bird near her breast, and immediately found Zeus leaning against her. Embarrased and ashamed, she agreed to marry him.
The Marriage of Zeus and Hera
Lastly, he [Zeus] made Hera his blooming wife : and she was joined in love with the king of gods and men, and brought forth Hebe and Ares and Eileithyia." [N.B. Hesiod says "lastly" because the marriage of Hera followed after Zeus' seductions of the goddesses Metis, Themis, Eurynome, Demeter, Mnemosyne, and Leto.]
— Hesiod, Theogony 921 ff (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C8th or C7th B.C.)
Zeus and Hera were married together with great pomp and show. On the occasion, Gaia presented the couple with a beatiful gift - a tree with golden branches that bore golden apples. This was placed in the Garden of the Hesperides with the Drakon Ladon to guard it.
Hera & Hephaestus
Zeus gave birth from his own head to Tritogeneia [Athena] . . . Hera was very angry and quarrelled with her mate. And because of this strife she bare without union with Zeus who hold the aigis a glorious son, Hephaistos, who excelled all the sons of Heaven in crafts.
— Hesiod, Theogony 921 ff (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C8th or C7th B.C.)
Hera was jealous of Zeus' giving birth to Athena without recourse to her (actually with Metis), so she gave birth to Hephaestus without him. Hera was then disgusted with Hephaestus' ugliness and threw him from Mount Olympus. In an alternate version, Hera alone produced Hebe after being impregnated by a head of lettuce or by beating her hand on the Earth, a solemnizing action for the Greeks.
One of the Greek legends is that Hephaistos, when he was born, was thrown down by Hera. In revenge he sent as a gift a golden chair with invisible fetters. When Hera sat down she was held fast, and Hephaistos refused to listen to any other of the gods save Dionysos--in him he reposed the fullest trust--and after making him drunk Dionysos brought him to heaven.
— Pausanias, Description of Greece 1. 20. 3 (trans. Jones) (Greek travelogue C2nd A.D.)
Hephaestus gained revenge against Hera for rejecting him by making her a magical throne which, when she sat on, did not allow her to leave. The other gods begged Hephaestus to return to Olympus to let her go, but he repeatedly refused. Dionysus got him drunk and took him back to Olympus on the back of a mule. Hephaestus released Hera after being given Aphrodite as his wife.
The Gigantomachy
Angry at the way Zeus had treated the Titans by throwing them into Tartarus, Gaia mated with Tartarus, the spirit of the abyss, to create the Heca-gigantes, a tribe of hundred giants. At the instigation of Gaia, the Giants declared war on the gods, and the king of the Giants, Porphyrion, kidnapped Hera in the process.
Porphyrion raped Hera, and in fury was killed by Zeus and Heracles. This act helped to earn Hera's respect for Heracles.
The Patron of Argos
The land [of Argos] was without water [when Danaus and his daughters arrived there], thanks to Poseidon, who, in anger at Inakhos for testifying that the region belonged to Hera, had dried up even the springs.
— Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2. 13 (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.)
Once, Poseidon and Hera vied with each other for the patronship of Argos. When the king Inachus sided in favour of Hera, Poseidon cursed them that would produce no water.
Stories of love
The lust of Ixion
Ixion fell in love with Hera and tried to rape her, and when Hera told Zeus about it, Zeus wanted to determine if her report was really true. So he fashioned a cloud to look like Hera, and laid it by Ixion’s side. When Ixion bragged that he had slept with Hera, Zeus punished him by tying him to a wheel, on which he was turned by winds up in the air.
— Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca E1. 20 (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.)
Ixion tried to seduce Hera, who reported his actions to Zeus. The god formed a simalcrum of the goddess out of clouds and sent it to the man. When he slept with this false Hera, Zeus sentenced him to spin for all eternity on a fiery wheel.
Stories of her wrath
Hera, the enemy of Heracles
Hera was the step-mother of Heracles, and is renowned as his enemy; in her honor; Heracles is the hero who, more than even Perseus, Cadmus or Theseus, introduced the Olympian ways in Greece. [7] When Heracles was about to be born, Hera tried to prevent it by tying the goddess of childbirth, Eileithyia's legs into knots. She was foiled by Galanthis, her servant, who told Hera that she had already delivered the baby. Hera punished Galanthis by turning her into an animal.
While Heracles was still an infant, Hera sent two serpents to kill him as he lay in his cot. Heracles throttled a single snake in each hand and was found by his nurse playing with their limp bodies as if they were a child's toys. The anecdote is built upon a representation of the hero gripping a serpent in each hand, precisely as the familiar Minoan snake-handling goddesses had once done. "The picture of a divine child between two serpents may have been long familiar to the Thebans, who worshiped the Cabeiri, although not represented as a first exploit of a hero".
Later she stirred up the Amazons against him when he was on one of his quests.
One account [8] of the origin of the Milky Way is that Zeus had tricked Hera into nursing the infant Heracles: discovering who he was, she pulled him from her breast, and a spurt of her milk formed the smear across the sky that can be seen to this day. Unlike any Greeks, the Etruscans instead pictured a full-grown bearded Heracles at Hera's breast: this may refer to his adoption by her when he became an Immortal. He had previously wounded her severely in the breast.
Hera assigned Heracles to labor for King Eurystheus at Mycenae. She attempted to make almost each of Heracles' twelve labors more difficult.
When he fought the Lernaean Hydra, she sent a crab to bite at his feet in the hopes of distracting him. When Heracles took the cattle of Geryon, he shot Hera in the right breast with a triple-barbed arrow: the wound was incurable and left her in constant pain, as Dione tells Aphrodite in the Iliad, Book V. Afterwards, Hera sent a gadfly to bite the cattle, irritate them and scatter them. Hera then sent a flood which raised the water level of a river so much that Heracles could not ford the river with the cattle. He piled stones into the river to make the water shallower. When he finally reached the court of Eurystheus, the cattle were sacrificed to Hera.
Eurystheus also wanted to sacrifice the Cretan Bull to Hera. She refused the sacrifice because it reflected glory on Heracles. The bull was released and wandered to Marathon, becoming known as the Marathonian Bull.
Some myths state that in the end, Heracles befriended Hera by saving her from Porphyrion, a giant who tried to rape her during the Gigantomachy, and that she even gave her daughter Hebe as his bride. Whatever myth-making served to account for an archaic representation of Heracles as "Hera's man" it was thought suitable for the builders of the Heraion at Paestum to depict the exploits of Heracles in bas-reliefs.
Echo
A strange-voiced Nymphe observed . . . who must speak if any other speak an cannot speak unless another speak, resounding Echo. Echo was still a body, not a voice, but talkative as now, and with the same power of speaking, only to repeat, as best she could, the last of many words, Saturnia [Hera] had made her so; for many a time when the great goddess might have caught the Nymphae lying with Jove [Zeus] upon the mountainside, Echo discreetly kept her talking till the Nymphae had fled away; and when at last the goddess saw the truth, ‘Your tongue’, she said, ‘with which you tricked me, now its power shall lose, your voice avail but fro the briefest use.’ The event confirmed the threat: when speaking ends, all she can do is double each last word, and echo back again the voice she's heard.
— Ovid, Metamorphoses 3. 350 ff (trans. Melville) (Roman epic C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.)
According to the urbane retelling of myth in Ovid's Metamorphoses, for a long time, a nymph named Echo had the job of distracting Hera from Zeus' affairs by leading her away and flattering her. When Hera discovered the deception, she cursed Echo to only repeat the words of others (hence our modern word "echo").
Leto
Leto had relations with Zeus, for which she was hounded by Hera all over the earth. She finally reached Delos and gave birth to Artemis, who thereupon helped her deliver Apollon.
— Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1. 21 (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.)
When Hera discovered that Leto was pregnant and that Zeus was the father, she banned Leto from giving birth on terra-firma, or the mainland, or any island at sea. Poseidon gave pity to Leto and guided her to the floating island of Delos, which was neither mainland nor a real island and Leto was able to give birth to her children on the island. As a gesture of gratitude, Delos was secured with four pillars. The island later became sacred to Apollo. Alternatively, Hera kidnapped Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods bribed Hera with a beautiful necklace nobody could resist and she finally gave in.
Either way, Artemis was born first and then assisted with the birth of Apollo. Some versions say Artemis helped her mother give birth to Apollo for nine days. Another variation states that Artemis was born one day before Apollo, on the island of Ortygia and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo.
Semele
Zeus fell in love with Semele and slept with her, promising her anything she wanted, and keeping it all from Hera. But Semele was deceived by Hera into asking Zeus to come to her as he came to Hera during their courtship. So Zeus, unable to refuse her, arrived in her bridal chamber in a chariot with lightning flashes and thunder, and sent a thunderbolt at her. Semele died of fright, and Zeus grabbed from the fire her six-month aborted baby [Dionysos], which he sowed into his thigh.
— Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 3. 26 (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.)
When Hera learned that Semele, daughter of Cadmus King of Thebes, was pregnant by Zeus, she disguised herself as Semele's nurse and persuaded the princess to insist that Zeus show himself to her in his true form. When he was compelled to do so, his thunder and lightning blasted her. Zeus took the child and completed its gestation sewn into his own thigh. Another variation is when Hera persuades Semele to force Zeus to show himself in his real form. Unfortunately, he must do what the princess wants, having sworn by Styx.
In another version, Dionysus was originally the son of Zeus by either Demeter or Persephone. Hera sent her Titans to rip the baby apart, from which he was called Zagreus ("Torn in Pieces"). Zeus rescued the heart and gave it to Semele to impregnate her; or, the heart was saved, variously, by Athena, Rhea, or Demeter.
Zeus used the heart to recreate Dionysus and implant him in the womb of Semele—hence Dionysus became known as "the twice-born". Certain versions imply that Zeus gave Semele the heart to eat to impregnate her. Hera tricked Semele into asking Zeus to show his true form, which killed her. But Dionysus managed to rescue her from the underworld and have her live on Mount Olympus.
Io
Zeus seduced Io while she was a priestess of Hera. When Hera discovered them, Zeus touched the girl, changed her into a white cow, and swore that he had not had sex with her. For this reason, says Hesiod, oaths made in love do not incite divine anger.
Hera demanded the cow from Zeus, and assigned Argos Panoptes as its guard . . . Argos tied the cow to an olive tree in the grove of the Mykenaians. Zeus instructed Hermes to steal her, and Hermes . . . Killed Argos with a stone.
Hera then inflicted the cow with a gladfly, and she made her way [in a journey out of Greece] . . . until she finally reached Aigyptos (Egypt), where she regained her shape and gave birth beside the Neilos (Nile) to a son Epaphos. Hera asked the Kouretes to kidnap the child, which they did. When Zeus found this out, he slew the Kouretes, while Io set out to find their babe [and eventually located him in Syria]''
— Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2. 5 - 9 (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.)
Hera almost caught Zeus with a mistress named Io, a fate avoided by Zeus turning Io into a beautiful white heifer. However, Hera was not completely fooled and demanded that Zeus give her the heifer as a present.
Once Io was given to Hera, she placed her in the charge of Argus to keep her separated from Zeus. Zeus then commanded Hermes to kill Argus, which he did by lulling all one hundred eyes to sleep. In Ovid's interpolation, when Hera learned of Argus' death, she took his eyes and placed them in the plumage of the peacock, accounting for the eye pattern in its tail. Hera then sent a gadfly (Greek oistros, compare oestrus) to sting Io as she wandered the earth. Eventually Io settled in Egypt, where according to Ovid she became the Egyptian goddess Isis.
Lamia
Lamia was a queen of Libya, whom Zeus loved. Hera turned her into a monster and murdered their children. Or, alternatively, she killed Lamia's children and the grief turned her into a monster. Lamia was cursed with the inability to close her eyes so that she would always obsess over the image of her dead children. Zeus gave her the gift to be able to take her eyes out to rest, and then put them back in. Lamia was envious of other mothers and ate their children.
Gerana
Among the people we call Pygmaioi there was born a girl called Oinoe who was of flawless beauty but she was graceless by nature and overweening. She cared not a rap for Artemis and Hera . . . Hera found fault with Oinoe for not honouring her and turned her into a crane, elongated her neck, ordained that she should be a bird that flew high. She also caused war to arise between her and the Pygmaioi. Yearning for her child Mopsos, Oinoe flew over houses and would not go away. But all the Pygmaioi armed themselves and chased her away. Because of this there arose a state of war then as well as now between the Pygmaioi and the cranes.
— Antoninus Liberalis, Metamorphoses 16 (trans. Celoria) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.)
Gerana was a queen of the Pygmies who boasted she was more beautiful than Hera. The wrathful goddess turned her into a crane and proclaimed that her bird descendants should wage eternal war on the Pygmy folk.
Tiresias
Teiresias saw two snakes sexually couples in the area of Kyllene, and when he injured them he changed from a man into a woman. Later, seeing the same snakes again mating, he was changed back into a man. Thus, when Hera and Zeus were arguing as to whether men or women enjoy sex more, they put the question to Teiresias. He said that on a scale of ten, women enjoy it nine times to men’s one. Whereupon Hera blinded him, and Zeus gave him the power of prophecy.
— Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 3. 71 (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.)
Tiresias was a priest of Zeus, and as a young man he encountered two snakes mating and hit them with a stick. He was then transformed into a woman. As a woman, Tiresias became a priestess of Hera, married and had children, including Manto. After seven years as a woman, Tiresias again found mating snakes, struck them with her staff, and became a man once more.
As a result of his experiences, Zeus and Hera asked him to settle the question of which sex, male or female, experienced more pleasure during intercourse. Zeus claimed it was women; Hera claimed it was men. When Tiresias sided with Zeus, Hera struck him blind.
Since Zeus could not undo what she had done, he gave him the gift of prophecy. An alternative and less commonly told story has it that Tiresias was blinded by Athena after he stumbled onto her bathing naked. His mother, Chariclo, begged her to undo her curse, but Athena could not; she gave him prophecy instead.
Chelone
At the marriage of Zeus and Hera, a nymph named Chelone was disrespectful or refused to attend. Zeus condemned her by turning her into a turtle.
The Iliad
According to the Iliad, during the Trojan War, Diomedes fought Hector and saw Ares fighting on the Trojans' side. Diomedes called for his soldiers to fall back slowly. Hera, Ares' mother, saw Ares' interference and asked Zeus, Ares' father, for permission to drive Ares away from the battlefield. Hera encouraged Diomedes to attack Ares and he threw his spear at the god. Athena drove the spear into Ares' body, and he bellowed in pain and fled to Mt. Olympus, forcing the Trojans to fall back.
Hera & the island of Aegina
After the goddess learnt that Aeacus King of Aegina was an illegitimate son of Zeus, she poisoned the island's waters, killing the country's entire population.
King Haemus and Queen Rhodope
In Thrace, Hera and Zeus turned King Haemus and Queen Rhodope into mountains, the Balkan (Haemus Mons) and Rhodope mountain chains respectively, for their hubris in comparing themselves to the gods.
The Judgement of Paris
[At the wedding of Peleus and Thetis:] Eris tossed an apple to Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite, in recognition of their beauty, and Zeus bade Hermes escort them to Alexandros [Paris] on Ide, to be judged by him. They offered Alexandros gifts: Hera said if she were chosen fairest of all women, she would make him king of all men; Athena promised him victory in war; and Aphrodite promised him Helene in marriage. So he chose Aphrodite.
— Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca E3. 2 (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.)
All the gods and goddesses as well as various mortals were invited to the marriage of Peleus and Thetis (the eventual parents of Achilles). Only Eris, goddess of discord, was not invited. She was annoyed at this, so she arrived with a golden apple inscribed with the word καλλίστῃ (kallistēi, "for the fairest one"), which she threw among the goddesses. Aphrodite, Hera, and Athena all claimed to be the fairest, and thus the rightful owner of the apple.
The goddesses chose to place the matter before Zeus, who, not wanting to favor one of the goddesses, put the choice into the hands of Paris, a Trojan prince. After bathing in the spring of Mount Ida (where Troy was situated), the goddesses appeared before Paris. The goddesses undressed and presented themselves to Paris naked, either at his request or for the sake of winning. Still, Paris could not decide, as all three were ideally beautiful, so they resorted to bribes.
Hera offered Paris control over all Asia and Europe, while Athena offered wisdom, fame, and glory in battle, and Aphrodite offered the most beautiful mortal woman in the world as a wife, and he accordingly chose her. This woman was Helen, who was, unfortunately for Paris, already married to King Menelaus of Sparta. The other two goddesses were enraged by this and through Helen's abduction by Paris they brought about the Trojan War.
Stories of her favour and blessings
Cydippe
Cydippe, a priestess of Hera, was on her way to a festival in the goddess' honor. The oxen which were to pull her cart were overdue and her sons, Biton and Cleobis, pulled the cart the entire way (45 stadia, 8 kilometers). Cydippe was impressed with their devotion to her and her goddess and asked Hera to give her children the best gift a god could give a person. Hera ordained that the brothers would die in their sleep.
This honor bestowed upon the children was later used by Solon, as a proof while trying to convince Croesus that it is impossible to judge a person's happiness until they have died a fruitful death after a joyous life.
The Golden Fleece
Hera hated Pelias because he had killed Sidero, his step-grandmother, in one of the goddess's temples. She later convinced Jason and Medea to kill Pelias. Golden Fleece was the item that Jason needed to get his mother freed.
Consorts and children
In modern culture
Books
Hera is featured in the Percy Jackson and the Olympians and Heroes of Olympus book series, more notably in in the first book of the latter series, as a goddess with a certain hatred to all demigods, especially Jason and Thalia Grace. She is shown as kidnapped in The Lost Hero by Porphyrion after taking Jason's memories.
Comics
Hera has often appeared in the Wonder Woman comic book, sometimes as a patroness of the heroine, sometimes as her enemy.
Television
Hera was a near-constant foe for Hercules in several made for TV movies and later the TV series Hercules: The Legendary Journeys. This version of Hera usually manifested as disembodied eyes throughout most of the made-for-TV films, but she eventually appeared in a human-like form near the end of the series' run.
Video Games
Hera was featured in the video game God of War 3, she was seen as an evil, ungrateful drunk, and was eventually killed by the series protagonist Kratos, by him snapping her neck/spine.
Portrayal
Hera is often portrayed as majestic and solemn, often bearing a pomegranate in her hand, emblem of fertile blood and death and a substitute for the narcotic capsule of the opium poppy. She also may hold a peacock feather in her hand, and carry a lotus-tipped staff. She is usually crowned with a diadem.
Attributes
Chariot
Hera's chariot was drawn by peacocks, birds not known to Greeks before the conquests of Alexander. Alexander's tutor, Aristotle, refers to it as "the Persian bird." The peacock motif was revived in the Renaissance iconography that unified Hera and Juno, and which European painters focused on. [9]
Symbols
General
Milky Way (our galaxy), the seasons of the year, diadem (diamond crown) or tiara, spas and baths
Fauna
↑ Walter Burkert, Greek Religion, (Harvard University Press) 1985, p. 131
↑ Chadwick, The Mycenaean World (Cambridge University Press) 1976:87.
↑ Windekens, in Glotta 36 (1958), pp. 309-11.
↑ Pausanias, iii. 15. § 7
↑ James Joseph Clauss, Sarah Iles Johnston. Medea: Essays on Medea in myth, literature, philosophy, and art, 1997. p.46
↑ Book 14 of the Iliad, starting at Line 197, quoted above
↑ Ruck and Staples
↑ Hyginus, De Astronomia, 2.43; pseudo-Eratostenes, Catasterismi, 44; Achilles Tatius (attributed), Introduction to Aratus.
↑ Seznec, Jean, The Survival of the Pagan Gods : Mythological Tradition in Renaissance Humanism and Art, 1953
↑ Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft, s.v. Hera: "Heraberühmte"
See also
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In 1980, the Soviet Union's Sergey Litvinov took the silver medal in the Hammer Throw at the Olympic Games in Moscow behind the great Yuriy Sedykh.
Now, 33 years later, can his son and namesake, also called Sergey Litivinov, succeed where the father failed?
Figures and form suggest he has a good chance, but, like his father, he faces a mighty battle.
Fortunately, Litvinov snr ultimately did not need the 1980 Olympic gold medal to establish his place in the throwers’ pantheon.
He went on to win at the first two World Championships, at Helsinki 1983 and then in Rome four years later, and, after the Soviet bloc boycott of the 1984 Los Angeles Games, he won the 1988 Olympic crown in Seoul.
His great teammate and rival, Sedykh, still holds the World record with the mighty 86.34m heave he produced at the 1986 European Championships and it is reasonably safe to say the World record will survive beyond Moscow 2013.
However, Litvinov is a credible contender to do what his father could not – win a gold medal in a global championship title in the Russian capital’s historic Luzhniki Stadium.
He has a personal best of 80.98m and threw 80.89m at the Kuts Memorial meeting in Moscow on 15 July to lie second in the world on the 2013 list.
The biggest obstacle in Litvinov’s path is, obviously, Hungary’s London 2012 Olympic Games champion Krisztian Pars, who is undefeated in 12 competitions this year.
The 31-year-old, a World youth champion way back in 1999, made a steady transition to senior ranks before really coming into his own in the last few years.
Fifth on his Olympic debut in Athens 2004, Pars has successively finished seventh in Helsinki 2005, fifth in Osaka 2007, fourth at the Olympic Games in Beijing and then Berlin 2009; and then third at the 2010 European Athletics Championships and second in Daegu two years ago, before crowning his rise with the gold medal in London last year ahead of Slovenia’s defending champion Primoz Kozmus and Japan’s 2004 Olympic Games winner and 2011 World champion Koji Murofushi.
Kozmus and Murofushi remain somewhat sparing in their number of competitions this summer, but still lurk around the sharp end of the world lists with 78.83m and 76.42m, respectively.
Sydney 2000 Olympic champion Szymon Ziolkowski has been more active in competition, though his best this year is 78.79m but on their records, all three must be respected.
Tajikistan’s Dilshod Nazarov and Czech Republic’s Lukas Melich are the only other two men to have breached the 80m mark this year.
Nazarov briefly held the world lead with his 80.71m in Germany back in May, but the 31-year-old’s record in major championships – 11th in Beijing and Berlin, 10th in Daegu and London – suggests he is more likely to be a finalist again than a medallist.
Melich threw a personal best of 80.28m in Poland in June. The 32-year-old has been up around the 80 metres mark for the past two years and finished sixth in London, so he must be rated as a medal chance in Moscow.
Of the younger throwers, Poland’s Pawel Fajdek has twice thrown 79.99m this year, including when winning at the Universiade in Kazan last month ahead of Slovakia’s Marcel Lomnicky, who reached 78.73m for the silver medal.
Fajdek was also the only man to beat Pars last year although he had a disaster at the Olympics with three no-throws in qualifying.
Russia’s other two representatives, Aleksey Zagorniy and Aleksey Korolyev, have solid if not spectacular credentials.
The event has a very even field this year, apart from the super-consistant Pars.
Less than two metres covers the world top 10. As ever, it will not be what men throw at their best which decides the outcome, but what they can produce under the highest competition pressure, as Pars showed when he won his Olympic gold last summer.
Click here for OFFICIAL ENTRIES in the Moscow 2013 Athletes’ section.
Len Johnson for the IAAF
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What was the name of Nelson's flagship at the Battle of the Nile in 1798? | The Top Eight Male Field Athletes of All Time | Bleacher Report
The Top Eight Male Field Athletes of All Time
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Comments
When asked I can tell people that I "ran" track in college.
The truth of the matter is the only place I ever ran was over to my cooler full of food. So yes, I'm a field guy, and I wanted to pay some tribute to the greatest athletes to dominate field events during the modern era.
Enjoy and feel free to let me know if you think I've overlooked someone.
Long Jump: Bob Beamon (USA)
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Man this is a tough one, but I had to go with American Bob Beamon. My reasoning is fairly obvious, gold medal at the 1968 Olympics and a world record that stood for 23 years is just staggering.
Mind boggling when you consider the influence of performance enhancing drugs. I will say that I also gave serious consideration to both Carl Lewis and Mike Powell.
Triple Jump: Jonathan Edwards (GBR)
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In 1995, Great Britain's Jonathan Edwards became the first man to break the 60-foot barrier. In 2002, Edwards completed track and field's equivalent of a Grand Slam. Adding to his Olympic gold medal from 2000 games, he won gold medals from the other three majors (World Championships, Commonwealth Games & European Championships).
He continues to own the current world record in long jump at 18.29m which he set back in 1995.
High Jump: Javier Sotomayor (CUB)
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You could make some good arguments with the high jump. Dick Fosbury is obviously the most influential jumper. American Dwight Stones had a nice run, albeit with limited Olympic success, during the 1970s.
However, when you consider the total body of work, nobody can touch Cuba's Javier Sotomayor. It is too bad that Sotomayor's career had to have been influenced by politics with Cuba having boycotted both the 1984 and 1988 Olympic games. When he did have his next chance at the games in Barcelona (1992) he took home the gold.
He owns 17 of the best 24 jumps ever, and is still the only person ever to have cleared eight feet. His world record of 2.45 m has stood since 1993.
Pole Vault: Sergey Bubka (URS)
Gray Mortimore/Getty Images
When I started writing this article I didn't realize just how dominante Sergey Bubka was. While competing for the former Soviet Union and eventually Ukraine, Bubka was the first man to clear 6.0 meters, and still to this day the only man to have cleared 20 feet.
Bubka was six consecutive World Championships rom 1983 to 1997. While his Olympic career could best be described as unlucky, he did win an Olympic gold medal at the Seoul games in 1988.
Beyond the records and medal counts his lasting contribution to the sport was to change the technical model of vaulting - driving the pole up rather than bending it at the plant.
Shot Put: Parry O'Brien (USA)
Thought I was going with Randy Barnes here?
Before the spin there was the glide. Over the years the United States has produced a long list of the world's top shot putters, but for the past 50 years you can trace them all back to Parry O'Brien.
O'Brien won two Olympic gold medals (1952, 1956), one silver medal (1960), and placed fourth at the 1964 Olympics.
Before O'Brien, shot putting looked much like today's warm up throws with just a hip turn and foot switch. O'Brien's lasting legacy was the invention of the slide technique - where you start the throw facing the back of the circle and rotate 180 degrees during the throw.
Discus Throw: Al Oerter (USA)
Getty Images/Getty Images
Talk about a freak of nature. Accomplishments aside, American discuss thrower Al Oerter would be a legend based only on his longevity. He won Olympic golds in four consecutive games from 1956 to 1968.
It gets better. In 1980 at the age of 43, Oerter finished fourth and just missed qualifying for the Untied States Olympic team.
DId I mention that he won his third gold at the Tokyo games with torn rib cartilage that prevented him from taking his last throw?
Next »
Hammer Throw: Yuriy Sedykh (URS)
This was another tough one. I think you could have made an argument for Belarusian Ivan Tikhon in another year or two had it not been for his doping suspension. Then again it is probably fairly safe to assume that the athletes from the old USSR weren't doing it by eating their Wheaties.
At the end of the day I decided to go with the Soviet (Ukranian) Yuriy Sedykh. Sedykh won Olympic golds in Montreal (1976) and Moscow (1980). He added to his collection with a silver at the Seoul games in 1988.
Had the Soviets not boycotted Los Angeles in 1984 he may vey well have been a three time Olympic gold medalist.
For good measure throw in a World Championship gold and three European Championships.
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What was the pen-name used by the British short-story writer H.H. Munro? | Saki (Author of The Complete Saki)
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Hector Hugh Munro, better known by the pen name Saki, was born in Akyab, Burma (now known as Sittwe, Myanmar), was a British writer, whose witty and sometimes macabre stories satirized Edwardian society and culture. He is considered a master of the short story and is often compared to O. Henry and Dorothy Parker. His tales feature delicately drawn characters and finely judged narratives. "The Open Window" may be his most famous, with a closing line ("Romance at short notice was her speciality") that has entered the lexicon. In addition to his short stories (which were first published in newspapers, as was the custom of the time, and then collected into several volumes) he also wrote a full-length play, The Watched Pot, in collaboration with Hector Hugh Munro, better known by the pen name Saki, was born in Akyab, Burma (now known as Sittwe, Myanmar), was a British writer, whose witty and sometimes macabre stories satirized Edwardian society and culture. He is considered a master of the short story and is often compared to O. Henry and Dorothy Parker. His tales feature delicately drawn characters and finely judged narratives. "The Open Window" may be his most famous, with a closing line ("Romance at short notice was her speciality") that has entered the lexicon. In addition to his short stories (which were first published in newspapers, as was the custom of the time, and then collected into several volumes) he also wrote a full-length play, The Watched Pot, in collaboration with Charles Maude; two one-act plays; a historical study, The Rise of the Russian Empire, the only book published under his own name; a short novel, The Unbearable Bassington; the episodic The Westminster Alice (a Parliamentary parody of Alice in Wonderland), and When William Came, subtitled A Story of London Under the Hohenzollerns, an early alternate history. He was influenced by Oscar Wilde, Lewis Carroll, and Kipling, and himself influenced A. A. Milne, Noël Coward, and P. G. Wodehouse ...more
| Saki |
Which British author died in 1975 just weeks after being knighted at the age of 93? | Saki | Uncyclopedia | Fandom powered by Wikia
Early Life
Munro was known for his skill in hunting natives and other wildlife.
Hector Hugh Munro was born in Akyab, Burma , to a distinguished family with a history in the colonial service. His father was the Inspector General for the Burmese Police, and he spent two years frolicking in the Burmese rainforest before being sent back to England , due to the untimely demise of his mother. In England he was forced to live with his grandmother and his prudish, childless spinster aunts. At a young age Saki learned that childless women are often crazy and unmarriageable, and hate other people’s children with a vengeance. It is just as well that Hector’s aunts forced him to say “please” and “thank you”, and bathe five times a day. He was also forced to write letters dictated by his aunt, which usually complained about exposed ankles in statues lining Hyde Park or other similarly indecent things. Naturally, their conservative attitude and world view did not agree with Munro, and he hated them with a passion, but was forced to stay under their guardianship for 10 years.
Colonial Service
After he graduated from grammar school, Munro was glad to leave his childhood behind by joining the Imperial Indian Police. He followed the footsteps of his father by getting posted in Burma, and served his empire by helping natives whose lives can only be improved if they were more British. He wrote lovingly about nature and wildlife during his free time, but also complained about the lack of taste and fashion sense in the Burmese natives . He also got acquainted with the works of Persian philosopher and mathematician, Omar Khayyám , whose works dealt with the joys of alcohol, sex, and lax spirituality, and whose Rubáiyát was the source of inspiration for his pen name, Saki. Munro’s command of the English language was appreciated by his colleagues, and he was appointed as head of the Commission for Education of English to Elephants and Natives in 1896. His first project was to teach the Burmese elephants and natives to compose satirical rhyming poetic epigrams. It was a failure. He then made his second project easier - to just focus on non-rhyming epigrams that only need to be funny . It was also a failure. This led him to conclude that the natives were not of sufficient intelligence to achieve any sort of civility; in fact the funniest thing they could muster was “The rice paddy needs to be irrigated before the drought.”
Those ties? They're so 1889.
In London
Munro returned to London in 1898, and began to work as a journalist for several prominent London newspapers. Both his family background and his occupation allowed him to frequent the social circles of the Edwardian upper class and become a regular at their dinner parties. He would regale them with his witty epigrams, and turn around to satirise them in his editorial columns the next morning. Somehow, this made him rather popular, as most of the people he wrote about were under the impression that he was writing about somebody else. They invited him to lots of hunting parties, where they chase and shoot working class people on horseback. His Morning Post editors also agreed to give him a regular column, in which he would criticise the etiquette and fashion-obsessed Edwardians every Monday. Every Tuesday, he would have another column, called “ Haute or Naught ”, in which he would talk about recent fashion disasters of prominent Edwardian celebrities and make fun of people who don’t follow fashion trends. After all, as Saki said, “Being too tasteless or too poor, which may very well be the same thing, is no excuse for wearing a cravat that does not match your frock coat.”
Besides his editorial columns, Saki also wrote short stories usually featuring witty and effete dandies as main characters. His most well known dandies are Reginald and Clovis Sangrail, who delight in upsetting their traditional elders while making fun of people who don’t follow fashion trends. It resulted in many delightful stories and several anthologies, such as Reginald and The Chronicles of Clovis, respectively. Evidently, his characters would be overly effeminate for today’s more open minded readers, but back then they were completely acceptable in the eyes of the more conservative Edwardian public.
This closet is obviously Second Empire, darling, and would look absolutely horrendous next to your Ming dynasty arbour!
As a Foreign Correspondent
From 1902, Saki was posted to Russia as a foreign correspondent for the Morning Post. Far from the comforts he had in the upper class areas of London, Saki was able to witness the suffering of Russian peasants especially during the various bloodbaths in the Russian Revolution of 1905 . Despite the fact that the peasants have no sense of fashion, Saki was sympathetic, and like any reasonable Englishman he would come to conclude that Jews and socialism were to blame. The socialists, he said, were responsible for the revolution, and the Jews? Well, they were just naturally suspicious. His editorial columns would also adopt subtle political undertones, however Saki was always in the opinion that, “The Russians still don’t know how to talk politics. It is horribly improper to talk about death and destruction when you have perfectly good topics like tax rates and the latest agricultural legislation.” [1]
Saki’s experiences in Russia also resulted in more short stories and as anthologies like Reginald in Russia, which dealt with Reginald who visits members of the Russian royalty to complain about their choice of furniture. The attention Reginald pays to interior décor , “which started out with an obvious intention of being Louis Quinze, but relapsed at frequent intervals into Wilhelm II”, would be considered a bit unusual, but the story was still rather popular among the English upper classes. Apparently everyone agrees that the Russians are completely hopeless at choosing chaise lounges, as evidenced by the aesthetic travesties committed by members of the Russian royalty which everyone apparently knows.
Towards the Great War
Health problems lead Saki to return to England in 1908. Embittered and changed by his experiences in Russia, Saki’s columns and short stories became increasingly politically charged. He found the need to express his political and moral views on everything, including issues like socialism, race, women’s suffrage , the colonisation effort, the War , and George Bernard Shaw’s unsightly beard. More than one short story was dedicated to ridiculing Bernard Shaw’s fashion sense and ridiculously liberal ideas. He also reasoned that since childless women are crazy and unmarriageable, they shouldn’t be allowed to vote. Obviously, if they were allowed, the women would force politicians to debate about silly things like shoes and cooking - a catastrophical future which Saki warned about in some of his short stories. He also famously said, “Letting a woman vote is like letting a monkey drive a car. Speaking of which, you know what’s also like letting a monkey drive a car? Letting a woman drive a car.”
Saki’s opinion on Jews can be found in a well-loved short story called “The Unrest Cure”. In the story, Clovis Sangrail orchestrates a small-scale extermination of Jews while using incredibly witty and funny epigrams. Saki also fiercely advocated declaring war with Germany , because as he saw it, those imperialist - socialists of the Hohenzollern dynasty, who were also possibly Jewish, were trying to force their elitist , left-wing ideals onto good old-fashioned Britain.
What do you mean you belong to a soldier's union? Damn socialists!
World War I
To prevent Britain from falling into the thralls of the Jews and their socialism, Saki volunteered for the war despite being officially over-aged. He proved to be a brave and manly fighter, and managed to achieve the highest rank attainable for a non-commissioned officer. Despite being somewhat old, Saki still retained his good taste in fashion and interior design. His superiors also recognised this, and put him in charge of decorating the trenches with the most fashionable carpets and drapes, in order to boost the morale of the soldiers. When they couldn’t dig the trenches fast enough, though, interior design became just an odd doily on the floor. Many of his designs can still be seen today, buried among caved-in trenches along with a few hundred rotting corpses of soldiers who failed to escape when the trench collapsed. Before his own death, Saki spent most of his free time writing letters to home, complaining about the lack of etiquette in the young soldiers under his command. He would get particularly upset when any of them spoke to him without being introduced, or when, for instance, some of the working-class ones couldn’t tell the difference between “je ne sais pas” and “je ne sais quoi”. One cold winter morning, while out patrolling and simultaneously bird-watching with a fellow soldier, Saki was gunned down by a German sniper after uttering his last words to his companion, which happen to be “Put that bloody cigarette out!” Most people felt that it fell a bit short of being an epigram, but it was as witty as it could be under the circumstances.
Legacy
For those without comedic tastes, the so-called experts at Wikipedia have an article very remotely related to Saki .
The plagiarising idiots at Wikiquote also have a collection of quotations related to: Saki .
Saki’s short stories are still enjoyed by the few people who have heard of him, and he has also left behind an array of quotes that one can use to impress people in dinner parties [2] . His stories on the extermination of Jews, on the other hand, are now universally agreed by academics to be a satire of the prevalent views of anti-Semitism in his time. The same goes for his stories on the pitfalls of socialism, peace and women’s rights, which all happen to be satires on the conservative views of Edwardian times. The only people who think otherwise are people with no sense of humour. Many scholars also express regret that the great humourist did not choose to end his life with an epigram, which was usually the convention, for instance, Oscar Wilde ended his life with “These curtains are killing me, one of us has got to go,” which managed to achieve the purpose of being very witty and memorable while showcasing his good taste for interior design .
Footnotes
↑ Saki was known for his brilliant and witty treatises on the effects of the regulation of the culture of legumes in Sri Lanka.
↑ Especially when you get tired of those Oscar Wilde ones.
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'They Might Be Giants' ' song 'Boss Of Me' was the theme tune to which American sitcom that ran from 2000 to 2006? | TV Themes the Last 4 Decades
TV Themes the Last 4 Decades
To find out how TV theme songs have changed over the decades and what went into writing these unforgettable tunes, we talked to some of the people who made them.
The '70s
Classic TV theme: Happy Days
Written by Charles Fox and Norman Gimbel
Goodbye grey sky, hello blue.
There's nothing can hold me when I hold you.
Back when we had to leave the couch to change the channel, the opening sequence of a show was its audition for the next 30 minutes of our attention. Should we spend some time with Richie and The Fonz, or flip over to the Tony Orlando & Dawn Rainbow Hour? The song could make all the difference, and doing it right was an art form.
Happy Days ran from 1974-1984, but for the first 2 seasons, the era-appropriate " Rock Around The Clock " was the opening theme, while "Happy Days," which Charles Fox wrote with lyricist Norman Gimbel, played as the closing theme. In season 3, "Happy Days" took over as the open.
Charles Fox, who wrote the music for at least 100 classic and not-so-classic (The Joe Namath Hour) TV shows, studied in Paris with Nadia Boulanger, who also taught composition to Leonard Bernstein, Aaron Copland and Philip Glass. He told us:
You always want to capture what you think is the essence of the show and you want to make something that's bright and interesting and attractive. So if someone's in the other room doing something and hears the theme, they say, "Oh, I know that show, I like that show," and they come running in. And the other thing is you want to make it so that you can have elements from the theme that you can score within the body of the show, and then hopefully someday it could go on and be a hit record, also, and sound fresh all the time.
Think back to Happy Days: When you hear the theme and get the thumbs up from Fonzie, it feels so good, it can't be wrong. It was so good that the theme was made into a full-length song, charting at #5 in the US and even cracking the UK Top 40.
Did You Know?
Quincy Jones, who also studied with Nadia Boulanger, wrote the theme song to Sanford and Son , which is called "The Streetbeater."
And did we mention the closing theme? In what would be seen as a trivial waste of show content these days, each episode ended with a reprise of the theme song while credits displayed over still shots of the jukebox. This was common practice back then.
Gimbel and Fox also wrote the theme to the Happy Days spin-off Laverne & Shirley , called "Making Our Dreams Come True." They wrote the song as "Hoping Our Dreams Will Come True," but changed it when the producers told them that these independent women don't "Hope," they go out and make things happen. Additional credits for the songwriters include " Killing Me Softly With His Song " and " I Got A Name ."
Other famous theme songs from the '70s:
" Suicide Is Painless " from M*A*S*H - The complete song, with lyrics, appears in the 1970 movie that gave rise to the show.
" Movin' On Up " from The Jeffersons - This was sung by Ja'net DuBois, who played Willona Woods on Good Times.
" Welcome Back " from Welcome Back, Kotter - John Sebastian's song about returning to where you came from caught on and became a #1 hit.
The '80s
Written by Gary Portnoy and Judy Hart Angelo
Sometimes you want to go
Where everybody knows your name.
Leonardo DiCaprio went rogue in his 2010 Rolling Stone interview and delivered this brilliant non-sequitur in a piece designed to promote his movie Inception: "What is the Ninth Symphony of '80s sitcom theme songs? There's 'Movin' On Up,' and there's 'Welcome Back.' But they don't have the weight that Cheers does, the emotional depth, the undercurrent of sadness, life, happiness, all rolled into one area where a man can have a beer."
The song is called "Where Everybody Knows Your Name" and it was written by Gary Portnoy and Judy Hart Angelo, who got the attention of the Cheers producers for their work scoring a musical called Preppies. Gary came up with the idea when he got in the mindset of a late-night bar patron, and in the process created one of the great TV theme songs, and a piano bar mainstay. The producers thought about having someone famous sing it, but when they heard Gary's demo, it captured the feel of Cheers - a bunch of regular guys in a home away from home. They chose intimate over polished, and the voice you hear is Gary's.
We wondered if writing a TV theme would be difficult because so many previously-written theme songs would be dancing in your head, making it impossible to write something original, so we asked Gary how he handles this. Said Gary:
Cheers was the first TV theme I ever co-wrote. Coming from a background as a pop songwriter - as opposed to say, a jingle writer - I approached the Cheers theme - and all that followed - as 'songs' rather than 'themes.' I was never that cognizant of how long they ran until we were done with the writing. Most were born as full length songs that were than edited down to a minute. I never had to clear my head of past TV themes because I was never really thinking in that vein while we were working.
Cheers ran from 1982-1993, anchoring NBC's "Must See TV" Thursday night lineup. But it almost didn't make it past the first season, since it was one of the worst-rated shows that year. The theme song, however, caught on, and NBC got plenty of requests for the sheet music and recording. They brought Portnoy back to record a full version of the song, which was released as a single. He had some fun with that one, including lyrics like, "And your husband wants to be a girl..."
Other famous theme songs from the '80s:
" With A Little Help From My Friends " from The Wonder Years - Joe Cocker's version of the Beatles classic was used in this one.
" Paint It Black " from Tour of Duty - Long before The Who sold out to CSI, this Rolling Stones song fit perfectly with a show about the Vietnam War.
" Miami Vice Theme " from Miami Vice - Jan Hammer's keyboard-driven instrumental was a #1 hit, and gave Crockett and Tubbs their sound.
The '90s
Written by Allee Willis and Michael Skloff
It's like you're always stuck in second gear.
Well, it hasn't been your day, your week, your month, or even your year.
TV theme songs met their doom in the '90s. Everyone had a remote control and cable, creating plenty of viewing options and shorter attention spans. Programming executives wanted to go "seamless," with one show flowing into the next so we'd see the first segment and get hooked before our willpower could take over and trigger the channel change synapse. Seinfeld was the new model: a few bass notes and into the episode. No cast introductions, no song. Unfortunately, not every show was written as well as Seinfeld, and that extra 45 seconds of show content was the stuff that would have been edited out in the olden days. TV was getting bloated and fragmented to the point that writers stopped being necessary, and reality shows took over, making the music even less relevant (with one big exception listed below).
It was radio that needed the songs, and the biggest radio song of 1995 was the theme to Friends, recorded by The Rembrandts. Desperate for an identifiable pop song that could catch on in the post-grunge landscape, radio stations put "I'll Be There For You" in heavy rotation. But first they had to get the song - it was never released as a single. Allee Willis, who wrote it with Michael Skloff, told us:
It was just DJs who made a cassette of the song and just started playing it. And it became the #1 airplay record of the year, but the Rembrandts never wanted it out as a single because they didn't write the song. So they kind of bit off their nose to spite their face. At that point, the only way they could get the Rembrandts to do the record was if they got songwriting credit. So the song needed a bridge, and it needed a second verse lyric, and they wrote that. They don't have credit on the theme, but they have it on the record.
So to recap: a semi-famous rock group records a poppy theme song that they didn't write for a TV show that becomes a huge hit. Popularity led to interest in a full length version of the song, but the group had no intention of recording a full version unless they could get a writing credit and make lots of money in exchange for the loss of their musical souls, which they give up in the deal, as they will forever be identified by this pop platitude and not for their art.
Allee wasn't thrilled with the song either, but she took the assignment and overdelivered, coming up with a song about those who care for you no matter how screwed up you are. It was fed into the corporate machine: Warner Brothers owned the show, their publishing division had Allee, and their record label had The Rembrandts. Allee wrote the song very quickly and didn't think much of it. This was around the time when the music industry started digging in their heels, refusing to embrace new technology like the internet, and Allee was already forming online social networks, partnering with Mark Cuban and figuring out how to move music forward. She ended up creating one of the last huge hits using the old - and doomed - business model she hated.
Allee Willis
Allee wrote " Boogie Wonderland " and " September " with Earth, Wind & Fire. She has a museum of kitsch , throws fabulous parties, and makes interesting videos, like this one with Pomplamoose .
Some of the most beloved shows of the '90s bucked the trend and used unusual theme songs. Primus sang quick and dirty for South Park. Danny Elfman wrote the clever instrumental on The Simpsons, which left room for Lisa's improvs on sax. Will Smith did the rap intro on The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, opening his show with a Brady Bunch-like extended introduction that explains why he's living with his rich uncle. TV themes weren't dead, but they had to be different to work.
Other famous theme songs from the '90s:
" Woke Up This Morning " from The Sopranos - Written by A3 after their lead singer heard a story about a wife who shot her abusive husband.
" Bad Boys " from COPS - A Reggae song that set the tone for a real-life cop show. It let us know that we were allowed to laugh at these idiots getting arrested.
" Cleveland Rocks " from The Drew Carey Show - The song was written by an Englishman: Ian Hunter. The version used on the show was by the Presidents Of The United States Of America.
The '00s
Classic TV theme: Phineas and Ferb
Written by the show's writers
There's a hundred and four days of summer vacation
Then school comes along just to end it.
The greatest theme song of the '00s is from a cartoon. Phineas and Ferb are stepbrothers who spend their 104 days of summer vacation creating stuff like time machines and roller coasters. It's clever and funny and it has great musical numbers, starting with the opening theme that every first grade boy knows by heart.
The show's creators Dan Povenmire and Jeff "Swampy" Marsh wrote the theme with head writer Martin Olson, and had Radio Disney mainstay Bowling For Soup record the song. Lead singer Jaret Reddick wrote some additional lyrics, and they recorded a full-length version called "Today is Gonna Be a Great Day."
As Phineas and Ferb matured, music became a bigger part of the show, with Bowling For Soup performing some of the numbers and Jaret appearing as the lead singer of an '80s band called Love Händel, which Phineas and Ferb reunited. Just about every episode features a musical number, which often turns into a Shrek-like production appealing to both kids and adults. The Phineas and Ferb empire has expanded to include a Christmas album, and more musical guests - their "Summer Belongs To You" special featured Clay Aiken and Chaka Khan.
Disney success has forced Bowling For Soup, whose hits include " 1985 " and " Girl All The Bad Guys Want ," to adapt their lyrics, since so many of their songs have altered Disney versions, like in "1985 where "One Prozac a day" becomes "One workout a day." Jaret told us:
Our live show changed a little bit in that it wasn't rated R or NC17 anymore. Our big thing is, look, we can do PG13. And if it's a fair or something like that, we can do PG. But it's impossible for Bowling for Soup to do a G-rated show, because lyrically you just can't get around it. We've only done one G-rated show ever, and it was for Radio Disney's tenth anniversary. And I had to sing all of the edited lyrics. That was a great challenge for me, trying to sing the songs the way they don't go.
The '00s saw TV theme songs become even more scarce, but the music didn't die. More and more shows play songs during the action - not just theme music, but songs that might be on your iPod. Getting a song in a show is now seen as a promotional vehicle, and record companies will offer the songs for free if they think it will get some exposure. You'll often hear these songs in a touching montage or during a poignant bit of dialogue deep into an episode, and many times it's clear that the producers are trying a little too hard to create a mood. A new thing for the '00s was allowing a song's lyrics to play while the actors were talking - something a generation of multitaskers can handle.
Other famous theme songs from the '00s:
" Boss Of Me " from Malcolm In The Middle - Written specifically for the show by They Might Be Giants.
" One Of Us " from Joan Of Arcadia - A perfect fit for a show about a girl who encounters God in the form of everyday people.
" I Don't Want To Be " from One Tree Hill - Gavin DeGraw's song wasn't written for the show, but became a hit when it was chosen as the theme song.
About the Author:
Carl WiserCarl was a disc jockey in Hartford, Connecticut when he founded Songfacts as a way to tell the stories behind the songs. You can also find him on Rock's Backpages . More from Carl Wiser
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| Malcolm in the Middle |
What was the name of the language spoken by the Aztecs? | Malcolm in the Middle (TV Series 2000–2006) - IMDb
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A gifted young teen tries to survive life with his dimwitted, dysfunctional family.
Creators:
In this special episode, we see what would happen if Lois took the kids bowling and what would happen if Hal took them bowling. Lois keeps the kids under tight watch, making Malcolm's night miserable...
9.2
Malcolm has the chance of a highly lucrative career in computer software, but the offer is blocked by his parents, who have higher goals in mind for him - as the first US President to actually ...
9.2
After Reese is severely humiliated by four girls at school, Lois exacts revenge on them; and Hal builds a pitching machine while hiding out from Lois in the garage.
8.8
‘The Masterpiece’: Bryan Cranston Plays Himself in James Franco’s Wacky ‘The Room’ Feature
31 December 2016 11:55 AM, -08:00 | Indiewire
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Title: Malcolm in the Middle (2000–2006)
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Nominated for 7 Golden Globes. Another 46 wins & 107 nominations. See more awards »
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In the unreal world of Sacred Heart Hospital, intern John "J.D" Dorian learns the ways of medicine, friendship and life.
Stars: Zach Braff, Donald Faison, Sarah Chalke
A comedy revolving around a group of teenage friends, their mishaps, and their coming of age, set in 1970s Wisconsin.
Stars: Topher Grace, Laura Prepon, Mila Kunis
The Simpsons (TV Series 1989)
Animation | Comedy
The satiric adventures of a working-class family in the misfit city of Springfield.
Stars: Dan Castellaneta, Nancy Cartwright, Julie Kavner
A young African American teen attempts to survive with his dysfunctional family and his all white school in the 1980s.
Stars: Terry Crews, Tichina Arnold, Tequan Richmond
American Dad! (TV Series 2005)
Animation | Comedy
The random escapades of Stan Smith, an extreme right wing CIA agent dealing with family life and keeping America safe, all in the most absurd way possible.
Stars: Seth MacFarlane, Wendy Schaal, Dee Bradley Baker
Fry, a pizza guy, is accidentally frozen in 1999 and thawed out New Year's Eve 2999.
Stars: Billy West, John DiMaggio, Katey Sagal
Family Guy (TV Series 1999)
Animation | Comedy
In a wacky Rhode Island town, a dysfunctional family strive to cope with everyday life as they are thrown from one crazy scenario to another.
Stars: Seth MacFarlane, Alex Borstein, Seth Green
Edit
Storyline
An offbeat, laugh track-lacking sitcom about a bizarrely dysfunctional family, the center of which is Malcolm, the middle of the two brothers who still live at home. His eldest (and favorite) sibling, Francis, boards at military school because his parents believe it will reform him and keep him out of trouble. Malcolm often has a hard time coping with his family life, but he has more troubles to contend with when he starts receiving special treatment at school after being diagnosed as an intellectually advanced genius. Written by Ondre Lombard <[email protected]>
9 January 2000 (USA) See more »
Also Known As:
Fighting in Underpants See more »
Filming Locations:
Did You Know?
Trivia
Every time Malcolm is talking to the audience it is called a fourth wall break See more »
Goofs
In the episode when Francis runs away from military school, he and his father are talking in the van. There is a pair of headlights behind them following very close, but when seen from outside, the car is driving down the rain soaked road with no car behind them. See more »
Quotes
opening theme song: Yes, no, maybe, I don't know, can you repeat the question? You're not the boss of me now, You're not the boss of me now, You're not the boss of me now, and you're not so big. You're not the boss of me now, You're not the boss of me now, You're not the boss of me now, and you're not so big. Life is unfair...
See more »
Crazy Credits
For the first 3 minutes of the Episode "Living Will" (3/6/2005), the bottom of the screen pages through a long list of fourteen alleged "producers". This was the first episode to air after the Academy Awards controversy over limiting to three, the number of "producers" who could win a best film Oscar. See more »
Connections
One of the funniest shows on television
24 October 2005 | by MovieAddict2016
(UK) – See all my reviews
"Malcolm in the Middle" may have lost a bit of steam recently, but some of the earlier episodes are absolutely, side-splittingly hilarious. Although Malcolm (Frankie Muniz) may be the titular character, it is really Bryan Cranston's characterization of the father figure, Hal, that makes the show so fun to watch. Cranston turns Hal into a boy at heart (as all fathers are) - only, like everything else with the show, extends it into a complete satire and goes completely wacky. This show, for lack of a better word, is crazy.
It's absurd. And it couldn't be any better. The wild antics and over-the-top gags are similar to a cartoon, and even the fast-cut editing between scenes (with the "whoosing" sound) is reminiscent of an animated program.
Like "The Simpsons," "Malcolm" manages to successfully interweave everyday family/social topics into silly plots involving all types of nonsensical stuff. Some of the physical gags are absolutely hilarious - the episode with Hal running out of the supermarket, a parody of "Raiders of the Lost Ark," is gut-busting - but at its heart this really is a tender and witty comedy that manages to be effective on more than one level.
The rest of the cast are great too. It really "feels" like a genuine family. They bicker, they complain, they whine and moan and fight - this is America today. If we were to go back fifty years in a time capsule and present this to the "I Love Lucy" crowds, they'd be shocked.
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What was the name of the language spoken by the Inca? | Inca Language
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Inca Language
In several Spanish documents from after the Conquest, there are references to a 'secret language' spoken by the Inca nobility that most people could not understand. It suits the Quechua Academy in Cuzco to claim that this was some more original or perfect form of the language, they claim that they alone speak the perfect, pure Quechua and are therefore in a unique position to decree standards for the language.
In truth, however, there is no single Quechua language--instead there is what linguists called a dialect chain across most of Western South America, in which speakers of one Quechua language can understand the languages spoken by their immediate neighbors, but not a language further from them.
Quechua is divided into a number of dialects. The major division is into 'Central' and 'Peripheral' Quechua. These are not normally mutually intelligible. Mutual intelligibility is tricky, however (see the linguistics FAQ on'languages vs. dialects'). Speakers of the modern Quechua dialects don't interrelate much (if they do much travelling, they know Spanish), and so don't have the habit of deciphering other dialects.
Quechua has been heavily influenced by Spanish, of course. Some 30% of the lexicon, even in monolingual speakers, comes from Spanish. Inorder to learn Quechua, it requires some vast changes of mind-set as learners try to master bipersonal conjugation, conjugation dependent on mental state and veracity of knowledge, spatial and temporal relationships, and numerous cultural factors.
Quechua has a three-vowel system: a, i, u. The vowels, like computer geeks, spread out to fit the space available-- an i, for instance, may be heard as [i], [I], or [e]. Bilingual Quechua speakers may approximate the five-vowel Spanish system (but they often get it wrong, producing a distinctive Quechua accent called motosidad).
The Incan language was based on nature. All of the elements of which they depended, and even some they didn't were give a divine character. They believed that all deities were created by an ever-lasting, invisible, and all-powerful god named Wiraqocha, or Sun god. The King Incan was seen as Sapan Intiq Churin, or the Only Son of the Sun.
Quechua was very distinctive language. Inca were very accurate in their language. The only imperfection that the Inca language had was that it did not have a written language. This would have really affected many of the Inca citizens. Quechua was under a certain procedure of only oral communication. The oral communication was mainly to maintain their culture.
Inca traditions survive stubbornly in Peru today. In remote villages older people speak only Quechua, the Inca language. They also keep Inca customs in food, music, and religion that have all but died out in urban areas.
| Quechua |
Which lake, located about halfway between Venice and Milan is the largest lake in Italy? | The Incas
THE INCAS
INCAS, an American Indian people of Peru who in the two centuries before the Spanish discovery of America conquered an
area stretching from the southern border of present-day Colombia to central Chile. Centering on the city of Cusco (Cuzco) in
the Peruvian Andes, the Inca domain included the coastal and mountain regions of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and the northern
areas of Chile and Argentina--the only true empire existing in the New World at the time of Columbus, and the greatest political
achievement of the American Indians. In the native language the term ``Inca'' was the title of the Indian emperor. Today,
however, it is also applied to the original tribe of conquerors and to all those people who made up the empire (who probably
called themselves capac-cuna, ``great ones'' or ``glorious ones,'' in pre-Spanish times).
The habitat of the former Inca empire is spectacular and varied. In the mountains, at altitudes between 7,000 and 10,000 feet
(2,150-3, 000 meters), are temperate zones capable of sustaining an intensive agriculture. The imposing mountain range, the
Andean cordilleras, divides in extreme southeastern Peru to form the Lake Titicaca basin, a 12,600-foot (3,840-meter)-high
plateau. This and the other high intermontane plateaus that continue south and east into Bolivia and northwestern Argentina are
called the altiplano; it forms a treeless region of long grass seared by the noonday sun, frigid at night. The bulk of the Andean
population lived here. To the southwest are salt marshes, while in the extreme south dense mountains give way to the rolling
pampas of Argentina.
The coastal area is desert, for the Humboldt Current, which sweeps up from the south, is colder than the adjacent land;
therefore, the moisture in the winds going from sea to land does not condense through cooling. Beginning at Tumbes, 3° south
latitude, these desert conditions predominate throughout the whole coast of Peru and continue down to the Rio Maule, in Chile.
The sea, however, is filled with plankton, which attracts a very rich and varied marine life; this marine life in turn is fed on by
myriads of sea birds, whose droppings on the arid coastal islets are the source of guano, a fertilizer extensively used for
agriculture. The 2,000-mile (3,200-km)-long coastal plain, ranging from 1 and 50 miles (1.6-80 km) in width, is broken only
every 30 miles (48 km) or so by rivers. In the valleys of these rivers, coastal cultures, using irrigation, flourished.
It was these two disparate areas of Peru--mountain and desert--that the Incas knit together in an economic and social
synthesis.
East of the cordilleras is the Montaña. The area is characterized by deep forest-covered valleys and wildly plunging rivers. Still
farther east, the Andes flatten out into the Amazon jungle. The hot, humid portions of the Montaña and the people of the region
alike were called yungas by the Incas. The Indians of this region resisted the Incas with considerable success.
HISTORY
Before the Incas.
The Incas arrived comparatively late on the Peruvian cultural scene. Humans had been living for thousands of years on the coast
and were growing and weaving cotton and planting such domesticated crops as corn, squash, and beans before about 3000
b.c. The oldest of the high cultures of the Andes was the Chavin culture, which began between 1200 and 800 b.c. and lasted
until about 400 b.c. Its center, which continued to be important as late as Inca times, was the stone-built city of Chavin de
Huantar in a narrow valley beyond the Cordillera Blanca in the central Andes. At a later date other cultures developed on the
north coast, notably the Mochica (c. 100 b.c.-a.d. 800), a caste-minded empire which developed a high craftsmanship in
building, ceramics, and textiles.
Along the southern coast, the Paracas culture (c. 400 b.c.-a.d. 400), wrapped in mystery, is famed for its textiles, doubtless the
finest ever loomed in pre-Columbian America. Paracas culture influenced the early Nazca culture located in five oasis-valley
farther south. In the Titicaca Basin there developed about a.d. 800 the great Tiahuanaco culture. Its capital and ceremonial
center at the southern end of Lake Titicaca was built of massive worked stones held together with inset bronze projections
(tenons). The famed Sun Gate, constructed of massive stones, with its sun god weeping tears in the form of many animals,
found its way, as a motif, into all Andean and coastal cultures. Further north, at Huari, close to present-day Ayacucho, the
Tiahuanaco theme of the weeping god was developed even futher. It was from here, presumably, that a combined
religious-military invasion was launched down the Pisco Valley to the coast. From the years a.d. 1000 to 1300 the Tiahuanaco
Empire dominated most of the coastal cultures--evident in the recurring motif of the weeping god. When the empire collapsed,
the suppressed local political units sprang into new life and evolved into local empires. The greatest (and the contemporaneous
rival of the Incas) was the kingdom of the Chimus--Chimor (1300-1463) with its capital at Chan-Chan (near the present-day
coastal city of Trujillo). Chan-Chan was 8 square miles (20.7 sq km), with irrigated gardens, immense step pyramids, and
stone-lined reservoirs. The empire was a center of large-scale weaving and pottery industries. It possessed a good
communications system and in time it came to rule over 600 miles (960 km) of the Peruvian coast.
Such was the cultural inheritance of the Incas. They were the heirs rather than the originators (as they claimed) of Peruvian
culture. They were organizers--but incomparable organizers.
The First Inca.
The legendary founding of Cusco by the first Inca, Manco Capac, is placed about a.d. 1100. Cusco lies in the hollow of a
valley at 11, 207 feet (3,416 meters); on two sides, the Andes rise precipitously, and at its southern end the valley stretches for
miles between the double row of mountains. Manco Capac, according to legend, came up this valley from the south; following
instructions of the sun god he threw his golden staff into the Cusco earth, and when the staff disappeared, suggesting the land's
fertility, he founded his city. It is generally agreed, and archaeologically confirmed, that Inca history actually begins about 1200
and continues through 13 ruling Incas, ending with the death of Atahualpa at the hands of the Spaniards in 1533. In the 12th
century, however, the Incas were only one of the myriad tribes that occupied the Andes area.
Conquests.
The Incas began by enlarging their hold beyond the immediate valley of Cusco. By 1350, during the reign of Inca Roca, they
had conquered all areas close to Lake Titicaca in the south as well as the valleys to the immediate east of Cusco. To the north
and east the region around the Upper Urubamba River also soon fell to the Incas, and their realm then began to spread
westward.
There they faced two hardy tribes, the Soras and Rucanas, whom they besieged and overcame. About 1350 the Incas bridged
the Apurimac River and its immense canyon. It had previously been bridged at three different places to the southwest; but the
new suspension bridge built by the Incas crossed at the point which formed a straight line from Cusco to Andahuaylas and was
the Incas' largest bridge, 148 feet (45 meters) long. They called it huacachaca, ``the holy bridge.'' With this event the Incas
collided with the Chanca, a powerful, belligerent tribe which disputed the Apurimac passage. Toward the end of the reign of
Viracocha (died 1437) the Chancas made a surprise attack and invaded Cusco. Viracocha fled for safety to the Urubamba
Valley, but his son organized the defense of Cusco, and the Chancas were completely defeated.
The son, Pachacuti (``earth shaker''), was made Inca (r. 1438-1463); under him, the Incas swept northward as far as Lake
Junin; southward they conquered all of the Titicaca area. Between 1463 and 1493 Pachacuti' s son, Topa Inca, pushed the
conquest into Chile, Bolivia, and Argentina, then north again as far as Quito, Ecuador. In 1463 the armies of Topa Inca, by
means of a flanking attack, overwhelmed the coastal kingdom of Chimor. The Chimu rulers were whisked off to Cusco as royal
hostages.
The last indisputable Inca, Huayna Capac, who came to power in 1493, the year after Columbus landed in America, made the
final conquests. He extended the empire so that it included Chachapoyas on the right bank of the upper Rio Marañon in
northern Peru, and his warriors reduced the belligerent tribes on the Isle of Puná (off the coast of Ecuador) and around
Guayaquil on the adjacent shore. The final Inca extension was even farther to the north; in 1525 the frontiers reached
Rumichaca, a natural bridge over the Ancasmayo River, which now marks, more or less, the boundary between Ecuador and
Colombia.
INCA EMPIRE AND CULTURE
Language.
Quechua, the language of the Incas, bears only a distant relationship to Aymará, the language spoken in the vicinity of Lake
Titicaca. It is not known what the Incas spoke before Quechua was made their official language by the Inca Pachacuti in 1438.
Because of their conquests and their system of population transference, Quechua eventually became the dominant language. It
is to this day spoken by a large percentage of Peru's inhabitants.
Agriculture.
The population of the Inca Empire was composed primarily of farmer- soldiers. Agricultural routine was the order of their life,
and under the guidance of ``professionals'' the entire Inca realm became a center of plant domestication. More than half of the
products that the world eats today were developed or cultivated in the Andean area. Among these are more than 20 varieties
of corn and 240 varieties of potato, camote (sweet potato), squash, a variety of beans, manioc (from which come farina and
tapioca), peppers, peanuts, and quinoa (pigweed, which is the source of a cereal). By far the most important crop was the
potato. Able to withstand heavy frosts, it was planted as high as 15,000 feet (4,600 meters); at these heights the night freeze
was used for dehydration, as the alternating freezing and thawing squeezed out the moisture until the potato was reduced to a
light flour, called chuño. Corn (sara) was cultivated up to an altitude of 13,500 feet (4,100 meters) and was eaten fresh
(choclo), parched and popped (kollo), made into a hominy (mote), and, finally, made into an alcoholic beverage (saraiaka or
chicha). To make the latter, the corn kernels were softened by the women. The saliva of the chewer converted the starch--an
enzyme distillate--into a malt sugar which became a dextrose and was thus converted into alcohol.
In Inca times all tribes were on about the same technological level in their agriculture. Work was communal, and the most
important implement was the taclla, a simple digging stick consisting of a pole with a thick fire-hardened point.
Arable land was not unlimited. Rain generally falls in the Andes between December and May, but there are often years of
drought. Water had to be brought to arable lands by canals, many of which showed superb engineering techniques. Terracing
of the land to prevent erosion was begun by the pre-Inca tribes and elaborated under the Incas.
Andean agriculture was sedentary; the slash-and-burn techniques practiced by the Mexican Indians and the Mayas, in which
virgin forest land was constantly being cleared and planted, were not normally employed by the Andean peoples. The Middle
American cultures had no natural fertilizer except decayed fish and human feces, whereas in Peru the coastal farmer had guano
and the Andean farmer had taqui, the offal of the llama.
Llamas.
The domesticated llama was developed from the wild guanaco thousands of years before the appearance of the Incas. It can
resist the Andean cold and the desert heat; it served as a beast of burden--carrying up to a hundred pounds; it supplied meant
(which when sun-dried was called charqui) and wool, used mostly for ropes and cargo sacks. Its dung was important as a
fertilizer. Llamas, like camels, use a common voiding place, so that taqui is easily gathered; it was one of the important factors in
Andean sedentary agriculture.
Social Organization: The Ayllu.
At the base of the social pyramid of the Inca Empire was the ayllu, a clan of families living together in a restricted area and
sharing land, animals, and crops. Everyone belonged to an ayllu; one was born into it and died within it. The commune could be
small or large; it could even be a town. No individuals owned land; land was owned by the ayllu, or later the emperor, and was
only loaned to each member for his use. Each autumn the land was divided again; the allotments were increased or decreased
depending upon the size of the family. Planting and harvesting were communal.
At the age of twenty a man was expected to marry. If he did not, a mate was selected for him by the chieftain. Marriage for the
workers was strictly monogamous, but all members of the ruling class had more than one wife.
Some women had a chance to leave the ayllu and better their life. These were the ``chosen women,'' who were selected
because of their beauty or special talents and taken to Cusco or one of the provincial capitals. There they were taught weaving,
cooking, and the rituals of the Sun, the state religion. Many of the ``chosen women'' became wives of officials, and some
became concubines of the Inca himself.
The State: Tawantin-suyu.
Tawantin-suyu, meaning four quarters, was the name given by the Incas to their state. Four roads, which went to the ends of
each quarter, no matter how distant, came out of Cusco; each road bore the name of the suyu to which it ran. 1) Anti-suyu
included all the land east of Cusco; this domain contained the montaña and the jungle, and was continually harassed by attacks
from the only partially pacified tribes of the area. 2) Cunti-suyu embraced all the lands west of Cusco, including the conquered
coastal empires, from Chan-Chan through the Rimac (now Lima Valley) down to Arequipa. 3) Colla-suyu was the largest in
extent; located south of Cusco, it took in Lake Titicaca and regions in Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. 4) Chincha-suyu contained
all the land and tribes which lay to the north, up to Rumichaca. Each quarter was ruled by an apo, or governor, related by
blood ties to the Inca--and answerable only to him.
Organization by Tens.
The pattern of political and, in turn, economic organization was based upon decimal groupings of individuals. Although the
system varied regionally, typically at the base was the puric, an able-bodied tax- paying Indian. Ten workers had what we
would call a ``straw boss'' (the Incas called him coñka-kamayoc); ten of these groups had a foreman (pacha-koraka); ten
foremen were ruled by another, ideally the headman (mallcu) of a large village. Ten thousand people came under a district
governor (homo-koraka), and ten districts were under the governor ((apo) of the quarter. For every 10,000 people there were
1,331 officials.
The Inca.
The Inca was selected by a council of advisers of the royal lineage. There was no clear line of succession; the most competent
of the legitimate sons of the Inca's principal wife (coya) was usually selected. The Inca had one real wife, but he maintained a
menage of royal concubines; Huayna Capac is estimated to have had in the male line alone 500 descendants living at the time of
the Spanish conquest. These formed the Inca' s own royal ayllu. It was from them that he chose his important administrators.
The empire was one of the world's few real theocracies, for the Inca was not only ruler but also, in the eyes of his people, a
demigod and the head of the state religion. The Inca Empire was a totalitarian state, and the Incas were absolute rulers whose
power was checked only by the influence of custom and the fear of revolt.
Taxation: The Mit'a.
Every puric was obliged to give a certain amount of work to the state. This tax-through-work service was called mit'a. Only the
state and religious officials were exempt. Each ayllu cultivated fields within its communally held lands for the Sun and the Inca,
that is, for religion and the state. The crops from these fields, planted and harvested communally, were stored for official use.
Another form of work service was prescribed for various projects: road building, bridge building, mining, and the erection of
temples, forts, and royal residences. All was under the supervision of professionals. Accurate records of work service for each
community were kept on a knotted string-- the quipu. In addition to work service, every puric formed part of an agrarian militia
and was liable to military service at any given moment. When he was absent on a military campaign other members of the ayllu
cultivated and harvested his allotment of land.
Colonization: Mit'a-kona.
The system devised by the Incas to organize and assimilate newly conquered territory was an extension of the idea of work
service. As soon as any region was conquered, the unreliable part of the local population was moved out and a safe
Quechua-speaking population was moved in; these latter were the mit'a-kona (called mitamaes by the Spaniards). Local
customs, dress, and language of the conquered population which remained were allowed, but officials had to learn and use
Quechua. It was the duty of the mit'a-kona to bring Inca culture to the newly conquered peoples. The mit'a-kona were of three
orders: military (to guard frontier stations), political (to win over the population and coordinate the conquered peoples), and
economic. Often, when a planned Inca highway ran through an entirely depopulated area, mit'a-kona were placed there to
provide upkeep for roads and bridges and to extend the suzerainty of the Inca Empire. The mit'a-kona were given social and
economic benefits much like the benefits accorded the soldiers of the Roman legions when serving in distant lands. So complete
was the Inca integration of the Andes, Montaña, and coast, that even today the entire area retains the mark of Inca culture.
Seven million people still speak Quechua dialects, the ayllus are maintained in the form of comunidades; and the Inca culture
continues to be manifest in music, agricultural practices, and the character of the people.
Roads, Bridges, and Couriers.
Roads, bridges, and the courier system were the tactical elements which held the empire together. The Incas took over the
roads of earlier civilizations and developed more than 10,000 miles (16,000 km) of new all-weather highways (capac nan).
Since pre-Columbian Peruvians did not have the wheel, the roads were constructed for foot and llama caravans. Still, the
coastal road was a standard 24 feet (7.3 meters) wide; it was 2,520 miles (4,055 km) in length, running from Tumbes at the
northern boundary down to Purumuaca at Rio Maule in Chile. The Andean road, since it crossed mountainous terrain, was
narrower; it varied between 15 and 24 feet (4.6-7.3 meters). Its length was 3,250 miles (5,230 km), and it had no less than a
hundred bridges, either of wood or stone or fiber-cable suspension; four bridges alone crossed the chasms of the Apurimac
River. Distance markers were used every 41/2 miles (7.2 km) and rest stations for travelers were placed alongside the road
every 12 to 18 miles (19-29 km). In addition, the communication system had smaller stations for couriers (chasquis); the
chasquis ran in relays, each covering a mile and a half (2.4 km). It has been proven that this chasqui system was able to convey
a message over 1,250 miles (2,000 km) in five days.
Record Keeping: The Quipu.
Official records and the folk stories of the Incas were kept by ``rememberers. '' Neither the Incas nor any other South
American cultures had writing- -in any form. Instead, the Incas used a mnemonic device called the quipu, from the Quechua
word for a knot. This consisted of a main cord from which dangled a series of smaller colored strings into which knots were
tied. The quipus were accompanied by a verbal comment without which the meaning of what each quipu conveyed would have
been unintelligible. The record keepers knowing the theme of each quipu were called quipu- camayocs. Each governor of a
province had attached to his person many such quipu-camayocs, who kept an accurate account of population, tribute, and
soldiers. A decimal count was used, there even being a symbol for zero (an empty space). The Spanish conquerors, the
conquistadors, much admired this system.
Special quipu-camayocs were responsible for maintaining a record of Inca accomplishments. Through them, history was
selected and manipulated. The accomplishments of whole generations of conquered tribes were blotted out so that the Inca
claim of having founded the great Andean civilization could not be contradicted.
Religion.
In the Inca concept, religion and state were one. Viracocha was the creator god, the one source of power; he was aided in his
divine administration by servant gods, the most important of which was the sun god, Inti. The sun god became the symbol for
the Incas; his name was always invoked, and his image was the motif of the official religion. There were also gods for all natural
phenomena. Inca religion consisted of numerous decentralized cults, but the most enduring centered on the huaca, a magic and
holy object or spirit. Huaca had many ramifications: a lake, river, or mountain was a huaca; a temple could be a huaca; often
huaca was associated with agriculture, and stones gleaned from fields in cultivation were gradually transformed into a temple
which became huaca.
Religion was practical and life was religion. Agriculture was holy, and anything connected with it became huaca. Belief in
immortality was general. The nobleman, no matter what his morals, went back to live with the Sun and had warmth and plenty.
The common man, if virtuous, went to the same abode; if not he writhed in a sort of hell (oko- paca) where there was cold and
hunger.
Religion and custom guided conduct. Reduced to a single moral precept, the rule for good conduct was: Ama sua, ama llulla,
ama chella--``Do not steal; do not lie; do not be lazy.''
Art.
Inca art forms had a tendency towards austerity. Weaving, especially in vicuña wool, was of the highest quality, but it lacked
the inventiveness of the weaving of coastal peoples. The cutting of semiprecious stones was a widely practiced art, although the
Inca stonecutters depended on the coastal trade for shell and stones.
Goldsmithing was an Inca specialty. Almost all the gold mines worked in historical times had been previously mined by the
Incas. Smiths who worked gold and silver lived in a special district and were exempt from taxes. The best examples of their art
have not survived, since all went into the crucible of conquest; but according to the Spaniards who first saw it, Cusco seemed
ablaze with worked gold. Some of the buildings were covered with gold plate imitating Inca stone work. The grass-thatched
roofs of some of the temples had strands of gold that mimicked the grass; a setting sun would catch the gleam of gold and
suggest a golden roof. The fabulous Curi-cancha, the golden enclosure which enjoined the Temple of the Sun in Cusco, had a
golden fountain; actual-size representations of maize plants with leaves and ears of gold were ``planted'' in an earth made up of
clods of gold, and there were twenty life-size golden llamas grazing on golden grass in the golden enclosure.
Architecture.
The most awe-inspiring of Inca contributions to material culture was in architecture. Inca architecture had not the subtlety of the
Mayan, with its profuse ornamentation; nor had it the emotional impact of the Aztec; but Inca engineering and structural
daring--the grandiose concept of its cities and the handling of rock mass--finds no rival in either the New World or the Old.
The number and size of Inca structures, even in ruins, is simply overwhelming. Sites such as Machu Picchu, perched in a saddle
10,000 feet (3,000 meters) high between two Andean peaks, gives an idea of what Inca urban planning must have been.
In constructing a foundation, the natural outcrop of rock was cut out and stones, without mortar, were set in to make the
building part of its natural surroundings. Inca architecture had great plasticity. The Inca artisans built with sun-baked brick when
rock was not available; they could also use precisely cut stone in pattern, or they could build in massive form, with huge rocks.
The pucara, or fortress, of Sacsahuaman that guarded Cusco is a case in point. It is without doubt one of the greatest structures
of its kind anywhere. Fifteen hundred feet (460 meters) in length, it is composed of three massive tiers of stone walls, which
have a combined height of 60 feet (18 meters). The walls are broken into 46 salients, retiring angles, and buttresses. The
cyclopean foundations contain stones which weigh more than 30 tons; these stones have beveled edges. The 300,000 or more
stones that form the fortress are irregularly polygonal and locked so well structurally that they have defied innumerable
earthquakes as well as the attempts of man himself to dislodge them. The fortress, replete with fighting towers, underground
passages, habitations, and an intricate system of water distribution, was begun in 1438 and finished in 1508; it took 30,000
workmen over 70 years to complete it.
THE FALL OF THE EMPIRE
Many reasons can be offered for the fall of the Incas, but the sudden conquest of a mighty empire by only a handful of
Spaniards is still hard to comprehend. The Indian empires of Central Mexico had already succumbed to the Spaniards, who
under Hernán Cortes had invaded Mexico in 1519. However, the Incas were unaware of such events, inasmuch as there was
no direct contact of Aztec and Maya with Inca. The white man's presence became known only in 1523 or 1525, when a
Spaniard named Alejo Garcia led an attack with Chiriguano Indians on an Inca outpost in the Gran Chaco, a dry lowland to the
southeast of the Inca realm. In 1527 Francisco Pizarro appeared briefly at Tumbes on the northwest Peruvian coast and then
sailed away, leaving behind two of his men. Shortly afterward, Ecuador was devastated by a pestilence (possibly smallpox)
brought by one of them.
Huayna Capac died in 1527. He is said to have felt that the empire was too large to be governed only from Cusco. Succession
to the Incaship was immediately disputed between Huascar, residing in Cusco, and Atahualpa, the favorite of Huayna Capac's
500 sons, living in Ecuador. A five- year-long civil war which devastated the empire ensued between the two half-brothers.
Atahualpa's final victory occurred only two weeks before the second arrival of Pizarro. The victorious chief was resting at the
provincial capital of Cajamarca in what is today northwestern Peru, surrounded by 40,000 veterans and planning to march to
Cusco, there to be formally acknowledged Inca.
Pizarro arrived at Tumbes on May 13, 1532; he began his march toward Cajamarca with 177 men, of whom 67 were cavalry.
Atahualpa knew all this; his intelligence reports were precise, but the interpretation placed on these reports was fatuous. He
was told that the horses were no good at night; a man and animal were one, and when the horse or rider fell they were useless;
guns were only thunderbolts and could be fired only twice; and the long steel Spanish swords were as ineffectual as a woman's
weaving battens. In any of the hundred narrow defiles of the Andes through which the small Spanish detachment climbed, it
could have been annihilated.
When the Spaniards occupied Cajamarca they sent out an invitation for Atahualpa to visit them in the city, which was walled on
three sides. No one has yet been able to explain satisfactorily why Atahualpa allowed himself to walk into an ambush. He was
well aware of Pizarro' s strength, and ambush was a much-used Inca military tactic. Perhaps other factors, not sensed by the
Spaniards, guided the Inca in his movements. At vespers on Nov. 16, 1532, Atahualpa marched into the square of Cajamarca,
displaying all the panoply of power. Although he was surrounded by thousands of his followers, the Inca and his men came, as
Pizarro wished, unarmed. There was an unintelligible parley between a Christian priest and the Inca demigod; then the
Spaniards set upon the Indians. The whole action took thirty minutes; the only Spanish casualty was Pizarro, wounded in the
arm while defending Atahualpa, whom he wished to take alive and unhurt.
After that, except for fierce local skirmishes at several places, there was no serious resistance until 1536. Atahualpa,
imprisoned, bargained for his life by agreeing to fill twice with silver and once with gold the large room in which he was kept,
but it was not enough. On the pretense that Atahualpa planned to launch an attack once they were loaded down with their loot,
the Spaniards kept Atahualpa in custody and eventually charged him with ``crimes against the Spanish state.'' They formally
tried and executed him by garroting, a form of strangulation, on Aug. 29, 1533.
The shock of all these events reduced the Inca people to a state of strange timidity, and the Spaniards easily advanced
southward over the great Inca highway to Cusco, which they captured on Nov. 15, 1533. From there, by organizing their new
realm, they soon turned Spanish conquest into Spanish domination.
The Neo-Inca State.
Manco II.
After establishing the former Inca capital, Cusco, as the center of Spanish power in Peru, Francisco Pizarro, to give a
semblance of legitimacy to the newly imposed regime, selected a grandson of Huayna Capac to ``take the royal fringe as Inca.''
The new Inca, Manco II, was given no power and subjected by the Spaniards to trying indignities, but he bore this during the
first years of his reign in order to give himself time to develop a plan of action.
In 1536, while part of the Spanish occupying force under Diego de Almagro was off on an exploratory expedition in Chile,
Manco II, under a pretext of delivering up more Inca gold, slipped off--and into revolt.
The timing of the Inca's revolt was auspicious. Almagro and Pizarro had quarreled over the division of the spoils of the Inca
Empire, and the invasion of Chile was only the prelude to a civil war between factions led by the two Spaniards. The natives
had felt the ``yoke of peace'' long enough to know that the exactions they were suffering would be permanent unless they
resisted.
On Apr. 18, 1536, four Inca armies, after killing every Spaniard in the outlying districts, converged on Cusco. As in a hunt,
they beat their quarry into a central area for annihilation. But Hernando Pizarro, Francisco's half-brother and an experienced
soldier, commanded the besieged forces of Cusco; although he had only 130 soldiers and about 2,000 Cañari Indian
auxiliaries, he managed to withstand the siege in one of history's memorable displays of military skill. Meanwhile, Lima, which
Pizarro had made his capital in 1535, was also under attack by the Incas. The area that surrounded the city was level, and the
Spaniards were able to use their cavalry with devastating effect. This siege was quickly ended. However, four relief columns
sent by Pizarro were unable to reach besieged Cusco. The three-month- long siege was lifted only because of the need of the
Inca warriors to return to farming and because of the arrival near Cusco of Almagro and his troops returning from Chile.
Manco II, with thousands of his followers and carrying the mummies of his ancestors, retired to prepared positions within the
massif of Vilcabamba, the mountainous terrain northwest of Cusco. There he created a Neo-Inca state, from which he led his
warriors in attacks on the Spaniards. Pizarro set up Ayacucho as a barracks town to defend the royal road south of Cusco
against the sallies of Manco's warriors. Meanwhile, the civil wars between Pizarro's forces and Almagro's ``men of Chile''
continued. In 1538 Almagro was captured and executed; three years later, Pizarro in turn was murdered by the men of Chile.
New leaders of the factions came to the force. In the Battle of Chupas (fought near Ayacucho in 1542) the Inca aided the men
of Chile against the King's troops, and when the latter prevailed, six of the defeated men of Chile took refuge in the Neo-Inca
state. The Spaniards taught the Indians to ride horses, repair guns, and operate hand forges; this, plus the firearms, clothes,
pikes, and money which the Indians took from waylaid Spaniards using the royal road made it possible for them to equip a
small army.
In one of their raids, copies of the ``New Laws'' promulgated by the King of Spain in 1544 were found. In an effort to right the
abuses of the conquerors the King offered a new program, and on this basis Manco II sent one of the renegade Spaniards,
Gomez Perez, out of Vilcabamba to negotiate with the viceroy, Blasco Nuñez Vela. The civil wars were still at their height, and
Nuñez Vela was deposed before negotiations were brought to a successful conclusion. Shortly afterward, the Spaniards living
with Manco II fell into dispute with him, struck and killed him, and were in turn slaughtered.
Sayri Tupac and Titu Cusi.
The Neo-Inca state developed under Sayri Tupac, Manco II's son. To their large herds of llamas and alpacas the Indians
added sheep, cattle, and pigs. They bound themselves to the Antis tribesmen living in the Upper Amazon, and by 1555, twenty
years after its inception, the Neo-Inca state included some 80,000 adherents.
In that year Sayri Tupac went over to the Spaniards and left Vilcabamba for the warmer climate of the Yucay Valley, where he
was eventually poisoned by his own people. His brother, Titu Cusi Yupanqui, became Inca and reopened the war on the
Spaniards. Every attempt to invade the mountains ended in failure. In 1565 Friar Diego Rodriguez entered the Inca stronghold
alone for the purpose of inducing the Inca to come out. His description of the rituals surrounding the Inca and the number and
belligerency of the warriors is important for its information on the strength of the Inca state. The attempt to induce the Inca to
leave ended in failure. Another missionary tried again the following year; but during the negotiations, Titu Cusi became ill and
died. His death was laid to the missionary, who was executed, as were the members of another embassy of Spaniards.
Tupac Amaru, the Last of the Incas.
Tupac Amaru, another son of Manco II, now became Inca. His only distinction was that he was to be the last. The Spaniards
now decided to breach the great stronghold of Vilcabamba in the three known entries. After a sharp struggle, Tupac Amaru
and all of his principal captains were captured and in 1572, chained neck to neck, were marched to Cusco. The Inca was
hastily tried and led to the great square of Cusco. There, before a mass of people packed so tightly that ``if an orange had been
thrown it would not have reached the ground,'' Tupac Amaru, the last of the Incas, was beheaded by a Cañari Indian. The
Neo-Inca state had endured as a serious threat to the Spanish occupation from 1536 until 1572.
Spanish Rule.
During the colonial era that followed the Spanish conquest of Peru, many of the Inca state institutions were retained and
adapted to fit the needs of the conquerors. Spanish rule was largely indirect: the colonial administrators and landowners
transmitted their demands through local chieftains, or curacas, and did not directly interfere with the daily life of the Indian
householder. Like the Incas, the Spanish practiced mass resettlement of villages, demanded a work-tax of the Indians, and
maintained a separate class of servants and artisans. But Spanish demands for gold and produce were intolerably harsh, and the
greed of the landowners and the corruption of the administrators provoked numerous Indian uprisings throughout the colonial
period. Even today the Quechua Indian peasants of Peru and Bolivia speak Quechua and retain many elements from Inca days
in their religion, their family life, and their agricultural techniques. See also Indians, American: The Central Andes.
Copyright © 1996 P.F. Collier, A Division of Newfield Publications, Inc.
Von Hagen, Victor W., INCAS., Vol. 12, Colliers Encyclopedia CD-ROM, 02-28-1996.
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'Phantom Planet's' song 'California' was the theme tune to which American teen-drama series that ran from 2003 to 2007? | Most Popular TV Shows - TV.com
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Which famous fashion designer was murdered by Andrew Cunanan in Florida in 1997? | House made famous by The OC up for sale for $6.25 million | Daily Mail Online
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The fictitious Newport Beach backdrop that housed Seth Cohen and Ryan Atwood on Fox's hit show The OC is now up for sale.
Fans of the teen drama have a chance to live in the luxurious Italian villa - actually located in Malibu - that was made famous by the fictional Cohen family.
The six-bed, seven-bathroom space is available for $6.25 million, over eight years since the series launched the careers of actors Benjamin McKenzie, Adam Brody, Mischa Barton and Rachel Bilson.
Living like the Newpsies! The house that served as the backdrop of Fox's hit show The OC is now up for sale for $6.25 million
The 6,736-square-foot may not include a pool house for a troubled bad boy but it does have several amenities such as a library, sunroom, home office and totals to four acres.
The kitchen and formal living room is similar to the ones remembered in scenes of annual Chrismukkuhs and countless Chinese takeout dinners shared on The OC from 2003 to 2007.
While the property sale may seem like the last piece of Newpsies nostalgia, there is much excitement brewing over the forthcoming The Unauthorized OC Musical.
Cohen McMansion: The 6,736-square-foot has six bedrooms and seven bathrooms
Place to be: The formal living room is similar to the space remembered for hosting annual Chrismukkuhs on The OC from 2003 to 2007
Ryan Atwood not included: The space does not include a pool house for a troubled bad boy but it does have several amenities such as a library, sunroom, home office and totals to four acres
The hour-and-a-half show is a compilation of the music featured on all four seasons including - of course - the theme song California by Phantom Planet.
Pretty Little Liars star Brendan Robinson will play Seth Cohen with Nashville's Tilky Jones cast as Ryan Atwood.
Awkward star Greer Grammer will portray Summer Roberts and Cruel Intentions The Musical’s Molly McCook as Marissa Cooper.
Rounding out the supporting cast: Rick Cosnett as Sandy Cohen, Christine Lakin as Kirsten Cohen and Autumn Reeser as Julie Cooper.
Home sweet home: The Malibu mansion launched the careers of actors Benjamin McKenzie, Adam Brody, Mischa Barton and Rachel Bilson
The views: The backyard overlooks the ocean and Southern California sunsets
Up for grabs: Fans of the teen drama have a chance to live in the luxurious Italian villa
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What was the name of the Scottish mathematician who invented Logarithms? | John Napier | Scottish mathematician | Britannica.com
Scottish mathematician
John Napier, Napier also spelled Neper (born 1550, Merchiston Castle, near Edinburgh , Scot.—died April 4, 1617, Merchiston Castle), Scottish mathematician and theological writer who originated the concept of logarithms as a mathematical device to aid in calculations.
John Napier, detail of an oil painting, 1616; in the collection of the University of Edinburgh
Courtesy of the University of Edinburgh; photograph, the Scottish National Portrait Gallery
Early life
At the age of 13, Napier entered the University of St. Andrews , but his stay appears to have been short, and he left without taking a degree.
Little is known of Napier’s early life, but it is thought that he traveled abroad, as was then the custom of the sons of the Scottish landed gentry. He was certainly back home in 1571, and he stayed either at Merchiston or at Gartness for the rest of his life. He married the following year. A few years after his wife’s death in 1579, he married again.
Theology and inventions
Napier’s life was spent amid bitter religious dissensions. A passionate and uncompromising Protestant, in his dealings with the Church of Rome he sought no quarter and gave none. It was well known that James VI of Scotland hoped to succeed Elizabeth I to the English throne, and it was suspected that he had sought the help of the Catholic Philip II of Spain to achieve this end. Panic stricken at the peril that seemed to be impending, the general assembly of the Scottish Church, a body with which Napier was closely associated, begged James to deal effectively with the Roman Catholics, and on three occasions Napier was a member of a committee appointed to make representations to the King concerning the welfare of the church and to urge him to see that “justice be done against the enemies of God’s Church.”
In January 1594, Napier addressed to the King a letter that forms the dedication of his Plaine Discovery of the Whole Revelation of Saint John, a work that, while it professed to be of a strictly scholarly character, was calculated to influence contemporary events. In it he declared:
Let it be your Majesty’s continuall study to reforme the universall enormities of your country, and first to begin at your Majesty’s owne house, familie and court, and purge the same of all suspicion of Papists and Atheists and Newtrals, whereof this Revelation forthtelleth that the number shall greatly increase in these latter daies.
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The work occupies a prominent place in Scottish ecclesiastical history.
Following the publication of this work, Napier seems to have occupied himself with the invention of secret instruments of war, for in a manuscript collection now at Lambeth Palace , London, there is a document bearing his signature, enumerating various inventions “designed by the Grace of God, and the worke of expert craftsmen” for the defense of his country. These inventions included two kinds of burning mirrors, a piece of artillery, and a metal chariot from which shot could be discharged through small holes.
Contribution to mathematics
Napier devoted most of his leisure to the study of mathematics , particularly to devising methods of facilitating computation, and it is with the greatest of these, logarithms, that his name is associated. He began working on logarithms probably as early as 1594, gradually elaborating his computational system whereby roots, products, and quotients could be quickly determined from tables showing powers of a fixed number used as a base.
His contributions to this powerful mathematical invention are contained in two treatises: Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio (Description of the Marvelous Canon of Logarithms), which was published in 1614, and Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Constructio (Construction of the Marvelous Canon of Logarithms), which was published two years after his death. In the former, he outlined the steps that had led to his invention.
Numbers and Mathematics
Logarithms were meant to simplify calculations, especially multiplication, such as those needed in astronomy . Napier discovered that the basis for this computation was a relationship between an arithmetical progression—a sequence of numbers in which each number is obtained, following a geometric progression, from the one immediately preceding it by multiplying by a constant factor, which may be greater than unity (e.g., the sequence 2, 4, 8, 16 . . . ) or less than unity (e.g., 8, 4, 2, 1, 1/2 . . . ).
In the Descriptio, besides giving an account of the nature of logarithms, Napier confined himself to an account of the use to which they might be put. He promised to explain the method of their construction in a later work. This was the Constructio, which claims attention because of the systematic use in its pages of the decimal point to separate the fractional from the integral part of a number. Decimal fractions had already been introduced by the Flemish mathematician Simon Stevin in 1586, but his notation was unwieldy. The use of a point as the separator occurs frequently in the Constructio. Joost Bürgi , the Swiss mathematician, between 1603 and 1611 independently invented a system of logarithms, which he published in 1620. But Napier worked on logarithms earlier than Bürgi and has the priority due to his prior date of publication in 1614.
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Although Napier’s invention of logarithms overshadows all his other mathematical work, he made other mathematical contributions. In 1617 he published his Rabdologiae, seu Numerationis per Virgulas Libri Duo ( Study of Divining Rods, or Two Books of Numbering by Means of Rods, 1667); in this he described ingenious methods of multiplying and dividing of small rods known as Napier’s bones, a device that was the forerunner of the slide rule . He also made important contributions to spherical trigonometry , particularly by reducing the number of equations used to express trigonometrical relationships from 10 to 2 general statements. He is also credited with certain trigonometrical relations—Napier’s analogies—but it seems likely that the English mathematician Henry Briggs had a share in these.
| John Napier |
Which fashion designer opened a shop called 'Bazaar' on King's Road in London in 1957? | John Napier biography - Science Hall of Fame - National Library of Scotland
Bringing the decimal point into common use
Inventing a portable calculating tool – 'Napier's bones'.
Napier was a hugely influential figure in the 17th century. He is widely considered to be the first Scotsman to have made a significant contribution to scientific learning.
He was respected by mathematicians and scientists worldwide, notably Galileo, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton.
Napier invented logarithms in 1614. This new method of calculation allowed people to solve long, laborious arithmetical problems much more quickly and easily. It was particularly useful in navigation and astronomy.
Schools and workplaces universally used adaptations of Napier's logarithmic tables right up to the 1970s, when electronic pocket calculators were widely adopted.
Studied in Europe
John Napier was born into a wealthy and privileged family at Merchiston, Edinburgh. He spent a short time at St Andrews University. Around 1564, he left to study in Europe, on the advice of his uncle, the Bishop of Orkney.
As well as having a passionate interest in mathematics, Napier was interested in religious texts. This meant he needed to study Greek, which was not widely taught in Europe at that time. There were Greek scholars in Basel or Geneva, so he may have studied there.
Fame at home and abroad
By the time he returned to Scotland in 1571, Napier was an outstanding mathematician, and was also proficient in both Latin and Greek.
He married and went to live at the family estate at Gartness, Stirlingshire. There he lived like a hermit, spending much of his time in the study of mathematics. Local people thought this rather odd, and believed him to be a wizard.
Fiercely opposed to the Catholic Church, Napier published a critique entitled 'A plaine discovery of the whole Revelation of St John'. This aroused much interest and made him well-known at home and abroad.
Napier's first wife, Elizabeth, died in 1579. A few years later he married Agnes Chisholm and went on to have a large family.
Logarithms and other devices
Arithmetical calculations could be lengthy and tedious in the 16th century, making it a very unpopular occupation. Napier set his mind to simplify them.
In 1614 he published a work called 'Mirifici logarithmorum canonis descriptio'. In it he outlined the principles of logarithms , which he called 'artificial numbers'. The work was immediately appreciated and applauded by fellow mathematicians and others.
Alongside logarithms, Napier invented several portable devices to use as calculators. The best known of these consists of a set of rods known as ' Napier's Bones '.
Napier is also credited with bringing the decimal point into common usage. It had been in use in mathematics before this time, but not very widely.
Weapons of war
Against the threat of invasion by the Spanish Armada, Napier designed several weapons of war . Among them was a burning mirror which could destroy enemy ships.
A few years before his death, Napier moved back to Merchiston Castle in Edinburgh, where he became known as 'Marvellous Merchiston'. He died in 1617.
In our public poll , John Napier was voted the 10th most popular Scottish scientist from the past.
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Bryan Adams' massive hit '(Everything I Do) I Do It For You' was written for the soundtrack of which film? | Bryan Adams - IMDb
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Canadian Bryan Adams rose to popularity in 1983 with the release of his third album, "Cuts Like a Knife". The album made him popular throughout the United States. However, it was his fourth album "Reckless", which is referred to as one of the best albums of the 1980s that made him an international superstar and gave him his first Grammy nomination... See full bio »
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2007 Bridge to Terabithia (producer: "A Place for Us") / (writer: "A Place for Us")
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2003 Devil's Gate ("I'm Ready")
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2003 Stealing Christmas (TV Movie) (performer: "Run Rudolph Run")
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2003 Idols (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
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2001-2003 Pop Idol (TV Series) (writer - 5 episodes)
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2003 Idool 2003 (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
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2002 Grand Theft Auto: Vice City (Video Game) (performer: "Run To You") / (writer: "Run To You" - as B. Adams)
2002 House of Fools ("Have You Ever Really Loved a Woman")
2002 Party at the Palace: The Queen's Concerts, Buckingham Palace (TV Movie documentary) (performer: "Everything I Do (I Do It For You)") / (writer: "Everything I Do (I Do It For You)")
2002 Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron (performer: "Here I am", "This is where I belong", "You can't take me", "Get off my back", "Sound the bugle", "Here I am" (end credits version), "I Will Always Return", "Don't Let Go", "Brothers Under the Sun") / (writer: "Here I am", "This is where I belong", "You can't take me", "Get off my back", "Here I am" (end credits version), "I Will Always Return", "Don't Let Go", "Brothers Under the Sun")
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2001 100 Greatest Number One Singles (TV Special documentary) (performer: "Everything I Do I Do It For You") / (writer: "Everything I Do I Do It For You")
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2000 MTV Unplugged: Ballads (Video short) (performer: "I'm Ready") / (writer: "I'm Ready")
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1992 The 64th Annual Academy Awards (TV Special) (lyrics: "(Everything I Do) I Do It for You") / (performer: "(Everything I Do) I Do It for You")
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1991 Problem Child 2 (performer: "Only the Strong Survive") / (writer: "Only the Strong Survive")
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1985 Real Genius (performer: "One Night Love Affair") / (writer: "One Night Love Affair")
1985 Live Aid (TV Special documentary) (performer: "Kids Wanna Rock", "Summer Of 69", "Tears Are Not Enough", "Cuts Like A Knife") / (writer: "Kids Wanna Rock", "Summer Of 69", "Tears Are Not Enough", "Cuts Like A Knife")
1985 Knight Rider (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
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1985 Solid Gold (TV Series) (writer - 1 episode)
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Which of the Japanese islands has the highest population? | Bryan Adams - (Everything I Do) I Do It For You - YouTube
Bryan Adams - (Everything I Do) I Do It For You
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Published on Sep 25, 2015
Written by Adams, Kamen and Lange for the film "Robin Hood; Prince of Thieves". Available on the album "Waking Up The Neighbours", the video was shot on the coast of England (looking at Wales). Directed by Julian Temple.
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In 1919, the Curzon Line was proposed as a boundary between the Soviet Union and which country? | Curzon Line | international boundary, Europe | Britannica.com
international boundary, Europe
Oder–Neisse Line
Curzon Line, demarcation line between Poland and Soviet Russia that was proposed during the Russo-Polish War of 1919–20 as a possible armistice line and became (with a few alterations) the Soviet-Polish border after World War II .
After World War I the Allied Supreme Council, which was determining the frontiers of the recently reestablished Polish state, created a temporary boundary marking the minimum eastern frontier of Poland and authorized a Polish administration to be formed on the lands west of it (Dec. 8, 1919). That line extended southward from Grodno , passed through Brest-Litovsk, and then followed the Bug River to its junction with the former frontier between the Austrian Empire and Russia. Whether eastern Galicia , with Lvov, should be Polish or Ukrainian was not decided.
When a subsequent Polish drive eastward into the Ukraine collapsed, the Polish prime minister, Władysław Grabski , appealed to the Allies for assistance (July 1920). On July 10, 1920, the Allies proposed an armistice plan to Grabski, designating the line of Dec. 8, 1919, with a southwestward continuation to the Carpathian Mountains , keeping Przemyśl for Poland but ceding eastern Galicia; the following day the British foreign secretary, Lord Curzon, whose name was subsequently attached to the entire line, made a similar suggestion to the Soviet government. Neither the Poles nor the Soviets, however, accepted the Allied plan. The final peace treaty (concluded in March 1921), reflecting the ultimate Polish victory in the Russo-Polish War, provided Poland with almost 52,000 square miles (135,000 square kilometres) of land east of the Curzon Line.
Although the Curzon Line, which had never been proposed as a permanent boundary, lost significance after the Russo-Polish War, the Soviet Union later revived it, claiming all the territory east of the line and occupying that area (in accordance with the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact of 1939) at the outbreak of World War II. Later, after Germany had invaded the Soviet Union, the Red Army pushed back the German troops and occupied all of the former state of Poland by the end of 1944; the United States and Great Britain then agreed to Soviet demands (Yalta Conference; Feb. 6, 1945) and recognized the Curzon Line as the Soviet-Polish border. On Aug. 16, 1945, a Soviet-Polish treaty officially designated a line almost equivalent to the Curzon Line as their mutual border; in 1951 some minor frontier adjustments were made.
Learn More in these related articles:
| Poland |
A dish described as 'a la Dubarry' features which vegetable? | Curzon Line
Curzon Line
Demarcation line between Poland and Soviet Russia.
The British foreign secretary, Lord Curzon , proposed it as a possible armistice line in the Russo-Polish War of 1919–20. His plan was not accepted, and the final peace treaty (1921) provided Poland with almost 52,000 sq mi (135,000 sq km) of land east of the line. With the outbreak of World War II, the Soviet Union revived the line, claiming all the territory east of it. In 1945 a Soviet-Polish treaty officially designated a line almost identical to the Curzon Line as their mutual border.
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▪ international boundary, Europe
demarcation line between Poland and Soviet Russia ( Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ) that was proposed during the Russo-Polish War of 1919–20 as a possible armistice line and became (with a few alterations) the Soviet-Polish border after World War II.
After World War I the Allied Supreme Council, which was determining the frontiers of the recently reestablished Polish state, created a temporary boundary marking the minimum eastern frontier of Poland and authorized a Polish administration to be formed on the lands west of it ( Dec . 8, 1919). That line extended southward from Grodno, passed through Brest-Litovsk, and then followed the Bug River to its junction with the former frontier between the Austrian Empire and Russia. Whether eastern Galicia, with Lvov, should be Polish or Ukrainian was not decided.
When a subsequent Polish drive eastward into the Ukraine collapsed, the Polish prime minister, Władysław Grabski ( Grabski, Władysław ), appealed to the Allies for assistance (July 1920). On July 10, 1920, the Allies proposed an armistice plan to Grabski, designating the line of Dec. 8, 1919, with a southwestward continuation to the Carpathian Mountains, keeping Przemyśl for Poland but ceding eastern Galicia; the following day the British foreign secretary, Lord Curzon, whose name was subsequently attached to the entire line, made a similar suggestion to the Soviet government. Neither the Poles nor the Soviets, however, accepted the Allied plan. The final peace treaty (concluded in March 1921), reflecting the ultimate Polish victory in the Russo-Polish War, provided Poland with almost 52,000 square miles (135,000 square kilometres) of land east of the Curzon Line.
Although the Curzon Line, which had never been proposed as a permanent boundary, lost significance after the Russo-Polish War, the Soviet Union later revived it, claiming all the territory east of the line and occupying that area (in accordance with the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact of 1939) at the outbreak of World War II. Later, after Germany had invaded the Soviet Union, the Red Army pushed back the German troops and occupied all of the former state of Poland by the end of 1944; the United States and Great Britain then agreed to Soviet demands ( Yalta Conference ; Feb. 6, 1945) and recognized the Curzon Line as the Soviet-Polish border. On Aug. 16, 1945, a Soviet-Polish treaty officially designated a line almost equivalent to the Curzon Line as their mutual border; in 1951 some minor frontier adjustments were made.
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| i don't know |
First performed in 1896, which was the last opera written by Gilbert & Sullivan? | Ages Ago - "Times" Review 1881
Thespis; or, The Gods Grown Old: Gaiety Theatre, 26 December 1871, 63 performances.
Trial By Jury: Royalty Theatre, 25 March 1875, 131 performances.
The Sorcerer: Opera Comique, 17 November 1877, 175 performances.
H.M.S. Pinafore; or, The Lass that Loved a Sailor: Opera Comique, 25 May 1878, 571 performances.
The Pirates of Penzance; or, The Slave of Duty:
Royal Bijou Theatre, Paignton, 31 December 1879;
Fifth Avenue Theatre, New York, 31 December 1879;
Opera Comique, 3 April 1880, 363 performances.
Patience; or Bunthorne's Bride:
Opera Comique, 23 April 1881,
Transferred to Savoy Theatre 10 October 1881,
578 performances.
Iolanthe; or, The Peer and the Peri:
Savoy Theatre, 25 November 1882, 398 performances.
Princess Ida; or, Castle Adamant:
Savoy Theatre, 5 January 1884, 246 performances.
The Mikado; or, The Town of Titipu:
Savoy Theatre, 14 March 1885, 672 performances.
Ruddigore; or, The Witch's Curse:
Savoy Theatre, 22 January 1887, 288 performances.
The Yeomen of the Guard; or, The Merryman and His Maid:
Savoy Theatre, 3 October 1888, 423 performances.
The Gondoliers; or, The King of Barataria:
Savoy Theatre, 7 December 1889, 554 performances.
Utopia, Limited; or, The Flowers of Progress:
Savoy Theatre, 7 October 1893, 245 performances.
The Grand Duke; or, The Statutory Duel:
SavoyTheatre, 7 March 1896, 123 performances.
| Grand duke |
In the human body, what is the more common name for the 'Zygomatic Bone'? | C20th Gilbert & Sullivan - archive
Items on this page have mostly (but not exclusively) already sold. Although the main aim of this site is not to be educational, the programmes we have sold in the past form an interesting record of the work of Gilbert, Sullivan and D'Oyly Carte. Items are listed in date order, according to printing date of the item (where known) and hopefully this page will be of interest to researchers and collectors. Titles of items relating to just Gilbert appear in PINK, Sullivan's works are in BLUE and joint works are GREEN. London opening night dates are given in purple. Early items which are currently for sale will be found here on the site.
ROBERT THE DEVIL
Gilbert's opera, Robert the Devil was the first production at the new Gaiety Theatre on 21st December 1868. This programme dates from January 30th 1869, when the piece was preceded by the curtain raisers On the Cards and The Two Harlequins. It includes a full page of extracts from London newspapers, reviewing both the venue and the entertainments.
ROBERT THE DEVIL
By March 29th 1869, Robert the Devil was preceded by T.W. Roertson's play Dreams and The Two Harlequins. There had been a few minor changes in the cast, but the title role was still played by Nellie Farren. The piece ran until at least April 19th, but had definately been withdrawn by May 17th, so ran for less than 150 performances.
ROBERT THE DEVIL
Robert the Devil was in fact a parody of Meyerbeer's opera Robert Le Diable and was the last in a series of three such burlesques. It was revived at the Gaiety Theatre many times. This programme dates from June 1871, when the piece followed a "new" arrangement of Balfe's, Letty, the Basket Maker.
THESPIS
The first Gilbert & Sullivan collaboration opened at the Gaiety Theatre on 26th December 1871. This early example of the programme was printed sometime before Jan 13th. The companion piece, Dearer Than Life, was replaced by Ganymede & Galatea and Off the Line on 20th January, and by Paul Pry on 26th February. Thespis closed on 8th March 1872 and was given just one revival, at Mdlle. Clary's benefit on 28th April 1872.
THESPIS INTERRUPTED
Thespis ran for 63 nights, not 64 as often stated, as there was a one-night break in the run. Most London theatre managements declined to present a fully costumed performance on Ash Wednesday, in order to show respect for the start of Lent. Hollingshead therefore replaced Thespis on 14th February 1872 with a Miscellaneous Entertainment. By a remarkable coincidence George Grossmith (presumably the younger) gave a parody of a Penny Reading as part of a bill which also featured ventriloquists and performing dogs !
PYGMALION & GALATEA
Gilbert's Pygmalion & Galatea opened at the Theatre Royal Haymarket on December 9th 1871. This programme is for the 40th performance, on January 25th 1872; Mr Kendal and Miss Robertson in the title roles. The play was preceded by a Buckstone farce, The Irish Lion, and followed by Charles Mathhews' farce, Uncle Foozle.
CREATURES OF IMPULSE
This Gilbert play first opened at the Royal Court Theatre on 2nd April 1871. Edward Righton recreated his role of the miser Boomblehardt, in this revival, from October 1872, although most of the cast is different from that seen at the premiere. Interestingly, it is still described as a "New Fairy Tale".
PYGMALION & GALATEA
The author sanctioned a tour of Pygmalion & Galatea by L. J. Sefton's London Comedy Company, the production reaching Worcester on 26th December 1872, where it played for nine nights. The programme includes many quotes from reviews, and gives details of the afterpiece, F. C. Burnand's King Kokatoo!.
W.H. LISTON BENEFIT
Gilbert's "fairy comedy", The Wicked World, had opened at the Haymarket Theatre on 4th January 1873, but one scene was performed at the Theatre Royal Drury Lane on March 22nd of the same year for the benefit of Mr and Mrs W. H. Liston. Gilbert sat on the steering committee for the event, as did Charles Dickens and many other great names of British theatre . Henry Irving appeared in a scene from Charles I.
THE HAPPY LAND
Written under a pseudonym, F. Tomline, with Punch writer Gilbert A'Beckett, W.S. Gilbert burlesqued his own play, The Wicked World, in his satrirical piece, The Happy Land, which opened at the Royal Court Theatre on March 3rd 1873. This programme dates from some time after March 6th, when the names of the "mortals" were changed, in order to disguise the portrayal of Gladstone and other leading politicians. In an interesting note in the programme, Gilbert has given permission to his alter ego to pastiche his own work !
CREATURES OF IMPULSE
Gilbert's Creatures of Impulse was revived at Queen's Theatre in 1873, this programme dated by hand for July 8th of that year. Part of a triple bill with Vesta's Temple and Jerrold's Black-Ey'd Susan, the Gilbert play still featured Edward Righton in his original role as Boomblehardt. The back page has an advert for the Royal Court, where Gilbert's The Happy Land was still playing.
SULLIVAN NIGHT
Even before Trial by Jury, Sir Arthur was an established enough composer to be afforded his own night at the Covent Garden proms. October 18th 1873 was "Sullivan Night", and the entire first half of the concert was composed of his work, conducted by the man himself. As well as songs (including "Little Maid of Arcadee" from Thespis, the audience heard the Tempest and Merchant of Venice material, the Cello Concerto and the "Overturo di Ballo".
THE REALM OF JOY
The Realm of Joy by Gilbert (but written under the pseudonym of F. Latour Tomline) opened at the Royalty Theatre on 28th October 1873. This programme is from November 4th, soon before the title of the piece was changed to The Realms of Joy.
THE WEDDING MARCH
Gilbert's play The Wedding March, also written under his pseudonym, F. Latour Tomline, opened at the Royal Court Theatre on November 15th 1873, and settled in for a good run. This programme is from about a month after the opening night, as it is dated 18th December, but the play ran until at least March 1874. It was definately withdrawn before 20th May 1874.
MERRY WIVES OF WINDSOR
Arthur Sullivan composed "new and original music" for the last act of a production of Shakespeare's The Merry Wives of Windsor which opened at the Gaiety Theatre on December 19th 1874. The words to an interpolated song for Anne Page were set by Algernon Swinburne. This programme, dated 29th January 1875, also credits Sullivan with having selected the chorus of children which sang in the piece.
TRIAL BY JURY announced
Trial By Jury is announced in this programme from the Royalty Theatre dated 2nd February 1875. The notice reads, "In preparation, a New Comic Opera, composed expressly for this Theatre, by Mr Arthur Sullivan, in which Madame Dolaro and Miss Nelly Bromley will appear". In the event of course, although Selina Dolaro would continue to play the title role in La Perichole there was to be no role for her in Trial by Jury. Richard D'Oyly Carte's name appears on the cover, as "manager" of the theatre.
TRIAL BY JURY
Trial By Jury opened at the Royalty Theatre on 25th March 1875, playing as an afterpiece to Offenbach's La Perichole. The true initial run was rather short, as the theatre closed on June 12th, the company taking the production on tour. Although probably issued on 10th April 1875, it is possible that this programme was printed even earlier, as it does not mention the Associate, a role which is generally believed to have been named after 1st April. All the original cast members were in place at this exceptionally early date.
TRIAL BY JURY
Following their tour, the Trial By Jury company re-opened at the Royalty Theatre on 11th October 1875, again playing with La Perichole. By the date of this programme, 16th November, there had been some substantial cast changes and the piece was now described as "successful". The operetta was withdrawn on 18th December, having totalled an initial, if fractured, run of 131 performances.
TRIAL BY JURY
On January 13th 1876 the production moved to the Opera Comique, where it was initially an afterpiece to Offenbach's Madame L'Archiduc. This Opera Comique programme, dated 14th February 1876, features the composer's brother Fred Sullivan in his original role as the Judge. Counsel, Usher and Foreman were all played by actors who had appeared at the Royalty. Gilbert and Sullivan appear on the cover and the programme is full of line drawings of characters in both pieces.
TRIAL BY JURY
During the 96 performance run of Trial by Jury at the Opera Comique it shared the bill with three different operettas. On this programme it was forepiece to Offenbach's Genevieve de Brabant, starring Emily Soldene, which dates it to between 18th March and April 1st 1876. Fred Sullivan was still The Judge and understudy "E. Cambell" (Charles ?) was The Defendant. Foreman was W.S. Penley, later famous in the title role of Charley's Aunt.
PYGMALION & GALATEA on tour
Gilbert's 1871 play Pygmalion & Galatea reached Brighton's Theatre Royal on 25th September 1876, performed by John Chute's Olympic Gaston company, and starring John Nelson and Carlotta Leclercq.
TRIAL BY JURY
Trial By Jury was first revived on March 3rd 1877 at the Strand Theatre, as afterpiece to Tom Taylor's Babes and Beetles and Charles Matthews' The Dowager. After the first two weeks George Leith took over the role of Judge from J.G. Taylor, but otherwise the cast remained the same for the whole of the 73 performance run. This programme is dated for 27th March 1877.
ANSON BENEFIT
On April 21st 1877, at 2pm, the Opera Comique hosted a benefit performance for the actor G.W. Anson. Of most interest to us here is the appearance of Lionel Brough singing a new musical sketch by George Grossmith (then "Junr.", but our Gee Gee), "The Muddle Puddle Junction Porter". Earlier in the afternoon Ellen Terry appeared as Helen in a scene from Knowles' The Hunchback.
COMPTON BENEFIT
Trial By Jury was the highlight of Mr. Compton's benefit at Drury Lane on March 1st 1877. George Honey was Judge, leading a distinguished cast which included George Grossmith as a juryman, making what was probably his first appearance in a Gilbert and Sullivan opera, almost nine months before the opening of The Sorcerer. Sullivan conducted the orchestra, but no actor is credited with the role of Associate, leaving open the possibility that this was Gilbert, which would make this one of the very rare occasions when G&S appeared together in public.
PRINCESS TOTO on tour
Princess Toto, a comic opera by W.G. Gilbert, with words by Frederic Clay had opened in Nottingham on June 26th 1876, making a short tour of the UK before opening at the Strand Theatre on 2nd October of that year. Produced by Kate Santley, who played the title role, Princess Toto ran for just 48 performances in London before setting out on tour again, reaching Liverpool for the second time on August 6th 1877. W.H. Seymour, who would be D'Oyly Carte's stage manager for twenty years from 1881, played Zapeter at the Alexandra Theatre and was joined in the cast by other key members of the Royalty Theatre company, including Amy Clifford who had appeared as First Bridesmaid in the first run of Trial by Jury.
SORCERER - FIRST PROGRAMME
The Sorcerer opened at the Opera Comique on 22nd November 1877, and it appears that no special programme was produced for opening night. However, this copy was issued during the first two weeks of the production, as it gives Act 2 as "Market Place in the Village", and has typographical errors consistent with the example reproduced by Reginald Allen, and which he considers likely to have been the first issued. This copy is dated for third night.
HMS PINAFORE- OPENING NIGHT
H.M.S. Pinafore opened at the Opera Comique on May 25th 1878. This programme was intended for use on both the first and second nights and it bears both dates. Only five hundred were printed, and of these just a handful are known to have survived.
HMS PINAFORE- 3rd NIGHT
This H.M.S. Pinafore programme is reliably dated in pencil for 28th May 1878, the third performance. This was the opening night of the first revival of the forepiece, Spectre Knight, and shows that Second Lady was played on this occasion by Miss Hervey, not Miss Muncey, as has been stated.
HMS PINAFORE
This H.M.S. Pinafore programme is reliably dated in pencil for 7th August 1878, and is remarkable in that Ralph Rackstraw was played by a Mr Ferran, who is not listed in Rollins and Witts or any other source that we've seen, although this may be a mis-print for D'Arcy Ferris who played the role on occasion. Buttercup was Emily Cross, here appearing in the role much earlier than has been previously documented.
HMS PINAFORE
During the run of H.M.S. Pinaforethere were occasional cast changes. This example probably dates from either August 1878 or February 1879, as Josephine is played by Alice Burville.
OLIVIA
W.G. Wills' play, Olivia, opened at the Court Theatre in London on 30th March 1878, and included a Sullivan part-song, "Morn, happy morn". This programme, crediting Sullivan with the "trio" in Act Two, is from Liverpool, where the play appeared for twelve nights from 21st October 1878.
HMS PINAFORE
Highly decorated programme featuring the original cast of Pinafore. The use of gold and full-colour litho would suggest that this was intended for use in only the very best seats, or at a special performance, although it is frustratingly undated. It must date from before the split between D'Oyly Carte and the Comedy Opera Company on 1st August 1879.
LA POULE AUX OEUFS D'OR
A Sullivan curiosity ! This English version of a French "feerie" at the Alhambra boasted music by a number of composers including Rossini, Offenbach and one "A. Sullivan". It must be presumed that some of his themes were borrowed, presumably with his permission. The programme, dated 15th March 1879, includes illustration of scenes, and much detail of the settings and dances. Emily Soldene played Princess Fanfreluche.
GRETCHEN
One of the biggest flops of Gilbert's career, Gretchen, his play "suggested by the leading incidents in Goethe's Faust", opened at the Royal Olympic Theatre on March 24th 1879. It had closed by April 3rd, less than two weeks later. The cover of the programme carries a virtual essay by Gilbert anxious to explain to the audience that he was not attempting to put Faust on stage in its entirety, but simply to "re-model ... the story of Gretchen's downfall".
HMS PINAFORE (PIRATE PRODUCTION)
On August 1st 1879 a rival production of Pinafore opened in London, produced by the Comedy-Opera Company. This programme dates between September 8th and October 25th, when the show was playing at the Royal Olympic Theatre. On the cover, the production company claim that the piece was written "expressly for them by Messrs. Sullivan and Gilbert" !
PINAFORE AT THE PROMS
It is well known that during the first run of HMS Pinafore, Sullivan strategically programmed a selection from the piece in occasional Covent Garden promenade concerts, in what was an apparently successful attempt to boost sales of tickets at the Opera Comique.. On this occasion, Saturday August 23rd 1879, Sullivan was to have conducted, but it is noted that during his "temporary and unavoidable absence" Alfred Cellier would undertake his duties. The Pinafore selection was arranged by Hamilton Clarke.
HMS PINAFORE (PIRATE PRODUCTION)
The pirated Pinafore went through a staggering succession of cast members during its 91 performance run in two theatres. By 27th September 1879 the piece, at the Olympic Theatre, featured a pair of sopranos, Pauline Rita and Kate Sullivan, sharing the role of Josephine, playing alternate performances. Frederic Wood, as Ralph, is not listed in Rollins & Witts; and the programme also names Mr Dymott as Bob Beckett, the only actor from the original to take his chance with the producers of the rival production.
SWEETHEARTS
Lydia Thompson's company appeared in Liverpool on 17th November 1879, where they played a triple bill for six nights, including Gilbert's Sweethearts starring Miss Thompson as Jenny, with Charles Vandenhoff as Harry.
HMS PINAFORE
Attractive H.M.S. Pinafore programme, with cover advert for The Children's Pinafore and dated in pencil for 13th December 1879. Many of the roles are played by cast members who would not be expected to appear at this date. Frank Thornton is Deadeye; Elinor Loveday is Josphine; Mr Montelli is Bobstay; Mr Ramsay is Beckett; and Haidee Crofton, Hebe.
HMS PINAFORE
The cover of this similar programme states that it was produced for the "last performances" of Pinafore. It is dated by hand for Feb 9th 1880. After 571 performances the piece closed on Feb 20th. Again, there are a few unexpected cast members, most notably Fanny Holland as Josephine. The programme is decorated inside and out with scenes from the opera, and includes many plugs for the Children's Pinafore and an announcement that Pirates is due to open "at Easter".
PIRATES OF PENZANCE
The Pirates of Penzance was first seen in London at the Opera Comique on April 3rd 1880, where it ran for 363 performances, closing on April 2nd of the following year. This unusual programme printed on pale lilac paper, dates from before July 1880, as it features all the original London cast.
PIRATES OF PENZANCE
An unusual programme for The Pirates of Penzance at the Opera Comique. Although it clearly dates from before July 1880, Ellen Shirley plays Mabel. A note explains that this actress would "sustain the part during Miss Hood's indisposition". This would therefore appear to represent Ellen's debut in a solo G&S role, at least 6 months earlier than previously recorded. Otherwise, the cast is that which had been seen on the London opening night.
PIRATES OF PENZANCE
This strange programme was probably printed in September 1880, and certainly after July, when some of the cast returned from New York, having created their roles in the States. It is unusual in that Frederic is played by one "F. Seymour". Was this W.S. Seymour, the Opera Comique stage manager who deputised for George Power on odd occasions during the run ? Billie Barlow, as Isabel, is credited as "M. Barlow". It is possible that her real initial has been used here in error, as she had only recently adopted the name Billie.
CHILDREN'S PINAFORE on tour
The Children's Pinafore had opened at the Opera Comique on Dec 16th 1879, playing 78 matinees over the Christmas season. On August 2nd 1880 this company set out on tour, reaching Liverpool in November, where the final eight performances at the Alexandra Theatre were given following November 15th. Unlike in London, the children performed in the evening as well as at Wed and Sat matinees. The cast was as had been seen in London, except that Hebe was Alice Roe and Bob Beckett was played by Master R. Presano.
PIRATES OF PENZANCE
The cover of this attractive programme includes an announcement for the revival of the Children's Pinafore to be played during the Christmas holidays, so it most likely dates from just prior to that production's December 22nd 1880 return to the Opera Comique.
PIRATES OF PENZANCE / IN THE SULKS on tour
D'Oyly Cartes "B" company arrived in Liverpool on 28th February, where they presented The Pirates of Penzance for two weeks. Half way through this engagement at the Alexandra Theatre the cast became known as "C" company. This was also a period of change-over among the lesser female roles, and during the first week (at least) Edith was Agnes Mitchell, Kate was Lucy Millais and Isabel was Ethel Maribel. In the curtain raiser, In The Sulks, Louis Herbert played Liverby, Lucy Millais his wife and Joseph was W. T. Hemsley.
CHILDREN'S PINAFORE on tour
The Children's Pinafore set out on tour again after the second Christmas season of matinees at the Opera Comique ended on January 28th (or Feb 11th ?) 1881. Despite this being a short tour, ending on July 2nd, the company returned to Liverpool for a twelve-night engagement from 30th May 1881. There were more cast changes from the original Opera Comique production, with George Coburn as Ralph and Edith Stanfield as Hebe. By this time Bob Becket was now Anthony Presano while (his brother ?) R. Presano had moved across to play Bill Bobstay. It is interesting that in both Liverpool programmes Sir Joseph is played by "James E. Pickering", while in London he had been listed as Edward.
PATIENCE / UNCLE SAMUEL
Patience opened at the Opera Comique on April 23rd 1881, where it played for 170 performances before closing on October 8th, ready to reopen immediately at the new Savoy. This programme, dated 6th May 1881, is for the complete original cast, before Richard Temple was replaced in September, and includes the following notice: "The music will be published in a few days. Orders taken by the attendants will be executed post free on the day of publication". The forepiece, Uncle Samuel, had premiered on 3rd May 1881.
PINAFORE / SORCERER on tour
The D'Oyly Carte "B" Company arrived at the Theatre Royal Opera House in Southampton on 20th June 1881, presenting H.M.S. Pinafore on Monday, Friday and Saturday evenings, and The Sorcerer on Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday and Saturday afternoon. Each performance was preceded by In the Sulks. The programme also carries an announcement that the Children's Pinafore would be appearing at the theatre for a week from June 27th 1881.
PATIENCE
This programme, dated September 24th 1881 shows no forepiece as it was for a matinee performance. The cast is as opening night, but with one important exception: Ellen Shirley in the title role. Although the programme states that this was her first appearance at this theatre, she had actually filled in for Marion Hood as Mabel on occasion in the previous January.
PATIENCE / MOCK TURTLES
Patience transferred to the new Savoy Theatre on 10th October 1881. Programmes are hard to date accurately, as we have to rely on dates written in by the original theatregoers. To add to the confusion, the programmes were printed in at least two designs and in many colour variations. This paper one, issued to those sitting in the cheaper seats, was originally bright orange paper but has since faded to beige.
PATIENCE / MOCK TURTLES
The curtain raiser, Mock Turtles, was probably added to the bill around 15th November 1881, with Courtice Pounds creating the role of Mr. Wranglebury. This pale green cardboard programme, printed in iridescent green ink, is dated in pen "Nov 10th 1881" but this is probably a mistake - 1882 is much more likely as Arthur Law plays Wranglebury. Walter Browne appears as the Colonel; otherwise the Patience cast is as opening night.
PATIENCE / MOCK TURTLES
This programme is similar, though decorated with scenes from the opera in iridescent red ink. Printed on card, it would have been given to those in more expensive seats. Patience ran for a further 408 performances at the Savoy, closing on November 22nd 1882 after a total run of 578 performances.
PATIENCE / MOCK TURTLES
One of the best designed decorative souvenir programmes we have seen, presumably produced to mark a special occasion, or possibly just for those sitting in boxes. Walter Browne played the Colonel. Printed in blue and gold, the cover depicts the military men in aesthetic guise in the centre of a blue and white china plate, while the inside has four vignettes from the opera and the portrait heads of Gilbert & Sullivan. The rear cover has an advert for the vocal arrangements.
CHARLES MORTON BENEFIT
On Friday November 4th 1881 Her Majesty's Theatre was host to a benefit for Charles Morton by a "grand combination of theatrical managers and artistes". Cellier conducted Leonora Braham and Rutland Barrington in a scene and duet from Patience. The rest of the bill was a mix of serious and light-hearted pieces and musical hall turns.
FOGGERTY'S FAIRY
W.S. Gilbert's, Foggerty's Fairy, was a play ahead of its time, and though well received by some critics at its December 15th 1881 opening at the Criterion Theatre, it closed on Jan 6th 1882 after about 25 performances. Gilbert took a curtain call on the opening night, when this programme was issued.
WRECK OF THE PINAFORE
New Zealander Horace Lingard's sequel, The Wreck of the Pinafore, had been seen in the Antipodes and America before the composer, Luscombe Searelle (real name, Isaac Israel) had the gall to sail it into the Opera Comique (where the original had premiered) on May 27th 1882. The characters of Pinafore are wrecked on a desert island: Josephine and Ralph don't make a perfect match, and she switches to Sir Joseph, after Buttercup admits to lying about the switch in babyhood. Greeted with loud derision on opening night, The Wreck was soon wrecked, lasting only four performances.
PATIENCE on tour
The number 2 Patience company started touring the UK on Jan 2nd 1882, while the piece was still on stage at the Savoy. By March 27th the tour had reached the Royal Albert Hall in Reading, where it played for one week. Frederick Federici played the Colonel, but his name is mis-spelled in the programme.
PATIENCE on tour
Early tour programme from the Theatre Royal and Opera House in Bolton, where the number 2 Patience company played for six nights from June 19th 1882. Superb example of Victorian typography produced by the local printer. This week of performances is unrecorded in Rollins & Witts.
PIRATES / A SILENT WOMAN on tour
Pirates continued to tour in the provinces years after the London production had closed. On 25th September 1882 the "No. 1 Pirates Company" was nearing the end of its existence when it played six nights at the Royal Court Theatre in Liverpool. W.T Hemsley played Samuel as well as Arthur Merton in T. H. Lacy's farce "A Silent Woman" which opened the bill. Jospephine Findlay also played two roles, Isabel and Marianne Sandford, while C.J. Stanley appeared in just the curtain raiser, as Mr. Sandford.
IOLANTHE - OPENING NIGHT
Iolanthe was the first piece to have its premiere at the Savoy Theatre, opening on 25th November 1882. This opening night programme states the date inside, and also notes that "on this occasion the opera will be Conducted by the Composer". This cheap-seats version is printed on an odd ribbed paper of pale green.
IOLANTHE / MOCK TURTLES
This programme, issued to those in better seats, is something of a classic, famously incorprating the Savoy's electric light bulbs into the decorative scheme. It dates from between December 1882 and February 1883, as Leila is played by Julia Gwynne, and Celia by May Fortescue. Rosina Brandram appears in the curtain raiser with Eric Lewis.
IOLANTHE
This programme, of the type issued to those in cheaper seats, dates from between February and August 1883, during which period Leila was played by Maud Cathcart.
IOLANTHE matinee
An undated programme, with full first cast, there is no clue when this may have been produced. The lack of curtain raiser suggests that it was for use at a matinee. Iolanthe ran with Mock Turtles until 30th March 1883, and then A Private Wire until the end of its run.
IOLANTHE on tour
lolanthe arrived at the Royal Opera House in Leicester on May 28th 1883. Frank Thornton starred as Chancellor with Laura Clement as Phyllis. The curtain raiser was Cups and Saucers.
SAVAGE CLUB ENTERTAINMENT
On Wednesday 11th July 1883 George Grossmith, John Maclean (Thespis), Lionel Brough and many others entertained members of the Savage Club during the annual Ball at the Albert Hall. The Prince and Princess of Wales were in attendance, and the programme included music by Sullivan, the recitation of a Bab Ballad, and much else of interest.
IOLANTHE on tour
Early tour programme for Iolanthe and Cups and Saucers at the New Theatre Royal in Bristol, where it played for six nights from November 12th 1883. Frank Thornton must have been rather busy, playing Lord Chancellor and being Stage Manager ! The first provincial production had opened a little over a month after the London premiere.
IOLANTHE /A PRIVATE WIRE
The cast changes in Iolanthe during its long run affected mainly the minor characters. This version of the regular programme, with rather different artwork, dates from after November 1883, when Warwick Gray was playing Private Willis. Iolanthe closed on Jan 1st 1884, after a run of 398 performances.
PRINCESS IDA
Princess Ida opened on 5th January 1884, and closed on October 9th, after a disappointing run (for a G&S opera) of just 246 performances. This exceptional programme was produced for those in the better seats, and has no advertisements of any kind. Dated 22nd Jan 1884, it describes the opera as being "in a prologue and two acts". Despite the early date, Ada was already being played by Lilian Carr. It is decorated inside with characters from the piece and is printed in maroon and gold.
PRINCESS IDA
Superficially similar to the souvenir shown above, but note that the cover has been made into an advert, so that it now reads, "Princess Ida uses Edenia, the perfume supreme" ! It also has further adverts inside, and describes the opera as having three acts. It is printed in brown and gold.
"THE PRINCESS IDA" on tour
This opening night programme for the first provincial performance of Princes Ida, at the Royalty Theatre in Glasgow, 4th Feb 1884, adds a "The" to the title of the piece, both inside and on the cover. By this time Richard D'Oyly Carte was clearly geared up to a speedy launch in the provinces, this production opening within a month of the Savoy premiere.
PRINCESS IDA
The regular Princess Ida souvenir programme has superb artwork by Alice Havers, with four colour, and four sepia, illustrations from the opera. The back pages use the characters as frames for advertisements. This example names Lilian Carr as Ada, but otherwise has the opening cast.
PRINCESS IDA tour herald
This four page herald uses Havers' artwork, the cover being almost the same as the Savoy programme shown above although it is much smaller, just 4.5" x 3.5". It mostly consists of adverts, but page two, shown at left, was used to promote forthcoming performances by the Princess Ida company on tour.
PRINCESS IDA
Dated for 7th March 1884, this Princess Ida programme shows all the opening night cast in place except Lilian Carr, who replaced Miss Twyman as Ada during the first month. A contemporary pencil notation suggests that Kate Chard, who usually played Psyche, took the lead role on this occasion.
PRINCESS IDA
An undated programme, this example has the same cast, but is printed on pale green paper.
PRINCESS IDA LAMPOON
Princess Ida, despite not being a huge success, was clearly considered sufficiently well known by March 15th 1884, for "Funny Folks" the satirical newspaper, to feature a pastiche of the opera on the cover. In this instance Ida's brothers are played by "Parney, Randy & Staffy" (Charles Stuart Parnell, Randolph Churchill and Stafford Henry Northcote). They threaten to obstruct a shadowy Gladstone with the words: "Politics we bar / Obstruction our bent / On the whole we are / Not intelligent".
PRINCESS IDA on tour
Early tour programme for Princess Ida at the New Theatre Royal in Bristol, where it played for six nights from June 9th 1884. Although not named in the programme, this tour marked Henry Lytton's first D'Oyly Carte appearance, in the chorus; his wife, Louie Henri played Ada. Fred Billington, who had, by default, created the role of Sergeant of Police in Paignton in 1879, plays Hildebrand, and Hilarion is played by Courtice Pounds, who would go on to create the roles of Fairfax and Marco at the Savoy.
PRINCESS IDA TICKET
Rare ticket for Balcony seat at the Savoy Theatre for the Wednesday June 18th performance of Princess Ida in 1884. The reverse has a mini seating plan of the balcony, with all seats numbered, showing that seat 147 was in the back row.
PRINCESS IDA at Drury Lane benefit
Selected as the finale of the annual Actors Benevolent Fund Matinee, at Drury Lane on June 19th 1884, was a selection from Princess Ida, featuring Durward Lely, Charles Ryley and Henry Bracy. Also on the bill that afternoon were, among many others, Henry Irving, Ellen Terry, and Kate Vaughan. Madame Patey and Mr Santley also sang, and it is maybe not entirely coincidental that Richard D'Oyly Carte is named on the cover as Vice-President of the charity !
COMEDY & TRAGEDY / PYGMALION & GALATEA
Gilbert's 1871 play Pygmalion & Galatea was revived at the Royal Lyceum Theatre on December 8th 1883, with Mary Anderson making her British debut as Galatea. On January 26th 1884 a new Gilbert afterpiece, Comedy & Tragedy, was added to the bill. Following a successful Anderson toured the British Isles, before returning again to the Lyceum. She appears on the cover of this lavish souvenir programme, dressed as the statue Galatea. It is dated September 6th 1884, probably the first night of the second part of the Lyceum run.
SORCERER / TRIAL REVIVAL OPENING NIGHT
D'Oyly Carte had no original opera to put into the Savoy following the relative failure of Princess Ida. The Sorcerer was therefore given a new act 2 opening, and paired with "Trial" for the opening night of the first DOC revival on October 11th 1884. As stated in this programme, Sullivan conducted the first performance.
SORCERER / TRIAL REVIVAL
D'Oyly Carte continued to use old artwork on his full-colour programmes for some time after each new opera opened. This Princess Ida cover was used for the first revivals even a month after they opened.
SORCERER / TRIAL
Programme for the first revival of The Sorcerer and Trial By Jury, which ran together for 150 performances, until March 12th 1885. Durward Lely left the cast of Trial in mid-November, so this example must have been printed earlier.
THE WEDDING MARCH
Gilbert's play, The Wedding March had premiered in 1873, so was perhaps a strange choice for Eugene C. Stafford's Annual Matinee at the Gaiety Theatre on 4th December 1884, with a cast headed by Lionel Brough and Lydia Thompson. The programme is exceptional, with a portrait of Stafford on the cover, surrounded by a view of the Gaiety proscenium arch, while inside is a view from the stage, with seats and boxes numbered. It seems likely that the chap was employed at the venue, possibly in the box office.
COX & BOX
Presented at the Royal Court Theatre, with Richard Temple, Arthur Cecil and Furneaux Cook, as part of a series of Wednesday afternoon matinees. This programme was produced for the 10th Dec 1884 performance, when the Sullivan piece was joined on the bill by My Milliner's Bill and Twenty Minutes Under an Umbrella.
CHILDREN'S PIRATES OF PENZANCE
From Dec 26th 1884 until Feb 14th 1885, a company of children performed a series of matinees of The Pirates of Penzance at the Savoy. This four-sided foldout souvenir programme depicting the child actors on one side and full details of cast etc on the back was among the most elaborate and expensive ever produced by D'Oyly Carte.
COX & BOX
Although undated, this programme was produced for the 7th Jan 1885 performance of Cox and Box with Temple, Cecil and Cook. It includes details of the 14th Jan entertainments which included Weedon Grossmith removing brother George's tooth !
COX & BOX
Programme, with decorative cover, for a "special dramatic performance" on Jan 22nd 1885, by the Vaudeville Club, of Daisy Farm followed by Cox & Box. St George's Hall, Langham Place, was the venue, and Bouncer was played by S. Ambrose. The title roles were taken by W.J. Strip and J. Stephens.
SORCERER / TRIAL REVIVAL
There was only one cast change during the short (150 performance) run of Sorcerer/Trial, and this programme dates from February or March 1885, when Jessie Bond was replaced as Constance by Alice Davies. An indulgence slip, pasted into the programme, shows that Lyn Cadwaladr played Alexis, due to the indisposition of Durward Lely. The run ended on March 12th 1885.
THE MIKADO
The Mikado opened at the Savoy on March 14th 1885 and didn't close until Jan 19th 1887. This programme has all the original cast members in place, and must date from the first few weeks of the run, as it doesn't include the character Go-To, added in April 1885.
PATIENCE BENEFIT
Although The Mikado was still running, the D'Oyly Carte stars Grossmith, Barrington, Braham & Brandram chose to present a scene from Patience at the Lyceum Theatre at 3pm on July 21st 1885 as part of a benefit performance for the Actors' Benevolent Fund. The conductor of the segment was F. Cellier. Mr. J.L. Toole (of Thespis) also appeared, as did Sarah Bernhardt, Henry Irving and Ellen Terry.
THE MIKADO
From rather later in the run, this programme does include Go-To, played by Rudolph Lewis. I've always had a soft spot for the role, as it was my first, in a school production. Eight words and nine whole syllables - what a star ! This example is in better condition than most.
THE MIKADO
Dated by hand for 13th March 1886, this programme is perhaps most interesting for the indulgence slip was has been pasted inside, showing that Jessie Bond was indisposed, and that her part was taken by Annie Cole. Although Cole is known to have played Pitti-Sing from Sept to Nov 1886 this may have been the first occasion she stepped out from the chorus to play a major part.
GOLDEN LEGEND SIGNED PROOF SCORE
Signed by Arthur Sullivan, and containing amendments to the stage directions in the hand of the lyricist Joseph Bennett, this bound set of proof pages dates from 1886. Although sold in February 2004, full details remain on the site, for the use of scholars and researchers.
MEYER LUTZ BENEFIT
On Monday 3rd May 1886 the Gaiety Theatre was host to a selection of scenes played for the benefit of composer Meyer Lutz. These included scenes from the Grand Opera Mephistopheles, the musical Little Jack Shepherd and the operetta Karl as well as recitations and solo pieces. Many names associated with Gilbert and Sullivan were among the performers, including Ellen Farren (Thespis), and Marion Hood (first London Mabel). The men included Durward Lely and Richard Temple.
MIKADO POSTER
The Mikado D-company tour reaching Bradford on Aug 30th 1886 where this large poster was overprinted with details of the week-long stay at the Theatre Royal. Strangely, the design appears to be based on an image of the first American little maids, featuring, from left to right, Geraldine St Maur, Geraldine Ulmar and Kate Forster.
DER MIKADO
In September 1886 a German-language version, Der Mikado oder Ein Tag in Titipu, opened in Vienna. This libretto has cover art featuring the title character and was probably produded not long after the Austrian premiere. It is the South German version of the text, and an interesting note at the top of the cover translates to something like, "Printed as a manuscript for the stage/theatres ", possibly indicating that it was originally owned by a cast member and used in rehearsal.
DER MIKADO
Mikado characters adorn this German sheet music which almost certainly dates from c.1886 and uses the same image of the title character, and surrounding decoration, as the cover of the early German libretto above.
RUDDYGORE - OPENING NIGHT
Ruddygore opened at the Savoy on January 22nd 1887. This opening night programme states the date inside, and also notes that "on this occasion the opera will be conducted by the composer". The souvenir has scenes from Iolanthe and Patience on the covers, and Pirates and The Sorcerer inside.
RUDDIGORE / THE CARP
On, or around, 2nd February 1887, the spelling of the opera's title was changed, for reasons of decency. By the time this souvenir programme was printed, on 6th April, Josephine Findlay was playing Rose Maybud for a short period. All the other original major cast members were in place.
RUDDIGORE POSTER
Ruddigore first appeared in the provinces at Newcastle on March 7th 1887, the C-Company tour reaching Bradford on June 13th where this large poster was overprinted with details of the week-long stay at the Theatre Royal. Rather naively executed, it shows Robin and Rose in front of the first act set.
TRIAL BY JURY
Another Lyceum benefit, this one for Amy Roselle on 16th June 1887. George Grossmith performed a "sketch", and Irving and Terry appeared in a scene from The Merchant of Venice. The afternoon concluded with Trial by Jury; lead roles taken by Rutland Barrington, Richard Temple, Rudolph Lewis, Geraldine Ulmar and Henry Bracy. Leading theatrical personalities of the day appeared in Court.
RUDDIGORE / THE CARP
This "cheap-seats" programme names Geraldine Ulmar as Rose Maybud. She had replaced Leonora Braham in May 1886. There are clearly some errors in Rollins & Witts concerning Ruddigore casts, as this programme also has Brandram as Dame Hannah, Aida Jenoure as Zorah, and Mr. Shirley as Sir Desmond. Interestingly, these cheap programmes include the names of the actors playing the Act Two ghosts, which do not appear in the more lavish souvenirs.
RUDDIGORE / THE CARP
Quite late in the Ruddigore run the souvenir programme was changed to include scenes from the actual opera being performed. This programme, dated 1st Nov, has Geraldine Ulmar playing Rose and Aida Jenoure as Zorah. It would also appear that Rosina Brandram returned to her role of Dame Hannah before the opera closed, four days later, on November 5th 1887, after 288 performances. A rather less impressive run than The Mikado !
THE MIKADO on tour
The Mikado toured the provinces with Patience in the latter part of 1887. This copy of the the programme of the first engagement of D-Company following a tour of Europe was originally owned by Ivy Bonheur (Yum-Yum), and she has written at the top "my first appearance professionally in Comic Opera". Bonheur's real name was Eveline Medora Gunning, and she was half sister of Frank Wyatt, who would go on to create the role of the Duke of Plaza Toro. The Mikado was performed at the Prince's Theatre in Manchester for three nights in the week of 12th September.
THE MIKADO & PATIENCE on tour
Barely three months after seeing Ruddigore (see poster above) Bradford audiences received D-Company, performing The Mikado and Patience. Each opera was given three times at the Theatre Royal in the week of September 19th 1887, and the programme did duty for both pieces. George Thorne was Ko-Ko with Fred Billington as Poo-Bah (sic). The only surprise in the casting was Mr Jones as Bunthorne's Solicitor, not Mr Cottrell as suggested by Rollins & Witts. As was often the case in the provinces the title of Patience was given an illegal apostrophe !
PINAFORE - FIRST REVIVAL
On November 12th 1887, following the early close of Ruddigore, Richard D'Oyly Carte was forced, once again, to mount a revival at the Savoy. Pinafore was given a run of 120 performances, closing on 10th March 1888. This example of the souvenir programme is dated 13th December 1887.
PINAFORE - FIRST REVIVAL
Cheap-seats version of the programme for the first revival of Pinafore. During the run there were cast changes affecting the roles of Josephine and Hebe, but here Geraldine Ulmar and Jessie Bond, who had appeared on the opening night in 1887, are still in place. After the performance George Grossmith gave his drawing room sketch, "Homburg; or Haunted By the Mikado", as an afterpiece.
PIRATES - FIRST REVIVAL
The Pirates of Penzance was given its first revival on March 17th 1888. It closed on 6th June, after just 80 performances - one of the shortest runs in the nineteenth century for a G&S opera. This example of the souvenir programme is dated 26th March 1888. The forepiece was Mrs. Jarramie's Genie.
PRINCESS IDA in SYDNEY
Leonora Braham, who had created the title role in Princess Ida at the Savoy, was also the first to play the part in Sydney, in April 1888. Her husband, J. Duncan Young, played "Hilarlon" according to the programme, and the cast also included Alice Barnett, the first Queen of the Fairies, as Lady Blanche.
PYGMALION & GALATEA - Liverpool benefit
On Saturday 14th April 1888 the Royal Alexandra Theatre in Liverpool hosted a pair of farewell benefits for the wife of the lessee, Mrs Edward Saker. In the evening Gilbert's Pygmalion & Galatea was produced, "under the direction and personal superintendence of the author". Assuming that Gilbert was in Liverpool for the actual event he was almost certainly cajoled into being one of the "literary, dramatic and local celebrities" who formed the jury for the Bardell v Pickwick trial scene which formed part of the matinee performance.
CARTE WEDDING: gift from E-Company
On 1st May 1888 E-Company was appearing in Bath and a local printer was comissioned to print this souvenir card for the cast members to keep. It records the text of an address presented, with a pair of silver candlesticks, to the Richard D'Oyly Carte and Helen Lenoir, who had wed on April 12th. It is a fascinating record of the names of the company and its associates, including many choristers whose names have previously been unrecorded.
THE MIKADO - FIRST REVIVAL
During the 116 performance run of the first Mikado revival there were a number of cast changes. This programme has Richard Temple in the title role, Geraldine Ulmar as Yum-Yum, Annie Cole as Pitti-Sing and Brandram, Grossmith and Barrington recreating their original parts. The curtain raiser was Mrs Jarramie's Genie. The revival opened at the Savoy on June 7th 1888 and ran until September 29th.
COX & BOX etc.
Richard Temple, Bernard Lane and Furneaux Cook played Cox, Box and Bouncer in a performance of Cox and Box on July 12th 1888; part of "The Silver Fete", a four-day charity event held at the Royal Exhibition Grounds in South Kensington in aid of the Victoria Hospital for Children in Chelsea. Other D'Oyly Carte regulars named in this thick brochure include Grossmith, Pounds and Brandram. (Interestingly, Gilbert is given author credit for Cox & Box !)
MIKADO & PIRATES on tour
Despite an extraordinarily decorative cover, this programme has no printed details of venue or date. The original owner's scribble on the front, "St George's Hall, Burton on Trent, Oct 1888" is backed up by Rollins & Witts, as the cast is almost what might have been expected on October 3rd and 4th, when "C" Company appeared in the town for just two nights. Although "The Carp" was to have been presented with Pirates the title has been crossed through, both on the cover and inside.
1880's WALLPAPER
A short section of Gilbert & Sullivan wallpaper, featuring characters from Sorcerer to Ruddigore only, and therefore confidently dated to 1887 or 1888. The operas are titled in a typeface typical of this period, and some of the motifs have been lifted from early theatre programmes. The first revivals of Pinafore, Pirates and The Mikado in 1887/8 possibly meant that for the first time the G&S operas were now considered as a body of work, with a cast of many and varied characters. This process fed into the production of souvenirs showing characters from a mixture of pieces - this paper being an especially early example.
THE YEOMEN OF THE GUARD
The Yeomen of the Guard opened at the Savoy on December 7th 1888. This first cast programme is in poor condition, but does name Tom Redmond as 1st Citizen, a role he apparently only played during 1888. The forepiece was Mrs. Jarramie's Genie.
COX & BOX / MAMMA !
Arthur Cecil, Eric Lewis and William Lugg played box, Cox and Bouncer when Burnand and Sullivan's Cox & Box was performed at the Royal Court Theatre in London as a forepiece to the play Mamma !. It was first seen at this revival on 25th October 1888.
YEOMEN / MRS. JARRAMIE'S GENIE
Discreetly dated in pencil, this near-mint programme for The Yeomen of the Guard was most likely acquired at the Savoy on January 26th 1889. The opera had opened on December 7th 1888, and ran for 423 performances, closing on November 30th 1889.
YEOMEN TICKET
Rare ticket for Stall seat at the Savoy Theatre for the Tuesday Jan 22nd performance of The Yeomen of the Guard in 1889. The reverse has a mini seating plan of the stalls, with all seats numbered, showing that seat 138 was in the eighth row.
MACBETH
Henry Irving first appeared with Ellen Terry in the Lyceum production of Macbeth on December 29th 1888. Details of the music which Sullivan composed specifically for this production which are given inside this Feb 2nd 1889 programme for the 31st performance of the play.
1889 MIKADO FAN
Souvenir of a club dinner in Holland in March 1889 showing members of the committee in Mikado costumes appropriate to their roles in the society. Two of the Three Little Maids are moustachioed !
YEOMEN souvenir
Dated 29th March 1889, this style of souvenir, with Jessie Bond as Phoebe on the cover, was used in the middle of the run. Interestingly, Tom Redmond is named as 1st Citizen despite the late period.
YEOMEN on tour
The Yeomen of the Guard at the Prince's Theatre in Manchester, July 1st 1889. The city had hosted the first provincial production of the piece, almost exactly a year earlier.
YEOMEN SOUVENIR
Produced for those sitting in the better seats at the Savoy, the souvenir booklet includes coloured illustrations of scenes from The Yeomen of the Guard. It dates from September 2nd 1889, soon after John Wilkinson had replaced Grossmith as Point, and was printed in an edition of five hundred copies. This style of souvenir became the standard at the Savoy for the following five years or so.
YEOMEN / MRS. JARRAMIE'S GENIE
A late programme for Yeomen, dated 23rd Sept 1889, printed on bright orange paper. Grossmith had been replaced as Jack Point by John Wilkinson in August 1889, and Mr Lees had taken the role of First Citizen at around the same time. Geraldine Ulmar's name has been crossed out by the original owner, and "Norah Phyllis" written in. If this were the fact it would have marked Norah's Savoy debut (she created the role of Giulia later in December 1889, and would cover for Ulmar again during the same month).
THE GONDOLIERS
From an edition of one thousand, printed on 20th March 1890, and apparently issued two days later, this programme shows that the majority of the cast who had opened the piece on December 7th 1889 were still playing their original parts. The exceptions are among the female characters, as here we have Annie Cole as Tessa, Jose Shalders as Vittoria, and Cissie Saumarez as Giulia.
MACBETH RECITAL
On Wednesday afternoon, July 16th 1890, at St James's Hall, Henry Irving and Ellen Terry gave a recital of scenes from their production of Macbeth, first seen at the Lyceum in 1888. Sullivan had composed music specifically for this production, and at the 1890 recital a full orchestra played the pieces. This rare flyer for the event is printed on hand made paper.
THE GONDOLIERS
D'Oyly Carte had major problems with his Gianettas during the run of The Gondoliers. The part, created by Geraldine Ulmar, was played by a total of fifteen actresses during the 554 performance run (though interestingly these are not the same 15 sopranos listed in Rollins and Witts !). Here Gianetta is Esther Palliser.
GONDOLIERS SOUVENIR
On 5th Jan 1891 Nita Carritte took over the role of Gianetta, giving around 54 performances, until 27th February. This souvenir, printed on 9th Feb, has a number of other variant cast members: W.S. Laidlaw, Giuseppe; W.R. Shirley, Francesco; P. Burbank, Annibale; Rudolph Lewis, Ottavio; and Cissie Saumarez as Giulia.
THE GONDOLIERS
By March 1891 Gianetta was being played by Carrie Donald and Giulia was Cissie Saumarez. Although the programme was issued on 7th March it had been printed four days earlier. The production closed on June 20th 1891 after 554 performances.
IVANHOE - OPENING NIGHT
The opening production at the Royal English Opera, D'Oyly Carte's new theatre, was Ivanhoe, an opera by Sullivan. The souvenir programme for the opera is known to exist with at least two different covers, although neither appears to represent characters from the piece, which opened on Jan 31st 1891. D'Oyly Carte regulars Charles Kenningham, Frederick Bovill, Esther Palliser and Richard Green are named in this opening night copy, which is dated in full, but which does not state that Sullivan would conduct.
IVANHOE: 100th performance
Sullivan conducted the 100th performance himself. Although some were given an illustrated souvenir to mark the occasion, those in cheaper parts of the house got a paper programme, including a note that "On this occasion the Opera will be Conducted by the COMPOSER." Dated in code for 25th May 1891, the programme also contains a slip, noting that the title role would be played by Mr J. O'Mara on this occasion.
IVANHOE: 100th performance
A trimmed cabinet card photo of a presentation certificate given to Sullivan by the members of the Royal English Opera orchestra on the occasion of the 100th performance of Ivanhoe. As well as signatures of conductors and players there is a decorative border which incorporates the music of one of the Torquilstone trumpet calls as well as the shields of The Templar and Ivanhoe.
GONDOLIERS BY ROYAL COMMAND
This souvenir was produced for one of the most important events in D'Oyly Carte history, when The Gondoliers was presented in front of Queen Victoria at Windsor Castle on March 6th 1891. Very few can have been printed, and even fewer survive. Contrary to legend, the programme does name Gilbert as the author.
THE NAUTCH GIRL
The first non-G&S piece presented at the Savoy, The Nautch Girl opened on June 30th 1891. Written by George Dance, with music by Edward Solomon, the opera starred many familiar names: Rutland Barrington, Courtice Pounds, Franks Thornton, Jessie Bond, Frank Wyatt, W. H. Denny etc.
IVANHOE
With an amazing continuous run (for grand opera) of 155 performances, achieved through the use of two alternating casts, Ivanhoe closed on July 31st. This copy, dated 27th July 1891 names the Welsh tenor Ben Davies as Ivanhoe, with Ffrangcon Davies as Cedric, and most of the other opening night cast members.
THE NAUTCH GIRL
This example of the The Nautch Girl programme probably dates from after the start of a series of major cast changes which occured in Autumn 1891. Miss Shalders plays Banyan, and there is no curtain-raiser, which would indicate a date between August and September, but neither Rutland Barrington not Jessie Bond are named, which according to Rollins and Witts, they should be at this time !
MIKADO & IOLANTHE
D'Oyly Carte on tour at Morton's Theatre in Greenwich, SE London, with Henry Lytton as Ko-Ko and Chancellor, October 19th and 20th, 1891. A note in the programme states that the following week the Monday performance would be under the patronage and in the presence of W.F. Cody (Buffalo Bill), but by this time Lytton et al would be in Croydon !
THE BASOCHE
Richard D'Oyly Carte's second venture at his new opera house was La Basoche by Andre Messager. It opened on November 3rd 1891, and ran until Jan 16th of the following year, with a few Savoy regulars in the cast. Disillusioned by the project, Carte sold the theatre, which became the Palace Musical Hall, and later the Palace Theatre. This programme is dated for the 14th November 1891.
THE NAUTCH GIRL / CAPTAIN BILLY
This example of a Nautch Girl programme is dated 8th January 1892 and would indicate that, contrary to Rollins and Witts, Rutland Barrington and Jessie Bond returned to play The Rajah and Chinna Loofa for the final few performances. Edith Briant (or Bryant ?) also made an unexpected appearance as Cheetah at this time. The piece closed on Jan 16th 1892, after 200 performances. In the curtain-raiser, Captain Billy, which had opened on 23rd September 1891, Cissey (sic) Saumarez played Polly.
THE MOUNTEBANKS
Gilbert's opera The Mountebanks opened at the Lyric Theatre on 4th January 1892, and ran until August. The composer, Alfred Cellier, died eight days before opening night, and his work was completed by Ivan Caryll. The cast included the latter's wife, Geraldine Ulmar, the original Gianetta, and Frank Wyatt.
VICAR OF BRAY - OPENING NIGHT
Second of D'Oyly Carte's stop-gap productions, The Vicar of Bray opened on 28th January 1892. This souvenir programme for the opening night clearly states that on this occasion the opera would be conducted by the composer, Edward Solomon. The cast included many DOC regulars: Barrington, Pounds, Brandram etc.
VICAR OF BRAY / CAPTAIN BILLY SOUVENIR
The Vicar of Bray was a revised version of Sydney Grundy's comic opera which had originally been produced at the Globe Theatre in 1882. The Savoy piece closed on June 18th after 142 performances. This souvenir programme is dated for 9th April 1892.
NAUTCH GIRL & YEOMEN on tour
On April 18th 1892 "B" Company reached Exeter, presenting The Nautch Girl and The Yeomen of the Guard. The programme covered both pieces.
MA MIE ROSETTE
Jessie Bond was one of the longest serving regulars in the D'Oyly Carte Company, appearing in most original productions from Pinafore onwards. She had a break from the Company in the 90's, playing in a series of other musicals in London. Ma Mie Rosette opened in 1892 at the Globe Theatre.
GEORGE GROSSMITH PROGRAMME
Grossmith too, having created role from J.W. Wells to Jack Point, took a break from the Savoy in the '90s, touring Britain as a comic entertainer. Although undated, this programme includes a duet from Haste to the Wedding, the Gilbert flop (with music by Grossmith) which had folded in just 22 performances at the Criterion in the Summer of 1892.
THE MOUNTEBANKS on tour
On Sept 12th 1892 Gilbert's The Mountebanks arrived in Bristol, at the Prince's Theatre. Horace Sedger's Company presented the piece, and the programme includes a summary of the plot.
MA MIE ROSETTE
In December 1892 Ivan Caryll's comedy opera (based on a French piece by Paul Lacome) was moved to The Prince of Wales Theatre, where it finished a fairly short run. The entire cast moved across with the production, including as well as Bond, Savoyards Courtice Pounds and Frank Wyatt.
HADDON HALL
While still running in London, a touring production of Haddon Hall was sent on the road, reaching Edinburgh on 9th Jan 1893. This was the first visit of a D'Oyly Carte company to this Scottish city.
HADDON HALL
Following the last night of The Vicar of Bray, the Savoy was dark for over three months, finally opening on 23rd Sept 1892 with a new Sullivan opera, Haddon Hall. Sir Arthur's collaboration with Sydney Grundy proved unpopular, and the piece ran for just 204 performances. This unusual programme, dated 21st January 1893, has Bates Maddison as John Manners, a role he played for a very short period, and unrecorded by either Rollins & Witts or Ganzl.
AN EVENING WITH GILBERT & SULLIVAN
An early example of a G&S themed entertainment, at the Assembly Rooms in Malvern, June 1893. This fragile flyer describes Nannie Harding (aka Annie Harding) as "late prima donna of R. Doyly Carte's Company". She had actually only appeared as Lady Ella in Europe and as Kate and Casilda in the "C" company tour ! Broughton Black had also toured in company "C" in the early 90s. Jessie Browning would later tour for DOC, but at this point in time had not yet appeared with the company. Wills Page never would.
JANE ANNIE / MR. JERICHO
One of the most interesting of the non-G&S operas produced by D'Oyly Carte in the 1890s, Jane Annie was written by J.M. Barrie and Arthur Conan Doyle, with music by Sullivan's pupil, Ernest Ford. Despite this excellent pedigree, and a cast of DOC regulars, the piece was the first real Savoy flop, opening on May 13th 1893 and closing after just 50 performances. This programme was printed on 30th June, and according to the pencil annotation on the cover, was issued at the last performance on 1st July. The Savoy remained dark throughout July, August and September.
GEORGE GROSSMITH on tour
From August 28th to December 19th 1893, George Grossmith criss-crossed Britain, usually appearing for one-night-only in each town. This fascinating 24-page booklet not only gives all the tour dates, but has words to all the songs he performed, including "The Paderewski Craze" and "The Dismal Dinner Party". At the back are three pages of press quotes from his American tour. As this brochure is for "programme F", it seems likely that there are at least five others in the series !
GEORGE GROSSMITH on tour
On September 28th 1893 Grossmith's tour of the UK reached Stratford (East London) for the second time. The recital performed in the Town Hall that Thursday evening included the new sketches, "The Art of Entertaining" and "How I Discovered America". The programme also lists the songs which Grossmith gave as part of the entertainment.
THE FORESTERS - OPENING NIGHT
Alfred Lord Tennyson's play based on the legend of Robin Hood, The Foresters, opened at Daly's Theatre on October 3rd 1893, and included nine songs by Sullivan. This opening night programme does not suggest that he conducted, presumably as he was busy with Utopia preparations. The play ran for just 15 performances.
UTOPIA, LIMITED
Utopia Limited opened at the Savoy on 7th October 1893, running for 245 performances. This souvenir programme, issued to those in the better seats, names all the original cast members, and is dated for Oct 23rd, by hand.
UTOPIA, LIMITED
This programme is from 24th October 1893, and therefore includes all the original cast. Miss Howell-Hersee was originally employed simply to understudy Florence Easton in the tiny part of Phylla, but due to illness, she created the role. Miss Easton replaced her in November, after this programme was printed.
UTOPIA, LIMITED
This green programme was printed later in the run, after Clarence Hunt had replaced Walter Passmore as Tarara.
MOROCCO BOUND
Jessie Bond was not the only former D'Oyly Carte performer engaging in extra-curricular performances at this time. Richard Temple played Sid Fakah in Morocco Bound, which moved into the Trafalgar Square Theatre on 8th January 1894, replacing Tom, Dick & Harry. The Branscombe/Ross/Carr musical completed its run on 10th February, having chalked up 295 performances in two theatres. Also in the cast were George Grossmith Jun. and the Captain Corcoran from the 1879/80 Children's Pinafore, Harry Grattan.
GO-BANG
A musical comedy by Adrian Ross and Osmond Carr, Go-Bang was a rather better proposition for Jessie Bond than the run of flops in which she had been cast, though a run of 159 performances from the 10th March 1894 opening was nothing compared with her days at the Savoy. She shared the stage at the Trafalgar Square Theatre with Harry Grattan, Arthur Playfair, George Grossmith (Jnr) and dancer Letty Lind. The American child prodigy "Baby Costello" danced in the interval between acts.
DURWARD LELY - THE EMINENT TENOR
For three weeks from March 24th 1894 the Blairgowrie Advertiser printed details of the career of the "local-boy-made-good", Durward Lely. Subsequently reprinted in a small booklet, the text was almost certainly written by Lely himself, his work is described in such glowing terms. Although his time at the Savoy is covered in just a few pages, he does give us an interesting insight into Gilbert's working method: checking that words were clear even from the cheaper seats, and insisting on correct deportment.
MIRETTE
Probably the most troubled piece to appear at the Savoy, Mirette, based on a French opera by Andre Messager, opened on July 3rd 1894. After 41 performances it was taken off, and then re-opened in a revised version on October 6th. After a total run of 102 performances it finally closed on 6th December. This programme for the first version is dated 24th July, at which time the title role was played by the original, Maud Ellicott.
HIS EXCELLENCY - OPENING NIGHT
His Excellency, by W.S. Gilbert and F. Osmond Carr, opened at the Lyric Theatre on 27th October 1894, running for just 161 performances. This first night programme, issued to those in better seats, has no advertisements inside.
HIS EXCELLENCY
This "cheap-seats" programme was issued on Boxing Day in 1894, and still features all the original cast members, including Rutland Barrington, George Grossmith, Jessie Bond, Alice Barnett and Nancy McIntosh.
THE CHIEFTAIN / QUITE AN ADVENTURE
The Chieftain was a reworking of Sullivan and Burnand's The Contrabandista, and opened at the Savoy on 12th December 1894, running for just 97 performances. From 15th to 29th December the Sullivan piece was preceded by a short Desprez/Solomon operetta, Quite An Adventure, in which Beatrice Perry, named in this programme, appeared for just the final week. According to the cast list Powis Pinder unaccountably played both Ferdinand de Roxas and Escatero in the main piece !
THE CHIEFTAN / COX & BOX
Cox and Box replaced Quite An Adventure as companion piece to The Chieftain on 31st December 1894. This programme features all the original Chieftain cast members except for W. A. Peterkin who had by this time taken over the role of Ferdinand de Roxas from Scott Fische. Richard Temple played Bouncer. The Chieftain closed on March 16th 1895.
KING ARTHUR
For King Arthur, Irving produced some of the striking posters typically used for Lyceum productions. Interestingly, this large pre-opening example is the only one I've yet seen which mentions Sullivan's name. Perhaps once the play opened there was less need to publicise the composer ? The artist Edward Byrne-Jones is also given full credit at this early stage.
KING ARTHUR
King Arthur,a play by J. Comyns Carr opened at the Royal Lyceum Theatre on 12th January 1895. Starring, of course, Henry Irving and Ellen Terry, the piece had choral and incidental music by Sullivan. As noted in the programme, which includes all the song lyrics, the entr'actes were also selected from Sir Arthur's previous compositions.
HIS EXCELLENCY on tour
Sanger's Amphitheatre in Ramsgate was host to His Excellency for a week from August 5th 1895. Although "from the Lyric Theatre", this production by J. F. Elliston did not have the stellar cast seen in London; the lead roles were taken by Stratton Mills, Arthur Lawrence, Rose Hamilton and Madge Avery.
PATIENCE on tour
For the first part of the week of Aug 26th 1895, the Hastings and St. Leonard's Gaiety Theatre was host to the D'Oyly Carte "E" company giving Patience. Emmie Owen played the title role. An announcement in the programme states that from Thursday audiences could see The Gondoliers.
MIKADO / AFTER ALL
The second revival of The Mikado, which opened at the Savoy on 6th Nov 1895. The production featured Rutland Barrington, Jessie Bond and Rosina Brandram in their original characters, and closed after 127 performances, on March 4th 1896. This programme is dated for 6th December.
THE GRAND DUKE
The Grand Duke, Gilbert & Sullivan's final collaboration, opened on March 7th 1896. Different grades of programme were produced, this one, intended for the cheaper seats, has the Savoy crest and border printed in red. It was printed on 27th March 1896.
GRAND DUKE / AFTER ALL
The Grand Duke ran for just 123 performances, joined by the curtain raiser After All on 4th April, and closing on July 10th 1896. This programme, intended for the more expensive seats, has details printed in gold.
HERMANN VEZIN MATINEE
Benefit programme from the Theatre Royal, Haymarket, 19th March 1896 for the celebrated American actor and elocution teacher, Hermann Vezin. George Grossmith, delivering a sketch, topped a bill which included play scenes featuring, among others, Gerald du Maurier, Beerbohm Tree and Cyril Maude.
CHARLES WYNDHAM CELEBRATION
In celebration of Wyndham's 20 years managing the Criterion Theatre, a grand evening of varied entertainment on May 1st 1896, including appearances by George Grossmith and Decima Moore in act 2 of The Critic.
GRAND DUKE on tour
D'Oyles Cartes "E" Company arrived in Oxford on May 11th 1896, performing The Grand Duke seven times in the week.
FANNY ENSON's MATINEE
Benefit for Fanny Enson at the Criterion Theatre, May 19th 1896. Florence St.John (Rita of The Chieftain) was among the featured performers, and Lillie Langtry gave a recitation. Other names included Mr. & Mrs.Tree, Irene Vanbrugh, Charles Wyndham, Louie Freear, Nina Bouccicault and Lewis Waller. Selections from plays were interspersed with solo items.
KATE VAUGHAN's BENEFIT
Benefit for Kate Vaughan at the Gaiety Theatre, June 9th 1896. Included Trial by Jury, directed by Gilbert, who also played the Associate. Rutland Barrington was Judge; Florence St. John, the Plaintiff; Eric Lewis was Counsel and Charles Kenningham, the Defendant. W.S. Penley, then most famous for Charley's Aunt, played Foreman, a part he had taken at the Royalty Theatre in 1875 ! Among the bridesmaids and jury were many D'Oyly Carte "names", including: Florence Dysart, Walter Passmore, Edith Johnston, Emmie Owen, Florence Perry and J.J. Dallas. Francois Cellier conducted, and in the chorus was the usual mix of personalities of the day. Other highlights of the afternoon included appearances by Dan Leno, Letty Lind, Marie Tempest, and many, many others.
GRAND DUKE on tour
"E" Company arrived in Croydon on June 15th 1896, where they played The Grand Duke for one week. The envelope-format programme has views of the exterior, auditorium and front-of-house areas of the Grand Theatre & Opera House.
MIKADO / AFTER ALL
Jessie Bond appeared on stage for the last time in the third revival of The Mikado, which opened at the Savoy on July 11th 1896, although she made guest appearances in galas after this date. One of 1000 printed on 27th July, this programme is dated by hand for the following night. The production also featured Rosina Brandram of the original cast, and closed after 226 performances, on February 17th 1897.
D'OYLY CARTE on tour
D'Oyly Carte's touring company "C" reached the Edinburgh Theatre Royal on 5th October 1896, presenting Yeomen, Gondoliers, Mikado and, at a matinee only, Iolanthe.
ACTORS' ASSOCIATION MATINEE
Benefit matinee for the Actors' Association at the Lyceum Theatre, December 3rd 1896. Concluded with Trial by Jury, with Rutland Barrington as Judge. Florence Dysart appeared as Plaintiff, a role she had played in the 1884 Savoy revival. Walter Passmore was Foreman, and other Savoyards in the cast included Charles Kenningham, Charles Childerstone and Edith Johnston. Elsewhere on the bill, Henry Irving gave a recitaion and George Grossmith (Jnr.) appeared in a scene from A Night Out.
MIKADO on tour
D'Oyles Cartes "E" Company returned to Oxford on Dec 7th 1896, performing The Mikado four times, and The Gondoliers three times in the week. Walter Summers plays Ko-Ko in this Mikado programme.
HIS MAJESTY - OPENING NIGHT
Written by F.C. Burnand and Adrian Ross, His Majesty opened at the Savoy on 20th February 1897, and featured most of D'Oyly Carte's company of regulars. This first night programme names George Grossmith as King Ferdinand - a role he only played for only four (or six, according to one source) performances, following a bad reception on opening night. He was replaced temporarily by Herbert Workman and ultimately by Henry Lytton, but the show floundered and finally closed on April 24th, after just 61 performances.
YEOMEN OF THE GUARD
Programme for the first revival of Yeomen at the Savoy, which opened on 5th May 1897 and ran for just 186 performances. Richard Temple, Rosina Brandram and H.Richards (Headsman) appeared in their original parts. This is the paper version, intended for the cheaper seats.
YEOMEN OF THE GUARD
For just a few weeks during the first revival of Yeomen at the Savoy, in May 1897, Shadbolt was played by Tom Redmond. Other cast changes of note are Cory James as Leonard and Charles Childerstone as First Yeoman.
GONDOLIERS / MIKADO on tour
During 1897 "B" Company toured with ten G&S operas (including Trial), and by the time it reached the Grand Theatre & Opera House in Hull in November there were as many as eight pieces in the repertoire at the same time. The week started with The Gondoliers ! on Mon 16th evening and ended with The Mikado !, played on both Tuesday and Saturday nights. It is interesting that as late as 1897 theatre managements still felt justified in adding exclamation marks to the titles of G&S operas, in their programmes.
TRIAL BY JURY - FARREN BENEFIT
Nellie Farren, of Thespis, was, by the late 90s, crippled and unable to work. The funds raised for her at this benefit at the Theatre Royal Drury Lane on March 17th 1898 would provide for her for the remainder of her life. One of the most star-studded events of the decade, the show included a performance of Trial by Jury with Gilbert himself playing the Associate, as well as the premiere of a J.M. Barrie playlet. Marie Lloyd, Ben Davies, Ellen Terry, Henry Irving, Clara Butt, Dan Leno, and many others (including a host of Savoyards) are named.
MIKADO on tour
Programme for a "C" Company Mikado at the Theatre Royal in Manchester, 18th May 1898. Fred Billington as Pooh-Bah and George Thorne as Ko-Ko.
GONDOLIERS - FIRST REVIVAL
The Gondoliers was given its first revival at the Savoy on March 22nd 1898, with only Rosina Brandram of the original cast repeating her role. There was one cast change during the 62 performance run, but this programme, dated 19th May, shows Emmie Owen as Gianetta. The revival closed on May 21st to make way for The Beauty Stone, which is advertised on the bottom inside edge.
THE BEAUTY STONE
Sullivan's "romantic musical drama" The Beauty Stone was a very different beast to the typical Savoy opera. With treacle-like book and lyrics by Arthur Wing Pinero and J. Comyns Carr it tickled the taste of neither critics nor public, and closed just 50 performances after its May 28th 1898 opening. This programme for Sullivan's biggest flop at the Savoy, is dated 1st June, and was printed in a small edition of just 300. Familiar names in the cast include Henry Lytton, Rosina Brandram and Walter Passmore.
THE SORCERER 21st Birthday
Thursday November 17th 1898 marked the 21st anniversary of the opening night of The Sorcerer. To mark the occasion D'Oyly Carte produced one of his souvenir booklets, presumably available only to those present on the night. It includes photographs of all the leading characters in all the productions to date.
THE SORCERER / TRIAL
Regular programme for the 2nd Sorcerer revival, dated 5th December. The opera had opened on Sept 22nd 1898, and ran for 102 performances, in tandem with Trial by Jury, closing on New Year's Eve. At this point in the run Charles Childerstone was the Defendant with Henry Franckiss as the Associate, and Jones Hewson was Sir Marmaduke.
THE LUCKY STAR
Ivan Caryll's The Lucky Star opened at the Savoy on Jan 7th 1899, and featured many of the usual D'Oyly Carte regulars. This programme, dated 15th March, includes all the first cast with the exception of Fred Wright Jnr, who had replaced Sydney Paxton as Sirocco.
THE LUCKY STAR
This Lucky Star programme, dated 4th April 1899 shows two cast changes from opening night. As well as Fred Wright Jnr the cast includes Henry Claff as Kedas, the Chief of Police, replacing Frank Manning. The show closed on 31st May after 143 performances.
PYGMALION & GALATEA
For six nights, from May 15th 1899, Janette Steer and her Company performed at the Royalty Theatre in Glasgow. Most nights the cast gave La Tosca by Victorien Sardou, but the repertoire also included Pygmalion & Galatea. This May 18th programme shows Miss Steer and Frank Dyall in Gilbert's title roles.
PINAFORE / TRIAL
With only Richard Temple in his original role, HMS Pinafore was given its second revival (with Trial By Jury) on June 6th 1899. The production ran for 174 performances, closing on 25th November. This programme was printed on 11th October.
SAN TOY
Rutland Barrington, originator of so many roles at the Savoy, left the D'Oyly Carte company in 1896, to work with other producers. On 21st October 1899, he created the part of Yen How in San Toy, Harry Greenbank and Adrian Ross' "Chinese Musical". Although Barrington left the cast after a time, the show ran for 778 performances, closing on 14th December 1901. Many of the original cast are named in this undated programme.
PINAFORE / TRIAL on tour
D'Oyly Carte's "E" Company toured the UK in 1899, reaching the New Theatre in Oxford on 27th November and staying for six nights. This programme for HMS Pinafore and Trial by Jury was used on 1st and 2nd December. Although the programme stated that Pinafore was, "now playing to crowded houses at the Savoy", it had in fact closed a week earlier.
ROSE OF PERSIA - OPENING NIGHT
Sullivan's comic opera, The Rose of Persia, with words by Basil Hood, opened at the Savoy on November 29th 1899. The first night programme is dated in full, and includes the fact that "on this occasion the opera will be conducted by the composer". This would be Sir Arthur's final appearance in the pit at the Savoy.
ROSE OF PERSIA
The Rose of Persia's London run closed after 213 performances on June 29th 1900. This programme dates from 14th December. There was no curtain-raiser during the run. Price reduced
ROSE OF PERSIA
Even while London audiences were still enjoying The Rose of Persia, D'Oyly Carte sent it around the UK. The tour opened in Brighton on April 16th 1900, and reached the Prince's Theatre in Manchester on 7th May, where it stayed for one week.
D'OYLY CARTE TOUR FLYER
D'Oyly Carte "C" company played their last week of 1900 at the New Grand Theatre in Woolwich, S.E. London. This unusual herald for the week commencing Dec 10th mentions only The Mikado, and gives a list of company members inside. Front and back cover bear chromolithographs of the Savoy crest and a dancing girl, possibly inspired by The Gondoliers.
PYGMALION & GALATEA / COMEDY & TRAGEDY
These two Gilbert plays were revived as a double bill at the Comedy Theatre on June 7th 1900, with Fuller Mellish and Janette Steer in the lead roles of both pieces.
PIRATES OF PENZANCE / THE OUTPOST
Pirates was given its second revival at the Savoy, opening on June 30th 1900. Despite a short run of just 127 performances, there were a number of cast changes during the run. The work was preceded by The Outpost, adapted from the German piece by Korner.
PATIENCE - OPENING NIGHT
The first revival of Patience opened at the Savoy on November 7th 1900, and ran for 150 performances until April 20th 1901. There was no curtain raiser on opening night.
SAILOR'S HOME MATINEE
On Tues December 11th 1900 the Garrick Theatre hosted a benefit matinee in aid of the Sailor's Home in Chatham, Kent. The usual mix of playlets and variety entertainment, George Grossmith performed some humorous songs and selections, and his brother Weedon appeared in his own comedy, A Commission. Dan Leno joined other great names of the day, including H.B. Irving, Martin Harvey and Hayden Coffin.
PATIENCE / PRETTY POLLY
Sir Arthur Sullivan, Richard D'Oyly Carte and Queen Victoria all died during the short run of this revival, and as a mark of respect the theatre was kept dark for a period to mark each of these events. This programme is dated for 28th December, and includes details of the Basil Hood / Francois Cellier curtain-raiser, Pretty Polly.
POOH-BAH ADVERTISING SCRAP
Probably produced during the first run of The Mikado, Pooh-Bah holds a tin of Pedigree Cavendish Flake Cut Tobacco, marketed by John Player from April 1901 (if not earlier). The 9" high scrap appears to represent an actual actor (probably Fred Billington) dressed in a close approximation of Wilhelm's costume. Could this be reverse product placement ? Did a clever advertising man wish "deference due to a man of pedigree" to become associated with the tobacco when audience members heard the line ?
THE EMERALD ISLE - OPENING NIGHT
Sullivan's last opera, The Emerald Isle premiered at the Savoy on April 27th 1901, the score having been completed by Edward German. The first night programme is dated in full, and includes the fact that "on this occasion the opera will be conducted by Mr. German". The book for the piece was by Basil Hood.
THE EMERALD ISLE
The Emerald Isle ran for 205 performances, closing on November 9th. This programme was issued on 27th October. Lower class version printed on paper. During the run the management of the Savoy, and indeed the Company, was taken over by William Greet.
THE EMERALD ISLE
The Emerald Isle toured under the management of William Greet's "Savoy Theatre Opera Company". This programme is from the week of November 18th 1901, when the first tour had reached Glagow's Theatre Royal.
SULLIVAN ANNIVERSARY CONCERT
On Friday 22nd Nov 1901, the first anniversary of the death of Sullivan, Henry Wood conducted a memorial concert at the Queen's Hall in London. The Golden Legend was followed vy scenes from Act 2 of Ivanhoe, performed by Mr Ffrangcon-Davies, who had appeared in the original cast of the opera, with Madame Kirkby Lunn and others. The programme includes notes on both pieces, libretti, and a brief biography of Sullivan.
SULLIVAN ANNIVERSARY CONCERT
The following night, Sat Nov 23rd 1901, the Alexandra Palace in North London hosted another performance of The Golden Legend. The evening also included Sir A. C. Mackenzie's piece, The Singers, written in memoriam of Sir Arthur, and conducted on this occasion by the composer. The programme includes the words to Longfellow's poem.
IOLANTHE FIRST REVIVAL- OPENING NIGHT
The first revival of Iolanthe opened at the Savoy on December 7th 1901, and ran for 113 performances until March 29th 1902. This programme is dated for the opening night, Dec 7th, although it was printed on the previous day.
IOLANTHE / WILLOW PATTERN
This "cheap seats" paper programme for the first Iolanthe revival was printed on 7th March, and includes details of The Willow Pattern, a curtain raiser by Basil Hood and Cecil Cook.
RIGNOLD BENEFIT
The testimonial benefit for William Rignold, at the Lyric Theatre on December 5th 1902, was a chance for London's theatre community to pay tribute. Highlight of the afternoon was a performance of Trial By Jury, at which Gilbert himself played the Associate. Others in the cast included Rutland Barrington, Charles Childerstone, C. Hayden Coffin, Evie Greene & Lionel Monckton. Cox & Box was also on the bill, featuring Richard Temple, Powis Pinder and Vernon Cave.
MERRIE ENGLAND
Edward German's first solo work for the Savoy, Merrie England, with libretto by Basil Hood, opened on 2nd April 1902, running for 120 performances before setting out on tour. The show returned to the Savoy on November 24th and ran until January 17th 1903. This programme, dated 6th December, features a few actors not named in Rollins and Witts: M.R Morand was Sila Simkins, Lena Leibrandt was Kate, and Mr. C. Earldon was a soldier. It includes an announcement that German would conduct the 250th performance, on December 10th.
WATER BABIES
Rutland Barrington adapted Charles Kingsley's classic children's book for the stage in 1903, even writing some of the lyrics. Music was by three composers, including the late Alfred Cellier. The piece opened at the Garrick Theatre on 18th December 1902, and ran for just 100 performances.
A PRINCESS OF KENSINGTON - OPENING NIGHT
A Princess of Kensington opened on January 22nd 1903, with a cast including Henry Lytton, Walter Passmore and Rosina Brandram, making her final appearance at the Savoy. Edward German is named as conductor in this first night programme. The words were once again by Basil Hood. Arthur Boielle played Sir James Jellico at the first performance, and Edward Royce did not appear, contrary to the listing in Rollins & Witts.
A PRINCESS OF KENSINGTON
A Princess of Kensington proved not to be so popular as Merrie England, closed on May 16th 1903 after just 115 performances. This was the final original comic opera produced at the Savoy, which was dark for nearly nine months before reopening under new management on Feb 10th 1904.
NELLIE FARREN NIGHT
Nellie Farren's last public appearance was at a "Nellie Farren Night" at the Gaiety Theatre on April 8th 1903. A performance of The Toreador was followed by The Linkman, a special revue of old Gaiety hits written by, and featuring, George Grossmith Jnr, with Ethel Sydney made up as Nellie. At the end of the evening Farren made a speech from the stage. She died, aged 58, just a year later, on April 28th 1904.
PRINCESS OF KENSINGTON on tour
Following the London run, Greet's A Princess of Kensington company started a short tour of the UK, but the piece was soon dropped in favour of Merrie England when audiences were not so large as expected. One of the first bookings was at the Princess of Wales' Theatre in Kennington, South London, where it played for seven performances from May 25th 1903.
GAIETY THEATRE FAREWELL
Programme for the final performance at the "Old" Gaiety Theatre on July 4th 1903. The Linkman - or Gaiety Memories was performed again, with a cast which included George Grossmith Jnr, Florence St. John, Rutland Barrington, Richard Temple, J. J. Dallas and many other "names" of British theatre.
GONDOLIERS & YEOMEN
D'Oyly Carte "C" Company reached Glasgow's Royalty Theatre on 17th August 1903. This programme is for the Wed and Thurs performances of Gondoliers and Yeomen. Casts include C.H. Workman, Fred Billington and Jessie Rose, but Vittoria is played by Ruby Lingard, appearing with the company four months earlier than recorded by Rollins and Witts. Amy Royston was also in an unexpected role, as Inez.
GROSSMITH IN BATTERSEA
As late as 1903 George Grossmith was still giving his recitals, as evidenced by this programme for the Battersea Polytechnic of October 10th. As well as details of GG's performance, listing all the songs, it also includes many pages of future events at the venue, such as Maskelyne & Cooke's "animated photographs" and lectures on paper making and politics !
THE TEMPEST
Shakespeare's The Tempest at Royal Court Theatre, London. This production used Sullivan's Intoduction, Prelude, Entr'acte and Dance of the Nymphs and Reapers. It opened on 26th October 1903 and closed after fifty performances, on 5th December.
TRIAL BY JURY
Souvenir programme for the Ellen Terry Jubilee Commemoration at the Theatre Royal Drury Lane, June 12th 1906. This hard-back brochure gives full details of all the events including Trial By Jury with Gilbert himself as Associate. As well as familiar Savoyards in the solo parts, the production included many famous faces in the jury (e.g. Arthur Conan Doyle) and in the crowd (e.g. Rosina Brandram).
TRIAL BY JURY
Rare tissue paper programme for the Ellen Terry Jubilee celebration. Main cast members are included for all the major events, which are listed in a different order to that in the official hard-back brochure. There is also an important cast change for Trial By Jury with Marie Tempest as Plaintiff rather than Ruth Vincent, possibly suggesting that this was an unofficial souvenir printed before finalisation of the event.
1st REP SEASON at Savoy Theatre
December 1906 to August 1907: If title is a link, a prog is in stock. Alternate casts, colours and original prices, if any, are detailed lower on the same page.
Yeomen
FALLEN FAIRIES
Gilbert's last musical play was, perhaps fittingly, a Savoy opera. Fallen Faries, a musical adaptation of Gilbert's 1873 play,The Wicked World, had music by Edward German, and opened on 15th Dec 1909. By the time this programme was printed, on 17th January, Amy Evers (misprinted "Evans") was playing Selene. Love Rules the World had also been interpolated, despite Gilbert's attempt to block the song with a court injuction. The piece closed on January 29th, after just 51 performances.
CHARACTER HERALDS
Clicking on the image on the left will lead to a page detailing all the known examples of the pictorial herald cards used by the D'Oyly Carte in the 1920s and 30s, as well as a summary of their history.
Many different examples are for sale.
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Classic Children's TV Stamps
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Set of Classic Children's TV Stamp Cards Featuring much-loved Characters from over 60 years of Children's Television.
The Stamp Cards feature all classic Children's TV stamps and are reproduced at postcard size from the original artwork. They make a splendid and original gift for anyone who has watched any episode over the last 60 years.
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The Stamp Cards feature classic children's tv stamps and are reproduced at postcard size from the original artwork. They make a splendid and original gift for anyone who has watched any episode over the last 60 years.
Muffin the Mule (1946) Muffin the Mule was one of Britain's very first tv stars. He was a performing marionette, "discovered" by Annette Mills and Ann Hogarth in 1946.
Andy Pandy (1950) Co-starring with Teddy and Looby Loo, Andy Pandy wanted to encourage young viewers to sing and dance along.
Sooty (1952) Sooty, the little yellow bear with a penchant for magic tricks has been waving his magic wand and causing merry mischief on our tv screens and in theatres since 1952.
Ivor the Engine (1959) Ivor the Engine; a small steam train working on a remote line in the "top left-hand corner of Wales".
Dougal - The Magic Roundabout (1965) Dougal (a Skye Terrier) was a very Grumpy dog who starred in The Magic Roundabout.
Captain Troy Tempest - Stingray (1963) Captain Troy Tempest and George Lee Sheridan, aka "Phones", are the pilots of Stingray, a superior submarine ship employed by The World Aquanaut Security Patrol (WASP).
The Clangers (1969) The Clangers were small creatures living in peace and harmony on – and inside – a small, hollow planet, far, far away, nourished by Blue String Pudding, and Green Soup harvested from the planet's volcanic soup wells by the Soup Dragon.
Windy Miller - Camberwick Green (1966) Windy Miller and his famous windmill. His bus featured the quote "Windy always saves with a Megarider".
Mr Benn (1971) Living at 52 Festive Road, Mr Benn visits a Fancy Dress Shop and goes on different adventures via a "Magic Door".
Great Uncle Bulgaria - The Wombles (1973) The Oldest and Wisest Womble, this leader is very stern but kind and loves reading The Times Newspaper.
Bagpuss (1974) The pink and white striped, "saggy old cloth cat" who comes to life in Emily's lost and found shop.
Roobarb (1974) Roobarb is always involved in some kind of misadventure which he approaches with unbounded enthusiasm.
Chorlton - Chorlton and the Wheelies (1976) Chorlton the Happiness Dragon, who appears in Wheelie World in the very beginning, hatching out of an egg.
Paddington Bear (1975) A present to his wife on Christmas Eve 1956, the story of Paddington Bear was created just 10 days later.
Hector - Hector's House (1967) Hector is a pompous, bowdlerising dog. He lives in a country house with his charming feline friend ZsaZsa, and the duo get up to much merriment and fun in and around their walled garden with their mutual friend and neighbour Kiki the frog.
DangerMouse (1981) DangerMouse is the strongest, the quickest, the greatest super agent in the world. He's a super-cool, eyepatch wearing hero who operates out of a London post box with his hamster sidekick Penfold.
Postman Pat (1981) Pat Clifton, a country postman, and his "black and white cat" Jess delivering the post in the valley of Greendale.
SuperTed (1982) With just one mutter of his Magic Word, Ordinary Ted could transform into SuperTed, a flying hero with jets in his boots and lots of super abilities and agility.
Thomas the Tank Engine (1984) Thomas is a Tank Engine who live in the Island of Sodor, has a branch line of his own with his Coaches, Annie and Clarabel.
Mole, Ratty, Badger and Toad - The Wind in the Willows (1984) Mole, Ratty, Badger and the indefatigable Toad, step out of the pages of Kenneth Grahame's classic volume and lead us into a sepia-tinged series of stories set around the riverbank.
Princess - The Raggy Dolls (1986) Created out of 'odds and ends' due to lack of material from manufacturer. Voice characterised by H-adding. As proven in the intro, Princess is the youngest of the original seven Raggy Dolls.
Count Duckula (1988) Duckula was simply a lisping foppish thespian with grand designs for the stage and screen, but thankfully, he had a thorough makeover before he got his own series. He was given a snappier design with a daffy bill and an angular haircut.
Zippy and George - Rainbow (1972) Zippy's loud and domineering, but usually very funny who is actually a rugby ball and George's a shy, pink and slightly camp hippopotamus.
Humpty, Big Ted, Little Ted, Poppy and Jemima - Play School (1964) Humpty's a dark green large egg-shaped soft toy with green trousers and Jemima's a ragdoll with long red and white striped legs.
Rosie and Jim (1990) The two Rag Dolls that live on a Narrow Boat which is from Birmingham and is called the Ragdoll.
Bob the Builder (1998) Can he fix it? Yes, he can! Promoting a can-do attitude of positivity and the benefits of working together.
Teletubbies (1997) The Teletubbies coo and play in Teletubbyland. They repeat fun, infant-pleasing activities such as rolling on the ground, laughing, running about, and watching real children on the televisions on their bellies.
Fireman Sam (1986) There's a hero in every town, and in this case it's Pontypandy deep in the heart of the Welsh countryside, home to Fireman Sam. When e'er there's trouble Sam, Elvis Cridlington and Station Officer Steele will be there with Jupiter, their big red fire engine.
The Koala Brothers (2003) Frank and Buster are the Koala Brothers and they're on a mission to help others. Every day they take their yellow plane out on patrol around the Australian Outback to look for folks who might need their assistance.
Brum (1991) Brum was in a motor car Museum. When the museum Owner's back is turned, he comes to life and heads out to go exploring in the "Big Town".
Peppa Pig (2004) This lovable, cheeky little piggy lives with her little brother George, Mummy Pig and Daddy Pig.
Charlie and Lola (2005) Charlie is big brother to little Lola and together they tumble, tussle and giggle their way through childhood, learning how to get along, how to behave and how to live their young lives in such a big and busy world.
Fifi and Bumble - Fifi and the Flowertots (2005) Fifi the Flowertot lives in a bright and busy garden world with her friend a bee called Bumble. Fifi is a Forget-Me-Not, which means she can get charmingly forgetful at the best of times.
Little Princess (2006) Little Princess lives in a castle, She is always up to something and learning how to get along with the world at large - be it learning how to share, when to go to bed, learning how to whistle, or eating her greens.
Upsy Daisy - In the Night Garden (2007) A Rag Doll, with a brown complexion, She likes skipping through the Garden and blowing kisses, and her skirt inflates to a tutu when she dances or pulls the ripcord on her waist.
Shaun the Sheep (2007) Originating from "A Close Shave" he is the leader of the flock and likes to play pranks on Blitzer the farmers Sheep Dog.
DVD
To celebrate 60 years of Children's Television, here's a compilation DVD full of the most entertaining and educational TV programmers ever!
Episode
Edit
Classic Children’s TV education resource pack is designed for EYFS, Toddler, Preschool, Kindergarten and Key Stage 1 (or equivalent). The pack consists of eight lesson plans and a board game. Each of the lesson plans showcases a classic British children’s TV show and covers National Curriculum subjects.
A Little Problem: These activities focus on helping Paddington Bear find his belongings in a maze, Little Princess eating her greens, Thomas find his friend Percy, The Koala Brothers with George's airmail or Charlie getting Lola to bed.
Build a Pillar Box: These activities focus on building a pillar box, designing a Classic Children’s TV stamp, a spot the difference and colouring in pictures of Bob the Builder, Sooty, Brum, DangerMouse and Count Duckula.
Where does it go?: These activities focus on learning about recycling and the environment with Great Uncle Bulgaria from the Wombles.
Posting a letter: These activities include cutting out story cards and working out the journey of a letter with Postman Pat, Fireman Sam, Rosie and Jim and Zippy and George.
Shaun the Sheep and his Adventures: These activities focus on counting and discussing what happens on a farm.
Sing Along Fun: These activities include learning and singing along to Bagpuss, Upsy Daisy, Princess and Windy Miller.
Out in all weathers: These activities focus on creating a weather chart by cutting out weather symbols and putting them in the correct place on the chart with Peppa Pig, Teletubbies, Fifi and Bumble.
TV friends from the past: This lesson plan talks about the other Classic Children’s TV shows featured in Royal Mail’s Special Stamp series. Activities include getting children to ask their parents and grandparents about the shows they watched when they were children.
Posting a letter game: The aim of this game is to help the different children’s TV characters post their letters. It can be played with between 2 and 8 players.
Activities
Weather Chart with Peppa Pig
Weather Symbols 1 with Teletubbies
Weather Symbols 2 with Fifi
TV Family Favourites, The Musical Journey
Edit
was a Children's TV short film based on a charity programme for Children in Need, a Story of a young girl (Melody), who step in her ToyBox every night and enter through a world of children's TV characters like Andy Pandy, Flowerpot Men, Camberwick Green, Magic Roundabout, Noddy, Rainbow, Blue Peter, Sooty, Nobby the Sheep, Ludwig, Muffin the Mule, Postman Pat, The Borrowers, Teletubbies, The Wombles and Many More. travel though a black and white section before finishing with modern day of Kid's TV
The programmes and characters that were included were, in order of appearance:
Melody (Played by Angharad Rhodes)
Bill and Ben (with Little Weed)
Muffin the Mule
Edit
Thomas, Bananas in Pyjamas, Yoho Ahoy, Bob the Builder, Postman Pat, Johnson, Raggy Dolls, Wombles, Brum, Fifi and the Flowertots, Little Robots, In the Night Garden, Bill and Ben, Andy Pandy, Oakie Doke, Pingu, Engie Benjy, Rubbadubbers, Peppa Pig, Charlie and Lola and Fireman Sam have lots of fun and adventures. join the fun in this extra special collection of stories perfect for young children.
Stories
Postman Pat: Postman Pat and the Greendale Movie, Postman Pat at the Seaside, Postman Pat and the Spring Dance, Postman Pat and the Great Greendale Race, Postman Pat and the Pet Show, Postman Pat Clowns Around, Postman Pat and the Flying Post, Postman Pat and the Big Balloon Ride, Postman Pat and the Spooky Sleepover and Postman Pat and the Tricky Transport Day
Thomas the Tank Engine: Thomas' New Trucks, Edward the Very Useful Engine, Harold and the Flying Horse, No Sleep for Cranky, Percy and the Haunted Mine, Thomas and the Circus, You Can Do It, Toby!, Trusty Rusty, What's the Matter with Henry?, Oliver the Snow Engine, Squeak, Rattle and Roll, Bulgy Rides Again, Best Dressed Engine and It's Only Snow
Bananas in Pyjamas: Sleeping Teddy, Banana Day, Rat Hotel, Invisible Bananas, Surprise Disguise, Taxi Rat, Story Time, Shipwrecked Bananas, Home Time Rat and Imaginary Holiday
Engie Benjy: The Big Sleep, Boat's Fishy Friend, Bus for a Day, The Great Race, Big Rig's Big Mess, Harvest Helpers, Night of the Sherbet Stars, Spaceship Blues and Snow Fun
Fifi and the Flowertots: Bumble Helps Out, Picture Perfect, Sports Day, Fifi's Talent Show, Violet's Party, Fifi's in Charge, Pip Learns to Dance and Hole Lot of Fun
Little Robots: Robot Race Day, The Sound of Music, A Bit of Give and Take, Knock Knock, Scary Scary and Noisy’s New Song
Rubbadubbers: Terence's Double Trouble, Finbar's Important Part, Sheriff Terrence, Traindriver Tubb, The House that Tubb Built, Sploshybird, Footballer Tubb and Sploshy of the Arctic
Oakie Doke: Oakie Doke and the Scooter, Oakie Doke and the Jam Puddle, Oakie Doke and the Cheeky Breeze, Oakie Doke and the Birthday Cake, Oakie Doke and the Treasure Hunt and Oakie Doke and the Orchestra
Brum: Brum and the Soccer Hero, Brum and the Skateboarding Bride, Brum and the Runaway Train, Brum and the Stolen Necklace, Brum and the Music Box, Brum and the Runaway Ball and Brum and the Runaway Rickshaw
Peppa Pig: Polly Parrot, The Playgroup, Picnic, Grandpa Pig's Boat, Chloe's Puppet Show, Mister Skinnylegs, Camping, Mummy Pig's Birthday and Snow
Yoho Ahoy: Snore with Poop, Boing with Jones, Bullseye with Cutlass, Peck with Flamingo, Puff with Jones, Jig with Booty, Pancake with Poop, Chairs with Grog, Buzz with Jones and Paint with Booty
Johnson and Friends: The Thinker, Putting out the Rubbish, Clowning Around, Alfred and Alphonse, All at Sea, The Tin Star, Diesel's Taxi and The Birthday Balloon
Andy Pandy: A Puzzle for Andy Pandy, The Nest, Potato Prints, Cereal Number, A Noisy Supper, Cheer Up Andy and The Birthday Cake
In the Night Garden: The Ball, The Tombliboos' Tower of Five, Following, Playing Hiding with Makka Pakka, Upsy Daisy's Tiring Walk, IgglePiggle's Blanket Walks About by Itself and The Prettiest Flower
Fireman Sam: Birthday Surprise, Pizza Palaver, Mummy's Little Pumpkin, Carnival of Junk, Bathtime for Dusty, Twitchers in Trouble, Fun Run, Beast of Pontypandy and Let it Snow
The Wombles: The Ghost of Wimbledon Common, Shansi's Surprise, Tomsk to the Rescue, Deep Space Wombles, Orinoco the Magnificent, Beautiful Boating Weather and Madame Cholet's Day Off
The Raggy Dolls: The Empty House, The Little Carthorse, Crazy Golf, The Old Clock Lady, What's the Time?, The Unlikely Hedgehog, The Old Windmill, Robot Canteen and Hot Air Balloon
Pingu: Pingu's Bouncy Fun, Pingu wants to Fly, Pingu and Pinga Go Camping, Pingu's Moon Adventure, Pinga Has Hiccups, Pingu's Valentine Card, Pingu Finishes the Job and Pingu's Ice Sculpture
Charlie and Lola: I Am Not Sleepy and I Will Not Go to Bed, But That is My Book, I'm Just Not Keen on Spiders, I'm Really Ever So Not Well, I Must Take Completely Everything and Snow is My Favourite and My Best
Bill and Ben: A Night to Remember, Go Fly a Kite, The Tortoise and the Pot, Phwooar, Around & Around, The Hottest Day, Two New Flowerpot Men and The Snow Castle
Bob the Builder: Bob and the Badgers, Scruffty on Guard, Dizzy Goes Camping, Lofty's Long Load, Ballroom Bob, Spud and the Doves, First Aid Molly, Mr. Bentley's Winter Fair and Snowman Scoop
Children's Favourite TV Songs
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What a treat, Children's TV has lot of fun with wonderful characters like Postman Pat, Fireman Sam, Thomas the Tank Engine, TUGS, Paddington Bear, The Animals of Farthing Wood, Mr Men, Oakie Doke, Spot, Pingu, Chorlton and the Wheelies, Brum, Johnson and Friends, Teletubbies and many more with theme tunes which are remakes of those from Children's TV in 2 Disc sets, So join in the fun with Children's TV Friends with great songs and music.
Disc 1
Pinocchio: When you Wish upon a Star
Glass Onion: Don't be afraid
Edit
The star-studded promo for Glass Onion’s Don’t Be Afraid was unveiled at St Anne’s Church Rectory, in Soho, London, last Tuesday.
Other collaborators have included animator Alan Rogers of Pigeon Street who created special artwork for the video, Ian Allen the creator of Button Moon, Simon Buckley with Nobby the Sheep and even Basil Brush.
It then had its public launch at Grimsthorpe Festival, where the band performed, on Bank Holiday Monday, and is now available to view online.
They have also enlisted help from Jamie Anderson, grandson of Thunderbirds creator Gerry, as well as Richard Gregory, animatronics expert for films like Batman, the James Bond series, Walking with Dinosaurs and Doctor Who. Look out for other childhood favourites.
As well as Muffin the Mule (as operated by legendary puppeteer Ronnie Le Drew) and characters from Button Moon, the video features Simon Buckley with Nobby the Sheep from Ghost Train, The Treacle People, Rosie and Jim, The Magic Roundabout, Basil Brush, Postman Pat, Sooty, Camberwick Green, The Woodentops, Charlie and Lola, Teletubbies, Bod, Willo the Wisp, Dooby Duck (picturedright) and Ludwig.
Characters featured in Don’t Be Afraid
Mr Jupiter, The Pigeons, Polly and Molly from Pigeon Street
Engie Benjy and Jollop the Dog
Postman Pat with Jess the Cat, Mrs Goggins, Ted Glen, Sara Clifton, PC Selby, Julian Clifton, Alf Thompson, Julia Pottage, Dr. Sylvia Gilbertson, Dorothy Thompson and Reverend Timms
Willo the Wisp's Evil Edna and Arthur the Caterpillar
Sergeant Major Zero from Terrahawks
The Magic Roundabout's Florence, Dougal, The Train, Ermintrude, Brian and Zebedee
The Wombles' Orinoco, Bungo and Wellington
Perkin, Posie and Pootle from The Flumps
Saturday Superstore's Crow
Sempringham Abbey.
Stephan Tapley and the William Alvey School, Sleaford.
A special thanks to Rebecca Parkinson, Ben Thwaites, Richard Button, Dave Hill, Graham Walsh and Grimsthorpe Festival's Dan Sumpton.
Tik Tok: On the Children's TV Clock
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A single based on the Song by the American recording artist Kesha. It then had its public launch at Red Nose Day 2015 in Comic Relief. A Whole host of iconic Children’s TV Characters appear in the Song, The cover art is a parody of the cover of Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band by The Beatles.
The music video depicts two children watching TV when Parsley the Lion from The Herbs appeared on the Screen and Roaring like the MGM Lion, Later he was Join by Bill and Ben the Flower Pot Men, Nobby the Sheep from Ghost Train and Gimme 5, Dooby Duck, Saturday Superstore’s Crow, Ludwig, Postman Pat and his Friends in Greendale, Teletubbies, Characters from Roary the Racing Car, Sooty and Sweep, The Wombles, Zippy, George and Bungle from Rainbow, Chorlton and the Wheelies, Evil Edna and Arthur the Caterpillar from Willo the Wisp, Silas Milton, Charlie, Bert Boggart from The Treacle People, Charlie and Lola, the Starhill Ponies, Greenclaws and the Twirlywoos. At the end of the video, When Muffin the Mule, Sooty and the Twirlywoos appears only to be informed that the song have just finished and really wasn’t expecting!.
Characters featured in Tik Tok
Parsley the Lion from The Herbs
Bill and Ben the Flower Pot Men
Sergeant Major Zero from Terrahawks
Andy Pandy and Teddy
Postman Pat with Jess the Cat, Mrs Goggins, Ted Glen, Sara Clifton, Julian Clifton, PC Selby, Lucy Selby, Alf Thompson, Dorothy Thompson, Bill Thompson, Julia Pottage, Katy and Tom Pottage, Jeff Pringle, Charlie Pringle, Dr. Sylvia Gilbertson, Sarah Gilbertson and Reverend Timms
The Wombles' Orinoco, Bungo and Wellington
Grandfather Flump, Perkin, Posie and Pootle from The Flumps
Roary, Big Chris, Marsha, Flash, Mr Carburettor, Big Christine and Farmer Green from Roary the Racing Car
Mr Jupiter, The Pigeons, Polly and Molly from Pigeon Street
Rosie and Jim with Duck
Bod, Aunt Flo, PC Copper, Frank the Postman and Farmer Barleymow
Charlie and Lola with Marv, Lotta, Morten, Sizzles and Soren Lorensen
Thunderbirds' Parker
The Gummi Bears - Tummi, Grammi, Cubbi, Sunni, Gusto, Cavin, Princess Calla and Toadwart
Madeline - Miss Clavel, Genevieve, Pepito, Danielle, Nicole and Chloe
The Smurfs - Vanity Smurf, Clumsy Smurf, Grouchy Smurf, Handy Smurf and Painter Smurf
The Clangers - The Soup Dragon, Baby Soup Dragon, Froglets and The Iron Chicken
The Wombles - Madame Cholet, Alderney, Tobermory, Tomsk and Stepney
Mr. Men - Mr. Jelly, Mr. Strong and Mr. Daydream
Doug - Skeeter, Roger M. Klotz and Patti Mayonnaise
Rugrats - Stu Pickles, Didi Pickles, Drew Pickles, Grandpa Lou, Charlotte Pickles, Spike the Dog, Chazz Finster, Betty DeVille, Howard DeVille, Grandma Minka and Grandpa Boris
Little Lulu - Mr. George Moppet, Mrs. Martha Moppet, Tubby, Wilbur Van Snobbe, Wilbur Van Snobbe, Alvin and Annie
Little Audrey - Lucretia
The Care Bears - Cheer Bear, Lotsa Heart Elephant, Bright Heart Raccoon, Grams Bear, Baby Hugs and Tugs Bear and Beastly
Dora the Explorer - Diego and Swiper the Fox
Rocko's Modern Life - The Bigheads
Popeye the Sailor - Olive Oyl
Beany and Cecil - Beany Boy, Captain Horatio Huffenpuff, Crowy, Go Man Van Gogh and Dishonest John
Spongebob Sqaurepants - Gary, Mr. Krabs, Plankton, Sandy Cheeks, Pearl Krabs and Larry the Lobster
Futurama - Professor Farnsworth, Hermes Conrad, Amy Wong and Doctor Zoidberg
The Magic School Bus - Arnold Perlstein, Carlos Ramon, Dorothy Ann, Keesha Franklin, Phoebe Terese, Tim and Wanda Li
Jim Henson's Muppet Babies - Baby Fozzie, Baby Scooter, Baby Animal, Baby Gonzo, Baby Rowlf and Baby Skeeter
The Simpsons - Grampa Simpson, Patty and Selma Bouvier, Ned Flanders, Professor Frink, Barney Gumble, Dr. Julius Hibbert, Krusty the Clown, Itchy & Scratchy, Nelson Muntz, Martin Prince, Moe Szyslak, Chief Wiggum, Milhouse Van Houten, Montgomery Burns, Lenny and Carl, Apu Nahasapeemapetilon, Mayor Quimby, Waylon Smithers, Reverend Lovejoy, Edna Krabappel and Otto Mann
Peanuts - Rerun van Pelt, Eudora, Peppermint Patty, Marcie, Frieda, Patty, Shermy, Pig-Pen and Franklin
Hey Arnold! - Phoebe Heyerdahl, Harold Berman, Sid, Grandpa Phil, Abner and Stoop Kid
Charlie and Lola - Marv, Morten, Sizzles, Lotta and Soren Lorensen
Tom and Jerry - Jerry Mouse, Spike, Tyke, Droopy, The Wolf and Barney Bear
The Littles - Frank Little, Helen Little, Slick, Henry Bigg and Marie
Wally Gator - Touché Turtle, Dum Dum, Lippy the Lion and Hardy Har Har
The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show - Boris Badenov, Natasha Fatale, Sherman, Aesop, Aesop Junior, Nell Fenwick, Snidely Whiplash and Inspector Fenwick
Woody Woodpecker - Wally Walrus, Buzz Buzzard, Sam and Maggie, Andy Panda and Inspector Willoughby
Rainbow Brite - Red Butler, Lala Orange, Canary Yellow, Patty O'Green, Buddy Blue, Indigo, Shy Violet, Murky Dismal and Lurky
My Little Pony: Friendship is Magic - Princess Celestia, Princess Cadance, Shining Armor, Big McIntosh, Derpy, Octavia, Apple Bloom, Sweetie Belle, Scootaloo and Spike
He-Man: Masters of the Universe - Man-At-Arms, Teela, Stratos, Zodac, Orko and Skeletor
Dragon Ball Z Kai - Kame-Sennin, Yamcha, Tenshinhan, Piccolo, Chaozu, Gohan and Trunks
Thundercats - Jaga, Lynx-O, Bengali and Pumyra
Scooby-Doo, Where Are You! - Fred Jones, Velma Dinkley and Daphne Blake
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles - April O'Neil, Shredder, Irma Langinstein, Bebop and Rocksteady
Johnny Bravo - Bunny Bravo, Little Suzy, Pops and Carl Chryniszzswics
The Ren and Stimpy Show - Mr. Horse, Muddy Mudskipper, Svën Höek, The Shaven Yak, The Fire Chief, Jasper the Dog and The Announcer Salesman
Cow and Chicken - Cow and Chicken's Mom and Dad, Boneless Chicken, Cow and Chicken's Teacher, Flem and Earl
Animaniacs - Flavio, Marita, Buttons, Mindy, The Mime, Katie Ka-Boom, The Goodfeathers, Slappy Squirrel, Skippy Squirrel and Chicken Boo
Tiny Toon Adventures - Hamton J. Pig, Fifi La Fume, Shirley the Loon, Dizzy Devil, Furrball, Calamity Coyote, Elmyra Duff and Montana Max
Dastardly and Muttley in Their Flying Machines - Klunk and Zilly
Alvin and the Chipmunks - Dave Seville, Brittany, Jeanette and Eleanor
Aaahh!!! Real Monsters - The Gromble
Courage the Cowardly Dog - Eustace and Muriel
Darkwing Duck - Gosalyn Mallard, Quackerjack, Negaduck and Herbert Muddlefoot Jr.
Goof Troop - Peg Pete and P.J. Pete
Count Duckula - Igor, Nanny and Dr Von Goosewing
Alf - Augie Shumway, Bob Shumway, Curtis Shumway, Flo Shumway, Rhonda, Skip, Sloop, Rick Fusterman and Larson Petty
Top Cat - Officer Dibble
DuckTales - Webby Vanderquack, Duckworth the Butler, Mrs. Bentina Beakley, Magica De Spell, Fenton Crackshell/Gizmoduck, Beagle Boys, Gyro Gearloose and Bubba the Caveduck
Bobby's World - Howard Generic, Martha Generic, Kelly Generic and Derek Generic
Lalaloopsy - Mittens Fluff 'N' Stuff, Spot Splatter Splash, Crumbs Sugar Cookie, Bea Spells-A-Lot, Dot Starlight, Peanut Big Top, Rosy Bumps 'N' Bruises, Forest Evergreen, Berry Jars 'N' Jam, Sunny Side Up and Patch Treasurechest
The Jetsons - Mr. Spacely, Rosie the Robot and Astro
The Flintstones - Wilma Flintstone, Betty Rubble, Dino, Mr. Slate, Pebbles Flintstone and Bamm Bamm Rubble
Adventure Time - Tripper Harrison, Princess Bubblegum, Ice King, Marceline the Vampire Queen, Ricardio, BMO, Magic Man and The Lich
Looney Tunes - Porky Pig, Granny, Barnyard Dawg, Tasmanian Devil, Pepé Le Pew, Penelope Pussycat, Speedy Gonzales, Marvin the Martian, Witch Hazel and Gossamer
The Annual Super Bowl with Old-School Cartoon Stars
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While The Annual Super Bowl was on, Characters from Old-School Cartoons like He-Man & Battle Cat, Peanuts, Mr Bump, Quick Draw McGraw, Droopy, Where's Wally?, Penelope Pitstop, Top Cat, Wally Gator, Voltron and many more appeared to join in the Spectacular Annual Football.
These characters/TV shows include:
Looney Tunes/Merrie Melodies - Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, Sylvester the Cat, Elmer Fudd, Yosemite Sam, Foghorn Leghorn, Pepe Le Pew, Penelope Pussycat, Speedy Gonzales, Marvin the Martian, Wile E. Coyote, Witch Hazel and Gossamer
Scooby-Doo - Scooby-Doo, Shaggy Rogers, Fred Jones, Velma Dinkley, Daphne Blake, Scrappy-Doo, The Mystery Machine van and various Scooby-Doo villains including The Creeper, The Ghost Clown and The Witch Doctor
Hanna-Barbera Characters
The Amazing Chan and the Chan Clan/The Adventures of the Chan Clan - Henry Chan, Stanley Chan, Suzie Chan, Alan Chan, Anne Chan, Tom Chan, Flip Chan, Nancy Chan, Mimi Chan and Scooter Chan
The Atom Ant/Secret Squirrel Show - Atom Ant, Precious Pupp, Granny Sweet, Paw Rugg, Maw Rugg, Floral Rugg, Shag Rugg, Secret Squirrel, Morocco Mole, Squiddly Diddly and Winsome Witch
The Banana Splits - Fleegle, Bingo, Drooper and Snorky
Captain Caveman and the Teen Angels - Captain Caveman
Cattanooga Cats - Country, Kitty Jo, Scoots, Groove, Phinny Fogg, Jenny, Hoppy, Mildew Wolf and Autocat
Dastardly and Muttley in Their Flying Machines - Yankee Doodle Pigeon
Dino Boy in the Lost Valley - Todd/Dino Boy and Ugh
Dynomutt, Dog Wonder - Dynomutt
The Flintstones - Fred Flintstone, Barney Rubble, Wilma Flintstone, Betty Rubble, Dino, Mr. Slate, Pebbles Flintstone and Bamm Bamm Rubble
Frankenstein, Jr. and The Impossibles - Frankenstein, Jr., Multi-Man, Coil-Man and Fluid-Man
The Funky Phantom - Mudsy and Boo the Cat
Goober and the Ghost Chasers - Goober
The Great Grape Ape Show - Grape Ape and Beegle Beagle
The Hanna-Barbera New Cartoon Series/Wally Gator and Pals - Wally Gator, Touché Turtle, Dum Dum, Lippy the Lion and Hardy Har Har
Help!... It's the Hair Bear Bunch! - Hair Bear, Bubi Bear and Square Bear
Hong Kong Phooey - Hong Kong Phooey
The Huckleberry Hound Show - Huckleberry Hound, Mr Jinks, Hokey Wolf and Ding-A-Ling Wolf
Jabberjaw - Jabberjaw
The Jetsons - George Jetson, Jane Jetson, Judy Jetson, Elroy Jetson, Cosmo G. Spacely, Rosie the Robot, Astro and the Jetson's domed aerocar
Jonny Quest - Jonny Quest and Hadji
Josie and the Pussycats - Josie, Valerie, Melody, Alan, Alexandra Cabot, Alexander Cabot III and Sebastian the Cat
The Kwicky Koala Show - Dirty Dawg
The Magilla Gorilla/Peter Potamus Show - Magilla Gorilla, Punkin' Puss, Ricochet Rabbit, Droop-a-Long, Peter Potamus, Breezly Bruin, Sneezly Seal and Yippee, Yappee and Yahooey
The Perils of Penelope Pitstop - The Hooded Claw
The Quick Draw McGraw Show - Quick Draw McGraw, Baba Looey, Augie Doggie and Doggie Daddy
The Roman Holidays - Brutus the Lion, Gus Holiday, Precocia Holiday, Happius Holiday and Laurie Holiday
Space Ghost - Space Ghost, Jan, Jace, Zorak, Brak and Moltar
Space Kidettes - Scooter, Jenny Don, Snoopy, Pupstar, Countdown and Captain Skyhook
Speed Buggy - Speed Buggy
Top Cat - Top Cat/TC
Wacky Races - Muttley, Penelope Pitstop, Peter Perfect, The Slag Brothers and The Gruesome Twosome
The Yogi Bear Show - Yogi Bear, Boo-Boo Bear, Cindy Bear, Ranger Smith, Snagglepuss and Fibber Fox
Tom and Jerry/MGM - Tom Cat, Jerry Mouse, Spike the Bulldog, Tyke, Nibbles, Butch, Topsy, Lightning, Barney Bear, Droopy, Avery's The Wolf and Red Hot Riding Hood
He-Man and the Masters of the Universe - He-Man and Battle Cat
Casper the Friendly Ghost/Richie Rich/Harveytoons - Casper the Friendly Ghost, Wendy the Good Little Witch, Ghostly Trio, Richie Rich, Gloria Glad, Cadbury, Mayda Munny, Little Audrey, Little Lotta, Baby Huey, Katnip, Tommy Tortoise and Moe Hare
Peanuts - Snoopy, Woodstock, Charlie Brown, Linus van Pelt, Lucy van Pelt, Schroeder, Violet Gray, Sally Brown, Franklin, Peppermint Patty, Marcie, Shermy, Frieda and Pig-Pen
Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids - "Fat" Albert Jackson, Mushmouth, Dumb Donald, Bill Cosby, Russell Cosby, Weird Harold, Rudy Davis and Bucky
The Pink Panther Show - The Pink Panther, The Inspector, Deux-Deux, The Blue Aardvark and Crazylegs Crane
Popeye the Sailor - Popeye, Bluto, Olive Oyl and J. Wellington Wimpy
Animaniacs - Yakko, Wakko, Dot, Dr. Otto Scratchansniff, Hello Nurse, Ralph, Pinky and the Brain, Buttons and Mindy, The Mime, Rita and Runt, The Goodfeathers, Slappy Squirrel and Chicken Boo
Tiny Toon Adventures - Buster Bunny, Babs Bunny, Plucky Duck, Hamton J. Pig, Furrball and Elmyra Duff
The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show - Bullwinkle, Boris, Natasha, Dudley Do-Right, Mr. Peabody and Sherman
Mr. Magoo - Mister Magoo
Count Duckula - Count Duckula, Igor and Nanny
Underdog - Underdog
'Victor & Hugo Bunglers in Crime', 'Alias the Jester', 'Avenger Penguins' and 'Danger Mouse'
'Pandamonium', 'The Viking Airship', 'The Wild West Story' and 'Custard'
Kids Classics
2012
'Danger Mouse', 'Rainbow', 'Rod, Jane and Freddy', 'The Wind in the Willows', 'Chorlton and the Wheelies', 'Jamie and the Magic Torch', 'Count Duckula', 'Sooty' and 'Button Moon'
'The Trip to America', 'Treasure Hunt', 'Dressing Up', 'Toad, Photographer', 'The Wishing Tree', 'The Unexpected Visitor', 'Prime-Time Duck', 'Restaurant' and 'The Snoring Princess'.
Kids Classics 2
2012
'Danger Mouse', 'Rainbow', 'The Wind in the Willows', 'Button Moon', 'Chorlton and the Wheelies', 'Jamie and the Magic Torch', 'Count Duckula' and 'Sooty'
'Danger Mouse on the Orient Express', 'Rumpelstiltskin', 'Winter Sports', 'The Paper Parade', 'When the Band Played On and On', 'The Magician's Hat', 'No Sax Please, We're Egyptian!' and 'Superdog and the Comedian'.
Show Me Show Me
Show Me Show Me is a television show on CBeebies and Tiny Pop. Aimed at pre-school children the shows teach and show children and read stories about their toys. It began in 2009.
Presenters
Chris Jarvis and Pui Fan Lee (CBeebies)
Nicole Davis and Andy Day (Tiny Pop)
Characters
The show features five toys: Mo Mo, Tom, Stuffy, Miss Mouse and Teddington, each of which appear in their own song as well as in a story book adventure.
Stuffy - A felt cube with orange hair and a pocket at the back
Mo Mo bot - A girl robot with poseable head and arms (this toy is the 1980s Hasbro Mo Mo dater bot)
Miss Mouse - A knitted mouse with a red dotted head band
Tom - A rag doll with brown hair
Teddington - A teddy bear with a green waistcoat and black bowtie
from CBeebies
Some episodes have an animated section featuring a cartoon called Uki about an eponymous little yellow character who conveys emotions through laughter and smiles.
Other episodes feature Penelope the inquisitive blue koala as the animated section.
from Tiny Pop
Some episodes have an Character Appears
3rd & Bird: Muffin
ZingZillas: Panzee, Drum, Tang and Zak
The Story of Children’s Television
Edit
From the earliest days of Muffin the Mule and Watch with Mother to the multi-channel world of today, generations of children have fallen in love with the characters and stories brought to life on the small screen.
The Story of Children’s Television is a highly interactive and family friendly exhibition which traces the fascinating history of children’s television from its earliest days to the multi-channel world of today. The exhibition allows us to explore our relationship with these programmes, and how they were at the forefront of technological advancements in the wider world, looking in detail at animation, drama, puppets and factual programmes.
The exhibition brings together objects, memorabilia, merchandise, clips and images from iconic children’s programmes. The original objects and characters span the decades, from Mummy Woodentop to the original Tracy Island model created on Blue Peter, Gordon the Gopher, Bagpuss, Morph, The Wombles, Rastamouse and the singing veggies from Mr Bloom’s Nursery. The Story of Children’s Television is the story of all of our childhoods. The exhibition will take you for a wander down memory lane to a celebration of children’s television, past and present.
Sets and Full-Bodied Puppets
Bananaman Animation cel and Background
Kipper the Dog Animation cel and Background
TV Family Favourites Water Ride
Edit
A Floating Journey through the Fascinating world of Children's Television, The Ride Consisted of sitting in a Little Yellow Boat while floating through a World of Children's TV Characters from years gone by.
The Ride Began with a Broken TV set, followed by a room in Black-and-White with Muffin the Mule, Andy Pandy, The Woodentops, Picture Book and Flowerpot Men puppets and Ivor the Engine.
The next room featured Camberwick Green, Trumpton and Chigley than Rainbow and Blue Peter.
The next featured The Magic Roundabout, Mr Men, Chorlton and the Wheelies and The Pink Panther.
followed by Doctor Who, Danger Mouse, Noggin the Nog, Sooty and Sweep and Basil Brush.
Next is Willo the Wisp, Crystal Tipps and Alistair, Roobarb and Custard, Mary, Mungo and Midge and Mr Benn.
Then we Visit the next room which features Greenclaws, Rosie and Jim, Thomas the Tank Engine, Bagpuss and the Clangers.
The final room was first The Raggy Dolls, Play School, Button Moon, The Wombles and Mr Blobby but later changed to Noddy in Toyland after Blobbyland went.
A Golden Age of Children's TV
Edit
Since the early 1950's children's television programmes have had their own special place on 'the box'.
Originally titled For the Very Young - becoming known as Watch with Mother from 1953 onwards - the BBC afternoon children's zone brought an array of shows that still resonater today, most notably the puppet antics of Muffin the Mule (1946), Andy Pandy (1950), 'oddlepoddle' -spouting Bill and Ben in Flower Pot Men (1952), Rag, Tag and Bobtail (1953), Picture Book (1955) and The Woodentops (1955). The 1950s also brought us the variety-cum-gameshow Crackejack, which would continue for almoust 30 years until 1984, and the world's longest-running children's series, Blue Peter, which first set sail in 1958.
Stop-motion animation - in which single frames of an odject being moved in tiny increments are strung togeter to create an impression of movement - became a mainstay of children's shows in the 1960s, with magical results. Early examples include The Magic Roundabout (1965), Pogles' Wood (1965) and Camberwick Green (1996), an even more spohisticated affair that was filmed in colour and to spin-off Trumpton (1967) and Chigley (1969). Away from Watch with Mother, BBC2 introduced the educational Play School in 1964, cautiously acquainting the very young with the outside world.
In 1972, the Government lifted the restrictions on TV broadcasting hours, prompting ITV to increase its output of children's programmes. The Basil Brush Show (1968), The Sooty Show (1955), Rainbow (1972) and Pipkins (1973) followed, both mixing puppets and presenters, Other favourites included Jamie and the Magic Torch and Chorlton and the Wheelies (both 1976). Back on BBC1, the serials were increasingly reflecting pop culture. Fingerbobs (1972) sat long-haired 'Yoffy' (Play School presenter Rick Jones) to work in a studio accompanied by his paper creations, while Bod (1975) - narrated in supremely measured tones by John Le Mesurier - sported jazzy songs courtesy of Derek Griffiths (another talented Play School Presenter), Other favourites from the 60s and 70s are The Clangers (1969), Mr Benn (1971), Roobarb (1974), The Wombles (1973), Ivor the Engine (1959), Bagpuss (1974), Paddington Bear (1975), Crystal Tipps and Alistair (1972) and Joe (1966).
By the 1980s, the Watch with Mother umbrella had been dropped, but programmers for the very young continued, including Postman Pat (1981), SuperTed (1982), Fireman Sam (1986), Pigeon Street (1981) and Bertha (1985). During this decade ITV also created some of its best-remembered productions, including Button Moon (1980), The Wind in the Willows (1984), The Little Green Man (1985), Thomas the Tank Engine (1984), Alias the Jester (1985), Knightmare (1987), Telebugs (1986), the secret-agent antics of Dangermouse (1981) and the Spin off Count Duckula (1988).
The TV landscape evolved further in the 1990s, as satellite television tentatively arrived and children's programming became margginalised in an ever-more competitive market like The Raggy Dolls (1986), Brum (1991), Playbox (1988), Rosie and Jim (1990), Dennis the Menace (1996), Mortimer and Arabel (1993), Tweenies (1999), Oscar's Orchestra (1994), Romuald the Reindeer (1996), Bob the Builder (1998) and Victor and Hugo (1991). Nonetheless, the massively successful Teletubbies (1997), aimed at a pre-school audience was still able to make a splash, even producing a million-selling pop single.
In recent years, productions for younger viewers have migrated from the world of regular 'terrestrial' TV onto dedicated channels. with the like of Peppa Pig (2004), Dog and Duck (2000), Fifi and the Flowertots (2005), The Koala Brothers (2003), The Secret Show (2006), Roary the Racing Car (2007), Yoho Ahoy (2000), In the Night Garden (2007), Little Princess (2006), Sarah & Duck (2013) and Charlie and Lola (2005) providing edifying entertainment. Bedtime Stories, meanwhile, reminds us if the classic story-telling of Jackanory (which was broadcast from the 1960s to the 1990s). More then 60 years after younger viewers were first given their one special part of the TV day, they're still being provided with plenty of opportunities to watch with mother - or father or siblings or friends.
Clips from Muffin the Mule (1946), Andy Pandy (1950), Flower Pot Men (1952), Rag, Tag and Bobtail (1953), Picture Book (1955), The Woodentops (1955), The Sooty Show (1955), Blue Peter, Crackejack, Ivor the Engine (1959), Stingray (1963), Play School, Jackanory, The Magic Roundabout (1965), Pogles' Wood (1965), Camberwick Green (1996), Trumpton (1967), Chigley (1969), Joe (1966), The Basil Brush Show (1968), The Clangers (1969), Mr Benn (1971), Rainbow (1972), Crystal Tipps and Alistair (1972), Fingerbobs (1972), Pipkins (1973), The Wombles (1973), Bagpuss (1974), Roobarb (1974), Paddington Bear (1975), Bod (1975), Jamie and the Magic Torch (1976), Chorlton and the Wheelies (1976), Button Moon (1980), Postman Pat (1981), Pigeon Street (1981), Dangermouse (1981), SuperTed (1982), Bertha (1985), Fireman Sam (1986), The Wind in the Willows (1984), Thomas the Tank Engine (1984), Alias the Jester (1985), The Little Green Man (1985), Telebugs (1986), Knightmare (1987), Count Duckula (1988), Playbox (1988), The Raggy Dolls (1986), Rosie and Jim (1990), Victor and Hugo (1991), Brum (1991), Mortimer and Arabel (1993), Oscar's Orchestra (1994), Dennis the Menace (1996), Romuald the Reindeer (1996), Teletubbies (1997), Bob the Builder (1998), Tweenies (1999), Yoho Ahoy (2000), Dog and Duck (2000), The Koala Brothers (2003), Peppa Pig (2004), Fifi and the Flowertots (2005), Charlie and Lola (2005), The Secret Show (2006), Little Princess (2006), Roary the Racing Car (2007), In the Night Garden (2007) and Sarah & Duck (2013)
NCH/NSPCC on VHS
Below is a list of NCH/NSPCC VHS/DVDS. Some are involved with NCH and NSPCC. From 1990 to 2002, Tempo Video/Abbey Home Entertainment released two 'Children's T.V. Favourites' compilations on behalf of the charity.
VHS Title
VC1400
1995
ABC Alphabet, Special Attraction, Peace and Quiet, The Sound of Music, Gingerbread Man, Camping Out, The Wind in the Willows, 123 Numbers and The Big Chase
Max and Mimms in Teddy Bear Sing-along, Thomas the Tank Engine, The Raggy Dolls, The Rats at Fourways Farm, Rosie and Jim, Sooty, Mr Toad from The Wind in the Willows and Brum
I Love...
1995
Topsy and Tim Have a Birthday, School, Noddy Cheers up Big Ears, The Feast, Elmer, I Want My Potty, Brum and the Wedding, Hide and Seek, Postman Pat's Thirsty Day, What Goes Up, Topsy and Tim go to the Park, Mon Repose, SuperTed at the Toy Shop, Trouble at No.32, Spot in the Garden, Topsy and Tim go to the Farm and Party
Topsy and Tim, Rosie and Jim, Noddy, Charlie Chalk, Elmer the Patchwork Elephant, Little Princess, Brum, Pingu, Robby the Seal, Postman Pat, Ted Glen, Fireman Sam, The Raggy Dolls, SuperTed, Paddington Bear, Spot and The Gingerbread Man
My Best Friends, Fun & Play
1995
Eggs, Puppet Show, Noddy and the Broken Bicycle, Fireman Sam: Brass Band, Postman Pat's Finding Day, Pingu's Birthday, SuperTed Kicks up the Dust, Arnold's Night Out, Robbers, We Are Not Amused, Hold the Lion, Please, Bella's Birthday Party, Elmer, Little Red Riding Hood and the Wolf and Lights, Camera, Littles
Rosie and Jim, Noddy, Fireman Sam, Postman Pat, Pingu, SuperTed, Charlie Chalk, Brum, The Raggy Dolls, Little Audrey, Bella in Teddy Trucks, Elmer the Patchwork Elephant, Little Red Riding Hood, Tom and Lucy Little
My Favourite Nursery Rhymes and Friends
1995
The Postman Pat Song, Thomas, Percy and the Post Train, A Froggy Would a Wooing Go, Huxley Pig Goes Flying, Paddington Bear's Cleans Up, Spot's Birthday Party, The ABC Song, Pingu Delivers the Mail, Home from Rome, Nutmeg's House, Spider in the Bath, Noddy and the Useful Rope, Bump's Load Song, Elmer, Nellie Rescues Mrs Maple's Moggy, I Want a Cat, Rupert and the Pirates, Albert's Tooth, Fishing, The Snowman's Ball, School, Nursery Play Rhymes and A Day at the Seaside
Postman Pat, Thomas the Tank Engine, Anthony Rowley the Frog, Huxley Pig, Paddington Bear, Spot, The Raggy Dolls, Pingu, Fireman Sam, Jamie and the Magic Torch, Spider!, Noddy, Bump, Elmer the Patchwork Elephant, Nellie the Elephant, Jessie in her Cat Suit, Rupert the Bear, Junglies, Clangers, The Snowman, Rosie and Jim and Grandpa
My Favourite Playgroup Video Vol.1
1996
Spot and the Windy Day, Spot goes on Holiday, Spot's Surprise Parcel, Spot's Lost Bone, Nutley's Priceless Bone, Gerry's First Dance, Jacko's Inportant Job, Rosie's Day Out, Bump's Umbrella, Bump and the Baby Mountain, Bump and the Bucket, Bump's First Ride, Do-It-Yourself, Mr. Curry Takes a Bath, A Shopping Expedition and A Visit to the Dentist
Spot, Rosie and Bella in Teddy Trucks, Bump and Paddington Bear
My Favourite Playgroup Video Vol. 2
1996
Huxley Pig's Home Movie, Huxley Pig the Magician, Huxley Pig and the Village Fete, Flying South, Penny's Little Brother, Journey to the Moon, Say Cheese Everyone, The Stolen Parrot, The Empty House, Pumpernickle's Party, The Bear and the Travellers, The Quack Frog and Cry Wolf
Huxley Pig, The Junglies, The Raggy Dolls, Boris the Lion and Geraldine Donkey in the Tales of Aesop
I Love... 2
1997
The Postman Pat Song, Huxley Pig and the Village Fete, Bump's Loud Song, The Quack Frog, Flying, Brum and the Street Party, Say Cheese Everyone, Little Miss Naughty, Mr Tickle, Off on Honeymoon, A Froggy Would a Wooing Go, SuperTed and Mother Nature, Oscar Got the Blame, The Sad Story of Veronica, Pingu at the Funfair, Spot of Bother, Paddington Makes a Bid, Noddy the Champion and Oakie Doke and the Treasure Hunt
Postman Pat, Huxley Pig, Bump, Boris the Lion and Geraldine Donkey in the Tales of Aesop, Rosie and Jim, Brum, The Junglies, Little Miss Naughty, Mr Tickle, The Raggy Dolls, Anthony Rowley the Frog, SuperTed, Oscar and his friend Billy, Veronica and her Violin, Pingu, Fireman Sam, Paddington Bear, Noddy and Oakie Doke
Calling All Toddlers
1999
The Paddling Pool, Postman Pat and the Hole in the Road, William the Conkeror, Pingu Goes Cross Country, Super Tiny, Colours, Spot Stays Overnight, Paddington Goes Underground, Thomas' Train, Scampi & Computer Chips and Barney's Musical Scrapbook
Kipper, Postman Pat, William's Wish Wellingtons, Pingu, Tilly, Tom and Tiny on Tots TV, Ozzy Octave at the Fun Song Factory, Spot, Paddington Bear, Thomas the Tank Engine, Sooty and Barney
Calling All Toddlers 2
2001
Fizz's Scrapbook, Spot's Band, Postman Pat has the Best Village, Pappy's Boat, Brum and the Airport Adventure, Springtime on the Farm, Thomas' Train, Maisy's Train, Copycat Chick, The Big Sleep, The Key and We All Stand Together
The Tweenies, Spot, Postman Pat, Rolie Polie Olie, Brum, Woof Woof at MacDonald's Farm, Thomas the Tank Engine, Maisy, Angelmouse, Bill & Ben, Kipper and Rupert the Bear
Calling All Toddlers 3
2002
Spot Goes to a Party, In the Dark, Hide and Seek, The Treasure Hunt, Postman Pat Paints the Ceiling, Thomas and Bertie's Great Race, Oakie Doke and the Talking Stone, Safety First, Song Time, Pigeon Post, Making Faces and Tumble Tots are Great
Spot, Ozzie the Owl, Ozzy Octave at the Fun Song Factory, Captain Feathersword and Wags the Dog from The Wiggles, Postman Pat, Thomas the Tank Engine, Bertie the Bus, Oakie Doke, Woof Woof at MacDonald's Farm, The Tweenies, Molly and Polly at Pigeon Street, The Raggy Dolls and Tumble Tot
Copyrights
| Top Cat |
Which rap star and record producer discovered and signed 'Eminem' in 1998? | Production Information about the TV Cartoon The Violin Player
U.S.A.
Cartoon Production Information:
Top Cat has the distinction of being one of the few animated series to debut in prime time. After one season, it was moved to Saturday mornings, and was met with huge success.
Essentially, Hanna-Barbera took Phil Silvers' popular character from the hit prime-time sitcom Sgt. Bilko and turned him into a cat. T.C. and the gang (Benny, Choo Choo, Fancy-Fancy, Spook, and The Brain) lived on the streets of Manhattan and were always in search of a free lunch, figuratively and literally. Their main obstacle was Officer Dibble, who had an extreme dislike for the crafty cat and his schemes, especially when they involved using the police phone for personal calls. The Sgt. Bilko connection was strengthened by the fact that Maurice Gosfield, who played Doberman on the sitcom, voiced Benny, T.C's right hand cat.
Like The Flintstones , Top Cat was written for adults and children alike, since it was initially shown during the family hour on a weeknight. This particular programming effort made the scripts stronger than your average cartoon, relying less on overused cartoon cliches and more on character. Unfortunately, T.C. didn't do well in prime time, but when he and the gang moved to Saturday mornings, the show found a loyal audience, who still remember it fondly.
The name of this show became "Boss Cat" when it ran in the United Kindgom to avoid confusion with a British cat food called Top Cat.
Traditional, Hand-drawn Animation.
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Which of Shakespeare's plays was based loosely on the life of Cunobelinus, a pre-Roman king of England? | PCS Blog - The Real Cymbeline? - Portland Center Stage
Portland Center Stage
Gerding Theater at the Armory
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The Real Cymbeline?
Posted by Kinsley Suer | 11 February 2012
Cymbeline, King of Britain , one of William Shakespeare’s later plays (and from which Chris Coleman adapted his Shakespeare's Amazing Cymbeline , currently running in our Ellyn Bye Studio), was probably written around 1610 and then published in 1623 in the First Folio , the first collected edition of 36 of his plays . But did you know that there was a real Cymbeline?
Although his life bears almost no resemblance to that of the “Cymbeline” in Shakespeare’s play, the pre-Roman Celtic king Cunobeline , who ruled in what is today southeastern England from about A.D. 9 until his death sometime before A.D. 43 , was the original inspiration for the title character in Cymbeline. Although his existence and rule over ancient Britain has been verified by archaeological evidence (specifically his many inscribed coins) and the works of Roman historians (with awesome names like Suetonius and Dio Cassius ), there is quite a bit of debate when it comes to the actual spelling of this king’s name. Popular variations include Cunobelinus, Cunobelin, Kynobellinus and Κυνοβελλίνος, in Greek .
Contrary to what you’ll see in Cymbeline, Cunobeline appears to have maintained good and peaceful relations with the Roman Empire . He used the title Rex, which is Latin for "king,” as well as classical motifs on his inscribed coins, and under his rule there was an increase in trade with the Roman Empire – which was basically all of continental Europe. Luxury goods imported into Britain included Italian wine and drinking vessels, olive oil and fish sauces (yummy), glassware, jewelry and tableware. Britain’s exports included grain, gold, silver, iron, hides, slaves and hunting dogs.
Map of the Roman Empire Circa A.D. 14
In another significant deviation from Cymbeline, Cunobeline had three sons (instead of two) known to history: Adminius , Togodumnus and Caratacus – and it doesn’t appear that any of them were kidnapped as toddlers.
In conclusion, while they may have shared a similar name, it appears that there was virtually nothing in common between the title character of Cymbeline and the historical Cunobeline. So how did the ancient Celtic king get on Shakespeare’s radar some 1600 years later?
As it turns out, Cunobeline was first written about by the 12th-century writer Geoffrey of Monmouth. Born circa 1100, Monmouth was one of the major figures in the development of British historiography . While his chronicle History of the Kings of Britain was widely popular in its day, you’ll probably recognize him as one of the most significant authors in the development of the enduring legend of King Arthur . In addition to creating the main framework for the figure of Arthur as a semi-historical British king, Monmouth was also the first to introduce the character Merlin.
But back to Cymbeline – or, as he appears in Monmouth’s version, Kymbelinus (gold star to the person who can keep all of these variations straight). According to Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain, Kymbelinus was a great king and warrior – a leader who was both on friendly terms with Rome and yet capable of resisting Roman aggression when needed. All tributes to Rome were paid out of respect, not out of requirement . In addition, in Monmouth’s version Kymbelinus has two sons, Guiderius and Arviragus – character names that were directly taken by Shakespare and inserted into his play. However, while Shakespeare’s version of the character Cymbeline as well as the plot were loosely based on Monmouth’s “historical” retelling, Shakespeare freely adapted the legend and added many of his own original subplots.
Hundreds of years later, in 1577, the English chronicler Raphael Holinshed published Chronicles of England, Scotland and Ireland . While the plot of Cymbeline was loosely based on Geoffrey of Monmouth's tale, the historical background came more directly from Holinshed's Chronicles . In fact, Chronicles was used as Shakespeare's primary historical reference for many of his other plays, including Macbeth and King Lear .
After Chronicles was published, fast forward about 3o years, when William Shakespare was busy writing one of his final plays, Cymbeline, King of Britain -- a play that is arguably a compilation of not only Monmouth and Holinshed's works, but of most of the Bard's earlier works as well. 400 years later? Our very own Chris Coleman is adapting his Shakespeare's Amazing Cymbeline. The story of Cymbeline (or Cunobeline, or Kymbelinus, or Cunobelinus) lives on .
| Cymbeline |
Who played the title character in the American t.v. series 'Columbo'? | CYMBELINE program by Yale Repertory Theatre - issuu
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A Note From the Artistic Director Welcome to Yale Repertory Theatre’s production of Cymbeline by William Shakespeare! I am delighted that you are here to share the work of this outstanding company of artists led by Evan Yionoulis, our OBIE Award-winning resident director. Her rich and varied work at Yale Rep has included vital productions of classic plays by Henrik Ibsen, Bertolt Brecht, and Mikhail Bulgakov, as well as new work by Kirsten Greenidge, Wendy MacLeod, and George F. Walker, among others. Cymbeline, Evan’s 14th production here at our theatre, has defied easy categorization for centuries. Although loosely based on the reign of King Cunobelinus of Britain, it is certainly not a history play. It weaves together strands of both comedy and tragedy, without sitting comfortably in either genre. In this fabulous romance, almost anything is possible, and Evan’s remarkable vision for Cymbeline embraces the most extraordinary surprises in Shakespeare’s text. You’ll also see in this production an approach to character that resonates with Shakespeare’s original practice. At that time, the state prohibited women performing in the theatre, so male actors played all the roles. Elizabethan artists and audiences must therefore have experienced and imagined gender more fluidly—at least in a theatrical context—and so the production you are about to see has struck me, in rehearsal, as capturing both the authenticity and the artifice of the Bard’s aesthetic as effectively as any I have seen in my 35-year career. This production is also a fantastic introduction to Shakespeare’s work for the hundreds of high school students from New Haven and across Connecticut will join us for this production as part of our annual WILL POWER! education program. We are grateful to the many supporters of Yale Rep whose generous donations have made it possible for these young people to attend what might be their first live theatre experience. I hope that you will join us again this spring for Samuel Beckett’s masterpiece, Happy Days, which I will direct. Two-time Academy Award-winner Dianne Wiest, whose previous Yale Rep appearances include Hedda Gabler and A Doll House and who currently stars on the comedy Life in Pieces on CBS, will play the iconic role of Winnie; she’ll be joined onstage by Jarlath Conroy, who recently appeared here in Hamlet, in the role of Willie. And I invite you to celebrate our 50th Anniversary Season, which begins in the fall and includes Yale Rep-commissioned world premieres by Sarah Ruhl, Aditi Brennan Kapil, and Amy Herzog, as well as new productions of modern masterpieces by August Wilson and John Weidman and Stephen Sondheim. Subscriptions are now on sale and are the best way to guarantee the best seats—at the best prices—on the dates of your choice. As always, please feel free to write to me about what you think about Cymbeline or any of your experiences at Yale Rep. My email address is [email protected]. I look forward to seeing you again soon! Sincerely,
James Bundy Artistic Director
Taylor Barfield Lynda A.H. Paul
Casting Director
Tara Rubin Casting Laura Schutzel, CSA
Stage Manager
Yale Rep is supported in part by the Connecticut Department of Economic and Community Development.
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Cast In Britain Cymbeline, King of Britain Kathryn Meisle The Queen, his second wife Michael Manuel Imogen, his daughter by a former queen Sheria Irving Posthumus Leonatus, her husband Miriam A. Hyman Cloten, the Queen’s son by a former husband Christopher Geary Pisanio, Posthumus’s servant Christopher Michael McFarland First Lord Sofia Jean Gomez Second Lord Monique Barbee Cornelius, a doctor Tony Manna Helen, a lady attending Imogen Chalia La Tour
In Italy
Philario, Posthumus’s host in Rome Iachimo, an Italian gentleman Frenchman, Iachimo’s friend
Caius Lucius, Roman ambassador and later general Roman Captain
Belarius, a banished lord Guiderius, known as Polydore Arviragus, known as Cadwal
Anthony Cochrane Jeffrey Carlson Robert David Grant
Romans in Britain Jonathan Higginbotham Tony Manna
In Wales Anthony Cochrane Robert David Grant Chalia La Tour
Apparitions Ghost of Sicilius Leonatus, Posthumus’s father Christopher Michael McFarland Ghost of his mother Jeffrey Carlson Ghosts of his brothers Monique Barbee Christopher Geary Jupiter Michael Manuel
Setting Long ago. There will be one 15-minute intermission. 8
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Shakespeare’s Genre Bending Shortly after Shakespeare’s death, the editors of his First Folio divided his work into three genres: tragedy, comedy, and history. A tragedy ended in death and destruction. A comedy resulted in the formation of bonds (usually through marriage). A history chronicled the stories of British Kings. While many of Shakespeare’s plays fit easily into one of these three categories, Cymbeline does not. The play isn’t rightly a tragedy because it ends with a family reunion. The play’s violence and war dampen its comedy. And even though Cymbeline was a British King, the play takes a sharp turn from historical record into a more fantastical realm. Without a clear fit, the First Folio’s editors settled on labeling Cymbeline a tragedy. For centuries, Cymbeline and its genre-misfit brethren Pericles, The Tempest, and The Winter’s Tale either sat uncomfortably in ill-fitting categories or defied labels altogether. Nearly three hundred years later, scholars began to look at these four plays on their own terms, at the way they incorporated magic, myth, and fairy tale. In 1879, Edward Dowden said these plays, written at the end of Shakespeare’s life, “had a grave beauty, a sweet serenity.” Based on these observations, Dowden thought romance was a better designation. Like most romances, Cymbeline combines familiar storytelling elements in a new and unexpected way. The play starts with something “romantic”—the impulsive but unsanctioned marriage between Posthumus and Imogen. Soon the furious King Cymbeline banishes Posthumus, and the love story gives way to an illadvised wager, a wicked stepmother’s machinations, two lost sons searching for adventure, ghosts, a descending god, and the ever-looming war between Rome and Britain. Throughout the play, whenever tragedy strikes, reconciliation rises from the ashes. When comedy peeks out from the shadows, something malevolent pushes it back down. Cymbeline, perhaps even more so than other romances, invites us to meet it on several levels, to think outside the box, and to re-examine the twists-and-turns to which we’ve become accustomed. It invites us to experience the full range of human emotion, to laugh, to cry, to fear, and to keep our imaginations open for whatever might come next. —Taylor Barfield, production dramaturg
Cymbeline posters: University of Melbourne by Amanda Johnson, 2000; Fairbanks Shakespeare Theatre by Greg Gustafson, 1997.
Readi
Gender betw At the end of Cymbeline, the King finally learns that his villainous Queen has duped him into nearly destroying both his daughter and country. How could he have been so wrong as to trust her? Horrified by the glaring discrepancy between the Queen’s outward beauty and her inward cruelty, Cymbeline despairingly demands: “who is’t can read a woman?”
womanly: “Could I find out/ The woman’s part in me! For there’s no motion/ That tends to vice in man, but I affirm/ It is the woman’s part. Be it lying, note it,/The woman’s; flattering, hers; deceiving, hers [...].”
This play and our production highlight questions about gender’s inner and outer manifestations. King Cymbeline, patriarchal leader of family and country, struggles to control his wife and daughter. Iachimo and Posthumus place a bet over whether Imogen can be successfully seduced; manhood is at stake. The spurned Cloten intends to enforce his power over Imogen by raping her. Everywhere we turn in Cymbeline, men try to assert their masculinity by enacting their power over women—and everywhere they turn, the men are taken by surprise by the women’s assertion of their agency.
Posthumus rages against these psychological attributes, which he perceives as feminine. But could the “woman’s part” in him also be physiological? Many of Shakespeare’s contemporaries did not see a strict boundary between the sexes. A common notion, derived from the classical physician Galen, was that there was just one sex—that women were anatomically inverted men. Viewed from this perspective, Posthumus’s discomfort with his own femininity is far more than a desire simply to “man up”: it represents an urge to inflict violence on his own being, to excise a fundamental piece of his full humanity. Played here by a female actor, the sentiment’s harshness is made more raw.
Imogen does not yield to Iachimo. Yet Posthumus, believing himself betrayed, launches into a diatribe against all women, finally rejecting even the characteristics of himself that might be
Posthumus wishes to purge his womanly attributes. At the same time, Imogen must “forget to be a woman” in order to survive—must, as Pisanio advises her, change her “niceness” into a “waggish
ing a Woman:
ween the Lines in Cymbeline courage” and dress as a man in order to escape her dire situation and travel alone in the countryside. In so doing, she joins the ranks of Shakespeare’s famous cross-dressing women: Julia in The Two Gentlemen of Verona; Portia in The Merchant of Venice; Viola in Twelfth Night; Rosalind in As You Like It. The circumstances vary, but Shakespeare’s heroines frequently end up wearing pants—and their disguises always seem to succeed. Remembering that women did not generally perform in the public theatres of Shakespeare’s England, and that boys played the women’s roles, it is perhaps not surprising that the “disguise” turns out to be convincing; the original performance would have featured a boy playing a woman playing a boy. But women dressing believably as boys went beyond the theater. In 1605, a noble lady in the court of Queen Anne eloped and fled to France while disguised as her lover’s page. In 1610, Lady Arabella Stuart was placed under house arrest by James I for marrying against his wishes. She escaped by dressing as a man. Imogen’s masculine disguise is not all fancy. Today many companies experiment with cross-gender casting for Shakespeare plays. But if these productions—such as the much-lauded all-male “original practice” Twelfth opposite: Moll Cutpurse (Mary Frith), ca. 1612. This page: Illustration From Quinta Essentia by Leonhart Thurneisser, 1574.
Night, starring Mark Rylance as Olivia, and the all-female Henry IV, with Harriet Walter in the title role—have taken audiences by storm, it is not simply because cross-gender casting is “experimental.” It is, after all, a centuries-old practice. Perhaps more to the point, these productions invite us to ask to what extent gender is itself a matter of performance, a negotiation of inner versus outer qualities. Who is’t can read a woman? As this play repeatedly teaches us: it is whoever can read within and without, beyond and between, the lines. —Lynda A.H. Paul, PRODUCTION DRAMATURG
Shakespeare Flunks History Check your Holinshed’s Chronicles! sp. Kymbeline
NAME : W illiam Shakespeare Ess a y Ass i g n m e n t : Describe the reign of an ancient, historical British king. King Cymbeline was the King of England during Al the Roman Empire, under the reign of Augustus.
bio
n?
He had two sons named Guiderius and Arviragus and a daughter named Imogen.
He had another son, not a daughter. Are you thinking of the first Queen of Britain, Innogen? One day, Cymbeline’s sons were kidnapped! And
so, he had an evil wife, the Queen, who was secretly
trying to take over the kingdom! She forced him not to
pay his tribute to the Emperor of Rome, so they had to go to war!
Will, we don’t know anything about a wife of Kymbeline, and his sons were never kidnapped. It was his son Guiderius who refused to pay the tribute to Rome. I think you’ve been hearing about too many of those folk tales from France and Germany. Please see me after class. —taylor barfield and Lynda A.H. Paul, PRODUCTION DRAMATURGS
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photograph by David Ottenstein
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CAST MONIQUE BARBEE* (SECOND LORD, FIRST BROTHER) New York: Die Fledermaus (Metropolitan Opera). Regional credits include The Liar (Westport Country Playhouse); Tribes (Actors Theatre of Louisville); A Little Night Music, Lover’s Tale (Berkshire Theatre Festival); The World Is Round (Compagnia Colombari); and The Music Man (Oregon Shakespeare Festival). Monique holds a BFA from Southern Oregon University and an MFA from Yale School of Drama.
JEFFREY CARLSON* (IACHIMO, MOTHER) previously appeared at Yale Rep in Richard II (title role). He has appeared on Broadway in The Goat, or Who Is Sylvia?; Tartuffe (Roundabout Theatre Company); and Taboo (Drama Desk Award nomination). His Off-Broadway credits include Psycho Therapy (Cherry Lane Theatre), Antony and Cleopatra (Theatre for a New Audience), Bach at Leipzig (New York Theatre Workshop), Manuscript (Daryl Roth Theatre), Last Easter (MCC Theater), and Thief River (Signature Theatre Company). Regional credits include Measure for Measure, Stage Kiss (Goodman Theatre); Edward II (Chicago Shakespeare Theater); Henry IV, Parts 1 and 2 (Chicago Shakespeare Theater, Royal Shakespeare Company); Lorenzaccio, Hamlet (Shakespeare Theatre Company); Romeo and Juliet, Candida (McCarter Theatre Center); The Miracle Worker (Charlotte Repertory Theatre); The Importance of Being Earnest (Paper Mill Playhouse); Golden Age (Philadelphia Theatre Company, The Kennedy Center); Eugene O’Neill Theater Center’s National Playwrights Conference; and the Cape Cod Theatre Project. Film and television appearances include Hitch, The Killing Floor, Backseat, All My Children, Plainsong, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, and The View. He has studied at The Juilliard School, the University of California at Davis, and The Guthrie Theater. Mr. Carlson was the recipient of the 2004 Marian Seldes-Garson Kanin Fellowship and is a Beinecke Fellow at Yale School of Drama this spring.
ANTHONY COCHRANE* (PHILARIO, BELARIUS) previously appeared at Yale Rep in Owners. His New York credits include The Audience with Helen Mirren (Broadway); War Horse, Cymbeline, and The Coast of Utopia (Broadway: Lincoln Center Theater); Nikolai and the Others (Off-Broadway: Lincoln Center Theater); 12 years and 18 productions with Aquila Theatre Company, including Othello, Cyrano de Bergerac, Much Ado About Nothing, Julius Caesar, King Lear, Twelfth Night, The Iliad, The Man Who Would Be King, and The Invisible Man; and Dense Terrain (Doug Varone and Dancers at Brooklyn Academy of Music). His regional U.S. credits include One Man, Two Guvnors at St. Louis Rep; The Diary of Anne Frank, Tovarich (Shakespeare Theatre of New Jersey); Amadeus, Much Ado About Nothing, The Tempest (The Old
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Globe); Henry VIII (Helen Hayes Award nomination), Julius Caesar, The Winter’s Tale (Folger Theatre); Timon of Athens, Hamlet, All’s Well That Ends Well (Alabama Shakespeare Festival); and Much Ado About Nothing (La Jolla Playhouse). U.K. credits include The Broken Heart, The Wives’ Excuse, Coriolanus, and Julius Caesar (Royal Shakespeare Company), along with numerous other repertory productions. Anthony has composed original music for over 30 theatre productions. Film and television credits include Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps, Apocalypse Watch, Law & Order: SVU, Benjamin Franklin (PBS), Taggart (Scottish TV), and Neverwhere (BBC). Training: Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama.
CHRISTOPHER GEARY* (CLOTEN, SECOND BROTHER) previously appeared at Yale Rep in These Paper Bullets!. Other credits include These Paper Bullets! (Atlantic Theater and Geffen Playhouse); Design for Living, The Cat and the Canary (Berkshire Theatre Group); Losing Tom Pecinka (Ice Factory and New Ohio Theatre); Altogether Reckless, The Seagull, The Master and Margarita, THUNDERBODIES, Peter Pan, Sagittarius Ponderosa (Yale School of Drama); The Small Things, We Know Edie La Minx Had a Gun, and A New Saint For A New World (Yale Cabaret). Christopher received his MFA from Yale School of Drama and his BA in theatre performance from Fordham College at Lincoln Center. Christopher is a proud member of New Neighborhood.
SOFIA JEAN GOMEZ* (FIRST LORD) previously appeared at Yale Rep in Safe in Hell. Off-Broadway: Angels in America: Parts 1 and 2 (Signature Theatre Company, Lucille Lortel Award for Best Ensemble), Creature (Page 73), Would You Still Love Me If… directed by Kathleen Turner (New World Stages); as well as productions at TerraNova Collective, Manhattan Theatre Club, New Georges, and Lake Lucille. Regional: Berkeley Repertory Theatre: Tartuffe, Arabian Nights (Outer Critic Circle Bay Area, Best Female Lead Nominee), Argonautika; Shakespeare Theatre in D.C.: Tartuffe, The Tempest (DCMetroTheaterArts 2014 Best Performance), Argonautika (Helen Hayes Nominee, Best Supporting Actress); Mirror of the Invisible World (Goodman Theatre); Dracula (Denver Post Nomination), The Three Musketeers (Denver Theatre Company); King Lear, The Tenth Muse, The Sign in Sidney Brustein’s Window, Valentine in The Two Gentleman of Verona (Oregon Shakespeare Festival); Orlando in As You Like It (Center Stage); also McCarter Theatre Center, Kansas City Repertory Theatre, Black Swan Lab, Arizona Theatre Company, Portland Stage Company, and Shakespeare Theatre of New Jersey. Television: CBS’s Unforgettable. Training: Yale School of Drama, MFA; Sam Houston State University, BFA.
*Member of Actors’ Equity Association, the Union of professional actors and stage managers.
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CAST ROBERT DAVID GRANT* (GUIDERIUS, FRENCHMAN) appeared at Yale Rep in Hamlet starring Paul Giamatti in 2013. His New York credits include Clever Little Lies (Westside Theatre); Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead, Hamlet (The Pearl Theatre/The Acting Company); Mechanics of Love (Drama League); The Footage, A Light Lunch, and The Great Recession (The Flea Theater). Regional: Engagements (Barrington Stage Company); Henry IV Part 1, Hamlet (Shakespeare Theatre of New Jersey); Rey Planta and Christie in Love (Yale Cabaret). Robert holds an MFA from Yale School of Drama.
JONATHAN HIGGINBOTHAM (CAIUS LUCIUS) is a secondyear MFA candidate at Yale School of Drama, where he has been seen in Macbeth, The Oresteia, and Preston Montfort— An American Tragedy. His other credits include Episode #121: Catfight, We Are All Here, Moonsong (Yale Cabaret); and Twelfth Night (Elm Shakespeare Company). Jonathan holds a degree in theatre from Hamilton College. MIRIAM A. HYMAN* (POSTHUMUS LEONATUS) is excited to be making her Yale Rep debut. She is a 2016 Leonore Annenberg Fellowship nominee for Performing Arts; a 2012 graduate of Yale School of Drama, where she earned her MFA in acting; and a 2011 Princess Grace recipient of the George C. Wolfe Award in Theatre. She most recently appeared as Berniece in August Wilson’s The Piano Lesson at McCarter Theatre. She has also worked in New York at LaMaMa E.T.C., The Public Theater, Manhattan Theatre Club, and Lincoln Center. Film and television credits include the recurring role of the medical examiner on Blue Bloods, Unforgettable, Falling Water (2016 pilot), The Blacklist, Hostages, 30 Rock, Law & Order, Conviction, and The Wire. She has three indie films slated for 2016: The Congressman, Day To Night, and Split. She is also a Hip Hop MC and goes by the moniker Robyn Hood. For more on music: Robynhoodfanz.com, @robynhoodfanz, miriamhyman.com
SHERIA IRVING* (IMOGEN) is excited to return to the Yale Rep stage, where she previously appeared in The Winter’s Tale. Broadway: Romeo and Juliet at the Richard Rodgers Theatre. Off-Broadway: While I Yet Live (Primary Stages, 2015 AUDELCO nomination), A Midsummer Night’s Dream (MasterWorks), and Ethel Sings (Theatre Row). Regional: Anna Bella Eema and Becoming Sylvia (Williamstown Theatre Festival). Television: The Good Wife and Madame Secretary. Sheria is a 2013 graduate of Yale School of Drama and an alumna of the British American Drama Academy. sheriairving.com @sheriairving 17
CHALIA La TOUR (ARVIRAGUS, HELEN) is a third-year MFA candidate at Yale School of Drama, where she has appeared as Sassy in This Land Was Made, Canary Mary in Fucking A, Miranda in The Tempest, Portia in The Children, Clara Gordon in Paradise Lost, and as Jessica/The Duke in The Merchant of Venice. Regional credits include Romeo and Juliet and Sleep Rock Thy Brain (Actors Theatre of Louisville). Miss LaTour hails from Stockton, California, with a bachelor’s degree in acting from California State University-East Bay. LaTour is also an alumna of the Actors Theatre of Louisville Apprentice Company 2012–13 and The British American Drama Academy’s Midsummer in Oxford program. TONY MANNA* (Cornelius, Roman Captain) is making his fifth appearance at Yale Rep. He was previously seen in These Paper Bullets! directed by Jackson Gay, Black Snow directed by Evan Yionoulis, The Taming of the Shrew directed by Mark Lamos, and You Never Can Tell directed by Stan Wojewodski, Jr. In New York, he most recently appeared in These Paper Bullets! at the Atlantic Theater Company. Other credits include a revival of John Patrick’s The Hasty Heart at the Keen Company, Timon of Athens at The Public Theater, Othello at New York Shakespeare Exchange, and Romeo and Juliet at Shakespeare NYC. New works include Mangella with Project: Theater, Fucking Ibsen Takes Time at the New York International Fringe Festival, Girls Just Wanna Have Fund$ with the Women’s Project Theater, and Mickey Mouse Is Dead at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe. This spring Tony will shoot his short film The Vampire Leland in Brooklyn. Tony is a member of New Neighborhood and a graduate of Yale School of Drama. MICHAEL MANUEL* (THE QUEEN, JUPITER) returns to Yale Rep, where his credits include Hamlet, Summer and Smoke, Edward II, and Search and Destroy. He was most recently seen in Tartuffe at Berkeley Rep and Shakespeare Theatre Company directed by Dominique Serrand. Michael has worked in regional theatres across the country but spends the bulk of his time in Los Angeles, where he has worked with the Mark Taper Forum, Cornerstone Theater Company, Ojai Playwrights Conference, A Noise Within (Dramalogue and LA Critics Circle Awards), Geffen Playhouse, Upright Citizens Brigade, Interact Theatre Company (LA Weekly and Ovation Awards), Pasadena Playhouse, Main Street Players, About Productions, Parson’s Nose, and Impro Theatre. Some of his television and movie credits include Without a Trace, Medium, National Treasure, Los Americans, and the upcoming feature The Millionaires’ Unit. Michael is a graduate of Yale School of Drama.
*Member of Actors’ Equity Association, the Union of professional actors and stage managers.
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Cast CHRISTOPHER MICHAEL McFARLAND* (PISANIO, SICILIUS Leonatus) previously appeared at Yale Rep in Richard II. His New York credits include Touchstone in As You Like It at New Victory Theatre, Hubert in King John with New York Shakespeare Exchange, Lennie in Of Mice and Men with the Acting Company, and most recently Captain Iditarod in Michael Mitnick’s Spacebar: A Broadway Play by Kyle Sugarman at The Wild Project. Selected regional credits: Othello (Pittsburgh Public Theater), Pride in the Falls of Autrey Mill (Signature Theatre), Golden Age (Kennedy Center, Philadelphia Theatre Company), As You Like It (Guthrie Theater), Measure for Measure (Shakespeare Theatre of New Jersey), and the eponymous role in Hamlet (Arizona Shakespeare Festival). Training: Royal Academy of Dramatic Art, New York University (BFA), Yale School of Drama (MFA 2009, Lotte Lenya Scholarship).
KATHRYN MEISLE* (CYMBELINE) Broadway: The Elephant Man (also London’s West End), Outside Mullingar, A Touch of the Poet, The Constant Wife, Tartuffe (Tony Award nomination/ Calloway Award), London Assurance, The Rehearsal, and Racing Demon (Lincoln Center Theater). Off-Broadway credits include Romeo and Juliet, Women Beware Women (Calloway Award), Top Secret: The Battle for the Pentagon Papers, The Most Fabulous Story Ever Told, Living Out, Old Money, Much Ado About Nothing, Twelfth Night, As You Like It (Drama Desk nomination), and Othello (NYSF). Recent regional theatre includes Beatrice in Much Ado About Nothing (Shakespeare Theatre Company); Clybourne Park, The Real Thing, Three Sisters (Guthrie Theater); A Flea in Her Ear (Williamstown Theatre Festival); The Little Foxes (Shakespeare Theatre of New Jersey); Leaving by Václav Havel (The Wilma Theater); Creditors (La Jolla Playhouse); Arkadina in The Seagull and Jaques in As You Like It (Oregon Shakespeare Festival). Television and film credits include Private Practice, The Closer, Bones, The Unusuals, Law & Order: SVU, Lie to Me, Grey’s Anatomy, Damages, New Amsterdam, Brothers & Sisters, Without a Trace, Bereavement, You’ve Got Mail, The Shaft, and Rosewood.
creative team TAYLOR BARFIELD (Production DRAMATURG) is a third-year MFA candidate at Yale School of Drama, where his dramaturgy credits include This Land Was Made, The Children, and Paradise Lost. Yale Cabaret credits include Dutch Masters, Trouble in Tahiti, The Untitled Project, 50:13, The Hotel Nepenthe, Touch, The Brothers Size, and The Defendant. This is Taylor’s second production at Yale Rep, having served as the assistant director for the world premiere of War in 2014. He received his BA in biology and English from Johns Hopkins University.
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ASA BENALLY (COSTUME DESIGNER) is a third-year MFA candidate at Yale School of Drama, where his credits include The Seagull and Coriolanus. Other design credits include Tricks the Devil Taught Me (Minetta Lane Theatre); A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Measure for Measure, The Taming of the Shrew (West End Theater); Far Away, Platonov (Columbia University); The Secretaries, Roberto Zucco, Trouble in Tahiti, and The Crazy Shepherds of Rebellion (Yale Cabaret). Musical theatre credits include Chicago, Beauty and the Beast, Anything Goes, Cinderella, Hello Dolly!, Miss Saigon, Guys and Dolls, and, at the New York Musical Theatre Festival, Zapata! The Musical. Opera credits include The Marriage of Figaro and La Bohème. Asa received his BFA in fashion design from Parsons School of Design. He is originally from the Navajo Nation in northern Arizona. RASEAN DAVONTE JOHNSON (PROJECTION DESIGNER) is a third-year MFA candidate at Yale School of Drama, where his credits include The Skin of Our Teeth, Deer and the Lovers, Preston Montfort—An American Tragedy, The Children, The Master and Margarita, and The Troublesome Reign of King John. He served as the assistant projection designer at Yale Repertory Theatre for These Paper Bullets! and Accidental Death of an Anarchist. Other projection credits include Trouble in Tahiti, Roberto Zucco, The Untitled Project, 50:13, Zero Scenario, Solo Bach, MuZeum, We Fight We Die, The Brothers Size (Yale Cabaret); Midsummer, love holds a lamp in this little room, The Life and Death of Doctor Faustus (Yale Summer Cabaret); La Cenerentola (Yale Opera); as well as collaborations with Court Theatre, Chicago Dramatists, ArtsEmerson, Porchlight Music Theatre, Manual Cinema, the Catharsis Junkies, Collaboraction, Stoptime 341, Shadowbox Live, and American Theater Company. Rasean received his BA in theatre, focusing on video art, from Ohio State University. raseandavontejohnson.com
PORNCHANOK (NOK) KANCHANABANCA (ORIGINAL MUSIC AND SOUND DESIGN) is a third-year MFA candidate at Yale School of Drama, where she has designed The Oresteia, The Winter’s Tale, and Paradise Lost. Previous Yale Rep credits include A Streetcar Named Desire, Accidental Death of an Anarchist (assistant sound designer); and Elevada (associate sound designer). Other credits include I’m with you in Rockland, American Gothic, The Brothers Size, The Crazy Shepherds of Rebellion, The Shoemaker’s Prodigious Wife (Yale Cabaret); Ain’t She Brave (FringeNYC); Ain’t Gonna Make It (ANT Fest); Oxygen (undergroundzero festival); Red Demon (Tokyo Metropolitan, Singapore Arts Fest). She also collaborated with theatre companies in Thailand including B-floor, Babymine, Crescent Moon, Makharmpom, and Democrazy. She holds her BFA in performing art from Chulalongkorn University, Thailand. wishnok-music.com
*Member of Actors’ Equity Association, the Union of professional actors and stage managers.
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creative team JEAN KIM (SCENIC DESIGNER) is a third-year MFA candidate at Yale School of Drama, where her credits include The Winter’s Tale and The Seagull. At Yale Cabaret, she designed The Secretaries; The Commencement of William Tan; Beginners by Raymond Carver, or What We Talk About When We Talk About Love; We Fight We Die; and A New Saint for A New World. Her assistant credits include The Visit (Yale School of Drama); Arcadia and The Fairytale Lives of Russian Girls (Yale Repertory Theatre). Prior to Yale, Jean was an illustrator and muralist based in New York City. She holds a BFA from Rhode Island School of Design.
ELIZABETH MAK (LIGHTING DESIGNER) is a third-year MFA candidate at Yale School of Drama, where her credits include Deer and the Lovers, The Seagull, and Twelfth Night. Other credits include Leonce and Lena, 50:13, Crave (Yale Cabaret); Beckett Shorts, The Flu Season (American Repertory Theater Institute); Counterpoint, 35 (Harvard-Radcliffe Modern Dance Company); The House of Yes, Accidental Death of an Anarchist, Far Away, The Balcony (Harvard-Radcliffe Dramatic Club); and projects with Urbanity Dance, NineSidedBox, Edinburgh Fringe Festival, and the Singapore International Arts Festival. Independent productions: Graveyard Book and Waiting. elizabethmak.com
LYNDA A.H. PAUL (PRODUCTION DRAMATURG) is a second-year MFA candidate at Yale School of Drama. A multi-disciplinary theatre practitioner, Lynda has previously served as an opera and new play dramaturg and is currently a managing editor of Theater magazine. She has been seen onstage as an actor, classical vocalist, bassoonist, and saxophonist at Yale Cabaret, where she also directed a production of the Bernstein opera Trouble in Tahiti. Her writing has appeared most recently in Theatre Development Fund’s Stages magazine. Lynda holds degrees from the Eastman School of Music, the University of Rochester, the University of Chicago, and Yale University, where she received distinction on her PhD in music. After completing her doctorate, Lynda taught interdisciplinary courses in several humanities departments at Yale.
MICHAEL ROSSMY (FIGHT DIRECTOR) is a stage combat instructor at Yale School of Drama and the fight advisor for Yale College. His work has been featured on Broadway in A Tale of Two Cities and was seen at theatres around the country, including Yale Repertory Theatre, Atlantic Theater, Geffen Playhouse, The Old Globe, McCarter Theatre, Long Wharf Theatre, Paper Mill Playhouse, SoHo Rep., Primary Stages, Westport Country Playhouse, Delaware Rep, MUNY, Shakespeare Theatre of New Jersey, Red Bull Theater, Center Stage, Goodspeed Musicals, Seattle Rep, the Public Theater, Huntington Theatre, Shakespeare Theatre Company, Williamstown Theatre Festival, among others.
TARA RUBIN CASTING (CASTING DIRECTOR) has been casting at Yale Rep since 2004. Selected Broadway: School of Rock; Bullets Over Broadway; Aladdin; A Time to Kill; Big Fish; The Heiress; One Man, Two Guvnors (U.S. Casting); Ghost; How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying; Promises, Promises; A Little Night Music; Billy Elliot; Shrek; Guys and Dolls; The Farnsworth Invention; Young Frankenstein; 21
The Little Mermaid; Mary Poppins; Les Misérables; Spamalot; Jersey Boys; The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee; The Producers; Mamma Mia!; The Phantom of the Opera; Contact. Off-Broadway: Love, Loss, and What I Wore; Old Jews Telling Jokes. Regional: The Kennedy Center, La Jolla Playhouse, Dallas Theater Center, The Old Globe, Westport Country Playhouse, Bucks County Playhouse. Film: Lucky Stiff, The Producers.
RICK SORDELET (FIGHT DIRECTOR) Theatre credits include 65 Broadway productions and 60 productions on five continents in hundreds of cities around the world including Misery starring Bruce Willis, Cymbeline for The Public Theater’s Shakespeare in the Park, Big Love for Signature Theatre, Beauty and the Beast, The Lion King, Waiting for Godot, No Man’s Land, and Ben Hur Live (Rome, European Tour). Opera: Cyrano starring Placido Domingo (Metropolitan Opera, The Royal Opera House, La Scala), and Don Carlo and Cold Mountain (Santa Fe Opera). Film: The Game Plan, Dan in Real Life, and Hamlet. Rick was Chief Stunt Coordinator for Guiding Light for 12 years and One Life to Live, representing over 1,000 episodes of daytime television. Rick sits on the board of the Shakespeare Theatre of New Jersey and teaches at Yale School of Drama and HB Studio. He is a recipient of an Edith Oliver Award for Sustained Excellence from the Lucille Lortel Foundation and a Jeff Award for Best Fight Direction for Romeo and Juliet (Chicago Shakespeare Theater). Rick has created the new stage combat company, Sordelet INK, with his son Christian Kelly-Sordelet. They have over thirty years of action movement experience for film, television, and stage. sordeletINK.com EVAN YIONOULIS (DIRECTOR) is a Resident Director at Yale Rep where her productions include The Master Builder, Richard II, The King Stag, Galileo, Heaven, Black Snow, The People Next Door, Stones in His Pockets, Bossa Nova, and Owners. New York credits include Richard Greenberg’s The Violet Hour (Broadway), Everett Beekin (Lincoln Center Theater), and Three Days of Rain (Manhattan Theatre Club, OBIE Award for Direction); Adrienne Kennedy’s Ohio State Murders (Lucille Lortel Award, Best Revival) and Howard Brenton’s Sore Throats (Theatre for a New Audience); and Daisy Foote’s Him (Primary Stages) and Bhutan (Cherry Lane Theatre). She directed Tom Stoppard’s Hapgood starring Kate Burton at Williamstown Theatre Festival. With frequent collaborator, composer/lyricist Mike Yionoulis, she is developing the transmedia project, Redhand Guitar, about five generations of musicians across an American century, and The Dread Pirate Project, about the malleability of identity between the digital and natural worlds. Other credits include productions at theatres such as the Mark Taper Forum, South Coast Rep, Huntington Theatre Company, New York Shakespeare Festival, Vineyard Theatre, Second Stage, Dallas Theater Center, Actors Theatre of Louisville, and Denver Center. She has directed presentations of the documentary play Seven, which tells the stories of seven extraordinary women who work for human rights, in New York, Boston, Washington, London, New Delhi, and Deauville, France. She received a Princess Grace Foundation Fellowship and the Foundation’s prestigious statuette, and is a Professor Adjunct of Acting and Directing at Yale School of Drama.
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creative team GRACE ZANDARSKI (VOCAL COACH) has been a member of the Voice and Speech faculty at Yale School of Drama since 2002. Her vocal coaching credits include Mike Nichols’s productions of Death of a Salesman and Betrayal on Broadway; The Caucasian Chalk Circle, The Comedy of Errors, The Master Builder, Romeo and Juliet, Three Sisters, The Winter’s Tale, and Hamlet at Yale Rep; as well as productions at the Signature Theatre Company, The Public Theater, New Victory Theatre, McCarter Theatre, and BAM. Grace also serves on the faculty of Fordham University. She has taught master classes for the Lincoln Center Directors Lab and The Public Theater’s Shakespeare Lab. She was named Associate Teacher of Fitzmaurice Voicework in 1998. She has worked with actors and professionals from a variety of backgrounds, including the financial sector, law, and sales, as well as celebrity speakers and politicians. In addition, she continues to work as an actor and director. Acting credits include the McCarter Theatre, Wilma Theater, Oregon Shakespeare Festival, and American Conservatory Theater. Education: MFA, American Conservatory Theater; BA, Princeton University.
EMELY SELINA ZEPEDA* (STAGE MANAGER) is a third-year MFA candidate at Yale School of Drama, where her credits include Preston Montfort—An American Tragedy, The Master and Margarita, Twelfth Night, Tiny Boyfriend, Cardboard Piano, and Hedda Gabler. At Yale Repertory Theatre, she was the assistant stage manager for Indecent and Familiar. Other credits include Slouch, Boris Yeltsin, Roberto Zucco, The Secretaries (Yale Cabaret); Orlando, love holds a lamp in this little room (Yale Summer Cabaret: Rough Magic); A Midsummer Night’s Dream (Binghamton University and DUOC Universidad in Chile); and Clouds Are Pillows for the Moon (Yale Institute for Music Theatre). Emely also served as the assistant stage manager at Tri-Cities Opera.
*Member of Actors’ Equity Association, the Union of professional actors and stage managers.
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yale repertory theatre JAMES BUNDY (ARTISTIC DIRECTOR) is in his 14th year as Dean of Yale School of Drama and Artistic Director of Yale Repertory Theatre. In his first 13 seasons, Yale Rep has produced more than 30 world, American, and regional premieres, eight of which have been honored by the Connecticut Critics Circle with the award for Best Production of the year and two of which have been Pulitzer Prize finalists. During this time, Yale Rep also has commissioned more than 50 artists to write new work and provided low-cost theatre tickets to thousands of middle and high school students from Greater New Haven through WILL POWER!, an educational program initiated in 2004. In addition to his work at Yale Rep, he has directed productions at Oregon Shakespeare Festival, Great Lakes Theater Festival, The Acting Company, California Shakespeare Festival, Alabama Shakespeare Festival, and The Juilliard School Drama Division. A recipient of the Connecticut Critics Circle’s Tom Killen Award for extraordinary contributions to Connecticut professional theatre in 2007, Mr. Bundy served from 2007–13 on the board of directors of Theatre Communications Group, the national service organization for nonprofit theatre. Previously, he worked as Associate Producing Director of The Acting Company, Managing Director of Cornerstone Theater Company, and Artistic Director of Great Lakes Theater Festival. He is a graduate of Harvard College; he trained at the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art and Yale School of Drama. VICTORIA NOLAN (MANAGING DIRECTOR) is in her 23rd year as Managing Director of Yale Repertory Theatre, serves as Deputy Dean of Yale School of Drama, and is on its faculty. She was previously Managing Director of Indiana Repertory Theatre, Associate Managing Director at Baltimore’s Center Stage, Managing Director at Ram Island Dance Company in Portland, Maine; and she has held various positions at Loeb Drama Center of Harvard University; TAG Foundation, an organization producing OffBroadway modern dance festivals; and Boston University School for the Arts. Ms. Nolan has been an evaluator for the National Endowment for the Arts, for which she has chaired numerous grant panels, and has served on other panels and foundation review boards including the AT&T Foundation, The Heinz Family Foundation, Lila Wallace-Reader’s Digest Fund, and the Metropolitan Life Foundation. She has also served on the Executive Committee of the League of Resident Theatres (LORT) and on numerous negotiating teams for national labor contracts. A Fellow at Yale’s Saybrook College, she is the recipient of the Betsy L. Mahaffey Arts Administration Fellowship Award from the State of Connecticut and the Elm/Ivy Award, given jointly by Yale University and the City of New Haven for distinguished service to the community. JENNIFER KIGER (ASSOCIATE ARTISTIC DIRECTOR AND DIRECTOR OF NEW PLAY PROGRAMS) is in her eleventh year as the Associate Artistic Director of Yale Repertory Theatre and is also the Director of New Play Programs of Yale’s Binger Center for New Theatre. Since its founding in 2008, the Binger Center has supported the work of more than 50 commissioned artists and underwritten the world premieres and subsequent productions of 21 new American plays and musicals at Yale Rep and theatres 25
across the country. Ms. Kiger came to Yale Rep from South Coast Repertory, where she was Literary Manager from 2000–2005 and Co-Director of the Pacific Playwrights Festival. Prior to that, she was a production dramaturg at American Repertory Theater and adapted Robert Coover’s Charlie in the House of Rue and Mac Wellman’s Hypatia for the stage with director Bob McGrath. She has been a dramaturg for the Playwrights Center of Minneapolis and Boston Theatre Works; a panelist for the National Endowment for the Arts and the California Arts Council; and a consultant for the Fuller Road Artist Residency. She is a founding member of the theatre and television producing company, New Neighborhood. Ms. Kiger completed her professional training at the American Repertory Theater Institute for Advanced Theater Training at Harvard University, where she taught courses in acting and dramatic arts. She is currently on the playwriting faculty of Yale School of Drama.
BRONISLAW SAMMLER (head of production) has been Chair of Yale School of Drama’s acclaimed Technical Design and Production Department since 1980. In 2007 he was named the Henry McCormick Professor Adjunct of Technical Design and Production by former Yale President, Richard C. Levin. He is co-editor of Technical Brief and Technical Design Solutions for Theatre, Vols. I, II, & III. He co-authored Structural Design for the Stage, which won the United States Institute of Theatre Technology’s (USITT) Golden Pen Award. Demonstrating his commitment to excellence in technical education and professional production, he co-founded USITT’s National Theatre Technology Exhibit, an on-going biennial event; he has served as a commissioner and a director at-large and is a lifetime Fellow of the Institute. He was honored as Educator of the Year in 2006 by the New England Theatre Conference and chosen to receive the USITT Distinguished Achievement Award in Technical Production in 2009. His production management techniques and his introduction of structural design to scenic technology are being employed in both educational and professional theatres throughout the world.
JAMES MOUNTCASTLE (PRODUCTION STAGE MANAGER), has been at Yale Rep since 2004. He has stage managed productions of Arcadia, The House that will not Stand, A Streetcar Named Desire, American Night: The Ballad of Juan José, Three Sisters, We Have Always Lived in the Castle, The Master Builder, Passion Play, Eurydice, and the world premiere of The Clean House. Broadway credits include Damn Yankees, Jekyll & Hyde, Judgment at Nuremberg, The Boys from Syracuse, The Smell of the Kill, Life x(3), and Wonderful Town. Mr. Mountcastle spent several Christmas seasons in New York City as stage manager for the now legendary production of A Christmas Carol at Madison Square Garden. Broadway national tours include City of Angels, Falsettos, and My Fair Lady. He served as Production Stage Manager for Damn Yankees starring Jerry Lewis for both its national tour and at the Adelphi Theatre in London’s West End. In addition, Mr. Mountcastle has worked at The Kennedy Center, Center Stage in Baltimore, Actors Theatre of Louisville, Brooklyn Academy of Music, and elsewhere. James and his wife Julie live in North Haven and are the very proud parents of two beautiful girls: Ellie, who is 17 years old, and Katie, age 15.
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Cymbeline Staff artistic
Shadi Ghaheri, Assistant Director Ao Li, Assistant Scenic Designer Sarah Nietfield, Assistant Costume Designer Carolina Ortiz Herrera, Assistant Lighting Designer Tye Hunt Fitzgerald, Assistant Sound Designer and Engineer Johnny Moreno, Assistant Projection Designer Robert David Grant, Emely Selina Zepeda, Fight Captains Rebekah Heusel, Assistant Stage Manager
PRODUCTION
Rae Powell, Associate Production Manager Ben Clark, Technical Director Jen Seleznow, William Hartley, Spencer Hrdy, Assistant Technical Directors Kelly Rae Fayton, Assistant Properties Master Wei-hsuan Cross Wang, Master Electrician Michael Hsu, Projection Engineer Judianne Wallace, Nikki Fazzone, Drapers Fabian Fidel Aguilar, Daniel Cogan, Jamie Farkas, Al Heartley, Kathy Li, Davina Moss, Kari Olmon, Wladimiro A. Woyno R., Christopher Thompson, Run Crew
ADMINISTRATION
Sam Linden, House Manager
recorded musicians
Jonathan Allen, Percussion Chuta Chulavalaivong, Joshua Thompson, French Horn Christopher Ross-Ewart, Cello Kate Marvin, Vocal Nat Saralamba, Guitar Alexandra Simpson, Viola Samuel Suggs, Bass Elly Toyoda, Violin Noël Wan, Harp
Understudies
Sebastian Arboleda, Pisanio, Sicilius Leonatus, Caius Lucius Lauren E. Banks,** Posthumus Leonatus Andrew Burnap, Cloten, Second Brother Juliana Canfield, Imogen Paul Cooper, The Queen, Jupiter Anna Crivelli, Second Lord, First Brother Patricia Fa’asua, First Lord Robert David Grant,* Iachimo, Mother Aubie Merrylees,** Guiderius, Frenchman Elizabeth Stahlmann,** Arviragus, Helen Bradley James Tejeda, Philario, Belarius Curtis Williams, Cornelius, Roman Captain Shaunette Renée Wilson, Cymbeline *Member of Actors’ Equity Association **Appears courtesy of Actors’ Equity Association
Special Thanks Stanley Hershonik
Cymbeline March 25–April 16, 2016 University Theatre, 222 York Street
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YALE REPERTORY theatre staff James Bundy, Artistic Director Victoria Nolan, Managing Director Jennifer Kiger, Associate Artistic Director Director of New Play Programs
Artistic
Resident Artists Paula Vogel, Playwright in Residence Liz Diamond, Evan Yionoulis, Resident Directors Catherine Sheehy, Resident Dramaturg Michael Yeargan, Set Design Advisor, Resident Set Designer Ilona Somogyi, Costume Design Advisor Jess Goldstein, Resident Costume Designer Jennifer Tipton, Lighting Design Advisor Stephen Strawbridge, Resident Lighting Designer David Budries, Sound Design Advisor Walton Wilson, Voice and Speech Advisor Rick Sordelet, Fight Advisor Mary Hunter, Stage Management Advisor Associate Artists 52nd Street Project, Kama Ginkas, Mark Lamos, MTYZ Theatre/Moscow New Generations Theatre, Bill Rauch, Sarah Ruhl, Henrietta Yanovskaya Artistic Management James Mountcastle, Production Stage Manager Amy Boratko, Literary Manager Kay Perdue Meadows, Artistic Associate Rachel Carpman, Literary Associate Tara Rubin, CSA; Lindsay Levine, CSA; Laura Schutzel, CSA; Kaitlin Shaw, CSA; Merri Sugarman, CSA; Eric Woodall, CSA; Claire Burke; Emma Atherton, Casting Lindsay King, Teresa Mensz, Library Services Josie Brown, Senior Administrative Assistant to the Artistic Director and Associate Artistic Director Laurie Coppola, Senior Administrative Assistant for the Directing, Dramaturgy and Dramatic Criticism, Playwriting, and Stage Management Departments Mary Volk, Senior Administrative Assistant for the Design, Sound Design, and Projection Departments
PRODUCTION
Production Management Bronislaw J. Sammler, Head of Production Jonathan Reed, Production Manager C. Nikki Mills, Associate Head of Production and Student Labor Supervisor Grace O’Brien, Senior Administrative Assistant to the Production and Theater Safety and Occupational Health Departments Scenery Neil Mulligan, Matt Welander, Technical Directors Alan Hendrickson, Electro Mechanical Laboratory Supervisor Eric Sparks, Shop Foreman Matt Gaffney, Ryan Gardner, Sharon Reinhart, Master Shop Carpenters Alex McNamara, Shop Carpenter Bryanna Kim, Jill Chandler Salisbury, Assistants to the Technical Director
Painting Ru-Jun Wang, Scenic Charge Lia Akkerhuis, Nathan Jasunas, Assistant Scenic Artists Daniel Cogan, Assistant to the Painting Supervisor Properties Jennifer McClure, Properties Master David P. Schrader, Properties Craftsperson Ted Griffith, Ashley Flowers, Properties Assistants Bill Batschelet, Properties Stock Manager Costumes Tom McAlister, Costume Shop Manager Robin Hirsch, Associate Costume Shop Manager Clarissa Wylie Youngberg, Mary Zihal, Senior Drapers Deborah Bloch, Harry Johnson, Senior First Hands Pat Van Horn, First Hand Linda Kelley-Dodd, Costume Project Coordinator Denise O’Brien, Wig and Hair Design Barbara Bodine, Company Hairdresser Elizabeth Beale, Costume Stock Manager Jamie Farkas, Assistant to the Costume Shop Manager Electrics Donald W. Titus, Lighting Supervisor Brian Quiricone, Linda-Cristal Young, Senior Head Electricians Sound Mike Backhaus, Sound Supervisor Stephanie Smith, Staff Sound Engineer Ien DeNio, Matthew Fischer, Assistants to the Sound Supervisor
Finance and Human Resources Katherine D. Burgueño, Director of Finance and Human Resources Erin Ethier, Business Manager Janna J. Ellis, Director, Yale Tessitura Consortium Monica Avila, Chris Fuller, Preston Mock, Business Office Specialists Shainn Reaves, Senior Administrative Assistant to Business Office; Technology, Media, and Web Services; Operations; and Tessitura Marketing, Communications, and Audience Services Daniel Cress, Director of Marketing Steven Padla, Director of Communications Libby Peterson, Associate Director of Marketing and Communications Caitlin Griffin, Sylvia Xiaomeng Zhang, Trent Anderson, Marketing and Communications Assistants Marguerite Elliott, Publications Manager Paul Evan Jeffrey, Art and Design Carol Rosegg, Production Photographer David Kane, Videography Laura Kirk, Director of Audience Services Shane Quinn, Assistant Director of Audience Services Tracy Baldini, Subscriptions Coordinator Roger-Paul Snell, Audience Services Assistant Alexandra Cadena, Jordan Graf, Anthony Jasper, Katie Metcalf, Kenneth Murray, Kyra Riley, Aaron Wegner, Box Office Assistants
Projections Erich Bolton, Projection Supervisor Mike Paddock, Head Projection Technician Brittany Bland, Assistant to the Projection Supervisor
Operations Diane Galt, Director of Facility Operations Nadir Balan, Interim Operations Associate Jennifer Draughn, Arts and Graduate Studies Superintendent Vondeen Ricks, Sherry Stanley, Team Leaders Michael Humbert, Facility Steward Lucille Bochert, Tylon Frost, Kathy Langston, Warren Lyde, Patrick Martin, Mark Roy, Custodians
Stage Operations Janet Cunningham, Stage Carpenter Kate Begley Baker, Head Properties Runner Elizabeth Bolster, Wardrobe Supervisor Jacob Riley, FOH Mix Engineer Mark Bailey, Light Board Programmer
Technology, Media, and Web Services Chris Kilbourne, Director of Digital Technology Daryl Brereton, Associate Director of Digital Technology Kathleen Martin, Web Services Associate Don Harvey, Ron Rode, Ben Silvert, Database Application Consultants
ADMINISTRATION
Theater Safety and Occupational Health William J. Reynolds, Director of Theater Safety and Occupational Health Jacob Thompson, Security Officer Ed Jooss, Audience Safety Officer Kevin Delaney, John Marquez, Customer Service and Safety Officers
General Management Emika Abe, Sooyoung Hwang, Associate Managing Directors Emily Reeder, Assistant Managing Director Emalie Mayo, Senior Administrative Assistant to the Managing Director Sam Linden, Rachel Shuey, Sylvia Xiaomeng Zhang, Management Assistants Flo Low, Company Manager Trent Anderson, Kathy Li, Sylvia Xiaomeng Zhang, Assistant Company Managers Development and Alumni Affairs Deborah S. Berman, Director of Development and Alumni Affairs Janice Muirhead, Senior Associate Director of Development Susan C. Clark, Development and Alumni Affairs Officer Joanna Romberg, Associate Director of Development Alice Kenney, Jennifer Schmidt, Development Associates Melissa Rose, Development Assistant Jennifer E. Alzona, Senior Administrative Assistant to Development and Marketing & Communications
The Scenic, Costume, Lighting, and Sound Designers in LORT are represented by United Artists Local USA-829, IATSE. Yale Repertory Theatre operates under an agreement between the League of Resident Theatres (LORT) and Actors’ Equity Association, the Union of Professional Actors and Stage Managers in the United States.
YALEREP.ORG
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Winner! 2014 Outstanding Production of a Play ConneCtiCut CritiCs CirCle
These Paper Bullets! by Rolin Jones, with songs by Billie Joe Armstrong; Yale Rep, world premiere, 2014; Geffen Playhouse, west coast premiere, 2015; Atlantic Theater Company, New York premiere, November–January 2016.
binger CenTer FOr neW THeATre Yale RepeRtoRY theatRe, the internationally celebrated professional theatre in residence at Yale School of Drama, has championed new work since 1966, producing well over 100 premieres—including two Pulitzer Prize winners and four other nominated finalists. Twelve Yale Rep productions have advanced to Broadway, garnering more than 40 Tony Award nominations and eight Tony Awards. Yale Rep is also the recipient of the Tony Award for Outstanding Regional Theatre. Established in 2008, Yale’s BingeR CenteR foR new theatRe has distinguished itself as one of the nation’s most robust and innovative new play programs. To date, the Binger Center has supported the work of more than 50 commissioned artists and underwritten the world premieres and subsequent productions of 21 new American plays and musicals at Yale Rep and theatres across the country—including this season’s Indecent created by Paula Vogel and Rebecca Taichman, peerless by Jiehae Park, and The Moors by Jen Silverman. For more information, including a complete list of Yale Rep commissioned artists, please visit yalerep.org/center. Photos by T. Charles Erickson, Joan Marcus, and Carol Rosegg.
“Thoughtful and truly thought-provoking. So eye-opening that it almost blinds you.” the new York times
War by Branden Jacobs-Jenkins; Yale Rep, world premiere, 2014; Lincoln Center 29 Theatre’s LCT3, New York premiere, May–July 2016.
Winner! 2013 Outstanding Production of a Play ConneCtiCut CritiCs CirCle
Marie Antoinette by David Adjmi; Yale Rep and American Repertory Theater, world premiere, 2012; Soho Rep., New York premiere, 2013.
“Resonates and illuminates!”
new hAven register
new hAven register
Indecent created by Paula Vogel and Rebecca Taichman; Yale Rep and La Jolla Playhouse, world premiere; 2015; Vineyard Theatre, New York premiere, spring 2016.
Familiar by Danai Gurira; Yale Rep, world premiere, 2015; Playwrights Horizons, New York premiere, February-March 2016.
Top Ten Plays of the Year, 2012 and 2014! the new York times
Best Broadway Play of 2014! usA todAY
The Realistic Joneses by Will Eno; Yale Rep, world premiere, 2012; Broadway premiere, 2014. 30
Yale School of Drama Board of Advisors John B. Beinecke, Chair John Badham, Vice Chair Jeremy Smith, Vice Chair Amy Aquino Sonja Berggren Lynne Bolton Carmine Boccuzzi Clare Brinkley Sterling B. Brinkley, Jr. Kate Burton Lois Chiles Patricia Clarkson Edgar M. Cullman III Scott Delman
Michael Diamond Polly Draper Charles S. Dutton Sasha Emerson Heidi Ettinger Lily Fan Terry Fitzpatrick Marc Flanagan Marcus Dean Fuller Anita Pamintuan Fusco Donald Granger David Marshall Grant Ethan Heard Ruth Hendel
Catherine MacNeil Hollinger Sally Horchow Ellen Iseman David Johnson Asaad Kelada Sarah Long Donald Lowy Elizabeth Margid Drew McCoy Tarell Alvin McCraney David Milch Tom Moore Arthur Nacht
Jennifer Harrison Newman Lupita Nyong’o Carol Ostrow Amy Povich Liev Schreiber Tracy Chutorian Semler Tony Shalhoub Michael Sheehan Anna Deavere Smith Andrew Tisdale Edward Trach Courtney B. Vance Henry Winkler Amanda Wallace Woods
Thank you to the generous contributors to Yale School of Drama and Yale Repertory Theatre LEADERSHIP SOCIETY ($50,000 and above)
Anonymous (2) John B. Beinecke Sonja Berggren and Patrick Seaver Lynne and Roger Bolton Burry Fredrik Foundation Lois Chiles and Richard Gilder Nicholas Ciriello Edgar M. Cullman, Jr. Edgar M. Cullman III Connecticut Department of Economic and Community Development Anita Pamintuan Fusco and Dino Fusco The Horace W. Goldsmith Foundation Lane Heard and Margaret Bauer Stephen J. Hoffman S. Roger Horchow William and Sarah Hyman Frederick Iseman David Johnson Jennifer Lindstrom The Frederick Loewe Foundation Neil Mazzella Andrew W. Mellon Foundation Alan Poul Pam and Jeff Rank Robert Riordan Robina Foundation Linda and Larry Rodman Talia Shire Schwartzman Tracy Chutorian Semler The Ted and Mary Jo Shen Charitable Gift Fund The Shubert Foundation Jeremy Smith Stephen Timbers Jennifer Tipton Nesrin and Andrew Tisdale
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Edward Trach Trust for Mutual Understanding Kara Unterberg Esme Usdan Albert Zuckerman
GUARANTORS ($25,000–$49,999)
Edgerton Foundation Heidi Ettinger Ruth and Steve Hendel National Endowment for the Arts James Munson Righteous Persons Foundation G. Erwin Steward
BENEFACTORS ($10,000–$24,999)
Nina Adams and Moreson Kaplan Americana Arts Foundation Carmine Boccuzzi and Bernard Lumpkin Mary L. Bundy Jim Burrows Scott Delman Michael Diamond Educational Foundation of America Lily Fan Quina Fonseca Mabel Burchard Fischer Grant Foundation Catherine MacNeil Hollinger Ellen Iseman Adrian and Nina Jones J.M. Kaplan Fund Sarah Long Lucille Lortel Foundation Donald and Angela Lowy Roz and Jerry Meyer The Adam Mickiewicz Institute Lupita Nyong’o Carol Ostrow
Alec and Aimee Scribner The Seedlings Foundation Jonathan Marc Sherman, in honor of Dr. Ronald Sherman Theatre Communications Group
PATRONS ($5,000–$9,999)
The Josef and Anni Albers Foundation Deborah Applegate and Bruce Tulgan John Badham Foster Bam The Eugene G. and Margaret M. Blackford Memorial Fund, Bank of America, Co-Trustee Carolyn Foundation The Noël Coward Foundation Polly Draper Christopher Durang Terry Fitzpatrick Marc Flanagan Barbara and Richard Franke Marcus Dean Fuller Donald Granger Albert R. Gurney Jane Head Linda Gulder Huett Ben Ledbetter and Deborah Freedman Tom Moore Arthur and Merle Nacht New England Foundation for the Arts Mark C. Rosenthal Ben and Laraine Sammler Michael and Riki Sheehan Philip J. Smith Amanda Wallace Woods
PRODUCER’S CIRCLE ($2,500–4,999)
Anna Fitch Ardenghi Trust, Bank of America, Trustee Shirley Brandman and Howard Shapiro Donald Brown Thomas Bruce Ben Cameron Michael S. David Sasha Emerson Fred Gorelick and Cheryl MacLachlan Alan Hendrickson JANA Foundation Jewish Federation of Greater New Haven The Ethel & Abe Lapides Foundation The George A. and Grace L. Long Foundation William Ludel Jenny Mannis and Henry Wishcamper NewAlliance Foundation Dw Phineas Perkins Jack Pierson Joel and Joan Smilow Courtney B. Vance
DIRECTOR’S CIRCLE ($1,000–$2,499)
Victor and Laura Altshul Amy Aquino and Drew McCoy Paula Armbruster Paul F. Balser, Sr. Jody Locker Berger Deborah S. and Bruce M. Berman Debbie Bisno and David Goldman Jeffrey A. Bleckner Mark Brokaw Cyndi Brown James T. and Alice B. Brown James Bundy Joan D. Channick
Patricia Clarkson Bill Connor Sue Ann Gilfillan Converse and Tony Converse Peggy Cowles Catherine and Elwood Davis Ramon Delgado The Frederick A. DeLuca Foundation Glen R. Fasman Melanie Ginter and John Lapides Judith Hansen Karsten Harries and Elizabeth Langhorne James Earl Jewell Rolin Jones Ann Judd and Bennett Pudlin Jane Kaczmarek Elizabeth Katz and Reed Hundt Helen Kauder and Barry Nalebuff Abby Kenigsberg Roger Kenvin Anne Simone Kleinman George N. Lindsay, Jr. Peter Marshall Thomas Masse and James Perlotto, MD Tarell Alvin McCraney Dawn G. Miller David Moore Garrett and Mary Moran Neil Mulligan Chris Noth Richard Ostreicher F. Richard Pappas Amy Povich Kathy and George Priest Carol A. Prugh The Rodgers and Hammerstein Foundation Liev Schreiber Marie S. Sherer Eugene Shewmaker Benjamin Slotznick Anna Deavere Smith Dr. Matthew Specter and Ms. Marjan Mashhadi Carol and Arthur Spinner Kenneth J. Stein Shepard and Marlene Stone Lee Stump David Sword Arlene Szczarba John Henry Thomas III Carol M. Waaser Cliff Warner Barbara Wohlsen George Zdru Wendy Zimmermann and Stephen Cutler
PARTNERS ($500–$999)
Emily Aber and Robert Wechsler Actors’ Equity Foundation Donna Alexander Mr. and Mrs. B. N. Ashfield Emily P. Bakemeier and Alain G. Moureaux Christopher Barreca Robert L. Barth John Lee Beatty Edward Blunt Susan Brady and Mark Loeffler Jonathan Busky Ian Calderon Danielle and Thomas Canfield Dr. Michael Cappello and Kerry Robinson Joy G. Carlin Cosmo Catalano, Jr. Jim Chervenak Dr. Paul D. Cleary Robert Cotnoir Marycharlotte Cummings Ernestine and Ronald Cwik Bob and Priscilla Dannies Richard Sutton Davis Robert Dealy The Cory & Bob Donnalley Charitable Foundation Bernard Engel Roberta Enoch and Steven Canner Peter Entin Kyoung-Jun Eo James Gardner Betty Goldberg David Marshall Grant Rob Greenberg Elizabeth M. Greene Eduardo Groisman Regina Guggenheim William B. Halbert Douglas Harvey Katherine W. Haskins Barbara Hauptman Ethan Heard Mona Heinz-Barreca Carol Thompson Hemingway Donald Holder John Robert Hood Mary and Arthur Hunt Raymond Inkel Alan Kibbe Harvey Kliman and Sandra Stein Dr. Gary and Hedda Kopf Mildred Kuner Katherine Anne Latham Maryanne Lavan
Chi-Lung Lui Charles Long and Roe Curtis Linda Lorimer and Charles Ellis Dr. and Mrs. Robert W. Lyons Timothy Mackabee Brian Mann Jane Marcher Foundation John McAndrew Peter and Wendy McCabe George Miller and Virginia Fallon Janice Muirhead Laura Naramore Victoria Nolan and Clark Crolius William and Barbara Nordhaus Arthur Oliner Louise Perkins and Jeff Glans Stephen Pollock Faye and Asghar Rastegar Jon and Sarah Reed Bill and Sharon Reynolds Dr. Michael Rigsby and Prof. Richard Lalli Steve Robman Abigail Roth Dr. Mark Schoenfeld Sandra Shaner James Steerman Nausica Stergiou Marsha Beach Stewart Lee Styslinger III Patricia Thurston Don Titus John Turturro Sophie von Haselberg Zelma Weisfeld Vera Wells Carolyn Seely Wiener Steven Wolff Evan Yionoulis Steve Zuckerman
INVESTORS ($250–$499)
Mary Ellen and Thomas Atkins Alexander Bagnall James Bakkom Sarah Bartlo Drs. Linda Bockenstedt and Jonathan Fine Katherine Borowitz Tom Broecker Claudia Brown Anne and Guido Calabresi Dr. and Mrs. W.K. Chandler Barbara Jean and Nicholas Cimmino Robert S. Cohen
Audrey Conrad Daniel R. Cooperman and Mariel Harris Stephen Coy John W. Cunningham Sue and Gus Davis Dennis Dorn Charles S. Dutton Kem and Phoebe Edwards Kyoung-Jun Eo Fine Family Susan and Fred Finkelstein Joel Fontaine David Freeman Randy Fullerton Dr. and Mrs. James Galligan Joseph Gantman Stephen Godchaux Kris and Marc Granetz Scott Hansen Michael Haymes and Logan Green Dr. Lothar Hennighausen Jennifer Hershey-Benen David Henry Hwang Joanna and Lee A. Jacobus Pam Jordan Richard Kaye Asaad Kelada Barnet Kellman Alan Kibbe David Kriebs Bernard Kukoff Frances Kumin William Kux Kenneth Lewis Nancy Lyon Laura Brown MacKinnon Linda Maerz and David Wilson Peter Andrew Malbuisson Elizabeth Margid Robert McDonald Deborah McGraw Lawrence Mirkin George Morfogen Gayther Myers, Jr. Jane Nowosadko Gabriel Olszewski Maulik Pancholy Michael Parrella Jeffrey Powell and Adalgisa Caccone Meghan Pressman Alec and Drika Purves Sarah Rafferty Barbara and David Reif Daniel and Irene Mrose Rissi Howard Rogut Constanza Romero Allen and Missy Rosenshine Russ Rosensweig Jean and Ron Rozett Frank Sarmiento Robin Sauerteig
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Contributors to Yale School of Drama and Yale Repertory Theatre Suzanne Sato Mr. and Mrs. Michael Schmertzler William and Elizabeth Sledge David Soper and Laura Davis Mary C. Stark Regina Starolis Erich Stratmann Bernard Sundstedt Matthew Suttor Patricia Thurston Richard B. Trousdell Leslie Urdang Paul Walsh William and Phyllis Warfel Dana Westberg Karen White Andrew and Fiona Wood Arthur and Ann Yost Donald and Clarissa Youngberg John and Pat Zandy
FRIENDS ($100–$249)
Anonymous Paola Allais Acree Christopher Akerlind Michael Albano Sarah Jean Albertson Narda Alcorn Richard Ambacher Glenn R. Anderson Susan and Donald Anderson Leif Ancker William Atlee Stephen and Judy August Angelina Avallone Michael Backhaus Sandra and Kirk Baird Frank and Eileen Baker Russell Barbour Michael Baron and Ruth Magraw Robert Barr William and Donna Batsford Richard Baxter Nancy and Richard Beals John Beck Rev. Robert Beloin James Bender Michael and Jennifer Bennick Deborah Berke Melvin Bernhardt Donald and Sandra Bialos Robert Bienstock Ashley Bishop Anders Bolang Debra Booth Paul Bordeau Josh Borenstein Marcus and Kellie Bosenberg
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Amy Brewer and David Sacco James and Dorothy Bridgeman Linda Briggs and Joseph Kittredge Carole and Arthur Broadus Arvin Brown James E. Brown, MD Julie Brown Stephen and Nancy Brown Robert Brustein Stephen Bundy James Burch Linda Burt Richard Butler Susan Wheeler Byck Michael Cadden Susan Cahan and Jürgen Bank Kathryn A. Calnan Ivan and Frances Capella Lisa Carling Anna Cascio Sami Joan Casler Patricia Cavanaugh Terri Chegwidden Suellen G. Childs King-Fai Chung Cynthia Clair Lani Click Katherine D. Cline Aurélia and Ben Cohen Patricia J. Collins Judith Colton and Wayne Meeks Forrest Compton Kristin Connolly William Connolly David Conte Kathleen and Leo Cooney Aaron Copp Timothy and Pamela Cronin Julie Crowder Douglas and Roseline Crowley Sean Cullen Scott Cummings William Curran Donato Joseph D’Albis F. Mitchell Dana Nigel W. Daw Katherine Day Milagros DeCamps Mr. and Mrs. Paul DeCoster Aziz Dehkan and Barbara Moss Elizabeth DeLuca Julia L. Devlin Jose A. Diaz Connie and Peter Dickinson Derek DiGregorio Melinda DiVicino Merle Dowling Ms. JoAnne E. Droller, R.N.
Jeanne Drury John Duran Rosemary Duthie Terrence Dwyer Laura Eckelman Fran Egler Robert Einienkel Nancy Reeder El Bouhali Janann Eldredge Elizabeth English Janna Ellis Dirk Epperson David Epstein John Erman Dustin Eshenroder Christine Estabrook Frank and Ellen Estes Femi Euba Connie Evans Jerry N. Evans Douglass Everhart John D. Ezell Michael Fain Ann Farris Christopher Feeley Richard and Barbara Feldman Paul and Susan Birke Fiedler Madlyn and Richard Flavell Keith Fowler Walter M. Frankenberger III Deborah Fried and Kalman Watsky Donald Fried Richard Fuhrman Jane and Charles Gardiner Barbara and Gerald Gaab Steven Gefroh Stuart and Beverly Gerber Lauren Ghaffari Patricia Gilchrist Robert Glen William Glenn Nina Glickson and Worth David Lindy Lee Gold Betty and Joshua Goldberg Robert Goldsby Kris and Marc Granetz Connie Grappo Bigelow Green Elizabeth M. Green Sarah Greenblatt Linda Greenhouse and Eugene Fidell Elizabeth Greenspan and Walt Dolde Michael Gross John Guare Jessica and Corin Gutteridge David Hale Amanda Haley Alexander Hammond Ann and Jerome R. Hanley
Charlene Harrington Lawrence and Roberta Harris Brian Hastert Ira Hauptman Ihor and Roma Hayda James Hazen Catherine Hazlehurst Nicole and Larry Heath Ann Hellerman Steve Hendrickson Peter Hentschel and Elizabeth Prete Jeffrey Herrmann Jean Herzog Joan and Dennis Hickey Roderick Hickey Christopher Higgins Nathan Hinton Dean Hokanson Elizabeth Holloway James Hood Betsy Hoos Robert Hopkins Nicholas Hormann Kathleen Houle David Howson Evelyn Huffman Hull’s Art Supply and Framing Derek Hunt Peter H. Hunt John Huntington John and Patricia Ireland Suzanne Jackson Cary and Dick Jacobs Mary Ellen Jacobs John W. Jacobsen Chris Jaehnig Ina and Robert Jaffee Eliot and Lois Jameson Heide Janssen William Jelley Elizabeth Johnson Geoffrey A. Johnson Marcia Johnson Donald E. Jones, Jr. Elizabeth Kaiden Jonathan Kalb David and Linda Kalodner Carol Kaplan James D. Karr Dr. and Mrs. Michael Kashgarian Bruce Katzman Jay Keene Edward Kennedy Colette Kilroy Carol Soucek King Lindsay King Mrs. Shirley Kirschner Susan Kirschner Robinson Dr. Lawrence Klein Elise Knapp Stephen Kovel Daniel and Denise Krause Brenda and Justin Kreuzer Joan Kron
L. Azan Kung Mark Kupferman Mitchell Kurtz Howard and Shirley Lamar Naomi Lamoreaux Stephanie Lamassa Marie Landry and Peter Aronson Catherine Lavoie James and Cynthia Lawler Wing Lee Charles E. Letts III Irene Lewis Henry Lowenstein Suzanne Cryer Luke Andi Lyons Jane Macfie Timothy Mackabee Lizbeth Mackay Wendy MacLeod Alan MacVey Anita Madzik Dr. Maricar Malinis Jocelyn Malkin, MD Marvin March Peter Marcuse Orla and Mithat Mardin Jonathan Marks Barry Marshall Nancy Marx Maria Mason and William Sybalsky Carole Ann Masters Craig Mathers Sarah and Benjamin Mayer Peter McCandless Amy Lipper McCauley Matthew McCollum Brian McEleney Thomas McGowan Deborah McGraw Robert McKinna and Trudy Swenson Patricia McMahon Bruce McMullan Susan McNamara Lynne Meadow James Meisner and Marilyn Lord Robert Melrose Stephen W. Mendillo Donald Michaelis Carol Mihalik Kathryn Milano Aaliyah Miller and Karim Hadj Salem Bruce Miller Dr. George Miller Jonathan Miller
Sandra Milles Marjorie Craig Mitchell Jennifer Moeller Richard R. Mone George Moredock David and Betsy Morgan Susan Morris Barbara Moss Richard Munday and Rosemary Jones Robert Murray David Muse Jim and Eileen Mydosh Rachel Myers Rhoda F. Myers David Nancarrow James Naughton Tina C. Navarro Meg Neville Ruth Hunt Newman Regina and Thomas Neville Gail Nickowitz Nancy Nishball Deb and Ron Nudel George and Marjorie O’Brien Arlene O’Connell Elizabeth O’Connell Dwight R. Odle Richard Olson Edward and Frances O’Neill Sara Ormond Kendric T. Packer Joan Pape Dr. and Mrs. Michael Parry William Peters Dr. Ismene Petrakis Roberta Pilette Bryce Pinkham David Podell Gladys Powers Art Priromprintr Robert Provenza William Purves James Quinn Ronald Recasner Gail Reen Cynthia Reik Dr. Jenna Reinen Peter S. Roberts Lori Robishaw Carolyn Rochester Priscilla Rockwell Stephen Rosenberg June Rosenblatt Fernande E. Ross Joseph Ross John Rothman Allan Rubenstein
Dean and Maryanne Rupp Ortwin Rusch Tommy Russell Edward and Alice Saad Dr. Robert and Marcia Safirstein Steven Saklad Clarence Salzer Robert Sandberg Gail Sangree Peggy Sasso Denise Savage Joel Schechter Anne Schenck Kenneth Schlesinger Ruth Hein Schmitt William Schneider Judith and Morton Schomer Carol and Sanford Schreiber Georg Schreiber Forrest E. Sears Paul Selfa Subrata K. Sen Morris Sheehan Yu Shen Paul R. Shortt Lorraine D. Siggins Bradley Drew Simon Mark and Cindy Slane Gilbert and Ruth Small E. Gray Smith, Jr. Helena L. Sokoloff Suzanne Solensky and Jay Rozgonyi Mary Louise and Dennis Spencer Marian Spiro Amanda Spooner Louise Stein Neal Ann Stephens John Stevens Joseph Stevens Kris Stone Pamela Strayer Howard Steinman Jaroslaw Strzemien William and Wilma Summers Mark Sullivan Jeann and Joseph Terrazzano Aaron Tessler Roberta Thornton Eleanor Q. Tignor David F. Toser Albert Toth Mr. and Mrs. David Totman Russell L. Treyz
Deborah Trout Suzanne Tucker Gregory and Marguerite Tumminio Marge Vallee Russell Vandenbroucke Arthur Vitello Eva Vizy Fred Voelpel Elaine Wackerly Mark Anthony Wade Charles and Patricia Walkup Barbara Wareck and Charles Perrow Betsy Watson Steven Waxler Rosa Weissman Peter and Wendy Wells Charles Werner J. Newton White Peter White Robert and Charlotte White Joan Whitney Lisa A. Wilde Robert Wildman Marshall Williams David Willson Annick Winokur and Peter Gilbert Alex Witchel Carl Wittenberg Andrew Wolf Guy and Judith Yale
EMPLOYER MATCHING GIFTS
Aetna Foundation Ameriprise Financial Chevron Corporation Corning, Inc. General Electric Corporation IBM Merck Company Foundation Mobil Foundation, Inc. Pfizer Procter & Gamble The Prospect Hill Foundation
IN KIND
John Beinecke Lynn Bolton Sasha Emerson Ellen Iseman David Johnson Steve Zuckerman and Darlene Kaplan
Make a Gift! When you make a gift to Yale Rep’s Annual Fund, you support the creative work on our stage and our innovative outreach programs. For more information, or to make a donation, please call Susan Clark, 203.432.1559. You can also give online at yalerep.org/donate.
This list includes current pledges, gifts, and grants received from January 1, 2015, through March 15, 2016.
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For YoUr Information
Accessibility services
how to reach us Yale Repertory Theatre Box Office 1120 Chapel Street (at York Street) PO Box 208244, New Haven, CT 06520 203.432.1234 Email: [email protected]
Yale Repertory Theatre offers all patrons the most comprehensive accessibility services program in Connecticut, including a season of open-captioned and audio-described performances, a free assistive FM listening system, largeprint and Braille programs, wheelchair accessibility with an elevator entrance into the Yale Rep Theatre (located on the left side of the building), and accessible seating. For more information about the theatre’s accessibility services, contact Laura Kirk, Director of Audience Services, at 203.432.1522 or [email protected].
box office hours Monday to Friday from 10AM to 5PM Saturday from 12PM to 5PM Until 8PM on all show nights fire notice Illuminated signs above each door indicate emergency exits. Please check for the nearest exit. In the event of an emergency, you will be notified by theatre personnel and assisted in the evacuation of the building. restrooms There is an accessible restroom in the main lobby. Additional restrooms are located downstairs. emergency calls Please leave your cell phone, name, and seat number with the concierge. We’ll notify you if necessary. The emergency-only telephone number at the University Theatre is 203.432.0767. group rates Discounted tickets are available for groups of ten or more. Please call 203.432.1234. seating policy Everyone must have a ticket. Sorry, no children in arms or on laps. Patrons who leave the theatre during the performance will be reseated at the discretion of house management. Those who become disruptive will be asked to leave the theatre. The taking of photographs or the use of recording devices of any kind in the theatre without the written permission of the management is prohibited. 35
audio descriPTION: a live narration of the play’s action, sets, and costumes for patrons who are blind or low vision. open captioning: a digital display of the play’s dialogue as it’s spoken. Below are the AD and OC performance dates for this season. All shows are at 2PM; the AD pre-show discussion begins at 1:45PM.
Cymbeline
Apr 16
Happy Days May 14 May 21
Yale Repertory Theatre thanks the Eugene G. and Margaret M. Blackford Memorial Fund, Bank of America, N.A, Co-Trustee, for its support of audio description services for our patrons.
c2 is pleased to be the official Open Captioning Provider of Yale Repertory Theatre.
Education Programs As a part of Yale Rep’s commitment to our community, we provide two significant annual educational outreach programs. WILL POWER! offers speciallypriced tickets and early school-time matinees for high school students for one of Yale Rep’s productions every season. Since our 2003–04 season, WILL POWER! has served more than 20,000 Connecticut students and educators. The Dwight/Edgewood Project brings middle school students to Yale School of Drama for a month-long, after-school playwriting program designed to strengthen their self-esteem and creative expression. Yale Rep’s education programs are supported in part by the Josef and Anni Albers Foundation; Allegra Print and Imaging; The Anna Fitch Ardenghi Trust, Bank of America, Trustee; Carolyn Foundation; Frederick A. DeLuca Foundation; Bruce Graham; the George A. & Grace L. Long Foundation, Bank of America, N.A. and Alan S. Parker, Esq., Co-Trustees; the Lucille Lortel Foundation; Jane Marcher Foundation; Dawn G. Miller; Arthur and Merle Nacht; NewAlliance Foundation; Robbin A. Seipold; Sandra Shaner; Esme Usdan; Charles and Patricia Walkup. from the top: schools gathering for will power!; dwight/Edgewood Project workshop, 2015.
sponsorship: community partners Allegra Print and Imaging
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GHP Printing and Mailing
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Yorkside Pizza
This list includes current pledges, gifts, and grants received from January 1, 2015, through March 15, 2016.
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Amy And the OrphAns Lindsey FerrentinO By directed by LeOrA mOrris
sOme BOdies trAveL Jiréh BreOn hOLder tOri sAmpsOn By directed by yAgiL eLirAz
and
new dOmestic Architecture BrendAn peLsue By directed by Luke hArLAn
drama.yale.edu/carlotta
203.432.1234 [email protected] Iseman Theater, 1156 Chapel Street, New Haven, CT
JameS BuNdy, deaN VICTorIa NolaN, depuTy deaN JeaNIe o’Hare, CHaIr of playwrITINg pHoToS © JoaN marCuS
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E 38
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A full array of menu choices for lunch, dinner, and late night including beer, wine and slices Trays are available for catering pickup
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From which country did the USA purchase the Philippines in 1898? | Introduction - The World of 1898: The Spanish-American War (Hispanic Division, Library of Congress)
Photographic History of the Spanish American War
, p. 36.
On April 25, 1898 the United States declared war on Spain following the sinking of the Battleship Maine in Havana harbor on February 15, 1898. The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898. As a result Spain lost its control over the remains of its overseas empire -- Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines Islands, Guam, and other islands.
Background
Beginning in 1492, Spain was the first European nation to sail westward across the Atlantic Ocean, explore, and colonize the Amerindian nations of the Western Hemisphere. At its greatest extent, the empire that resulted from this exploration extended from Virginia on the eastern coast of the United States south to Tierra del Fuego at the tip of South America excluding Brazil and westward to California and Alaska. Across the Pacific, it included the Philippines and other island groups. By 1825 much of this empire had fallen into other hands and in that year, Spain acknowledged the independence of its possessions in the present-day United States (then under Mexican control) and south to the tip of South America. The only remnants that remained in the empire in the Western Hemisphere were Cuba and Puerto Rico and across the Pacific in Philippines Islands, and the Carolina, Marshall, and Mariana Islands (including Guam) in Micronesia.
Cuba
Following the liberation from Spain of mainland Latin America, Cuba was the first to initiate its own struggle for independence. During the years from 1868-1878, Cubans personified by guerrilla fighters known as mambises fought for autonomy from Spain. That war concluded with a treaty that was never enforced. In the 1890's Cubans began to agitate once again for their freedom from Spain. The moral leader of this struggle was José Martí , known as "El Apóstol," who established the Cuban Revolutionary Party on January 5, 1892 in the United States. Following the grito de Baire, the call to arms on February 24, 1895, Martí returned to Cuba and participated in the first weeks of armed struggle when he was killed on May 19, 1895.
The Philippines Islands
The Philippines too was beginning to grow restive with Spanish rule. José Rizal , a member of a wealthy mestizo family, resented that his upper mobility was limited by Spanish insistence on promoting only "pure-blooded" Spaniards. He began his political career at the University of Madrid in 1882 where he became the leader of Filipino students there. For the next ten years he traveled in Europe and wrote several novels considered seditious by Filipino and Church authorities. He returned to Manila in 1892 and founded the Liga Filipina, a political group dedicated to peaceful change. He was rapidly exiled to Mindanao. During his absence, Andrés Bonifacio founded Katipunan , dedicated to the violent overthrow of Spanish rule. On August 26, 1896, after learning that the Katipunan had been betrayed, Bonifacio issued the Grito de Balintawak , a call for Filipinos to revolt. Bonifacio was succeeded as head of the Philippine revolution by Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy , who had his predecessor arrested and executed on May 10, 1897. Aguinaldo negotiated a deal with the Spaniards who exiled him to Hong Kong with 400,000 pesos that he subsequently used to buy weapons to resume the fight.
Puerto Rico
During the 1880s and 1890s, Puerto Ricans developed many different political parties, some of which sought independence for the island while others, headquartered like their Cuban counterparts in New York, preferred to ally with the United States. Spain proclaimed the autonomy of Puerto Rico on November 25, 1897, although the news did not reach the island until January 1898 and a new government established on February 12, 1898.
United States
U.S. interest in purchasing Cuba had begun long before 1898. Following the Ten Years War, American sugar interests bought up large tracts of land in Cuba. Alterations in the U.S. sugar tariff favoring home-grown beet sugar helped foment the rekindling of revolutionary fervor in 1895. By that time the U.S. had more than $50 million invested in Cuba and annual trade, mostly in sugar, was worth twice that much. Fervor for war had been growing in the United States, despite President Grover Cleveland 's proclamation of neutrality on June 12, 1895. But sentiment to enter the conflict grew in the United States when General Valeriano Weyler began implementing a policy of Reconcentration that moved the population into central locations guarded by Spanish troops and placed the entire country under martial law in February 1896. By December 7, President Cleveland reversed himself declaring that the United States might intervene should Spain fail to end the crisis in Cuba. President William McKinley , inaugurated on March 4, 1897, was even more anxious to become involved, particularly after the New York Journal published a copy of a letter from Spanish Foreign Minister Enrique Dupuy de Lôme criticizing the American President on February 9, 1898. Events moved swiftly after the explosion aboard the U.S.S. Maine on February 15. On March 9, Congress passed a law allocating fifty million dollars to build up military strength. On March 28, the U.S. Naval Court of Inquiry finds that a mine blew up the Maine. On April 21 President McKinley orders a blockade of Cuba and four days later the U.S. declares war.
The War
Following its declaration of war against Spain issued on April 25, 1898, the United States added the Teller Amendment asserting that it would not attempt to exercise hegemony over Cuba. Two days later Commodore George Dewey sailed from Hong Kong with Emilio Aguinaldo on board. Fighting began in the Phillipines Islands at the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1 where Commodore George Dewey reportedly exclaimed, "You may fire when ready, Gridley," and the Spanish fleet under Rear Admiral Patricio Montojo was destroyed. However, Dewey did not have enough manpower to capture Manila so Aguinaldo's guerrillas maintained their operations until 15,000 U.S. troops arrived at the end of July. On the way, the cruiser Charleston stopped at Guam and accepted its surrender from its Spanish governor who was unaware his nation was at war. Although a peace protocol was signed by the two belligerents on August 12, Commodore Dewey and Maj. Gen. Wesley Merritt, leader of the army troops, assaulted Manila the very next day, unaware that peace had been declared.
In late April, Andrew Summers Rowan made contact with Cuban General Calixto García who supplied him with maps, intelligence, and a core of rebel officers to coordinate U.S. efforts on the island. The U.S. North Atlantic Squadron left Key West for Cuba on April 22 following the frightening news that the Spanish home fleet commanded by Admiral Pascual Cervera had left Cadiz and entered Santiago, having slipped by U.S. ships commanded by William T. Sampson and Winfield Scott Schley. They arrived in Cuba in late May.
War actually began for the U.S. in Cuba in June when the Marines captured Guantánamo Bay and 17,000 troops landed at Siboney and Daiquirí , east of Santiago de Cuba, the second largest city on the island. At that time Spanish troops stationed on the island included 150,000 regulars and 40,000 irregulars and volunteers while rebels inside Cuba numbered as many as 50,000. Total U.S. army strength at the time totalled 26,000, requiring the passage of the Mobilization Act of April 22 that allowed for an army of at first 125,000 volunteers (later increased to 200,000) and a regular army of 65,000. On June 22, U.S. troops landed at Daiquiri where they were joined by Calixto García and about 5,000 revolutionaries.
U.S. troops attacked the San Juan heights on July 1, 1898. Dismounted troopers, including the African-American Ninth and Tenth cavalries and the Rough Riders commanded by Lt. Col. Theodore Roosevelt went up against Kettle Hill while the forces led by Brigadier General Jacob Kent charged up San Juan Hill and pushed Spanish troops further inland while inflicting 1,700 casualties. While U.S. commanders were deciding on a further course of action, Admiral Cervera left port only to be defeated by Schley. On July 16, the Spaniards agreed to the unconditional surrender of the 23,500 troops around the city. A few days later, Major General Nelson Miles sailed from Guantánamo to Puerto Rico. His forces landed near Ponce and marched to San Juan with virtually no opposition.
Representatives of Spain and the United States signed a peace treaty in Paris on December 10, 1898, which established the independence of Cuba, ceded Puerto Rico and Guam to the United States, and allowed the victorious power to purchase the Philippines Islands from Spain for $20 million. The war had cost the United States $250 million and 3,000 lives, of whom 90% had perished from infectious diseases.
| Spain |
Which Venetian artist painted 'Venus and Adonis' and 'The Assumption of the Virgin'? | Milestones: 1899–1913 - Office of the Historian
Milestones: 1899–1913
The Philippine-American War, 1899–1902
After its defeat in the Spanish-American War of 1898 , Spain ceded its longstanding colony of the Philippines to the United States in the Treaty of Paris. On February 4, 1899, just two days before the U.S. Senate ratified the treaty, fighting broke out between American forces and Filipino nationalists led by Emilio Aguinaldo who sought independence rather than a change in colonial rulers. The ensuing Philippine-American War lasted three years and resulted in the death of over 4,200 American and over 20,000 Filipino combatants. As many as 200,000 Filipino civilians died from violence, famine, and disease.
“Battle of Manila Bay”
The decision by U.S. policymakers to annex the Philippines was not without domestic controversy. Americans who advocated annexation evinced a variety of motivations: desire for commercial opportunities in Asia, concern that the Filipinos were incapable of self-rule, and fear that if the United States did not take control of the islands, another power (such as Germany or Japan) might do so. Meanwhile, American opposition to U.S. colonial rule of the Philippines came in many forms, ranging from those who thought it morally wrong for the United States to be engaged in colonialism, to those who feared that annexation might eventually permit the non-white Filipinos to have a role in American national government. Others were wholly unconcerned about the moral or racial implications of imperialism and sought only to oppose the policies of President William McKinley’s administration.
After the Spanish-American War , while the American public and politicians debated the annexation question, Filipino revolutionaries under Aguinaldo seized control of most of the Philippines’ main island of Luzon and proclaimed the establishment of the independent Philippine Republic. When it became clear that U.S. forces were intent on imposing American colonial control over the islands, the early clashes between the two sides in 1899 swelled into an all-out war. Americans tended to refer to the ensuing conflict as an “insurrection” rather than acknowledge the Filipinos’ contention that they were fighting to ward off a foreign invader.
Emilio Aguinaldo
There were two phases to the Philippine-American War. The first phase, from February to November of 1899, was dominated by Aguinaldo’s ill-fated attempts to fight a conventional war against the better-trained and equipped American troops. The second phase was marked by the Filipinos’ shift to guerrilla-style warfare. It began in November of 1899, lasted through the capture of Aguinaldo in 1901 and into the spring of 1902, by which time most organized Filipino resistance had dissipated. President Theodore Roosevelt proclaimed a general amnesty and declared the conflict over on July 4, 1902, although minor uprisings and insurrections against American rule periodically occurred in the years that followed.
The United States entered the conflict with undeniable military advantages that included a trained fighting force, a steady supply of military equipment, and control of the archipelago’s waterways. Meanwhile, the Filipino forces were hampered by their inability to gain any kind of outside support for their cause, chronic shortages of weapons and ammunition, and complications produced by the Philippines’ geographic complexity. Under these conditions, Aguinaldo’s attempt to fight a conventional war in the first few months of the conflict proved to be a fatal mistake; the Filipino Army suffered severe losses in men and material before switching to the guerrilla tactics that might have been more effective if employed from the beginning of the conflict.
President Theodore Roosevelt
The war was brutal on both sides. U.S. forces at times burned villages, implemented civilian reconcentration policies, and employed torture on suspected guerrillas, while Filipino fighters also tortured captured soldiers and terrorized civilians who cooperated with American forces. Many civilians died during the conflict as a result of the fighting, cholera and malaria epidemics, and food shortages caused by several agricultural catastrophes.
Even as the fighting went on, the colonial government that the United States established in the Philippines in 1900 under future President William Howard Taft launched a pacification campaign that became known as the “policy of attraction.” Designed to win over key elites and other Filipinos who did not embrace Aguinaldo’s plans for the Philippines, this policy permitted a significant degree of self-government, introduced social reforms, and implemented plans for economic development. Over time, this program gained important Filipino adherents and undermined the revolutionaries’ popular appeal, which significantly aided the United States’ military effort to win the war.
In 1907, the Philippines convened its first elected assembly, and in 1916, the Jones Act promised the nation eventual independence. The archipelago became an autonomous commonwealth in 1935, and the U.S. granted independence in 1946.
| i don't know |
Almost always consisting of roast meat or dried seafood, served on baguette-like New Orleans French bread, what name is given to a traditional submarine sandwich from Louisiana? | Chipotle Garlic Shrimp Po' Boy | The Peach Kitchen
Top Food Blogger Philippines - Stories of Home. Food. Love. And Life.
04.09.2015
Chipotle Garlic Shrimp Po’ Boy
Chipotle Garlic Shrimp Po’ Boy, a healthier version of the po’ boy with “the peach kitchen” twist!
Always Sleepy. Doesn’t get enough sleep at night. Always Tired. Always Hungry. Never ending cravings. Crybaby. Welcome to my 28th week! My bump has become so big and I wish I could just fast forward myself to when I already gave birth.
I am waiting for my radiance and my overflowing peace….
Nope it’s not coming. I feel crazy and happy and depressed and tired all at the same time. And I almost always don’t want to move. Add the fact that I’ve grown some bumps in some of the places where I didn’t have any and my nose looks like a large native tomato. Oh, the joys of pregnancy.. LOL! Kidding aside, I’m beginning to feel how hard it is when you’re about to approach your full term. Again, how I wish I could fast forward myself into the near future when I’ve already given birth.
peanutbutter♥ has changed schedule once again from 10pm- 7am , his new schedule is now 2am-11am. I find myself re-adjusting to the new schedule. You know what, it’s gonna change again after two weeks and I will have to re-adjust. I think I might just go bonkers with all these changes!
My OB advised me to avoid sweets as much as possible and not to eat too much. That is something that’s hard for me to do because it’s during this time where my cravings starts to kick in. I”m trying to eat healthier, though. Having less rice than what I wanted and opting for healthier options.
I’ve been wanting to make Shrimp Po’ Boy since the Holy Week but I couldn’t get my hands on a french baguette. I was finally able to buy one last Sunday and you know what, it’s really the bread that makes it what it is! It’s all you would ever want in a sandwich — spicy, earthy, crunchy, chewy, juicy, and with all the flavors off the sea.
A po’ boy (also po-boy, po boy, or poor boy) is a traditional submarine sandwich from Louisiana. It almost always consists of meat, usually roast beef, or fried seafood, or sometimes chicken or ham. The meat is served on baguette-like New Orleans French bread, known for its crisp crust and fluffy center.
What I love about this is that instead of covering the shrimp with cornmeal and frying it, I seared it in extra virgin olive oil for a few minutes making it healthier.
The shrimp was loaded with all the tasty herbs and spices I could find in my cupboard: thyme, smoked paprika, oregano, garlic powder, salt and cayenne pepper.
I will have to thank Gourmate for the Chipotle Garlic hot sauce that just made this po’ boy much more amazing!
Now, I wonder how was I able to live without this sandwich for so long?
4.9 from 16 reviews
| Po' boy |
In dentistry, what name is given to a gap between the two front teeth? | City Guide
3193 Louisiana Highway Lutcher, LA 70071 United States
Old Spanish Fort
Corner of Robert E. Lee Boulevard and Wisner Boulevard New Orleans, LA 70124 United States
Fontainebleau State Park
62883 Highway 1089 Mandeville, LA 70448 United States - Phone: +1 877 226 7652(Toll Free)
Tammany Trace
East Gibson Street Mandeville, LA 70471 United States - Phone: +1 985 867 9490
Old New Orleans Rum Distillery
2815 Frenchman Street New Orleans, LA 70122 United States - Phone: +1 504 945 9400
Whether you're a regular rum drinker or looking for an introduction to the classic spirit, Old New Orleans Rum Distillery is here to help. This fully functioning rum distillery in New Orleans's Ninth Ward is open for tours Monday through Saturday. The distillery's guided tour takes each visitor through every step of the distillation process before finishing the tour in the Old New Orleans Rum Distillery tasting room. Monday through Friday complimentary transportation is available from The Organic Banana in the French Market and from Huck Finn's on Decatur Street. Tour reservations are required if you plan to take advantage of the complimentary transportation.
Algiers Point
Algiers Point New Orleans, LA United States - Phone: +1 504 566 5011 (Tourist Information)
Located across the Mississippi River from the bustling downtown area of the city, Algiers Point, fondly known as just 'The Point', is the city's rather forgotten neighborhood. Called the 'Brooklyn of New Orleans' on account of the stunning views of the city skyline that one can enjoy from the levee that lines the waterfront here, this charming area was once a busy town, being home to several businesses, and was also an entertainment hot spot, being home to several halls and venues. Today, this quiet neighborhood is truly a pleasure to visit, owing to the slightly rural appearance of its landscape and its rich culture. Do call to know more.
Joan of Arc Statue
Decatur Street & Saint Philip Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States
Visitors strolling down Decatur Street toward the French Market are sure to notice the statue of Joan of Arc that rises above the tiny New Place de France Park at the intersection of Decatur and St. Philip Streets. The people of France gifted this golden bronze statue of Joan of Arc riding her horse and carrying a flag to the city of New Orleans. The statue serves as the ending point for the annual Krewe de Jeanne d'Arc parade that strolls through the French Quarter each year on Twelfth Night to honor the Maid of Orleans's birthday.
The New Orleans Holocaust Memorial
1 Canal Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States
The New Orleans Holocaust Memorial, situated on the bank of the Mississippi River in Woldenberg Park, stands in honor of the more than six million Jewish victims of the Nazis during the Holocaust. The memorial sculpture consists of nine colorful panels, each painted with a different image. When the sculpture is viewed from different angles around the memorial, the panels appear to come together to create ten distinct images. Israeli artist Yaacov Agam created the memorial sculpture. The New Orleans Holocaust Memorial was dedicated in June 2003.
Andrew Jackson Statue
Saint Peter Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States
In 1840 plans were put into place to commission a statue of Andrew Jackson for the center of Jackson Square. The bronze statue of General Jackson atop his horse was completed on December 1, 1855, but was not unveiled in New Orleans until February 9, 1856. A crowd of nearly 25,000 people gathered around Jackson Square for the unveiling ceremony. Artist Clark Mills designed the statue at a cost of $30,000. The Louisiana legislature also had allocated $10,000 for the project. Most of the remaining funding for the project is said to have been donated by the Baroness Micaela Almonaster de Pontalba.
Mandeville Lakefront
Lakeshore Drive Mandeville, LA 70448 United States - Phone: +1 985 626 3144(City Park Council)
One of the best ways to enjoy the mystique and transcendent quietude of Lake Pontchartrain is to walk along the pathways at the Mandeville Lakefront. A stretch of green along the Lakeshore Drive, the Mandeville Lakefront is a popular place to take a stroll, play with the kids, have a family picnic, or just sit and enjoy compelling view of the lake. The park is open from sunrise to 2a every day. See the website to know more.
Besthoff Sculpture Garden
One Collin C. Diboll Circle New Orleans, LA 70124 United States - Phone: +1 504 488 2631
Thanks to the generous donations from Sydney and Walda Besthoff, New Orleanians and visitors to the city can enjoy art-in-the-park at Besthoff Sculpture Garden. The nearly five acres that make up the sculpture garden in City Park are home to 57 large-scale works of art. The sculptures, situated among the park's large oaks and Southern magnolias, vary greatly in style and represent a range of classic and modern artists. Additionally, the Besthoff Sculpture Garden is free for all visitors.
Chalmette
Chalmette Chalmette, LA United States
Named after the illustrious plantation owner Martin de Lino de Chalmette, this historic place is easily accessible to visitors in New Orleans who can opt for a day trip here. Completely ravaged by the devastating Hurricane Katrina in August 2005, resilient Chalmette has picked up the pieces and rebuilt itself slowly but surely. A visit here is in order!
Mid-City
Canal Street New Orleans, LA United States - Phone: +1 504 486 6266(Tourist Information)
Like its name suggests, Mid-City occupies the middle of the city of New Orleans. Not very touristy in nature, this neighborhood is replete with live music bars and clubs that depend heavily on locals who revel in the distinctive flavors of the local food preparations. Walk by the historic Canal Street which is a particularly bustling thoroughfare and a great spot for people watching, or head down to Tulane Avenue which abounds in old industrial structures. Mid-City has never failed to capture the imagination of the discerning tourist.
Uptown
Uptown New Orleans, LA United States - Phone: +1 800 672 6124 (Toll Free) /+1 504 566 5011 (Tourist Information)
Uptown is a area in New Orleans which spans across a number of historical districts including the fabled French Quarter. Several 19th Century structures stand proudly along the avenues which are dotted with friendly jazz bars and clubs. Known for its mixed races, you are bound to notice subtle Italian, German, Irish and Afro American influences in the architecture and lifestyle. Hollywood chocolate boy Harry Connick Junior as well as the legendary Louis Armstrong both hail from Uptown, making it yet another reason to visit.
Free Tours by Foot
2613 Laurel Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 222 2967
Free Tours by Foot is pleased to present a free, tip-based New Orleans walking tours. These interesting and informative New Orleans sightseeing tours will take you through many of the city's legendary neighborhoods and cemeteries.
Tulane University
6823 Saint Charles Avenue New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 862 8000 / +1 800 873 9283(Toll Free)
A part of the prestigious Association of American Universities, Tulane University of Louisiana is a historic university established in the middle of 19th Century. Spread across 45 acres (18.2 hectares) in uptown New Orleans, the university has more than 13,000 students enrolled in various programs of undergraduate, graduate and professional courses in the fields of architecture, liberal arts, science, law, business, medicine and social work. The university strives hard to provide overall growth opportunities to students, and hence, has various cultural and sports events organized in its campus. The campus is home to various structures housing the colleges and schools of the university that reflect Renaissance, Romanesque and Tudor Revival style of architecture and watching these on a tour to the university is quite an experience in itself. Call ahead or visit their website to know more.
Nola Tour Guy
2726 North Claiborne New Orleans, LA 70117 United States - Phone: +1 504 300 9489
Learn about New Orleans' rich history on this free walking tour. You can go on a number of tours, including different district walking tours. These engaging tours combine history and humor so you can learn to love this fascinating city. Remember to tip your guide at the end if you liked the tour.
A.L. Davis Park
Lasalle Street New Orleans, LA 70113 United States
Among the few open green spaces left in Central City area of New Orleans, the A.L. Davis Park is a popular playground for kids. The park comprises a basketball court as well as a football field where local sports events take place. Apart from sports, the park is also at the center of various cultural and community events like concerts and parades which occur throughout the year.
Riverfront
Port of New Orleans Place New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 658 4000(Tourist Information)
The Mississippi Riverfront is a great place to experience New Orleans’ charm. Located across the French Quarter, explore this area on foot or on water while taking in some of the most stunning sights in town. An ideal picnic spot, engage in recreational activities and admire public art displays. Take a tour of Mardi Gras World for a glimpse of curated floats and props from parades gone by. The riverfront has played host to an array of community festivals, live entertainment and cultural events.
Metairie Cemetery
5100 Pontchartrain Boulevard New Orleans, LA 70124 United States - Phone: +1 504 486 6331
Built on a race course in 1872, Metairie Cemetery is known for its architectural beauty. It has one of the finest collection of funeral statues and marble tombs which has made it secure a place in the prestigious National Register of Historic Places in December, 1991. It also holds its place in the Forbes list of ten bests cemeteries in the world. This cemetery is worth visiting while in New Orleans.
Bywater
Dauphine Street New Orleans, LA 70117 United States - Phone: +1 504 491 5330(Tourist Information)
Nestled in the heart of New Orleans, Bywater is a commercial and tourist hub of the city. Bywater was originally a plantation area; from the 1800s onwards, it began getting converted into a residential space. This neighborhood became home to immigrants from France, Spain, Germany, Ireland and Italy, which turned Bywater into a multicultural hub. The Mardi Gras parade by the Society of Saint Anne begins in Bywater, and is a popular event among locals and visitors.
New Orleans Treehouse
1614 Esplanade Avenue New Orleans, LA 70116 United States
The New Orleans Treehouse, also known as NOLA Art House, is a unique feature on the city’s art scene. It occupies the backyard of a Creole mansion that now serves as an artists hub. The installation was designed by Scott Pterodactyl and includes a rope bridge, waterslide and wastebaskets. It is exclusively-created out of materials found in the aftermath of hurricane Katrina. Standing as tall as two stories, head to the lookout tower for scenic downtown views.
Chalmette National Cemetery
8606 West Street Chalmette, LA 70043 United States - Phone: +1 504 281 0510
Chalmette National Cemetery was set up as a National Cemetery in 1864 to serve as a burial ground for those who perished in the American military campaigns. It is the final resting place of 15300 veterans of the Revolutionary War and the Vietnam War. It got partially damaged and was closed for future burials when Hurricane Katrina hit the cemetery in full measure. Ever since, both the cemetery and the battleground are open to the public for limited hours only. It got listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966.
Emeril's New Orleans
800 Tchoupitoulas Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 528 9393
A renovated warehouse in the Arts District is home to the flagship restaurant of star chef Emeril Lagasse. This world class dining experience will titillate your taste buds with the finest in Creole cooking and award-winning wines. The seafood menu includes such signature dishes as Portuguese-Style Steamed Clams and Mussels, Smoked Salmon, and Sundried Tomato Cheesecake. The building's original brick walls and existing water pipes have been rejuvenated into a contemporary jazz decor. Private dining rooms are available for parties or businesses lunches at the Emeril's New Orleans!
Antoine's
713 Rue Saint Louis New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 581 4422
The original Antoine's, established in 1840, resided only a block from the restaurant's present location. This family-owned establishment, now in its fifth generation of management, bears the namesake of its creator, Antoine Alciatore. The French Quarter restaurant has 15 dining rooms, each with its own New Orleans-inspired decor. The service is adequate and the food is exceptional. The seafood entrees are among the best items on the menu, especially the Oysters Rockefeller, which were first created here before all others imitated.
Acme Oyster House
724 Iberville Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 5973
Acme Oyster House has been a mainstay in the NoLa dining scene since its inception in 1910. This iconic restaurant, with its vintage neon signboard, serves up a unique take on local flavors. Their signature raw oysters are a must have, followed by coastal specialties like Poopa, French bread canopy stuffed with sausage and shrimp gumbo.
Emeril's Delmonico New Orleans
1300 Saint Charles Avenue New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 525 4937
This turn-of-the-century restaurant has operated out of an old New Orleans home since 1895. Since Emeril's Delmonico New Orleans' re-establishment in 1997, the restaurant has been in the hands of world-famous chef, Emeril Lagasse. Warm Southern hospitality, as well as memorable food, makes this a popular spot with locals and visitors. As expected, the menu boasts classic items revitalized with Lagasse's inventive style of Creole cuisine. Appetizers include Turtle au Sherry and Emeril's Barbecue Shrimp. Entrees include Pan Roasted Mississippi Farm Raised Quail, Sautéd Rainbow Trout and Hickory Roasted Duck.
Court Of Two Sisters
613 Royal Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 7261
Court Of Two Sisters is filled with an ambiance found only in the Vieux Carre. A great reason to visit this restaurant is for its Jazz Brunch Buffet. It features delicious dishes including fish, fresh fruits, homemade bread and pastries. Overall, this Creole dining experience will capture your heart as well as your taste buds.
Cooter Brown's Tavern & Oyster Bar
509 South Carrolton Avenue New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 866 9104
This ultimate beer tavern has been a favorite watering hole since 1977. Cooter Brown's Tavern & Oyster Bar boasts more than 400 brands of imported and domestic bottled beer and more than 40 on tap. The atmosphere is something like a sports bar, with eight color TVs, video poker games and pool tables. Surprisingly good cuisine makes the trip uptown on the trolley worth it. One example of the great bar food is the Cheese Fries, a favorite of the locals.
Brennan's
417 Royal Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 525 9711
This building, which dates back to 1798, was acquired by the Brennan family in 1943, and transformed into a stunning restaurant with 12 elegantly decorated dining rooms called Brennan's. A beautiful courtyard of magnolia trees and picturesque fountains create the perfect dining atmosphere. Begin breakfast with a brandy milk punch, followed by any one of the exquisite entrees, such as Eggs Hussarde, a Brennan's original. Dinner also offers a delightful assortment of delectable options. For dessert, try the famous Bananas Foster, another creation of Brennan's epicureans. Jackets are required for dinner, and reservations are recommended.
Arnaud's Restaurant
813 Rue Bienville New Orleans, LA 70112 United States - Phone: +1 504 523 5133
Situated in the French Quarter and a stone's throw from Bourbon Street is Arnaud's Restaurant, a classic Creole establishment boasting some of New Orleans' most famous dishes. Here, an elegant decor and classy setting add that extra ambiance that makes meals here something special. The menu is comprised of numerous Creole favorites, with an emphasis on seafood. There are live jazz performances, a separate bar and a romantic main dining room to ensure you can have whatever kind of evening you're looking for.
Haydel's Bakery
4037 Jefferson Highway New Orleans, LA 70121 United States - Phone: +1 504 837 0190
Three generations of Haydel's have been serving delicious confections for many years. This full-line bakery specializes in the "Cakes of the Crescent City." Also available are Cajun kringles, doberge, wedding and birthday cakes. In addition to cakes, Haydel's has everything from donuts and brownies to cookies and croissants, and each one is a true treat. They also cater conventions and fill mail orders year round with overnight air delivery to your door.
Crescent City Brewhouse
527 Decatur Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 0571
This restored French Quarter building, Crescent City Brewhouse, is home to quality food and four types of brewed "in house" beer, from their very own brewery in the backyard. Music for your listening pleasure as well as art for you viewing make this a fine dining experience. The focus of this restaurant is on large portions and freshness. They cut and prepare all their own meat and fish daily. Menu favorites include the baked oysters prepared with either spinach, eggplant or crabmeat, Red Stallion mussels and Grilled Ribeye Steak. Seafood lovers can devour all these at the oyster bar here. The finest drinks and delicious desserts are the perfect way to end this lavish course!
Cafe Beignet
334-B Royal Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 524 5530
If you are looking for a great tasting inexpensive lunch or breakfast, Cafe Beignet is the place for you. Staying true to their name, this restaurant serves the famous New Orleans beignets—fried squares of dough dusted with powdered sugar—as well as Belgian waffles, omelets, bagels and brioche French toast. Lunch is a mix of classic Creole dishes and traditional soup or sandwich midday fare. You may order wine by the glass or bottle from the exclusive Robert Mondavi Wine Bar.
Famous Door
339 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 598 4334
Famous Door, dating back to 1934, is Bourbon Street's oldest live music club still in business. The famous door refers to the front door of the bar that many celebrities and musicians have autographed. Inside there is a sunken dance floor situated in front of a glass-brick stage. The atmosphere is dark, loud, neon and raw. The acoustics and lighting system enhances the performances of the live New Orleans soul and blues bands. Later, when the live music ends, the older folks leave and the bar transforms into a dance club for the younger crowd. It is open from 4p onwards Monday to Wednesday, 3p onwards on Thursday till Friday and On Saturday and Sunday it is open from 2p.
House Of Blues New Orleans
225 Decatur Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 310 4999
Founded in 1992 by Hard Rock Cafe creator Issac B. Tigrett, House Of Blues has grown into a multi-dimensional entertainment company featuring top-name blues, jazz and contemporary acts. Adjacent to each "Music Hall" is a juke joint-inspired restaurant serving "Mississippi Delta-Style" cuisine. Try the slow smoked baby back ribs, the Pacific Rim Tuna Steak or the cedar pan roasted salmon and finish off with the White Chocolate Banana Bread Pudding. In the afternoon it is open from Tuesday to Saturday from 4pm onwards.
Krazy Korner
640 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 524 3157
This live music club is one of the only Bourbon Street bars to feature origional music from local musicians. The bands emanate the raw, dirty and soulful feeling of the Blues every night of the week. Krazy Korner itself lacks any distinguishing characteristics—it is simply a long, narrow room with brick walls and low ceilings, but the vibe from the musicians inside draws crowds of music afficienados of all ages. There is no cover charge and the drinks are reasonably priced for Bourbon Street. It is open from Monday to Friday at 5pm and Saturday and Sunday at 2pm.
Embers "Original" Bourbon House
700 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 595 3172
The Embers "Original" Bourbon House occupies an 18th-century building that has been a landmark in the Crescent City for over 40 years. Dining here is like stepping into the Mardi Gras scene year round. The Carnival spirit and decor are sure indicators as to why this steak house is so popular. Dine with a view overlooking Bourbon Street and enjoy many delicious choices including steak, seafood and the ever-popular Creole and Cajun specialties. The kitchen serves lunch, dinner, and late night dining. The extensive wine list satiates every diner! It is open seven days a week in the evenings also from 5pm.
Old Opera House
601 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 3265
The "good time" atmosphere here makes you feel right at home—mostly because it is home to many famous New Orleans performing artists. The club is sparse with its bare brick walls and its plain wooden ceiling. The music is what really brings this club to life. Music styles range from blues to jazz and feature local performers. It is open from 5pm , Monday to Friday and 2pm onwards on Saturday and Sunday.
Pat O'Brien's
718 Saint Peter Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 525 4823
Pat O'Brien's is conveniently located in the hip French Quarter, and should be at the top of any tourist's must-do list. This bar has been a genuine New Orleans institution for more than 73 years. Stop in for one of Pat O's famous “Hurricanes,” a cocktail heavy on the rum and light on the cherry. You can sip your drink inside the snazzy piano bar or outside in the beautiful courtyard next to the gorgeous flaming fountain. And to satisfy your appetite, the courtyard menu offers something for everyone, whether it is dining for lunch, dinner or a late night snack.
Snug Harbor Jazz Bistro
626 Frenchmen Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 949 0696
Snug Harbor Jazz Bistro as its name suggest is a cozy restaurant in the city that offers patrons some splendid jazz performances alongwith delicious food. A host of different artistes, each with their individual style entertain the audience who keep coming back for more. The subdued lighting and wooden furnishings make a rustic setting for the world class performances. The food and wine also celebrate the occasion.
Michaul's Live Cajun Music Restaurant
840 Street Charles Avenue New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 5517
Voted the "Best Louisiana Cajun Restaurant" by Louisiana Life, Michaul's Live Cajun Music Restaurant boasts the greatest viewing spot in the city for Mardi Gras. Live cajun music and free dance lessons make this the most festive dining experience in the French Quarter! The specialty here is authentic Cajun cuisine. Such culinary delights include Alligator Sauce Piquant which is a tender alligator in Cajun stew and the Catfish Pecan (catfish rolled in egg butter and then pecans). To wash it all down Cajun-style, try Michaul's Mamou Brew with a 32 ounce souvenir cup. Now this is Southern grub! This place opens at 6pm from Monday to Saturday.
Napoleon House Bar & Cafe
500 Chartres Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 524 9752
This Parisian style cafe & bar has enchanted patrons for over 200 years with its charming courtyard and relaxed atmosphere of living history. Originally purchased to house Napoleon Bonaparte during an obviously unsuccessful plot to bring the exiled emperor to America, this structure soon found its true calling as a watering hole and gathering place for artists, writers, intellectuals and local characters of all sorts.
Remoulade
309 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 523 0377
This family-owned famous restaurant has created a casual and comfortable family-friendly spot in the French Quarter. A full bar with sports and news television adds to the casual, fun atmosphere. Remoulade's plays host to a daily New Orleans food festival offering everything from gumbo, chock full of fresh seafood, to good old American burgers. Regardless of what you choose, the price is always fair.
Country Flame
620 Iberville Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 1138
This unassuming cantina, with its authentic, weather-beaten look, has joined dishes from Mexico and Cuba in ways that make up for whatever it lacks in atmosphere. The food is the priority at Country Flame, and promises a hearty meal on all occassions. The wait staff is friendly and serve your order in half the time. The selection of food is not only good but also inexpensive. The house specialties include fajitas with your choice of chicken, beef, pork, or shrimp. To wash it all down opt for a cold Corona.
K-Paul's Louisiana Kitchen
416 Chartres Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 524 7394
This refurbished and expanded historic house, originally built in 1834, offers Cajun cuisine by Chef Paul Prudhomme. The main floor remains the first choice for the casual diner. The second floor is formal and requires reservations. You can also dine on the balcony or in an intimate al fresco courtyard. Chef Paul's cuisine combines Creole and Cajun into what he describes as "Louisiana cooking." Not only is his food authentic, but you would also be hard pressed to find anything fresher; K-Paul's “no freezers” rule applies to everything on the menu, so even the daily specials adhere to this high standard of culinary excellence. Fried catfish fingers and bronzed salmon are just two of the many tantalizing items on the menu.
Mulate's the Original Cajun Restaurant
201 Julia Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 1492
Established almost 20 years ago by Kerry Boutte, Mulate's has become known as the King of Cajun Dine and Dance. Mr. Boutte, a native of Cajun heritage, has created a forum combining great Cajun music and cuisine. Appointments such as ceiling fans and red checked table clothes reflect the simplicity of the Cajun style. The celebration comes alive every evening with live music from 7p. The menu boasts a variety of favorites of grilled or fried alligator and stuffed mushrooms. Entrees such as the Crawfish Etouffe and the Seafood Platter with Gumbo are worth checking out. The house special, Catfish Mulate is a culinary creation not to be missed.
Galatoire's
209 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 525 2021
This Bourbon Street landmark is arguably the most famous restaurant in New Orleans. The grand dame of French/Creole dining, Galatoire's has packed them in since its doors opened in 1905. The French bistro setting is complete with wall-to-wall mirrors and ceiling fans that stir the rich aromas of fine French/Creole dining. Appetizer choices include shrimps, oysters, turtle soup and green salad with garlic.
Bayona
430 Dauphine Street New Orleans, LA 70112 United States - Phone: +1 504 525 4455
Situated in a quaint cottage, Bayona charms diners with its picturesque decor consisting of flower arrangements, murals and photographs. Serving Louisiana cuisine with a bit of a twist, Chef Susan Spicer puts together an inviting meal. Sit in the courtyard amid the plants or enjoy the ambiance of the romantic indoor dining hall. The desserts are a must try to finish off your meal.
Broussard's
819 Conti Street New Orleans, LA 70112 United States - Phone: +1 504 581 3866
Built in 1834, Broussard's was once known as the Borello Mansion. In 1920, Joseph Broussard and his wife Rosalie Borello opened the lower level of this mansion to the public as a small restaurant. The subtle elegance and the imperial decor are reminiscent of Napoleonic days gone by. Broussard's Parisian culinary training, coupled with his demand for perfection, made this a five-star restaurant. Choose from such Creole classics as Pompano Evelyn or baked filet of redfish.
Mr. B's Bistro
201 Royal Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 523 2078
A part of the Brennan family, Mr. B's Bistro features Creole cuisine served in an upscale ambiance. It has earned many accolades for its authentic menu and tantalizing flavors. Try the panko crusted jumbo shrimp or the Gumbo Ya Ya, both of which are traditional favorites. The heartwarming score on the live piano provides a pleasant backdrop to the meal.
NOLA
534 Saint Louis Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 6652
At NOLA, owned by famed chef Emeril Lagasse is all about creating the best patron experience possible. This means that the service, decor and most importantly, the food, most all work off of each other. NOLA accomplishes this and more, with a beautifully decorated dining area complemented by impeccable service and a diverse offering of seafood dishes. NOLA is short for New Orleans, and is an appropriate moniker as this restaurant nicely captures the essence of the Big Easy.
Palace Cafe
605 Canal Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 523 1661
Palace Cafe was once the Werlein's music store, and is now home to the flavor of New Orleans. Making its debut in 1991, Palace Cafe has been under the direction of Chef Gus Martin, directing yet another Brennan family culinary creation. The restaurant is filled with beautiful iron work, vaulted archways and lively artwork. The menu is classic Louisiana cooking with an innovative flair. Two of the many signature dishes are Crab Meat Cheesecake and Oysters Pan Roast.
China Rose
125 Robert E. Lee Boulevard New Orleans, LA 70124 United States - Phone: +1 504 283 2800
Located minutes from downtown, this restaurant is on the Lake front. Chefs are hired directly from mainland China in order to prepare the best, most authentic Chinese cuisine in New Orleans. A newly renovated interior, offers the perfect atmosphere for any dining occasion. Full service catering is also available for your off-site dining convenience. This place opens daily at 11am.
Tujague's Restaurant
823 Decatur Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 525 8676
The timeless Tujague's Restaurant is close to the heart of many locals and is also a memorable part of their life, due to its consistent quality over the years. One of the oldest dining places in town, its popularity can be gauged by the long line of patrons eagerly awaiting their turn at the many tables. It has been serving a blend of French and Creole specialties since 1856, with the Brisket served with horseradish sauce and the Oysters on Brochette being hot favorites.
Five Happiness Restaurant
3605 South Carrolton Avenue New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 482 3935
Located ten minutes from the Central Business District and Bourbon Street, this Asian fare was voted 'Best Mandarin Chinese Restaurant' by New Orleans Magazine. Five Happiness Restaurant is airy and open with Chinese artifacts and art throughout. Traditional Chinese dishes top the bill in this reasonably priced, yet sophisticated, eatery. The appetizers include Beef Teriyaki and smoked fish, and entrees are the best in town with Mined shrimp in bird's nest and Chinese backed duck.
Venezia Restaurant
134 North Carrollton Avenue New Orleans, LA 70119 United States - Phone: +1 504 488 7991
Venezia, this little bit of Italy, has been a thriving neighborhood eatery since 1957. Its casual presence is just right for a family's dinner night out or a fun double date. You will be transported to the Old Country as you dine surrounded by murals of Venice. The dark wood-paneled walls and flickering light of the candelabra help create a festive ambiance. This is a favorite haunt of New Orleans families as well as those from out of town. This feast of Italy, with a flair of Louisiana, can be found in the breaded veal or the crawfish pasta. The popular pizza pies cover the table with their giant size.
Cafe Giovanni
117 Rue Decatur New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 529 2154
Opened in 1991, Cafe Giovanni was recently renovated, doubling its capacity while adding a spacious dining room and a closed-in courtyard. Tables covered in white linen are romantically lit with votive candles, creating an authentic Italian cafe experience. Try the fried green tomatoes or duck classico with garlic glaze. A fine selection of wines complements the Italian fare.
Upperline Restaurant
1413 Upperline Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 891 9822
Set in an 1877 townhouse, Upperline Restaurant is brought up-to-date by a collection of modern paintings. This oasis of Southern charm and Creole traditions creates a nostalgic ambiance. For starters, try Crispy Sweetbreads with Mushroom Ragout and Grilled Filet Mignon or the braised Lamb Shank. You may complete any meal with the sweet treats, including a yummy creme brulee with crushed pralines.
The Rib Room
621 Saint Louis Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 529 7045
Calling itself a "Rotisserie-Extraordinaire," this upscale, yet casual restaurant has been a favorite for both locals and tourists for the past 35 years. The Rib Room has a casual atmosphere and is usually filled with business people taking a break. It is best known for its slowly roasted prime rib and Creole classics. Try the Crawfish Salad, the Filet of Gulf of Mexico Fish seared in a fresh herb crust, or the Roasted Yellow Fin Grouper.
Bon Ton Cafe
401 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 524 3386
Located in the Central Business District, adjacent to the French Qaurter, Bon Ton Cafe boasts the title of the oldest Cajun restaurant in New Orleans. An old New Orleans ambiance surrounds you as you dine on great food, served by a friendly staff. The dining room is cosy and the staff is charming. The kitchen has served authentic cajun dishes from family recipes since 1950. The five course crawfish sampler is recommended. The turtle soup and oyster omelet are also quite good.
Brigtsen's Restaurant
723 Dante Street New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 861 7610
This renovated Victorian cottage contains Brigtsen's Restaurant. It is owned and operated by Marna Brigsten, who has created a Victorian era atmosphere and modernized to meet the dining needs of today's patrons. Every meal is prepared with the freshest of ingredients and exotic flavors to please the most discerning gourmand. Make reservations well in advance, as this place is popular.
Cafe Degas
3127 Esplanade Avenue New Orleans, LA 70119 United States - Phone: +1 504 945 5635
The 19th-century French Impressionist, Edgar Degas, once lived in the fashionable Creole district. Cafe Degas is a charming place to eat outdoors, but with all the comforts of indoor dining. Located on Esplanande Avenue, this chic neighborhood restaurant provides a pleasant atmosphere whether you dine on a cool evening or a sunny afternoon. This casual but classy experience offers a variety of French fare. Reservations for parties of three or more are required.
Feelings Cafe
2600 Chartres Street New Orleans, LA 70117 United States - Phone: +1 504 945 2222
Dating back to the late 1700s, Feelings Cafe was once a slave quarters and an old Creole storehouse. The current incarnation has been in business since 1979. Careful restoration has preserved this historic place, making your dining experience all the more memorable. Favorite dishes include Chicken Clemenceau and Fried Artichoke Hearts over a Creole Mustard Sauce. The restaurant is perhaps best known for its delightful peanut butter pie. You may want to dine on the patio or try the balcony on weekends while the piano player tickles the keys on Friday and Saturday evenings. It is also open in the evenings, Thursday to Sunday, 5pm onwards.
Gumbo Shop
630 Saint Peter Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 525 1486
Enjoy traditional and contemporary Creole cuisine in the casual elegance of a restored 1794 cottage. Muraled dining room walls and a lovely garden patio set the stage for a delightful dining experience at Gumbo Shop, found only in the heart of the Vieux Carre. A full menu of salads, sandwiches, daily specials and fresh fish are complimented by a large selection of wines by the glass. Menus are available in Spanish, French, Japanese and Braille.
Casamento's Restaurant
4330 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 895 9761
This Garden District restaurant takes their oysters so seriously that they close down when the little mollusks are not in season. Casamento's restaurant is small and sparse, but the atmosphere benefits from good-natured waitresses, who serve up fun with the food. The house specialty is scrubbed clean and well selected. Another delicacy is the Oyster Loaf, a big loaf of bread fried in butter and filled with oysters or shrimp and fried again to seal it. They also serve a Gumbo that is quite possibly the best in town.
Louisiana Pizza Kitchen
95 French Market Place New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 9500
Louisiana Pizza Kitchen is great for the eyes as well as the taste buds. This dimly lit cozy restaurant features artwork by some of the best up and coming artists in New Orleans. The art rotates so frequently that each time you go there is something new to delight your eyes. The young, hip clientele arrives en mass for the wood fired gourmet pizzas. The pizza is, without a doubt, some of the best. Do not discount the many pasta dishes.
Lucy's Retired Surfer's Restaurant & Bar
701 Tchoupitoulas Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 523 8995
During the day, Lucy's Retired Surfer's Restaurant & Bar serves as the perfect lunch break getaway for the young professional crowd working in the Warehouse District. At night, it is the after-work drinking hole for the same crowd. It is a great change of pace from the bars in the Quarter. The interior of this place resembles an old Tiki bar, and the staff wears Aloha shirts and occasionally straw hats. A California influence is apparent in the grilled shrimp and fish specialties. You will also enjoy a large selection of Southwestern breakfast dishes and burritos. It is open daily at 11 am.
O'Henry's Food & Spirits
634 South Carrollton Avenue New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 866 9741
O'Henry's Food & Spirits is a fun spot for regulars and visitors, especially when you start with their complimentary, salted-in-the-shell peanuts. You are invited to throw the shells on the floor. In the midst of a city full of Cajun cuisine, this all-American establishment has made a name for itself. The casual atmosphere is a breather from the party-like atmosphere on Bourbon Street. Home to the most heralded burgers in New Orleans, this great grill house also serves super salads, seafood, chicken and of course steak. And just so you feel like you are really in New Orleans, they offer wonderful Cajun selections as well.
Pascal's Manale Restaurant
1838 Napoleon Avenue New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 895 4877
Pascal's Manale Restaurant has been famous for its original barbecue shrimp since 1913. If you go, do not expect much decor but the food is so good, you will hardly notice. The establishment's popularity results in a noisy gathering most every night. You do not have to worry though—this is a friendly crowd with social graces. Menu selections include fine seafood, delicious steak, and Italian specialties. It is open in the evenings too, Monday to Saturday at 5p.
Vic's Kangaroo Cafe
636 Tchoupitoulas Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 524 4329
This genuine Aussie pub is located in the Warehouse District but feels like its right in the middle of Australia. The local ambiance is embracing to all as the fun in the air becomes contagious. Thursday night here at Vic's Kangaroo Cafe, is jazz and Saturday is blues. The featured cuisine is Australian straight from the Outback! The food is everything you would expect from the outback, including many barbecued items and entrees such as Shepard's Pie. Beverages of wine and draft beer are compliments to your entree of choice.
Ye Olde College Inn
3000 South Carrollton Avenue New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 866 3683
Ye Olde College Inn has been owned by the Rufin family for over 60 years, and they know their food! This is a place for locals and visitors to come for good down-home cooking. True to its name, it is just a few blocks from Tulane University, so you are likely to see a few college kids suffering from serious pizza burnout and looking for a taste of home. Think "true Southern soul food" and you have the Inn's menu. There's fried chicken, green beans, black-eyed peas and cornbread for starters, to the best lemon ice box pie and pecan pie.
Bubba Gump Shrimp Co.
429 Decatur Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 5800
Enter the world of Forrest Gump when you dine at Bubba's in the French Quarter. Bubba Gump's offers you varied dining options, including the private dining room, courtyard or balcony. Naturally, this would have to be a casual, fun place otherwise it would not suit Forrest. This is a great place to bring the kids. The menu offers a variety of dishes from ribs to catfish and of course shrimp. The entrees include the Bourbon Street Mahi Mahi and Mama Blue's Southern charmed fried shrimp.
La Madeleine
601 South Carrollton Avenue New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 861 8662
This home away from home, is bathed in rustic European charm. La Madeleine, the quaint cafeteria-style restaurant is conveniently accessible. The restaurant is filled with plain wooden furniture and the staff in white coats and hats, gives it a countryside feel. La Madeline features a country breakfast, lunch, and dinner as well as baked breads and pastries. Make sure you try their famous tomato basil soup and their Caesar salad.
Felix's Restaurant & Oyster Bar
739 Iberville Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 4440
This family owned and operated establishment is nationally known for its version of oysters on the half shell. Louisiana seafood is served in a casual, friendly atmosphere at Felix's Restaurant & Oyster Bar. Oysters are not all that is tasty here. Fresh Louisiana seafood along with traditional New Orleans dishes with Cajun and Creole specialties are also served. Reservations are accepted for large parties.
French Market Restaurant & Bar
1001 Decatur Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 525 7879
Caddy-corner from the French Market and across the road from the Mississippi River, sits this classic restaurant that has been serving freshly prepared seafood since 1803. The casual atmosphere, aroma of fresh craw fish and reasonable prices attract passers-by on their way to and from the Market. Inside the French Market Restaurant & Bar there are roughly twenty tables for dining, a 25-foot (7.2 meter) Oak bar and an Oyster bar all surrounded by the original brick walls of an antique building. Specialties include Shrimp Decatur soaked in the Chef's signature sauce, Grilled Grouper and Crab meat au Gratin with fresh vegetables.
Mona Lisa
1212 Royal Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 6746
Tucked away in a residential area of the French Quarter is this jumping trattoria. The walls are covered with every type of Mona Lisa picture imaginable. The Mardi Gras Pasta is a tangy blend of shrimp and sausage in a red sauce atop linguini. The Spinach Lasagna is also a great choice at the same low price. Start off with a salad and melt-in- your-mouth garlic bread (its free, but you have to ask for it).
Liuzza's By The Track
1518 North Lopez Street New Orleans, LA 70119 United States - Phone: +1 504 218 7888
Take a short bus ride down Esplanade Avenue and discover this cafe near the racetrack. Locals have been keeping this favorite haunt a secret for far too long. The no frills appearance at Liuzza's By The Track offers a Mardi Gras decor, with memorabilia that is never taken down. The kitchen here quite possibly serves the best gumbo in town. You may follow that with fried shrimp, catfish or a platter of oysters. The homemade salad dressings are also delicious.
The Bistro
727 Rue Toulouse New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 561 5858
Located in the grand Maison De Ville, this tiny bistro is easily overlooked among all of the other more high profile choices available in the Viuex Carre. The dark paneled room has an air of an old-fashioned gentleman's club without the risqué business. The menu changes regularly and offers, when available, pan-seared Sonoma Foie Gras with grilled apples and in the fall, berry chutney that melts in your mouth. Other entrees include smoked duck breast with sun-dried cherry reduction and ravioli stuffed with grilled quail, pine nuts, currants and chevre. They also offer a Creme Brulee that is second to none.
Louis XVI
730 Rue Bienville New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 581 7300
This small, yet stylish St. Louis Hotel is home to one of New Orleans' premier dining experiences, Louis XVI. The dining rooms here feature an elegant style with a 1920s Parisian flair. Impeccably tuxedoed waiters complete an atmosphere of high formality. The classic French food is rich in sauces and flawless flavors. Menu specials include Fish Louisianne, Beef Wellington, and a fine Rack of Lamb and assorted cream-based soups. Desserts include many fire-lit, table side prepared dishes, certain to draw attention. The suggested choice is the Chocolate and Banana Mousse surrounded by Lady Fingers with Chantilly cream in an English rum sauce.
The Grill Room
300 Gravier Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 1994
This restaurant has 'new' New Orleans cuisine with a distinctive French flair. The 'English comes to the South' character is obvious in the 19th Century British paintings and the selection of frog leg tea dishes. Begin your meal with a cup of English tea. Then, move on to entrees such as the Blackened Halibut with jambalaya or a signature dish of Chinese-style smoked lobster with fried spinach and stir-fried vegetables. And finally, order the Grill Room special Crème Brule served with a mountain of fruit.
Lola's
3312 Esplanade Avenue New Orleans, LA 70119 United States - Phone: +1 504 488 6946
This mid-city storefront restaurant is fun and funky. Surviving on word of mouth advertising, Lola's is a special place even if they do not serve wine or accept credit cards. Try to arrive early so you reduce the risk of waiting in a long line. Attentive service assures the food arrives quickly. Specialties here include the meat, seafood or vegetarian paellas and fideuas with angel hair pasta. If these do not tempt your taste buds, there is also a selection of lamb, pork and chicken dishes to choose from.
Mona's Cafe & Deli
3901 Banks Street New Orleans, LA 70119 United States - Phone: +1 504 482 7743
If your are not headed to mid-city, then this may be out of the way, but it is worth the trip if you are in search of Middle Eastern cuisine. Mona's Cafe & Deli restaurant which also has an attached grocery that was once a gas station, offers casual dining and great service balanced by authentic food at the lowest prices. Standout items include the gyro and shish kebab sandwiches made with lamb or beef.
The Veranda Restaurant
444 Saint Charles Avenue New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 525 5566
Home of one of the most respected chefs in New Orleans, Willy Cohen, this restaurant serves a varied menu. The glass enclosed courtyard and private dining room create a stately New Orleans ambiance. Every Tuesday to Sunday, dining is made even more memorable by the soothing sounds of a harp at Veranda Restaurant. You may begin with Louisiana Crab Cakes in a light Creole mustard sauce or oyster and artichoke soup. Entrees of Potato Crusted Redfish with Baby Bok Choy and Ginger Beurre Blanc, or Breaded Rabbit are exceptional.
Mandina's Restaurant
3800 Canal Street New Orleans, LA 70119 United States - Phone: +1 504 482 9179
Among a long list of funky local joints, this is a classic New Orleans neighborhood restaurant. Owned and operated by the Madina family since the late 1800s, the menu at Mandina's Restaurant has not changed much over the last 50 years. And you'll be thankful, because everything they make is quite tasty. Appetizers include fried onion rings, shrimp remoulade and craw fish cakes. Specials range from trout meuniere to red beans and rice with Italian sausage. If you're craving seafood you can't go wrong with the shrimp or oyster loaf. For the finishing touch, try the Creole bread pudding.
Gautreau's
1728 Soniat Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 899 7397
All of the fixtures from the old days of Gautreau's fill the rooms (even the tin ceiling) here, including old New Orleans photographs and the famous apothecary cabinet from the original drug store. Since the menus change seasonally, try the Marinated Shrimp and Dungeness Crab when you spot them on the menu. Recent favorite entrees include Sautéed Tilapia and Shrimp or the Roasted Chicken with Wild Mushrooms. The pastry chef has mastered a fine Honey Orange Creme Brulee and delightful Triple Layer Cheesecake with chocolate, maple pecans and almonds.
Commander's Palace
1403 Washington Avenue New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 899 8221
No list of New Orleans restaurants would be complete without Commander's Palace. Voted “Best Restaurant in the United States” in 1996, this fine southern establishment lives up to its reputation with exceptional cuisine and a dining experience you will not soon forget. One piece of the package here is the wait staff; the efficient servers are attentive rather than officious. Dining rooms vary in size from large to intimate in this modified 1880s Victorian house. Commander's Palace is particularly known for its turtle soup. Other standouts include the Mississippi Roasted Quail Stuffed with Creole Crawfish Sausage and for dessert, the Creole Bread Pudding Souffle. There is also an excellent wine list with suggestions for each entree.
Clancy's
6100 Annunciation Street New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 895 1111
This contemporary bistro located Uptown offers upscale yet comfortable dining. The decor is minimal with neutral colored walls and ceiling fans above the bentwood chairs and white linen tablecloths. The easy, sophisticated charm is a favorite with professional and business types from nearby uptown neighborhoods. Dishes are imaginative twists on New Orleans favorites. Specialties include the fresh sautéed fish in cream sauce flavored with craw fish stock and fried oysters matched with Brie. The cozy bar is known for its single-malt scotch selection.
La Crepe Nanou
1410 Robert Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 899 2670
The perfect spot for an intimate, romantic dinner, Crepe Nanou restaurant won the top French bistro in New Orleans honors from Zagat's survey. Dine while being serenaded by the lilting sounds of the French accordionist. Angled windows allow patrons to gaze at the stars while they dine surrounded by a collaboration of 19th-century and modern appointments. The charm attracts tourists and keeps the locals coming back. Among the menus many offerings are crepes wrapped around a variety of fillings, including craw fish. Or, if you prefer, enjoy a big, healthy salad with flaky, grilled fish.
Port of Call
838 Esplanade Avenue New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 523 0120
This cozy little spot is the place to come when you just need a burger. Its small size is made even smaller by the influx of hungry folks looking for lunch. After 7p when the business crowds disperse the restaurant is not quite as crowded. Locals have announced the hamburgers to be the best in town. They are served with a baked potato if their large size is not enough to fill you. The attentive staff at Port of Call also serves pizzas, filet mignon, rib eye steak and New York strip.
Cafe Atchafalaya
901 Louisiana Avenue New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 891 9626
Cafe Atchafalaya boasts an unapologetic vibe here in the Uptown neighborhood of NoLa. A short distance from the riverfront, this award-winning restaurant serves up traditional and local flavors amidst minimal decor. Popular for their weekend brunch, some of the specialties on the menu include beef brisket, pork chops and fried green tomatoes.
Mother's
401 Poydras Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 523 9656
"Good food" and "cheap" are words that foodies in New Orleans love to find all under one roof. The lines here at Mother's Restaurant are a true testament to the food, if not to the great prices. The lines really are long- sometimes out the door. So if you're going and it's cool, wear a coat.Things like atmosphere and decor would only increase the overhead expense so they are not relevant here. Pictures of numerous famous patrons line the plain walls; but no one comes for the scenery. It's all about the food, especially the overstuffed po-boys. Also available here are some of the best breakfasts in the Crescent City.
Dragon's Den
435 Esplanade Avenue New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 949 1750
This hippy den, above Siam Cafe with pillows on the floor for lounging, is transformed after dark into one of the funkiest jazz venues in the city. Thai food is available at Dragon's Den from the Cafe. You never quite know what to expect in a place that functions as a bar, coffee house and performance venue, so take your chances... It could be and usually is, quite fun at Dragon's Den!
Fritzel's
733 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 561 0432
This 1831 building is home for some of the city's best musicians. In addition to regular weekend programs, there are frequent jam sessions in the wee hours of the night. Some of the regular weekend players include Jamie White and Fritzel's All stars as well as Jack Maheu and Friends. The full bar has a variety of schnapps and German beers on tap and bottled. A one-drink minimum per set is required. If you love beer, Fritzel's is the place to be!
Palm Court Jazz Cafe
1204 Decatur Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 525 0200
This cafe was opened in 1989 by Nina Buck and is now one of the most stylish jazz haunts in the Quarter. Palm Court is an elegant setting for top-notch jazz groups, Wednesday through Sunday. Its kitchen serves a variety of traditional Cajun and Creole dishes so you may dine as you listen to great music. Entrees include the Shrimp Ambrosia and Creole Beef Indienne; try the Chocolate Mousse for dessert. Reservations are recommended. Cover charge is $4 per person at tables, but there is no cover at the bar.
Praline Connection Gospel & Blues Hall
542 Frenchmen Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 943 3934
Owned by the same company that operates the Praline Connection on Frenchmen Street, this hall offers the same cuisine but also live music with dinner on Thursday, Friday and Saturday nights. Sundays at Praline Connection Gospel & Blues Hall features a great gospel buffet brunch.
Bombay Club
830 Conti Street New Orleans, LA 70112 United States - Phone: +1 504 586 0972
This elegant bar features jazz from Wednesday through Saturday evenings. Along with the music, the Bombay Club restaurant offers one of the best martinis around along with a rich variety of drinks. The place is formal and romantic, hence no jeans or shorts allowed. Fine dining, candle lit area, wooden furnitures and a courtyard all together make up the Bombay Club. The Menu is elaborate and Executive Chef Nick Gile, has a sumptuous meal in store for you. Try the Oysters Rockefeller, Louisiana Shrimp Martini or the mouth watering Cajun Grilled New York Sirloin just to name a few. A treat for those in love, to spend a quiet time and enjoy the
The Steak Knife
888 Harrison Avenue New Orleans, LA 70124 United States - Phone: +1 504 488 8981
This mid-city restaurant is a classy neighborhood hangout. The large dining room features pale wood and beige appointments, thick carpeting and comfy upholstered chairs. Begin with the Seraphine Salad then move on to either a Filet Mignon or New York Strip with a side of fried onion rings. If you are not in the mood for steak, try the fried shrimp, grilled veal chops or the rack of lamb. It is open from Tuesday to Saturday, 5pm onwards.
Red Fish Grill
115 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 598 1200
Ralph Brennan, of the city's well-known restaurant clan, owns this casual, high-energy grill. This festive atmosphere holds true to the city it inhabits. A large central dining room is surrounded on three sides by banquettes, and a huge oyster bar is covered with images of the seafood that is also the focus of the menu. The kitchen produces a delicious barbecue shrimp po'boy, seafood gumbo with nuggets of alligator sausage and baked oysters on the half shell. The signature dessert is a variation of bananas foster.
Irene's Cuisine
539 Saint Phillip Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 529 8811
This cozy little Italian Creole eatery is nestled on an obscure corner in the Vieux Carre. Irene leads the kitchen in grand Italian style. Scrumptious sensations range from Italian sausage steeped in roast peppers, roasted chicken bathed in olive oil and herbs and manicotti overflowing with ground veal and mozzarella. The Italian-style Baked Alaska is covered with a blue flame of ignited Grappa liqueur. The popularity of this spot is obvious if you come at peak dinner hours. You may have to wait in the "holding room" prior to being seated.
Fiorella's Cafe
45 French Market Place New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 528 9566
Located just steps away from the French Market, this is a casual eatery specializing in Po' Boy sandwiches and the hearty breakfast. Dual entrances make this cafe easily accessible from Chartres Street, as well as the French Market. The interior may be small and dark, but all is excused once you are served some of the serious New Orleans home-style cooking. Plate lunches make this a popular place with the business crowd at lunch but tourists do not be warned off. Try going in the morning for its breakfast. Hop in devour the designated specials served on most days of the week.
Dickie Brennan's Steakhouse
716 Iberville Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 2467
This creation by a younger member of the Commander's Palace clan specializes in steaks and chops with that special New Orleans touch. Dark cherry walls, tile floors and antique brass fixtures add to the resounding masculine charm that collaborates so well with the assortment of steak options. The wines are all red but then again, what else would you have with red meat? Steaks are made divine with a variety of light seasonings, butter sauces, garlic rubs and mushroom peppercorn crusts. Never fear if you are not a big steak fan, the menu also features excellent renditions of typical New Orleans foods and desserts.
Franky & Johnny's
321 Arabella Street New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 899 9146
This neighborhood hot spot is located Uptown and features seafood. Walls of this low-ceilinged bar are adorned with football jerseys and memorabilia. A jukebox contributes to the loud atmosphere. Steaming pots of boiled shrimp, crabs and crawfish are ready to be washed down with ice-cold beer. Po-boys here feature a variety of choices including crawfish tails, oysters, meatballs in tomato sauce or roast beef with gravy.
F and M Patio Bar
4841 Tchoupitoulas Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 895 6784
If you like to start your evenings late and end them early in the morning, then F&M Patio Bar is the hot spot for you. Dancing, pool tables, and a kitchen that stays open as long as you can stay awake are just a few of the features. There is also a tropical patio, jukebox and one of those fun photo booths, so you are sure not to miss a minute of memorable moments!
The Bayou Bar
2031 Saint Charles Avenue New Orleans, LA 70140 United States - Phone: +1 504 524 0581
As you enter the Pontchartrain Hotel, this upscale lounge can be found right off the main lobby. A welcome addition in 1947, it remains a favorite stop for professionals as well as guests. Even if you are not a guest of the Pontchartrain, you might enjoy the cocktail hour. While you enjoy your drink, with complimentary hor d'oevres, notice the artwork that adorns the walls. These murals on canvas by local New Orleans artist, Charles Reinike, are considered priceless. For your entertainment, a piano bar plays from 9pm to 1am Thursdays through Sundays. It is open from Monday to Thursday, 4 pm onwards and from Friday to Sunday, 11 am onwards.
Cafe Marigny
640 Frenchmen Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 945 4472
A welcome and friendly retreat from the ongoing activity of the Vieux Carre, and a pleasant rest stop from shopping in the French Market. You may choose a cappuccino to sip while you read or grab a sandwich before heading back out into the bustle.
Neutral Ground Coffee House
5110 Danneel Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 891 3381
Just a short cab ride from downtown, this coffee shop has a '60s influenced decor. Appointments are just as you would expect—overstuffed furnishings and chess boards. Sunday nights are for the aspiring singer, songwriter or musicians to take the stage. If that doesn't draw you, come back another night and hear the professional contemporary or folk singers who perform here.
Cafe Lafitte In Exile
901 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 8397
This two-story bar with its famous balcony is always a lively place. Cafe Lafitte In Exile is a fun spot if you are looking for action and has long been a gathering place for gay men of every age group. There is always a special event on the calendar, from body painting contests to the annual Gay Mardi Gras. The crowd is rough edged and somewhat older, but always welcoming. The bar is lit by many gas lamps, making it very dark and shadowy. The bar is good for those looking for a more subdued gay bar along Bourbon.
Carrollton Station
8140 Willow Street New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 865 9190
This cozy uptown club, Carrollton Station, features blues guitar greats. Such famous names as John Mooney and the beloved Lil Queenie with her latest group have performed here. Sunday is for the acoustic songwriter that may not be as well known. Cover charge varies depending on the act but is usually not heavy on your pocket! From Monday to Friday it opens at 3pm, Saturday 1.30 pm and Sundays on 12 pm.
Coffee Pot Restaurant
714 Saint Peter Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 524 3500
This historic restaurant is a favorite of the tourist crowd. It has served home-style classic Creole dishes for over 50 years. Coffee Pot Restaurant is best known for serving calas, a hard-to-find Creole rice cake that is extremely popular for breakfast. Other dishes include salad Jayne, seafood gumbo, red beans and rice, fried chicken, seafood platter, omelets, bread pudding, and fruit cobblers. Or you can simply grab a cup of coffee and sit outdoors watching the world go by!
Bywater Bar-B-Que
3162 Dauphine Street New Orleans, LA 70117 United States - Phone: +1 504 944 4445
Bywater Bar-B-Que is located in an ancient building that was once a pharmacy. Its tiny open-air cafe features lovingly prepared Southern food complemented with Mexican flair. Several tables, a small bar, and paintings by a local artist create a homey casual feel in this off-the-beaten-path eatery. Good appetizer choices are the Mexican Skins or the Crawfish Quesadillas. Opt for the barbecue combo of ribs and chicken and arm yourself with extra napkins. Vegans should take note—they also serve an excellent grilled vegetable platter with a baked potato!
Doson Noodle House
135 North Carrollton Avenue New Orleans, LA 70119 United States - Phone: +1 504 309 7283
Located in Carrollton New Orleans, this Chinese restaurant also features Vietnamese cuisine roots of its chef, Doson Ha. The setting of this neighborhood eatery is simple and casual. Doson Noodle House is popular in the summer for its takeout menu. This is a good alternative to the endless Cajun/Creole establishments that dominate the area. The prices for the Vietnamese dishes are more reasonable than their Chinese counterparts.
Crystal Room
833 Poydras Street New Orleans, LA 70112 United States - Phone: +1 504 581 3111
The Crystal Room is a long-standing symbol of elegant dining with superior cuisine. Under the cooking magic of experienced chefs, this is one of the top steak houses in New Orleans. Swing music fromthe 1930s, 1940s and 1950s attracts a dance crowd. Whether you are there for the food or the music, a complimentary basket of fresh breads with herbal butter is provided. Soft candlelight and opulent chandeliers create an aura of romance. The surrounding tall columns and fine art work that adorn the walls provide a majestic presence. You may choose from 14-oz ribeyes or treat yourself at the pasta bar!
Jack Dempsey's
738 Poland Avenue New Orleans, LA 70117 United States - Phone: +1 504 943 9914
This well established neighborhood restaurant is so popular it usually has a line out the door and a swarm of hungry customers packed into the bar waiting for a coveted seat. The atmosphere is unassuming and lacks all hints at trying to be chic. Jack Dempsey's is an excellent place for families with children (except for the wait in line). Despite a usual wait it is well worth it. Two of the more popular items are a three part broiled platter combining shrimp, oysters, and broiled fish topped with creamy crabmeat au gratin, and the steak and lobster combo. Though whatever you choose will delight the tastebuds.
Joey K's
3001 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 891 0997
This delightfully old fashioned restaurant is a solid family oriented establishment. Simply casual without a lot of fuss is the overall picture of Joey K's. With patrons that vary from the single businessman to a couple with children, this is an eatery for all walks of life. Depending on the day of the week you can enjoy, corned beef and cabbage ,lamb shank and mustard greens or meatloaf. But never fear, on any given day you may have pan fried trout topped with crab meat and shrimp, the fabulous gumbo, fried seafood platters and a children's menu of grilled cheese or spaghetti with meatballs.
Juan's Flying Burrito's
2018 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 569 0000
Established in 1996, Juan's is a chain of restaurants which offer hearty Mexican dishes at pocket-friendly prices. With walls adorned with flyers and artwork by local artists in need of a first time gallery display venue, the restaurant has a trendy and upbeat ambiance. Corporate officials rub shoulders with the hipster crowd, musicians and artists. The menu features an array of burritos, enchiladas, tacos, quesadillas and other traditional MExican dishes with only a couple of dishes going over 10 dollars in price. All in all, this is a great place to dine if you are on a tight budget.
Lebanon's Cafe
1506 South Carrollton Avenue New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 862 6200
Chef and owner, Hussain Sheeref, a native of Iraq shows his culinary skills at Lebanon's Cafe serving authentic Mid-Eastern cuisine. There are tables laid outside for those who prefer an al fresco atmosphere. A festive mural depicting a market scene of Baghdad dominates the interior. The tables close to one another create a sense of intimacy. Hummus is a staple within the realm of these cafe walls. A special spread, tahini, is a perfect appetizer with any entree. Try the spinach pie, the marinated chicken with tomatoes and lettuce, and the sandwiches with sautéed eggplant, mozzarella cheese and tomatoes.
Nirvana
4308 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 894 9797
The third, and newest Indian restaurant from the Keswani family appears, just like its predecessors, to be to be a taste hit. Immaculate furniture creates the perfect atmosphere for quintessential dining at Nirvana. Communal dining with up to 12 people is an experience in itself. A huge menu features a number of choices that could be included in the nine course eating experience that Indian dining embodies. Starters include Rugdi Pati—potato cakes with curried garbanzo beans, and Chicken Chat. There are also 13 different bread types of shrimp dishes cooked to perfection.
Angeli On Decatur
1141 Decatur Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 566 0077
Moving from Uptown to the French Quarter has transformed this all night eatery into a hip haven for dining. The decor is wonderfully unassuming. Patrons from all walks of life frequent this hot spot. Bar hoppers looking for a bite to eat at 2am or the weary traveler just making it into town have found this to be a welcome site. An eclectic, slightly Mediterranean flair reigns in this all-night hot spot. From burgers to fettuccine and Portobello mushroom entrees, there is something for everyone. Breakfast items, including Belgian waffles with fresh berries, are available around the clock. Hop in at any time to be treated with a delicious fare!
Boswell's Jamaican Grill
3521 Tulane Avenue New Orleans, LA 70119 United States - Phone: +1 504 482 6600
Chef Boswell cooks from the heart. He creates most of the dishes served here and enjoys his work to the fullest. His delight comes as he watches the expressions of pleasure as patrons dine on his Caribbean fare. Housed in an unassuming brick storefront, its interior is comfortable and casual. Festive colors of yellow and fuschia are warm and inviting. The bright walls are adorned with scenes of rural Jamaican village life. Menu features include Ox Tail, Vegetarian Roti, Curried Goat, Steamed Fish and Jerk Chicken. Boswell's Jamaican Grill also sell plantain chips, curry powder, and various spices.
The Trolley Stop
1923 Saint Charles Avenue New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 523 0090
This old converted gas station called the Trolley Stop has been transformed into a 24-hour a day eatery. For the weary traveler looking for a good bite that is also cheap, this is the place. Many guests from the surrounding hotels on St. Charles call here for a late night snack. Menu items include Po'boy sandwiches and plate dinners. A full breakfast includes Stuffed Omelets, Pancakes, and French Toast.
Dick & Jenny's
4501 Tchoupitoulas Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 894 9880
Richard Benz, formerly of Gautreau's, has mastered the "new" New Orleans cuisine making this a dining hotspot. Dick & Jenny's with comfortable seating is a collaboration of home and contemporary styles. They complement each other nicely inside pumpkin colored walls adorned with hand-painted plates and vases of fresh flowers. The atmosphere is upscale casual. Start with the Pain Perdu or the fried oysters. For dinner opt for one of its many choices of Smoked Whole Fish, or go for the Pecan Crusted Gulf Fish. Decadent delights for the sweet tooth include Crème Brulee du Jour, and the Chocolate Chip Cookie Ice Cream Sandwich Sundae. A wine list of whites and reds are sold by the glass or by the bottle!
GB's Patio Bar & Grill
8117 Maple Street New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 861 0067
Located on the riverside of Carrollton, this hamburger haven/hangout called GB's Patio Bar & Grill plays host to an eclectic group of nine-to-fivers. Play a game of pool while waiting for lunch or dinner to be served. Inexpensive entrees include Chicken Quesadillas with Salsa and Tortilla Chips. Another good choice is the more traditional Filet Mignon (grilled or blackened) or Yellow Fin Tuna Filet. Make sure to ask about the Crawfish Boils, which are a New Orleans tradition. There is also a good selection of dishes to please the vegetarian diner.
The Outlet Collection at Riverwalk
500 Port of New Orleans Place New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 1555
This modern day indoor marketplace is conveniently located close to the Ernest M. Morial Convention Center and the Aquarium of the Americas. This strategic positioning makes it easily accessible to families touring the museum and to businesspersons hoping to quickly pick up some souvenirs during lunch. Riverwalk Market Place is located on the Mississippi River at the junction of Poydras, Canal, and Julia Streets. It is home to 120 stores and restaurants filled with the best gifts, tastes, and styles in New Orleans.
Bourbon French Parfums
805 Royal Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 4480
Bourbon French Parfums, the first parfumeur in New Orleans, was established in 1843. It still utilizes the same methods in creating the finest fragrances. Each scent is crafted with time and care to produce only the best in perfumes. This commitment to tradition and excellence has won the Bourbon French Parfum Company a lasting place in New Orleans. The fragrance lines extend from bath and lotions to fragrances and everything in between.
Gumbo Ya Ya
219 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 7484
This upscale souvenir shop sits in the heart of the French Quarter on Bourbon Street. Gumbo Ya Ya caters to tourists, and has numerous offerings, including funky T-shirts for adults and children. New Orleans favorites such as voodoo dolls and Creole pralines are two examples of the extensive collection of New Orleans' keepsakes that this shop has to offer. The shop also sells current and retired Beanie Babies and other collectibles that are not unique to New Orleans origin.
Bayou Threads
529 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 523 2659
You can easily find a lot of New Orleans in this store featuring denim, hand painted shirts and embroidered designs, locally hand crafted dolls, jewelry, hand blown glass, souvenirs, books and culinary items. Each piece is uniquely "New Orleans" and will help you remember your visit for years to come. Bayou Threads also offers worldwide shipping so you don't have to carry your little jewel with you on your trip back home!
La Vanti For Men
1400 Poydras Street New Orleans, LA 70112 United States - Phone: +1 504 581 7260
This family owned business has been serving New Orleans for 30 years, providing the finest in designer clothing for men. La Vanti For Men specializes in only the best names, such as Versace, Jhane and Barnes and provides unmatched service. This shop knows how to sell their wears—they treat each customer like a king. Fittings are done with care and Alterations are provided as a complimentary service.
Rubensteins
102 Saint Charles Avenue New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 581 6666
Since 1924, Rubensteins has been serving New Orleans with the best in apparel and accessories. This men's apparel store is rated one of the top ten in the United States specializing in formal and casual apparel and various accessories. A person coming into Rubensteins can buy everything from hats to shoes. The service is unrivaled with a staff that waits on you hand and foot. There is also a full alteration service on the premises and free valet parking.
Cass-Garr Company
237 Chartres Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 8298
If you are one of those people that likes little objects that do nothing, then Cass-Garr Company is the shop for you. The specialty items include bric-a-brac in enamel, bronze, glass and porcelain finishes. Tiny imitations of crawfish on newspaper, sit beside porcelain renditions of policemen, nurses and many other professions. So if you've got a quarter inch of space left on your dresser, take one of these treasures home!
Jon Antiques
4605 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 899 4482
When you find yourself on Magazine Street in the French Quarter, you will catch on quickly as to which shops are crowned king. The term "antiquing" could quite possibly have been coined here on this very street. Locals and tourists spend hours browsing through one store and then another looking for just the right piece at just the right price. This uptown emporium is one not to miss. The display includes an extensive selection of 18th and 19th century French and English furnishings with accessories popular to these time periods.
Keil's Antiques
325 Royal Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 4552
Established in 1899 and still under the direction of the founding family, Keil's Antiques offers a taste of all that glitters. The items found here may remind you of the many fine amenities at some of New Orleans best hotels. The upscale inventory includes rare antique jewelry for the collector or the lady with a taste for the golden past. Other items include chandeliers, lamps, crystals, lanterns and mirrors, which are sure to add a dimension of class to any room. The store also has a nice collection of English and French furniture.
Bella Luna Gourmet Pasta Shoppe
914 North Peters Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 529 1583
Bella Luna Gourmet Pasta Shoppe, associated with the Bella Luna restaurant is a gourmet chef's delight. The store features many of the items you will find on the menu at Bella Luna. These items include hand-made pastas, succulent sauces, fresh mushrooms, olive oils and baked goods.
French Quarter Postal Emporium
1000 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 525 6651
At times the French Quarter can appear to be a world within itself. So it only seems natural that it has its own alternative post office. Located on one of the most famous streets in New Orleans, is this stationer-emporium that offers all the services that the United States Post Office does. It is convenient to all hotels and shops in the Quarter, so it is easy to find that perfect post card and mail it all in one outing. Also offered are mailbox, packing and shipping services as well as a nice selection of cards and stationery.
Le Monde Creole
1000 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 568 1801
Le Monde Creole is a living history of the Locoul family through five generations. Shrouded by trees and plants, walk around the long courtyards, the patios and witness the journey of the family home through the turbulent times of American history. Pre-arranged tours are available in English and French, just call in advance. You will be taken through the French Quarter, eerie cemeteries and narrow passageways. Smoking is not allowed. Tours generally last for about two hours. Open daily 10.30a onwards.
The Shops at Jax Brewery
600 Decatur Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 566 7245
The only riverfront shopping and dining experience in the French Quarter, Jackson Brewery or JAX, as it is affectionately called, boasts of more than 100 shops and restaurants offering regional and international food and merchandise. JAX also has many great places to stop for a quick lunch while touring the quarter. This is a great place to bring visitors because of its pristine beauty.
The Brass Monkey
235 Royal Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 561 0688
A store full of gifts as unusual as its name. Gift your grandma with a walking stick or your sibling with a medical instrument. You will find the most distinctive items here, and at affordable prices. Pick up the old French and English antique reproductions. Located in the French Quarter you will find The Brass Monkey as an awesome spot to hunt for antiques.
Beckham's Bookshop
228 Decatur Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 9875
This large book emporium offers shelves upon shelves of rare, antique and second hand books. There are literally thousands of selections to choose from. If you are a collector of the written word, (regardless of genre) Beckham's Bookshop is a must-stop shop for you. Both dealers and the casual book lover will be delighted at the assortment of first editions and paperback bargains. The large comfortable armchairs will invite you to sit and enjoy a good read. This is not a place that hurries its customers.
Aunt Sally's Praline Shops
810 Decatur Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 800 642 7257
At this French Market shop, you know the pralines are fresh because the staff performs the 150-year old process of cooking the pecan pralines right before your eyes. These confectionery delights are just the right sweet treat for goodie bags, a finishing touch for a dinner party or an indulging snack for yourself. The finest and freshest in original Creole pralines can be found here. Also available is a large selection of regional cookbooks and books on the history of New Orleans.
The Fudgery
1 Poydras, No. 8889 New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 800 849 3834
The Fudgery is a candy store and has daily demonstrations that combine fudge making, singing and joke telling. As always, free samples of their fine fudge are handed out following each performance. The first store can up 25 years ago in North Carolina and since then the store chain has changed the concept of fudge making.
Pippen Lane
2929 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 269 0106
Pippen Lane is a children's emporium offering timeless designs in clothing, shoes, toys, furniture and linens. Since girls are 'sugar and spice and everything nice', you will not hesitate to pick and choose from such fine apparel as Tinkerbell by Posies, Helena and Harry Dress or Layette by Petit Elephant, just to name a few. For older girls, there are the more sophisticated Kenzo and Nicole Miller. Pippenlane also offers a great selection of toys imported from around the world. Many of these toys are imported from Germany's Steiff. The shop's furniture and linens are also of the highest quality and sure to please even the most discerning shopper.
The Esplanade
1401 West Esplanade Avenue Kenner, LA 70065 United States - Phone: +1 504 465 2161
This shopping experience is easy and comfortable and full of buying pleasures. Browse through wonderful stores including Banana Republic, Bath and Body Works, Old Navy, Nine West, American Eagle Outfitters, Macy's and more than 135 other specialty shops. If you love to shop, there is no other place like this one.
Joan Good Antiques & Jewelry
809 Royal Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 525 1705
The Joan Good Antiques & Jewelry has a fine selection of jewelry. This shop has a large collection of garnet jewelry, antique cameos, pearls, (even rare black pearls), lockets, hearts, aquamarines and Japanese/Chinese ceramics and antiques. This shop is great for those looking to find rare or unique pieces from the past.
Violet's
808 Chartres Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 569 0088
This shop offers gifts and treasures you will never find anywhere else, we promise, including one of a kind clothing and jewelry of the French Victorian era.
Wehmeier's Belt Shop
719 Toulouse Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 525 2758
Established in 1951 and located in the heart of the French Quarter, Wehmeier's offers one of the largest selections of fine, exotic leather goods in the South. And yes, lots of belts are included! The discerning lady or gentleman is sure to find some quality goods that they will love and will last a lifetime.
Meyer the Hatter, Ltd
120 Saint Charles Avenue New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 525 1048
This shop features the South's largest selection of hats and caps. Third generation owners sell head wear from leading manufacturers including Akubra, Biltmore, Stetson, Dobbs, Fiesta, Kangol and more.
Southern Candymakers
334 Decatur Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 523 5544
Made fresh daily, these pralines at Southern Candymakers are to be idolized! Prepared in view from their shining kitchen, just a whiff and you're hooked. From the temptatious array of Pralines, Tortues, Bourbon Street Bark to the native delights like Peanut Pirogues, Chocolate Clusters, Fudge and other classic candies. All these lip-smacking wonders are sure to lure every customer who enters here!
The Cigar Factory
415 Decatur Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 800 550 0775
Located in the heart of the French Quarter, Cigar Factory is a cigar-lover's dream. Here, you can watch master cigarmakers at work. Among the specialty styles made here are the Plantation Reserve, Tres Hermanos and Vieux Carre. There are tables along the wall so you can sit and smoke or just watch the masters do their work. This is also the only cigar factory in New Orleans, boasting 100% hand-rolled cigars. Cigarmakers are available for special events.
Adler's
722 Canal Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 523 5292
Find a beautiful piece of jewelry for that special someone at Adler's, who has been selling fine jewelry in New Orleans since 1898. A selection of quality jewelry, watches, chinaware, crystal, silver and giftware are for sale at this shop. Gift services are available for convention and corporate purposes.
Mignon Faget
3801 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 891 2005
Mignon Faget draws her inspiration for her exquisite jewelery from the Crescent City she loves. Her objects of adornment are uniquely hand-crafted in a shop on Magazine Street. There are nine different collections, each identified by its unique name, such as Schema II, Botanical, Romanesque Return and Sea. All pieces are inscribed with Mignon Faget's signature, guaranteeing its exceptional quality. You may view some of her pieces at the main studio display room. A few of the styles include gold, silver, or bronze d'or fashioned into pendants, rings, bracelets, shirt studs, cuff links and many more.
Faulkner House Books
624 Pirates Alley New Orleans, LA 70119 United States - Phone: +1 504 524 2940
This building was home to the great William Faulkner while he wrote Mosquitoes and Soldiers Pay. Every shelf at Faulkner House Books is occupied by a great work that is a collectible as well as a literary landmark. This book shop boasts a large collection of first editions by Faulkner himself as well as many other first-rate authors.
Laura's Candies
331 Chartres Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 525 3880
Established in 1913, Laura's Candies is said to be the oldest candy store in New Orleans. Just two of the decadent indulgences from the confection kitchen are the fantastic pralines and the golf-ball sized truffles that are to die for as also the chocolates. Pralines are from $18.75 for a dozen and boxes of varying size are from $14.99-20.99.
Leah's Candy Kitchen
714 Saint Louis Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 523 5662
Leah's is right at the top of the list for the best candy shops. Everything is made from scratch, from the fillings to the chocolate-pecan brittle. What makes the candy the sweetest is probably the second and third generations of Laura's family who makes these sweet sensations! Try the creole praline, Creamy praline or creole candies all of which are tempting once eaten.
Orient Express
3905 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 899 3060
This upscale shop, aptly named Orient Express for the famous rail car, offers a little bit of everything. They feature a collection of antiques, santos and objects d'art from around the world. They have their own line of hand smocked children's clothing plus toys and gifts for the little ones. On store are jewelery, smocked dresses for girls, knitwear, gowns, bows and hats— all that make you look "oh so feminine". The store also houses a decent collection for boys.
The Private Connection Inc.
3927 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 899 4944
This shop's specialty is Indonesian art as well as hand crafted gifts, jewelry, unique furniture, architectural pieces and furnishings of both contemporary and antique styles. The articles hold a very Asian and Indonesian influence. The second location of Private Connection Inc., at Decatur Street, is in the French Quarter.
Thomas Mann Gallery
1810 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 581 2284
This gallery, conceived by "techno-romantic" jewelry designer Thomas Mann, aspires to "re-define contemporary living" with an eclectic collection of jewelry, lighting and home furnishings. Take a trip to the Thomas Mann Gallery and find a fusion of the old and new designs in clothing, fashion and house hold commodities.
Brass Lion
516 Royal Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 525 9815
Jewelry selections vary from romantic, frilly, new and those with a vintage feel. Recent additions at Brass Lion include estate jewelry including some very delicate rings and intricately formed pieces of jewelry. The prices are very reasonable for the quality and the quality is very good. Overall a steal and a must visit shop.
Quarter Moon
918 Royal Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 524 3208
This shop is owned by Ellis Anderson, who creates much of the beautifully timeless jewelery pieces you will find here. Her style includes both diverse and unusually interesting pieces. Check out the "wearable art" produced by 25 local artists at Quarter Moon. The ever changing collection includes jewelery, hand-woven clothing, hand painted silks, hats, leather masks and scarves. Incredible art and craft so finely done!
French Market
1008 North Peters Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 2621
From the famed beignets of Cafe Du Monde to the fabulous farmer's/flea market going strong since 1812, this shopping experience incorporates buying, dining and entertainment all within a five block radius of the famous French Quarter. The French Market boundary begins on Decatur Street across from Jackson Square. While you stroll through you may see any number of items, including candy, cookware, spices and mixes, clothes, fresh produce, crafts and toys, memorabilia and even gator-on-a-stick. The Market is open 24 hours a day, seven days a week and is free for browsing.
Rab Dab
508 Saint Phillip Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 525 6662
With all the fabulous women's fashion stops in the French Quarter, the guys may be feeling a little left out. Not to worry Rab Dab is here for all those of the more masculine persuasion. From sharp suits for a night out in the town to more low-key looks for lunch by the pool, find it all here. The store also features accessories for any ensembles and jewelery just for men.
The Rink
2727 Prytania Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 566 5011
Built in the 1880s, and formerly boasting as the South's first skating rink, now sits a small collection of specialty shops. The Garden District Book Shop is one that encourages relaxation from all your strolling. Or, take a break at PJ's Coffee and Tea shop after you snag that rare book, of course.
Ragin' Daisy
901 Chartres Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 544 5482
Since New Orleans holds one of the best reputations as a party town, you never know when you might need the perfect outfit. Whether it is a costume for Mardi Gras or just a party dress, Ragin' Daisy is a good place to start—especially if you do not want to pay big bucks. Try taking a rummage through these vintage apparels that feature everything from western shirts from the 1940s to 1970s to prom dresses. Complement these elegant outfits with the chic accessories and you are ready to go!
Vieux Carre Wines and Spirits
422 Chartres Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 568 9463
A bottle of white or a bottle of red? Maybe you prefer a stronger liqueur or instead? Whatever beverage your palette prefers you can find it at Vieux Carre Wines and Spirits. This wine merchant features a large selection of imported and domestic beers, wines and spirits plus cheeses to compliment any beverage. Wine is served by the glass and there are frequent wine tasting events. Call for event details.
Dashka Roth Contemporary Jewelry & Judaica
332 Chartres Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 523 0805
This jewelry shop, located in the French Quarter, specializes in handmade contemporary jewelry. The collection, at Dashka Roth Contemporary Jewelry & Judaica, represents work created by over 150 artists. Come browse the modern accessories at this historic building to your heart's delight. You will be hard pressed to find another gallery with wearable artworks as beautiful as those found here. If you find something you cannot take with you, they will ship it for you.
Vintage 329
329 Royal Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 525 2262
This unique shop, run by the Sutton family, offers a wide variety of celebrity memorabilia. The objects presented range from presidential autographs to items belonging to celebrities. Vintage 329 has countless items from great names, such as Julia Roberts and Sting. You never know quite what you'll come across as you peruse the selection at Vintage 329.
Ballin's Ltd.
721 Dante Street New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 866 4367
This little shop is straight off the runway with beautiful clothing and accessories. Their haute couture collection includes apparel by top designers such as Hino & Malee, City by Yansi Fugel, as well as Julie & Leonard.
Hemline
609 Chartres Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 592 0242
If you are on Chartres Street, then you are among more than a dozen divine,ittle dress shops to wander through. This one has made a name for itself as a provider of unique styles with cutting edge taste. The clothes found here are sure to make a statement and catch the eye of passersby. This is a boutique with just the right outfit for a bold night out!
New Orleans Knitwear
2917 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 800 338 4864
New Orleans Knitwear boasts the title of First Mail Order Catalog in the Nation. Certainly a most well deserved notation for the upscale quality of the Ballin's Ltd. and Joan Vass line of apparel. The store says it offers styles for everyone from, teens to 70 year olds. Enter their store at Magazine street to be amazed with their collection of elegant tops, bottoms, ultra-cool accessories and sassy shoes. So come by to reinvent your wardrobe and create your own unique style!
Pied Nu
5521 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 899 4118
The major shopping street in New Orleans would arguably be Magazine Street with over 140 shops. This boutique features designer items from shoes, jewelry, clothing and accessories. Top names include Calvin Klein, Kate Spade and Lisa Jenks.
Symmetry
8138 Hampson Street New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 861 9925
Symmetry, located in the Riverbend, offers a wide variety of fine jewelry and custom design services for any original pieces that you wish to have made. Work is performed by a number of skilled craftsman to present an exquisite collection of dazzles. Besides being a jewelry store, this store also offers antique jewelry restoration and traditional jewelry repairs. Order a custom made set to gift your loved one or simply pamper yourself with these beautiful designs!
As You Like It Silver Shop
3033 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 828 2311
If you are looking for a set of flatware or missing pieces to match what you have, then this is the shop for you. They feature hundreds of current and discontinued flatware patterns at below retail prices. If you can not find what you are looking for, then the friendly shop keepers are always willing to look for those hard to find pieces.
Bush Antiques
2109 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 581 3518
There are so many antique stores up and down Magazine Street that it gets hard to distinguish one from the other. It is a nice change when you find one that specializes in just a few specific items. This Uptown shop carries the largest selection of antique beds in the area. Another unique feature is the exquisite selection of religious art from France and Belgium.
Magazine Antique Mall
3017 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 896 9994
This virtual flea market of upscale wares features ten antique dealers all under one roof. There are an assortment of items to choose from including clocks, furniture, music boxes, dolls, jewelry, porcelain and much more. You will find an exceptional collection dating back to the 18th and 19th Centuries of Europe, Asia and America. If you have not found what you are looking for in any of the other shops, then you might find it here. They have something for everyone.
Sigi Russell Antiques
4304 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 891 5390
If you are looking for a specific piece from a certain time period then you may find it at Sigi's. The eclectic mixture of tableware items and furniture represent a variety of moments in history.
Dos Jefes Uptown Cigar Shop
5700 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 899 3030
This Uptown hot spot, with its wooden Indian guarding the door, offers quality humidors. They also feature an extensive line of cigars and a vast selection of smoking accouterments.
The Herb Import Company
5055 Canal Street New Orleans, LA 70119 United States - Phone: +1 504 488 4889
With two locations you should be able to find any of the outer body beauty building products you need. This herb and vitamin central has all the latest supplements for body building, shrinking, detox and energy products. They also have plenty of aromatherapy incense as well as lotions for soothing all types of skin.
Rothschild's Antiques
321 Royal Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 523 5816
Rothschild's is known as a fourth generation furniture merchandiser and is also a full service jeweler. Items that may be of more interest than the furniture are the antique and custom-made jewelry. They boast over ten thousand square feet to display the English and French furnishings as well as marble mantles and porcelain.
Pieces, The Private Connection
3927 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 899 4944
While New Orleans is originally a creation of France and Spain, it has become a virtual melting pot of different ethnic cultures from around the world. And they all converge at this store selling hand crafted items from Bali, Indonesia and Java as well as other foreign ports, one of a kind antiques, fine art, silver and textiles. Pieces, the Private Connection will lure with their unique and spellbinding collection. This place is a must-visit for art lovers!
Bevolo Gas and Electric Lights
521 Conti Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 9485
This family business has been going strong since 1945. Bevolo Gas and Electric Lights proudly boasts the title of the oldest and largest manufacturer of handmade, hand-riveted copper lanterns in the country. These open flame gas lights can be found throughout the French Quarter in their famous establishments. You may stop by the gallery and choose from its fine selection or order your own custom built fixtures that are made by on-site craftsmen—who will scale and make size recommendations according to your plans. Then you will receive a complimentary, computer-generated drawing that details what will best suit your needs. So step in, to own these distinctive and unique lightings!
Fischer-Gambino
637 Royal Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 524 9067
This French Quarter shop is truly eclectic. Their specialty is fine lighting fixtures but they also feature such acclaimed artists as Doug Anderson who is famous for his porcelain chess sets. Other feature artists who also have work displayed in the White House include Ziggy Cole, Laney and Zack Oxman. If you are looking for an exceptional piece of artwork whatever the form, this is the place to look first.
French Antique Shop
225 Royal Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 524 9861
This French antique shop began in Paris, but relocated to New Orleans more than a century ago. A family-owned gallery, French Antique Shop has an international reputation for collecting and selling quality antiques. Its extensive inventory of lighting, furniture, chairs, mirrors and objects of beauty are drawn from both the 18th and 19th Centuries. Pieces are taken from such periods as those of Louis XV, Louis XVI, the Third Empire and Napoleon III. Gold leaf mirrors hang over marble tables that display marble statues. All are lit by bronze and crystal chandeliers fit for a king's castle!
Vanda
710 Dublin Street New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 314 6377
This small boutique in the Riverbend area of New Orleans specializes in silk clothes and silver jewelry. Run by a small family, Vanda is a fairly new addition to the area. The owner is a skill seamtress and one of the friendliest people you will ever meet. The clothes are of Asian design, using vibrant and breathtaking colors that captivate the eye. The jewelry, which is designed specifically for this shop, is exquisite and made of fine silver and semi-precious stones. The items at Vanda are unlike anything you will find in the rest of the city, and perfect for those seeking unique offerings at moderate prices.
Marie Laveau's House of Voodoo
739 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 581 3751
In the heart of the French Quarter, this voodoo shop doubles as a shrine to the famous Voodoo Queen, Marie Laveau of New Orleans. Psychic readings, voodoo dolls, statues and altars are the real thing, not found in other touristy spots. Whether you come to the Big Easy for business or pleasure, you can find an original souvenir and even learn a little something of the black arts from around the world at Marie Laveau's House of Voodoo.
Magazine Street
Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 342 4435 / +1 866 679 4764(Toll Free)
Whenever you are in New Orleans, for business or pleasure, a must stop is Magazine Street. This is the street that has it all no matter what your shopping needs are. Whatever you're looking for, be it fashion, vintage clothing, children's clothing, shoes, or accessories, Magazine Street is the place to be. When you start to work up an appetite, try seafood, French cuisine, farmer's markets, chocolates, or stop into one of the many bars for a pick-me-up.
Harris Antiques
233 Royal Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 523 1605
Old has made a comeback in a big way this century. It's the height of sophistication for the home to be furnished with inlaid period furniture. The older it is, the better. Ornate, intricate, hand-crafted, and chiseled are the different kind of designs that appeal to the masses today. There are various stores that make dead ringer copies but nothing can replace the charm of the real McCoy. Imagine caressing the smooth, polished surface of a Beidermeier and realizing that the piece once graced a stately lord's mansion and now, you possess it.
Rousset Antiques & Textiles
600 Conti Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 581 3636
Women and furniture are like fine wine—they only get better with age. This adage is proved with the vast antique collection in this French Quarter store. Rousset Antiques & Textiles has classic, ornate collections housed amid 17th, 18th and 19th century oil paintings that have witnessed the passing of times—and are a tangible reminder of the golden years. This store specializes in dinner sets including antique, bronze, gold, silver, and porcelain ware in an array of colors and intricate inlay will heighten any dining experience.
Ida Manheim Antiques
409 Royal Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 620 4114
The Manheim family has had a long intimate association with fine arts appreciation since 1919. Bernard Manheim fled Austria and set up an antique gallery and cabinet shop, which to this date serves as the Manheim Galleries. An eye for art is a skill that Ida Manheim has picked up from her famous art curator father, when she accompanied him on his world buying trips. The same skill and eye for detail is put to use when she works with a client. Her clientèle include famous celebrities, dignitaries and even art connoisseurs.
M.S. Rau Antiques
630 Royal Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 523 5660
Jewelry, furniture, knick knacks, time pieces and other artifacts from a bygone era are available for sale in this haven for art dealers and connoisseurs. If you're a collector or would simply like that perfect boudoir set, then this is where you need to look. The helpful staff will make your treasure hunt easy and exciting.
Lucullus
610 Chartres Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 528 9620
Lucullus Antiques is probably the only store in the French Quarter that is dedicated to culinary sets. Named after the Roman general, who was gastronomically inclined, the store stocks a variety of pots, ladles, pans, dinnerware, and possibly any instrument one might require to eat. Displayed artistically, these marvelous wonders lure every antique lover's heart!
Funky Monkey
3127 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 899 5587
Stand out with a few threads from this unisex shop, which houses vintage clothes with a twist. It's easy to get carried away at Funky Monkey, especially when you dig the vintage look. Sort through heaps of garments; you are bound to wind up with an enviable ensemble if you know how to mix and match. Concert tees share shelf space with a few original designs, glittery '50s tops, flowery '60s skirts and '80s rock-styled rags. A few cheerful Hawaiian shirts and retro swimwear will appeal to the free-spirited. The store is always populated by peppy tourists and locals monkeying around with other stuff on display like wigs, handbags, stockings and shoes. If you should find yourself with a load of duds you are hesitant to wear in public, fear not—there's always Halloween!
Plum
5430 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 897 3388
Plum is a shopper-girl's haven! Bring in a giggly bunch to ooh and ahh over the stuff-cool jewelry, metal letters, funky postcards and other knick-knacks. The store focuses on gifts with a difference and unique home furnishings. If you look hard enough, you will find original works by local artists at excellent rates. Guys, this is where you will find something pretty for your gal without struggling too much, so stop thinking, grab your wallet and head over!
Perlis
6070 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 895 8661
The Perlis family started their first clothing store on Magazine Street in 1939. The store has massively grown into a high-end shopping option for men and women ever since. Visit this Uptown outlet and pick your kind of formal clothes, casuals and sportswear. Men can look for that perfect business attire, whereas women can treat themselves to a spree with sportswear and accessories. The store also sells accessories like aromatic candles, bath products, belts, hats etc. Online shopping is also available.
Bottom of the Cup Tearoom
327 Chartres Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 524 1997
Tarot cards, crystal balls, astrology, numerology and psychic wisdom is what you'll find on the menu here. A New Orleans charm for more than 75 years, Bottom of the Cup Tearoom is no ordinary experience. Esoteric books, hard-to-find metaphysical items, rare crystals, fine jewelery and hand-made gifts crowd their shelves and world-renowned psychics offer their readings here. So be prepared for a soul trip!
Payless Pipes
201 Saint Charles Avenue New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 866 747 3747
This one's for the new age Humphrey Bogarts and Don Juans of the world. This small specialty store has been around since 1974 and is the eccentric smokers' ultimate stop. From collectors pipes, premium cigars and fine tobaccos to lighters and accessories, Payless Pipes stocks it all with passion and pride. Take home a Meerschaum masterpiece, go all out with a collector's dream like the Charatan's seven day set, or Dupont and Colibri lighters for company!
Iron Rail Book Collective
551 Marigny Street New Orleans, LA 70117 United States - Phone: +1 504 944 0366
This is not Borders, Barnes and Noble, or anything vaguely resembling the autonomous corporate bookstores. At Iron Rail Book Collective there is no rush to get your products purchased—feel free to browse through alternative genres such as anarchism, gay and lesbian studies and social theory while relaxing in the reading room. Book prices may seem cheap on Amazon, but here you can borrow a book for free from the lending library. And if you can't afford the $10 membership fee, put in three hours of volunteer work instead.
Garden District Book Shop
2727 Prytania Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 895 2266
Garden District Book Shop features a wide ranging selection of new and used books, including signed first editions and limited editions. The shop hosts frequent book signings and other events with local authors, and a book group on Thursdays. You can also pick up a book by local authors or local bestsellers. Check the website for more information on events at the bookshop.
Louisiana Music Factory
210 Decatur Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 586 1094
The Louisiana Music Factory, which specializes in regional southern music, has a wide selection of all kinds of music. The music factory is particularly well-known for its selection of local music like Cajun and zydeco. Come check out the largest collection of New Orleans music in the world during their annual Jazz Festival.
Magic Box
5508 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 899 0117
The Magic Box is one of those toy stores you dreamed about as a little kid and will maybe appreciate even more now that your shopping for your own little one. Instead of Assembly line brand name toys, The Magic Box sells old fashioned handmade wooden toys and doll houses, dress up clothes and other quality, unique items for children. The staff is friendly and helpful
Mignon & Compagnie
2727 Prytania Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 891 2374
Featuring custom made children's clothing, Mignon & Co can outfit your infant or small child in luxurious dresses and beautifully sequined swimwear. If your looking for something extravagant to pamper your child a bit, you've found the right place. Mignon also features toys and children's room furnishings.
Mayan Import Company
3009 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 888 372 2100
Mayan Import Co. trades in Quality Cigars at reasonable prices. The company has expanded their selection of humidors, and will soon boast over 750 boxes for sales of singles.
Cajun Clothing Co.
600 Decatur Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 523 6681
Cajun clothes, shoes, and accessories are sold at Cajun Clothing Co. The colorful fare will remind you of the South wherever you are.
Tanger Outlet Center
2410 Tanger Boulevard Gonzales, LA 70737 United States - Phone: +1 225 647 9383
Located 20 miles south of Baton Rouge and 50 miles north of New Orleans, the Gonzales Tanger Outlet Center offers upscale outlet shopping with an impressive collection of 50 designer and name brand outlet stores. Enjoy savings of 25% to 65% every day. Stores include GUESS, Reebok, Nautica, Old Navy, Gap, Nike, Aeropostale, Bath & Body Works, Harry & David, Lane Byrant, Sketchers and many more. Visit their website for coupons and the complete list of stores, sales & events, hours and more. Shop 'til you drop!
Royal Street
417 Royal Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 800 672 6124
Royal Street is one of the oldest streets in the city, well known for its businesses that deal in antiques and artwork from all over the world. This impressive street is surrounded by French and Spanish colonial architecture on all sides and emanates a distinct old-worldly look. The shops dotting this street are filled with consumers having an eye for quality, authenticity and detail. The quality of merchandise is unmatched and sometimes, just talking to the shop owners can be an educative experience. Make this street your next shopping destination for all that is antique and unique.
Trashy Diva
829 Chartres Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 581 4555
Starting out from a vintage clothing store to becoming a full fledged clothing company, Trashy Diva offers a wide variety of clothes, lingerie and boutique items. The cloths are inspired from antique and vintage styles, keeping in mind different body types. Trashy Diva symbolizes timeless beauty and each piece of cloth has a one of a kind feeling. An added benefit is that the prices are easy on your wallet as well!
Swiss Confectionery Inc.
747 Saint Charles Avenue New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 7788
For over five generations, Swiss Confectionery Inc. has been baking fantastic wedding cakes for all the would-be brides and grooms. Styles are varied, from traditional white-on-white to the avante garde look that fashions the cake to look like a stack of Tiffany boxes. Bejeweled with delicate ornaments, they promise to match the sparkle in the eyes of the bride! For the rest, cakes, pastries, brownies, jelly rolls, champagne patties, Russian cakes and lady fingers are some of their specialties. With so much to drool on, you will never miss the donuts and pies!
Fifi Mahony's
934 Royal Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 525 4343
Fifi Mahony's is a must-visit for all those who have a passion for pretty things and love to doll up in a spectacular way that promises to make heads turn. Literally! Walk in to find custom wigs, wild accessories, cosmetics for a special night-out or for a daily look. The place also offers advice on ways to present yourself creatively. Don a 'Cone Devil' wig for your Halloween party or the 'Eve' if you don't mind experimenting with pink hair. Happy with your tresses? Then opt for some blue eyeliner from the range 'Tony and Tina' or 'Urban Decay' products they have. Accessorize with matching sunglasses, hair clips and bracelets and set your own trend.
Sucré
3025 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 708 4366
Sucré, translated to sugar in French, is aptly named for it succeeds in offering a sugar rush to its patrons. One of the most popular sweet shops in the city, it is known for its delectably tender macaroons available in almond, hazelnut, mocha and pistachio flavors. Shop for bars of homemade chocolate, cookies and tempting pastries to light up your day. The highlight of your experience would be the King Cake which is a specialty made during Mardi Gras each year.
Arts Market of New Orleans
Palmer Park New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 523 1465
In a city overflowing with inspiration, it's no wonder hundreds of artists call this country's most European city home. On the last Saturday of each month dozens of artists gather in Palmer Park at the Arts Market of New Orleans to sell some of the most unique art in America. Shoppers can peruse paintings, jewelry, woodworking, photography, ceramics, sculpture, and handcrafted paper products. With such a variety of styles and products, there is something for everyone at any budget. And because it's New Orleans, there's also live music, food and drinks from local restaurants, and a children's tent with hands on activities for the kids that turn this monthly market into a full day's entertainment.
Crescent City Farmers Market - Saturday Market
700 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 861 5898
Every Saturday morning the Crescent City Farmers Market opens up at New Orleans' historic Warehouse District. Here you will the best in fresh local produce, seafood, baked goodies and lots more. Come to shop and stay back and enjoy the music performances by local musicians, cooking demonstrations, or just chat with the local farmers, chefs and fishermen present here. During the rains, the market shifts inside the building adjacent to the parking lot.
The Shops at Canal Place
333 Canal Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 9200
The Shops at Canal Place is New Orleans' answer to a shopaholic's paradise, with huge names like Saks Fifth Avenue, Brooks Brothers, Ann Taylor, Pottery Barn, Williams Sonoma and Kenneth Cole. Lose yourself here, but make sure you have the money to do so. Located just a stones throw away from major hotels, this place is frequented by luxury travelers and the upscale folk.
Miss Smarty Pants
5523 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 891 6141
On a block of Magazine Street densely populated with shops and cafes, Miss Smarty Pants' hot pink walls and leopard print rugs jump out as the sassy one stop shop to find the perfect gift for any girly girl on your list. The bright boutique is filled with a wide array of gifts, jewelry, handbags, fashion accessories, shabby-chic furnishings, and home decor. With reasonable prices and complimentary gift wrap, you won't feel guilty picking up a little something extra for yourself.
Dirty Coast
5704 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 324 3745
Uniquely New Orleans, Dirty Coast sells a variety of t-shirts that capture all of the oddities that make New Orleans the city that it is on T-Shirts, posters, and stickers. Designed and printed locally, and always on American Apparel Shirts that are made in the USA, Dirty Coast's original, and often witty, designs capture the true feelings of New Orleanians. From 'Save our Wetlands' to 'Be a New Orleanian Wherever You Are,' Dirty Coast tees aid the politically minded and socially conscious in being highly fashionable. Other favorite designs include, 'I Am New Orleans,' 'Live with Live Music,' and 'Laissez les Bon Temps Rouler.'
Swirl Sensational Wines
3143 Ponce de Leon New Orleans, LA 70119 United States - Phone: +1 504 304 0635
You don't have to be a wine connoisseur to feel like an aficionado at Swirl Sensational Wines. This dog-friendly, neighborhood shop stocks an assortment of affordable and fine wines, displaying them by variety. The knowledgeable staff is always on hand to help you make an educated decision. And if you need more than a recommendation to decide on your next purchase, attend one of the shop's many tastings. Every week, several nights are dedicated to themed tastings, giving customers an introduction to wines they may have never ventured to try. In addition to wine, the colorful shop also stocks select beers, a few choice liquors, and a variety of cheeses, pesto, and chocolates.
Louis Vuitton
301 Canal Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 524 2200
Located within the luxurious Saks Fifth Avenue in New Orleans, the Louis Vuitton store lives up to its brand name, what with the amazing collection of leather merchandise it offers. Find the best quality handbags, clutches, eye gear and a lot more at this outlet. Women will love the beautiful collection of shoes here, with everything from sandals and stilettos to comfortable leather footwear on display. The eye gear collection features some really hot and trendy pairs of sunglasses for both men and women. The exclusive collection of business bags and accessories by Louis Vuitton are equally impressive.
Yvonne LaFleur
8131 Hampson Street New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 866 9666
Custom designs don't have to break the bank. At Yvonne LaFleur fans of feminine fashion can experience a European shopping excursion without leaving Uptown. Yvonne LaFleur has proudly put together a collection of her own designs along with designer lines from around the world at affordable prices. Shoppers can browse custom designer collections of formal wear, sportswear, silk dresses, wedding gowns and scents from Yvonne LaFleur's distinct line of fine fragrances. Whether you're looking for a simple spring outfit or a formal gown for an upcoming Mardi Gras ball, stop in Yvonne LaFleur for a high-end shopping experience that is sure to end with a unique fashion find.
Basics Underneath
5513 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 894 1000
There's no need to be shy when shopping for intimates at Basics Underneath. Uptown's upscale lingerie boutique specializes in fine lingerie, loungewear, and shapewear from brands like Wacol, Spanx, Chantelle, and Hanky Panky. Women can feel comfortable checking out the high-quality intimates, gifts, and accessories in this professional shop. Whether you're looking for sexy sleepwear or the perfect bra for a backless gown, this store has the proper solution. The friendly and knowledgeable staff are always on hand to help women select the best products to improve the woman's figure and comfort—in addition to making the client feel beautiful, fashionable, and sensual.
Blue Frog Chocolates
5707 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 269 5707
Satisfy your sweet tooth with a treat from Blue Frog Chocolates. Specializing in fine domestic and imported varieties of chocolate and candies, Blue Frog Chocolates is a one-stop shop for customized gifts, wedding or party favors, and unique confections. In addition to traditional offerings like bon-bons, truffles, turtles, and bars, Blue Frog Chocolates sells a variety of locally inspired merchandise like Chocolate Voodoo Dolls, Alligators, Streetcars, Katrina Trash Piles, FEMA Blue Roofs, Mardi Gras Milkies, Chocolate Doubloons and Sunflower Seeds. Whether you're looking for a sweet treat for yourself or a customized gift for a sugar-minded friend, Blue Frog Chocolates is sure to satisfy.
W.I.N.O.
610 Tchoupitoulas Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 324 8000
W.I.N.O., also known as the Wine Institute of New Orleans, offers patrons the opportunity to develop their palates and savor each sip. Classes like "Intro to Wine," "Treasures of the Loire Valley," and "Food and Wine Pairing" provide educational opportunities for wine lovers at every skill level. A state-of-the-art wine serving system behind the bar allows W.I.N.O. to serve samples by the ounce, half glass, or full glass from 80 different bottles at various price levels. Between sips, check out W.I.N.O.'s full wine and liquor store. With more than 300 labels in stock, you're sure to find a bottle to take home.
Maple Street Book Shop New Orleans
7523 Maple Street New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 866 4916
Housed in a shotgun cottage, Maple Street Book Shop is a favorite among book lovers and collectors. The cozy shop stocks a surprising number of best sellers, new titles, and classics in its narrow isles and small rooms in addition to its larger than average collection of local and regional authors and titles. Knowledgeable employees are always on hand to assist with questions about local authors and rare or collectible books that they will happily try to track down. Maple Street Book Shop is a frequent stop on book tours and is often host to signings and readings by regional and national authors. Don't leave without one of the store's signature bumper stickers: "Fight the Stupids."
Angelique Baby
3719 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 301 2583
Moms and moms-to-be are sure to find all of the necessary supplies to fully outfit their fashion forward children at Angelique Baby. This Magazine Street boutique's large selection of clothing and accessories from brands like C&C, Trumpette, and Oilily range in sizes to fit infants, toddlers, and kids up to ten years. Looking for something local? Angelique Baby also stocks pint-sized pieces from local designers AnnaDean and Alexa Pulitzer printed with New Orleans pride. Not everything in stock is for baby. Expectant mothers can also outfit themselves with fashionable styles from the collection of high-end versatile maternity clothes.
Sputnik Ranch
3029 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 897 5446
Vintage style meets western fashion at Magazine Street's Sputnik Ranch. This boutique carries vintage clothes and vintage inspired Western Wear, and men's and women's cowboy boots for anyone looking to enhance their personal style. Looking for a one of a kind gift? Consider purchasing some of Sputnik Ranch's original artwork by Tim Biskup or Mitch O'Connell, jewelry by Virgin, Saints & Angels, or a tattoo inspired piece for the home by Jacqueline Thompson Tattoo Ceramics. Proud of their fine and far out styles, Sputnik Ranch also sells designer toy brands like Kidrobot Toys, Rock America, and Critterbox.
Bittersweet Confections
5331 Canal Boulevard New Orleans, LA 70124 United States - Phone: +1 504 484 0780
To satisfy a sweet tooth or shop for a sugary gift, stop in Mid-City's Bittersweet Confections. This sugary-sweet chocolate boutique specializes in gourmet truffles made in New Orleans from local ingredients. Using cream and butter from a local dairy, and fresh ingredients for flavors, Bittersweet Confections makes delicious truffles that are sure to impress. Flavors like Pecan, Banana's Foster, and Praline capture classic New Orleans flavors in every bite. Truffles can be purchased individually or in boxed collections, and can be special-ordered as memorable and delicious favors for weddings or parties. Visit Bittersweet Confections to send taste buds tingling with chocolaty delight.
Fat Tuesdays
633 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 524 5185
Fat Tuesdays, is a store where you can get frozen drinks and some snacks to go with it. Frozen drinks can be alcoholic or non-alcoholic, depending on what you like. It's a fine establishment, from where one can take away frozen drinks of many flavors. They cater to parties as well. So brace yourself as you are bound to get a brain freeze.
Funky Pirate
727 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 523 1960
Funky Pirate, this premier blues club on Bourbon Street features Big Al Carson and the Blues Masters and offers great drinks at local prices. It is not unusual to find a bouncer standing outside one of the many entrances with a sign declaring, "No cover, come on in!" With that kind of open-door policy it is hard to resist the blaring blues riff created by the talented guitarist. Plain and simple, if you want blues, this is the place to visit.
Cooter Brown's Tavern & Oyster Bar
509 South Carrolton Avenue New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 866 9104
This ultimate beer tavern has been a favorite watering hole since 1977. Cooter Brown's Tavern & Oyster Bar boasts more than 400 brands of imported and domestic bottled beer and more than 40 on tap. The atmosphere is something like a sports bar, with eight color TVs, video poker games and pool tables. Surprisingly good cuisine makes the trip uptown on the trolley worth it. One example of the great bar food is the Cheese Fries, a favorite of the locals.
Famous Door
339 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 598 4334
Famous Door, dating back to 1934, is Bourbon Street's oldest live music club still in business. The famous door refers to the front door of the bar that many celebrities and musicians have autographed. Inside there is a sunken dance floor situated in front of a glass-brick stage. The atmosphere is dark, loud, neon and raw. The acoustics and lighting system enhances the performances of the live New Orleans soul and blues bands. Later, when the live music ends, the older folks leave and the bar transforms into a dance club for the younger crowd. It is open from 4p onwards Monday to Wednesday, 3p onwards on Thursday till Friday and On Saturday and Sunday it is open from 2p.
House Of Blues New Orleans
225 Decatur Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 310 4999
Founded in 1992 by Hard Rock Cafe creator Issac B. Tigrett, House Of Blues has grown into a multi-dimensional entertainment company featuring top-name blues, jazz and contemporary acts. Adjacent to each "Music Hall" is a juke joint-inspired restaurant serving "Mississippi Delta-Style" cuisine. Try the slow smoked baby back ribs, the Pacific Rim Tuna Steak or the cedar pan roasted salmon and finish off with the White Chocolate Banana Bread Pudding. In the afternoon it is open from Tuesday to Saturday from 4pm onwards.
Krazy Korner
640 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 524 3157
This live music club is one of the only Bourbon Street bars to feature origional music from local musicians. The bands emanate the raw, dirty and soulful feeling of the Blues every night of the week. Krazy Korner itself lacks any distinguishing characteristics—it is simply a long, narrow room with brick walls and low ceilings, but the vibe from the musicians inside draws crowds of music afficienados of all ages. There is no cover charge and the drinks are reasonably priced for Bourbon Street. It is open from Monday to Friday at 5pm and Saturday and Sunday at 2pm.
Old Opera House
601 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 3265
The "good time" atmosphere here makes you feel right at home—mostly because it is home to many famous New Orleans performing artists. The club is sparse with its bare brick walls and its plain wooden ceiling. The music is what really brings this club to life. Music styles range from blues to jazz and feature local performers. It is open from 5pm , Monday to Friday and 2pm onwards on Saturday and Sunday.
Razzoo Bar & Patio
511 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 5100
There are several bars on Bourbon Street that are indistinguishable from one another after several drinks. Razzoo Bar & Patio separates itself from the others with an incredible back courtyard, ample seating and live music that is usually pretty good. The musicians here play with soul, which is a rare thing to hear on Bourbon Street. Drink prices are reasonable and there is a daily three-for-one happy hour.
Snug Harbor Jazz Bistro
626 Frenchmen Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 949 0696
Snug Harbor Jazz Bistro as its name suggest is a cozy restaurant in the city that offers patrons some splendid jazz performances alongwith delicious food. A host of different artistes, each with their individual style entertain the audience who keep coming back for more. The subdued lighting and wooden furnishings make a rustic setting for the world class performances. The food and wine also celebrate the occasion.
Feelings Cafe
2600 Chartres Street New Orleans, LA 70117 United States - Phone: +1 504 945 2222
Dating back to the late 1700s, Feelings Cafe was once a slave quarters and an old Creole storehouse. The current incarnation has been in business since 1979. Careful restoration has preserved this historic place, making your dining experience all the more memorable. Favorite dishes include Chicken Clemenceau and Fried Artichoke Hearts over a Creole Mustard Sauce. The restaurant is perhaps best known for its delightful peanut butter pie. You may want to dine on the patio or try the balcony on weekends while the piano player tickles the keys on Friday and Saturday evenings. It is also open in the evenings, Thursday to Sunday, 5pm onwards.
Lucy's Retired Surfer's Restaurant & Bar
701 Tchoupitoulas Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 523 8995
During the day, Lucy's Retired Surfer's Restaurant & Bar serves as the perfect lunch break getaway for the young professional crowd working in the Warehouse District. At night, it is the after-work drinking hole for the same crowd. It is a great change of pace from the bars in the Quarter. The interior of this place resembles an old Tiki bar, and the staff wears Aloha shirts and occasionally straw hats. A California influence is apparent in the grilled shrimp and fish specialties. You will also enjoy a large selection of Southwestern breakfast dishes and burritos. It is open daily at 11 am.
Vic's Kangaroo Cafe
636 Tchoupitoulas Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 524 4329
This genuine Aussie pub is located in the Warehouse District but feels like its right in the middle of Australia. The local ambiance is embracing to all as the fun in the air becomes contagious. Thursday night here at Vic's Kangaroo Cafe, is jazz and Saturday is blues. The featured cuisine is Australian straight from the Outback! The food is everything you would expect from the outback, including many barbecued items and entrees such as Shepard's Pie. Beverages of wine and draft beer are compliments to your entree of choice.
Fritzel's
733 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 561 0432
This 1831 building is home for some of the city's best musicians. In addition to regular weekend programs, there are frequent jam sessions in the wee hours of the night. Some of the regular weekend players include Jamie White and Fritzel's All stars as well as Jack Maheu and Friends. The full bar has a variety of schnapps and German beers on tap and bottled. A one-drink minimum per set is required. If you love beer, Fritzel's is the place to be!
Maison Bourbon Jazz Club
641 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 8818
This is one of those places that make you wonder if they ever close. Open doors and no cover charge lure tourists and locals to listen to some of the best music in town. Authentic jazz that is loud and lively is almost non-stop from mid-afternoon to the wee hours of the morning at Maison Bourbon. Players include Wallace Davenport, Steve Slocum and Tommy Yetta. Patrons must be 21 or older. There is a one-drink minimum.
Palm Court Jazz Cafe
1204 Decatur Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 525 0200
This cafe was opened in 1989 by Nina Buck and is now one of the most stylish jazz haunts in the Quarter. Palm Court is an elegant setting for top-notch jazz groups, Wednesday through Sunday. Its kitchen serves a variety of traditional Cajun and Creole dishes so you may dine as you listen to great music. Entrees include the Shrimp Ambrosia and Creole Beef Indienne; try the Chocolate Mousse for dessert. Reservations are recommended. Cover charge is $4 per person at tables, but there is no cover at the bar.
Praline Connection Gospel & Blues Hall
542 Frenchmen Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 943 3934
Owned by the same company that operates the Praline Connection on Frenchmen Street, this hall offers the same cuisine but also live music with dinner on Thursday, Friday and Saturday nights. Sundays at Praline Connection Gospel & Blues Hall features a great gospel buffet brunch.
Bombay Club
830 Conti Street New Orleans, LA 70112 United States - Phone: +1 504 586 0972
This elegant bar features jazz from Wednesday through Saturday evenings. Along with the music, the Bombay Club restaurant offers one of the best martinis around along with a rich variety of drinks. The place is formal and romantic, hence no jeans or shorts allowed. Fine dining, candle lit area, wooden furnitures and a courtyard all together make up the Bombay Club. The Menu is elaborate and Executive Chef Nick Gile, has a sumptuous meal in store for you. Try the Oysters Rockefeller, Louisiana Shrimp Martini or the mouth watering Cajun Grilled New York Sirloin just to name a few. A treat for those in love, to spend a quiet time and enjoy the
Oz
800 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 593 9491
Ranked as "Crescent City's Top Dance Club" by Gambit Weekly and "One of the Top 50 Dance Clubs in the Country" by Details magazine, this famous gay club offers great music and an incredibly fun time, whether you are straight or gay. The bar is just one of the reasons this is such a hot spot. The club is filled with dark corners, and various dance lights go off constantly. There are frequent theme nights, so call ahead if you want to dress accordingly. This is the place to be and be seen.
F and M Patio Bar
4841 Tchoupitoulas Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 895 6784
If you like to start your evenings late and end them early in the morning, then F&M Patio Bar is the hot spot for you. Dancing, pool tables, and a kitchen that stays open as long as you can stay awake are just a few of the features. There is also a tropical patio, jukebox and one of those fun photo booths, so you are sure not to miss a minute of memorable moments!
The Bayou Bar
2031 Saint Charles Avenue New Orleans, LA 70140 United States - Phone: +1 504 524 0581
As you enter the Pontchartrain Hotel, this upscale lounge can be found right off the main lobby. A welcome addition in 1947, it remains a favorite stop for professionals as well as guests. Even if you are not a guest of the Pontchartrain, you might enjoy the cocktail hour. While you enjoy your drink, with complimentary hor d'oevres, notice the artwork that adorns the walls. These murals on canvas by local New Orleans artist, Charles Reinike, are considered priceless. For your entertainment, a piano bar plays from 9pm to 1am Thursdays through Sundays. It is open from Monday to Thursday, 4 pm onwards and from Friday to Sunday, 11 am onwards.
Neutral Ground Coffee House
5110 Danneel Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 891 3381
Just a short cab ride from downtown, this coffee shop has a '60s influenced decor. Appointments are just as you would expect—overstuffed furnishings and chess boards. Sunday nights are for the aspiring singer, songwriter or musicians to take the stage. If that doesn't draw you, come back another night and hear the professional contemporary or folk singers who perform here.
Cafe Lafitte In Exile
901 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 8397
This two-story bar with its famous balcony is always a lively place. Cafe Lafitte In Exile is a fun spot if you are looking for action and has long been a gathering place for gay men of every age group. There is always a special event on the calendar, from body painting contests to the annual Gay Mardi Gras. The crowd is rough edged and somewhat older, but always welcoming. The bar is lit by many gas lamps, making it very dark and shadowy. The bar is good for those looking for a more subdued gay bar along Bourbon.
Igor's Checkpoint Charlie
501 Esplanade Avenue New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 281 4847
Made famous by its use as background scenes in the filming of John Grisham's Pelican Brief, this busy corner bar called Igor's Checkpoint Charlie is a popular local watering hole. For entertainment you may shoot pool, listen to a blues or rock band, or utilize their paperback library. An added bonus is the laundromat that they worked right into the pub. Grab a drink and take a "load off" while you hang out to "dry" during the "spin cycle".
Carrollton Station
8140 Willow Street New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 865 9190
This cozy uptown club, Carrollton Station, features blues guitar greats. Such famous names as John Mooney and the beloved Lil Queenie with her latest group have performed here. Sunday is for the acoustic songwriter that may not be as well known. Cover charge varies depending on the act but is usually not heavy on your pocket! From Monday to Friday it opens at 3pm, Saturday 1.30 pm and Sundays on 12 pm.
Superior Grill
3636 Saint Charles Avenue New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 899 4200
This casual spot draws a big crowd during carnival time. The combination of mesquite grill menu items with Tex Mex flavors is a popular combination. The decor is tasteful in Spanish motif tantalizing you to anticipate authentic cuisine found South of the border. Entrees include enchilada platters and whole enchilada nachos. If you prefer something that is not Mexican they also offer mesquite-roasted quail, grilled tuna and baby back ribs. They also make some mean margaritas here, with fresh lime and Sauza tequila.
The R Bar
1431 Royal Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 948 7499
Located in the Royal Street Inn, the R Bar is a popular hangout for the Fabourg Marigny neighborhood with its low-profile folks. A classic bar atmosphere is created with the simple collaboration of spare furniture and a pool table. The crowd is very laid back and has a hipster vibe. While the place really doesn't start jumping until midnight, the earlier hours have shown to be equally as jammin. Especially, if a rock star from nearby Kingsway Studio wanders in.
Rawhide 2010
740 Burgundy Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 525 8106
Loud and boisterous are two good words to describe this less than discreet club. If you have never experienced a leather and Levi's bar, you may want to see this one. Chosen as one of the top 10 leather bars in the country, Rawhide has developed quite the reputation. Should you be in town during Mardi Gras, this is the place to go for a unique drag show.
Phillips Bar & Restaurant
733 Cherokee Street New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 865 1155
This is the Uptown place where students and young professionals dress up and go to to find and secure that special someone from the opposite sex. Like many of its patrons, the bar tries desperately to be swank and cool. There is one large main room with pool tables, a smaller red room with sofas and lots of red and a large outdoor patio open on the weekends. Everyone has so much fun that they forget they are buying over-priced drinks. The place is open from Monday to Thursday from 4p, Fridays from 3:30p, Saturday from 4p and on Sunday from 7p.
The Pelican Club
312 Exchange Place New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 523 1504
Located in the heart of the French Quarter, the Pelican Club replicates a classic 19th century French Quarter Townhouse, housing three individually designed dining rooms and a large bar. The cuisine fuses traditional New Orleans dishes with modern international flavors to produce an innovative contemporary menu. Highlights include the Pelican Club Baked Oysters, Panned Gulf Fish and the Seared Yellowifsh Tuna. Mirroring the food, the decor is dually traditional and contemporary, featuring cypress and burnished wood paneling, black leather banquette, and original paintings by local artists. The wine list consists of Californian, French and Italian wines. Excellent food and great wine, are you still asking for more!
The Spotted Cat Music Club
623 Frenchman Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 943 3887
The Spotted Cat is an intimate, slightly formal bar for all those cool cats and kittens who enjoy live jazz with a local flavor. This place, however, is for purists — if you're looking for flamboyant performances and gimmicks, you won't find them here. Jazz outfits such as the New Orleans Jazz Vipers, Jeremy Lyons and the Deltabilly Boys, and Tin Men perform at the Spotted Cat on a regular basis.
Vaughn's Lounge
800 Lesseps Street New Orleans, LA 70117 United States - Phone: +1 504 947 5562
New Orleans is the place of blues and jazz and all that razzmatazz. At this barbecue lounge there is a lot of scope for visitors to enjoy both. The neatly grilled barbecue chops in vinegar sauce or the steaks dunked in spicy hot mustard sauce go well with the ales. After all these gastronomic antics, you can play ping-pong and work the extra calories off. The live jazz lingers long after you've left the Vaughn Lounge.
Southern Decadence
801 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 529 2107
Launched as a simple party in the early '70s, this annual festival is now recognized around the globe. It is now also known as the 'Gay Mardi Gras' and is held in conjunction with Labor Day. More than 100,000 people from the lesbian, gay, transgender and bisexual communities get together in the French Quarter. Each year, the organizers announce a different theme. On Sunday, the parade led by the Grand Marshal takes precedence over other activities; this is the day when the successor is chosen. Parties are held on the streets and in the nearby clubs. Weekend passes and advance tickets are available online. Make sure you get your tickets soon as certain shows get sold out almost a year in advance.
One Eyed Jacks
615 Toulouse Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 569 8361
Grab your favorite brew and enjoy the underground bar scene at One Eyed Jacks. If a refined and elegant ambiance and soft music is what you are looking for, this definitely isn't the place for you! Burlesque performances, edgy punk and rock live acts, low-grade films and plenty of testosterone are what you can expect to find here. The bright colors and enthusiastic performances add to the vibrant atmosphere. A lot of events are scheduled, so check the website for your favorite.
The Chocolate Bar
540 South Broad Street New Orleans, LA 70119 United States - Phone: +1 504 373 5636
The Chocolate Bar on South Broad Street is a lounge that is as sexy as it sounds. Catering to the 'Mature Minded', the lounge features an extensive and impressive back-lit bar, flat screen televisions and a VIP seating area. There is likely to be an age limit here as the lounge is mature themed, so get a nanny for the kids and skip out to have some fun.
Blue Nile
532 Frenchmen Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 948 2583
One of the best nightclubs in New Orleans, Blue Nile is a famous live music venue where many renowned artists like Kermit Ruffins, Troy Andrews and Soul Rebels Brass Band have performed. A jazzy decor with a combination of blue and gold gives the venue a very unique vibe. Enjoy the drinks available while tapping your feet to the beats of the music playing in the club by DJ's. The two-story club also rents out the party room for special occasions. A must visit in New Orleans if you want to catch some great live performances.
Republic New Orleans
828 South Peters Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 528 8282
Republic New Orleans is an elegant cabaret-style music lounge that offers guests entertainment through music, fashion shows, performances and arts. This place is the hub of creativity with Hollywood celebrities like Vince Vaughan, Eva Longoria, Macy Gray and Lil John making appearances here. Bouncers keep a tab on who enters, ensuring a limited crowd to avoid congestion. The place can also be rented out for events, with room for up to 650 people.
The Venue
1755 Tchoupitoulas Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 309 9941
The Venue is hard to describe in one sentence—being a nightclub, a venue, a dance-club, a lounge, and so much more. All in all it's an amazing entertainment hotspot. Have the time of your life, dancing to the latest beats churned out by some of the most talented DJ's and bands. If hardcore partying isn't your cup of tea or mix of cocktail, then the Venue also hosts a number of shows,events and concerts.
Tipitina's French Quarter
233 N Peters New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 895 8477
Tipitina's at 501 Napoleon Avenue was established in 1977 and has a rich history and the honor of having musical legends perform here over the years. This historical cultural landmark was created by performer, composer, and pianist Professor Longhair. The version at 233 North Peters is the offspring of the original and has its own charm. Modernized with best state-of-the-art sound and light money can buy and a 500 capacity and a private party room upstairs with gorgeous views of the Mississippi River. Check website for details on the latest events, performances and acts.
Monkey Hill
6100 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 899 4800
Enjoy a cool cocktail or icy beer at Magazine Street's Monkey Hill. Overstuffed couches and colorful artwork line the walls of this upscale, yet casual bar. Monkey Hill patrons often find their way to the dimly lit establishment to take advantage of the Monday through Friday Martini Menu Happy Hour Specials. In addition to a variety of fruity and flavored martinis, the bar boasts an extensive wine list—by the bottle and by the glass—and a variety of domestic and imported beers. Despite late night crowds that can make navigating the bar difficult, patrons still find room to play pool and shuffleboard at the bar's two tables. Check the Monkey Hill website for a schedule of occasional live music and comedy performances.
The Circle Bar
1032 Saint Charles Avenue New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 588 2616
Circle Bar located on the Lee Circle is a nightclub but you are most likely to find yourself warming up to the intimate surroundings as you would at a friend's house party! The two storey red brick house is the home ground of local musicians who play your favorite numbers and also enjoy filling your empty glasses behind the bar. Beware! You may have to push your way through the wild gathering, to the restroom or to the bar. But the live rock and roll music and the eclectic and friendly atmosphere will surely 'help you make it through the night'. Drop in early for happy hours and enjoy the half priced drinks and complimentary bar snacks. Limited free parking is available at Lee Circle and more under the overpass just down the street.
Ohm Lounge
135 Saint Charles Avenue New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 587 1330
A mix of Japanese and Chinese decor gives Ohm Lounge a very Asian feel. Enjoy the view of Charles street avenue from the huge glass floor-to-ceiling windows. Select from the extensive drinks menu that features everything from wines and martinis to premium sakes and Japanese beers. Enjoy your favorite drink at the rock-garden bar-top or the Shanghai roof-top back bar while listening to some very soothing lounge music. Eclectic themed nights like Wine Down nights every Wednesday, House Night every Friday and Simple Syrup every Saturday keep this place alive and kicking.
Snake and Jake's Christmas Club Lounge
7612 Oak Street New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 861 2802
No, they don't serve snakes here neither does Jake dress up like Santa. But if you are in search of a lounge to drink a pint and relax with the banter of college-goers in the background, Snake and Jake's Christmas Club Lounge is the place to visit. Open late in the night, drop in and sink with a glass of wine on the soft leather couches. Or celebrate the New Year early in the summer in a festive atmosphere and shop for tees, hats, mugs and baby clothes at the Snake and Jake's store as you drive home.
Red Eye Grill
852 South Peters Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 593 9393
This friendly neighborhood restaurant, Red Eye Grill, attracts the local crowd from around Warehouse District. The decor is rustic and simple with brick walls and a tin roof bar. The menu includes appetizers, salads, sandwiches and burgers along with chilled beer complimenting the food perfectly. Red Eye Grill becomes a dance club on the frequent DJ nights at the restaurant. The atmosphere here is very cheerful and the rates are reasonable.
Good Friends Bar
740 Dauphine Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 566 7191
The events schedule at Good Friends Bar on the Dauphine Street is always full of fun and action. They believe in the noble philosophy of 'drink and drown'. Whether its the happy hour specials or the Monday nights for guys in the service industry, there is something for everyone. If Vodka is the drink you can kill someone for, then come on Tuesdays for some free shots for all along with nice giveaways, all sponsored by Pearl Vodka. Mostly frequented by gays, this bar is a favorite among people of all orientations and tastes. A nightly musical event and theme describes the usual scene at Queens Head Pub—a cozy space that sits above the bar. Here you can enjoy Tommy T play the piano on Sundays, or arrange for your own parties. And if you still long for more excitement, meet Spencer who works at the bar or check the website for the events schedule.
The Kerry Irish Pub
331 Decatur Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 286 5862
Discover Ireland in the heart of the French Quarter of New Orleans. Famous for its great music, beer and Celtic influence, the Kerry Irish Pub features local musical talent. Relax and nurse a chilled beer or play a game of pool for a better way to pass your time. If you have a laid-back attitude and don't care to reach your home in time, Kerry Irish Pub can be your second home with it's leisurely ambiance. Live music spins its magic every evening except on Wednesdays when the pool matches are in the limelight.
Chris Owens Club & Balcony
500 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 523 6400 / +1 504 495 8383
Chris Owens Club & Balcony is the den of dancer and singer Chris Owens. This one-woman show, described as 'Beauty in Motion', 'Talented Entertainer', and 'International Singing and Dancing Sensation' by her critics, attracts crowds from in and around New Orleans and keeps them coming back for more. Featuring a fantastic combination of jazz, rock, blues and country-western, Miss Owens' personality and high-energy performances are something to experience. If you are single, young and happen to love life, this is the destination to head for. Miss Owens and her team also perform at casinos, cruises, conventions and corporate meetings.
Sweet Lorraine's Jazz Club
1931 Saint Claude Avenue New Orleans, LA 70117 United States - Phone: +1 504 945 9654
Featured in Essence and Travel & Leisure magazines, Sweet Lorraine's Jazz Club enthralls crowds with an eclectic mix of local cuisine, drinks and entertainment. This club was applauded by USA Today as one of the Top 10 Jazz Clubs in the country. Don't miss the special Tuesday Jazz and Poetry event. Be it a party or a corporate function, Sweet Lorraine's is always the first choice. Try the various shrimps, oysters, bacon and salad dishes. Or the club's specialty—Chicken Wings and Fries, battered and fried in their secret blend of spices till it turns brown! Steakburger, Filet Mignon, Grilled Baby Back Ribs and much more...the list is unending. And to wash it down order champagne or the sparkling wine, by bottle or glass. The club calls itself as one with a 'Silver Lining' and they keep their word. It is open from Tuesday to Saturday from 5pm and on Sunday from 7pm.
Gold Club
727 Iberville Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 524 4354
Famous for its G-String awards, the Gold Club is one of the best strip joints in the French Quarter neighborhood. The club has 4 stages, 13 VIP rooms and many entertainers—more than any other nightclub in New Orleans. The atmosphere of the club changes completely during the G-String awards, where models and entertainers from all over the country compete on the same stage. A must visit club for adult entertainment in New Orleans.
Old Point Bar
545 Patterson Street New Orleans, LA 70114 United States - Phone: +1 504 364 0950
Unlike its name, the Old Point Bar is surprisingly modern and stylish. The city's well-reputed musicians put up their live performances here regularly. The bar is the most desired hangout amongst youngsters as they can sip down a few drinks and also socialize wiht the hip crowd. So if you are one of those who enjoys lounging around while listening to the best of Jazz music—look no further than the Old Point Bar.
Coyote Ugly Saloon
225 North Peters Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 561 0003
Coyote Ugly Saloon isn't for the shy and conservative but the bold and beautiful. The place is all about having a hearty time watching beautiful girls dance atop the bar while equally attractive ones serve sparkling wines and beers. Don't be surprised by the impromptu dances or the deft movements of the bartender mixing your drink. With multiple locations across the US, this is probably the most sought after destination after a hard day at work. The weekly happy hour specials promise your tequila fix without putting a dent in your pocket. Brag to your friends with a photo session at Coyote Ugly or impress your boss by throwing a party here. This club also makes a hot venue to host your bachelor or bachelorette party.
Bertha's Place
1501 Basin Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 593 9777
Enjoy the night life of New Orleans at Bertha's Place, a popular joint in the French Quarter area. A perfect place for hard core party animals, this club is for those who don't care about deadlines. Open all night long, this place features great music and equally good alcohol to get a high. Apart from the foot-tapping numbers churned out by the DJ's, various musical themed nights keep the locals coming back for more. Bertha's is also a good venue for both private parties and corporate functions.
The Alibi
811 Iberville Street New Orleans, LA 70112 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 9187
The next time you are in New Orleans, make sure you visit the Alibi. The unassuming nature of this serene bar and nightclub will lure you into partying longer than you intended. Frequented by locals and tourists alike, you can binge on the drinks for a relatively throw-away price. Frequented by a hip crowd, socialize with beautiful people at 'One of the Best Bars' as voted by Stuff and Playboy magazines. Do get your hands on some cool Alibi T-shirts and other merchandise!
Bourbon Pub and Parade
801 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 529 2107
With great music, young crowd and lots to drink—Bourbon Pub and Parade is always full of entertainment. A haven for gays—they can make the most of the Happy Hours on Fridays, where DJ Chris Allen performs for them absolutely live. Sip on a chilled beer and indulge in a pleasant conversation with your loved one, while you sit in its huge back room downstairs. Or head upstairs and shake your body to the hip beats played at the Parade dance club. Though a gay-friendly bar, you will find a mixed crowd flocking in, to have a good time. Just one visit to the most happening bar is enough to make you addicted to it.
Corner Pocket
940 Saint Louis Street New Orleans, LA 70112 United States - Phone: +1 504 568 9829
This gay club in the French Quarter neighborhood hosts a number of shows like "Calendar Contest," "Mardi Gras 2008" and many more. The decor of Corner Pocket is simple with a few pool tables. The clientèle here consists mostly of locals of all ages. Corner Pocket says they have the hottest guys in town - go see for yourself.
The Metropolitan Nightclub
310 Andrew Higgins Drive New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 568 1702
The Metropolitan is a Saturday-only club housed in a warehouse called Generations Hall. The limited opening time hasn't come in the way of the bar's popularity. Drop in here on Saturday night to groove to the music or try the club's signature cocktails for an indulgent time. Featuring three rooms and six bars, you know there is enough supply of drinks and ample dancing space for you to get going. Make sure you are well dressed, as the club has a stringent dress code and doesn't allow sneakers; only formal shoes and collared shirts. Get there early as the place gets crowded in the later half of the evening.
The Abbey
1123 Decatur Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 523 7177
The Abbey has been around since the 1930's and although it is a little small as opposed to the its newer counterparts, Abbey still has maintained its look and old world charm. Walls adorned with stickers and album covers and a juke box that belts out groovy tunes, this establishment is open 24 hours, 365 days a year. So when in need for some music and alcohol, the folks at Abbey wouldn't find it hard to serve you at any time of the day.
Fat Catz Music Club
440 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 525 0303
Fat Catz Music Club spells entertainment with live music and a full bar promising premium spirits. Every night is a grand event at the music club, with live bands playing music from a variety of genres till the wee hours of the morning. To keep away parched throats, the club offers a whole lot of imported beer, microbrews, mixed drinks, whiskey, vodka and rum. Saving money on your drinks is easy—download a coupon and get two drinks at the price of one. Check website for more details.
AllWays Lounge & Theatre
2240 Saint Claude Avenue New Orleans, LA 70117 United States - Phone: +1 504 947 0505
Located along St. Claude Avenue, Cowpokes, is one bar on the list if you're looking out for a calm and quite evening to sip a mug or two of chilled beer. Voted the 'Neighborhood Bar of the Year' and 'Show Bar of the Year' at the Gay Appreciation Awards, it is your typical friendly country bar that caters to the gay community. With the causal atmosphere and relaxed ambiance, there is no particular dress code. Learn a dance step or two at the weekly dance sessions held here. A cool place to chill out with your buddies.
Cafe Negril
606 Frenchmen Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 944 4744
If you are looking for a fun evening spot, then Cafe Negril is a place to be at. Situated on the Frenchmen Street, the venue is popular for being one of the lively places in the city. Whether it is reggae, rock or blues that you like, this place has something for every taste. Good music when accompanied with great drinks results into a party and this is what happens at Cafe Negril. Sip on to some delicious cocktails or spirits of your choice from their beverage list while you groove to the live music performances here. In case you feel hungry, Cafe Negril pampers your palate with delectable menu to choose from. The fun ambiance and energetic crowd gives you an experience like never before. So, take some time off from your busy schedule and enjoy a fun evening at Cafe Negril.
Gold Mine Saloon
701 Dauphine Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 568 9125
What earlier was a horse stable is now Gold Mine Saloon—a club frequented by the elite and hip crowd and singles that are very much ready to mingle. Foosball and two pool tables, to go with the drinks, is what drives the teens from nearby Downtown New Orleans to this place. At Gold Mine Saloon, you get to enjoy melange of music with a perfect mix of club tracks and disco beats. Jack Daniels whiskey barrels used as tables add a touch of innovation to the decor. The dress code is 'make yourself comfortable' and do include dancing shoes as the peppy music will surely take you to the dance floor.It is open from Thursday to Saturday from 8pm.
Beach Club
610 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 529 1728
Loads of fun, frolic and entertainment are what you get at the Beach Club. Good food, excellent live music, Cajun dancing and a full bar are the main attractions. Want more? They also hold the Tropical Isle and Funky Pirate parties for those looking for something different. Opt for Grenade—an energy drink that will surely lift up your spirits or experiment with mixes which are very popular among the locals and are sure to give your energy a boost. The live music further enlivens the joyous scene.
Milan Lounge
1312 Milan Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 895 1836
If you are fine with the idea of some cheap drinks and a game of dart after a long day of work, just ring the door bell and enter Milan Lounge. Share your table with salesmen, clerks and mechanics, who keep the conversations going and take your mind off tensions with interesting stories and jokes. Never mind the dress code, here simplicity is the mantra. Friendly atmosphere, a typical neighborhood flavor and easy on the pocket, this place is one you will leave feeling rejuvenated. If an amiable company and good drinks are your idea of a relaxing evening—you will like Milan!
Balcony Music Club
1331 Decatur Stree New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 599 7770
New Orleans sounds can be heard pouring out of the doors of the Balcony Music Club seven nights a week. As the club is located at the edge of the French Quarter and only steps from Frenchman Street nightlife, music lovers can step inside to listen to a wide variety of local music. Performers at the Balcony Music Club have included Kermit Ruffins and the BBQ Swingers, The Soul Rebels Brass Band, and Washboard Chaz Trio. Patrons can purchase reasonably priced drinks at the casual club's front bar, or at the large back bar.
Club NV Lounge
633 South Roman Street New Orleans, LA 70112 United States - Phone: +1 504 529 1005
An ideal place to come out and chill with your friends, NV Lounge is the place that offers a wide selection of wine and beer. This place also plays good music, where you can relax and let loose.
Rendon Inn
4501 Eve Street New Orleans, LA 70125 United States - Phone: +1 504 822 9858
This upbeat club, has all the features that will appeal to pretty young things. It serves delicious food that caters to tastes of one and all. The excellent music here never ceases and the crowds, basically college students, drop-in for some tasty bites. Head here after a tiring day, just to relax with friends and you wont be sorry. Although beware, this club has a dress code!
Irvin Mayfield’s Jazz Playhouse
300 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 586 0300
After years of performing as one of New Orleans' top musicians, Irvin Mayfield is giving the city's other notable talent a place to perform. Irvin Mayfield's Jazz Playhouse, located inside of the Royal Sonesta Hotel on Bourbon Street, entertains the jazz enthusiast alongside the casual listener with cocktails and nightly performances by notable musicians like Bob French and the Original Tuxedo Jazz Band, Shamarr Allen, and Jason Marsalis. While there generally is no cover charge to enjoy an evening at the Jazz Playhouse, a nominal cover charge may apply for special events. - Bethany Culp
Club Red Velvet
3714 Westbank Expressway Harvey, LA 70058 United States - Phone: +1 504 874 5057
Rated as one of the finest clubs of the region, Club Red Velvet is a chic nightclub that boasts a zealous ambiance. Party lovers from every nook and corner of the nearby localities frequent this place to bask in its warm atmosphere. The club organizes various events such as DJ nights, concerts, gigs, live musicals, private parties, reunions and bachelor parties. Apart from that, the open mic contest taking place at Club Red Velvet is an equally popular extravaganza. Call ahead to know more.
Harrah's Masquerade Nights
228 Poydras Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 533 6000 / +1 800 847 5299(Toll Free)
At Harrah's Masquerade Nightclub, pretty pretentious party people is nothing new. The glamorous club has one of the best light shows in the city. Displayed on a tower that is surrounded by fake fire, the visual light show is mind-blowing. The bottom of the tower is where you can cool off at the Ice Bar. The 32 foot bar is made of ice and will keep you chilly all through the night. The club also has a private lounge area with couches, a flat screen television and a fabulous dance floor and a stage for live events. Located in the heart of the city, at Harrah's New Orleans Casino, the club swarms with people looking to make and spend big. If you're passing through New Orleans, the Masquerade is a must-stop, but beware you might just not have a will to leave. Do contact for further details.
Club Gari Mix
9954 Lake Forest Boulevard New Orleans, LA 70127 United States - Phone: +1 504 296 5267 / +1 504 333 0418
Catching the pulse of the city's throbbing nightlife, Club Gari Mix is a nightly hot spot in the New Orleans East neighborhood. Theme nights, guest DJs, drink specials, Reggae nights, and more, is what a visitor will find happening at this bustling club. One of the highlights of this club is the array of guest DJs that grace the stage here, some know well, others yet-to-be-known. Do call or email to know more.
Siberia
2227 St. Claude Avenue New Orleans, LA 70117 United States - Phone: +1 504 265 8855
Experience the coolness of Siberia in the subtropical heat of New Orleans. The Club Siberia is where you need to head if you are looking for an entertaining evening out with friends. The interesting line-ups of bands, musicians, and DJs will definitely help you party the night away. Do call ahead for schedules and other details.
I Club
614 Canal Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 527 6712
For an upscale New Orleans music experience, make your way Irvin Mayfield's I Club. This sophisticated club located in the JW Marriott offers music lovers an opportunity to listen to R&B, Zydeco, Cajun, Funk, Jazz and a variety of other local music styles in a comfortable lounge atmosphere. Each week, New Orleans musicians take the stage at the I Club to entertain locals and visitors alike. Regular performers include Kristin Diable, Amanda Shaw, Walter "Wolfman" Washington and Los Hombres Calientes. The I Club offers a menu of small plates, wine and cocktails. Table reservations are accepted, but are not required. - Bethany Culp
Maison
508 Frenchmen Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 371 5543
This large and lively spot on Frenchmen's street is always a good choice for a fun time out. This music hall and restaurant has three different stages, so there's always something playing and people on the dance floor. If you get hungry, the restaurant serves up delectable southern and Cajun favorites, from crawfish and gator to shrimp, grits and Po Boys.
Freret Street Publiq House
4528 Freret Srreet New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 826 9912
As much of a late night hot spot as a drinking den, Freret Street Publiq House is a lively spot for a fun night out. An outstanding roster of live acts, from recognized local bands to well-known artists, draws live music junkies to the club. Besides music, the club also accommodates comedy and other such acts for a complete entertainment package. The bar boasts a varied spirit list of worldly beers, wines and specialty cocktails. Fun events like trivia nights ensure that there's never a dull moment. Regular drink specials and related events keep the crowds coming. The patio is a favorite spot for regulars for chilling out after performances. Check website for schedules and more.
The Palms Bar
7130 Freret Street New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 669 2061
Drink and dance till your hearts content at The Palms Bar, where the music doesn't stop till the sunrises. With delicious new drink specials every day of the week, the bar offers a happy hour at pocket-friendly prices, fit for all. You can also opt for the VIP bottled service to gain access to the revamped VIP sections of the bar. With some exciting deals at reasonable prices, The Palm Bar is perfect for celebrating private parties.
The Beach on Bourbon
227 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 9764
This tropical themed nightclub boasts the largest dance floor on Bourbon street, with an air-conditioned courtyard and a two-tiered VIP area. Great music is the hallmark of the Beach, with DJs spinning the latest dance mixes and live music performances that set the floor on fire. Its unique ambiance, superb happy hour specials and excellent location, make the Beach a popular choice amongst the young and beautiful of New Orleans. Available on hire for private events, this club promises to make any event a truly unforgettable one.
Bandstand
441 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 566 1507
Bandstand is one of the many bars and nightclubs that can be found along Bourbon Street. What sets this bar apart though is the amazing live band performances that continue all night long. While the lower level offers ample space to dance the night away, the bar at the balcony is a great place to grab some delicious drinks and watch the revelry ensuing below. With an amazing happy hour that runs much later that other bars and live music of every genre, a night at Bandstand is sure to be one you will not soon forget.
Napoleon's Itch
734 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 237 4144
Napoleon's Itch is one of the popular gay and lesbian bars in New Orleans' French Quarter. This club has helped shape popular culture and bring the issue of gay rights into the mainstream. Since its opening in 2004, it is most famous for hosting a concert named Bourbon Street Extravaganza during Southern Decadence, a six-day annual festival for the LGBT community. The likes of Jeanie Tracy, Mary Griffin, Ben Cohen, Martha Wash and Thea Austin have participated in this annual concert, which attracts more than 10,000 people every year. During non-festive times, Napoleon's Itch is still a funky place for watching music videos, sipping fruity cocktails and smoking. Its mojitos are available in blueberry, cucumber, pineapple, watermelon and strawberry flavors. For the best experience, head here during the weekend when the bar is filled with trendy patrons.
Candlelight Lounge
925 North Robertson Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 525 4748
The Candlelight Lounge is the place to go if you are looking for a fun and lively night, with good music, tasty food and perfect drinks. Set in the Treme neighborhood in a cozy and unassuming home, this music lounge and bar features live classic New Orleans brass band performances every night. Pay the USD10 cover charge which grants you entrance here along with a free bowl of rice and beans, and dance the night away as the band plays foot-tapping jazz tunes.
Hotard Coaches, Inc.
2838 Touro Street New Orleans, LA 70122 United States - Phone: +1 504 944 0253
Hotard Coaches is a full service transportation provider has been serving the deep South for more than 40 years. They have passenger vehicles that accommodate 25 to 55 people. Rates vary wildly, so your best bet is to call or drop them an e-mail for specific information regarding your needs.
Airport Shuttle
4220 Howard Avenue New Orleans, LA 70125 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 3500
Airport Shuttle is a hospitality enterprise company, the official ground transportation for the New Orleans International Airport. It offers convenient service between airport and various New Orleans hotels. The polished, polite and punctual drivers stick to the time-tables, giving you timely and safe service. Fares vary according to the age and distance. Check the website for luggage charges, deliveries etc.
Tulane University Hospital & Clinic
1415 Tulane Avenue New Orleans, LA 70112 United States - Phone: +1 504 988 5800
Emergency room, helicopter transport, leading neurology and neurosurgery center. Teaching hospital for Tulane University School of Medicine. The first hospital to reopen after Hurricane Katrina devastated health care in the region, Tulane helped set up a sickle cell day hospital post-Katrina to allow health care to be more easily accessed and cost-effective.
Ochsner Hospital
1516 Jefferson Highway New Orleans, LA 70121 United States - Phone: +1 504 842 3900
Emergency room, leading heart treatment center and serves 59,000 patients a year. Ochsner is also a US News top 50 hospital, specializing in Heart, Gynecology, Rheumatology and Urology. They guarantee the best form of treatment at a very affordable price.
New Orleans Ernest N. Morial Convention Center
900 Convention Center Boulevard New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 582 3000
In walking-friendly New Orleans, New Orleans Ernest N. Morial Convention Center is literally just steps away from the Warehouse/Arts District and the historic French Quarter, where the old-world charm of fine restaurants, first-class hotel rooms and unique cultural experiences are around every corner. With 140 meeting rooms located directly above the 12 exhibit halls totaling 1,100,000 square feet (102193.344 square meters), a 4,000-seat conference auditorium/theater, two 30,000+ square feet (2787.0912 square meters) ballrooms, three restaurants and a VIP dining suite, every amenity is conveniently located under one roof. Recent improvements include a newly repainted exterior, lobby furniture, and a 10-GIG internet backbone.
Chez Clay
862 Tchoupitoulas Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 3240
Located in the New Orleans' historic warehouse arts district, Chez Clay encourages you to express your creative side, alone or with your friends. For the artist in you, this all-age contemporary ceramic studio has a huge collection of clay pieces to paint. From coffee mugs to picture frames and more, you can polish your painting skills and give the practice pottery as presents! Chez Clay also allows you to paint your own ceramics as well.
Alliance Business Centers
1100 Poydras, Suite 2900 New Orleans, LA 70163 United States - Phone: +1 714 437 5551
Alliance Business Centers is known for their well-facilitated spaces in 500 worldwide locations. You can select from a menu of services such as a corporate mailing address, personal telephone receptionist, and full suite or conference room facilities. No matter how big or small you are they offer just what you need.
Park 'N Fly
1017 Airline Drive Kenner, LA 70062 United States - Phone: +1 954 779 1776
Park N Fly is a convenient, practical and cheap way to park your car near New Orleans Louis Armstrong Airport (MSY) without paying the expensive on-airport parking fee. Park N Fly has a shuttle that comes by every few minutes to take you to MSY or drop you off at the parking lot. Their parking lots are secure and you can put your mind at ease that your car will be safe during your trip.
Pontchartrain Center
4545 Williams Boulevard Kenner, LA 70065 United States - Phone: +1 504 465 9985
Pontchartrain Center hosts an array of events that includes everything from private parties and catered receptions to conventions, business meetings, cultural and sports events. The modern infrastructure and chic look of the center adds to its popularity as an important venue. While the flexible flooring and padded seating gives you an arena-like experience while enjoying a game, the catering service by local favorite 'Messinas-Ovations' will make your party a sure success. For more details on the center, do visit the website or call ahead.
Iron Rail Book Collective
551 Marigny Street New Orleans, LA 70117 United States - Phone: +1 504 944 0366
This is not Borders, Barnes and Noble, or anything vaguely resembling the autonomous corporate bookstores. At Iron Rail Book Collective there is no rush to get your products purchased—feel free to browse through alternative genres such as anarchism, gay and lesbian studies and social theory while relaxing in the reading room. Book prices may seem cheap on Amazon, but here you can borrow a book for free from the lending library. And if you can't afford the $10 membership fee, put in three hours of volunteer work instead.
United Cabs Inc.
1634 Euterpe Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 9771
United Cabs Inc. offers the most efficient and reliable taxi service in the New Orleans area. In service since 1938, the company has now grown to 400 strong cabs, becoming the largest taxi service in the city. Cabs can be hired for any purpose and to travel any distance. In fact, they also offer to carry out tasks like deliver your parcels, picking-up food from any restaurant or delivering your groceries!
Yellow-Checker Cab
3001 Conti Street New Orleans, LA 70119 United States - Phone: +1 504 525 3311
Yellow-Checker Cab is a reputed taxi service that offers a round-the-clock service. The yellow cabs can be hailed on the street, but it's better to book by phone. Yellow-Checker Cab operates a large network of well-maintained taxicabs, which ensures that passengers don't have to wait too long for the cab to arrive. Service offered suits all needs, be it short or long distance travel.
Pellerin's Reception Hall
3717 Tulane Avenue New Orleans, LA 70119 United States - Phone: +1 504 891 6022
This is considered as one of the best places to host an event with its posh interiors and elegant atmosphere. Pellerin's Reception Hall is well laid out with an ample amount of versatile space. The staff here are very friendly and always go that extra mile to provide their customers with quality service and make them feel special. Be it a wedding shower, corporate function or seminar, rest assured, every guest is catered to with attention and hospitality.
Treme Community Center
900 North Villere Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 565 7290
Treme Community Center is popular venue for events in New Orleans. The vast space and modern amenities makes it the perfect place to host conferences, meetings and special events and parties. Poetry Black Party is one of the famous events that had been held here. So the next time you want to plan an event, contact the Treme Community Center.
The Cricket Club
2040 Saint Charles Avenue New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 304 9467
The Cricket Club has a charming history and was originally a part of the famous Eiffel Tower in Paris, France. Today the club re-opened in 2005 carries forward the romanticism of the Eiffel Tower Restaurant. Gourmet foods are also prepared on site by the Culinary Institute, by students who are training to become professional chefs. The club also hosts private events, parties, weddings and the like, with the promise of gorgeous tasting food. Fancy learning to cook gourmet? Take a class or try your luck in the demonstration round.
New Orleans Employers ILA
147 Carondelet Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 525 0309
The International Longshoremen's Association in New Orleans is an active association that represents longshoremen and related workers in New Orleans. Their union holds a monthly meeting in the ILA Hall. The hall is available for dance and musical performances. It also hosts gospel concerts and other shows featuring local talent.
Bourbon Vieux
501 Bourbon Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 586 1155
A very famous venue to host special events in New Orleans, Bourbon Vieux is said to be one of the finest party locations in New Orleans. If you're planning a corporate or social event, the staff at Bourbon Vieux can arrange everything—music, theme, decoration and much more, according to your needs. Easily accommodating 500 guests when it comes to wedding receptions, the venue has a extensive list of clients from big names in the corporate world to the celebrities of the city. Overlooking the Bourbon Street, the place is also known for its one of a kind New Year Party.
Westfeldt
6823 Saint Charles Avenue New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 865 5000
Sport lovers at Tulane University need not go anywhere to watch live matches. For they have the Westfeldt Facility always at their disposal. This vast space in the premises of the university, hosts the university matches as well as other sports events. Catch the action-packed performances by players and other exciting happenings at this must-visit arena of this university.
Le Roux
1700 Louisiana Avenue New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 897 5445
Le Roux plays host to a range of events and seminars throughout the year. The business networking session, 'Business After Hours' is held here. It also hosts various loan workshops and corporate events. Entry for most of these events is free. Roux is available for hosting various corporate and private events.
Tad Gormley Stadium
1 Palm Drive New Orleans, LA 70124 United States - Phone: +1 504 483 1720
New Orleans is known as one of the most fun loving places on earth and its versatility in hosting events knows no limits. The Tad Gormley Stadium just proves the point. This state-of-art facility has a seating capacity of 26,500 at a time, which suits the scale at which New Orleans likes to party. Though it was damaged by hurricane Katrina in 2005, the stadium rose 'like a phoenix from the ashes', so to speak. The Tad Gormley Stadium is available for use for athletics, entertainment and corporate events. Tad Gormley was even host to the Track and Field trials of the 1992 Olympics.
The Parish At House Of Blues
225 Decatur Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 310 4999
Enter The Parish which is next door to the House of Blues through a brick alleyway with a large fountain depicting Atlas shouldering the globe. 5,000 square foot of event space with a state-of-the-art sound system, The Parish is very flexible and a versatile event and concert place, along with anything else you can think of that needs that kind of space. Designed after a cathedral and featuring stained glass, hand painted murals, it's certainly a sight to behold.
Hyatt Regency New Orleans Grand Ballroom
Poydras at Loyola Avenue New Orleans, LA 70113 United States - Phone: +1 504 561 1234
The Grand Ballroom at the Hyatt Regency New Orleans is a majestic meeting space. It is simply perfect for all sorts of events and special occasions, be it an anniversary or a wedding or even a birthday bash. The 25,000 square feet of uber-luxurious space will set the tone for a time you are sure to remember forever.
Armstrong Ballroom
500 Canal Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 525 2500
If you want to get married in style then the Armstrong Ballroom located at Sheraton New Orleans Hotel, is a wonderful choice. With its lavish interiors and 20 foot walls, the venue is palatial. From the venue you can get a clear view of the New Orleans Skyline. The Ballroom can also be used as a banquet setting as well as a reception centre. Events like the IT FORUM & the WCNC 2003 Conference have been held here.
The Sugar Mill
1021 Convention Center Boulevard New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 586 0004
This events centre is conveniently located in the Warehouse District of New Orleans and offers guests a perfect venue for hosting corporate dinners and attending music concerts. The Sugar Mill has approximately 25,000 square feet of area and is designed in neutral tones, which provides one with a perfect canvas to create themes of one's choice. It is adjoined by a 15,000-square-foot beautifully landscaped courtyard and can accommodate over 3,000 people. This place has-state-of-the-art facilities and very friendly staff making it a perfect venue to host events.
Generations Hall
310 Andrew Higgins Drive New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 581 4367
Generations Hall at the Metropolitan is a good place to hold your meetings, conventions, events and concerts. They have a gamut of facilities available to make your meet a success. Located in the Warehouse District, it has a night club atmosphere with wooden beams, brass bars, band stage, and a dance floor. Being close to most hotels makes it a a very convenient venue. It accommodates 200 to 900 guests.
Rosy's Jazz Hall
500 Valence Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 896 7679
Rosy's has had an interesting history to its name. It has been a residence property, also a grocery store, then a sports bar and now it has been renovated and contributed to the cultural heritage of New Orleans by becoming one of the most famous venues for events and catering. It is one of the most desired venues for holding weddings and receptions due to the sheer magnificence. The service is flawless. Whether it is a private party or a corporate function, Rosy's is always the right choice.
New Orleans Streetcar's
8201 Willow Street New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 827 8300
The New Orleans street car system, the oldest continuously operating street railway system in the world, includes three different lines, the St. Charles Avenue line, the Riverfront line, and the Canal Street line, and covers a total of about 13 miles. These lines run through some of the most beautiful areas of the city and facilitate access to popular neighborhoods and attractions such as the French Quarter, the Central Business District, Audubon Park, and the Aquarium of the Americas, etc. A one-way fare is $1.25 and transfers to other lines are available for an additional $0.25. Sadly, all three of these lines were non-operational following Hurricane Katrina, but as recently as June 2008, they are all up and running again at full speed. These beautiful old streetcars are not only an integral part of New Orleans's history, but they are a convenient means of getting around the city, and their charm makes them an absolute must-do for visitors.
New Orleans
New Orleans New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 568 5661(Tourist Information)
One of the oldest cities in the United States, New Orleans is the prime seat of diverse culture and heritage. New Orleans gets its name from Philippe II, Duc d'Orléans and is credited as the birthplace of Jazz music. This city has a rich cultural heritage, one which can be witnessed in the numerous museums like New Orleans Museum Of Art, architecture, festivals and the general aura that the city emanates. One could also head to the New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park, or participate in Jazz Fests and other activities.
New Orleans Marriott Conference Center
555 Canal Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 581 1000
The Conference Centre at the New Orleans Marriott has a large and flexible floor space suitable for any important meeting or conference. With brilliant business services along with a really good menu devised specially for grand events, this conference centre is one of the best in town.
Occasional Wife
4306 Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70115 United States - Phone: +1 504 302 9893
Shoppers striving for a higher level of organization in their lives can address all of their needs at The Occasional Wife. This Magazine Street shop sells a variety of home and closet organizational tools to control clutter and organize spaces. In addition to selling organizational accessories for the home and office, The Occasional Wife provides a long list of services like party planning, home organization, holiday decorating, and moving and relocation services to help clients get any aspect of their life under control. - Bethany Culp
Canal-Algiers Ferry
Canal Street New Orleans, LA United States - Phone: +1 504 363 9090
The five-minute free ride on the Canal-Algiers Ferry is a great alternative way to see the French Quarter and experience NOLA outside the tourist zone. The Canal Street terminal is conveniently located on the edge of the French Quarter. The Algiers Point terminal is in a quaint neighborhood. Algiers Point, founded in 1719 with about the same size of the French Quarter, has quite a different atmosphere. Here you can enjoy a scenic walk along the river bank, chat with dog-walkers, see different types of architectures from Creole Cottages to Greek Revival, visit the Mardi Gras World, or just hang out at the local bar outside the terminal. The ferry runs every 30 minutes, leaving Algiers Point on the half-hour and hour and leaving Canal Street at 15 minutes to the hour and 15 after the hour. - Hoiyin Ip
Tournament Players Club of Louisiana
11001 Lapalco Boulevard Avondale, LA 70094 United States - Phone: +1 504 436 8721
Play golf in the serene lush green lawns of the Tournament Players Club of Louisiana. This charming 18-hole golf course opened in 2004 and has been designed by ace golf course architect Pete Dye. The TPC, as it is fondly known is part of the PGA tour network and hence offers nothing but the best. Several tournaments are played here with some renowned personalities in the golf world making their mark. Other events include corporate and charity events, weddings, private parties and so on. The TPC also offers a fine restaurant where you savor some delicious local cuisine. So be a golf enthusiast or not, this place has something for everyone.
TPC Louisiana
11001 Lapalco Boulevard Avondale, LA 70094 United States - Phone: +1 504 436 8721
Home to the Zurich Classic of New Orleans, TPC Louisiana is among the best known golf courses in Avondale, and has been acknowledged in the same respect: 'the 4th best upscale public golf courses' by Golf Digest in 2004 and in Golf Week’s 'best courses you can play'. On offer here is a well maintained stretch of green, welcoming both its members and guests as well. As part of the property here is a fabulous clubhouse, a restaurant, a golf shop and even accommodation. The course conducts regular events and championships and also has training courses. Do check their website for details.
Sweet Home Christian Center
434 Jackson Street New Orleans, LA 70062 United States - Phone: +1 504 466 8258
The Sweet Home Christian Center is located in the Kenner suburb of New Orleans and serves as a religious and a community center for Christians. Besides the routine functions of a church, which includes the Sunday communion service, this center also hosts various community related events inside the auditorium of the center that has a seating capacity for 800 visitors. The center was established by Pastor Eugene Wilson in the year 1961 with a view to serve the people of the community and today has been successful as a day care facility for families. Call or visit their website for information about various programs.
619 Frenchmen Street
619 Frenchmen Street New Orleans, LA 70116 United States - Phone: +1 504 566 5011 (Tourist Information)
619 Frenchmen Street is one of the very important streets in the city. The street is often used as an event space for several functions and carnivals. Besides, the place is surrounded by some amazing shops and diners that are bustling with locals and tourists. A stroll through this busy and colorful street is sure to reveal the eclectic culture of the locals here and give you a peek into the culture of the city.
Garyville
Garyville Garyville, LA 70051 United States
Garyville may still not be incorporated as a city however there is no denying that this little census designated place is perhaps the most important in St. John the Baptist Parish because of the tax revenue it brings in through hectic industrial activity. An oil refinery built here in 1976 was among the first, while the San Francisco Plantation emerges the real winner from all the touristy attractions. Gothic architecture and painted ceilings define the old house whose guided tours are legendary.
Metairie
Metairie New Orleans, LA United States - Phone: +1 800 672 6124(Toll Free) /+1 504 566 5011 (Tourist Information)
The quaint suburb of Metairie which literally translates into 'small tenant farm' in French can trace its origins back to the 1720s when it was first settled by the French colonialists who set shores in America. Despite suffering repeatedly and with astonishing regularity from hurricanes and flooding through the years, Metairie continues to hold its own, and beckons especially to lovers of jazz and blues. Mardi Gras that's held each year in either February or March is celebrated with great fervor and festivities; this is in fact a good time to visit!
Loyola University New Orleans
6363 Saint Charles Avenue New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 865 3240 / +1 800 456 9652(Toll Free)
Founded in 1904, the Loyola University New Orleans is one of the renowned and top universities of United States. Comprising the College of Humanities and Natural Sciences, College of Social Sciences, The Joseph A. Butt, S.J., College of Business, College of Music and Fine Arts and College of Law it offers diverse educational programs. This university believes in providing overall education to its students and hence it supports and encourages them to participate in extra-curricular activities. This fact is evident from the several campus publications run by its students and the excellent performance of its athletic teams. For admission schedule and information on the academic courses offered here, check website.
A.L. Davis Park
Lasalle Street New Orleans, LA 70113 United States
Among the few open green spaces left in Central City area of New Orleans, the A.L. Davis Park is a popular playground for kids. The park comprises a basketball court as well as a football field where local sports events take place. Apart from sports, the park is also at the center of various cultural and community events like concerts and parades which occur throughout the year.
St. Timothy On The Northshore
335 Asbury Drive Mandeville, LA 70471 United States - Phone: +1 985 626 3307
St. Timothy On The Northshore is a Methodist Church, serving the people of Mandeville through various religious and community activities. This church was established in 1975, and has since then been instrumental in the spread of the teachings of Bible in this part of Louisiana. The church hosts religious service on Sundays, which attracts the followers of Christ in large numbers. Visit their website for various community programs organized by the church.
St. Joseph School
610 6th Street Gretna, LA 70053 United States - Phone: +1 504 362 6631
Located in the St. Joseph Church complex, the St. Joseph School is a co-ed high school attended by kids from Gretna as well as those from nearby towns and cities. Owing to its location close to the historic church, the school complex sees a lot of religious as well as cultural activities throughout the year. Concerts by touring orchestra groups are held here regularly, which attracts the locals as well as tourists in large numbers.
Edward Hynes Charter School
990 Harrison Avenue New Orleans, LA 70124 United States - Phone: +1 504 324 7160 / +1 504 483 6100
Located on the Harrison Avenue, Edward Hynes Charter School is a charter school which was established in 1952 and serves students students upto K-8 grades. The school, with its talented and refined teaching staff, and state-of-the-art facilities, aims for an overall development of students. The courses held here are accredited to the NAEYC and the school is also recognized as a National Blue Ribbon School of Excellence. Call ahead or visit their website to know more.
Garden District
Magazine Street New Orleans, LA 70130 United States - Phone: +1 504 566 5011(Tourist Information)
Tradition, tranquility and abundant beauty can be used to describe this neighborhood in New Orleans. Garden District, with its well-maintained 19th-century mansions and surrounding landscape makes it a popular and beautiful destinations for visitors. Commander's Palace, Anshe Sfard and George Washington Cable House are notable landmarks.
Carrollton
8231 Green Street New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 566 5011(Tourist Information)
Carrollton now a part of metropolitan New Orleans was originally a rustic locality in the city's outskirts. With street cars plying along its oak-lined avenues and the Mississippi River flowing alongside, the neighborhood still retains its old world charm. Coffee shops, restaurants, stores and music events, Carrollton has a lot to offer within its historic settings.
Chalmette High School
1100 East Judge Perez Drive Chalmette , LA 70043 United States - Phone: +1 504 301 2600
With a history dating back to 1928, Chalmette High School is one of the esteemed high schools in the city. It has a great athletics program and has its own sports team, The Owls. Some of the sports encouraged by the school are football, basketball, baseball, volleyball, cross country and tennis. The Cultural Arts Center at the institution features a huge theater, technology center, music rooms and dance studios. The campus also houses a state-of-the-art gym, indoor swimming pool, baseball and football stadiums, and a wrestling zone.
Destrehan High School
1 Wildcat Lane Destrehan, LA 70047 United States - Phone: +1 985 764 9946
Located near the Mississippi River, Destrehan High School is a public school catering to students on the East bank of the river. Established in 1924, the school has many extracurricular activities and athletic programs. The Fighting Wildcats and Lady Cats are the names of its sports teams. Some of the sports that it encourages are football, baseball, softball, swimming, basketball and golf. The campus also has facilities to support their athletic teams such as the Wildcat Stadium, Fighting Wildcats Baseball Field and Lady Cats Softball Field.
Broadmoor Historic District
South Claiborne Avenue New Orleans, LA 70113 United States - Phone: +1 504 658 4000 (Tourist Information)
It is located in the neighborhood of Broadmoor, New Orleans. Before being developed in the early 20th Century, it used to be a low lying area prone to floods and was largely a marsh used as a fishing area by Uptowners. Most buildings are highrises to avoid any effect of floods, even though there are low-lying structures as well. The historic district was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in the year 2003.
Faubourg Marigny
Royal Street New Orleans, LA 70117 United States - Phone: +1 855 256 4372
The Faubourg Marigny is a historic district in close proximity of the city of New Orleans. It has a total area cover of 0.33 square miles (0.9 square kilometers), as per the United Nations Census Bureau. Out of this, 0.31 square miles (0.8 square kilometers) constitutes land and the rest comprise of water. It swanks of being the most intact historic neighborhoods in the Country, through the 19th Century. It promises a bevy of restaurants and excellent coffee houses. Churches, temples, shops and bookstores add up to the beauty of Marigny. Varied provisions are made for sports activities and fitness. Theater, galleries, artists, studios too are in abundance.
Fourth Church of Christ
134 Polk Avenue New Orleans, LA 70124 United States - Phone: +1 504 484 0933
Fourth Church of Christ, Scientist is located across the Polk Avenue. Replacing the Lakeview Presbyterian Church, this church is incorporated in the U.S. National Register of Historic Places. For details, check website.
Our Lady of Grace Roman Catholic Church
772 Highway 44 Reserve, LA 70084 United States - Phone: +1 985 536 2613
Located across the Highway 44, the Our Lady of Grace Church is a historical church. Included in the U.S. National Register of Historic Places, it dates back to 1930s era.
St. James AME Church
222 North Roman Street New Orleans, LA 70112 United States - Phone: +1 731 707 1492
The St. James AME Church is a pristine white color church built in 1848. Encompassing a modest area of 0.2 acre (0.081 hectare), it is constructed in the Gothic style of architecture. The church still holds regular services and ceremonies to keep the community binded. Owing to its beautiful design and architecture, it was put up in the National Register of Historic Places in 1982.
Port of New Orleans
1350 Port of New Orleans Place New Orleans, LA 70160 United States - Phone: +1 504 522 2551
The Port of New Orleans is among the largest of its kind in the nation and also has the distinction of the longest quay in the globe. This Lower Mississippi River port has a history dating back to 1718. It also features many terminals and was the site of the 1984 World’s Fair. The Woldenberg Park and The Audubon Aquarium of the Americas are located near it and are famous tourist destinations in the city. It is also technologically advanced and is the home to major shipping companies. From cargoes to water transportation and more, it is the lifeline to the Midwest.
Children’s Hospital New Orleans
200 Henry Clay Avenue New Orleans, LA 70118 United States - Phone: +1 504 899 9511
Offering advanced pediatrics care for the Louisiana, the Children’s Hospital New Orleans is a full service hospital for kids.
Louisiana University Hospital
2021 Perdido Street New Orleans, LA 70112 United States - Phone: +1 504 903 3000
Louisiana University Hospital is a premier academic medical facility.
New Orleans Union Passenger
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Deriving ultimately from the Geek for 'knowledge, or study, of custom', what name is given to the study of animal behaviour? | Psychology Essays - Language Psychological Research
Psychology Essays - Language Psychological Research
Published:
Last Edited:
9th March, 2016
This essay has been submitted by a student. This is not an example of the work written by our professional essay writers.
Language Psychological Research
What does it mean to say that language can be viewed both as an object and as the medium of psychological research?
Of all the things that people can do, none seems more complex than understanding and speaking a language. Thousands of words and countless subtle grammatical rules for modifying and combining words must be learned. Yet nearly all people master their native language by the time they are 3 or 4 years old. This has led psychologist to investigate how language has evolved, whether it is a function of the brain that can be studied just like any other quality of the mind such as memory or intelligence.
After all, linguistic knowledge is a component of the speaker’s long-term memory (Bock, 1995). Noam Chomsky, one of the great leaders in thinking about language, proposed that language evolved as an extra brain module, a new specialisation. This presumed module has been forcefully described by Chomsky (1965) as a language acquisition device, a built-in mechanism for acquiring language.
The main evidence for this view is the amazing ease with which most children develop language (Kalat, 2004). Much of what we have learnt about language and the brain comes from studying people with brain damage. Disturbance in language function is quite common in adults following damage to certain areas of the left hemisphere. Studies of these people offer fascinating clues about how the brain operates and raise equally fascinating unanswered questions (Kalat, 2004).
Chomsky argued that language could be understood in terms of computational principles. This approach to language coincided with the emergence of artificial intelligence and the rise of the digital computer as the dominant metaphor for the mind (Corballis & Lea, 1999, p. 45).
Viewed within this context, the study of language is concerned with trying to understand the program which runs the system; how and when the processing system retrieves different kinds of linguistic knowledge, how the system uses the knowledge once it has been retrieved, how and when the system retrieves and uses non-linguistic knowledge, and how the system is organised within and constrained by human cognitive capabilities (Bock, 1995). Linguists working in this tradition are ultimately pursuing the cognitive or thought processes of the human mind as they are present in language (Finch, 2003).
Those that study language as an object tend to be interested in the form of the language, that is, how people say things. What people say is irrelevant. According to Bradley (2005), the mind referring to a single thing is completely incorrect. He questions how the vision of language as an object of impartial scientific investigation has been able to dominate the vision of language as a medium of social action. This essay will demonstrate how the two perspectives complement each other.
Freud, Saussure and Durkheim all asked: what makes individual experience possible? What enables us to perceive not just physical objects but objects with a meaning? The answers they gave rejected historical and causal explanations in favour of the study of interpersonal systems of norms which, assimilated by individuals as the culture within which they live, create the possibility of a wide variety of meaningful activities (Bradley, 2005, p. 56).
It wasn’t until the linguistic turn in the 1950s that philosophers and social scientists began to see language as the distinguishing feature of humanness. It was Chomsky who first argued that language is philosophically fundamental to psychology in that it is the distinguishing feature of human beings when compared to animals (Corballis & Lea, 1999). The linguistic turn is what is said to usher in the “language as communicative medium” view.
This view recognises that language is more than just individual words, it is the practical medium in every walk of psychology; diagnosis, research, therapy, teaching and testing (Bradley, 2005). It is the speech situation that psychology creates between lecturer and student, between researchers and the people they research, between therapists and their clients and between psychologist using psychometric tests and the people they assess. “The purpose of studying language, from this perspective, is not to understand the human mind, but to understand ourselves in relation to the world, in other words, as social beings” (Finch, 2003, p. 112).
The study of language as a medium explores how language creates a space for knowledge, a space within which we can know about the world. Saussure, whose book Course in General Linguistics had a profound historical effect on studies of language and symbolism in a variety of fields, believed it is only through the connection of patterns and experience that people can make sense of the world.
If Saussure were to consider this paragraph of text he would not be concerned with the particular words that appear before the reader’s eyes. Rather, he would attempt to describe the language system that both authors and readers must hold in common to make this particular example of communication possible and, in particular, the rules by which such a system is governed (Radford & Radford, 2005).
For Saussure, “a language is a system in which all the elements fit together, and in which the value of any one element depends on the simultaneous coexistence of all the others” (Saussure, 1983, p. 113). So far as the individual speaking is concerned, succession in time does not exist (Bradley, 2005).
Just as in chess the value of each piece depends on its position in relation to all the other pieces on the board, in speaking each linguistic term derives its value from its relations to all the other terms constituting the simultaneity into which a person speaks. The past is irrelevant (Bradley, 2005). This concept of simultaneity overturns the tradition of thought in which “everything has become what it is; everything has a genesis; everything has a cause; every change must be to some end” (Bradley, 2005, p. 57).
The key to understanding Saussure’s structuralism is the idea that meaning is made possible by patterns rather than by some correspondence between “a name and a thing” (Saussure, 1983, p. 66). To demonstrate this idea, Radford and Radford (2005) draw a parallel with roulette. The European roulette wheel consists of 36 numbers (18 red and 18 black) and one zero. The players bet on which of these numbers will hit when the ivory ball falls into a numbered slot. So how do players choose the numbers for their bets? Ironically, they look to the very connections they know not to exist; the wheel’s history of previous spins.
Players use this knowledge of history to “see” the sequence of numbers and thus to derive some sense of which numbers are “due” to hit. Any particular number in roulette, taken by itself, has no value. For example, the wheel is spun and the number 24 comes up. The value of 24 only becomes apparent when it is placed in the context of the results of the previous spins, or the results of the spins that follow.
The same is true of language. For example, consider the word: “psychology”. The term “psychology” has just appeared on this page. What does it mean? To find an answer to that question, one has to seek the place of this term in the prevailing pattern of the other terms that comprise this text. The term “psychology” has been given a place within a context of sentences, paragraphs, and sections.
The juxtaposition of “psychology” with these other units provides a sense of the term’s place in a greater, overall scheme. To understand the text is not to understand each individual term separately, but to see how the terms are selected and then combined into a coherent whole (Radford & Radford, 2005). The Collins Gem Australian English Dictionary (1993, p. 431) defines “psychology” as: “the study of human and animal behaviour” This sentence certainly answers the question “what is psychology?” But now one is faced with another question: what is meant by the sentence “the study of human and animal behaviour”? Instead of a single term, there is now a sentence composed of multiple terms each of which have their own definitions.
Saussure argued that we could look at any string of words as having two axes: a horizontal one, along which words combine with other words, and a vertical one, along which they interchange with others. The first he called syntagmatic, and the second, paradigmatic (Finch, 2003, p. 95). Syntagmatically, a word gains meaning from its relation to everything that comes before or after it in the dialogue of which it is part.
Paradigmatically, words accrue meaning by a process of selection from a single set of semantically related (but different) terms (Bradley, 2005). Instead of finding out what “information” is in some definitive way, one is confronted with a particular pattern among terms, of how one term (say “psychology”) is related to another term (say “behaviour”) and not to other terms (say “bread” or “pyramid”). Deriving the meaning of “psychology” resides in the ability to construct the right relationships among other symbols.
Saussure was able to show that differences between meanings cannot exist independently from differences between sounds. The difference between meanings structure our perception. We would not be able to recognise a simple chair as a chair without knowing the meaning of “chair” as opposed to “arm chair”. Therefore all we can know about reality is conditioned by language (Clark, 2004).
The central concept in Saussure’s structuralist approach is the sign, which is composed of two parts, a signifier (the sound pattern of a word) and a signified (the concept or meaning of the word) (Saussure, 1983, p. 67). The point Saussure makes is that there is no direct relation between the sound of a word and the object it refers to. Like the history of a session on the roulette table, patterns which seem so meaningful are created from elements that are themselves arbitrary.
It is the signifier and signified together, that is the complete sign, which refers to the outside world (Hank, 1996). This approach was quite different from previous approaches which focused on the relationship between words and things in the world that they designate.
The two most controversial elements in psychology’s traditional methods of research are the elevation of the researcher ‘above’ those he or she studies and the reduction of the people studied to impersonal ‘objects’ (Bradley, 2005). Previous social settings for psychological practice, whether in the consulting room, the laboratory or the lecture-hall, have locked in place a fundamental asymmetry between the subject and object of knowledge. “What was desired was knowledge of individuals as the objects of intervention rather than as subjects of experience (Bradley, 2005, p. 159).
We can treat others as equals or we can treat them as objects. Bradley (2005) aims to elaborate a less top-down more democratic framework for investigating mental life. “Psychologists who stand above the perspectives of the people they study frame the conceptual universe of their studies largely in their own terms, and so ignore or mishear others’ voices, not respecting others’ interests as equal to their own or assuming others’ interests are the same as their own” (Bradley, 2005, p. 157). Experimental artefacts occur when you don’t have a level playing field, when people are not allowed to speak their mind (such as in subjective scientific experiments). If we treat people as equals they can inform us.
In psychosocial experiments, the psychologist recruits a set of volunteers who are asked to respond to prearranged things or answer prearranged questions. Their behaviour is then measured and the results analysed according to the psychologist’s hypothesis. The assumption is that people behave in the laboratory just as they would behave anywhere else i.e. ‘naturally’ (Bradley, 2005).
In this ideal situation, findings of psychological research can be generalised to other situations as can experiments in physics. But as Bradley (2005, p. 111) points out, “psychological experiments are different in principle from experiments in physics because experimenter and the human data source must necessarily be engaged in a human relationship”.
That is, every experiment is in fact a two way communication between researcher and participant and how researchers communicate with their subjects determines their results. “It is very rarely that we understand an idea in exactly the same way as the speaker intends us to. Words aren’t sufficient to achieve that” (Finch, 2003, p. 128).
Even in the most standardised experiment, where room-temperature, lighting, furniture and instructions are all rigorously controlled, it is impossible for all subjects to experience their setting as ‘the same’ (Bradley, 2005). Take for example a situation where a researcher is collecting their data by administering a battery of psychometric tests which are to be completed in one session.
Such a test might measure a man’s memory of his bond to his own father (independent variable), his current relationship to his wife (independent variable) and his own satisfaction with his relationship to his child (dependent variable). “Despite calling some of these variables independent and others dependent, all of them are in fact reflections of how he is feeling here and now as he sits, under the eye of the experimenter, marking off the scales that comprise the different tests” (Bradley, 2005, p. 117). It is the immediate setting that produces the behaviour. Even a small change in that communicative setting can alter people’s behaviour.
It is the asymmetrical speech situation generated in experiments that has led to the rise of the interview technique as a research method. The interview has become important because it allows a more democratic collection of data. Hollway and Jefferson (2004) believe interview data is always a product of the relationship between interviewer and interviewee; there will always be perspectives of the experimenter and perspectives of the subjects.
In working out the meaning of what is said to us we have to take into account not only the words themselves as individual items, but also the circumstances in which they are uttered, the medium used, and the person who is addressing us. Consequently, how a researcher communicates with an interviewee will determine their results.
Interpretation involves more than simply decoding language; it involves a knowledge of the world, of human psychology, and practical realities (Finch, 2003). Non-verbal communication and intonation can have a paralinguistic function, contributing to the total meaning of the communication by either reinforcing or contradicting the word meaning (Finch, 2003).
Chomsky argued that language is a matter of symbols and rules, not associations (Corballis & Lea, 1999, p. 45). However, take the example of a child’s name. According to Chomskian, names do not have a meaning in themselves since all they do is refer to something. What does David mean, for example? All it does is indicate a particular individual. And yet for most people names are not neutral entities; they are laden with associations.
To say these associations are not part of meaning is to shut our eyes to much of what people value about language (Finch, 2003, p. 129). Names are only an extreme example of a common phenomenon. To some people a word like “park” might conjure up happy childhood memories of playing on the swings: the word acts as a key to unlocking an inner world. Others however might have very different associations or none at all.
Fortunately, many associations are fairly general, such as leaves with autumn and fog with winter. If this were not the case, communication would be severely limited. None the less there is still a sense in which we all have a private vocabulary, unique to ourselves (Hank, 1996).
The study of language in psychology is a very diverse field. This essay suggests that the two views of language in psychological research, one as an object and the other as a medium, be seen as complementary rather than opposed accounts. The language as an object approach tends to be more austere, diagrammatic and rule conscious. The language as a medium approach, on the other hand, is concerned more with communicative aspects of language and with the principles that govern syntactic behaviour. It is rare to find linguists who do not take some account of both approaches, and many straddle both in some form or another.
The differences are largely those of emphasis. Saussure distinguished between langue and parole: langue indicating the language system, the program which we all have in our heads, and parole, the individual use of that system (Hank, 1996). Chomsky distinguished between competence (deep structure), performance (surface structure or sound of spoken word) and the transformation rules that govern the language, rules that transform across cultures.
The problem we are faced with is that there is a gap which exists between language and the world, or human experience. There are many more meanings than exact syntactic forms to express them (Finch, 2003). In an ideal world perhaps every possible speech act would have its own linguistic form. Ambiguity, confusion and misinterpretation would then be eliminated from our language use. But so would much of what makes us human.
“The endless diversity of human nature, its capacity for generating a plurality of meanings, which can be experienced simultaneously, makes any simple correlation between linguistic forms and meanings impossible” (Finch, 2003, p. 163). Language as a medium aims to discover how people make sense of the world, not to discover what the world is. Looking at language from this perspective denies any final or absolute scientific truth. The truths made possible by our signs and their relationship with other signs are the only truths that can be articulated and understood.
References
Bock, K. (1995). Sentence production: From kind to mouth. In J.L. Miller & P.D. Eimas (Eds.), Speech language and communication. San Diago: Academic, pp. 181-216.
Bradley, B.S. (2005). Psychology and experience. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Clark, E.A. (2004). History, theory, text: Historians and the linguistic turn, Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Corballis, M.C., & Lea, S.E.G. (1999). Are humans special? A history of psychological perspectives. In M.C. Corballis & S.E.G. Lea (eds.), The descent of mind: psychological perspectives of Hominid Evolution. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 1-15.
Finch, G. (2003). How to study linguistics: A guide to understanding language (2nd ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Hanks, W.F. (1996). Language and communicative practices. Boulder: Westview Press.
Hollway, W., & Jefferson, (2004). Doing qualitative research differently: From data to theory. Hove, East Sussex: Psychology Press.
Kalat, J.W. (2004). Biological psychology (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thompson Learning.
Krebs, W.A. (Ed.) (1993). Collins Gem: Australian English Dictionary. Sydney: Harper Collins Publishers.
Radford, G.P., & Radford, M.L. (2005). Structuralism, post-structuralism, and the library: de Saussure and Foucault, Journal of Documentation, 61, 60-78.
Saussure, F. de. (1983), Course in General Linguistics. Translated by R Harris. Chicago: Open Court Classics.
| Ethology |
Which High King of Ireland conquered Munster, Leinster and Connacht in 976 AD? | Evolution: Glossary
A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | Y | Z
acquired trait: A phenotypic characteristic, acquired during growth and development, that is not genetically based and therefore cannot be passed on to the next generation (for example, the large muscles of a weightlifter).
adaptation: Any heritable characteristic of an organism that improves its ability to survive and reproduce in its environment. Also used to describe the process of genetic change within a population, as influenced by natural selection .
adaptive landscape: A graph of the average fitness of a population in relation to the frequencies of genotypes in it. Peaks on the landscape correspond to genotypic frequencies at which the average fitness is high, valleys to genotypic frequencies at which the average fitness is low. Also called a fitness surface.
adaptive logic: A behavior has adaptive logic if it tends to increase the number of offspring that an individual contributes to the next and following generations. If such a behavior is even partly genetically determined, it will tend to become widespread in the population. Then, even if circumstances change such that it no longer provides any survival or reproductive advantage, the behavior will still tend to be exhibited -- unless it becomes positively disadvantageous in the new environment.
adaptive radiation: The diversification, over evolutionary time, of a species or group of species into several different species or subspecies that are typically adapted to different ecological niches (for example, Darwin's finches). The term can also be applied to larger groups of organisms, as in "the adaptive radiation of mammals ."
adaptive strategies: A mode of coping with competition or environmental conditions on an evolutionary time scale. Species adapt when succeeding generations emphasize beneficial characteristics.
agnostic: A person who believes that the existence of a god or creator and the nature of the universe is unknowable.
algae: An umbrella term for various simple organisms that contain chlorophyll (and can therefore carry out photosynthesis ) and live in aquatic habitats and in moist situations on land. The term has no direct taxonomic significance. Algae range from macroscopic seaweeds such as giant kelp, which frequently exceeds 30 m in length, to microscopic filamentous and single-celled forms such as Spirogyra and Chlorella.
allele: One of the alternative forms of a gene. For example, if a gene determines the seed color of peas, one allele of that gene may produce green seeds and another allele produce yellow seeds. In a diploid cell there are usually two alleles of any one gene (one from each parent). Within a population there may be many different alleles of a gene; each has a unique nucleotide sequence.
allometry: The relation between the size of an organism and the size of any of its parts. For example, an allometric relation exists between brain size and body size, such that (in this case) animals with bigger bodies tend to have bigger brains. Allometric relations can be studied during the growth of a single organism, between different organisms within a species, or between organisms in different species.
allopatric speciation: Speciation that occurs when two or more populations of a species are geographically isolated from one another sufficiently that they do not interbreed.
allopatry: Living in separate places. Compare with sympatry .
amino acid: The unit molecular building block of proteins , which are chains of amino acids in a certain sequence. There are 20 main amino acids in the proteins of living things, and the properties of a protein are determined by its particular amino acid sequence.
amino acid sequence: A series of amino acids, the building blocks of proteins , usually coded for by DNA . Exceptions are those coded for by the RNA of certain viruses, such as HIV.
ammonoid: Extinct relatives of cephalopods (squid, octopi, and chambered nautiluses), these mollusks had coiled shells and are found in the fossil record of the Cretaceous period.
amniotes: The group of reptiles, birds, and mammals . These all develop through an embryo that is enclosed within a membrane called an amnion. The amnion surrounds the embryo with a watery substance, and is probably an adaptation for breeding on land.
amphibians: The class of vertebrates that contains the frogs, toads, newts, and salamanders. The amphibians evolved in the Devonian period (about 370 million years ago) as the first vertebrates to occupy the land. They have moist scaleless skin which is used to supplement the lungs in gas exchange. The eggs are soft and vulnerable to drying, therefore reproduction commonly occurs in water. Amphibian larvae are aquatic, and have gills for respiration; they undergo metamorphosis to the adult form. Most amphibians are found in damp environments and they occur on all continents except Antarctica.
analogous structures: Structures in different species that look alike or perform similar functions (e.g., the wings of butterflies and the wings of birds) that have evolved convergently but do not develop from similar groups of embryological tissues, and that have not evolved from similar structures known to be shared by common ancestors. Contrast with homologous structures . Note: The recent discovery of deep genetic homologies has brought new interest, new information, and discussion to the classical concepts of analogous and homologous structures.
anatomy: (1) The structure of an organism or one of its parts. (2) The science that studies those structures.
ancestral homology: Homology that evolved before the common ancestor of a set of species , and which is present in other species outside that set of species. Compare with derived homology .
anthropoid: A member of the group of primates made up of monkeys, apes, and humans.
antibacterial: Having the ability to kill bacteria .
antibiotics: Substances that destroy or inhibit the growth of microorganisms, particularly disease-causing bacteria .
antibiotic resistance: A heritable trait in microorganisms that enables them to survive in the presence of an antibiotic .
aperture: Of a camera, the adjustable opening through which light passes to reach the film. The diameter of the aperture determines the intensity of light admitted. The pupil of a human eye is a self-adjusting aperture.
aquatic: Living underwater.
arboreal: Living in trees.
archeology: The study of human history and prehistory through the excavation of sites and the analysis of physical remains, such as graves, tools, pottery, and other artifacts .
archetype: The original form or body plan from which a group of organisms develops.
artifact: An object made by humans that has been preserved and can be studied to learn about a particular time period.
artificial selection: The process by which humans breed animals and cultivate crops to ensure that future generations have specific desirable characteristics . In artificial selection, breeders select the most desirable variants in a plant or animal population and selectively breed them with other desirable individuals. The forms of most domesticated and agricultural species have been produced by artificial selection; it is also an important experimental technique for studying evolution.
asexual reproduction: A type of reproduction involving only one parent that ususally produces genetically identical offspring. Asexual reproduction occurs without fertilization or genetic recombination , and may occur by budding, by division of a single cell, or by the breakup of a whole organism into two or more new individuals.
assortative mating: The tendency of like to mate with like. Mating can be assortative for a certain genotype (e.g., individuals with genotype AA tend to mate with other individuals of genotype AA) or phenotype (e.g., tall individuals mate with other tall individuals).
asteroid: A small rocky or metallic body orbitting the Sun. About 20,000 have been observed, ranging in size from several hundred kilometers across down to dust particles.
atheism: The doctrine or belief that there is no god.
atomistic: (as applied to theory of inheritance) Inheritance in which the entities controlling heredity are relatively distinct, permanent, and capable of independent action. Mendelian inheritance is an atomistic theory because in it, inheritance is controlled by distinct genes .
australopithecine: A group of bipedal hominid species belonging to the genus Australopithecus that lived between 4.2 and 1.4 mya.
Australopithecus afarensis: An early australopithecine species that was bipedal ; known fossils date between 3.6 and 2.9 mya (for example, Lucy).
autosome: Any chromosome other than a sex chromosome.
avian: Of, relating to, or characteristic of birds (members of the class Aves).
bacteria: Tiny, single-celled, prokaryotic organisms that can survive in a wide variety of environments. Some cause serious infectious diseases in humans, other animals, and plants.
base: The DNA molecule is a chain of nucleotide units; each unit consists of a backbone made of a sugar and a phosphate group, with a nitrogenous base attached. The base in a unit is one of adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), or thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) is used instead of thymine. A and G belong to the chemical class called purines ; C, T, and U are pyrimidines .
Batesian mimicry: A kind of mimicry in which one non-poisonous species (the Batesian mimic) mimics another poisonous species.
belemnite: An extinct marine invertebrate that was related to squid, octopi, and chambered nautiluses. We know from the fossil record that belemnites were common in the Jurassic period and had bullet-shaped internal skeletons.
big bang theory: The theory that states that the universe began in a state of compression to infinite density, and that in one instant all matter and energy began expanding and have continued expanding ever since.
biodiversity (or biological diversity): A measure of the variety of life, biodiversity is often described on three levels. Ecosystem diversity describes the variety of habitats present; species diversity is a measure of the number of species and the number of individuals of each species present; genetic diversity refers to the total amount of genetic variability present.
bioengineered food: Food that has been produced through genetic modification using techniques of genetic engineering.
biogenetic law: Name given by Haeckel to recapitulation .
biogeography: The study of patterns of geographical distribution of plants and animals across Earth, and the changes in those distributions over time.
biological species concept: The concept of species , according to which a species is a set of organisms that can interbreed among each other. Compare with cladistic species concept , ecological species concept , phenetic species concept , and recognition species concept .
biometrics: The quantitative study of characters of organisms.
biosphere: The part of Earth and its atmosphere capable of sustaining life.
bipedalism: Of hominids , walking upright on two hind legs; more generally, using two legs for locomotion.
bivalve: A mollusk that has a two-part hinged shell. Bivalves include clams, oysters, scallops, mussels, and other shellfish.
Blackmore, Susan: A psychologist interested in memes and the theory of memetics, evolutionary theory, consciousness, the effects of meditation, and why people believe in the paranormal. A recent book, The Meme Machine, offers an introduction to the subject of memes.
blending inheritance: The historically influential but factually erroneous theory that organisms contain a blend of their parents' hereditary factors and pass that blend on to their offspring. Compare with Mendelian inheritance .
botanist: A scientist who studies plants.
brachiopod: Commonly known as "lamp shells," these marine invertebrates resemble bivalve mollusks because of their hinged shells. Brachiopods were at their greatest abundance during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras.
Brodie, Edmund D., III: A biologist who studies the causes and evolutionary implications of interactions among traits in predators and their prey. Much of his work concentrates on the coevolutionary arms race between newts that posess tetrodotoxin, one of the most potent known toxins, and the resistant garter snakes who prey on them.
Brodie, Edmund D., Jr.: A biologist recognized internationally for his work on the evolution of mechanisms in amphibians that allow them to avoid predators. These mechanisms include toxins carried in skin secretions, coloration, and behavior.
Bruner, Jerome: A psychologist and professor at Harvard and Oxford Universities, and a prolific author whose book, The Process of Education, encouraged curriculum innovation based on theories of cognitive development.
bryozoan: A tiny marine invertebrate that forms a crust-like colony; colonies of bryozoans may look like scaly sheets on seaweed.
Burney, David: A biologist whose research has focused on endangered species, paleoenvironmental studies, and causes of extinction in North America, Africa, Madagascar, Hawaii, and the West Indies.
carbon isotope ratio: A measure of the proportion of the carbon-14 isotope to the carbon-12 isotope. Living material contains carbon-14 and carbon-12 in the same proportions as exists in the atmosphere. When an organism dies, however, it no longer takes up carbon from the atmosphere, and the carbon-14 it contains decays to nitrogen-14 at a constant rate. By measuring the carbon-14-to-carbon-12 ratio in a fossil or organic artifact, its age can be determined, a method called radiocarbon dating. Because most carbon-14 will have decayed after 50,000 years, the carbon isotope ratio is mainly useful for dating fossils and artifacts younger than this. It cannot be used to determine the age of Earth, for example.
carnivorous: Feeding largely or exclusively on meat or other animal tissue.
Carroll, Sean: Developmental geneticist with the Howard Hughes Medical Institute and professor at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. From the large-scale changes that distinguish major animal groups to the finely detailed color patterns on butterfly wings, Dr. Carroll's research has centered on those genes that create the "molecular blueprint" for body pattern and play major roles in the origin of new features. Coauthor, with Jennifer Grenier and Scott Weatherbee, of From DNA to Diversity: Molecular Genetics and the Evolution of Animal Design.
Carson, Rachel: A scientist and writer fascinated with the workings of nature. Her best-known publication, Silent Spring, was written over the years 1958 to 1962. The book looks at the effects of insecticides and pesticides on songbird populations throughout the United States. The publication helped set off a wave of environmental legislation and galvanized the emerging ecological movement.
Castle, W.E.: An early experimental geneticist , his 1901 paper was the first on Mendelism in America. His Genetics of Domestic Rabbits, published in 1930 by Harvard University Press, covers such topics as the genes involved in determining the coat colors of rabbits and associated mutations .
cell: The basic structural and functional unit of most living organisms. Cell size varies, but most cells are microscopic. Cells may exist as independent units of life, as in bacteria and protozoans, or they may form colonies or tissues, as in all plants and animals. Each cell consists of a mass of protein material that is differentiated into cytoplasm and nucleoplasm, which contains DNA. The cell is enclosed by a cell membrane, which in the cells of plants, fungi, algae, and bacteria is surrounded by a cell wall. There are two main types of cell, prokaryotic and eukaryotic .
Cenozoic: The era of geologic time from 65 mya to the present, a time when the modern continents formed and modern animals and plants evolved.
centromere: A point on a chromosome that is involved in separating the copies of the chromosome produced during cell division. During this division, paired chromosomes look somewhat like an X, and the centromere is the constriction in the center.
cephalopod: Cephalopods include squid, octopi, cuttlefish, and chambered nautiluses. They are mollusks with tentacles and move by forcing water through their bodies like a jet.
character: Any recognizable trait, feature, or property of an organism. In phylogenetic studies, a character is a feature that is thought to vary independantly of other features, and to be derived from a corresponding feature in a common ancestor of the organisms being studied. A "character state" is one of the possible alternative conditions of the character. For example, "present" and "absent" are two states of the character "hair" in mammals. Similarly, a particular position in a DNA sequence is a character, and A, T, C, and G are its possible states (see bases .)
character displacement: The increased difference between two closely related species where they live in the same geographic region ( sympatry ) as compared with where they live in different geographic regions ( allopatry ). Explained by the relative influences of intra- and inter-specific competition in sympatry and allopatry.
chloroplast: A structure (or organelle ) found in some cells of plants; its function is photosynthesis.
cholera: An acute infectious disease of the small intestine, caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae which is transmitted in drinking water contaminated by feces of a patient. After an incubation period of 1-5 days, cholera causes severe vomiting and diarrhea, which, if untreated, leads to dehydration that can be fatal.
chordate: A member of the phylum Chordata, which includes the tunicates , lancelets, and vertebrates . They are animals with a hollow dorsal nerve cord; a rodlike notochord that forms the basis of the internal skeleton; and paired gill slits in the wall of the pharynx behind the head, although in some chordates these are apparent only in early embryonic stages. All vertebrates are chordates, but the phylum also contains simpler types, such as sea-squirts, in which only the free-swimming larva has a notochord.
chromosome: A structure in the cell nucleus that carries DNA . At certain times in the cell cycle, chromosomes are visible as string-like entities. Chromosomes consist of the DNA with various proteins , particularly histones, bound to it.
chronology: The order of events according to time.
Clack, Jenny: A paleontologist at Cambridge University in the U.K., Dr. Clack studies the origin, phylogeny , and radiation of early tetrapods and their relatives among the lobe-finned fish. She is interested in the timing and sequence of skeletal and other changes which occurred during the transition, and the origin and relationships of the diverse tetrapods of the late Paleozoic.
clade: A set of species descended from a common ancestral species. Synonym of monophyletic group .
cladism: Phylogenetic classification. The members of a group in a cladistic classification share a more recent common ancestor with one another than with the members of any other group. A group at any level in the classificatory hierarchy, such as a family , is formed by combining a subgroup at the next lowest level (the genus , in this case) with the subgroup or subgroups with which it shares its most recent common ancestor. Compare with evolutionary classification and phenetic classification .
cladistic species concept: The concept of species, according to which a species is a lineage of populations between two phylogenetic branch points (or speciation events). Compare with biological species concept , ecological species concept , phenetic species concept , and recognition species concept .
cladists: Evolutionary biologists who seek to classify Earth's life forms according to their evolutionary relationships, not just overall similarity.
cladogram: A branching diagram that illustrates hypotheses about the evolutionary relationships among groups of organisms. Cladograms can be considered as a special type of phylogenetic tree that concentrates on the order in which different groups branched off from their common ancestors. A cladogram branches like a family tree, with the most closely related species on adjacent branches.
class: A category of taxonomic classification between order and phylum, a class comprises members of similar orders. See taxon.
classification: The arrangement of organisms into hierarchical groups. Modern biological classifications are Linnaean and classify organisms into species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, and certain intermediate categoric levels. Cladism , evolutionary classification , and phenetic classification are three methods of classification.
cline: A geographic gradient in the frequency of a gene , or in the average value of a character .
clock: See molecular clock.
clone: A set of genetically identical organisms asexually reproduced from one ancestral organism.
coadaptation: Beneficial interaction between (1) a number of genes at different loci within an organism, (2) different parts of an organism, or (3) organisms belonging to different species.
codon: A triplet of bases (or nucleotides) in the DNA coding for one amino acid . The relation between codons and amino acids is given by the genetic code . The triplet of bases that is complementary to a condon is called an anticodon; conventionally, the triplet in the mRNA is called the codon and the triplet in the tRNA is called the anticodon.
coelacanth: Although long thought to have gone extinct about 65 million years ago, one of these deep-water, lungless fish was caught in the 1930s. Others have since been caught and filmed in their natural habitat.
coevolution: Evolution in two or more species, such as predator and its prey or a parasite and its host, in which evolutionary changes in one species influence the evolution of the other species.
cognitive: Relating to cognition, the mental processes involved in the gathering, organization, and use of knowledge, including such aspects as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgement. The term refers to any mental "behaviors" where the underlying characteristics are abstract in nature and involve insight, expectancy, complex rule use, imagery, use of symbols, belief, intentionality, problem-solving, and so forth.
common ancestor: The most recent ancestral form or species from which two different species evolved.
comparative biology: The study of patterns among more than one species.
comparative method: The study of adaptation by comparing many species.
concerted evolution: The tendency of the different genes in a gene family to evolve in concert; that is, each gene locus in the family comes to have the same genetic variant.
conodont: A jawless fish that had tiny, tooth-like phosphate pieces that are abundant in the fossil record, these were the earliest known vertebrates .
continental drift: The process by which the continents move as part of large plates floating on Earth's mantle. See plate tectonics .
contrivance: An object or characteristic used or modified to do something different from its usual use.
convergence: The process by which a similar character evolves independently in two species. Also, a synonym for analogy ; that is, an instance of a convergently evolved character, or a similar character in two species that was not present in their common ancestor. Examples include wings (convergent in birds, bats, and insects) and camera-type eyes (convergent in vertebrates and cephalopod mollusks).
convergent evolution: The evolution of species from different taxonomic groups toward a similar form; the development of similar characteristics by taxonomically different organisms.
Conway Morris, Simon: Paleobiologist and professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at Cambridge University in the U.K. His research centers around the early evolution of the metazoans , and he is a leading authority on Cambrian and Precambrian fossils. Conway Morris established a link between the Ediacaran fossils, a Burgess Shale fernlike frond Thaumaptilon, and the modern seapens, colonial animals related to the corals.
Cope's rule: The evolutionary increase in body size over geological time in a lineage of populations.
coral (also, rugose coral, tabulate coral): These tiny animals make calcium carbonate skeletons that are well known as a key part of tropical reefs. The skeletons of the extinct rugose and tabulate corals are known from fossils.
cranium: The part of the skull that protects the brain in vertebrates.
creationism: The religious doctrine that all living things on Earth were created separately, in more or less their present form, by a supernatural creator, as stated in the Bible; the precise beliefs of different creationist groups vary widely. See separate creation .
creation science: An assortment of many different, non-scientific attempts to disprove evolutionary theory, and efforts to prove that the complexity of living things can be explained only by the action of an "intelligent designer."
Cretaceous: The final geological period of the Mesozoic era that began 144 million years ago and ended 65 million years ago. The end of this period is defined most notably by the extinction of the dinosaurs in one of the largest mass extinctions ever to strike the planet.
crinoid: A marine invertebrate animal belonging to a class (Crinoidea; about 700 species) of echinoderms , including sea lilies and feather stars. They have a small cup-shaped body covered with hard plates and five radiating pairs of feathery flexible arms surrounding the mouth at the top. Sea lilies, most of which are extinct, are fixed to the sea bottom or some other surface such as a reef by a stalk. Feather stars are free-swimming and are usually found on rocky bottoms. Crinoids occur mainly in deep waters and feed on microscopic plankton and detritus caught by the arms and conveyed to the mouth. The larvae are sedentary. They arose in the Lower Ordovician (between 500 and 460 million years ago), and fossil crinoids are an important constituent of Palaeozoic limestones.
crossing over: The process during meiosis in which the chromosome of a diploid pair exchange genetic material, visible in the light microscope. At a genetic level, it produces recombination .
crustacean: A group of marine invertebrates with exoskeletons and several pairs of legs. They include shrimp, lobsters, crabs, amphipods (commonly known as "sand fleas"), and many more.
Currie, Cameron: A Canadian ecologist and recipient of the 2001 Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council Doctoral Prize for his research on the complex symbiotic relationship of fungus-growing ants, the fungi they cultivate, mutualistic bacteria that the ants carry on their bodies, and pathogens that attack the fungi.
cytoplasm: The region of a eukaryotic cell outside the nucleus.
Daeschler, Ted: Paleontologist and associate research curator at the Academy of Natural Sciences. Discoverer of late Devonian limbed fossils Hynerpeton bassetti and Designathus rowei ( tetrapods ) and Sauripterus taylorii and Hyneria (lobed-finned fishes), all early examples of animals exploiting both land and water environments. Author of two books on paleontology for young people.
Dart, Raymond: Australian-born South African anatomist and anthropologist (1893-1988). In 1924 he described a fossil skull collected near Taung in South Africa, naming it Australopithecus africanus. Dart asserted that the skull was intermediate between the apes and humans, a controversial claim at the time, though later work made it clear that the Taung child, as it came to be known, was indeed a hominid .
Darwinian evolution: Evolution by the process of natural selection acting on random variation.
Darwinism: Darwin's theory that species originated by evolution from other species and that evolution is mainly driven by natural selection. Differs from neo-Darwinism mainly in that Darwin did not know about Mendelian inheritance .
Darwin, Charles: The 19th-century naturalist considered the father of evolution. His landmark work, On the Origin of Species, published in 1859, presented a wealth of facts supporting the idea of evolution and proposed a viable theory for how evolution occurs -- via the mechanism Darwin called "natural selection." In addition to his prolific work in biology, Darwin also published important works on coral reefs and on the geology of the Andes, and a popular travelogue of his five-year voyage aboard HMS Beagle.
Darwin, Erasmus: The name shared by Charles Darwin's grandfather and brother, each important in his life and work. Charles's grandfather Erasmus (1731-1802) was a glorious polymath -- physician, author, and botanist. His impact is reflected throughout a wide range of disciplines from the poetry to the technology of his day. Author of The Loves of the Plants, a 2,000-line poem detailing their sexual reproduction, and Zoonomia, or the Theory of Generations, whose themes echo throughout his grandson's work. Charles's older brother Erasmus (1805-1881), known as "Ras," used his network of social and scientific contacts to advance the theories of his shyer, more retiring sibling.
Dawkins, Richard: An evolutionary biologist who has taught zoology and is the author of several books on evolution and science, including The Selfish Gene (1976) and The Blind Watchmaker (1986). He is known for his popularization of Darwinian ideas, as well as for original thinking on evolutionary theory.
Dembski, William: A mathematician and philosopher who has written on intelligent design , attempting to establish the legitimacy and fruitfulness of design within biology.
Dennett, Daniel: Philosopher and director of the Center for Cognitive Studies at Tufts University, whose work unites neuroscience, computer science, and evolutionary biology. Dennett sees no basic distinction between human and machine intelligence, advocating a mechanical explanation of consciousness. He is the author of Brainchildren: Essays on Designing Minds and Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life, among many other books and publications.
derived homology: Homology that first evolved in the common ancestor of a set of species and is unique to those species. Compare with ancestral homology .
de facto: In fact; in reality. Something which exists or occurs de facto is not the result of a law, but because of circumstances.
diatom: These single-celled algae are common among the marine phytoplankton . Their glassy, two-part shells have intricate patterns and fit together like the two parts of a shirt box.
diffusion: The process by which molecules (for example, of oxygen) move passively from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration.
dinoflagellate: Possessing two tail-like extensions called flagella that are used for movement, these single-celled algae can live freely or in other organisms such as corals . When many dinoflagellates suddenly reproduce in great numbers, they create what are known as "red tides" by making the water appear red.
diploid: Having two sets of genes and two sets of chromosomes (one from the mother, one from the father). Many common species, including humans, are diploid. Compare with haploid and polyploid .
directional selection: Selection causing a consistent directional change in the form of a population through time (e.g., selection for larger body size).
disruptive selection: Selection favoring forms that deviate in either direction from the population average. Selection favors forms that are larger or smaller than average, but works against the average forms between the extremes.
distance: In taxonomy , referring to the quantitatively measured difference between the phenetic appearance of two groups of individuals, such as populations or species (phenetic distance), or the difference in their gene frequencies (genetic distance).
DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid, the molecule that controls inheritance.
DNA base sequence: A chain of repeating units of deoxyribonucleotides (adenine, guanine, cytosice, thymine) arranged in a particular pattern.
Dobzhansky, Theodosius: A geneticist and zoologist best known for his research in population genetics using the fruit fly. His study of the evolution of races led to the discovery of genetic diversity within species, and confirmed his belief that genetic variation leads to better adaptability.
dominance (genetic): An allele (A) is dominant if the phenotype of the heterozygote (Aa) is the same as the homozygote (AA). The allele (a) does not influence the heterozygote's phenotype and is called recessive . An allele may be partly, rather than fully, dominant; in that case, the heterozygous phenotype is nearer to, rather than identical with, the homozygote of the dominant allele.
drift: Synonym of genetic drift .
duplication: The occurrence of a second copy of a particular sequence of DNA. The duplicate sequence may appear next to the original or be copied elsewhere into the genome . When the duplicated sequence is a gene , the event is called gene duplication.
echinoderm: Echinoderms, whose name means "spiny skin," are a group of marine invertebrates that includes starfish, brittlestars, basket stars, sea cucumbers, sand dollars, sea urchins, and others. They live in environments from shallow coastal waters to deep-sea trenches, from the tropics to the poles.
ecological genetics: The study of evolution in action in nature, by a combination of field work and laboratory genetics.
ecological species concept: A concept of species, according to which a species is a set of organisms adapted to a particular, discrete set of resources (or " niche ") in the environment. Compare with biological species concept , cladistic species concept , phenetic species concept , and recognition species concept .
ecosystem: A community of organisms interacting with a particular environment.
Eldredge, Niles: A paleontologist and evolutionary biologist with the American Museum of Natural History, Eldredge, together with Stephen Jay Gould , proposed the theory of punctuated equilibria, providing paleontologists with an explanation for the patterns which they find in the fossil record. He has written several books for a general audience, including Time Frames: The Evolution of Punctuated Equilibria and Life in the Balance: Humanity and the Biodiversity Crisis.
electrophoresis: The method of distinguishing entities according to their motility in an electric field. In evolutionary biology, it has been mainly used to distinguish different forms of proteins. The electrophoretic motility of a molecule is influenced by its size and electric charge.
embryo: An early stage of animal development that begins after division of the zygote (the earliest stage, in which joined egg and sperm have not yet divided).
embryonic: Related to an embryo , or being in the state of an embryo .
embryology: scientific study of the earliest stages of growth and development in organisms.
emigration: The movement of organisms out of an area.
Emlen, Stephen: A world authority on the social behavior of animals, particularly birds. Emlen's interests center on evolutionary or adaptive aspects of animal behavior. The goal of his research is to better understand the social interactions that occur between individuals, especially cooperation and conflict.
empirical: Determined by experimentation.
Endler, John: A zoologist and professor with interests in evolution and how it affects geographic variation. His current research focuses on guppies (Poecilia reticulata) in their natural habitat, and how visual signs and vision dictate their behavior.
enzyme: A protein that acts as a catalyst for chemical reactions.
Eocene: The second oldest of the five major epochs of the Tertiary period, from 54 to 38 mya. It is often known for the rise of mammals.
epistasis: An interaction between the genes at two or more loci , such that the phenotype differs from at would be expected if the loci were expressed independently.
Erwin, Douglas: Dr. Erwin is a paleobiologist with the National Museum of Natural History in the Smithsonian Institution. His research is concerned with aspects of major evolutionary novelties, particularly the Metazoan radiation and post-mass extinction recoveries. Recent work has involved the developmental events associated with the Cambrian along with their environmental context. He also works on the rate, causes, and consequences of the end-Permian mass extinction .
eugenics: The science or practice of altering a population, especially of humans, by controlled breeding for desirable inherited characteristics. The term was coined in 1883 by Francis Galton, who was an advocate of "improving" the human race by modifying the fertility of different categories of people. Eugenics fell into disfavour after the perversion of its doctrines by the Nazis.
eukaryote: Any organism made up of eukaryotic cells . Eukaryotes are generally larger and have more DNA than prokaryotes (whose cells do not have a nucleus to contain their DNA). Almost all multicellular organisms are eukaryotes.
eukaryotic cell: A cell with a distinct nucleus .
evo-devo: the informal name for 'evolutionary developmental biology', a branch of evolutionary studies that seeks to contribute insights from genetics , embryology and microbiology to help scientists better understand how new species arise from existing life forms
evolution: Darwin defined this term as "descent with modification." It is the change in a lineage of populations between generations. In general terms, biological evolution is the process of change by which new species develop from preexisting species over time; in genetic terms, evolution can be defined as any change in the frequency of alleles in populations of organisms from generation to generation.
evolutionary classification: Method of classification using both cladistic and phenetic classificatory principles. To be exact, it permits paraphyletic groups (which are allowed in phenetic but not in cladistic classification) and monophyletic groups (which are allowed in both cladistic and phenetic classification) but excludes polyphyletic groups (which are banned from cladistic classification but permitted in phenetic classification).
Ewald, Paul: Professor of biology at Amherst College, specializing in hummingbird and flower coevolution and the evolution of infectious diseases. His research on disease focuses on the evolutionary effects of various public health interventions.
exon: The nucleotide sequences of some genes consist of parts that code for amino acids , with other parts that do not code for amino acids interspersed among them. The coding parts, which are translated, are called exons; the interspersed non-coding parts are called introns .
extinction: The disappearance of a species or a population.
fact: A natural phenomenon repeatedly confirmed by observation.
family: The category of taxonomic classification between order and genus (see taxon ). Organisms within a family share a close similarity; for example, the cat family, Felidae, which includes lions and domestic cats.
fauna: Animal life; often used to distinguish from plant life ("flora").
fermentation: A series of reactions occurring under anaerobic conditions (lacking oxygen) in certain microorganisms (particularly yeasts) in which organic compounds such as glucose are converted into simpler substances with the release of energy. Fermentation is involved in bread making, where the carbon dioxide produced by the yeast causes dough to rise.
fetus: The embryo of a mammal that has reached a stage of development in the uterus in which most of the adult features are recognizable. Specifically in humans it refers to the stage of development after the appearance of bone cells, a process occurring 7 to 8 weeks after fertilization.
fitness: The success of an individual (or allele or genotype in a population) in surviving and reproducing, measured by that individual's (or allele's or genotype's) genetic contribution to the next generation and subsequent generations.
FitzRoy, Robert: Captain of the Beagle, which took Charles Darwin on his famous voyage to South America and around the world. FitzRoy's chief mission on the Beagle was to chart the coast of South America. He also established the first weather warning system while on his journeys, with the help of the telegraph, and later rose to the rank of Admiral in the British Navy. He was known as a young man for his moody temperament, and in his older age for questionable sanity; FitzRoy's life ended in suicide.
fixation: A gene has achieved fixation when its frequency has reached 100 percent in the population.
fixed: (1) In population genetics , a gene is "fixed" when it has a frequency of 100 percent. (2) In creationism , species are described as "fixed" in the sense that they are believed not to change their form, or appearance, through time.
Flammer, Larry: A retired high school biology teacher and co-founder of the Santa Clara County Biotechnology-Education Partnership, which provides teacher training and lab equipment for local schools. He is a current member and Web writer for the Evolution and Nature of Science Institute (ENSI).
flora: Plant life; often used to distinguish from animal life ("fauna").
foraminifera: These invertebrates are very common in the global ocean, and their distinctive, chambered shells are common in the fossil record as far back as 550 million years. Although very few today exceed 9 mm in diameter, fossils have been found that measure 15 cm across.
fossil: Most commonly, an organism, a physical part of an organism, or an imprint of an organism that has been preserved from ancient times in rock, amber, or by some other means. New techniques have also revealed the existence of cellular and molecular fossils.
founder effect: The loss of genetic variation when a new colony is formed by a very small number of individuals from a larger population.
frequency-dependent selection: Selection in which the fitness of a genotype (or phenotype ) depends on its frequency in the population.
fungi: A group of organisms comprising the kingdom Fungi, which includes molds and mushrooms. They can exist either as single cells or make up a multicellular body called a mycelium. Fungi lack chlorophyll and secrete digestive enzymes that decompose other biological tissues.
Galton, Francis: A cousin of Charles Darwin, Galton was a British explorer and anthropologist. He was known for his studies of human intelligence and later for his work in eugenics (a term he coined), the "science" of improving human hereditary characteristics. Known for his efforts at various sorts of measurement (he developed fingerprinting and was a pioneer in statistics), he was knighted in 1909.
gamete: Haploid reproductive cells that combine at fertilization to form the zygote , called sperm (or pollen) in males and eggs in females.
gastropod: Meaning "stomach foot," this name refers to the class of mollusks that contains the most species. Gastropods include snails and slugs that are marine, freshwater, and terrestrial.
Gehring, Walter J.: Dr. Gehring and his research group discovered the homeobox , a DNA segment characteristic for homeotic genes which is not only present in arthropods and their ancestors, but also in vertebrates up to humans. Their work on the "master control gene" for eye development sheds light on how the mechanism for building eyes may have evolved long ago in the ancestor of what are now very different types of organisms.
gene: A sequence of nucleotides coding for a protein (or, in some cases, part of a protein); a unit of heredity.
genetic: Related to genes. A gene is a sequence of nucleotides coding for a protein (or, in some cases, part of a protein); a unit of heredity.
genetics: The study of genes and their relationship to characteristics of organisms.
genetic code: The code relating nucleotide triplets in the mRNA (or DNA) to amino acids in the proteins.
genetic distance: See distance.
genetic drift: Changes in the frequencies of alleles in a population that occur by chance, rather than because of natural selection .
genetic engineering: Removing genes from the DNA of one species and splicing them into the DNA of another species using the techniques of molecular biology.
genetic load: A reduction in the average fitness of the members of a population because of the deleterious genes, or gene combinations, in the population. It has many particular forms, such as "mutational load," "segregational load," and "recombinational load."
gene duplication: See duplication .
gene family: A set of related genes occupying various loci in the DNA, almost certainly formed by duplication of an ancestral gene and having a recognizably similar sequence. Members of a gene family may be functionally very similar or differ widely. The globin gene family is an example.
gene flow: The movement of genes into or through a population by interbreeding or by migration and interbreeding.
gene frequency: The frequency in the population of a particular gene relative to other genes at its locus . Expressed as a proportion (between 0 and 1) or percentage (between 0 and 100 percent).
gene pool: All the genes in a population at a particular time.
genome: The full set of DNA in a cell or organism.
genomics: The study that characterizes genes and the traits they encode.
genotype: The set of two genes possessed by an individual at a given locus . More generally, the genetic profile of an individual.
genus (plural genera): The second-to-lowest category in taxonomic classification. The phrase "species name" generally refers to the genus and species together, as in the Latin name for humans, Homo sapiens. See taxon.
geographic speciation: See allopatric speciation .
geologic time: The time scale used to describe events in the history of Earth.
germination: The initial stages in the growth of a seed to form a seedling. The embryonic shoot (plumule) and embryonic root (radicle) emerge and grow upward and downward, respectively. Food reserves for germination come from tissue within the seed and/or from the seed leaves (cotyledons).
germ plasm: The reproductive cells in an organism, or the cells that produce the gametes . All cells in an organism can be divided into the soma (the cells that ultimately die) and the germ cells (the cells that are perpetuated by reproduction).
gestation: The period in animals bearing live young (especially mammals) from the fertilization of the egg and its implantation into the wall of the uterus until the birth of the young (parturition), during which the young develops in the uterus. In humans gestation is known as pregnancy and takes about nine months (40 weeks).
Gingerich, Philip: Gingerich is interested in evolutionary change documented in the fossil record and how this relates to the kinds of changes observable in the field or laboratory on the scale of a few generations. His ongoing fieldwork in Wyoming, Egypt, and Pakistan is concerned with the origin of modern orders of mammals, especially primates and whales.
glaciation: The formation of large sheets of ice across land. Glaciation of the continents marks the beginning of ice ages, when the makeup of Earth and organisms on it changes dramatically.
Goldfarb, Alex: A Russian-born microbiologist now at the Public Health Research Institute in New York City, Dr. Goldfarb is piloting a program in the Russian prison system to combat the further evolution of drug-resistant strains of tuberculosis, which have infected at least 30,000 inmates.
Gould, Stephen Jay: A professor of geology and zoology at Harvard University since 1967. A paleontologist and an evolutionary biologist, he teaches geology and the history of science, as well. With others, he has advanced the concept that major evolutionary changes can occur in sudden bursts rather than through the slow, gradual process proposed by the traditional view of evolution. In addition to his scholarly works, Gould has published numerous popular books on paleoanthropology, Darwinian theory, and evolutionary biology.
Grant, Peter and Rosemary: Biologists whose long-term research focuses on finches in the Galapagos Islands, and the evolutionary impact of climatic and environmental changes on their populations. They live part of the year in the Islands, and have received honors for their work since they began in 1973.
graptolite: A small, colonial, often planktonic marine animal that was very abundant in the oceans 300 to 500 million years ago; now extinct.
Greene, Mott: A historian of science who has written extensively about the development of geological thought during the 19th and early 20th centuries, including the development of the theory of continental drift.
greenhouse gases: Gases that absorb and reradiate infrared radiation. When present in the atmosphere, these gases contribute to the greenhouse effect, trapping heat near the surface of the planet. On Earth, the main greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and some halocarbon compounds.
group selection: The selection operating between groups of individuals rather than between individuals. It would produce attributes beneficial to a group in competition with other groups rather than attributes beneficial to individuals.
Haeckel, Ernst: A German biologist who lived from 1834-1919, Haeckel was the first to divide animals into protozoan (unicellular) and metazoan (multicellular) forms. His notion of recapitulation is no longer accepted.
Haile Selassie, Yohannes: A paleoanthropologist who, while doing field work in Ethiopia for his doctoral dissertation at the University of California, Berkeley, discovered Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba, a bipedal hominid dated at 5.2 million years old.
half-life: The amount of time it takes for one-half of the atoms of a radioactive material to decay to a stable form. For example, the half-life of carbon-14 is 5,568 years.
Hamilton, W.D.: A naturalist, explorer, and zoologist who worked in the world of mathematical models, including "Hamilton's Rule," about the spread through a population of a gene for altruistic self sacrifice. He was also interested in the evolutionary impact of parasites as the key to many outstanding problems left by Darwin, including the baffling riddle of the evolution of sex. This led him to extensive work in computer simulations.
haploid: The condition of having only one set of genes or chromosomes. In normally diploid organisms such as humans, only the gametes are haploid.
haplotype: A set of genes at more than one locus inherited by an individual from one of its parents. It is the multi-locus analog of an allele .
Hardy-Weinberg principle: In population genetics, the idea that if a population experienced no selection, no mutation , no migration, no genetic drift , and random mating, then the frequency of each allele and the frequencies of genotype in the population would remain the same from one generation to the next.
Hardy-Weinberg ratio: The ratio of genotype frequencies that evolve when mating is random and neither selection nor drift are operating. For two alleles (A and a) with frequencies p and q, there are three genotypes: AA, Aa, and aa. The Hardy-Weinberg ratio for the three is: p2AA : 2pqAa : q2aa. It is the starting point for much of the theory of population genetics.
Harvey, Ralph: A geologist whose work includes the study of geological processes at a range of scales, from the smallest nanometer to broader-scale interpretations of the history experienced by geological materials.
heavy metals: Metals with a high relative atomic mass, such as lead, copper, zinc, and mercury. Many of them are toxic.
hemoglobin: A protein that carries oxygen from the lungs throughout the body.
heredity: The process by which characteristics are passed from one generation to the next.
heritability: Broadly, the proportion of variation (more strictly, variance) in a phenotypic character in a population that is due to individual differences in genotypes . Narrowly, it is defined as the proportion of variation (more strictly, variance) in a phenotypic character in a population that is due to individual genetic differences that will be inherited in the offspring.
heritable: Partly or wholly determined by genes; capable of being passed from an individual to its offspring.
Herrnstein, Richard J.: A professor of psychology and an author of notable books on intelligence and crime. He has primarily done research on human and animal motivational and learning processes. His books include Psychology and I. Q. in the Meritocracy, and he coauthored (with Charles Murray) The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (1994).
heterogametic: The sex with two different sex chromosomes (males in mammals, because they are XY). Compare with homogametic .
heterozygosity: (for most purposes) The proportion of individuals in a population that are heterozygotes.
heterozygote: An individual having two different alleles at a genetic locus . Compare with homozygote .
heterozygote advantage: A condition in which the fitness of a heterozygote is higher than the fitness of either homozygote .
heterozygous: Having two different alleles for a particular trait. See also heterozygote .
Hill, Andrew: A paleontologist and professor at Yale University. His work with Mary Leakey's team at Laeotoli, Tanzania, in the 1970s helped lead to the discovery of the fossilized footprints of early hominids and other mammals. His current research interests include hominid evolution, paleoecology, and taphonomy.
HIV: Human Immunodeficiency Virus. The virus causes AIDS by inactivating the T cells of the immune system.
homeobox: Homeoboxes are relatively short (approximately 180 base pair) sequences of DNA , characteristic of some homeotic genes (which play a central role in controlling body development). Homeoboxes code for a protein "homeodomain," a protein domain that binds to DNA, and can regulate the expression of other genes. These homeodomain motifs are involved in orchestrating the development of a wide range of organisms.
homeobox genes: "Homeobox genes" are genes that contain " homeoboxes ", and can regulate the expression of other genes. There are at least 24 homeobox genes, some but not all of which are also homeotic in their effect. In general, "homeotic" genes are genes that control the identity of body parts. They are active in the early stages of embryonic development of organisms. Some, but not all, homeotic genes are homeobox genes. "Hox" genes are a subgroup of homeotic homeobox genes that determine positional cell differentiation and development. They lay out the head to tail body pattern in very early embryos. The Hox genes are very ancient and widely shared among bilateral animals. After the head to tail pattern is established, homeotic genes direct the developmental fates of particular groups of cells.
homeostasis (developmental): A self-regulating process in development, such that the organism grows up to have much the same form independent of the external influences it experiences while growing up.
homeotic mutation: A mutation causing one structure of an organism to grow in the place appropriate to another. For example, in the mutation called "antennapedia" in the fruit fly, a foot grows in the antennal socket.
hominids: Members of the family Hominidae, which includes only modern humans and their ancestors since the human lineage split from the apes.
homogametic: The sex with two of the same kind of chromosomes (females in mammals, because they are XX). Compare with heterogametic .
homologous structures: The structures shared by a set of related species because they have been inherited, with or without modification, from their common ancestor. For example, the bones that support a bat's wing are similar to those of a human arm.
homology: A character shared by a set of species and present in their common ancestor. Compare with analogy. (Some molecular biologists, when comparing two sequences, call the corresponding sites "homologous" if they have the same nucleotide, regardless of whether the similarity is evolutionarily shared from a common ancestor or convergent. They likewise talk about percent homology between the two sequences. Homology in this context simply means similarity. This usage is frowned upon by many evolutionary biologists, but is established in much of the molecular literature.)
homozygote: An individual having two copies of the same allele at a genetic locus . Also sometimes applied to larger genetic entities, such as a whole chromosome; a homozygote is then an individual having two copies of the same chromosome.
homozygous: Having identical alleles for a particular trait. See also homozygote .
Homo erectus: A species of hominid that lived between 1.8 mya and 300,000 years ago; the first Homo species to migrate beyond Africa.
Homo habilis: A species of hominid that lived between 1.9 and 1.8 mya, the first species in genus Homo, and the first hominid associated with clear evidence of tool manufacture and use.
Homo neanderthalensis: A species of hominid that lived between 150,000 and 30,000 years ago in Europe and Western Asia, originally thought to be a geographic variant of Homo sapiens but now generally accepted to be a distinct species.
Homo sapiens: Modern humans, which evolved to their present form about 100,000 years ago.
horsetail: A seedless plant related to ferns. Twenty-five species of only one genus , Equisteum, remain today, whereas many different species, some the size of modern trees, were abundant in ancient swamps. Along with lycophytes and ferns, horsetails were among the first terrestrial plants to appear.
Ho, David: A physician and world-renowed AIDS researcher. Dr. Ho overturned an earlier conventional assumption that the HIV virus remains dormant for up to 10 years in a person before its outbreak into AIDS. His recognition that the virus is active right from the beginning of infection led him to initiate the deployment of a combination of drugs to overpower the virus.
hox genes: A particular subgroup of homeobox genes that function to pattern the axis of an organism�s body and determine where limbs and other body segments will grow as the embryo develops.
Huxley, Thomas Henry: British intellect, photographer, and contemporary of Darwin. He was the first to apply the theory of natural selection to humanity to explain the course of human evolution.
hybrid: The offspring of a cross between two species.
hypothesis: An explanation of one or more phenomena in nature that can be tested by observations, experiments, or both. In order to be considered scientific, a hypothesis must be falsifiable, which means that it can be proven to be incorrect.
idealism: The philosophical theory that there are fundamental non-material "ideas," "plans," or "forms" underlying the phenomena we observe in nature. It has been historically influential in classification.
immigration: The movement of organisms into an area.
immutability: The ability to withstand change.
induction: The process of deriving general principles from particular facts.
inference: A conclusion drawn from evidence.
inheritance of acquired characters: Historically influential but factually erroneous theory that an individual inherits characters that its parents acquired during their lifetimes.
insectivorous: Feeding largely or exclusively on insects.
intelligent design: The non-scientific argument that complex biological structures have been designed by an unidentified supernatural or extraterrestrial intelligence.
intron: The nucleotide sequences of some genes consist of parts that code for amino acids, and other parts that do not code for amino acids interspersed among them. The interspersed non-coding parts, which are not translated, are called introns; the coding parts are called exons .
inversion: An event (or the product of the event) in which a sequence of nucleotides in the DNA is reversed, or inverted. Sometimes inversions are visible in the structure of the chromosomes.
IQ: An abbreviation of "intelligence quotient," usually defined as the mental age of an individual (as measured by standardized tests) divided by his or her real age and multiplied by 100. This formulation establishes the average IQ as 100. The usefulness and reliability of IQ as a measure of intelligence has been questioned, in part because of the difficulty of devising standardized tests that are free of cultural biases.
isolating mechanism: Any mechanism, such as a difference between species in courtship behavior or breeding season, that results in reproductive isolation between the species.
isolation: Synonym for reproductive isolation .
isotope: An atom that shares the same atomic number and position as other atoms in an element but has a different number of neutrons and thus a different atomic mass.
Jablonski, David: Paleontologist and professor in the Department of the Geophysical Sciences of the University of Chicago. His research emphasizes combining data from living and fossil organisms to study the origins and fates of lineages and adaptations , to develop an understanding of the underlying dynamics of speciation and extinction that could lead to a general theory of evolutionary novelty. He is interested in the way evolutionary patterns are shaped by the alternation of extinction regimes, with rare but influential mass extinctions driving unexpected evoutionary shifts.
Johanson, Don: A paleontologist and founder of the Institute for Human Origins. Johanson discovered Lucy (at that time the oldest, most complete hominid skeleton known) in 1974, and the following year unearthed the fossilized remains of 13 early hominids in Ethiopia. He is the author of several popular books on human origins.
Johnson, Jerry: Johnson's research interests focus on the interactions and evolutionary relationships of amphibian and reptilian species of tropical American and Mexican desert ecosystems. Johnson specializes in field research in places such as Yucatan, Jalisco, Zacatecas, and Chiapas, Mexico. He has done research on the biochemical analysis of rattlesnake venom using immunological techniques, snake ecology, and lizard ecology.
Johnston, Victor: Professor of biopsychology at New Mexico State University in Las Cruces. His research interests include the evolution of consciousness and perceptions of beauty. He is the author of Why We Feel: The Science of Human Emotions.
Kegl, Judy: A linguist who works on theoretical linguistics as it applies to signed and spoken languages. Among her research interests is a study of Nicaraguan Sign Language.
Kimbel, Bill: An anatomist, Kimbel worked with Don Johanson and assembled Lucy's skull fragments. In 1991, Kimbel and Yoel Rak found a 70 percent complete skeleton of Australopithecus afarensis .
kingdom: The second highest level of taxonomic classification of organisms (below domains). Classification schemes at the kingdom level have changed over time. Recent molecular data have generally reinforced the evolutionary significance of the kingdoms Animalia, Plantae, and Fungi. The single-celled eukaryotes once lumped into the kingdom Protista are now known to be very diverse, and not closely related to one another. The prokaryotic organisms once lumped into the kingdom Monera are now considered to belong to separate domains: Eubacteria and Archaea. See taxon .
Kirchweger, Gina: An Austrian biologist interested in the biological evolution of skin tone. Her essay, "The Biology of Skin Color," concerns the evolution of race.
Kluger, Matthew: A researcher whose work on lizards demonstrated that fever is beneficial and can improve the immune response to infection. The implication for humans is still being researched, but evidence indicates that mild fevers can have a number of important immunological functions that allow us to better fight bacterial and viral infections.
Knowlton, Nancy: Dr. Knowlton is professor of marine biology at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, and staff scientist at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute in Panama. Her primary research interests concern various facets of marine biodiversity . These include the nature of species boundaries in corals , elucidating biogeographic patterns in tropical seas, the ecology of coral-algal symbiosis , and threshold effects in coral reef ecosystems.
Kondrashov, Alexey: A population geneticist specializing in mathematical analysis who has studied the evolutionary role of slightly deleterious mutations . He has theorized that a primitive organism's strategy for protecting itself against damaging mutations may have been the first step in the evolution of sexual reproduction.
Kreiswirth, Barry: Director of the Public Health Research Institute TB Center in New York, Dr. Kreiswirth uses DNA fingerprinting to study the evolution of antibiotic resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the pathogen that causes TB .
Lamarckian inheritance: Historically misleading synonym for inheritance of acquired characteristics .
Lamarck, Jean: An 18th-century naturalist, zoologist, and botanist noted for his study and classification of invertebrates, as well as his evolutionary theories. He traveled extensively throughout Europe and was elected to the Academy of Sciences, where he introduced the principles of heredity and acquired characteristics .
land bridge: A connection between two land masses, especially continents (e.g., the Bering land bridge linking Alaska and Siberia across the Bering Strait) that allows migration of plants and animals from one land mass to the other. Before the widespread acceptance of continental drift , the existence of former land bridges was often invoked to explain faunal and floral similarities between continents now widely separated. On a smaller scale, the term may be applied to land connections that have now been removed by recent tectonics or sea-level changes (e.g., between northern France and southeastern England).
larva (and larval stage): The prereproductive stage of many animals. The term is particularly apt when the immature stage has a different form from the adult. For example, a caterpillar is the larval stage of a butterfly or moth.
law: A description of how a natural phenomenon will occur under certain circumstances.
Leakey, Maeve: A paleoanthropologist at the National Museums of Kenya, Maeve is the discoverer of Kenyanthropus platyops and Australopithecus anamensis. She is married to Richard Leakey.
Leakey, Mary: A British paleoanthropologist described as "a real fossil hunter" and "the real scientist in the family." Her discoveries, some in collaboration with her husband Louis Leakey, included the 1.75-million-year-old skull which first showed the antiquity of hominids in Africa, jaws and teeth of an early Homo species, and fossilized footprints of bipedal hominids.
Leakey, Richard: The son of renowned anthropologists Louis and Mary Leakey , Richard continued their work on early hominids from 1964 until the 1980s, making a number of significant fossil finds in the Lake Turkana area and serving as director of the National Museum of Kenya. Later he devoted his energies to conservation and politics.
Lee, Melanie: A molecular geneticist and microbial biologist, who in the 1980s collaborated with Paul Nurse on novel research that demonstrated the commonality of the genetic code between yeasts and humans. Dr. Lee later took her molecular skills into the pharmaceutical industry, and was a leader in moving pharmacology away from animal models and toward the use of recombinant DNA technology for screening potential new therapies. She now heads the research division of Celltech, an international biopharmaceutical company, where her team works on drug discovery and development of new therapies, mainly for the treatment of inflammatory and immune diseases.
lek: An area of ground divided into territories that are defended by males for the purpose of displaying to potential mates during the breeding season. This form of mating behavior is known as lekking, and occurs in various bird species (for example the peacock) and also in some mammals. The dominant males occupy the territories at the centre of the lek, where they are most likely to attract and mate with visiting females. The outer territories are occupied by subordinate males, who have less mating success. Over successive breeding seasons, younger subordinate males tend to gradually displace older individuals from the most desirable territories and become dominant themselves. The lek territories do not contain resources of value to the female, such as food or nesting materials, although males of some species may build structures such as bowers that form part of their display.
lemur: A small, tree-dwelling primate that belongs to the group called prosimians .
lethal recessive: The case in which inheriting two recessive alleles of a gene causes the death of the organism.
Levine, Michael: Professor of genetics and development in the Molecular and Cell Biology Department at University of California, Berkeley. Levine was the discoverer (with Bill McGinnis ) of homeobox sequences in the homeotic genes Antennapedia and Ultrabithorax while a postdoctoral researcher with Walter Gehring at the University of Basel, Switzerland. His current research involves analysis of gene regulation and patterning in the early Drosophila embryo ; studies of embryonic development in the tunicate , Ciona intestinalis, focused on the specification of the notochord and tail muscles; and a critical test of classical models for the evolutionary origins of the chordate body plan.
lineage: An ancestor-descendant sequence of (1) populations, (2) cells, or (3) genes.
linkage disequilibrium: A condition in which the haplotype frequencies in a population deviate from the values they would have if the genes at each locus were combined at random. (When no deviation exists, the population is said to be in linkage equilibrium.)
linked: Of genes, present on the same chromosome.
Linnaean classification: A hierarchical method of naming classificatory groups, invented by the 18th-century Swedish naturalist Carl von Linn�, or Linnaeus. Each individual is assigned to a species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, and kingdom, and some intermediate classificatory levels. Species are referred to by a Linnaean binomial of its genus and species, such as Magnolia grandiflora.
Lively, Curtis: A professor of biology who studies population biology and the ecology and evolution of host- parasite interactions. His laboratory is involved in detailed studies of the interaction between a parasitic trematode and a freshwater New Zealand snail in which both sexual and asexual females coexist.
locus: The location in the DNA occupied by a particular gene .
Lovejoy, Owen: A paleoanthropologist and consulting forensic anatomist, Lovejoy is known for his analysis of early hominid fossils. His research includes work on Lucy ( Australopithecus afarensis ).
lycophyte: Commonly known as club mosses, lycophytes were among the first seedless plants to appear on Earth. Along with horsetails and ferns, these made the planet more hospitable for the first animals.
Lyell's notion of gradual change: Also called uniformitarianism, Lyell's notion was that Earth has been shaped by the same forces and processes that operate today, acting continuously over very long periods of time. For example, the ongoing erosion caused by flowing water in a river could, given enough time, carve out the Grand Canyon.
Lyell, Charles: A 19th-century scientist considered a father of modern geology. Lyell proposed that the geology of Earth is shaped by gradual processes, such as erosion and sedimentation. Lyell's ideas, expressed in his landmark work, Principles of Geology, greatly influenced the young Charles Darwin. Darwin and Lyell later became close friends. While Lyell initially opposed the idea of evolution, he came to accept it after Darwin published On the Origin of Species.
macroevolution: A vague term generally used to refer to evolution on a grand scale, or over long periods of time. There is no precise scientific definition for this term, but it is often used to refer to the emergence or modification of taxa at or above the genus level. The origin or adaptive radiation of a higher taxon, such as vertebrates, could be called a macroevolutionary event.
macromutation: Mutation of large phenotypic effect, one that produces a phenotype well outside the range of variation previously existing in the population.
malaria: A sometimes-fatal disease transferred to humans by mosquitoes, infecting the bloodstream.
Malthus, Thomas: A British economist and demographer best known for his treatise on population growth, which states that people will always threaten to outrun the food supply unless reproduction is closely monitored. His theory was in opposition to the utopians of the 18th century.
mammals: The group (specifically, a class) of animals, descended from a common ancestor, that share the derived characters of hair or fur, mammary glands, and several distinctive features of skeletal anatomy, including a particular type of middle ear. Humans, cows, and dolphins are all mammals.
mammary glands: Only found in mammals, these are specialized glands that can produce milk for feeding young.
mandible: A part of the bony structure of a jaw. In vertebrates, it is the lower jaw; in birds, the lower bill; in arthropods, one of the paired appendages closest to the mouth.
Margulis, Lynn: A biologist who developed the serial endosymbiosis theory of origin of the eukaryotic cell . Although now accepted as a plausible theory, both she and her theory were ridiculed by mainstream biologists for a number of years.
marsupial mammals: A group (specifically, an order) of mammals whose females give birth to young at a very early stage of development. These newborns complete their development while sucking in a pouch, which is a permanent feature on the female. Examples include kangaroos and opossums.
mastodon: An extinct elephant-like mammal.
Mayr, Ernst: Mayr's work has contributed to the synthesis of Mendelian genetics and Darwinian evolution, and to the development of the biological species concept . Mayr has been universally recognized and acknowledged as one of the leading evolutionary biologists of the 20th century.
McGinnis, William: A professor of biology at the University of California, San Diego. Discover (with Mike Levine ) of homeoboxes , the sequences of DNA that are characteristic of homeotic genes, which play a central role in specifying body development. His current research uses both genetics and biochemistry to examine such questions as how molecular variations in the Hox genes that specify the head-tail pattern of an organism can generate variety in animal shapes during evolution, and what the molecular changes were that allowed single-celled animals to become multicellular.
meiosis: A special kind of cell division that occurs during the reproduction of diploid organisms to produce the gametes . The double set of genes and chromosomes of the normal diploid cells is reduced during meiosis to a single haploid set in the gametes. Crossing-over and therefore recombination occur during a phase of meiosis.
meme: The word coined by Richard Dawkins for a unit of culture, such as an idea, skill, story, or custom, passed from one person to another by imitation or teaching. Some theorists argue that memes are the cultural equivalent of genes , and reproduce, mutate, are selected, and evolve in a similar way.
Mendelian inheritance: The mode of inheritance of all diploid species, and therefore of nearly all multicellular organisms. Inheritance is controlled by genes , which are passed on to the offspring in the same form as they were inherited from the previous generation. At each locus an individual has two genes -- one inherited from its father and the other from its mother. The two genes are represented in equal proportions in its gametes .
Mendel, Gregor: An Austrian monk whose plant breeding experiments, begun in 1856, led to insights into the mechanisms of heredity that are the foundation of genetics today. His work was ignored in his lifetime and only rediscovered in 1900. See Mendelian inheritance .
messenger RNA (mRNA): A kind of RNA produced by transcription from the DNA and which acts as the message that is decoded to form proteins .
metabolism: The chemical processes that occur in a living organism in order to maintain life. There are two kinds of metabolism: constructive metabolism, or anabolism, the synthesis of the proteins, carbohydrates, and fats which form tissue and store energy; and destructive metabolism, or catabolism, the breakdown of complex substances, producing energy and waste matter.
metamorphosis: One or more changes in form during the life cycle of an organism, such as an amphibian or insect, in which the juvenile stages differ from the adult. An example is the transition from a tadpole to an adult frog. The term "complete metamorphosis" is applied to insects such as butterflies in which the caterpillar stage is distinct from the adult. "Incomplete metamorphosis" describes the life histories of insects such as locusts in which the young go through a series of larval stages, each of which bears similarities to the adult. Metamorphosis in both insects and amphibians is controlled by hormones, and often involves considerable destruction of larval tissues by enzymes .
metazoans: All animals that are multicellular and whose cells are organized into tissues and organs. In the simplest metazoans only an inner and outer layer can be distinguished.
microbe: A nonscientific and very general term, with no taxonomic significance, sometimes used to refer to microscopic (not visible to the unaided eye) organisms. The term often refers to bacteria or viruses that cause disease or infection.
microevolution: Evolutionary changes on the small scale, such as changes in gene frequencies within a population.
Miller, Geoffrey: Author of The Mating Mind, Miller is known for his research on evolutionary psychology and sexual selection. He believes that our minds evolved not only as survival machines, but also as courtship machines -- at least in part, to help us attract a mate and pass on genes.
Miller, Ken: A cell biologist and professor of biology at Brown University. Miller's academic research focuses on the structure and function of biological membranes. He is the coauthor of widely used high school and college biology textbooks, and he has also written Finding Darwin's God: A Scientist's Search for Common Ground Between God and Evolution.
Miller, Veronica: A German virologist whose research has focused on HIV-AIDS. Miller was the first researcher to announce that an interruption in drug treatment among AIDS patients may result in reversion of drug-resistant virus to its wild type . This led other researchers and clinicians to explore "structured treatment interruptions" among some patients as an experimental treatment option.
mimicry: A case in which one species looks more or less similar to another species. See Batesian mimicry and Müllerian mimicry .
mitochondrial DNA: DNA found in the mitochondrion , a small round body found in most cells. Because mitochondria are generally carried in egg cells but not in sperm, mitochondrial DNA is passed to offspring from mothers, but not fathers.
mitochondrion: A kind of organelle in eukaryotic cells . Mitochondria produce enzymes to convert food to energy. They contain DNA coding for some mitochondrial proteins.
mitosis: Cell division. All cell division in multicellular organisms occurs by mitosis except for the special division called meiosis that generates the gametes.
Müllerian mimicry: A kind of mimicry in which two poisonous species evolve to look like one another.
modern synthesis: The synthesis of natural selection and Mendelian inheritance . Also called neo-Darwinism .
molecular clock: The theory that molecules evolve at an approximately constant rate. The difference between the form of a molecule in two species is then proportional to the time since the species diverged from a common ancestor , and molecules become of great value in the inference of phylogeny .
molecular geneticists: Scientists who study genes and characters through work with the molecules that make up and interact with DNA .
mollusk: An invertebrate that has a fleshy, muscular body. The phylum Mollusca includes snails, bivalves, squids, and octopuses.
"monkey trial": In 1925, John Scopes was convicted and fined $100 for teaching evolution in his Dayton, Tenn., classroom in the first highly publicized trial concerning the teaching of evolution. The press reported that although they lost the case, Scopes's team had won the argument. The verdict had a chilling effect on teaching evolution in the classroom, however, and not until the 1960s did it reappear in schoolbooks.
monogamy: A reproductive strategy in which one male and one female mate and reproduce exclusively with each other. Contrast with polygyny and polyandry .
monophyletic group: A set of species containing a common ancestor and all of its descendants, and not containing any organisms that are not the descendants of that common ancestor.
monotremes: A group (specifically, an order) of mammals whose females lay eggs. The young hatch and continue to develop in the mother's pouch, which is present only when needed. Two species of spiny anteater and the duck-billed platypus are the only living monotremes.
Moore, James: The author, with Adrian Desmond, of an authoritative biography of Charles Darwin, Moore has made a 20-year study of Darwin's life. With degrees in science, divinity, and history, he has taught the history of science at Harvard University and at the Open University in the U.K.
morphology: The study of the form, shape, and structure of organisms.
Mueller, Ulrich G.: A zoologist and professor whose research aims at understanding microevolutionary forces and macroevolutionary patterns that govern the evolution of organismal interactions, particularly the evolution of mutualisms and the evolution of social conflict and cooperation. Mueller's current research focuses on the coevolution between fungus-growing ants and their fungi and the evolutionary ecology of halictine bees.
Murray, Charles: An author and policy analyst who has written many controversial and influential books on social policy. He is coauthor with Richard J. Herrnstein of The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (1994). He has also written Losing Ground: American Social Policy 1950-1980 (1984), which argues for the abolishment of the welfare system, The Underclass Revisited (1999), and Income, Inequality and IQ (1998).
mutation: A change in genetic material that results from an error in replication of DNA . Mutations can be beneficial, harmful, or neutral.
Nagel, Ronald: A hematologist and professor at Albert Einstein College of Medicine. His research includes molecular, biochemical, and physiological studies of genetic red blood cell defects, including sickle cell .
natural selection: The differential survival and reproduction of classes of organisms that differ from one another in one or more usually heritable characteristics. Through this process, the forms of organisms in a population that are best adapted to their local environment increase in frequency relative to less well-adapted forms over a number of generations. This difference in survival and reproduction is not due to chance.
Neanderthal: A hominid , similar to but distinct from modern humans, that lived in Europe and Western Asia about 150,000 to 30,000 years ago.
Nelson, Craig: A professor of biology and environmental affairs at Indiana University in Bloomington. His research focuses on evolutionary ecology.
neo-Darwinism: (1) Darwin's theory of natural selection plus Mendelian inheritance. (2) The larger body of evolutionary thought that was inspired by the unification of natural selection and Mendelism. A synonym of the modern synthesis .
nervous system: An organ system, composed of a network of cells called neurons, that allows an animal to monitor its internal and external environment, and to move voluntarily or in response to stimulation.
neural: Related to nerves and neurons.
neutral theory (and neutralism): The theory that much evolution at the molecular level occurs by genetic drift .
Newton, Isaac: An English physician and mathematician, considered the culminating figure of the scientific revolution of the 17th century. He is best known for his explanation of gravity and for laying the foundation for modern physical optics.
niche: The ecological role of a species; the set of resources it consumes and habitats it occupies.
Nilsson, Dan-Erik: Professor Nilsson heads the Functional Morphology Division of the Department of Zoology at Lund University in Sweden. His main research interest is the optics and evolution of invertebrate eyes.
Nilsson, Lennart: A Swedish photographer who began as a photojournalist, Nilsson soon began exploring new techniques such as the use of endoscopes and electron microscopes to photograph the inner mysteries of the human body. He published a book entitled A Child is Born of his photographs of the beginning of life, and made a number of films, including the mini-series Odyssey of Life, a coproduction between WGBH/NOVA and SVT Swedish Television.
nitrogen fixation: A chemical process by which nitrogen in the atmosphere is assimilated into organic compounds. Only certain bacteria are able to fix atmospheric nitrogen, which then becomes available to other organisms through the food chains.
nomadic: Having to do with nomads, people who live in no fixed place but move in search of food or grazing land for their animals; of a wandering lifestyle.
notochord: A flexible skeletal rod running the length of the body in the embryos of the chordates (including the vertebrates ). In some simpler types, such as sea-squirts, only the free-swimming larva has a notochord; in others, such as the lancelets and lampreys, the notochord remains the main axial support, and in vertebrates it is incorporated into the backbone as the embryo develops.
Novacek, Michael J.: Paleontologist with the American Museum of Natural History. Dr. Novacek's research interests include evolution of and relationships among organisms, particularly mammals . He is the author of Dinosaurs of the Flaming Cliffs, an account of AMNH's Gobi Desert expeditions.
nucleotide: A unit building block of DNA and RNA . A nucleotide consists of a sugar and phosphate backbone with a base attached.
nucleus: A region of eukaryotic cells , enclosed within a membrane, containing the DNA .
numerical taxonomy: In general, any method of taxonomy using numerical measurements. In particular, it often refers to phenetic classification using large numbers of quantitatively measured characters .
Nurse, Paul: A pioneer in genetic and molecular studies who revealed the universal machinery for regulating cell division in all eukaryotic organisms, from yeasts to frogs to human beings.
O'Brien, Stephen J.: A geneticist at the National Cancer Institute whose research interests include the evolutionary history of the immunological response in mammals to retroviruses like HIV. With his colleagues, he discovered a mutation that can protect individuals from infection by HIV, the virus that causes AIDS.
order: The taxonomic classification level between class and family. For example, within the class Mammalia, there are several orders, including the meat-eaters, who make up the order Carnivora; and the insect-eaters, grouped together in the order Insectivora. The orders in turn are divided into families; the order Carnivora includes the families Felidae (the cats), Canidae (the dogs), and Ursidae (the bears), among others. See also taxon .
organelle: Any of a number of distinct small structures found in the cytoplasm (and therefore outside the nucleus) of eukaryotic cells (e.g., mitochondrion and chloroplast ).
organisms: Living things.
orthogenesis: The erroneous idea that species tend to evolve in a fixed direction because of some inherent force driving them to do so.
Owen, Richard: A 19th-century British comparative anatomist, who coined the word "dinosaur" to describe a breed of large, extinct reptiles. He was the first to propose that dinosaurs were a separate taxonomic group. Owen opposed Darwin's theory of evolution, but ultimately his work helped support evolutionary arguments.
ozone layer: The region of the atmosphere, generally 11-26 km (7-16 miles) above Earth, where ozone forms in high concentrations. The ozone layer absorbs ultraviolet radiation, shielding Earth from its damaging effects.
paleoanthropologist: A scientist who uses fossil evidence to study early human ancestors.
paleobiology: The biological study of fossils .
paleontologist: A scientist who studies fossils to better understand life in prehistoric times.
paleontology: The scientific study of fossils .
Pangaea: A supercontinent which began to break apart into the modern continents about 260 million years ago, causing the isolation (and separate evolution) of various groups of organisms from each other.
panmixis: Random mating throughout a population.
paradox: A seemingly absurd or contradictory, though often true, statement.
parapatric speciation: Speciation in which the new species forms from a population contiguous with the ancestral species' geographic range.
paraphyletic group: A set of species containing an ancestral species together with some, but not all, of its descendants. The species included in the group are those that have continued to resemble the ancestor; the excluded species have evolved rapidly and no longer resemble their ancestor.
parasite: An organism that lives on or in a plant or animal of a different species, taking nutrients without providing any benefit to the host.
Parish, Amy: A biological anthropologist and primatologist whose research focuses on the social behavior of bonobos ("pygmy chimpanzees," or Pan paniscus). In addition to comparative work with chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and endocrinological investigations, Dr. Parish studies reciprocity in chimpanzees, bonobos, and hunter-gatherers.
parsimony: The principle of phylogenetic reconstruction in which the phylogeny of a group of species is inferred to be the branching pattern requiring the smallest number of evolutionary changes.
parthenogenesis: Development from an egg cell that has not been fertilized. The term for a certain form of asexual reproduction that is found in some lizards, insects (notably among aphids), and certain other organisms.
particulate: (as property of theory of inheritance) A synonym of atomistic .
paternity: The identity of the father of an offspring.
pathogen: A microorganism that causes disease.
pathological: Related to or caused by disease.
penicillin: The first antibiotic discovered, penicillin is derived from the mold Penicillium notatum. It is active against a wide variety of bacteria, acting by disrupting synthesis of the bacterial cell wall.
peripatric speciation: A synonym of peripheral isolate speciation .
peripheral isolate speciation: A form of allopatric speciation in which the new species is formed from a small population isolated at the edge of the ancestral population's geographic range. Also called peripatric speciation .
pesticide-resistant insects: Insects with the ability to survive and reproduce in the presence of pesticides. These resistant variants increase in frequency over time if pesticides remain present in their environment.
Petrie, Marion: A behavioral ecologist at the University of Newcastle in the U.K., Dr. Petrie's research interests include the links between sexual selection and speciation , and how males and females assess genetic quality in a mate.
phenetic classification: A method of classification in which species are grouped together with other species that they most closely resemble phenotypically .
phenetic species concept: A concept of species according to which a species is a set of organisms that are phenotypically similar to one another. Compare with biological species concept , cladistic species concept , ecological species concept , and recognition species concept .
phenotype: The physical or functional characteristics of an organism, produced by the interaction of genotype and environment during growth and development.
phenotypic characters: Individual traits that can be observed in an organism (including appearance and behavior) and that result from the interaction between the organism's genetic makeup and its environment.
pheromone: A chemical substance produced by some organisms and emitted into the environment to communicate with others of the same species . Pheromones play an important role in the social behavior of certain animals, especially insects and some mammals . They are used to mark out territories, to attract mates, to lay trails, and to promote social cohesion and coordination in colonies. Examples are the sex attractants secreted by moths to attract mates and the queen substance produced by queen honeybees, which controls the development and behavior of worker bees. Pheromones are usually volatile organic molecules which are effective at very low concentrations, as little as one part per million.
photoreceptor cell: A cell, functionally part of the nervous system, that reacts to the presence of light. It usually contains a pigment that undergoes a chemical change when light is absorbed. This chemical change stimulates electrical changes in the photoreceptor that, when passed along and processed by other neurons, form the basis of vision.
photosynthesis: The fundamental biological process by which green plants make organic compounds such as carbohydrates from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water using light energy from the Sun. The process has two main phases: the light-dependent light reaction responsible for the initial capture of energy, and the light-independent dark reaction in which this energy is stored in the chemical bonds of organic molecules. Because virtually all other forms of life are directly or indirectly dependent on green plants for food, photosynthesis is the basis for almost all life on Earth.
phylogeny: The study of ancestral relations among species, often illustrated with a "tree of life" branching diagram, which is also known as a phylogenetic tree.
phylum (plural phyla): One of the highest levels of taxonomic classification. See taxon .
phytoplankton: Microscopic aquatic organisms that, like plants, use photosynthesis to capture and harness solar energy.
Pickford, Martin: A paleontologist at the College de France in Paris. In 2000, Pickford and Brigitte Senut discovered Orrorin tugensis, a proto-hominid dated at 6 million years old.
Pinker, Steven: A psychologist and professor with a special interest in language, linguistic behavior, and cognitive science. Pinker's publications include the popular science books The Language Instinct and How the Mind Works.
placental mammals: A group (specifically, an order) of mammals in which the young develop inside the mother, attached to her and nourished by a specialized structure called the placenta. In placental mammals, the young are born in an advanced stage of development. Compare with marsupial and monotreme .
placoderm: An extinct bottom-dwelling fish that was among the first to develop jaws and paired fins.
plankton: Minute or microscopic animals (zooplankton) and plants (phytoplankton) that float and drift in water, usually near the surface. In the top meter or two of water, both in the sea and in freshwater, small plants can photosynthesize, and abundant microscopic life can be observed. Many organisms that are sessile (attached to a surface) as adults disperse by means of a planktonic larval stage.
plan of nature: The philosophical theory that nature is organized according to a plan. It has been influential in classification, and is a kind of idealism .
plasmid: A genetic element that exists (or can exist) independently of the main DNA in the cell. In bacteria, plasmids can exist as small loops of DNA and be passed between cells independently.
plate tectonics: The theory that the surface of Earth is made of a number of plates, which have moved throughout geological time to create the present-day positions of the continents. Plate tectonics explains the location of mountain building, as well as earthquakes and volcanoes. The rigid plates consist of continental and oceanic crust together with the upper mantle, which "float" on the semi-molten layer of the mantle beneath them, and move relative to each other across the planet. Six major plates (Eurasian, American, African, Pacific, Indian, and Antarctic) are recognized, together with a number of smaller ones. The plate margins coincide with zones of seismic and volcanic activity.
Poisson distribution: A frequency distribution for number of events per unit time, when the number of events is determined randomly and the probability of each event is low.
polyandry: A reproductive system in which one female mates with many males. Seahorses and jacanas are examples of polyandrous species, which are less common than monogamous or polygynous species.
polygyny: Reproductive strategy in which one male mates with several females. Lions, peacocks, and gorillas all have polygynous mating systems. Compare with polyandry and monogamy .
polymorphism: A condition in which a population possesses more than one allele at a locus . Sometimes it is defined as the condition of having more than one allele with a frequency of more than five percent in the population.
polyphyletic group: A set of species descended from more than one common ancestor . The ultimate common ancestor of all species in the group is not a member of the polyphyletic group.
polyploid: An individual containing more than two sets of genes and chromosomes .
population: A group of organisms, usually a group of sexual organisms that interbreed and share a gene pool .
population genetics: The study of processes influencing gene frequencies.
postulate: A basic principle.
postzygotic isolation: A form of reproductive isolation in which a zygote is successfully formed but then either fails to develop or develops into a sterile adult. Donkeys and horses are postzygotically isolated from one another; a male donkey and a female horse can mate to produce a mule, but the mule is sterile.
prezygotic isolation: A form of reproductive isolation in which the two species never reach the stage of successful mating, and thus no zygote is formed. Examples would be species that have different breeding seasons or courtship displays, and which therefore never recognize one another as potential mates.
primate: A mammal belonging to the order Primates (about 195 species), which includes prosimians, monkeys, apes, and humans. Primates probably evolved from insectivorous climbing creatures like tree shrews and have many adaptations for climbing, including five fingers and five toes with opposable first digits (except in the hind feet of humans). They have well-developed hearing and sight, with forward-facing eyes allowing binocular vision, and large brains. The young are usually produced singly and undergo a long period of growth and development to the adult form. Most primates are arboreal , but the great apes and humans are largely terrestrial.
prokaryote: A cell without a distinct nucleus. Bacteria and some other simple organisms are prokaryotic. Compare with eukaryote . In classificatory terms, the group of all prokaryotes is paraphyletic .
proofreading enzymes: Mistakes during DNA replication can be recognized and repaired by proofreading enzymes . A mismatched nucleotide may occur at the rate of one per 100,000 base pairs, causing a pause in replication. DNA repair enzymes perform a proofreading function and reduce the error rate to one per billion. Many complex mechanisms have evolved to repair damage and alterations in DNA, which can occur as a result of damage from ultraviolet radiation, X-rays etc. as well as from errors during replication. (Over 50 genes have been found in yeast to be involved in repair mechanisms).
prosimian: One of the group of primates that includes lemurs and lorises; the other two primate groups are tarsoids and anthropoids.
protein: A molecule made up of a sequence of amino acids . Many of the important molecules in a living thing -- for example, all enzymes -- are proteins.
protozoa: A group of unicellular, usually microscopic, organisms now classified in various phyla of the kingdom Protoctista. They were formerly regarded either as a phylum of simple animals or as members of the kingdom Protista. Most feed on decomposing dead organic matter, but some are parasites, including the agents causing malaria (Plasmodium) and sleeping sickness (Trypanosoma), and a few contain chlorophyll and carry out photosynthesis , like plants.
pseudogene: A sequence of nucleotides in the DNA that resembles a gene but is nonfunctional for some reason.
pupa (plural pupae): The third stage of development in the life cycle of some insects, including flies, butterflies (in which it is the chrysalis), ants, bees, and beetles. During the pupal stage locomotion and feeding cease and metamorphosis from the larva to the adult form takes place. The adult emerges by cutting or digesting the pupal case after a few days or several months.
purine: A kind of base in the DNA; adenine (A) and guanine (G) are purines.
pyrimidine: A kind of base . In DNA, cytosine (C) and thymine (T) are pyrimidines. In RNA, cytosine (C) and uracil (U) are pyrimidines.
quantitative character: A character showing continuous variation in a population.
radioactivity: The emission of energy due to changes in the nucleus of an atom. Such spontaneously released radiation is a characteristic of certain elements and at some levels can be harmful.
radiometric dating: A dating technique that uses the decay rate of radioactive isotopes to estimate the age of an object.
Rak, Yoel: An Israeli paleoanthropologist and anatomist whose research interests include facial morphology of fossil hominids . Rak was part of the team that found a 2.3-million-year-old skull fragment from the genus Homo at Hadar, Ethiopia.
random mating: A mating pattern in which the probability of mating with another individual of a particular genotype (or phenotype ) equals the frequency of that genotype (or phenotype) in the population.
recanted: Withdrew a statement or opinion; disavowed a former assertion.
recapitulation: A partly or wholly erroneous hypothesis stating that an individual, during its development, passes through a series of stages corresponding to its successive evolutionary ancestors. According to the recapitulation hypothesis, an individual thus develops by "climbing up its family tree."
receptors: Proteins that can bind to other specific molecules. Usually on the surface of a cell, receptors often bind to antibodies or hormones.
recessive: An allele (A) is recessive if the phenotype of the heterozygote (Aa) is the same as the homozygote (aa) for the alternative allele (a) and different from the homozygote for the recessive (AA). The allele (a) controls the heterozygote's phenotype and is called dominant . An allele may be partly, rather than fully, recessive; in that case, the heterozygous phenotype is nearer to, rather than identical with, the homozygote for the dominant allele.
recognition species concept: A concept of species according to which a species is a set of organisms that recognize one another as potential mates; they have a shared mate recognition system. Compare with biological species concept , cladistic species concept , ecological species concept , and phenetic species concept .
recombination: An event, occurring by the crossing-over of chromosomes during meiosis , in which DNA is exchanged between a pair of chromosomes of a pair. Thus, two genes that were previously unlinked, being on different chromosomes, can become linked because of recombination, and linked genes may become unlinked.
reinforcement: An increase in reproductive isolation between incipient species by natural selection . Natural selection can directly favor only an increase in prezygotic isolation; reinforcement therefore amounts to selection for assortative mating between the incipiently speciating forms.
relative dating: The process of ordering fossils, rocks, and geologic events from oldest to youngest. Because of the way sedimentary rocks form, lower layers in most series are older than higher layers, making it possible to determine which fossils found in those layers are oldest and which are youngest. By itself, relative dating cannot assign any absolute age to rocks or fossils.
reproductive character displacement: The increased reproductive isolation between two closely related species when they live in the same geographic region ( sympatry ) as compared with when they live in separate geographic regions. A kind of character displacement in which the character concerned influences reproductive isolation, not ecological competition.
reproductive isolation: Two populations or individuals of opposite sex are considered reproductively isolated from one another if they cannot together produce fertile offspring. See prezygotic isolation and postzygotic isolation .
retina: The back wall of the eye onto which images are projected. From the retina, the information is sent to the brain via the optic nerve.
ribosomal RNA (rRNA): The kind of RNA that constitutes the ribosomes and provides the site for translation.
ribosome: The site of protein synthesis (or translation ) in the cell, mainly consisting of ribosomal RNA .
ring species: A situation in which two reproductively isolated populations (see reproductive isolation ) living in the same region are connected by a geographic ring of populations that can interbreed.
RNA: Ribonucleic acid. Messenger RNA , ribosomal RNA , and transfer RNA are its three main forms. These act as the intermediaries by which the hereditary code of DNA is converted into proteins. In some viruses, RNA is itself the hereditary molecule.
Saag, Michael: Dr. Saag is director of the AIDS Outpatient Clinic and associate professor of medicine at the University of Alabama, Birmingham. He is also associate director for clinical care and therapeutics at the UAB AIDS Center. Dr. Saag's research activities focus on both clinical and basic aspects of the human immunodeficiency virus. He serves on several state and national advisory panels, including the NIH/NIAID AIDS Clinical Trials Group Executive Committee.
sagittal crest: A ridge of bone projecting up from the top midline of the skull, running from front to back. It serves as a muscle attachment area for the muscles that extend up the side of the head from the jaw. The presence of a sagittal crest indicates extremely strong jaw muscles.
Schneider, Chris: A biologist and professor at Boston University whose research focuses on the evolution of vertebrate diversity in tropical systems and the scientific basis for conservation of tropical diversity. He uses a variety of molecular genetic methods, such as DNA sequencing, to study speciation, systematics, and biogeography of terrestrial vertebrates, with an emphasis on reptiles and amphibians.
Schultz, Ted R.: An ant systematist at the Smithsonian Institution, Dr. Schultz studies the evolution of the symbiosis between fungus-growing ants and the fungi they cultivate.
science: A way of knowing about the natural world based on observations and experiments that can be confirmed or disproved by other scientists using accepted scientific techniques.
Scopes, John: The 24-year-old teacher in the public high school in Dayton, Tenn., who was the defendant in the "monkey trial" of 1925. He agreed to be the focus of a test case attacking a newly passed Tennessee state law against teaching evolution or any other theory denying the biblical account of the creation of man, and was arrested and tried, with the American Civil Liberties Union backing his defense.
Scott, Eugenie C.: A human biologist specializing in medical anthropology and skeletal biology. As executive director of the National Center for Science Education, Scott is an advocate of church/state separation in schools, and speaks widely about science, evolution, and natural selection.
Scott, Matthew P.: A professor and researcher whose work in developmental biology explores how homeotic genes orchestrate differentiation and multicellular organization.
sedimentary rocks: Rocks composed of sediments, usually with a layered appearance. The sediments are composed of particles that come mostly from the weathering of pre-existing rocks, but often include material of organic origin; they are then transported and deposited by wind, water, or glacial ice. Sedimentary rocks are deposited mainly under water, usually in approximately horizontal layers (beds). Clastic sedimentary rocks are formed from the erosion and deposition of pre-existing rocks and are classified according to the size of the particles. Organically formed sedimentary rocks are derived from the remains of plants and animals (for example, limestone and coal). Chemically formed sedimentary rocks result from natural chemical processes and include sedimentary iron ores. Many sedimentary rocks contain fossils.
selection: Synonym of natural selection .
selectionism: The theory that some class of evolutionary events, such as molecular or phenotypic changes, have mainly been caused by natural selection .
selective pressures: Environmental forces such as scarcity of food or extreme temperatures that result in the survival of only certain organisms with characteristics that provide resistance.
Senut, Brigitte: An anatomist at France's National Museum of Natural History. In 2000, Senut and Martin Pickford discovered Orrorin tugensis, a proto-hominid dated at 6 million years old.
separate creation: The theory that species have separate origins and never change after their origin. Most versions of the theory of separate creation are religiously inspired and suggest that the origin of species occurs by supernatural action.
sexually dimorphic: When males and females of a species have considerably different appearances, which may include size, coloration, or other features, such as special plumage.
sexual selection: A selection on mating behavior, either through competition among members of one sex (usually males) for access to members of the other sex or through choice by members of one sex (usually females) of certain members of the other sex. In sexual selection, individuals are favored by their fitness relative to other members of the same sex, whereas natural selection works on the fitness of a genotype relative to the whole population.
sex chromosome: The chromosome or chromosomes that influence sex determination. In mammals, including humans, the X and Y chromosomes are the sex chromosomes (females are XX, males XY). Compare with autosome .
Shubin, Neil: A paleontologist who is known for his work on early tetrapods (any creature with four limbs). He presented a hypothesis of general patterns of the development of tetrapod limbs which changed the way scientists think about this field. The study of limbs is crucial to evolutionary science; one example of why this is important is that human development would have been impossible without limbs.
sickle cell anemia: A disease in which poorly formed red blood cells cannot bind correctly to oxygen, resulting in low iron, blood clotting, and joint pain.
Simpson, George Gaylord: One of the most influential paleontologists of the 20th century and a leading developer of the modern synthesis . He wrote hundreds of technical papers in addition to many widely read popular books and textbooks, and was a leading expert on Mesozoic, Paleocene, and South American mammals.
Small, Meredith: A professor of anthropology. Her research interests include primate behavior and ecology; mating strategies; reproduction; and the evolution of human behavior. Small's publications include Female Choices: Sexual Behaviour of Female Primates, What's Love Got to Do With It?, and The Evolution of Human Mating.
Smith, John Maynard: An eminent evolutionary biologist and author of many books on evolution, both for scientists and the general public. A professor emeritus at the University of Sussex, his research interests include evolution of human mitochondrial DNA sequences and investigation of evidence for extensive recombination .
Smith, Tom: An ornithologist and conservation biologist, Smith is executive director of the Center for Tropical Research at San Francisco State University. His work combines basic research in ecology and evolutionary science with applied research in conservation biology. Among other issues, Smith is interested in the role of ecological gradients in speciation and maintaining species diversity.
social Darwinism: A doctrine that applies the principles of selection to the structure of society, asserting that social structure is determined by how well people are suited to living conditions.
spacer region: A sequence of nucleotides in the DNA between coding genes .
speciation: Changes in related organisms to the point where they are different enough to be considered separate species. This occurs when populations of one species are separated and adapt to their new environment or conditions (physiological, geographic, or behavioral).
species: An important classificatory category, which can be variously defined by the biological species concept , cladistic species concept , ecological species concept , phenetic species concept , and recognition species concept . The biological species concept, according to which a species is a set of interbreeding organisms, is the most widely used definition, at least by biologists who study vertebrates. A particular species is referred to by a Linnaean binomial, such as Homo sapiens for human beings.
sponge: A member of the phylum Porifera, marine and freshwater invertebrates that live permanently attached to rocks or other surfaces. The body of a sponge is hollow and consists basically of an aggregation of cells between which there is little nervous coordination, although they do have specialized sets of cells that perform different functions. One set of cells causes water to flow in through openings in the body wall and out through openings at the top; food particles are filtered from the water by these cells. Other cells construct a stiffening skeletal framework of spicules of chalk, silica, or fibrous protein to support the body.
stabilizing selection: A form of selection that tends to keep the form of a population constant. Individuals with the mean value for a character have high fitness ; those with extreme values have low fitness.
stepped cline: A cline with a sudden change in gene or character frequency.
stromatoporoid: Stromatoporoids, once thought to be related to the corals , are now recognized as being calcareous sponges . Sponges similar to fossil stromatoporoids are found in the oceans today. Like modern sponges, stromatoporoid created currents to pump water in and out of their body, where they filtered out tiny food particles. Fossil stromatoporoids can be massive, chocolate-drop in shape, tabular, encrusting, cylindrical, or even arm-shaped ("ramose"). There are two main groups of fossil stromatoporoids that lived in different eras, the Paleozoic and the Mesozoic. After their appearance in the Ordovician, the Paleozoic stromatoporoids were dominant reef builders for over 100 million years. The second group of stromatoporoids, from the Mesozoic, may represent a distinct group with a similar growth form. They were also important contributors to reef formation, especially during the Cretaceous.
subduction zone: A zone where rocks of an oceanic plate are forced to plunge below much thicker continental crust, along margins between adjoining plates. As the plate descends it melts and is released into the magma below Earth's crust. Such a zone is marked by volcanoes and earthquakes. See plate tectonics .
substitution: The evolutionary replacement of one allele by another in a population.
supernatural: Relating to phenomena that cannot be described by natural laws, cannot be tested by scientific methodology, and are therefore outside the realm of science.
symbiosis: A relationship of mutual benefit between two organisms that live together.
sympatric speciation: Speciation via populations with overlapping geographic ranges.
sympatry: Living in the same geographic region. Compare with allopatry .
syntax: The rules by which words are combined to form grammatical sentences.
systematics: A near synonym of taxonomy .
tarsier: One of three species of small nocturnal primate belonging to the genus Tarsius, found in Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, and the Philippines. They have a naked tail measuring 130-270 mm (about 5-11 inches) long, which makes up about half the total length of their bodies (220-460 mm, or 8-19 inches). Tarsiers have enormous eyes, large hairless ears, and gripping pads at the end of their digits. They are mainly arboreal , using both hands to seize insects and small vertebrates such as lizards.
taxon (plural taxa): Any named taxonomic group, such as the family Felidae, or the genus Homo, or the species Homo sapiens. Also, a formally recognized group, as distinct from any other group (such as the group of herbivores, or the group of tree-climbers).
taxonomy: The theory and practice of biological classification .
terrestrial: Living on land.
tetrapod: A member of the group made up of amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
thecodont: The thecodonts were a diverse group of Triassic reptiles that included large four-legged carnivores, armored herbivores, small, agile two- and four-legged forms, and crocodile-like aquatic reptiles. They gave rise to crocodiles, dinosaurs, and pterosaurs. The term Thecodontia is no longer used, as they are a paraphyletic group. The thecodonts are therefore an evolutionary grade of animals, rather than a clade. Most palaeontologists now use the term "basal archosaur" to refer to thecodonts. As a group, they are defined by certain shared ancestral features, such as teeth in sockets, an archosaurian characteristic that was inherited by the dinosaurs. The name thecodont is actually Latin for "socket-tooth." Members of the group show a general trend toward a more upright, less sprawling stance, with the hindlimbs especially being progressively positioned more directly beneath the body, until some could walk upright on two legs.
theory: A well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that typically incorporates many confirmed obserations, laws, and successfully verified hypotheses .
theropod: The theropod (meaning "beast-footed") dinosaurs are a diverse group of bipedal dinosaurs. They include the largest terrestrial carnivores ever to have lived, as well as many quite small species . Theropods typically share a number of traits , including hollow, thin-walled bones and modifications of the hands and feet (three main fingers on the hand, and three main (weight-bearing) toes on the foot). Most theropods had sharp, recurved teeth for eating flesh, and claws on the ends of all of the fingers and toes. Some of these characters were lost or modified in some groups later in theropod evolution. Theropod fossils are fairly rare and often fragmentary. Fossils of small theropods are especially rare, since small bones are harder to find and are weathered away easily.
Thiagarajan, Sivasailam: The president of Workshops by Thiagi, Inc., his organization helps people improve their performance through games and simulations.
trait: A characteristic or condition.
transcription: The process by which messenger RNA is read from the DNA forming a gene.
transfer RNA (tRNA): A type of RNA that brings the amino acids to the ribosomes to make proteins. There are 20 kinds of transfer RNA molecules, one for each of the 20 main amino acids. A transfer RNA molecule has an amino acid attached to it, and contains the anticodon corresponding to that amino acid in another part of its structure. In protein synthesis, each codon in the messenger RNA combines with the appropriate tRNA's anticodon, and the amino acids are arranged in order to make the protein.
transformism: The evolutionary theory of Lamarck in which changes occur within a lineage of populations, but in which lineages do not split (i.e., no speciation occurs, at least not in the sense of the cladistic species concept ) and do not go extinct.
transition: A mutation changing one purine into the other purine, or one pyrimidine into the other pyrimidine (i.e., changes from A to G, or vice versa, or changes from C to T, or vice versa).
transitional fossil: A fossil or group of fossils representing a series of similar species, genera, or families, that link an older group of organisms to a younger group. Often, transitional fossils combine some traits of older, ancestral species with traits of more recent species (for instance, a series of transitional fossils documents the evolution of fully aquatic whales from terrestrial ancestors).
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Which country started the Second Balkan War in 1913 by invading Greece and Serbia? | World War I Centennial: The Second Balkan War Begins | Mental Floss
World War I Centennial: The Second Balkan War Begins
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The First World War was an unprecedented catastrophe that killed millions and set the continent of Europe on the path to further calamity two decades later. But it didn’t come out of nowhere. With the centennial of the outbreak of hostilities coming up in 2014, Erik Sass will be looking back at the lead-up to the war, when seemingly minor moments of friction accumulated until the situation was ready to explode. He'll be covering those events 100 years after they occurred. This is the 75th installment in the series.
June 29, 1913: Second Balkan War Begins
The Second Balkan War, June-August 1913, is synonymous with total military debacle. Feeling shortchanged by the Balkan League’s division of former Ottoman territory in Macedonia following the First Balkan War , Bulgaria lashed out against its former allies, Serbia and Greece, with exhausted troops and a ludicrously optimistic strategy – and swiftly reaped the whirlwind, as Turkey and Romania piled on from the rear. In fact, the Second Balkan War marks one of the few occasions in modern history when a country has been literally attacked from all sides… or rather, counter-attacked: incredible though it seems in retrospect, Bulgaria’s impulsive Tsar Ferdinand actually started this disastrous war.
Tsar Ferdinand had right on his side, but that was about it: the 1912 treaty between Bulgaria and Serbia had granted most of Ottoman Macedonia to Bulgaria, while Serbia was supposed to gain access to the sea by conquering Ottoman Albania. But when Austria-Hungary and Europe’s other Great Powers deprived Serbia of its gains by creating the new, independent state of Albania , the Serbians were left looking elsewhere for compensation, which could only mean Macedonia. Meanwhile, during the First Balkan War the Bulgarians had concentrated their forces in the east in a failed effort to capture the Ottoman capital of Constantinople – so there were no Bulgarian “boots on the ground” to enforce Bulgaria’s claims in the west.
Indeed, the balance of power in the Balkans was now slanted sharply against Bulgaria. After sustaining heavy losses in the First Balkan War, Bulgaria could deploy around 360,000 troops (many of them new and untrained) against its former allies, while Serbia could field 300,000 troops, along with 13,000 troops from its sidekick Montenegro, and Greece could field 121,000. Thus the Bulgarians were outnumbered 434,000 to 360,000 – and that’s not counting Romania, with 418,000 troops, and the Ottoman Empire, with 250,000, both of which had scores to settle with Bulgaria.
Nonetheless on June 29, 1913, Tsar Ferdinand, confident in the martial spirit of his tired soldiers, ordered Bulgarian armies to attack the Serbians and Greeks across the eastern and southern borders of the disputed area in Macedonia. Failure was immediate and complete, as Bulgarian forces were roundly defeated by the Serbians at Bregalnica (Breg-AL-neet-sa) and the Greeks at Kilkis.
Bregalnica
The main attack was launched without warning on the night of June 29-30 by the Bulgarian 4th Army against the Serbian 1st and 3rd Armies south of the town of Štip. The Bulgarians managed to advance as far the town of Udovo, about 25 miles west of the current border between Bulgaria and the Macedonian Republic, when internal conflicts in the Bulgarian command derailed the campaign.
Amazingly, Tsar Ferdinand had started the Second Balkan War without consulting or informing Bulgaria’s civilian government; in fact the Bulgarian prime minister, Stoyan Danev, was just about to leave for St. Petersburg to participate in Russia’s planned mediation of the dispute with Serbia when the war broke out. On July 1, Danev, understandably annoyed at being excluded from key affairs of state, frantically ordered the Bulgarian chief of staff, Mikhail Savov, to halt the attack. Savov obeyed and was duly rewarded by being fired by Tsar Ferdinand for disobedience on July 3 (on July 3 parliament also fired Savov for launching the initial attack, giving him the distinction of being fired twice on the same day, albeit for different reasons). Ferdinand ordered his new commander, Radko Dimitriev, to resume the attack – but by now it was too late.
The Bulgarians had stopped fighting for two days, but their enemy hadn’t: the Serbians took advantage of the pause to bring up reinforcements, reposition their armies, and launch a devastating counterattack which pushed the Bulgarians all the way back to the Bregalnica River by July 8. The Bulgarian 5th Army hurried to help, but by now the front was collapsing and the 4th Army was in headlong retreat. By the time they assumed defensive positions behind the Bregalnica, the Bulgarians had suffered 20,000 casualties, compared to around 17,000 for the Serbs, while managing to lose most of the territory they’d conquered in the First Balkan War.
Kilkis
The Bulgarians suffered an even bigger defeat at the hands of the Greeks, whose combined forces outnumbered the Bulgarian 2nd Army’s 36,000 troops by almost four to one, and also benefited from the tragicomic confusion reigning in Bulgarian headquarters. With the newly-crowned King Constantine in command, the Greeks mounted strong attacks on the flanks of the Bulgarian army, including punishing naval bombardment of the eastern flank by Greek warships in the Aegean Sea.
The Bulgarian 2nd Army began retreating north on July 1, hoping to fall back on the Bulgarian 4th Army for support, only to find the 4th Army was also retreating. As a last resort, the Bulgarians assumed defensive positions near the village of Kilkis, about 25 miles south of the current Greek-Bulgarian border, but were forced to continue retreating north after a ferocious battle from July 1-4. Thus the Bulgarians also lost most of their previous conquests in southern Macedonia.
Romania Jumps In
Bulgaria’s doom was sealed by the entry of Romania into the Second Balkan War. The Romanians had previously demanded part of the northern Bulgarian territory of Dobruja in return for recognizing Bulgaria’s conquests to the south in the First Balkan War, but the Bulgarians refused and ignored the decision of the Great Powers, who granted the territory to Romania in arbitration. The Bulgarians then foolishly left their rear exposed in the Second Balkan War – naively expecting Russia, the traditional patron of the Balkan Slavic kingdoms, to protect them against non-Slavic Romania.
Unfortunately for the Bulgarians, the Russians were trying to curry favor with Romania in an effort to tempt it to leave the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy) and maybe even join the Triple Entente (France, Russia, Britain). Thus the expected Russian aid to Bulgaria was not forthcoming, and on July 7 the Romanians sent 80,000 troops marching into Dobruja, while another 250,000 headed for the Bulgarian capital of Sofia. There was no way Bulgaria could fight Serbia, Greece, and Romania at the same time – and the list of enemies was about to grow even longer, when the Ottoman Empire took advantage of Bulgaria’s woes to reclaim Adrianople .
Following his earlier inability to mediate the Bulgarian-Serbian dispute, Russian foreign minister Sergei Sazonov’s failure to come to Bulgaria’s aid in the Second Balkan War had grave consequences far beyond Bulgaria’s territorial losses. Having alienated Bulgaria, Russia was left with Serbia as its only client state in the Balkans – and that meant Russia would have to take Serbia’s side in any future disputes, or risk losing its influence in the Balkans altogether. One year later this would drag Russia, and the rest of Europe, into an unfathomable disaster.
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In mathematics, which letter of the alphabet is given to the imaginary number equal to the square root of -1? | AllRefer.com - Yugoslavia - The Balkan Wars and World War I | Yugoslavian or Yugoslav Information Resource
Yugoslavia
The Balkan Wars and World War I
In 1912 Turkish chauvinism and atrocities combined with Albanian insurgency to galvanize Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece. In the first Balkan War, October 1912 to May 1913, these nations joined Montenegro to oust Turkey from the Balkans. Besides capturing western Macedonia, Kosovo, and other Serbian-populated regions, Serbian forces moved through purely Albanian-populated lands to the Adriatic. Austria-Hungary convinced the major European powers to create an independent Albania to deny Serbia an Adriatic outlet, and it forced Serbia to remove its troops from Albanian territory. The Treaty of London (1913) awarded the Serbs almost all remaining Ottoman lands in Europe, but there was immediate conflict over the division of Macedonia. With AustroHungarian approval, Bulgaria attacked its erstwhile allies in June 1913, triggering the Second Balkan War. This time Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, Romania, and Turkey defeated Bulgaria and eliminated the possibility of Bulgarian participation in a South Slav state. Its victories filled Serbia with confidence and doubled its size. But the wars also weakened the country and left it with hostile neighbors and bitter Macedonian and Albanian minorities.
Serbian victories and the Serbians' obvious contempt for Austria-Hungary brought hostility from Vienna and anti-Habsburg sentiment in all the empire's South Slavic regions, especially Bosnia and Hercegovina. Confident behind German military protection, the high command of Austria-Hungary lobbied for war to eliminate Serbia. Serbia's alliance with Slavic Russia also encouraged the growth of expansionist, nationalist secret societies in the Serbian army. The most significant of these societies was the Black Hand, a group of army officers who dominated the army and influenced the government from 1911-17.
In 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Habsburg throne and a longtime advocate of equality for the South Slavs in the empire, made an ill-prepared visit to Bosnia. On Vidovdan, Bosnian student Gavrilo Princip assassinated the archduke and the archduchess in Sarajevo. The Black Hand had armed and trained the assassin, but historians doubt that the rulers of Serbia had approved the plot. Nevertheless, on July 23 Austria-Hungary sent an ultimatum, threatening war unless Serbia allowed Vienna to join the murder investigation and suppress secret societies. Even the German kaiser felt that Serbia met the Austrian demands, but war was declared, the existing alliance structure of Europe went into force, and World War I began. The Central Powers--Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey--faced the Triple Entente--France, Britain, and Russia. The Croats, Slovenes, and many Serbs in Austria-Hungary went to war against Serbia and Montenegro.
Despite overwhelming odds, Serbia twice cleared its soil of invading Austro-Hungarian armies early in the war, and late in 1914 the prime minister announced plans to unite the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes in a South Slavic state. Italy joined the Triple Entente in 1915 and attacked Austria-Hungary, then Bulgaria joined the side of Austria-Hungary in the fall of that year. With French and Italian forces waiting in nearby Salonika (Thessalonika), German, Austro-Hungarian, and Bulgarian forces attacked Serbia in October 1915. The Serbian army, weakened by typhus, escaped through Montenegro and Albania in midwinter, suffering heavy losses. Italian units in Albania denied support, then French ships evacuated the remaining Serbian forces to Corfu.
Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria occupied Serbia and Montenegro after the retreat. After recovering, the Serbian army helped the French and British capture Bitola in September 1916. Entente armies remained inactive there until the Central Powers began to disintegrate. They then routed the Bulgarians in September 1918, swept Austro-Hungarian and German forces from Serbia, and entered Hungary. In November Austria-Hungary collapsed and the war ended. World War I destroyed one-fourth of Montenegro's population and several hundred thousand Croats and Slovenes. Serbia lost about 850,000 people, a quarter of its prewar population, and half its prewar resources.
Data as of December 1990
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What is the name of the actor and singer who voiced the character 'Chef' in the animated series 'South Park' from 1997 to 2006? | South Park | American animated television series | Britannica.com
American animated television series
South Park, American adult-oriented animated comedy series that has aired on the cable network Comedy Central since 1997. The controversial series won Emmy Awards for outstanding animated program in 2005, 2007, 2008, and 2009.
Animated characters from South Park (front, from left to right): Stan, …
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South Park is set in a fictional Colorado town of the same name and focuses largely on the antics of four grade-school boys: Eric Cartman, Stanley Marsh, Kyle Broflovski, and Kenneth (Kenny) McCormick, although numerous episodes have dealt with the town’s other denizens , most of whom are recurring characters. The series was created by Trey Parker and Matt Stone , who, in addition to writing, directing, and editing each episode, provide the voices of the four boys as well as of nearly every other male character in the series (though, notably, the late soul singer Isaac Hayes voiced Chef from the late 1990s until 2006).
South Park is decidedly low-budget in appearance, with the characters and landscapes rendered in the style of crude cut-out animation (although, in reality, high-end video processing is used to achieve this effect). It is almost always winter in South Park, with snow covering the ground. The town is inhabited by a population of odd and improbable characters, including Jesus , who hosts a local public-access talk show. Nearly every social institution, from law enforcement to education, is portrayed as inept. The show revels in controversy and taboo subjects and often parodies celebrities and public figures. Much of its humour relies on pop-culture references, slapstick, shock value, and scatological jokes, as exemplified by the episode in which the boys befriend a singing, dancing piece of fecal matter named Mr. Hankey the Christmas Poo. In 1999 the show engendered a feature-length musical cartoon, South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut, which was nominated for an Academy Award.
Learn More in these related articles:
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Which musical instrument takes its name from the German for 'play of bells'? | Jerome "Chef" McElroy | South Park Archives | Fandom powered by Wikia
Boys: [one or all] "Bad."
Chef: "Why bad?"
Chef used the word "children" often, even for a singular child. For example, he referred to Cartman as "children" in " Cartman's Mom Is a Dirty Slut " and " Spontaneous Combustion ," Stan in " Kenny Dies ," and Butters in " The Simpsons Already Did It ". He also tended to use "fudge" as a euphemism for "fuck," particularly in early episodes.
While most of the inhabitants of South Park are Caucasian, Chef was one of the very few residents in town who was African American; in fact the only other black people to consistently live in South Park are Token and his parents, who were not prominent characters until the fourth season. As a result, Chef (usually affectionately, though not always) referred to most people in town with the racial slur "crackers", often "cracker-ass", including the children.
Aside from cooking, Chef was passionate about singing - he wrote the song, " Stinky Britches " which was later covered by Alanis Morissette. He was based on such 1970s African American singers as Isaac Hayes and Barry White. Often, he agreed to give the boys advice in the form of songs, but wound up singing about having sex. However, over time, like many earlier characters on the show, his role, especially as a singer, diminished, and in later seasons he did not sing much. By the time his death occurred, he had not sang any songs in 4 years or so.
Despite his preoccupations with women and sex, Chef was generally one of the few level-headed adults in South Park. In addition to dispensing advice to "the children", Chef spoke out against outrageous ideas, and helped save South Park/the world in general from disasters on numerous occasions. However, Chef was not above performing nonsensical acts, such as buying a fancy TV that he couldn't even program .
Chef would often explain mature themes to the boys .
In earlier seasons, Chef was often approached by the children when they were unfamiliar with a sexual term or practice. This happened so often that it eventually got on Chef's nerves, leading him to say, "Goddammit, children, why do I always have to be the one to teach you these things?", but went on to explain to them whatever they wanted to know anyway.
Chef’s last name suggests he could be at least partially of some Celtic descent, and indeed his parents live in Edinburgh, Scotland.
In " Chef Goes Nanners ", he briefly converted to Islam and adopted the name "Abdul Mohammed Jabar Rauf Kareem Ali", but converted back to Christianity by the end of the episode.
Death
Chef's gruesome death.
The fate of Chef was revealed in the Season 10 premiere, in which voice clips taken from previous episodes were linked together to form new dialogue to support the plot of " The Return of Chef ". In the episode, Chef was brainwashed into becoming a child molester by the Super Adventure Club , an organization which combines outdoors activities with sex tourism and bizarre religious beliefs, some of which seem akin to those held by the real-life Church of Scientology.
At the end of the episode, Chef was burned, battered, impaled, shot, his face, including one eyeball, was pulled off, and his limbs were torn apart by a grizzly bear and a mountain lion, and he finally defecated as he died as a reference to the episode " Something Wall-Mart This Way Comes ".
The town held a moving memorial service for him, in which Kyle gave a eulogy stating, "We shouldn't be mad at Chef for leaving us, we should be mad at that fruity little club for scrambling his brains" - a not-so-subtle jab at Scientology.
Darth Chef
Darth Chef, as seen in "The Return of Chef".
Chef's body was secretly recovered by the Super Adventure Club, who managed to revive him as a "Darth" Chef, mimicking the ending to Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith . He was revived by the Super Adventure Club in a Darth Vader-esque suit (albeit with a helmet similar to a chef's hat) and was given a red spatula lightsaber. After that, the Super Adventure Club leader Connelly began the scene, which parodies Revenge of the Sith:
Connelly: "Chef, can you hear me? Say something!"
Darth Chef: [with respirator-assisted Vader-like breathing] "Hello there, children. How would you like some Salisbury steak?"
Connelly: "Yes, go on!"
Darth Chef: "And for dessert, how would you children like to suck on my chocolate salty balls?"
Connelly: [mimicking children's voice] "Oh, you mean like a chocolate candy?"
Darth Chef: "No, I mean MY BALLS!"
Connelly, as a parody of Darth Sidious, was very happy about Darth Chef's reply and responds with an evil laugh.
Darth Chef's voice was provided by Peter Serafinowicz , who voiced Darth Maul in Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace . However, he has not reappeared. It is now highly unlikely for him to return due to Issac Hayes' death. Darth Chef does, however, appear along with many other characters in the background of the South Park opening sequence. While he is in Chef's place in the crowd of waving townspeople beginning right after "The Return of Chef", the clip of him waving is inserted into the opening beginning in " Make Love, Not Warcraft ". Instead of waving, he is seen threateningly activating his lightsaber/spatula.
It should be noted the name "Darth Chef" has been generally accepted by fans, but is never actually used on the show. It is, however, mentioned on South Park Studios .
Aftermath
After Chef died, the children were never seen getting lunch again until " Crème Fraiche ", and it was unknown who replaced Chef. However, in " Eek, A Penis! ", Mr. Derp was seen in the background, implying he took over for the time. In "Crème Fraiche", the boys are seen in the lunch line and are greeted by Randy with Chef's familiar lines "Hello there children!" and "How's it goin'?" He also wore an apron that was similar to Chef's, only smaller, and he reveals there was an opening for a cafeteria chef. Chef himself is not directly referenced in the episode though, and Randy quits at the end, meaning it is likely Mr. Derp or another staff member took on the role again.
Chef is seen briefly during a trailer for South Park: The Stick of Truth breaking out from a coffin, partially rotting, much to the shock of Stan, Kyle, Cartman, and the new kid. Despite his final appearance in the show depicting him in a Darth Vader-like suit, his appearance in-game is a zombified version of his normal attire (along with the addition of a Nazi Sash around his arm). Chef is brought back to life by Clyde thanks to toxic waste made by aliens as a zombie Nazi as a boss fight, at points Chef will try biting the new kid, only for him to literally knock some sense into him, unfortunately Clyde shoots the toxic waste from a water gun at chef, causing the zombie Nazi personality to take over. At the end of the fight Chef gains control, but only briefly as Clyde lights him on fire in a last ditch effort to defeat the new Kid, who had no choice but to use magical farts on Chef, burning his face off and killing him again. Chef's dialogue is, much like in Chef's return, comprised of stock audio (both from Isaac Hayes and various speeches from Adolf Hitler).
Chef was referenced in " Stunning and Brave ", when P.C. Principal mentions a "chef person of color who loved to sing songs", and claims that the children drove him to suicide.
Isaac Hayes Quits South Park
Isaac Hayes voiced Chef from 1997 to 2006.
On March 13, 2006, Isaac Hayes was reported to have quit South Park over objections to the show's attitudes toward and depiction of various religions, claiming that the show had crossed the line from satire into intolerance.
Despite the content of the official press release, however, there remains considerable speculation about the motivations behind his departure. Parker and Stone assert that he quit due to the controversial episode " Trapped in the Closet ", and its treatment of Scientology, as Hayes was a member of the religion. Series co-creator and writer Matt Stone commented in a manner that suggested that Hayes practiced a double standard regarding the treatment of religion on South Park: "[We] never heard a peep out of Isaac in any way until we did Scientology. He wants a different standard for religions other than his own, and to me, that is where intolerance and bigotry begin." [citation needed]
Others have suggested that Hayes left the show because of the external pressure forced by his fellow Scientologists and that the decision was not voluntary. It was eventually reported, however, that Hayes did not quit the show, but that the original press release announcing his departure was put out by someone who was not authorized to represent him. On January 4, 2006, Hayes defended South Park's style of controversial humor to The Onion's AV Club and XM's Opie and Anthony Show, going so far as to note that although he was not pleased with the show's depiction of Scientology, he "understand[s] what [Matt and Trey] are doing." It was reported that Hayes suffered a stroke in the middle of January 2006 and was not in a position to make major decisions for himself.
Hayes died of a stroke on August 10, 2008, making " The Return of Chef " Chef's final official appearance.
Appearance
Aside from Nicole, Token , and their families, Chef was the only African-American character in South Park . He was almost always seen wearing his chef's hat, red shirt and blue pants. He was also often seen wearing a white apron with the word "Chef" printed on it. He appeared to be slightly overweight and had a black beard.
To see images of Jerome "Chef" McElroy, visit Jerome "Chef" McElroy/Gallery .
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