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Muriatic acid is an alternative name for which acid? | Uses for Muriatic Acid or Hydrochloric Acid
Uses for Muriatic Acid or Hydrochloric Acid
Uses for Muriatic Acid or Hydrochloric Acid
People Explain How They Use Muriatic Acid
Muriatic acid was used to clean the fountains of the Place De La Concorde In 1933. Keystone-France, Getty Images
By Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D.
Muriatic acid is another name for hydrochloric acid , which is one of the strong acids . Do you use muriatic acid or dilute hydrochloric acid as a household chemical? If so, what uses do you have for it? Readers answer this question:
Uses for Muriatic/Hydrochloric Acid
Use it to lower the pH and Total Alkalinity of your swimming pool.
— frd
It worked
I used muriatic acid in making large number of tile cleaning it restores ur tiles to it normal state
— Ifediba Paul N
Hydrochloric/ Muratic Acid
I use hydrochloric acid using a 3:1 ratio with water (acid 3 : water 1). We just moved into a newly built house and the tiles in the bathroom are covered with grout, so I use the solution above to clean the grout off the tile. I also use the pure for of muratic acid to clean (with a sprayer) Iron off the concrete around my pool.
— Anonymous
Make your own soldering flux
Dissolve pure zinc (eg, from a dry-cell case) in muriatic acid to make your own acid flux for soldering ..
continue reading below our video
What are the Seven Wonders of the World
Several articles via Google will show how ;) Be sure to follow safety hints! NOT a project for kids!
—Guest tkjtkj
Disposal?
I had some old muriatic acid setting in a room for more than a year. I noticed there was some crystals or something that looks like salt on the outside of the bottle. I wonder if it is in fact salt. And what is the best way to dispose of it???
— forrest
Me and many others use muriatic acid to melt concrete off our delivery trucks.
— joe
Sometimes you just have to use it.
No Way: Some stains just won't go away with anything else. Like manganese stains in a toilet bowl (I've got mang. in my water and the treatment tanks don't get all of it).
— Al
muriatic acid
I use muriatic acid or hydrochloric acid to clean the algae growth from the bottom of my boat. Be sure to wet the concrete well that,s under and around your boat or you'll end up with with a ghost pattern of your boat. Keep the acids away from grass and aluminum.
— bob c
Cleans gunk off shower stalls, easily
It makes cleaning old shower stalls a breeze. But you have to be careful and wear gloves of course. Also, open a window before you start using it so you have proper ventilation. Now there's no need to try to endlessly scrub away stubborn gunk. Muriatic acid is the way to go when you have tough cleaning jobs.
— Evie
Are You Kidding?
Seriously? I wouldn't have that chemical in my house or my garage! It's too dangerous. What if a kid or a pet spilled it or something. There have to be better chemicals to use than acid.
— No Way
Concrete Cleaner
I use muriatic acid to clean the yuck off of concrete. It's also good to prep it for a sealant or other treatment.
— Acidzzz
| Hydrochloric acid |
Which writer created the detective Paul Temple? | Klean-Strip 1 gal. Green Muriatic Acid-GKGM75006 - The Home Depot
Customer Reviews
1 gal. Green Muriatic Acid is rated 4.1 out of 5 by 69.
Rated 5 out of 5 by RS from Worked Exactly As It Should First, about those who rated this poorly. This product is sold as a cleaner. Some of the reviews are complaints that it did not work well as a pool chemical. That is not the intent of this specific form of hydrochloric acid (HCl) - which is what muriatic acid is. To work as a cleaner, it has been diluted.Secondly, it works as advertised as a cleaner. It dissolves calcium carbonate, which is the main ingredient of cement. It will have little effect on oil and grease as petroleum products repel water and the HCl has been diluted with water. Clean the oil and grease first and then use the acid. It will remove a very thin layer of cement and the dirt that is attached to it.
Date published: 2016-08-28
Rated 5 out of 5 by Slim from Muriatic Acid Muriatic Acid to clean brick I have used this type of product for more than twenty years.
Date published: 2016-09-01
Rated 1 out of 5 by ghost from Another item goes green and doesn't work like the good old stuff Don't know what they did to the good old formula but this stuff is just not the same as the good old plain muratic acid.
Date published: 2016-10-05
Rated 5 out of 5 by Mimi from This product rocks! I was refurbishing a fish pond that I recently inherited with my home. One of the steps was to wash it with muriatic acid. I was not sure where to find this product at Home Depot so I ordered it online. When I got to the store, it was waiting at the customer service desk. That is the BEST was to shop! I have shopped this way several times since I bought this house and it's the greatest!
Date published: 2016-08-10
Rated 5 out of 5 by ConcreteStainRemover from My girl friends daughter 8 years old spilled paint at the entry way of her shop, alot of paint. I... My girl friends daughter 8 years old spilled paint at the entry way of her shop, alot of paint. It was water base but still left a large ugly stain. Water ,soap, other chemicals did not improve the look. Used muratic acid and a wire brush and the stain was gone
Date published: 2016-12-06
Rated 5 out of 5 by SammiCurr from Great product at a great price! I used this to lower pH in a swimming pool, and to clean the electrolytic cells in a saltwater pump. It performed great for both uses. I would recommend this product for the uses above.
Date published: 2016-08-03
Rated 5 out of 5 by formula34 from Works great for Pool PH Works fine in balancing PH in my pool. Would be nice to have an easier way to break the seal underneath the cap without having to use tools.
Date published: 2016-08-30
Rated 5 out of 5 by memyselfandeye from cleans masonry and construction dust. cleans masonry and construction dust.
Date published: 2016-12-13
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Which car company made the Sceptre and Snipe models? | Humber: upmarket cars
courtesy of Rootes-Chrysler.co.uk
Thomas Humber founded the Humber cycle company in Sheffield in 1868, and saw so much success he built factories in Nottingham, Beeston, Coventry, and Wolverhampton. Near the turn of the century, Humber started to flirt with tricycles and quadricyles — one of which sported front wheel drive and rear wheel steering.
In 1899 the first Humber car, the 3½ horsepower Phaeton, was built at Beeston; the Voiturette was brought out two years later, followed by the 1903 Humberette, which sported a tubular frame and 5hp single-cylinder engine. In 1902 a four-cylinder 12hp started to be produced, followed in 1903 by a three-cylinder 9hp and a four-cylinder 20hp model. Humber car production was concentrated at a new factory in Folly Lane, Coventry, which was close to Hillman; the two had no ties at that time.
After 1905, Humber dropped smaller-engined models; and in 1907, it added a 15hp model. However, in 1908, the Beeston factory, which produced higher quality cars, was closed to save money, and two-cylinder models were brought back. The chief engineer was hired away by Hillman.
In 1913, the Humberette model re-appeared in a new form: the car was powered by an air-cooled 8hp vee-twin engine. The company also shelled out £15,000 on a three-car team to compete in the 1914 Tourist Trophy race with cars designed by FT Burgess, and powered by double overhead camshaft 3.3-litre four-cylinder engines. The ambitious programme failed to deliver results, though.
World War I was spent producing arms and aircraft engines, but afterwards, Humber became well established as the producer of solid and reliable cars, which were mainly powered by side-valve engines. In 1922, a step towards modernity was taken with the launch of overhead inlet/side exhaust engines, and the 8/18 of 1923 made good use of it. It was a light and refined car, and proved sprightly for its day thanks to its light kerb weight and relatively powerful 985cc engine.
When the 8/18 received an enlarged version of its engine, it was re-named the 9/20. However, the body gained more weight than the additional power could easily manage, and its reputation for sprightliness was soon lost. Sales of Humbers remained buoyant during the late 1920s, when annual volumes exceeded 4,000, thanks to the continued success of the 9/20, 14/40 and 20/55hp models. Humber even bought Commer, a Luton-based commercial vehicle producer.
Humber and Hillman are swallowed by the Rootes Group
Humber was neither big nor exclusive enough to tough out the Depression, and joined with Hillman. It was not enough, and a single year later, Rootes Group bought the pair. In standard Rootes fashion, the product line was revised. Two new sixes were launched; the 2.1-litre 16/50 and the 3.5-litre Humber Snipe. In 1932, the overhead inlet/side exhaust engine was discontinued, and the following year, the company introduced a 1.7-litre four-cylinder 12hp which would not last long.
By World War II, Humbers were powered solely by six-cylinder engines; they were positioned as the more expensive cars in the Rootes range, and thanks to stylish bodies by Pressed Steel, the company's reputation was good. Production continued throughout the hostilities, when the 4.1-litre Super Snipe and its variants were built as staff cars. Monty had a Command Car called “Old Faithful,” and Winston Churchill was almost always seen in a Humber car — that wasn't an official car, according to Derek Harling , it was Lord Rootes’ personal car and chauffeur.
“clanmackinnonstl” wrote:
Humber was known for a number of military workhorses during World War II — the Humber Command Car (Montgomery used one), the Humber Scout Car, and Mk IV Armoured Cars. One of my friends owns a Mk IV that served with the Canadian Forces at D-Day, still has the 37mm main gun and .303 coaxial machine gun.
I own a Humber “Pig” Mk II that started life as a Humber GS1611 series radio truck for the British Army in 1953. In 1954, it was converted to an FV1611 type armoured personnel carrier FFW (Fitted For Wireless) and served as a “battle taxi” in Germany with the BAOR (British Army of the Occupation of the Rhine), in service from 1954 to 1969.
Then, made obsolete as the tracked APCs (FV432 series) came out, my Pig (12BK61) went to storage as the “troubles” in Northern Ireland were flaring up, and the Pigs there worked well in urban settings as they had a 5 speed manual transmission, and normal steering wheel — a simple (but really heavy) truck. So, in 1972, my Pig went for re-fitting and up-armouring (taking it from 10,000 lbs to 14,000) and being fitted with an experimental anti-riot chemical discharger system.
Pigs were the workhorses of Northern Ireland. Their 4x4 system was useless off-road as they were too heavy and “wallowed like a pig.”
After the war, a Hillman-based 2-litre four-cylinder model was installed in the Humber Hawk model; in 1953, Super Snipes and Pullmans received overhead valve engines, and the Hawk a year later, in 1954. The Super Snipe was briefly discontinued, only to be re-launched in 1959, thanks to customer demand.
In 1950, a Super Snipe driven by Maurice Gatsonides (of GATSO camera fame) and the Baron van Zuylen de Nyvelt took second place in the Monte Carlo Rally, even though "Gatso" had chosen the least sporting car he could think of. In 1952, a Snipe was driven from London to Cape Town in a record 13 days and 9 hours.
Following the Chrysler acquisition of Rootes in 1964, the Humber range was expanded to include the SuperMinx-based Audax Sceptre. According to Gary Martin, Humber put the company’s 318 V8 into Super Snipe and Imperial models. Lord Rootes and the president of Chrysler both had vehicles fitted this way, according to Gary.
While the Chrysler 180 / 2L was planned to be sold as a Humber in 1967, this did not happen. In 1966, the Arrow-based Sceptre model was launched, and this remained in production until 1976, when it fell victim to Chrysler’s consolidation of Rootes’ many brands, an attempt to turn losses into profits. With the loss of the Sceptre came the death of the Humber marque.
Humbers of North America
Humbers were sold, in small numbers, in the United States, from 1946 to 1967. A 1961 brochure noted over 900 dealerships in North America, with corporate locations in New York, California, Québec, Toronto, and Vancouver. Sales began in 1946 with the Humber Hawk, a renamed Hillman Fourteen from before the war, powered by a 56-horsepower 2-liter four-cylinder; the Snipe, a 65-hp six-cylinder version of the Hawk; and the Super Snipe, a 100-hp six-cylinder version of the Hawk. A long-wheelbase limousine version of the Super Snipe was sold as the Pullman. The series was updated in 1949, with a wider body, new coil spring front suspension, and major cosmetic upgrades; the engines remained, but a four speed manual transmission was used. During these years, sales were in the mere hundreds (at best). Prices were fairly high, running from around $1,950 up.
For 1955, Humber Hawk gained an overhead valve four, with 70 horsepower, and an overdrive was made available. The Pullman (at one point accompanied by an Imperial model) was now gone. Snipe and Super Snipe disappeared at the end of 1956. A major restyling took place for 1958. 1959 saw the re-appearance of Super Snipe, using the same body as Hawk once more, with a 162 cid overhead valve engine. Sales appear to have remained in the hundreds for this very expensive car, whose main selling points were its interior and ride; indeed, as far as we can tell from fagmentary records, American sales never hit the thousands.
For 1961, Hawk gained numerous standard features that were already included in many less expensive cars — oil pressure gauge, ammeter, heater, and windshield washers. Super Snipe gained quad headlights — the first British car to get them — and optional air conditioning; the engine underwent internal changes for durability but retained the same output. Super Snipe started at $4,000 — a high price for 1960, but then, it was a very well appointed car.
From then until the end, the main change, other than frequent restylings, was the revival of the Imperial, a name that had been used by Chrysler for decades; the Humber Imperial was a top end car, custom made, with a Super Snipe basic body. Primary features included Connolly leather, Wilton carpeting, upgraded rear shocks, rear audio and lighting, and separate heater/defroster for the rear. Imperial started at $5,300 (less than the Super Snipe wagon but $500 more than Super Snipe) and weighed 3,571 lb. Overall, Humber built around 2,300 Imperials from 1965 to 1967; most likely, only a few ended up in North America.
Snipe and Super Snipe (based on Hawk body, with six cylinder engines)
Snipe / Super Snipe I 1945-1948, revisions of pre-war Humbers with an elegant appearance.
Super Snipe II/III (1948-52), restyled, bigger, heavier, and more impressive, using a bigger six
Super Snipe IV (1952-57), Ray Loewy styling; long wheelbase version of 1948 Hawk.
Super Snipe Series I-V, Imperial (1957-67), six-cylinder versions of the Hawk.
Hawk
Hawk I/II (1945-48), based heavily on a prewar Hillman; quite an elegant looker.
Hawk III-VI (1948-57), with Ray Loewy styling; VI had an overhead valve engine.
Hawk Series I-IV (1957-67), an all new car with unit-body construction; IV was a facelift witih a six-light glasshouse.
Pullman and Scepter
Pullman I (1945-48), a limousine-type long-wheelbase Super Snipe with restyling.
Pullman II, III, IV (1948-54), similar to the Pullman I but restyled; version IV had an overhead valve engine and synchronized gearbox, while an Imperial version had seven seats.
Sceptre I and II (1963-67; pictured), a badge-engineered Audax originally to be sold as a Sunbeam
Scepter III (1968-76), the final car to wear the Humber badge, but essentially just a Hillman Arrow with a sumptuous interior filled with real wood, leather, and goodies.
| Humber |
What kind of bird is a Lammergeyer? | Humber cars made since 1900.
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Who composed the opera “The Silken Ladder”? | Listen to Overture to "The Silken Ladder" by Gioachino Rossini - Listening Library - The Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra
Composed 1812
Library of Congress
Gioachino Rossini was the greatest opera composer of his generation. From his first farsa comica written at age 18 to his crowning work for the stage, William Tell, he dashed off an astounding 39 operas in 19 years. Then, at the height of his fame and creative powers, Rossini withdrew almost entirely from composing, never writing another opera in his remaining 40 years.
La scala di seta was Rossini’s sixth opera, a sure-handed work from a composer just 20 years old. It was his third commission from Venice’s Teatro San Moisè — the venue that had launched his operatic career in 1810 — and one of a series of early comic farces. Venice loved this type of light opera, which generally played out in a single act and featured a small cast. Typically, the action would center on a pair of lovers with various supporting comic roles, requiring performers as adept at comedic improvisation as singing. Rossini’s clear and exuberant music suited the style perfectly.
The title prop of La scala di seta (The Silken Ladder) is the means by which the protagonist, Dorvil, maintains a secret affair with Giulia, climbing up through her bedroom window each night. The opera begins in the morning, with Dorvil blocked from his usual means of egress by the appearance of Giulia’s cousin and servant. The overture that prepares this scene begins with a lively flourish, and then quickly settles into a lyrical introduction led by the oboe. The violins re-enter with scurrying material, launching an energetic perpetual-motion theme.
The second thematic group especially showcases Rossini’s musical wit. The flute and clarinet begin a lovely duet that stumbles into a hiccuping descent. This is answered in turn by finger-wagging commentary from the oboes, and finally closes with a round of chuckles from the clarinets, echoed by the oboes and flute. Incredibly, the opera’s entire plot seems to have been summarized in a few seconds of music: a romantic ascent, a faltering exit, an exchange of reproaches, and, ultimately, a chorus of laughter.
Aaron Grad ©2010
Rossini composed the opera La scala di seta in 1812. Its overture is scored for flute (doubling on piccolo); two each of oboes, clarinets and horns; bassoon; and strings.
| Gioachino Rossini |
Which Shakespeare play is set in Navarre? | Program Notes for July 13th, 2011 | Bellingham Festival of Music
Program Notes for July 13th, 2011
Program Notes By Ed Rutschman
Overture to La scala di seta(“The Silken Ladder,” 1812)
Gioachino Rossini (b. Pesaro, Italy, 1792; d. Paris, France, 1868)
In the early nineteenth century, Rossini ruled both the comic and the serious hemispheres of the world of Italian opera. Early on, he dazzled audiences with his mastery of the conventions of opera, juggling the sometimes-conflicting elements of storytelling, characterization, and musical cohesion. He served the needs of superstar singers and used the orchestra as his accomplice in supporting these operatic conventions.
Rossini got an early start. He composed his first opera at the age of eighteen and worked prolifically until he retired abruptly from the operatic arena at the age of thirty-six. La scala di seta was his sixth opera, one of five the composer premiered in 1812, the year in which he celebrated his twentieth birthday. (It always amused him that he could celebrate on the proper date, February 29, only every four years.) Early on, audiences and critics noted the freshness that he injected into his musical portrayal of dramatic plots. Indeed, the French novelist and essayist Stendhal, who wrote a biography of Rossini, went so far as to claim that Rossini’s early works were his best. Stendhal took his art seriously. He later described a syndrome, which now carries his name, involving stressed physical reactions when viewing a heavy dose of artistic masterworks.
Rossini identified his La scala di seta with the label, farsa comica. The “silken ladder” of the title is a crucial plot device in this comic farce. It allows young Giulia and Dorvil, who are secretly married, to meet every night. Giulia’s father, who does not know of the marriage, wants her to marry Blansac. If Giulia could succeed as a matchmaker by pairing Blansac with Lucilla, all might be well. Things go wrong before they get right, but eventually the silken ladder conveys two men (Dorvil and Blansac) to meet two women (Giulia and Lucilla). Giulia’s father forgives his daughter’s scheming and blesses the two couples.
The overture to the opera is itself a masterpiece of comic timing: When the first violins try to announce the beginning of the comedy, the full orchestra suddenly jumps in, but only for one note. A change of mood reveals a tender scene, perhaps between Giulia and Dorvil. Another quick scene change reveals a fast, agile melody that suggests the “stage business” of farce, and this mood prevails throughout the rest of the overture. It begins in the violins, grinds to a halt, and gets a fresh start with the solo oboe, all in passages that showcase virtuoso playing.
Before long, Rossini introduces his trademark “Rossini crescendo,” in which the entire orchestra starts softly, gets gradually louder while repeating short rhythmic patterns, and eventually erupts with a volcano of activity. At the end of the overture there is a second eruption, longer and perfectly timed for comedy. If the first crescendo was the “straight line,” the second is the punch line.
Serenade for Tenor, Horn and Strings, op. 31 (1943)
Benjamin Britten (b. Lowestoft, 1913; d. Aldeburgh, 1976)
Britten frequently composed songs and operatic roles for his life partner, tenor Peter Pears. The Serenade for Tenor, Horn and Strings, written for Pears and the legendary horn player, Dennis Brain, is particularly brilliant.An introductory Prologue, for horn alone, and an offstage Epilogue (the same music, used twice) frame six poems drawn from literature of the fifteenth through nineteenth centuries. The poets speak of twilight, the moon, sleep, perils of the night, and other subjects, under the umbrella of the title, Serenade.
Each movement is a memorable vignette. As the afternoon shadows lengthen in the setting of Cotton’s Pastoral, we observe how “a very little, little flock / Shades thrice the ground that it would stock.” In Tennyson’s Nocturne, we can hear “the horns of Elfland faintly blowing.” Blake’s Elegy and the anonymous Dirge are both frightening in their intensity, their moods finally dispelled by the hunting music of Ben Jonson’s Hymn to the “Goddess excellently bright.” After the magnificent setting of Keats’ Sonnet, the horn, as Peter Pears once said, “winds the Serenade to stillness.”
Piano Concerto #1 in E♭ Major (1856)
Franz Liszt (b. Raiding, 1811; d. Bayreuth, 1886)
At the age of eight Franz Liszt played for Carl Czerny, who had been Beethoven’s protégé. Liszt had been playing the piano for only two years, but he already knew a substantial number of pieces. Czerny found the young Liszt’s playing to be undisciplined and confused, but he also recognized the astonishing talent of a “natural.” In his autobiography he recalled that it seemed as if Nature had “created a pianist.” Liszt studied with Czerny for fourteen months and never again took piano lessons. By the age of 15 he had composed the first version of his Transcendental Etudes. In 1838, when Schumann reviewed a revised version, he believed that perhaps a dozen pianists, at most, would be able to play them. Inspired by the feats of the violin virtuoso, Paganini, Liszt developed new pianistic techniques for playing powerful scales and octaves, and he gave the illusion of using three hands to play some passages. There were other innovations as well: Liszt gave recitals from memory, played with his profile on view to the audience, and composed music that required a newer, stronger instrument to make its full effect. Liszt’s biographer Alan Walker has called him “the first modern pianist.”
A sea-change in his career occurred in 1848, when he moved to Weimar to become the Director of Music at the court of the Grand Duke. Perhaps surprisingly, it was only after Liszt had discontinued his touring career and settled down in Weimar that he completed his Piano Concerto #1, a work that is now an important staple in the touring pianist’s repertoire. When Liszt premiered this concerto in 1855 (revised in 1856 and published in 1857), he was at the height of his pianistic powers.
The four-movement concerto shares thematic material among its movements, often by transforming a theme so that its character becomes quite different. For instance, the tender, lyrical theme that begins the second movement returns as a march in the final movement. At the beginning of the concerto, the piano launches into action immediately, and there is rarely a break for the soloist before the first movement ends with quiet brilliance. The remaining movements connect to each other without pause, but they are clearly distinguished in mood: a slow movement of great expressiveness, a fast, skittish third movement, and a finale that is labeled marziale (“march-like”). The third movement begins with a soft, delicate part for the triangle, and Liszt carefully specified in the score that the instrument must be played with precision and resonance, not “clumsily.” The critic Eduard Hanslick used his review of an 1857 performance in Vienna to fire a shot in a much larger war between the followers of Brahms and the devotees of Liszt and Wagner: the derogatory nickname, “Triangle Concerto”, stuck. At the very first performance of the concerto, in Weimar, Liszt was the soloist and Berlioz the conductor.
Serenade #2 in A Major, op. 16 (1858-59, revised 1875)
Johannes Brahms (b. Hamburg, 1833; d. Vienna, 1897)
Brahms completed his first orchestral works (two serenades and Piano Concerto #1) in the years 1858-59, when he held an annual, three-month appointment as music director at the small court of the Prince of Lippe in Detmold, near Hannover in present-day Germany. It was only later that he turned to the symphony, the orchestral form (along with the concerto) for which he is best known.
In fact, the composer administered his works for orchestra in two doses. As a young composer well aware of the symphonic shadow of Beethoven, Brahms hesitated for a long while before completing a symphony. His first published orchestral works were the two serenades and concerto already noted, all of which appeared in print in the early 1860s. Stung by the poor reception of the concerto, he waited more than a decade to compose his Variations on a Theme of Haydn and to revise the Serenade #2, both of which appeared in print in the mid-1870s, as preparation for the giant step—as he saw it—of composing symphonies. The Serenade #2, in its 1859 form and the 1875 revision, is unique in belonging to both stages.
As a genre, the serenade had a centuries-old track record, much longer than the symphony. Traditionally, “serenade” connoted a friendly musical greeting, either respectful or amorous, and an out-of-doors locale. It could be vocal or instrumental. It denoted a time of day, as in the Italian greeting buona sera (“good evening” but also “good afternoon”), and it further implied a pleasant, gentle atmosphere. The instrumental serenade of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries shared some elements with the symphony: a series of separate movements that include dances, slow movements, formal movements constructed in sonata form, and a rousing finale. The symphony usually had only one movement of each type; a serenade might have more movements but a lighter general tone. Mozart’s Haffner Serenade, for instance, has eight movements and lasts nearly an hour. His Symphony #41, ‘Jupiter’, consists of half the number of movements and lasts half as long.
Brahms placed his five-movement Serenade #2 squarely within these traditions, while putting his own stamp on the genre. On his title page, Brahms called specifically for a “small” orchestra (really a Beethoven-sized orchestra of woodwinds in pairs and a pair of horns), but there are no trumpets or timpani and, unusually, no violins. The serenade’s five movements include both the minuet, a staple of the eighteenth-century symphony and a scherzo, a spin-off of the minuet that was a regular feature of the nineteenth-century symphony. The emotional center of the Serenade is the middle movement, a slow movement fueled by the repetition and development of the lilting melodic pattern stated by the strings. In the easy-going final movement, Brahms added the piccolo to his small orchestra.
Ed Rutschman’s musicological articles have been published in the U.S. and Europe, and his compositions have been performed on four continents. A member of the Music Department faculty at Western Washington University, he is a recipient of the Bellingham Mayor’s Arts Award and of WWU’s Excellence in Teaching Award. He holds academic degrees in musicology, composition and piano performance.
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Which stretch of water is known in Welsh as Llyn Tegid? | Llyn Tegid - Bala, N Wales | Bala Lake, known in Welsh as 'L… | Flickr
Ben By: Ben
Llyn Tegid - Bala, N Wales
Bala Lake, known in Welsh as 'Llyn Tegid' meaning Lake of Serenity, was formed by the action of glaciers. It is the largest body of water in Wales, being four miles long and a mile wide.
Local legend states that the lake is inhabited by a monster which is known as 'Teggie' and it is claimed that on moonlit nights, towers and buildings can be seen under the waters of Bala Lake. Legend states these buildings to be the palace of King Tegid, husband of Ceridwen, the mother of the famous Welsh bard Taliesin (c. 534 - c. 599), the earliest poet of the Welsh language and often referred to as Taliesin Ben Beirdd (Taliesin, Chief of Bards) who was born in the area.
Bala Lake is a protected wildlife site and its waters contain abundant pike, European perch, trout, eel and a rare and protected whitefish called the Gwyniad, a relic of the last Ice Age. The Gwyniad spends most of its time in the deeper, colder parts of the lake and only swim into the shallower water at night to spawn, the fish is no longer found anywhere else in Britain. The lake also contains the very rare mollusc Myxas glutinosa - the Glutinous snail.
Done
| Bala Lake |
Which footballer scored a late goal in this season’s playoff final to take QPR back into the Premier League? | Welcome to Bala
Welcome to Bala
Welcome
Bala is located at the head of Llyn Tegid, its famous lake. It is an ideal location for touring both North and Mid Wales. The town has a range of interesting shops, inns, restaurants and a historical Town Walk. Bala is a historic market town and resides within the boundaries of Snowdonia National Park (designated an area of outstanding natural beauty). It is also within a one hour drive of the coastal regions and attractions. The area is famous for water-sport activities which centre around the lake and nearby rivers. Visiting the lake and seeing the amazing range of water craft is well worth the effort. Fishing is plentiful as are walking, cycling and other activities. A miniature steam railway is well worth the ride and accommodation offers value for money all year round.
Street Layout
The street layout, set up by Roger de Mortimer from Chirk Castle in the 14th Century (See history below), is marked out in square courts. Stryt Fawr, the main street, is wide and has shops along its length - it is where the original markets were held.
Two side lanes, Arenig Street and Plase Street were attached to the old Tomen. This being 'Tomen y Bala' a typical large Norman castle mound or "motte" which was located at one end of the town and is now accessible as a public garden. This is worth visiting as from the summit you can see wonderful views of Llyn Tegid (Lake Bala) and the mountains beyond .
Bala Lake
© Crown copyright (2013) Visit Wales
The Lake
The 'lake of the five parishes' Llyn Tegid is over four miles long and a mile wide at its widest and is the largest natural lake in Wales. It is home to a unique fish called the Gwyniad, considered to be a form of Herring and apparently a relic of the ice-age. Arrangements have been made to ensure its survival should there be a crisis in Llyn Tegid incidentally!
The lake's name comes from 'Tegid Foel' a character in the 'Mabinogi', a series of Welsh stories and legends from around the 6th Century in King Arthur's time.
History
Bala, a town steeped in history, was founded by Royal Charter around 1310 by Roger de Mortimer in order to tame the rebellious locals in the Penllyn District - Penllyn means 'top' or 'head' of the lake. It is interesting to note how these rebellious 'Quakers' came to be in the area. It was during Cromwell's interregnum (an interval when normal Government is suspended) that a Puritan priest from Wrexham named Morgan Llwyd, (Better know as 'Morgan Llwyd o Wynedd') became famous as author of prose and verse in both Welsh and English. He lived in Cynfal Fawr near Ffestiniog and during his journeys between his home and Wrexham would travel through Penllyn. He began preaching at a place known as Bodwenni (a large house between Bala and Llandderfel) and built up . a following in Penllyn.
His sermons stressed the importance of listening to the " light within ", " conscience " and the " canals God had lighted in men's souls etc". His death at the at the early age of 40 in 1659 was untimely and his congregation at Bodwenni found the teaching of the Quakers, with their faith in the " inner light " to be the natural faith to turn to after his death. Morgan Llwyd o Wynedd had a number of disciples and one 'John ap John', a native of Penycae near Rhiwabon (Ruabon) near Wrexham became the apostle of the Quakers in Wales. He was often found succouring the Quakers in Penllyn. This history moves on to link with early American history when several of these oppressed Quakers left the area of Bala & Penllyn to make a new life in America.
A local story goes that in 1804 a lady by the name of Mary Jones walked bare foot from Llanfihangel-y-Pennant to Bala to collect a Bible - a journey of over 50 miles there and back. A famous local, Thomas Charles, had none left and took pity on Mary and gave her his own. Thomas Charles had helped to start the 'British and Foreign Bible Society' > Indeed, his grandson, David Charles, founded Coleg Y Bala in 1837. Another local, Michael D Jones, in 1865 sent out groups of Welsh people to Patagonia in South America where they eventually settled the area and to this day it retains its Welsh culture, connections and , language.
It is quite fascinating to consider this small town in Wales has influenced life in such far off places.
Local Industry
Many people in Bala made their living as 'knitters'. Nearly everyone knitted socks and gained their income by selling them in the popular market. Indeed their 'knitters market' helped make the name of Bala become well known further afield.
Today, industry is more varied with a decline in traditional farming and craftwork being replaced with more modern occupations such as tourism.
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On which Mediterranean island are the Nebrodi mountains? | The Nebrodi Mountains – home to some of the finest forests in all of Sicily | Visititaly.info
The Nebrodi Mountains – home to some of the finest forests in all of Sicily
Julius Szabo Mountains and Volcanoes
The Nebrodi Mountains were named after the now extinct native deer of Sicily. The tallest peak in the Nebrodi Mountains is that of Mount Soro which rises to a height of 1,817 meters above the sea.
The mountains are the home to some of the finest forests in all of Sicily and as such have grown into a popular retreat over the years. The vast majority of the area which surrounds the mountains foot hills is now a protected natural reserve.
Monte Soro and forest around, Nebrodi Mountains, Sicily, Italy by Ldi
Unlike the other mountainous regions of Sicily, the oldest towns within the Nebrodi were founded during the Byzantine, Greek and Roman periods. You will find several monasteries dating back to the Byzantine period located throughout the Nebrodi Mountains. Because of the strength of the Eastern Orthodox Church in the area throughout the 13th century, a number of old churches can also be found in many of the Nebrodi towns and villages.
No mountain range in Sicily has a more extensive range of forests as the Nebrodi Mountains has. While there are some scattered wooded areas that can be found along the foot hills of Mount Etna as well as the Madonie Mountains, the rich diversity of plant and animal life in the Nebrodi is what sets the region apart.
There are countless wild cats that live in the mountains. You will even see traces of hares, foxes and weasels. It is not uncommon to find porcupine quills along the trails that lead through the Nebrodi Mountains. Countless birds of prey can be seen overhead throughout the day and owls can be heard abundantly throughout the evening hours.
Catafurco waterfall, Nebrodi Mountains, Sicily, Italy by tato grasso
There are several lakes that can be found in the Nebrodi region. Several of these lakes are manmade like Lake Maulazzo and Ancipa Lake. However, Trearie Lake is a naturally formed lake that can be found in the area. One of the more popular attractions in the area is the Catafurco Falls which can be seen cascading down the sides of the Nebrodi Mountains.
The Crasto Rocks area is also a very popular location within the Nebrodi Mountains. Located close to the ancient towns of Alcara Li Fusi and San Marco d’Alunzio, the Crasto Rocks are a series of small canyons that were formed by thousands of years of erosion. Both the canyons and the ancient Byzantine-Norman are excellent places to visit.
One simply cannot visit the island of Sicily without also spending at least one day in the Nebrodi Mountains. Most people who make their way to the Mediterranean Island are under the assumption that the only places to visit on the island are the many fine beaches. However, experiencing the beautiful forests of the Nebrodi should be on everyone’s itinerary.
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Electrum is an alloy chiefly consisting of gold and which other metal? | Nebrodi Park Sicily - Nebrodi National Park Italy - Nebrodi Park itineraries - Lake Biviere Nebrodi Park
Nebrodi Park Sicily - Nebrodi National Park Italy - Nebrodi Park itineraries - Lake Biviere Nebrodi Park
Guide of Saracens Coast Itineraries The Nebrodi Regional Park, Italy
TO SLEEP
Itineraries
Saracens Coast The Nebrodi Regional Park, Italy
The Nebrodi Mountains are most extensive park of Sicily, spanning in 85.000 hectares of protected land which extend along the Homonym count located between the Tirreno Sea and the start of the Etna.
The Nebrodi is an island within an island, the scenery changes radically in respect to the typical Sicilian landscape. These soft slopes (maximum height of 1857 meters) are covered by thick vegetation made of tall trees due to higher precipitation levels than the rest of Sicily.
Up to 800 meters, the landscape is characterized by the typical green Mediterranean scenery in which the spurge, myrtle, lentisk, dryer's greenweed, cork and holm oaks predominate. Above the 800 meters and up to 1200-1400 meters one enters the land of oak trees. There are many species present, like the Durmast Oak and European Turkey Oak. Above 1200 meters the splendid beech trees cover the entire Nebrodi crest in an environment of great naturalistic value.
How to get there: those arriving from the Tirrenean Sea Coast may take the trunk road 116 (Cape Orlando - Randazzo) or even trunk road 289 (S. Agata Militello - Bronte) or the numerous small roads that go towards Alcara Li Fusi Longi or Tortorici.
Information:
Visitors center in Alcara Li Fusi - Ph. (+39) 0941.793904
Visitors center in Bronte, Castello Nelson - Ph. (+39) 095.690018
Visitors center in Cesarò - Ph. (+39) 095.7732061
Visitors center in St. Agata Militello – Ph. (+39) 0941.705934
The Nebrodi Park offers many hiking options. The most famous is the itinerary along the dorsal ridge of the Nebrodi which covers the protected area from east to west along 70 kilometers.
A few points of interest:
Monte Soro It's the highest peak of the Nebrodi. The peak of the luscious green Mount Soro offers an unforgettable vast panorama of the Aeolian Island and the Tirrenica coast. Towards the south-east is the overpowering silhouette of the Aetna, and towards the west is the Madonie mountain chain.
Lake Biviere Immersed between the beech tree woods, Lake Biviere makes up the most valued humid zone of Sicily, also due to its unique vegetation and animal habitat. During the summer months, the lake water turns red due to micro algae blooms.
Mangalaviti Woods Is a place of great hypnotic beauty. In the lower altitude one can find ancient wide planes, whereas at high altitudes one can find overpowering beech tree mixed with maples, ash trees, holly, wild apple trees and evergreen yew trees. The woods are reachable from Langi and from Galati Mamertino, thereby offering fascinating hiking options.
Nebrodi Deli traditions
In the Nebrodi villages, the ancient pastoral tradition continues to this day through the production of high quality dairy thanks to the region's rich aromatic pastures. In this region, typical cheese is produced in maintaining an ancient production technique that fortunately continues despite modern production methods. The cheese varieties vary: the curd cheese, ewe cheese, buttermilk curd and provola cheese.
Another delicious typical Nebrodi product are the cold cuts: salami and "capocollo". Which are obtained from varying kinds of pork cuts, from the valuable black swine breed Nero dei Nebrodi.
Author:Nozio
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If the eight Royal Parks in London are arranged alphabetically which comes last? | 100 Things in London - lastminute.com
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100 Things in London
Click on the images below to read intriguing stories and little known facts about London's best bits, and where to find them.
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Tower Bridge
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In 1952, Albert Gunter was driving the number 78 bus across Tower Bridge when the bascules started to rise. He accelerated and propelled the bus across the widening gap, landing upright on the other side. Far from getting into trouble for it, Albert actually kept his job and was even given a bonus for his efforts.
Tower Hill
Photo: Damien Everett via Flickr Creative Commons
The Monument
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Sir Christopher Wren's Monument to the Great Fire of 1666 is the tallest isolated stone column in the world. It was completed in 1677 and stands 202 ft high - which is also the same distance from the spot in Pudding Lane where the Great Fire is said to have started.
Monument
Courtauld Gallery
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Tucked inside Somerset House is the Courtauld Gallery, where you'll find one of the world's greatest collections of Impressionist art. Famous works on show include Manet's Bar at the Folies-Bergere (pictured), and Degas' Two Dancers.
Temple
Wilton's Hall
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Wilton's is the world's oldest surviving Grand Music Hall. The front of house rooms, including the bar (originally a pub) originate from as early as the 1740s. In its heyday as a music hall, sailors and their ladies were invited upstairs, gentleman and their wives downstairs. There was a bouncer on the main staircase who made sure the goings on upstairs didn't disturb the patrons downstairs.
Aldgate East, Tower Hill
The Watts Memorial in Postman's Park
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The idea for Postman's Park's 'memorial to heroism in everyday life' was first suggested in a letter to the Times newspaper in 1887 by Victorian artist George Frederick Watts, as a way to celebrate Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee. Today, there are plaques for 62 individuals who died trying to save another person. The earliest case is Sarah Smith in 1863, and the latest is Leigh Pitt in 2007.
St Paul's
Credit: The Everyday Heroes of Postman's Park App
St Paul's Cathedral
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Lying among the splendour, beauty, and around 6 million pieces of mosaic inside St Paul's Cathedral, is the very plain grave of Sir Christopher Wren. On the wall at the head of his tomb is a Latin inscription, arranged by his son. Wren himself had not wanted a memorial at all, so it reads: 'Beneath lies buried the founder of this church and city, Christopher Wren, who lived for more than 90 years, not for himself but for the public good. Reader, if you seek his monument, look around you'.
St Paul's
The Abbey Road Crossing
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The zebra crossing outside Abbey Road Studios is filmed by a webcam, which documents a never ending stream of tourists all attempting to recreate the famous Beatles album cover.
St John's Wood, Maida Vale
Photo: Christiaan Triebert via Flickr creative commons
Hatton Garden
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The perimeter of Hatton Garden, London's diamond and jewellery quarter, marks the ancient boundary of a medieval estate. In the oldest printed map of the city, known as the Agas map or Civitas Londinum (surveyed between 1570 and 1605), the walled garden and buildings of the estate can be clearly seen, along with the now submerged River Fleet.
Farringdon, Chancery Lane
Credit: Rachel Lichtenstein, Agas map C.1570
The Police Box in Trafalgar Square
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The south east corner of Trafalgar Square is home to what used to be the smallest police station in London. Until the 1960s, police inside kept an eye on any trouble in the square from here, with a direct telephone link to Scotland Yard in case reinforcements were needed.
Charing Cross
Photo: Leonard Bentley via Flickr Creative Commons
Fortnum and Mason
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Fortnum's in Piccadilly invented the 'scotch' egg, which was said to have been available by 1756. Theatrical historian Walter McQueen Pope wrote in his book, Goodbye Piccadilly, that travellers could enjoy "hardboiled eggs in forcemeat (called Scottish eggs) from Fortnum & Mason".
Green Park, Piccadilly Circus
Photo: Tony Hisgett via Wikimedia Commons
Moira at the Tower of London
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In 2007, Moira Cameron became the first female Yeoman Warder at the Tower of London in over 500 years of the institution's history. Her full title is "Yeoman Warder of Her Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress the Tower of London, and Members of the Sovereign's Body Guard of the Yeoman Guard in the Extraordinary".
Tower Hill
Paul the London cabbie
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London cabbies nearly always have a story to tell. Paul was once hailed down by a woman in Ropemaker Street. He immediately fell for her and by the end of the journey had asked her out. Thirteen years later, she has given Paul the three things in his life that are more important to him than Arsenal, golf and sport: his children.
All stations
St. Ermins Hotel
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Legendary spies, including members of the infamous Cambridge Five, were regulars at St. Ermins hotel around the time of World War II. Rumour also has it that a secret tunnel runs underneath the grand staircase in the lobby directly to the Houses of Westminster. It could be part of the mysterious Q Whitehall network running below London's major government buildings.
St James's Park
The Royal Horseguards Hotel
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Built in 1884 on the banks of the Thames, the Royal Horseguards' entire 8th floor once served as headquarters for the British secret services during World War I. Secret passageways, sliding bookshelves and other classic spy tropes are believed to have been installed here. The marble staircase in the adjoining One Whitehall Place is also the largest freestanding staircase in Europe, and was almost destroyed in WW2.
Embankment, Charing Cross
Credit: The Royal Horseguards Hotel
Athenaeum Hotel
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The Athenaeum Hotel has a vertical garden on its outside wall. It was created by French botanist Patrick Blanc, who spent decades examining the way that wild plants naturally grow on vertical rock faces and trees, and perfected a technique that enables urban plants to grow vertically without the need for soil.
Hyde Park Corner, Green Park
Courtesy of Athenaeum Hotel
Kyoto Garden, Holland Park
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At the Kyoto Garden in Holland Park, a staggered bridge runs across the waterfall and you can walk across it, peering into the froth to spot enormous koi carp lurking in the pools. The bridge follows a Japanese design rule - evil thoughts travel in straight lines. So, a staggered bridge doesn't let them pass from one side of the garden to the other.
Holland Park
Credit: Words and image by The Accidental Londoner
The Shard
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Altogether, the Shard has 11,000 glass panels, and the area of the façade is equivalent to eight football pitches. Twice a week, a team of six window cleaners abseil down the building and give the structure a full wash and polish.
London Bridge
Photo: Chris Eason via Flickr Creative Commons
Freemason's Hall
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Freemasons' Hall has been the centre of English freemasonry for 230 years. It's the headquarters of the United Grand Lodge of England, the oldest Grand Lodge in the world, and also the meeting place for over 1000 Masonic lodges. The building, which is listed Grade II*, was completed in 1933. The mosaic cornice pictured is 15 feet high and no piece of mosaic is more than one inch square.
Holborn
Chinatown
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Chinatown might be home to over 100 restaurants, but it has a musical claim to fame too. A basement in Gerrard Street was also the location of the first rehearsal of Led Zeppelin in August 1968, where they played "Train Kept A-Rollin".
Leicester Square, Piccadilly Circus
Shaftesbury Theatre
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The Shaftesbury Theatre was the venue for Fred Astaire's UK debut, but its most successful show was Hair, which ran for almost 2000 performances from 1968 to 1973 (a record for the time). In the mid-1990s it even played host to The Royal Opera while their Covent Garden base was under refurbishment.
Tottenham Court Road
Photo: Garry Knight via Flickr Creative Commons
Lyceum Theatre
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Between 1794 and 1809, the Lyceum's building was used as a circus, a chapel, a concert room, and the first London exhibition of waxworks displayed by Madame Tussaud in 1802.
Charing Cross, Temple, Embankment
Photo: The Walt Disney Company
The Palace Theatre
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Despite running shows since the 1880s, the Place Theatre hasn't only been used for operas and musicals. In 1977 the theatre was used in Doctor Who and featured an evil villain performing magic and ventriloquism.
Leicester Square, Tottenham Court Road
The Blackfriar
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This Grade II* listed traditional British pub was built on a 13th century Dominican Priory, and has several features dedicated to its history. A statue of a laughing friar stands proudly above the main door. Inside, the walls are decorated in Art Nouveau style, with an abundance of monks.
Blackfriars, Mansion House
Kings Cross N1
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It's now one of the busiest areas of London, but up until the 18th Century, King's Cross was a rural area known for its health spas and country inns; a place that Londoners escaped to for a break from busy city life.
Kings Cross St Pancras
Photo: Andy Hawkins via Flickr Creative Commons
TFL lost property
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Unusual lost property on the Tube has included a stuffed puffer fish, false teeth, human skulls, breast implants and a lawnmower. In one year, over 27,000 phones can be handed in.
Baker Street
Southbank Book Market
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The Southbank Centre's Book Market under Waterloo Bridge is believed to be the only permanent outdoor second-hand and antique book market in southern England. It's open seven days a week, no matter the weather.
Waterloo
Town Hall Hotel
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This hotel has an unusual claim to TV fame. BBC's Silent Witness was regularly filmed here, and what is now the luxurious swimming pool once had a particularly bleak cameo: it was used as a morgue in the series.
Bethnal Green
Billingsgate Fish Market
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When it first started, Billingsgate was the largest fish market in the world and to this day it continues to be the UK's largest inland fish market. Famous writer George Orwell worked there during the 1930s, but it also has another literary link: the word 'Billingsgate' was used by writers as a byword for vulgar language.
Canary Wharf
Photo: My Authentic London via Flickr Creative Commons
Leadenhall Market
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During the 18th century 'Old Tom' was a celebrated character in Leadenhall. He was a gander who managed to escape his fate of being slaughtered along with 34,000 other geese. He became a great favourite in the market, even being fed at the local inns. After his death in 1835 at the age of 38, he lay in state in the market and was buried on site.
Bank, Monument
Handel and Hendrix on Brook Street
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Two of the most influential musicians in history actually ended up living in neighbouring houses, albeit hundreds of years apart. Composer George Frideric Handel lived at 25 Brook Street (now the Handel House Museum) from 1723 to 1759, while American guitar legend Jimi Hendrix lived in the flat next door (no.23) with his girlfriend Kathy Etchingham from 1968-69.
Bond Street, Oxford Circus
The World Clock at Piccadilly Circus
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There's a large linear world clock on the wall at Piccadilly Circus station, which was installed in the 1920s. A central strip rolls across the map at the same speed as the sun, so you can see what the time is in any country, at any time of day.
Piccadilly Circus
The British Library
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The British Library holds well over 150 million items, in most known languages, with three million new items being added every year. It's all housed on 625 km of shelves, which grows by 12 km every year. If you saw five items each day, it would take you over 80,000 years to see the whole collection.
Kings Cross St Pancras, Euston
Credit: British Library, St Pancras, London
The Beadles at the Burlington Arcade
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This is Mark Lord, Head Beadle at the Burlington Arcade in Mayfair. The Beadles are thought to be the world's smallest police force, and have guarded the Arcade since 1819. They enforce rules which prohibit the opening of umbrellas, riding bicycles and whistling. The only person who has been given permission to whistle in the Arcade is Sir Paul McCartney.
Piccadilly Circus, Green Park
Hackney Wick
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Hackney Wick is often said to have the highest density of artists in Europe. Some say there are as many as 1,000 artist spaces inside Victorian factory buildings overlooking the Olympic Park and the city's newest neighbourhoods.
Hackney Wick, Stratford
The Bank of England
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In 1836 the Bank of England's directors received an anonymous letter, claiming that the author could get into their vaults. Not believing a word of it, they nevertheless agreed to meet him there at midnight on a specified day. At 12 o'clock exactly, a board in the floor lifted up and a head appeared. It belonged to a man who worked in the sewers - he had realised that one of them ran directly under the Bank. They rewarded his honesty with £800 - the equivalent today of £70,000. Not bad - but still not as much as he could have got by stealing all the gold.
Bank, Mansion House, Monument
Photo: Martin Pettitt via Flickr Creative Commons
Jellied eels and pie at M.Manze
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Eating jellied eels or pie and mash is one of east London's oldest traditions - and M.Manze on Tower Bridge has been serving them up the longest. The shop opened in 1892, and it was awarded Blue Plaque status in 2006. But as the building itself is Grade II listed, the plaque can't actually be affixed to any part of it.
Borough
Phoenix Cinema
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The UK's oldest cinema was built in 1910, and opened as The East Finchley Picturedrome in May 1912. Now the Phoenix is London's oldest constantly running, single purpose cinema - although its own recent credits include being featured in the Scissor Sisters song 'I Don't Feel Like Dancin'.
East Finchely
The Walrus at the Horniman Museum
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The Horniman's walrus - famously overstuffed by his Victorian taxidermist and weighing around a ton - was probably a young male. It was bought by museum founder Frederick Horniman in the early 1890's and had moved no more than 25 feet since the Horniman opened in 1901, prior to his trip to Turner Contemporary at Margate in 2013.
Forest Hill
Credit: Horniman Museum and Gardens
The Cutty Sark
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The Cutty Sark made her name as the fastest ship of her era, completing the voyage from Sydney to London in the record time of just 73 days under the command of Captain Richard Woodget. She was able to carry 600,000kg of tea in a single journey - that's enough to make more than 200 million cups.
Greenwich
Credit: ©National Maritime Museum, Greenwich.
Royal Observatory
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At the Greenwich Royal Observatory, you can stand in both the eastern and western hemispheres simultaneously by placing your feet either side of the Prime Meridian - the centre of world time and space. The Royal Observatory is also the source of the Prime Meridian of the world, Longitude 0° 0' 0''. Every place on the Earth is measured in terms of its distance east or west from this line.
Greenwich
Credit: ©National Maritime Museum, Greenwich.
The Corinthia Hotel
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The scene at the end of the James Bond film Skyfall was filmed on the roof of the Corinthia Hotel. This brings the hotel's spy history full circle, as it was also a Ministry of Defence building for 70 years, and during the war, the building was used as the headquarters for MI9.
Embankment, Charing Cross
The Tulip Staircase at the Queen's House
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A ghost was once caught on camera going up this staircase at the Queen's House in Greenwich. On Sunday 19 June 1966, a retired couple on holiday from Canada took a photo standing at the foot of the staircase looking upward. When it was developed, a shrouded figure could be seen moving up the staircase, behind a second and possibly a third figure.
Greenwich
Credit: ©National Maritime Museum, Greenwich.
Duke's Hotel
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Alessandro Palazzi is the head barman at Duke's Hotel's bar, which is renowned for making the best Martinis in town. The Martinis here are so good, they were said to have inspired James Bond author and hotel regular Ian Fleming when he came to describing 007's favourite drink as being "shaken not stirred".
Green Park
Criterion Theatre
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The Grade II* listed Criterion Theatre, built in 1874, was the first completely subterranean theatre in London, with the auditorium being entirely below the level of the Piccadilly Circus.
Temple, Embankment, Charing Cross
Dennis Severs' House
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18 Folgate Street is the home of the late artist Dennis Severs, and walking around it is like being transported back to the 18th Century. On the wall is this "in memoriam" card for his beloved cat, Madge Whitechapel, who legend has it was a house warming gift to him from Her Majesty The Queen.
Shoreditch High Street, Old Street, Liverpool Street
Credit: David Milne at Dennis Severs' House
St John's Gate, Clerkenwell
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St John's Gate in Clerkenwell is a remarkable survivor of Henry VIII's Dissolution of the Monasteries in the 16th Century. For many years, it was the UK HQ of the knights of St John of Malta and is today a museum of that and the St John Ambulance.
Farringdon
Photo: Terence Chisholm via Wikimedia Commons
Allen Ginsberg at the Royal Albert Hall
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In 1965, the Royal Albert Hall hosted Allen Ginsberg's groundbreaking International Poetry Incarnation, an event where beatniks met the emerging hippie culture. It was organised and booked at the last moment, and saw ticket-holders given flowers as they entered, before 17 poets took to the world's most famous stage.
South Kensington
BT Tower
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Despite the BT Tower being one of most recognisable and conspicuous buildings in London, it was classed as an official secret until fairly recently. Taking or possessing photos of the BT Tower was technically an offence under the Official Secrets Act, and in line with its "secret" status, the 189 metre London landmark was also omitted from all Ordnance Survey maps until the mid-1990s.
Goodge Street, Great Portland Street, Regent's Park
Courtesy of BT Heritage and Archives
All Hallows by the Tower
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The oldest church in the city of London, All Hallows survived both the Blitz and the Great Fire of London, which Samuel Pepys watched from the bell tower.
Tower Hill
Guy the Gorilla at ZSL London Zoo
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Guy was one of London Zoo's best loved and remembered characters. He arrived on Guy Fawkes day in 1947; a small gorilla clutching a tin hot-water bottle. When sparrows entered his enclosure, he would scoop them up gently and peer at them before letting them go. There's now a statue in his honour.
Regent's Park, Great Portland Street
Photo: ZSL London Zoo
Otters at the London Wetlands Centre
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As well as birds, bats, frogs and water voles, the London Wetlands Centre in Barnes is also home to two Asian Short Clawed otters. They aren't wild (or native) to the centre, but they're here as an indication of a healthy wetland.
Hammersmith, Barnes
Camden Stables Market
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The Stables Market used to be a Victorian horse hospital, which treated horses that had been injured while pulling barges along the canal towpath. The horses and pit ponies that worked there were stabled in a network of tunnels, or catacombs, under this whole area.
Camden Town, Chalk Farm
Abney Park Cemetery
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Hackney has been home to reformers and radicals since at least the 1600s. Many of them are buried in Abney Park: an unconsecrated cemetery in Stoke Newington which is also a nature reserve of London-wide importance.
Dalston Kingsland
St George's Garden
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From a memorial obelisk to exposed gravestones, St George's Gardens is a merger of two formal burial grounds. It was also was once the hunting ground of the notorious body snatchers.
Russell Square, Kings Cross St Pancras
Mosaics at the National Gallery
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The National Gallery is famous for its Old Masters, but look closer and you'll see Boris Anrep's mosaics inside the Portico Entrance. Laid out between 1928 and 1933, one of the Russian-born artist's allegorical designs represents 'The Awakening of the Muses', and you can spot the figures of Greta Garbo, Virginia Woolf, Diana Mitford and more.
Charing Cross, Leicester Square
The Wallace Collection
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If you take the grand staircase at the Wallace Collection and find your way to the study, you'll find furniture once belonging to Queen Marie-Antoinette. Hiding in the corner and often missed, you'll see a copy of the actual bill of sale from the Petit Trianon.
Bond Street
The Curious Plaques of Bloomsbury
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Among the normal Blue Plaques in Bloomsbury is this rather curious example. On Old Gloucester Street, a sombre plaque ironically proclaims, 'On this site, Sept 5, 1782 Nothing Happened'. And on the Brunei Gallery, just off Russell Square, another panel actually apologises for the building being there at all.
Russell Square
Guildhall Art Gallery
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The remains of a 2000 year old Roman Amphitheatre were found under the Guildhall Art Gallery in 1988. A circle in the courtyard marks out the arena where wild animal fights, gladiatorial combats and executions would once have taken place. You can see what's left of the amphitheatre in the gallery's underground exhibition.
St Paul's, Moorgate
Sewing Machine Museum
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London has an entire museum devoted to sewing. The London Sewing Machine Museum in Tooting Bec is where volunteers will answer all the questions you never knew you had about Singer & Co. It's only open on the first Saturday of every month though, from 2pm-5pm.
Tooting Bec
Pudding Lane
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The Great Fire might have started in a bakery on Pudding Lane, but the street name itself has nothing to do with cake. It's so-called because Medieval butchers on Eastcheap used to send carts piled with offal - which back then was called 'pudding' - down this street, to rubbish barges on the River Thames.
Monument
Photo: Ben Sutherland via Flickr Creative Commons
Pearly Kings and Queens of London
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Every London Borough, including the City of London and the City of Westminster, has its own Pearly King and Queen. The tradition was started in 1875 by an orphan called Henry Croft, and now there are around 30 Pearly Families around London who dedicate their lives to raising money for various charities.
Covent Garden
Credit: Clive, Pearly King of Greenwich
Betty the Olympic Cauldron
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One of the stars of the London Olympic and Paralympic games was this giant cauldron, otherwise known as Betty. But according to its designer Thomas Heatherwick, it never worked fully until the actual opening ceremony. Betty has now retired to a new gallery at the Museum of London.
Barbican
Dinosaurs in Crystal Palace Park
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These life size Victorian models of dinosaurs at Crystal Palace Park predate Darwin's "Origin of Species" by six years. They were built by sculptor and fossil expert Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins and Richard Owen, the founder of the Natural History Museum. In 1855, Hawkins even held a dinner party in the mould of an Iguanodon, complete with waiters, to celebrate their arrival.
Crystal Palace, Penge West
The Normansfield Theatre
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The Langdon Down Museum of Learning Disability in Hampton Wick is home to a beautiful Victorian theatre, which was built to keep the patients and staff at the old Normansfield Hospital entertained. The museum also houses a collection of extraordinary ship models made by a Victorian patient, James Pullen, who became a celebrity as a result.
Photo: © Copyright Mark Percy via Creative Commons
Deptford Creek
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The name Deptford comes from its tidal creek - Deep Ford - and you can stroll along the riverbed at lowtide. The Creekside Centre provides the waders and tours, so you can get a completely different view of the area's ship and fishing history.
Greenwich, Deptford Bridge
Brompton Cemetery
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Highgate Cemetery might have Karl Marx in residence, but Brompton Cemetery is the final resting place of John Nevil Maskelyne, the man who invented the coin operated toilet door lock. Beatrix Potter also lived round the corner and named some of her famous characters from names on the gravestones here.
West Brompton, Earl's Court
Artwork at Edgware Road Station
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London has one of the world's most interesting electricity substations at Edgware Road on the Circle Line. The art work, called "Wrapper", was designed by Belgian born British artist Jacqueline Poncelet, and each pattern relates to a feature of the local area.
Edgware Road
The Natural History Museum
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The founder of London's Natural History Museum was also the first person to use the word "dinosaur". Richard Owen was a scientist who campaigned the government to build a 'cathedral to nature', where the natural history specimens that were being kept at the British Museum could be exhibited. Luckily for us he was successful, and it opened in 1881.
South Kensington
Photo: neiljs via Flickr Creative Commons
Geffrye Museum of the Home
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This photo is from the Geffrye Museum, which has an archive of over 4,500 images of people's homes, dating from the 1880s to the present day. They reveal some of the things people have got up to at home over the years, like dressing a cat in a bib and feeding it at the kitchen table.
Hoxton
Sir John Soane's Museum
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Sir John Soane left his museum of art and architecture to the public, as none of his family were architects and he was worried it would be stripped apart when he died. Inside is the famous Hogarth series of works, A Rakes Progress. However in one room you can see 118 paintings through a series of walls that open up to reveal more paintings.
Holborn
The Charterhouse
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Tucked away in Barbican is a former Carthusian Monastery, which was built on the site of a burial ground for Black Death plague victims in 1371. It has since been a school and hospital before reverting to being an almshouse. It's rumoured that Sir Thomas More, Henry VIII's Chancellor, spent time there. They even managed to put up Elizabeth I on her way to her coronation at Westminster Abbey.
Barbican
7 Hammersmith Terrace
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7 Hammersmith Terrace is the former home of the printer Emery Walker, a good friend and mentor of the textile designer William Morris. The interior of the house is preserved exactly as it was in his lifetime, complete with Morris' pale blue wallpaper in the Drawing Room (pictured). You'll also find letters from Walker's friend Rudyard Kipling used as bookmarks, and his wallet, complete with his National Trust membership card for 1933, the year he died.
Ravenscourt Park
Southside House
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Possibly the most secretive house in London, Southside was the home of Major Malcolm Munthe, a spy who was one of the first members of the Special Operations Executive. The house's secrets are still being uncovered now. In 2010, a cache of weapons and explosives was discovered in an unknown, sealed-off Jacobean wine cellar.
Wimbledon
The Bethnal Green Gasholders
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This is the view from Oval Space in east London, which was once a disused medical supplies factory and now hosts creative arts events. Its terrace overlooks the old Bethnal Green gasholders, which are an iconic part of the landscape along the Regent's Canal.
Bethnal Green
Battle of Britain Bunker
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Sir Winston Churchill's famous words, "Never before in the field of human conflict has so much been owed by so many to so few" were first said by the great man, not in that renowned speech in Parliament on 20th August 1940, but four days earlier when he visited the Operations Rooms here at RAF Uxbridge on 16th August.
Uxbridge
Credit: Bob Jeffries / Battle of Britain Bunker
Piccadilly Lights
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Every year, more than 71 million people walk past the advertising screens at Piccadilly Circus. The illuminated signs have been there since 1908, dimming only to celebrate Earth Hour and to mark the deaths of Winston Churchill and Princess Diana. More than 50 brands have advertised there in the last 100 years, but Coca-Cola has been the longest continuous presence since 1955. According to Sightsmap, this is London's most photographed location.
Piccadilly Circus
Umbrellas at London Bridge
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This umbrella art installation at Vinopolis Piazza arrived for the London 2012 Olympic Games when Vinopolis, next to Borough Market, became the hub for Procter and Gamble's "athlete's mum" campaign. They have remained there ever since.
London Bridge
The Chelsea Pensioners
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The Royal Hospital Chelsea has been a home for retired soldiers, more famously known as the Chelsea Pensioners, since 1692. Up until the 19th Century impersonating a Chelsea Pensioner was a hanging offence, as it was essentially defrauding the army, however sentences would often be mitigated. Every weekday, Chelsea Pensioners provide walking tours in their scarlet uniform and take great pride in showing people around their home.
Sloane Square
The Painted Houses in Kelly Street
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London is home to several colour splashed streets, such as Kelly Street in Kentish Town. Other brightly painted areas include Portobello Road and Lancaster Road in Notting Hill, as well as Camden High Street. Unless you live in a conservation area, there are no hard and fast rules to painting the outside of your house.
Kentish Town, Notting Hill Gate
Photo: ©Copyright Robin Sones via Creative Commons
Sight Lines of London
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There are laws in place to preserve the views of monuments like St Paul's Cathedral. The longest sight line of St Paul's is from Richmond Park, which has held a protected 10 mile view of the cathedral from King Henry's Mound since 1710. You can see the cathedral through a gap in the holly hedging.
Richmond
Photo: © Giles Barnard c/o Royal Parks
Wimbledon Lawn Tennis Club
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The world's greatest tennis tournament all started because some gardening equipment broke. In 1877, repairs to the Wimbledon club's large garden roller used to keep the tennis courts flat was billed to cost £10. They decided to hold a small tennis tournament for gentlemen in July of that year to pay for it, and tickets were sold to the public at one shilling (five pence) each. They raised over £17, meaning the roller got fixed and they had a bit of a profit - so they decided to do it again the following year. And so the Championships began.
Wimbledon Park, Southfields
Metropolitan Police Horses and Helicopters
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The Metropolitan Police have several specialist units fighting crime in the city, and here are two of them together. The mounted police were established in 1760 to capture highwaymen on the ground, but these days you're more likely to see the police helicopter doing that from the sky. The crew of three deal with around 25 tasks a day, and they can remain airborne for around two hours.
St James's Park
Photo: Courtersy of the Metropolitan Police @MPSinthesky
Buckingham Palace
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Buckingham Palace has its own chapel, post office, swimming pool, staff cafeteria, doctor's surgery and cinema. It's also the only building with the postcode SW1A 1AA.
St James's Park
Eric Atkins via Flickr creative commons
Canary Wharf and Docklands
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Canary Wharf is constructed over what was the famous West India Docks. Once filled with water and ships, the area is now bursting with steel, glass, stone and marble buildings, and surrounded by landscaped parks and gardens. Art projects are dotted around too, such as Ron Arad's sculpture The Big Blue, which you can see clearly from above.
Canary Wharf
© Philip Vile c/o Canary Wharf
Water Voles
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Crossness Nature Reserve and Southern Marshes are a London stronghold for water voles. Often confused with rats, here the water voles flourish in their specially created 1.2 hectare reedbed and reed-fringed ditches.
Woolwich Arsenal
Crossness Pumping Station
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The interior of this sewage pumping station is an example of some of the best ornamental Victorian cast ironwork to be found anywhere today. The site was opened by the Prince of Wales in April 1865 after seven years of construction, and remained working until 1956.
Plumstead
Dominion Theatre
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London's Grade II listed Dominion Theatre was built in 1928/29 on the site of a beer factory. During its last 98 day refurbishment, over 2719m2 of surface area in the auditorium was washed, sanded and refreshed using a total of 400 gallons of paint.
Tottenham Court Road
Photo: Mario Sánchez Prada via Flickr Creative Commons
Bob Dylan at The Savoy
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Folk music legend Bob Dylan put his time as a guest at The Savoy to good use by filming the famous Subterranean Homesick Blues video in a nearby alley.
Charing Cross, Embankment, Temple
London Coliseum
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The Grade II* listed London Coliseum, designed by Frank Matcham, was the first theatre in the country to have a stage revolve. Unfortunately the pioneering triple revolve was removed in 1976-77, the year the Theatres Trust was set up by Act of Parliament.
Leicester Square
SS Robin
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The SS Robin is the world's oldest complete steamship and the last of her type. Built in 1890 at the Thames Ironworks shipyard on the River Lea, she's now moored at Millennium Mills Pier in London's Royal Victoria Dock for a refit, before she'll return to the Royal Victoria Dock.
Royal Victoria
Tom Jones and a Leopard on Carnaby Street
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Tom Jones brought a whole new meaning to his song "What's New Pussycat?" when he took a Cheetah for a stroll down Carnaby Street. Here he is in the 60s with actress Christine Spooner, on his way to open a shop.
Oxford Circus
Credit: Lucy Harrison / Sisteris PR Company
Brunswick House
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Now surrounded by tower blocks and five lanes of traffic, this mansion is still a magnificent reminder of eighteenth century Vauxhall and its Pleasure Gardens. Grade II* listed in 1973, apparently MI5 and MI6 staff used to meet here as they were worried their own buildings were bugged.
Vauxhall
Steam Trains in the Underground
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Metropolitan Locomotive No. 1 is a steam train built in 1898, and it's been running special journeys along the Metropolitan line since the 150th anniversary of the tube in 2013/14. The commemorative journeys travel at a stately maximum speed of 25mph.
Moorgate
The Boat on the Queen Elizabeth Hall
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Staying the night on a boat "perched" on the roof of Queen Elizabeth Hall on the Southbank is half hotel escape, half being part of a living art experience. You can go through a ballot for the chance to stay there.
Waterloo
Credit: Living Architecture / Photo: © William Eckersley
Posters on the London Underground
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The London Transport Museum has a collection of more than 100 years of poster art originally showcased on London Underground's trains, tube stations and buses. Not only were they used for traditional marketing purposes, but during the both World Wars they were used to encourage people to enlist and to advise Londoners on air raid procedures.
Covent Garden
Photo: © TfL from London Transport Museum collection
Masonic Lodge at the Andaz Hotel, Liverpool St
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When the Five Star Andaz Liverpool Street was renovated in the 1990s, the builders found a secret Freemasons' meeting lodge hidden behind the walls. It's now London's only original lodge and Grade I listed temple.
Liverpool Street
Photo: Andaz Hotel (Hyatt Group)
The Royal Courts of Justice
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This imposing Gothic building was designed by the architect George Edmund Street, who sadly died before it was completed. It's composed of 35 million bricks faced with Portland stone, and inside, there are over 1,000 rooms and 3.5 miles of corridors.
Temple
Photo: Ronnie Macdonald via Flickr Creative Commons
Freud's couch
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Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud and his family lived at 20 Maresfield Gardens in north west London from 1938 until 1982. The study contains his couch where his patients would lie as they recounted their free flowing thoughts. Unlike contemporary therapists' rooms, Freud sat out of sight behind the patient. He once exclaimed to a friend, "I cannot let myself be stared at for eight hours a day!"
Finchely Road
Credit: London Small Historic Houses
Benjamin Franklin House
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Benjamin Franklin's home in London, where he lived from 1757 to 1775, is now his only remaining house in the world. During his sixteen years in London he invented the Glass Harmonica which gained him the title of being the first American to have invented an instrument.
Charing Cross, Embankment
Credit: London Small Historic Houses
The o2
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The o2 centre in Greenwich was built on the Prime Meridian line, and this is reflected in its design: it's 365 meters in diameter, signifying every day of the year, and is suspended from 12 masts (for every month of the year). On an unrelated note, if you turned it upside down it could hold the equivalent of 3.8billion pints of beer.
North Greenwich
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100 Things in London
Click on the images below to read intriguing stories and little known facts about London's best bits, and where to find them.
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Tower Bridge
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In 1952, Albert Gunter was driving the number 78 bus across Tower Bridge when the bascules started to rise. He accelerated and propelled the bus across the widening gap, landing upright on the other side. Far from getting into trouble for it, Albert actually kept his job and was even given a bonus for his efforts.
Tower Hill
Photo: Damien Everett via Flickr Creative Commons
The Monument
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Sir Christopher Wren's Monument to the Great Fire of 1666 is the tallest isolated stone column in the world. It was completed in 1677 and stands 202 ft high - which is also the same distance from the spot in Pudding Lane where the Great Fire is said to have started.
Monument
Courtauld Gallery
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Tucked inside Somerset House is the Courtauld Gallery, where you'll find one of the world's greatest collections of Impressionist art. Famous works on show include Manet's Bar at the Folies-Bergere (pictured), and Degas' Two Dancers.
Temple
Wilton's Hall
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Wilton's is the world's oldest surviving Grand Music Hall. The front of house rooms, including the bar (originally a pub) originate from as early as the 1740s. In its heyday as a music hall, sailors and their ladies were invited upstairs, gentleman and their wives downstairs. There was a bouncer on the main staircase who made sure the goings on upstairs didn't disturb the patrons downstairs.
Aldgate East, Tower Hill
The Watts Memorial in Postman's Park
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The idea for Postman's Park's 'memorial to heroism in everyday life' was first suggested in a letter to the Times newspaper in 1887 by Victorian artist George Frederick Watts, as a way to celebrate Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee. Today, there are plaques for 62 individuals who died trying to save another person. The earliest case is Sarah Smith in 1863, and the latest is Leigh Pitt in 2007.
St Paul's
Credit: The Everyday Heroes of Postman's Park App
St Paul's Cathedral
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Lying among the splendour, beauty, and around 6 million pieces of mosaic inside St Paul's Cathedral, is the very plain grave of Sir Christopher Wren. On the wall at the head of his tomb is a Latin inscription, arranged by his son. Wren himself had not wanted a memorial at all, so it reads: 'Beneath lies buried the founder of this church and city, Christopher Wren, who lived for more than 90 years, not for himself but for the public good. Reader, if you seek his monument, look around you'.
St Paul's
The Abbey Road Crossing
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The zebra crossing outside Abbey Road Studios is filmed by a webcam, which documents a never ending stream of tourists all attempting to recreate the famous Beatles album cover.
St John's Wood, Maida Vale
Photo: Christiaan Triebert via Flickr creative commons
Hatton Garden
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The perimeter of Hatton Garden, London's diamond and jewellery quarter, marks the ancient boundary of a medieval estate. In the oldest printed map of the city, known as the Agas map or Civitas Londinum (surveyed between 1570 and 1605), the walled garden and buildings of the estate can be clearly seen, along with the now submerged River Fleet.
Farringdon, Chancery Lane
Credit: Rachel Lichtenstein, Agas map C.1570
The Police Box in Trafalgar Square
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The south east corner of Trafalgar Square is home to what used to be the smallest police station in London. Until the 1960s, police inside kept an eye on any trouble in the square from here, with a direct telephone link to Scotland Yard in case reinforcements were needed.
Charing Cross
Photo: Leonard Bentley via Flickr Creative Commons
Fortnum and Mason
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Fortnum's in Piccadilly invented the 'scotch' egg, which was said to have been available by 1756. Theatrical historian Walter McQueen Pope wrote in his book, Goodbye Piccadilly, that travellers could enjoy "hardboiled eggs in forcemeat (called Scottish eggs) from Fortnum & Mason".
Green Park, Piccadilly Circus
Photo: Tony Hisgett via Wikimedia Commons
Moira at the Tower of London
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In 2007, Moira Cameron became the first female Yeoman Warder at the Tower of London in over 500 years of the institution's history. Her full title is "Yeoman Warder of Her Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress the Tower of London, and Members of the Sovereign's Body Guard of the Yeoman Guard in the Extraordinary".
Tower Hill
Paul the London cabbie
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London cabbies nearly always have a story to tell. Paul was once hailed down by a woman in Ropemaker Street. He immediately fell for her and by the end of the journey had asked her out. Thirteen years later, she has given Paul the three things in his life that are more important to him than Arsenal, golf and sport: his children.
All stations
St. Ermins Hotel
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Legendary spies, including members of the infamous Cambridge Five, were regulars at St. Ermins hotel around the time of World War II. Rumour also has it that a secret tunnel runs underneath the grand staircase in the lobby directly to the Houses of Westminster. It could be part of the mysterious Q Whitehall network running below London's major government buildings.
St James's Park
The Royal Horseguards Hotel
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Built in 1884 on the banks of the Thames, the Royal Horseguards' entire 8th floor once served as headquarters for the British secret services during World War I. Secret passageways, sliding bookshelves and other classic spy tropes are believed to have been installed here. The marble staircase in the adjoining One Whitehall Place is also the largest freestanding staircase in Europe, and was almost destroyed in WW2.
Embankment, Charing Cross
Credit: The Royal Horseguards Hotel
Athenaeum Hotel
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The Athenaeum Hotel has a vertical garden on its outside wall. It was created by French botanist Patrick Blanc, who spent decades examining the way that wild plants naturally grow on vertical rock faces and trees, and perfected a technique that enables urban plants to grow vertically without the need for soil.
Hyde Park Corner, Green Park
Courtesy of Athenaeum Hotel
Kyoto Garden, Holland Park
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At the Kyoto Garden in Holland Park, a staggered bridge runs across the waterfall and you can walk across it, peering into the froth to spot enormous koi carp lurking in the pools. The bridge follows a Japanese design rule - evil thoughts travel in straight lines. So, a staggered bridge doesn't let them pass from one side of the garden to the other.
Holland Park
Credit: Words and image by The Accidental Londoner
The Shard
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Altogether, the Shard has 11,000 glass panels, and the area of the façade is equivalent to eight football pitches. Twice a week, a team of six window cleaners abseil down the building and give the structure a full wash and polish.
London Bridge
Photo: Chris Eason via Flickr Creative Commons
Freemason's Hall
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Freemasons' Hall has been the centre of English freemasonry for 230 years. It's the headquarters of the United Grand Lodge of England, the oldest Grand Lodge in the world, and also the meeting place for over 1000 Masonic lodges. The building, which is listed Grade II*, was completed in 1933. The mosaic cornice pictured is 15 feet high and no piece of mosaic is more than one inch square.
Holborn
Chinatown
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Chinatown might be home to over 100 restaurants, but it has a musical claim to fame too. A basement in Gerrard Street was also the location of the first rehearsal of Led Zeppelin in August 1968, where they played "Train Kept A-Rollin".
Leicester Square, Piccadilly Circus
Shaftesbury Theatre
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The Shaftesbury Theatre was the venue for Fred Astaire's UK debut, but its most successful show was Hair, which ran for almost 2000 performances from 1968 to 1973 (a record for the time). In the mid-1990s it even played host to The Royal Opera while their Covent Garden base was under refurbishment.
Tottenham Court Road
Photo: Garry Knight via Flickr Creative Commons
Lyceum Theatre
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Between 1794 and 1809, the Lyceum's building was used as a circus, a chapel, a concert room, and the first London exhibition of waxworks displayed by Madame Tussaud in 1802.
Charing Cross, Temple, Embankment
Photo: The Walt Disney Company
The Palace Theatre
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Despite running shows since the 1880s, the Place Theatre hasn't only been used for operas and musicals. In 1977 the theatre was used in Doctor Who and featured an evil villain performing magic and ventriloquism.
Leicester Square, Tottenham Court Road
The Blackfriar
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This Grade II* listed traditional British pub was built on a 13th century Dominican Priory, and has several features dedicated to its history. A statue of a laughing friar stands proudly above the main door. Inside, the walls are decorated in Art Nouveau style, with an abundance of monks.
Blackfriars, Mansion House
Kings Cross N1
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It's now one of the busiest areas of London, but up until the 18th Century, King's Cross was a rural area known for its health spas and country inns; a place that Londoners escaped to for a break from busy city life.
Kings Cross St Pancras
Photo: Andy Hawkins via Flickr Creative Commons
TFL lost property
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Unusual lost property on the Tube has included a stuffed puffer fish, false teeth, human skulls, breast implants and a lawnmower. In one year, over 27,000 phones can be handed in.
Baker Street
Southbank Book Market
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The Southbank Centre's Book Market under Waterloo Bridge is believed to be the only permanent outdoor second-hand and antique book market in southern England. It's open seven days a week, no matter the weather.
Waterloo
Town Hall Hotel
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This hotel has an unusual claim to TV fame. BBC's Silent Witness was regularly filmed here, and what is now the luxurious swimming pool once had a particularly bleak cameo: it was used as a morgue in the series.
Bethnal Green
Billingsgate Fish Market
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When it first started, Billingsgate was the largest fish market in the world and to this day it continues to be the UK's largest inland fish market. Famous writer George Orwell worked there during the 1930s, but it also has another literary link: the word 'Billingsgate' was used by writers as a byword for vulgar language.
Canary Wharf
Photo: My Authentic London via Flickr Creative Commons
Leadenhall Market
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During the 18th century 'Old Tom' was a celebrated character in Leadenhall. He was a gander who managed to escape his fate of being slaughtered along with 34,000 other geese. He became a great favourite in the market, even being fed at the local inns. After his death in 1835 at the age of 38, he lay in state in the market and was buried on site.
Bank, Monument
Handel and Hendrix on Brook Street
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Two of the most influential musicians in history actually ended up living in neighbouring houses, albeit hundreds of years apart. Composer George Frideric Handel lived at 25 Brook Street (now the Handel House Museum) from 1723 to 1759, while American guitar legend Jimi Hendrix lived in the flat next door (no.23) with his girlfriend Kathy Etchingham from 1968-69.
Bond Street, Oxford Circus
The World Clock at Piccadilly Circus
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There's a large linear world clock on the wall at Piccadilly Circus station, which was installed in the 1920s. A central strip rolls across the map at the same speed as the sun, so you can see what the time is in any country, at any time of day.
Piccadilly Circus
The British Library
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The British Library holds well over 150 million items, in most known languages, with three million new items being added every year. It's all housed on 625 km of shelves, which grows by 12 km every year. If you saw five items each day, it would take you over 80,000 years to see the whole collection.
Kings Cross St Pancras, Euston
Credit: British Library, St Pancras, London
The Beadles at the Burlington Arcade
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This is Mark Lord, Head Beadle at the Burlington Arcade in Mayfair. The Beadles are thought to be the world's smallest police force, and have guarded the Arcade since 1819. They enforce rules which prohibit the opening of umbrellas, riding bicycles and whistling. The only person who has been given permission to whistle in the Arcade is Sir Paul McCartney.
Piccadilly Circus, Green Park
Hackney Wick
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Hackney Wick is often said to have the highest density of artists in Europe. Some say there are as many as 1,000 artist spaces inside Victorian factory buildings overlooking the Olympic Park and the city's newest neighbourhoods.
Hackney Wick, Stratford
The Bank of England
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In 1836 the Bank of England's directors received an anonymous letter, claiming that the author could get into their vaults. Not believing a word of it, they nevertheless agreed to meet him there at midnight on a specified day. At 12 o'clock exactly, a board in the floor lifted up and a head appeared. It belonged to a man who worked in the sewers - he had realised that one of them ran directly under the Bank. They rewarded his honesty with £800 - the equivalent today of £70,000. Not bad - but still not as much as he could have got by stealing all the gold.
Bank, Mansion House, Monument
Photo: Martin Pettitt via Flickr Creative Commons
Jellied eels and pie at M.Manze
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Eating jellied eels or pie and mash is one of east London's oldest traditions - and M.Manze on Tower Bridge has been serving them up the longest. The shop opened in 1892, and it was awarded Blue Plaque status in 2006. But as the building itself is Grade II listed, the plaque can't actually be affixed to any part of it.
Borough
Phoenix Cinema
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The UK's oldest cinema was built in 1910, and opened as The East Finchley Picturedrome in May 1912. Now the Phoenix is London's oldest constantly running, single purpose cinema - although its own recent credits include being featured in the Scissor Sisters song 'I Don't Feel Like Dancin'.
East Finchely
The Walrus at the Horniman Museum
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The Horniman's walrus - famously overstuffed by his Victorian taxidermist and weighing around a ton - was probably a young male. It was bought by museum founder Frederick Horniman in the early 1890's and had moved no more than 25 feet since the Horniman opened in 1901, prior to his trip to Turner Contemporary at Margate in 2013.
Forest Hill
Credit: Horniman Museum and Gardens
The Cutty Sark
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The Cutty Sark made her name as the fastest ship of her era, completing the voyage from Sydney to London in the record time of just 73 days under the command of Captain Richard Woodget. She was able to carry 600,000kg of tea in a single journey - that's enough to make more than 200 million cups.
Greenwich
Credit: ©National Maritime Museum, Greenwich.
Royal Observatory
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At the Greenwich Royal Observatory, you can stand in both the eastern and western hemispheres simultaneously by placing your feet either side of the Prime Meridian - the centre of world time and space. The Royal Observatory is also the source of the Prime Meridian of the world, Longitude 0° 0' 0''. Every place on the Earth is measured in terms of its distance east or west from this line.
Greenwich
Credit: ©National Maritime Museum, Greenwich.
The Corinthia Hotel
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The scene at the end of the James Bond film Skyfall was filmed on the roof of the Corinthia Hotel. This brings the hotel's spy history full circle, as it was also a Ministry of Defence building for 70 years, and during the war, the building was used as the headquarters for MI9.
Embankment, Charing Cross
The Tulip Staircase at the Queen's House
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A ghost was once caught on camera going up this staircase at the Queen's House in Greenwich. On Sunday 19 June 1966, a retired couple on holiday from Canada took a photo standing at the foot of the staircase looking upward. When it was developed, a shrouded figure could be seen moving up the staircase, behind a second and possibly a third figure.
Greenwich
Credit: ©National Maritime Museum, Greenwich.
Duke's Hotel
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Alessandro Palazzi is the head barman at Duke's Hotel's bar, which is renowned for making the best Martinis in town. The Martinis here are so good, they were said to have inspired James Bond author and hotel regular Ian Fleming when he came to describing 007's favourite drink as being "shaken not stirred".
Green Park
Criterion Theatre
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The Grade II* listed Criterion Theatre, built in 1874, was the first completely subterranean theatre in London, with the auditorium being entirely below the level of the Piccadilly Circus.
Temple, Embankment, Charing Cross
Dennis Severs' House
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18 Folgate Street is the home of the late artist Dennis Severs, and walking around it is like being transported back to the 18th Century. On the wall is this "in memoriam" card for his beloved cat, Madge Whitechapel, who legend has it was a house warming gift to him from Her Majesty The Queen.
Shoreditch High Street, Old Street, Liverpool Street
Credit: David Milne at Dennis Severs' House
St John's Gate, Clerkenwell
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St John's Gate in Clerkenwell is a remarkable survivor of Henry VIII's Dissolution of the Monasteries in the 16th Century. For many years, it was the UK HQ of the knights of St John of Malta and is today a museum of that and the St John Ambulance.
Farringdon
Photo: Terence Chisholm via Wikimedia Commons
Allen Ginsberg at the Royal Albert Hall
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In 1965, the Royal Albert Hall hosted Allen Ginsberg's groundbreaking International Poetry Incarnation, an event where beatniks met the emerging hippie culture. It was organised and booked at the last moment, and saw ticket-holders given flowers as they entered, before 17 poets took to the world's most famous stage.
South Kensington
BT Tower
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Despite the BT Tower being one of most recognisable and conspicuous buildings in London, it was classed as an official secret until fairly recently. Taking or possessing photos of the BT Tower was technically an offence under the Official Secrets Act, and in line with its "secret" status, the 189 metre London landmark was also omitted from all Ordnance Survey maps until the mid-1990s.
Goodge Street, Great Portland Street, Regent's Park
Courtesy of BT Heritage and Archives
All Hallows by the Tower
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The oldest church in the city of London, All Hallows survived both the Blitz and the Great Fire of London, which Samuel Pepys watched from the bell tower.
Tower Hill
Guy the Gorilla at ZSL London Zoo
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Guy was one of London Zoo's best loved and remembered characters. He arrived on Guy Fawkes day in 1947; a small gorilla clutching a tin hot-water bottle. When sparrows entered his enclosure, he would scoop them up gently and peer at them before letting them go. There's now a statue in his honour.
Regent's Park, Great Portland Street
Photo: ZSL London Zoo
Otters at the London Wetlands Centre
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As well as birds, bats, frogs and water voles, the London Wetlands Centre in Barnes is also home to two Asian Short Clawed otters. They aren't wild (or native) to the centre, but they're here as an indication of a healthy wetland.
Hammersmith, Barnes
Camden Stables Market
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The Stables Market used to be a Victorian horse hospital, which treated horses that had been injured while pulling barges along the canal towpath. The horses and pit ponies that worked there were stabled in a network of tunnels, or catacombs, under this whole area.
Camden Town, Chalk Farm
Abney Park Cemetery
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Hackney has been home to reformers and radicals since at least the 1600s. Many of them are buried in Abney Park: an unconsecrated cemetery in Stoke Newington which is also a nature reserve of London-wide importance.
Dalston Kingsland
St George's Garden
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From a memorial obelisk to exposed gravestones, St George's Gardens is a merger of two formal burial grounds. It was also was once the hunting ground of the notorious body snatchers.
Russell Square, Kings Cross St Pancras
Mosaics at the National Gallery
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The National Gallery is famous for its Old Masters, but look closer and you'll see Boris Anrep's mosaics inside the Portico Entrance. Laid out between 1928 and 1933, one of the Russian-born artist's allegorical designs represents 'The Awakening of the Muses', and you can spot the figures of Greta Garbo, Virginia Woolf, Diana Mitford and more.
Charing Cross, Leicester Square
The Wallace Collection
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If you take the grand staircase at the Wallace Collection and find your way to the study, you'll find furniture once belonging to Queen Marie-Antoinette. Hiding in the corner and often missed, you'll see a copy of the actual bill of sale from the Petit Trianon.
Bond Street
The Curious Plaques of Bloomsbury
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Among the normal Blue Plaques in Bloomsbury is this rather curious example. On Old Gloucester Street, a sombre plaque ironically proclaims, 'On this site, Sept 5, 1782 Nothing Happened'. And on the Brunei Gallery, just off Russell Square, another panel actually apologises for the building being there at all.
Russell Square
Guildhall Art Gallery
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The remains of a 2000 year old Roman Amphitheatre were found under the Guildhall Art Gallery in 1988. A circle in the courtyard marks out the arena where wild animal fights, gladiatorial combats and executions would once have taken place. You can see what's left of the amphitheatre in the gallery's underground exhibition.
St Paul's, Moorgate
Sewing Machine Museum
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London has an entire museum devoted to sewing. The London Sewing Machine Museum in Tooting Bec is where volunteers will answer all the questions you never knew you had about Singer & Co. It's only open on the first Saturday of every month though, from 2pm-5pm.
Tooting Bec
Pudding Lane
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The Great Fire might have started in a bakery on Pudding Lane, but the street name itself has nothing to do with cake. It's so-called because Medieval butchers on Eastcheap used to send carts piled with offal - which back then was called 'pudding' - down this street, to rubbish barges on the River Thames.
Monument
Photo: Ben Sutherland via Flickr Creative Commons
Pearly Kings and Queens of London
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Every London Borough, including the City of London and the City of Westminster, has its own Pearly King and Queen. The tradition was started in 1875 by an orphan called Henry Croft, and now there are around 30 Pearly Families around London who dedicate their lives to raising money for various charities.
Covent Garden
Credit: Clive, Pearly King of Greenwich
Betty the Olympic Cauldron
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One of the stars of the London Olympic and Paralympic games was this giant cauldron, otherwise known as Betty. But according to its designer Thomas Heatherwick, it never worked fully until the actual opening ceremony. Betty has now retired to a new gallery at the Museum of London.
Barbican
Dinosaurs in Crystal Palace Park
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These life size Victorian models of dinosaurs at Crystal Palace Park predate Darwin's "Origin of Species" by six years. They were built by sculptor and fossil expert Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins and Richard Owen, the founder of the Natural History Museum. In 1855, Hawkins even held a dinner party in the mould of an Iguanodon, complete with waiters, to celebrate their arrival.
Crystal Palace, Penge West
The Normansfield Theatre
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The Langdon Down Museum of Learning Disability in Hampton Wick is home to a beautiful Victorian theatre, which was built to keep the patients and staff at the old Normansfield Hospital entertained. The museum also houses a collection of extraordinary ship models made by a Victorian patient, James Pullen, who became a celebrity as a result.
Photo: © Copyright Mark Percy via Creative Commons
Deptford Creek
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The name Deptford comes from its tidal creek - Deep Ford - and you can stroll along the riverbed at lowtide. The Creekside Centre provides the waders and tours, so you can get a completely different view of the area's ship and fishing history.
Greenwich, Deptford Bridge
Brompton Cemetery
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Highgate Cemetery might have Karl Marx in residence, but Brompton Cemetery is the final resting place of John Nevil Maskelyne, the man who invented the coin operated toilet door lock. Beatrix Potter also lived round the corner and named some of her famous characters from names on the gravestones here.
West Brompton, Earl's Court
Artwork at Edgware Road Station
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London has one of the world's most interesting electricity substations at Edgware Road on the Circle Line. The art work, called "Wrapper", was designed by Belgian born British artist Jacqueline Poncelet, and each pattern relates to a feature of the local area.
Edgware Road
The Natural History Museum
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The founder of London's Natural History Museum was also the first person to use the word "dinosaur". Richard Owen was a scientist who campaigned the government to build a 'cathedral to nature', where the natural history specimens that were being kept at the British Museum could be exhibited. Luckily for us he was successful, and it opened in 1881.
South Kensington
Photo: neiljs via Flickr Creative Commons
Geffrye Museum of the Home
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This photo is from the Geffrye Museum, which has an archive of over 4,500 images of people's homes, dating from the 1880s to the present day. They reveal some of the things people have got up to at home over the years, like dressing a cat in a bib and feeding it at the kitchen table.
Hoxton
Sir John Soane's Museum
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Sir John Soane left his museum of art and architecture to the public, as none of his family were architects and he was worried it would be stripped apart when he died. Inside is the famous Hogarth series of works, A Rakes Progress. However in one room you can see 118 paintings through a series of walls that open up to reveal more paintings.
Holborn
The Charterhouse
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Tucked away in Barbican is a former Carthusian Monastery, which was built on the site of a burial ground for Black Death plague victims in 1371. It has since been a school and hospital before reverting to being an almshouse. It's rumoured that Sir Thomas More, Henry VIII's Chancellor, spent time there. They even managed to put up Elizabeth I on her way to her coronation at Westminster Abbey.
Barbican
7 Hammersmith Terrace
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7 Hammersmith Terrace is the former home of the printer Emery Walker, a good friend and mentor of the textile designer William Morris. The interior of the house is preserved exactly as it was in his lifetime, complete with Morris' pale blue wallpaper in the Drawing Room (pictured). You'll also find letters from Walker's friend Rudyard Kipling used as bookmarks, and his wallet, complete with his National Trust membership card for 1933, the year he died.
Ravenscourt Park
Southside House
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Possibly the most secretive house in London, Southside was the home of Major Malcolm Munthe, a spy who was one of the first members of the Special Operations Executive. The house's secrets are still being uncovered now. In 2010, a cache of weapons and explosives was discovered in an unknown, sealed-off Jacobean wine cellar.
Wimbledon
The Bethnal Green Gasholders
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This is the view from Oval Space in east London, which was once a disused medical supplies factory and now hosts creative arts events. Its terrace overlooks the old Bethnal Green gasholders, which are an iconic part of the landscape along the Regent's Canal.
Bethnal Green
Battle of Britain Bunker
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Sir Winston Churchill's famous words, "Never before in the field of human conflict has so much been owed by so many to so few" were first said by the great man, not in that renowned speech in Parliament on 20th August 1940, but four days earlier when he visited the Operations Rooms here at RAF Uxbridge on 16th August.
Uxbridge
Credit: Bob Jeffries / Battle of Britain Bunker
Piccadilly Lights
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Every year, more than 71 million people walk past the advertising screens at Piccadilly Circus. The illuminated signs have been there since 1908, dimming only to celebrate Earth Hour and to mark the deaths of Winston Churchill and Princess Diana. More than 50 brands have advertised there in the last 100 years, but Coca-Cola has been the longest continuous presence since 1955. According to Sightsmap, this is London's most photographed location.
Piccadilly Circus
Umbrellas at London Bridge
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This umbrella art installation at Vinopolis Piazza arrived for the London 2012 Olympic Games when Vinopolis, next to Borough Market, became the hub for Procter and Gamble's "athlete's mum" campaign. They have remained there ever since.
London Bridge
The Chelsea Pensioners
0
The Royal Hospital Chelsea has been a home for retired soldiers, more famously known as the Chelsea Pensioners, since 1692. Up until the 19th Century impersonating a Chelsea Pensioner was a hanging offence, as it was essentially defrauding the army, however sentences would often be mitigated. Every weekday, Chelsea Pensioners provide walking tours in their scarlet uniform and take great pride in showing people around their home.
Sloane Square
The Painted Houses in Kelly Street
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London is home to several colour splashed streets, such as Kelly Street in Kentish Town. Other brightly painted areas include Portobello Road and Lancaster Road in Notting Hill, as well as Camden High Street. Unless you live in a conservation area, there are no hard and fast rules to painting the outside of your house.
Kentish Town, Notting Hill Gate
Photo: ©Copyright Robin Sones via Creative Commons
Sight Lines of London
0
There are laws in place to preserve the views of monuments like St Paul's Cathedral. The longest sight line of St Paul's is from Richmond Park, which has held a protected 10 mile view of the cathedral from King Henry's Mound since 1710. You can see the cathedral through a gap in the holly hedging.
Richmond
Photo: © Giles Barnard c/o Royal Parks
Wimbledon Lawn Tennis Club
0
The world's greatest tennis tournament all started because some gardening equipment broke. In 1877, repairs to the Wimbledon club's large garden roller used to keep the tennis courts flat was billed to cost £10. They decided to hold a small tennis tournament for gentlemen in July of that year to pay for it, and tickets were sold to the public at one shilling (five pence) each. They raised over £17, meaning the roller got fixed and they had a bit of a profit - so they decided to do it again the following year. And so the Championships began.
Wimbledon Park, Southfields
Metropolitan Police Horses and Helicopters
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The Metropolitan Police have several specialist units fighting crime in the city, and here are two of them together. The mounted police were established in 1760 to capture highwaymen on the ground, but these days you're more likely to see the police helicopter doing that from the sky. The crew of three deal with around 25 tasks a day, and they can remain airborne for around two hours.
St James's Park
Photo: Courtersy of the Metropolitan Police @MPSinthesky
Buckingham Palace
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Buckingham Palace has its own chapel, post office, swimming pool, staff cafeteria, doctor's surgery and cinema. It's also the only building with the postcode SW1A 1AA.
St James's Park
Eric Atkins via Flickr creative commons
Canary Wharf and Docklands
0
Canary Wharf is constructed over what was the famous West India Docks. Once filled with water and ships, the area is now bursting with steel, glass, stone and marble buildings, and surrounded by landscaped parks and gardens. Art projects are dotted around too, such as Ron Arad's sculpture The Big Blue, which you can see clearly from above.
Canary Wharf
© Philip Vile c/o Canary Wharf
Water Voles
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Crossness Nature Reserve and Southern Marshes are a London stronghold for water voles. Often confused with rats, here the water voles flourish in their specially created 1.2 hectare reedbed and reed-fringed ditches.
Woolwich Arsenal
Crossness Pumping Station
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The interior of this sewage pumping station is an example of some of the best ornamental Victorian cast ironwork to be found anywhere today. The site was opened by the Prince of Wales in April 1865 after seven years of construction, and remained working until 1956.
Plumstead
Dominion Theatre
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London's Grade II listed Dominion Theatre was built in 1928/29 on the site of a beer factory. During its last 98 day refurbishment, over 2719m2 of surface area in the auditorium was washed, sanded and refreshed using a total of 400 gallons of paint.
Tottenham Court Road
Photo: Mario Sánchez Prada via Flickr Creative Commons
Bob Dylan at The Savoy
0
Folk music legend Bob Dylan put his time as a guest at The Savoy to good use by filming the famous Subterranean Homesick Blues video in a nearby alley.
Charing Cross, Embankment, Temple
London Coliseum
0
The Grade II* listed London Coliseum, designed by Frank Matcham, was the first theatre in the country to have a stage revolve. Unfortunately the pioneering triple revolve was removed in 1976-77, the year the Theatres Trust was set up by Act of Parliament.
Leicester Square
SS Robin
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The SS Robin is the world's oldest complete steamship and the last of her type. Built in 1890 at the Thames Ironworks shipyard on the River Lea, she's now moored at Millennium Mills Pier in London's Royal Victoria Dock for a refit, before she'll return to the Royal Victoria Dock.
Royal Victoria
Tom Jones and a Leopard on Carnaby Street
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Tom Jones brought a whole new meaning to his song "What's New Pussycat?" when he took a Cheetah for a stroll down Carnaby Street. Here he is in the 60s with actress Christine Spooner, on his way to open a shop.
Oxford Circus
Credit: Lucy Harrison / Sisteris PR Company
Brunswick House
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Now surrounded by tower blocks and five lanes of traffic, this mansion is still a magnificent reminder of eighteenth century Vauxhall and its Pleasure Gardens. Grade II* listed in 1973, apparently MI5 and MI6 staff used to meet here as they were worried their own buildings were bugged.
Vauxhall
Steam Trains in the Underground
0
Metropolitan Locomotive No. 1 is a steam train built in 1898, and it's been running special journeys along the Metropolitan line since the 150th anniversary of the tube in 2013/14. The commemorative journeys travel at a stately maximum speed of 25mph.
Moorgate
The Boat on the Queen Elizabeth Hall
0
Staying the night on a boat "perched" on the roof of Queen Elizabeth Hall on the Southbank is half hotel escape, half being part of a living art experience. You can go through a ballot for the chance to stay there.
Waterloo
Credit: Living Architecture / Photo: © William Eckersley
Posters on the London Underground
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The London Transport Museum has a collection of more than 100 years of poster art originally showcased on London Underground's trains, tube stations and buses. Not only were they used for traditional marketing purposes, but during the both World Wars they were used to encourage people to enlist and to advise Londoners on air raid procedures.
Covent Garden
Photo: © TfL from London Transport Museum collection
Masonic Lodge at the Andaz Hotel, Liverpool St
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When the Five Star Andaz Liverpool Street was renovated in the 1990s, the builders found a secret Freemasons' meeting lodge hidden behind the walls. It's now London's only original lodge and Grade I listed temple.
Liverpool Street
Photo: Andaz Hotel (Hyatt Group)
The Royal Courts of Justice
0
This imposing Gothic building was designed by the architect George Edmund Street, who sadly died before it was completed. It's composed of 35 million bricks faced with Portland stone, and inside, there are over 1,000 rooms and 3.5 miles of corridors.
Temple
Photo: Ronnie Macdonald via Flickr Creative Commons
Freud's couch
0
Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud and his family lived at 20 Maresfield Gardens in north west London from 1938 until 1982. The study contains his couch where his patients would lie as they recounted their free flowing thoughts. Unlike contemporary therapists' rooms, Freud sat out of sight behind the patient. He once exclaimed to a friend, "I cannot let myself be stared at for eight hours a day!"
Finchely Road
Credit: London Small Historic Houses
Benjamin Franklin House
0
Benjamin Franklin's home in London, where he lived from 1757 to 1775, is now his only remaining house in the world. During his sixteen years in London he invented the Glass Harmonica which gained him the title of being the first American to have invented an instrument.
Charing Cross, Embankment
Credit: London Small Historic Houses
The o2
0
The o2 centre in Greenwich was built on the Prime Meridian line, and this is reflected in its design: it's 365 meters in diameter, signifying every day of the year, and is suspended from 12 masts (for every month of the year). On an unrelated note, if you turned it upside down it could hold the equivalent of 3.8billion pints of beer.
North Greenwich
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Morland Brewery, brewers of Old Speckled Hen, was bought in 2000 by which other brewery? | Morland Brewing - Old Crafty Hen
Morland Brewing - Old Crafty Hen
Morland Brewing - Old Crafty Hen
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Int’l Bittering Units (IBUs): 41
Serving Temperature: 50-55°F
Suggested Glassware: Snifter, Large Wine Glass
Hops: Challenger, First Gold, Goldings, Target
Malts: Pale, Crystal
Read More
Old Crafty Hen is a very special version of Old Speckled Hen, one of England’s more famous and classic ales. This version is blended with a 12% ABV Greene King brew known as "Old 5X," a vintage Old Ale that is not sold on its own but instead is blended into the ale you have before you now. The brewery ages Old 5X in three old oak foudres (huge barrels) for 2 to 5 years before skillfully blending it with fresh ale to create Old Crafty Hen.
On the pour (even this super beer geek writer drinks from the bottle on occasion, but this is not one of them; please do pour this one), this Hen presents an attractive amber color with a head that drops plenty of lace. Richly malty on the nose, there’s also a distinct fruity quality that only a fine ale can deliver. There’s a sweet impression along with a distinct raisiny note, prominent caramel and some bread dough. Look for a touch of butter to lend a bit of a toffee character, while hops and oak age add some floral, mildly spicy notes with hints of citrus and wood. Complex as hell on the palate, expect a prominent dark fruit character composed of cherry, raisin, and currants, all surrounded by robust, satisfying caramel malts which deliver some honey notes as well. We found this crafty brew fairly sweet, but there’s a moderate hop bitterness and a hint of tartness (thanks to the aged 5X) to balance, along with just a hint of spicy, drying alcohol. A touch of buttery diacetyl is a hallmark of many English ales, and we get some here, as well as mild oak notes and slight hints of oxidation from the prolonged barrel aging, which provide a sherry-like component. A wood-aged beer from England is very unusual these days, and we’re very pleased Morland/Greene King are keeping the tradition alive. Enjoy this fine brew on its own, or pair with a plate of complex cheeses. Cheers!
Tasting Notes
Old Crafty Hen is a very special version of Old Speckled Hen, one of England’s more famous and classic ales. This version is blended with a 12% ABV Greene King brew known as "Old 5X," a vintage Old Ale that is not sold on its own but instead is blended into the ale you have before you now. The brewery ages Old 5X in three old oak foudres (huge barrels) for 2 to 5 years before skillfully blending it with fresh ale to create Old Crafty Hen.
On the pour (even this super beer geek writer drinks from the bottle on occasion, but this is not one of them; please do pour this one), this Hen presents an attractive amber color with a head that drops plenty of lace. Richly malty on the nose, there’s also a distinct fruity quality that only a fine ale can deliver. There’s a sweet impression along with a distinct raisiny note, prominent caramel and some bread dough. Look for a touch of butter to lend a bit of a toffee character, while hops and oak age add some floral, mildly spicy notes with hints of citrus and wood. Complex as hell on the palate, expect a prominent dark fruit character composed of cherry, raisin, and currants, all surrounded by robust, satisfying caramel malts which deliver some honey notes as well. We found this crafty brew fairly sweet, but there’s a moderate hop bitterness and a hint of tartness (thanks to the aged 5X) to balance, along with just a hint of spicy, drying alcohol. A touch of buttery diacetyl is a hallmark of many English ales, and we get some here, as well as mild oak notes and slight hints of oxidation from the prolonged barrel aging, which provide a sherry-like component. A wood-aged beer from England is very unusual these days, and we’re very pleased Morland/Greene King are keeping the tradition alive. Enjoy this fine brew on its own, or pair with a plate of complex cheeses. Cheers!
Morland Brewing (Greene King) - (Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk, England)
| Greene King Brewery |
In which year was the first FA Cup Final played at Wembley? | British Brewer » Blog Archive » Recipe: Old Speckled Hen (version 1)
Recipe: Old Speckled Hen (version 1)
Posted by British Brewer in Recipes
Online version with calculator can be found here .
Next up in the series on Old Ales and Browns is another classic Old Ale available in both the UK and US, Old Speckled Hen , brewed by Greene King after its acquisition of the Morland Brewery in 2000. We have already covered the history of Greene King with the Abbot Ale recipe last year but Morland also has an interesting past.
Prior to its acquisition by Greene King, the Morland Brewery was located in Abingdon, now part of Oxfordshire, in the UK and has a history dating back to 1711. The original brewery was located in the town of West Ilsley started by a local farmer John Morland to brew stouts and porters, the popular ales of the time. Over the next 150 years the brewery slowly grew, remaining a family business, eventually acquiring 2 small breweries in nearby Abingdon in 1860. By 1880 Morland had moved its operations from West Ilsley to Abingdon and by 1885 they incorporated as a limited company registered as United Breweries. From this point on the company grew rapidly, buying out a number of local breweries. The company went public in 1994 and was acquired by Greene King in 2000. Throughout its history the company had a reputation for respecting the breweries they acquired, maintaining the original brewery names and brews. Post Greene King acquisition though only the Morland name survived, the Abingdon brewery did not and all production is now in the Greene King brewery based in Bury St. Edmunds in Suffolk, UK.
The history of Old Speckled is not so old but is definitely one worth noting. I found this description on wikipedia :
Old Speckled Hen was first brewed by Morlands of Abingdon in 1979. MG cars celebrated the 50th anniversary of their move to Abingdon, from Edmund Road in Cowley . They asked Morland to brew a special commemorative beer for the occasion, for which they would suggest the name and they would design the bottle label. The name chosen was Old Speckled Hen which took its name from a car which was brought to Abingdon, when the factory moved.
The car was called the MG Featherweight Fabric Saloon made from cellulosed fabric stretched over a wooden frame and was black speckled with gold. It became the factory’s demonstration model and general runabout and as it chugged about the factory people would say “There guz the Owd Speckl’d un”.
The original beer label bore the MG colours of cream and brown. The bottle dressing was finished with a green foil capsule, which matched the background colour of the Borough of Abingdon Arms . The beer was an amber colour and was brewed at a gravity of 1050 to denote 50 years (i.e. 1929 – 1979) of production of MG cars in Abingdon.
According the company website the ale is described as:
“Old Speckled Hen” has a full, smooth flavour and is very easy to drink. Its rich amber colour and superb fruity aromas are complemented by a delicious blend of malty tastes.
Toffee and malt combine with bitterness on the back of the tongue to give a balanced sweetness. This is followed by a refreshingly dry finish.
I can attest to the validity of the above notes for the pre-1999 version. In my experience the current export version is not as balanced or as rich and comes across a little dialed down in the flavour department. Not to worry though as is what this blog is about, trying to recreate the original and sample the ale fresh as John Morland intended.
The company website gives nothing away around ingredients, colour, or bitterness. It states the ale comes in 2 varieties, a cask version at 4.5% ABV and a bottled version at 5.2%. We will focus on the bottled. I consulted with the The Real Ale Almanac (5th edition, last published in 1999, so prior to the Greene King acquisition. Important to note considering many experts on this beer claim the recipe was changed) and it confirms the bottle strength is 5.2% ABV, with an OG of 1050 (a given considering the history of the ale), uses Pipkin Pale Malt as a base, Crystal Malt, brewers sugar, Challenger hops for bitterness, Goldings and Challenger for aroma with a range of 30-35 IBUs of bitterness.
Here are the tasting notes from the Almanac:
Nose: Superb Goldings hop aroma (considering using Goldings for a flavour addition at the end of the boil)
Palate: Full hops and fruit in mouth, long dry finish with hops and delicate fruit notes
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"Who plays Cedric Diggory in the film ""Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire""?" | Robert Pattinson / Cedric Diggory in Harry Potter 4 DVD Extra: Meet the Champions - YouTube
Robert Pattinson / Cedric Diggory in Harry Potter 4 DVD Extra: Meet the Champions
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Uploaded on Feb 20, 2009
These are my favourite parts of the DVD extras! All rights to Warner Bros, of course.
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A man and a woman sitting in a Paris bar — who painted L 'Absinthe in 1876? | Robert Pattinson - IMDb
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18 January 2017 8:17 PM, UTC
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Robert Douglas Thomas Pattinson was born May 13, 1986 in London, England, to Clare (Charlton), who worked at a modeling agency, and Richard Pattinson, a vintage car importer. He enjoys music and plays both the guitar and piano. When Robert was fifteen, he started acting in amateur plays with the Barnes Theatre Company. Afterward, he took screen ... See full bio »
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How many psalms are there in the Bible? | Who wrote the Book of Psalms?
Who wrote the book of Psalms?
Submit questions - New Articles
The Psalms, the greatest collections of songs , prayers and poetry ever put together, is one of the most fascinating and powerful sections of God's word . It is the largest book in the entire Bible. The New Testament quotes it more than 75 times. The epistle to the Romans, written by the Apostle Paul , quotes or references it more than fourteen times. The book of Psalms not only contains the shortest and longest chapters of Scripture, but also the very CENTER of the Bible . This verse offers a concise but profound bit of wisdom that should be the hallmark of a true Christian's life.
"It is better to trust in the LORD than to put confidence in man." (Psalm 118:8, Holy Bible in Its Original Order - A Faithful Version)
150 songs comprise this book. Many of these are prophetic in nature. Jesus told his disciples after his resurrection that what happened to him MUST have occurred, in part, because of what was written in the Psalms (Luke 24:44).
Psalm writers
Did King David write all of the Psalms? No. He is, however, the most prolific writer of songs found in the Bible. David , who lived from 1040 to 970 B.C., wrote roughly 80 songs in this Biblical section. Other writers include Moses , Heman the Ezrahite, Ethan the Ezrahite, Solomon , Asaph, and the sons of Korah. Several of them do not come with any credit.
The original structure
No overt structure of the Psalms, other than numbering them, exists in almost all modern Bible translations. In the original Hebrew manuscripts, however, there are five major sections of the book. Section (or book) 1 contains Psalm 1 to 41, Section 2 has songs 42 to 72, Section 3 has songs 73 to 89, Section 4 contains songs 90 to 106 and Section 5 has 107 to 150.
Map showing location of New Testament Events
Overview
Understanding the overall characteristics of this section of the Bible can help us fully appreciate what they say and teach.
The purpose of many of the songs is public worship in Israel's temple, although some are more suited for private devotion. They all, however, ultimately lead people to worship the true God.
They were a part of Israel's daily life. The Bible records a number of times when the people spontaneously responded to God with a Psalm of praise.
They passionately record a person's response to God given their situation and circumstances at the time. Some songs cry out to God during a trial and others seek his intervention in their (and others) affairs. Some focus on God's blessings or curses, while others sing his praises and thank him for what he has done.
Prophecy division
A prophetic theme exists within the five-folder original structure of the Psalms.
Section 1 (1 to 41) refers to the Passover , the beginning of Israel as a nation, and the start of the New Testament plan of salvation centering around Jesus.
Section 2 (42 to 72) shows Israel as a single body in the land of Israel and pictures the creation of the New Testament Church .
Section 3 (73 to 89) describes the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple. In many ways, this section parallels the prophecies of the coming Great Tribulation .
Section 4 (90 to 106) revolves around the Millennial reign of Christ and shows Israel re-gathered after their ruin.
Section 5 (107 to 150) pictures a time when Judah (all Israel) shall again be delivered as they were in the time of Esther.
The Psalms also offer prophecies centered on Jesus Christ . They predict his birth (104:4), Deity (45:6), ministry (69:9), rejection (118:22), betrayal (41:9), his crucifixion and the words he would speak (22), resurrection (2 and 16), ascension into heaven (68:18) and everlasting reign (102:26).
Categories of Songs
There are numerous ways in which to divide the book of Psalms other than by section. An example of one such division is below.
ROYAL songs concern the spiritual role of kings in the worship of God. They emphasize his role as Creator, Savior, etc. Psalm 20 and 21 are in this category.
REPENTANT songs are those in which the composer confesses their sins to the Lord and asks for forgiveness. Psalm 51 is a very good example of this type of song.
Songs of WISDOM or TEACHING focus on the contrast between both the righteous and the wicked and God's blessings and curses. Psalm 1 is in this category.
PRAISE songs center on worshipping and thanking God for all He is and does. Psalm 19, 29, 33, 146 to 150, and others are in this category.
Songs of ASCENTS or DEGREES are for those approaching the Temple in Jerusalem . Psalm 120 to 134 are of this type.
LAMENTING songs, the largest category, complain or plea to God for help in times of distress. Psalm 3 to 5, 22, 79, 80, and others are of this type.
Those who wrote the book of Psalms created songs that run the gamut of human emotion from cries for help while suffering in a severe trial to exalting God's nam e and praising him for his many wonderful works. It is a part of the Bible worthy to be read, studied and sung again and again.
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The first international cricket match was played in Pakistan last month since 2009 when in March of that year the team bus of which country was attacked in Lahore? | All the songs in the Bible [infographic]
All the songs in the Bible [infographic]
by Jeffrey Kranz | Jul 2, 2014 | Bible facts , Infographics | 6 comments
The Bible isn’t a songbook, but did you know there are at least 185 songs in the Bible? Battles, coronations, funerals, cities being sacked, and seas splitting up—you can find songs in the Bible for all kinds of occasions.
Granted, 150 of these songs are in the book of Psalms , which actually is a songbook— written by a lot more people than just David .
But you can find 35ish more songs, chants, dirges, and hymns scattered across the Old and New Testaments. (I say 37ish because some of those songs are very similar to Psalms, and other pieces of poetry may or may not have been sung.)
I’ve pulled those non-Psalms together in one place for your reference. (With a little help from Logos Bible Software .) Your worship leader will probably give you a high five if you share this with them. =)
We’ll kick things off with a few stats about the songs in the Bible, then examine each of the non-psalms one by one. And just in case you’re curious, you’re welcome to check out the piece I wrote on the different kinds of Psalms .
Only 185? Well …
You may read through these and notice a few songs missing: the Magnificat, Hannah’s prayer, etc.
I left them out because I wanted to list the pieces that are explicitly called songs (or kinds of songs). It may very well be that Samson sang his poem about the donkey’s jawbone in Judges 15:16 …
With the jawbone of a donkey,
Heaps upon heaps,
With the jawbone of a donkey
I have killed a thousand men.
… but he also may have just put together a witty little poem with no music.
This list just sticks with the pieces that are explicitly called songs, lamentations, and dirges—as well as poems that the Bible says people sing or chant.
All the (non-Psalm) songs in the Bible, in order
The song of Moses and Miriam
(Exodus 15:1–18, 21)
The first song in the Bible happens after one of its greatest miracles. God parts the Red Sea, allowing the children of Israel to cross on dry ground, escaping Pharaoh’s army. When the Egyptians pursue them, God shuts the sea over them, washing away chariots and horsemen.
Then Moses leads the men in a song of praise to God, while Miriam leads the women in the chorus:
Sing to the LORD, for He is highly exalted;
The horse and his rider He has hurled into the sea.
The song of wells in the wilderness
(Nu 21:17–18)
As Israel wanders through the wilderness in the book of Numbers , they come to a place called Beer. “Beer” is Hebrew for “well,” and (surprise, surprise) there’s a big well there where the whole nation refills its water supply.
It’s a pretty happy occasion, and the Israelites break into song:
Spring up, O well! Sing to it!
The well, which the leaders sank,
Which the nobles of the people dug,
With the scepter and with their staffs.
Song of Moses and Joshua
(Deuteronomy 31:19–22, 30, 32:1–43)
Int he book of Deuteronomy , Moses recommissions the nation of Israel to love and obey the Lord when they enter the promised land. He lays down the law, appoints Joshua as the new leader, and makes the people swear their allegiance to their God.
Then Moses sums it all up in a song, which he and Joshua teach to the people. It’s a covenant song of God’s faithfulness: He is the righteous Rock of Israel. The song reminds Israel of the the Lord’s blessings, and warns them of the consequences of disobeying him.
The Rock! His work is perfect,
For all His ways are just;
A God of faithfulness and without injustice,
Righteous and upright is He.
The Song of Deborah and Baruk
(Jdg 5)
Another victory song—and one of the oldest texts in the Bible.
Deborah, a prophetess, leads a small Israeli militia against their Canaanite overlord’s well-armed forces. Her field officer Baruk meets the enemy commander, Sisera, on the battle field. Baruk wipes out Sisera’s forces, but Sisera escapes on foot.
He doesn’t get too far. Sisera takes a nap in a local woman’s tent, and that woman nails his head to the ground. It’s super effective.
With the battle won, Deborah and Baruk write a song of praise to God, rejoicing over God’s deliverance. They also sing about the battle heroes, and even wonder what it must be like to be Sisera’s mom.
Thus let all Your enemies perish, O LORD;
But let those who love Him be like the rising of the sun in its might.
Song of David’s victory
(1 Sa 18:7)
After young David kills Goliath, he and king Saul triumphantly return from the battle. The women of the cities are super excited about the victory, and they meet King Saul with musical instruments, dancing, and a new song:
Saul has slain his thousands,
And David his ten thousands.
The song becomes a hit—even the Philistines, Israel’s enemies, know the tune (1 Sa 21:11). Saul is immediately jealous of David. This one little song drives a wedge between the two of them for the rest of Saul’s life.
The song of the bow
(2 Samuel 1:17–27)
This is the first song of lament in the Bible. Thus far, we’ve seen songs about victory and covenant and wells, but this is the first of many sad songs.
David writes the song of the bow when he learns that Saul and Jonathan have died in battle. It’s a sad day for David and the whole nation: Jonathan was David’s best friend, and Saul was the anointed king of Israel.
So David chants a dirge for Saul and Jonathan. It’s called the song of the bow, and David has the sons of Judah learn it. David may have named it in honor of Jonathan, who was a skilled archer (2 Sa 1:22).
Your beauty, O Israel, is slain on your high places!
How have the mighty fallen!
David’s lament for Abner
(2 Samuel 3:33–34)
There’s a seven-year civil war between Judah and the rest of Israel after Saul dies. Judah names David their king, while the rest of the country serves Ish-bosheth, Saul’s son.
However, Ish-bosheth ticks off his own general, a warrior named Abner. Abner defects to David, swearing to make him king of all Israel. David accepts Abner’s alliance, and it looks like the war will finally come to an end.
There’s just one problem: Abner killed one of David’s men in an earlier battle, and now that man’s brother Joab wants revenge. So Joab pulls Abner aside at the city gate for a private chat—and murders Abner.
David is appalled, and writes a funeral chant for Abner.
Should Abner die as a fool dies?
Your hands were not bound, nor your feet put in fetters;
As one falls before the wicked, you have fallen.
Song of David’s deliverance
(2 Samuel 22, Ps 18)
Remember that song we looked at earlier: “Saul has slain his thousands, and David his ten thousands”? It really eats at Saul. The king realizes that the kingdom—his kingdom—will pass to David.
So Saul spends a good deal of his reign hunting David down.
Eventually, however, God delivers David from Saul—and the king pens a psalm of praise to his Savior.
This song is actually recorded twice in the Bible: once in Second Samuel, and again in the book of Psalms ( Ps 18).
The LORD is my rock and my fortress and my deliverer;
My God, my rock, in whom I take refuge,
My shield and the horn of my salvation, my stronghold and my refuge;
My savior, You save me from violence.
Asaph’s psalm of praise
(1 Ch 16:7, Ps 105)
When David commissions the temple’s construction, he ordains the house of Asaph to be the family of worship leaders. Asaph and his sons hold to their duties for hundreds of years. In fact, his family wrote 12 of the pieces in the book of Psalms .
This is the one David had them sing when the temple was commissioned. Like David’s psalm of deliverance, this one show s up in both a book of history and the book of Psalms (Ps 105).
Oh give thanks to the LORD, call upon His name;
Make known His deeds among the peoples.
Sing to Him, sing praises to Him;
Speak of all His wonders.
Asaph’s song for the temple’s completion
(2 Chronicles 5:13)
Here’s the shortest song in the Bible: just 10 words long in the original Hebrew.
The temple construction is finished, and the ark of the covenant is brought to the holy of holies. The sons of Asaph praise the Lord, and God’s glory fills the temple.
He indeed is good for His lovingkindness is everlasting.
Jehoshaphat’s battle song
(2 Ch 20:21)
King Jehoshaphat is outnumbered by his enemies, so he pleads with God for help. A man of the tribe of Levi brings Jehoshaphat a message from God: “Do not fear or be dismayed because of this great multitude, for the battle is not yours but God’s” (2 Ch 20:15).
So when they go to battle the next day, they put on the front lines not soldiers, but singers. And the singers cry out:
Give thanks to the LORD, for His lovingkindness is everlasting.
The Lord ambushes Jehoshaphat’s enemies, and saves his people once again.
The Song of Songs
Solomon wrote 1,005 songs(1 Ki 4:32), but one of them stands high above the rest. We know it as the Song of Solomon . The Bible calls it the “Song of Songs,” the greatest of all songs .
It’s an epic love song between a man, a woman, a wedding, and a wedding night. We’re not sure if it was originally written as just one song or if it’s an anthology of smaller love songs that Solomon string together.
I am my beloved’s,
And his desire is for me.
The five Lamentations
(La 1–5)
The Bible has three songbooks, documents made up entirely of lyrics. The first (and largest) is Psalms. The second is Song of Solomon. The third is Lamentations.
Unlike Psalms and Song of Solomon, Lamentations never claims to be a songbook. However, when the book was translated into Greek (the Septuagint), it was called a book of dirges.
This book mourns Jerusalem after she falls to the Babylonians. Each of the five chapters is a new poem—four are acrostics using the Hebrew alphabet.
How lonely sits the city
That was full of people!
She has become like a widow
Who was once great among the nations!
She who was a princess among the provinces
Has become a forced laborer!
Isaiah’s vineyard song
(Is 5:1–2)
The prophet Isaiah was tasked with preaching both judgment and comfort to the people of Israel. One of his messages uses a song as a parable.
My well-beloved had a vineyard on a fertile hill.
He dug it all around, removed its stones,
And planted it with the choicest vine.
And He built a tower in the middle of it
And also hewed out a wine vat in it;
Then He expected it to produce good grapes,
But it produced only worthless ones.
It’s a metaphor: the Lord is the one who built Israel, just as a man builds a vineyard. And instead of following the ways of God, Israel killed the innocents and perverted justice (Is 5:7).
Song of the harlot
(Isaiah 23:15)
I bet you weren’t expecting this one to be in the Bible—I wasn’t!
Isaiah is prophesying that the nearby land of Tyre will be forgotten and desolate for 70 years. The Babylonians will plunder her, and her harbors and fortresses will be ruined. but after that time, Tyre will engage in trade again, like an old harlot trying to be remembered by her suitors.
Take your harp, walk about the city,
O forgotten harlot;
Pluck the strings skillfully, sing many songs,
That you may be remembered.
Song of Judah’s protection
(Is 26:1–6)
Isaiah’s songs aren’t all sad ones. The prophet says that there will come a time when the Lord will once again protect Judah from her foes. In that day, the people will sing of how God shields and sustains her cities.
We have a strong city;
He sets up walls and ramparts for security.
Lament for the princes of Israel
(Ezek 19:1–14)
Ezekiel mourns Israel’s captivity—the lion-like nation has been hunted, captured, and dragged away.
They put him in a cage with hooks
And brought him to the king of Babylon;
They brought him in hunting nets
So that his voice would be heard no more
On the mountains of Israel.
The international lament for Tyre
(Ezek 26:17–18)
A good deal of the book of Ezekiel concerns God’s judgment on the Ancient Near East nations. One city that will fall to the Babylonians is Tyre, a rich city for sailors and traders. When the trading city of Tyre is sacked, Ezekiel predicts that the princes of the world will sing a song of lamentation for the fallen city.
How you have perished, O inhabited one,
From the seas, O renowned city,
Which was mighty on the sea,
She and her inhabitants,
Now the coastlands will tremble
On the day of your fall;
Yes, the coastlands which are by the sea
Will be terrified at your passing.
Ezekiel’s lament over Tyre
(Ezek 27)
The Lord tells Ezekiel to take up another dirge for Tyre, one which describes her downfall more thoroughly.
Your wealth, your wares, your merchandise,
Your sailors and your pilots,
Your repairers of seams, your dealers in merchandise
And all your men of war who are in you,
With all your company that is in your midst,
Will fall into the heart of the seas
On the day of your overthrow.
Sailor’s lament for Tyre
(Ezek 27:32–36)
This one’s a song within a song. While Ezekiel’s making his own lament for the city of Tyre, he says that the sailors and captains of the sea will sing their own song about their fallen city.
Who is like Tyre,
Like her who is silent in the midst of the sea?
Ezekiel’s second lamentation over the king of Tyre
(Ezek 28:12–19)
Ezekiel isn’t done with his sad news for Tyre—God has him take up yet another lamentation for the king.
The lyrics have given rise to a few different interpretations. Some read this song as a judgment on the human ruler of Tyre. Others see this as the story of Satan’s fall from grace, since Ezekiel describes the king as “an anointing cherub who covers” who was “in Eden, the garden of God.”
Of course, it could refer to both.
Your heart was lifted up because of your beauty;
You corrupted your wisdom by reason of your splendor.
I cast you to the ground;
I put you before kings,
That they may see you.
Ezekiel’s lament for Pharaoh
(Ezek 32:2)
Tyre finally gets a break, but only because God’s also bringing judgment to the land of Egypt. The Lord tells Ezekiel to take up a lamentation song over Pharaoh, too.
You compared yourself to a young lion of the nations,
Yet you are like the monster in the seas;
And you burst forth in your rivers
And muddied the waters with your feet
And fouled their rivers.
Amos’ dirge for the house of Israel
(Am 5:2)
The Lord has a message for the Northern Kingdom of Israel, so he sends them a shepherd named Amos . The Lord roars forth his message of justice: Israel must pay for the way they’ve mistreated the poor in the land.
The message is a harsh one, and the shepherd Amos sings a dirge over Israel.
She has fallen, she will not rise again—
The virgin Israel.
She lies neglected on her land;
There is none to raise her up.
Habakkuk’s song
(Hab 3)
The book of Habakkuk is only three chapters long. In the first two chapters, God and the prophet Habakkuk go back and forth about how God will deal with the violence and injustice in the land of Judah. It goes something like this:
Habakkuk: “How long, O Lord, before you put a stop to my people’s wickedness?”
God: “Don’t worry: I’m bringing the Babylonians against Jerusalem.”
Habakkuk: “Really? Those guys are even worse than we are!”
God: “And their judgment will be harsher than yours.”
Then Habakkuk writes the last song of the Old Testament: a psalm that praises God and begs for his compassion.
LORD, I have heard the report about You and I fear.
O LORD, revive Your work in the midst of the years,
In the midst of the years make it known;
In wrath remember mercy.
Worthy is the Lamb!
(Revelation 5:9–10)
In the book of Revelation , John records a scene in God’s heavenly throne room. There’s a book bound shut by seven seals, and no one is worthy to open it.
Until a Lamb appears.
The Lamb represents Jesus throughout the book of Revelation, and he is able to open the book. The others in the throne room bow down before the Lamb, taking up their harps to sing a new song.
Worthy are You to take the book and to break its seals;
For You were slain, and purchased for God with Your blood men from every tribe and tongue and people and nation.
You have made them to be a kingdom and priests to our God;
And they will reign upon the earth.
The last song of Moses and the Lamb
(Revelation 15:3)
Remember the first song of Moses—the one he sang after crossing the Red Sea? The last song in the Bible is like it.
Toward the end of the book of Revelation, John sees the Christians who are victorious over the beast. They sing a new song of Moses, one with different words, but a similar message: God has conquered the enemy, and he deserves praise.
Great and marvelous are Your works,
O Lord God, the Almighty;
Righteous and true are Your ways,
King of the nations!
Who will not fear, O Lord, and glorify Your name?
For You alone are holy;
For all the nations will come and worship before you,
For your righteous acts have been revealed.
Other songs the Bible mentions
In addition to all these, the Bible alludes to more songs without including the lyrics:
Solomon wrote 1,005 songs (1 Ki 4:32). The Bible doesn’t record them all, but we know which one Solomon thought was best: the Song of all Songs (Sol 1:1).
When king Hezekiah repairs the temple, the trumpeters kick off a song to the Lord (2 Ch 29:27).
Jeremiah writes a dirge for the fallen king Josiah, but this may be one of the chapters in Lamentations (2 Ch 35:25).
Some of the Levites who return from exile in Babylon are specifically responsible for songs of thanksgiving (Ne 12:8).
Jesus and the apostles sing a hymn in the upper room after Christ’s last supper (Mt 26:30).
Paul and Silas sing a hymn when they’re in prison—before God breaks them out (Ac 16:25).
The 144,000 redeemed witnesses in John’s revelation sing a song before the throne of God, the living creatures, and the elders—a song only the 144,000 know (Re 14:3).
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Which Shakespeare play could be summarised as 'The magician Prospero shipwrecks the enemies that originally ousted him from Italy, but when Ferdinand falls for his daughter Miranda he finally faces them down and learns to forgive'? | Shakespeare Basics for Grown-Ups: Everything You Need to Know About the Bard by E. Foley, B. Coates |, Paperback | Barnes & Noble®
Overview
An essential guide to Shakespeare, from the international bestselling authors of Homework for Grown-Ups
The Bard was so incredibly prolific that even most Shakespeare scholars would welcome the occasional refresher course, and most of the rest of us haven’t even got a clue as to what a petard actually is. Fear not, the bestselling authors of Homework for Grown-Ups are here to help. For parents keen to help with their children’s homework, casual theatre-goers who want to enhance their enjoyment and understanding, and the general reader who feels they should probably know more, Shakespeare Basics for Grown-Ups includes information on the key works, historical context, contemporaries and influences, famous speeches and quotations, modern day adaptations, and much, much more.
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Henry fails to control his nobles—cue War of the Roses.
Henry VI, Part 3
Henry loses his throne, regains it, soliloquizes on a molehill, loses the throne again and is stabbed to death by the future Richard III.
Richard III
Hunchback ubervillain has his brother drowned in a barrel of wine, his nephews (the “Princes in the Tower”) murdered, poisons his wife, is surprised when people start to turn against him, and then gets killed in battle by the future King Henry VII after inconveniently losing his horse.
Henry VIII
Henry meets and falls in love with the beautiful Anne Boleyn at one of Cardinal Wolsey’s parties and ousts his current wife, crowning Anne as Queen and allowing Cranmer, the Archbishop of Canterbury, to predict great things at the birth of their daughter Elizabeth.
TRAGEDIES
Troilus and Cressida
Troilus (Paris and Hector’s brother) falls in love with Cressida (the daughter of a Trojan priest) and after a single night of passion loses her to the Greeks waiting outside the city’s walls—cue much teeth-gnashing and revenge.
Coriolanus
Martial hero Coriolanus saves Rome from Volscian invasion, is persuaded to run for consul by his manipulative mother, banished when the people turn on him, dissuaded from enacting revenge on his former home by his family, and finally murdered by those vexing Volscians.
Titus Andronicus
Roman general Titus is infuriated when his archenemy and former captive, Tamora, Queen of the Goths, marries the emperor: murder, rape, mutilation, cannibalism and infanticide leave pretty much everyone dead.
Romeo and Juliet
Unsupportive relatives ruin young lovers’ bliss, leading to a fatal fake suicide mix-up.
Timon of Athens
Generous playboy Timon gets into debt and leaves Athens to make his home in a cave, whereupon he discovers mounds of gold, and dies after realizing his only true friend is his servant Flavius.
Julius Caesar
Worthy Roman Brutus, concerned about his dictator friend’s political intentions, gets caught up in a conspiracy that ends with him stabbing a disappointed Caesar before being driven to suicide by his rival Mark Antony’s superior oratory and tactics.
Macbeth
The Thane Macbeth receives a prophecy from three “weyard sisters” that he’ll be King of Scotland, and his murderously ambitious wife helps him to achieve his dream, but at the very worst price.
Hamlet
Listless student prince Hamlet, traumatized by his villainous uncle Claudius’ fratricide, is inspired by the ghost of his father to feign insanity, sending his girlfriend Ophelia loopy and resulting in a catastrophic poison-and-fencing bloodbath.
King Lear
Old King Lear makes a terrible mistake in trusting his bad daughters and exiling his truest child, Cordelia, before going mad on a stormy heath and dying with Cordelia’s expired body in his arms.
Othello
Moorish Venetian general Othello skips off to Cyprus with his beloved wife Desdemona and apparent best friend Iago, who makes it his mission to destroy their lives using only a handkerchief and a lot of insinuation.
Antony and Cleopatra
Mark Antony, one of Rome’s three leaders, neglects his duties in favor of a passionate affair with Egyptian Queen Cleopatra, incurring Caesar’s wrath and resulting in their bloody double suicide, by sword and, more inventively, by asp bite.
Cymbeline
British King Cymbeline, encouraged by his evil Queen, banishes his daughter Imogen’s secret husband Posthumus, and annoys the Romans, but thankfully Imogen resists various ensuing attempts on her life and it all gets sorted out in the end.
THE LIFE AND TIMES OF WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
“The web of our life is of a mingled yarn”
What We Know About Shakespeare’s Life
Tantalisingly, we know very little about William Shakespeare’s life. His thoughts on love, marriage, politics, children, death, sin, temptation and sexuality were never recorded, apart from in his works, of course, which are open to endless interpretation. Despite the best efforts of archivists and scholars, Will remains an enigma, a blank canvas on which countless biographers have painted their own vivid and often fanciful pictures. Despite how familiar you may feel you are with the Bard’s visage, there are only a handful of portraits of him in existence and historians still squabble over which are most likely to be accurate. The one above is the Chandos portrait from the National Gallery in London, attributed to painter John Taylor, which was said to have been originally in the possession of writer William Davenant, Shakespeare’s godson (and, as rumor had it, according to John Aubrey’s Brief Lives, his illegitimate son).
So what do we know about Shakespeare? There is a record of his baptism at Holy Trinity Church in the market town of Stratford-upon-Avon on April 26, 1564, and, given that in Elizabethan times children were typically baptised between two and four days after their birth, many people hedge their bets and take our national poet’s birthday to be April 23, which is also, rather conveniently, St. George’s Day. His father, John Shakespeare, was a glove-maker (and, pleasingly, a municipal ale-taster), and his mother, Mary Arden, was the daughter of a well-known and respected landowner. Shakespeare was probably educated at the King’s New Grammar School, where he would have been coached extensively in the rigors of Latin and rhetoric: you can see him flexing those classical muscles in the plays where certain characters use magnificent rhetoric and persuasion to manipulate the action—think of Iago in Othello, Lady Macbeth in Macbeth and Portia in The Merchant of Venice. Older boys spoke Latin in class, and they would have had a good knowledge of classical texts and mythology.
We don’t know what Shakespeare did after school—this is the first example of his “lost years,” where Shakespeare simply disappears from the record books—but it’s likely that his father’s financial difficulties (of which there is a record) prevented him from going to university, and Will probably spent his teenage years as an apprentice in his father’s glove-making business. It’s easy to speculate how frustrating this might have been for a young man with such an intense literary gift, but then again maybe he loved it. Many critics fall into the trap of assuming it’s possible to guess Shakespeare’s thoughts and opinions from our idea of what we would like the author of such brilliant plays and poems to be like. Some seventeenth-century accounts of the “lost years” have it that he was forced to run away from home after being caught poaching deer from Sir Thomas Lucy’s nearby estate at Charlecote. Again, there’s an appeal to the idea of Shakespeare as a kind of proto–Danny the Champion of the World, but there’s evidence that the deer park was instated at Charlecote only in the seventeenth century, so the sums don’t quite add up.
Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway in 1582 when she was twenty-six and he was eighteen. The age gap was unusual, but even more unusual was Shakespeare’s youth when he got hitched. The age of consent was twenty-one, so his father would have had to agree to the match. Perhaps this is explained by the fact that Anne was three months pregnant when they tied the knot; their first daughter Susanna was born in 1583, followed by twins Judith and Hamnet eighteen months later in 1585. Their marriage has been the subject of huge speculation—did Anne ever accompany her famous husband to London and witness the literary life he led there? Was theirs a union of mutual adoration, or one dogged by ill-temper and drudgery? It was certainly a long marriage, but we have no way of knowing if it was a happy one—even Shakespeare’s last will and testament fails to set the record straight in any convincing way (see page 16).
After the record of his twins’ birth there is another long “lost” period, lasting right up to 1592, all the more frustrating because it’s during this time that he left Stratford for London, and made the transition to successful actor, playwright and part-owner of a theater. Many theories abound: taking as evidence a preoccupation with the ocean and storms in his plays (think The Tempest, Othello, Twelfth Night, etc.), some wonder if he went to sea, possibly spending time in Italy. Or perhaps he went north, working as a tutor for a Catholic family, before meeting the Lord Derby’s Men—a company of actors—and traveling south with them to the bright lights (or at least flaming torches) of London. Or did he become a player in the Queen’s Men—another acting company—and begin to ply his trade with them? We’ll never know for sure, but the next concrete placing of Shakespeare is a bit of a battering in print, in Robert Greene’s Groatsworth of Wit, Bought with a Million of Repentance (1592) (see page 16).
The coat of arms purchased by Shakespeare
By the end of the 1590s, Shakespeare was a wealthy man, probably one of the first British writers to accumulate a stash of cash from the proceeds of his literary endeavors by taking shares in the theater that performed his plays (records show he made a bit on the side from some illegal malt-hoarding and tax evasion too—he appears to have been a canny businessman). He broke the mold by securing for himself a percentage of box-office takings and was able to buy a flashy house, New Place in Stratford, and his status was so elevated that he was permitted to purchase a coat of arms bearing the motto “Non sanz droict,” or “Not without right.”
In the late summer of 1596 Shakespeare’s son Hamnet died at the age of eleven, from unknown causes. His daughters Susanna and Judith went on to marry and have children: Judith had three, but they all died young, and Susanna’s daughter Elizabeth died childless, ending the line.
By 1613, Shakespeare was spending more and more time in Stratford, and had stopped writing plays—again, the reason why he ceased writing remains a mystery. The fact that he signed his will in March 1616 probably means that his health was failing. The following month, close to his birthday, he died and was buried in the Holy Trinity Church. His will offers up another enigma: Anne Hathaway, his wife of thirty-four years, is mentioned in just twelve devastatingly brief words, “I gyve unto my wief my second best bed with the furniture.” Much has been made of this apparent slight, and of course in modern times we might feel a touch aggrieved to be honored after all those years of wedlock with a dodgy bed. But in fact it’s all about context. One theory is that the best bed would probably have been reserved for guests, and would have been considered an heirloom—i.e., an item reserved for heirs, not wives. Clearly the wondrous wordsmith didn’t see his last will and testament as the place for anything more enlightening or flowery about his marriage. The inscription on his grave is a dream for conspiracy theorists—like an English Tutankhamun it offers up a curse on whoever disturbs his remains, prompting some to speculate there may be a hidden manuscript buried with the Bard.
Robert Greene’s “upstart crow”
Robert Greene was a playwright who was about four years older than Shakespeare, and an established member of London’s literary scene when Shakespeare arrived on it. He was part of a group known as the University Wits, along with other well-educated writers like Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Lodge, George Peele and Thomas Nashe. A heavy drinker and gambler, womanizer and liar, he was also in possession of a monster ego. A fun chap to be around then, and certainly one with a chip on his shoulder about young William’s accelerating success in his milieu.
It’s not entirely clear why Shakespeare bothered Greene so much, but probably his audacity in believing he could move from being a provincial, lower-class actor to competing with the establishment playwrights rankled with this snooty, and less significant, writer. Shakespeare had not gone to Oxford or Cambridge University, as most of his contemporary playwrights had, and even though he was writing his way into the history books as one of the most brilliant minds England has ever produced, he was still just a man from the provinces. It also appears that Shakespeare did not throw himself into the gentleman poets’ scene with the gusto they might have wanted; he wasn’t a big drinker—according to John Aubrey’s Lives, he was a man who “wouldn’t be debauched”—and he had his head screwed on when it came to finances. Greene, on the other hand, died penniless and bitter at the age of thirty-two in September 1592 (with Marlowe pursuing him toward his Maker the following year), leaving behind enough unpublished work for a printer named Henry Chettle to produce a posthumous pamphlet entitled Greene’s Groatsworth of Wit, Bought with a Million of Repentance—essentially a moralistic fable which is revealed at the end to be autobiographical.
The passage we’re interested in begins with a warning to the other members of his gang not to trust actors who mangle poets’ words. And he goes on: “Yes trust them not: for there is an upstart crow, beautified with our feathers, that with his Tyger’s hart wrapt in a Player’s hyde supposes he is as well able to bombast out a blanke verse as the best of you: and being an absolute Johannes Factotum [jack of all trades], is in his owne conceit the only Shake-scene in the countrey.” That lovely “tiger’s heart” metaphor is a direct lift from the first act of Henry VI, Part 3. As Stephen Greenblatt points out in his excellent biography Will in the World, Shakespeare got his revenge, with an effusive apology from publisher Henry Chettle: “I am as sorry as if the original fault had been my fault, because myself have seen his demeanour no less civil than he excellent in the quality he professes,” and a nice dig through Polonius in Hamlet: “that’s an ill phrase, a vile phrase, ‘beautified’ is a vile phrase.”
Good frend for Jesus sake forbeare
To digg the dust encloased heare.
Blese be the man that spares thes stones,
And curst be he that moves my bones.
This, and the other gaps in his biography, opens the door for fans to look for clues in his work. Feel free to enjoy yourself conjecturing. But try not to be disappointed that we don’t know more facts about Shakespeare the man; sometimes it’s best not to get to know your heroes—it keeps the magic alive.
Why Is Shakespeare Called the Bard?
“Bard” is an ancient Gaelic term meaning poet. It initially referred to a minstrel who might travel from village to village reciting legends of chieftains and their triumphs. Shakespeare has been given the epithet because he is the definitive poet, and recognized not just in Britain but across the world as such (though Scots might disagree—Robert Burns is known as the Bard in Caledonia). It’s assumed that he was first called the Bard by David Garrick (see page 283) during the celebratory Shakespeare Jubilee held in Stratford in 1769 in his snappily titled “An Ode upon dedicating a building, and erecting a statue, to Shakespeare, at Stratford upon Avon,” which read:
Sweetest bard that ever sung,
Nature’s glory, Fancy’s child;
Never sure did witching tongue,
Warble forth such wood-notes wild!
What Was Life Like in Shakespeare’s Day?
Given how universal Shakespeare’s work feels, it’s easy to imagine he was just like us; that if we met him in the pub we’d have loads in common. However,
London in Shakespeare’s day
it is important to remember that the times he lived in in were very different from ours. Here are a few facts to help you orient yourself in his world.
• Population There were about 4 million people living in England in the late sixteenth century. The English population today is about 53.5 million.
• Disease Outbreaks of the deadly bubonic plague frequently wiped out whole communities. Stratford lost a sixth of its inhabitants in 1564.
• Queen Elizabeth Elizabeth’s rule (1558–1603) is now considered England’s golden age of stability and achievement, but things didn’t always look so rosy for her. Her father murdered her mother, she was disinherited then reinstated in line for the throne, she changed the religion of her country, the Pope sanctioned her assassination, she endured serious internal and external plots to overthrow her, she failed to subdue the rebellious Irish, and her decision not to marry and produce an heir created an atmosphere of anxiety and paranoia about the succession, resulting in a ruthless international and domestic secret-service network, reliant on torture.
• Cities London was the third-largest city in Europe, after Paris and Naples.
• Communities The majority of people lived in the countryside and depended on unreliable harvests. The biggest towns were London, Norwich, Bristol, York, Salisbury, Newcastle, Exeter and Coventry.
• Feudalism This period saw a significant change from a feudal hierarchy that encouraged a powerful chivalric noble class to a centralization of power around the absolute monarch. Historians have identified this period as one of transition from the ideals and practices of medieval times to the beginnings of the internationally connected modern age.
• Religion England had been Catholic up until 1533 when Henry VIII broke with Rome in order to marry Elizabeth’s mother, Anne Boleyn. It was then Protestant until 1553 when Mary I reinstated Catholicism. On Mary’s death in 1558 Elizabeth returned the country to Protestantism. Religion was central to the general population’s life so this was a very confusing time. Shakespeare’s sister was baptised a Catholic in 1558 but just six years later he was christened a Protestant. There were still Catholic priests in hiding around the country giving masses to those who secretly held on to the old religion.
• Violence Society was generally more violent than today. Many citizens were armed, there was no real police force, there were public executions, frequent rioting and brawling; popular pastimes included bear-baiting and dog- and cock-fighting, and the severed heads of traitors were displayed on the walls in the capital. The literary world didn’t exist in some rarefied bubble outside of this: Ben Jonson killed a man, Christopher Marlowe was stabbed in the eye and Shakespeare himself was named in a court record as having made a man fear for his life or “bodily hurt.”
• Science The general view at this time was still that the sun orbited the earth. However, it was a period of great scientific endeavors, with Galileo, Descartes, Francis Bacon and William Gilbert all making important contributions. There were also radical developments in philosophy and ethics from intellectuals like Machiavelli and Montaigne.
• Europe At the start of Elizabeth’s reign, Protestant England was surrounded on all sides by Catholic nations—Ireland, France, Scotland (until 1560) and the Spanish-controlled Low Countries. This was an uncomfortable position, particularly after 1572 when thousands of members of the previously tolerated Protestant population in France were slaughtered in the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre.
• Alcohol Much of the population was probably tipsy most of the time—water was unsafe to drink so people drank beer instead. Happy days.
• Foreign Policy The old adversary France was replaced as English Enemy Number One by Spain, ruled by Elizabeth’s brother-in-law, Mary’s widower, Philip II. Spain tried to invade in 1588. The destruction of the Armada was a source of national pride but there was great anxiety about new threats.
• Family People generally married in their twenties—Shakespeare bucked the trend by getting hitched in his late teens. Marriages were usually arranged by parents and there was little emphasis on privacy in domestic life. Wives and children belonged to, and obeyed, the man of the house. Girls did not generally go to school. The firstborn son inherited everything. Because children were so important to property rights, virginity and chastity were extremely important standards for noblewomen.
• War The Protestant Reformation and the rise of powerful nation-states led to Europe becoming a hotbed of conflict. The tensions leading to the Thirty Years War (1618–48) were ramping up, resulting in a devastating and vast conflict that would see all the major European powers set against one another, battling over religion and influence.
• Gangs Nobles had groups of men who served them and hung around with them. These “retainers” wore special clothing, a bit like gangs now, to show whom they supported. There were frequently fights between rival groups, as at the beginning of Romeo and Juliet.
• Empire The English maritime explorations that were just beginning at this time set the country on the path toward the massive British Empire and the nation’s involvement in the slave trade. The state of Virginia in America is named after Elizabeth’s persona of the Virgin Queen.
• Food Potatoes were a new and exotic food, brought to Europe by Spanish conquistadors from Peru, and people didn’t drink coffee or tea or eat chocolate.
• Race There were Moors (North Africans of Arab-Berber descent) in London (helpfully anti-Spanish), and Elizabeth had a few black servants on her staff. However, in 1596 and in 1601 she issued edicts expelling “Negroes and Blackamoors” because of fears they were using resources and taking away jobs from the English—reasoning that has familiar echoes today. There were barely any Jews in England since their expulsion in 1290. However, London was extremely cosmopolitan because of trade. People were suspicious of foreigners but not racist in the modern sense.
• Terrorism In 1605 the country was stunned by the attempted Catholic attack on Parliament by Guy Fawkes.
• Class The middle class was starting to become a force to be reckoned with and the possibility of social mobility had only just taken root. Merchants and workers in the wool trade were gaining more and more power due to their economic success. However, England was a very hierarchical country and the monarchy encouraged the population to view this hierarchy as divinely ordained. There was even a law prescribing which classes could wear certain fabrics and colors.
• Calendar England was on a different calendar from the rest of Catholic Europe, which adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1582. (England didn’t until 1752.)
• Legitimacy Illegitimate children were regarded as morally inferior. They couldn’t inherit or marry.
• Church Everyone had to regularly attend (Protestant) church services, or face fines (and be regarded with suspicion).
• London London was growing at a breakneck rate but still had a population of about 300,000 people, which is approximately the population of the Borough of Lambeth today. (London’s total population is currently more than 8,000,000.)
• Succession Elizabeth died in 1603 without ever naming her successor to the throne. James I was just the most obvious and well-supported choice.
• King James King James I’s mother, Mary Queen of Scots, was executed in 1587 for involving herself in Catholic plots against Elizabeth.
• Scotland James’s accession brought the governments of England and Scotland under one rule, although they remained separate countries until 1707.
• Sewers The main sewer in London was the Thames, which was filled with stinking rubbish, human and commercial waste, while still being used as an important travel artery and a source of water. There was only one bridge—London Bridge—which was populated with houses and shops.
• Language The English language was rapidly expanding. There were no fixed grammatical rules and the same words were often spelled in many different ways.
• America When Shakespeare was born, Europe had been aware of the existence of America for just seventy-two years. Columbus had landed in America in 1492.
• Witchcraft Belief in witchcraft was prevalent and women suspected of being witches were persecuted. James I even wrote a book about them and involved himself in witch trials.
• Regicide This was a time of great power for the British Crown but James I’s son, Charles I, would end up being executed by his people in 1649 and England would become a republic until 1660.
• Puritans Just twenty-six years after Shakespeare’s death, the politically ascendant activist Protestants called Puritans would close all the theaters. In 1648 they would destroy them and any remaining actors would be arrested and flogged. The theaters would remain closed until the 1660 restoration of the monarchy.
• Life Expectancy Surviving childhood was a difficult business, and average life expectancy was around the mid-forties. Many women died in childbirth and medical care still revolved around the idea of the four humors (see page 232), bleeding patients being a popular treatment.
• Printing The first book to be printed in English had only been made in 1473, less than a century before Shakespeare’s birth. People didn’t see many visual images in their day-to-day lives, particularly after the Reformation, when artworks were removed from churches.
Queen Elizabeth I and Shakespeare
Overcoming a tricky start in life—she was banished from her father King Henry VIII’s court at the age of two and a half—by the time Elizabeth’s and Shakespeare’s paths crossed she was firmly entrenched as the titan of royalty we recognize today.
She was wickedly clever, fluent in both French and Italian, and enjoyed translating the classics and composing her own sonnets. She was a keen patron of the arts, and under her reign there was a remarkable flowering of English literature, particularly in drama—as well as Shakespeare, other literary giants such as Marlowe, Donne, Spenser and Kyd found their voices. Though Shakespeare is thought of as an Elizabethan writer, the queen was in fact in her late fifties when the Lord Chamberlain’s Men were performing at court, and though it’s true he spent more years of his writing career under Elizabeth’s rule, he was in fact more prolific during her successor James I’s reign. Elizabeth died in 1603, and there is a suggestion that her death and the end of the golden age is alluded to in Sonnet 107, which mentions the eclipse of the “mortal moon.”
There is no evidence that Shakespeare and Elizabeth actually met but it is not beyond the realm of possibility, as Shakespeare’s plays were performed at her court many times. Understandably, in fictionalized accounts of Shakespeare’s life, particularly on film or television, the temptation to eavesdrop on what these two magnificent figures from English history might have said to each other is irresistible, so it has become a common misconception that they were acquaintances.
Women in Shakespeare’s Time
Elizabethan shepherdess
For a nation ruled by a woman considered second in authority to God, the status of women in Elizabethan times was shockingly lowly. Most, aside from a very few of noble birth, were not afforded an education. Even those lucky ones were being trained for a life at home: they learned fruit preserving and bookkeeping rather than Plato and Pythagoras. And if a girl did manage to gain a good education, there was nowhere for her to exercise that learning, because women were not allowed to enter the professions: there were no female actors, doctors, lawyers or priests, though they could become spinners or weavers if they wanted. They had no vote. The duty of women, whether rich or poor, was to their husbands; in effect, they belonged to them. Petruchio’s words about Kate in The Taming of the Shrew are full of the language of ownership: “She is my goods, my chattels; she is my house, / My household stuff, my field, my barn, / My horse, my ox, my ass, my any thing.” Women were expected to bring a dowry to marriage—goods, money or land—also known as a marriage portion. A good woman was expected to be kind, patient, chaste, humble, soft and pliant, and since outer appearance was seen to correlate directly to inner status, they had to pay attention to their looks, Elizabethans particularly prizing roundness of hips and paleness of skin. Which makes it all the more extraordinary that Shakespeare created and gave prominence in his plays to women who are complex, confident, capable of manipulation and merriment, often with the lion’s share of lines. Rosalind, Portia, Katherina, Lady Macbeth, Beatrice, Juliet, Cleopatra, Viola and Titania are as unforgettable as any Hamlet, Lear or Othello.
How Innovative Was Shakespeare?
It’s hard to imagine now, when English literature studies have revolved around him for so long, but Shakespeare’s genius did not develop out of a firmly established literary tradition of English theater. The medieval miracle, mystery and morality plays (see page 45) that were popular in his childhood were very different from the sophisticated drama he and his contemporaries produced. Their radical reimagining of what drama could and should be was part of the burgeoning of the arts across Europe, which was inspired by classical models and commonly known as the Renaissance. Shakespeare was in the vanguard of those developing the new form.
• The Earl of Surrey had only introduced blank verse to England with the 1557 publication of his translation of some of Virgil’s Aeneid.
• The same year saw the first publication of the sonnet form in English, first developed by the poet, and favorite of Anne Boleyn, Thomas Wyatt.
• The first permanent theater in England was built in 1576 by James Burbage. The lack of competition is evident in his choice of name: the Theatre.
• Plays were not seen as a serious literary enterprise. In 1612 Sir Thomas Bodley was collecting work for the new Bodleian library but told his staff not to bother with drama: “haply some plays may be worthy the keeping, but hardly one in forty.”
Shakespeare’s Globe
Engraving of Shakespeare’s London showing the Globe Theatre
One of the great leaps forward of the English Renaissance was the creation of theaters as spaces in which sophisticated works could be performed. In medieval times, theaters simply did not exist. Actors were regarded as little more than vagabonds who traveled the country performing juggling acts or mimes from the back of open carts or at inn courtyards, and the only alternative entertainments were the religious dramas presented on holy days. But by the late sixteenth century young men who had been educated at Oxford and Cambridge began to put into practice in London the fruits of a classical education; drama developed rapidly, borrowing plots from legend and classical texts, introducing elaborate time frames, multiple roles and featuring protagonists with complex psychological profiles. In 1576 James Burbage built the Theatre in Shoreditch and it was here that the careers of Shakespeare, Thomas Kyd and Christopher Marlowe really began to take off. This didn’t mean that drama became respectable: like many forms of popular entertainment it was considered by many to be vulgar, and plays were often criticized for promoting immorality and sedition. Theaters were located mainly in the red-light district, along with the bear-baiting and dog-fighting rings. Shakespeare was part of the Lord Chamberlain’s Men (founded in 1594), later renamed the King’s Men after the ascension of James I to the throne in 1603. They performed at the Theatre, the Curtain and then the Globe. The other main performing troupe in London was called the Admiral’s Men, but history remembers them as a footnote—after all, they didn’t have Shakespeare.
By 1598 the lease on the Theatre had expired and the Lord Chamberlain’s Men were in dispute with the owners of the land it stood on. James Burbage had died in 1597 and the venue had been vacant since his death; then one wintry night in December, Richard Burbage, James’s son, led the Men to dismantle the Theatre and move the valuable building materials across the river to a new site in Southwark. It wasn’t exactly theft: Richard knew his father had a clause in his contract with the owners of the Theatre, stating that while they owned the land, the theater itself belonged to the company, but it was an audacious act. By the end of the summer of 1599 the rebuilt Globe Theatre was up and running, probably opening with a production of As You Like It. Profits were shared between the five or so “housekeepers” of the company, who, along with Shakespeare, included William Kemp, Augustine Philips, John Heminges and Thomas Pope, though personnel changed over the years.
The Globe was vast: it could hold audiences of around three thousand and was extremely popular. Historians have estimated that about 20 percent of the population of London regularly visited the theater. As new plays were put on almost every afternoon there was plenty to keep people coming back. The design of the Globe followed existing venues for bear-baiting, and was loosely based on the layout of the inn courtyards and marketplaces where players had plied their trade in the 1570s. It was a twenty-sided polygon, as close as you could probably get to an O, comprising a wooden outer building around a paved courtyard into which the stage jutted. Many of the audience paid the low entrance fee of a penny to stand in the courtyard, or “pit;” these spectators were known as the groundlings. For those deeper of pocket there were three tiers of covered galleries. On each side of the stage, at the back, was a door, through which actors would enter and exit, and behind those doors was what we now call the dressing room, but in Shakespeare’s day was called the “tiring house.” Two posts at the front of the stage held up a cover to protect the actors, their very few props and costumes from the rain. No such luck for those standing in the pit. In the cover was a trapdoor through which characters could be lowered from the heavens, and underneath there was a trapdoor in the stage, too, through which a ghost, like King Hamlet, might appear. There was also a balcony that ran the length of the stage for those scenes that required an upper window. Because a large part of the audience was standing so close to the action, drinking beer and eating hazelnuts, and the plays were performed in daylight, there was a less formal atmosphere than that found in theaters today.
Audiences enjoyed the elaborate costumes, but there was minimal set dressing and no atmospheric lighting, so the words and the performances had to be incredibly powerful. Since acting was considered a dishonorable profession, women were prevented by law from becoming actresses, so female roles were played by young men or boys right up until the 1660s when the moral stigma receded. Cleopatra ironically refers to this practice in Antony and Cleopatra when she says “I shall see / Some squeaking Cleopatra boy my greatness . . .”
| Tempest (codename) |
Which member of the Royal family is Earl of Carrick and Baron of Renfrew? | Shakespeare Basics for Grown-Ups: Everything You Need to Know About the Bard by E. Foley, B. Coates |, Paperback | Barnes & Noble®
Overview
An essential guide to Shakespeare, from the international bestselling authors of Homework for Grown-Ups
The Bard was so incredibly prolific that even most Shakespeare scholars would welcome the occasional refresher course, and most of the rest of us haven’t even got a clue as to what a petard actually is. Fear not, the bestselling authors of Homework for Grown-Ups are here to help. For parents keen to help with their children’s homework, casual theatre-goers who want to enhance their enjoyment and understanding, and the general reader who feels they should probably know more, Shakespeare Basics for Grown-Ups includes information on the key works, historical context, contemporaries and influences, famous speeches and quotations, modern day adaptations, and much, much more.
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Henry fails to control his nobles—cue War of the Roses.
Henry VI, Part 3
Henry loses his throne, regains it, soliloquizes on a molehill, loses the throne again and is stabbed to death by the future Richard III.
Richard III
Hunchback ubervillain has his brother drowned in a barrel of wine, his nephews (the “Princes in the Tower”) murdered, poisons his wife, is surprised when people start to turn against him, and then gets killed in battle by the future King Henry VII after inconveniently losing his horse.
Henry VIII
Henry meets and falls in love with the beautiful Anne Boleyn at one of Cardinal Wolsey’s parties and ousts his current wife, crowning Anne as Queen and allowing Cranmer, the Archbishop of Canterbury, to predict great things at the birth of their daughter Elizabeth.
TRAGEDIES
Troilus and Cressida
Troilus (Paris and Hector’s brother) falls in love with Cressida (the daughter of a Trojan priest) and after a single night of passion loses her to the Greeks waiting outside the city’s walls—cue much teeth-gnashing and revenge.
Coriolanus
Martial hero Coriolanus saves Rome from Volscian invasion, is persuaded to run for consul by his manipulative mother, banished when the people turn on him, dissuaded from enacting revenge on his former home by his family, and finally murdered by those vexing Volscians.
Titus Andronicus
Roman general Titus is infuriated when his archenemy and former captive, Tamora, Queen of the Goths, marries the emperor: murder, rape, mutilation, cannibalism and infanticide leave pretty much everyone dead.
Romeo and Juliet
Unsupportive relatives ruin young lovers’ bliss, leading to a fatal fake suicide mix-up.
Timon of Athens
Generous playboy Timon gets into debt and leaves Athens to make his home in a cave, whereupon he discovers mounds of gold, and dies after realizing his only true friend is his servant Flavius.
Julius Caesar
Worthy Roman Brutus, concerned about his dictator friend’s political intentions, gets caught up in a conspiracy that ends with him stabbing a disappointed Caesar before being driven to suicide by his rival Mark Antony’s superior oratory and tactics.
Macbeth
The Thane Macbeth receives a prophecy from three “weyard sisters” that he’ll be King of Scotland, and his murderously ambitious wife helps him to achieve his dream, but at the very worst price.
Hamlet
Listless student prince Hamlet, traumatized by his villainous uncle Claudius’ fratricide, is inspired by the ghost of his father to feign insanity, sending his girlfriend Ophelia loopy and resulting in a catastrophic poison-and-fencing bloodbath.
King Lear
Old King Lear makes a terrible mistake in trusting his bad daughters and exiling his truest child, Cordelia, before going mad on a stormy heath and dying with Cordelia’s expired body in his arms.
Othello
Moorish Venetian general Othello skips off to Cyprus with his beloved wife Desdemona and apparent best friend Iago, who makes it his mission to destroy their lives using only a handkerchief and a lot of insinuation.
Antony and Cleopatra
Mark Antony, one of Rome’s three leaders, neglects his duties in favor of a passionate affair with Egyptian Queen Cleopatra, incurring Caesar’s wrath and resulting in their bloody double suicide, by sword and, more inventively, by asp bite.
Cymbeline
British King Cymbeline, encouraged by his evil Queen, banishes his daughter Imogen’s secret husband Posthumus, and annoys the Romans, but thankfully Imogen resists various ensuing attempts on her life and it all gets sorted out in the end.
THE LIFE AND TIMES OF WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
“The web of our life is of a mingled yarn”
What We Know About Shakespeare’s Life
Tantalisingly, we know very little about William Shakespeare’s life. His thoughts on love, marriage, politics, children, death, sin, temptation and sexuality were never recorded, apart from in his works, of course, which are open to endless interpretation. Despite the best efforts of archivists and scholars, Will remains an enigma, a blank canvas on which countless biographers have painted their own vivid and often fanciful pictures. Despite how familiar you may feel you are with the Bard’s visage, there are only a handful of portraits of him in existence and historians still squabble over which are most likely to be accurate. The one above is the Chandos portrait from the National Gallery in London, attributed to painter John Taylor, which was said to have been originally in the possession of writer William Davenant, Shakespeare’s godson (and, as rumor had it, according to John Aubrey’s Brief Lives, his illegitimate son).
So what do we know about Shakespeare? There is a record of his baptism at Holy Trinity Church in the market town of Stratford-upon-Avon on April 26, 1564, and, given that in Elizabethan times children were typically baptised between two and four days after their birth, many people hedge their bets and take our national poet’s birthday to be April 23, which is also, rather conveniently, St. George’s Day. His father, John Shakespeare, was a glove-maker (and, pleasingly, a municipal ale-taster), and his mother, Mary Arden, was the daughter of a well-known and respected landowner. Shakespeare was probably educated at the King’s New Grammar School, where he would have been coached extensively in the rigors of Latin and rhetoric: you can see him flexing those classical muscles in the plays where certain characters use magnificent rhetoric and persuasion to manipulate the action—think of Iago in Othello, Lady Macbeth in Macbeth and Portia in The Merchant of Venice. Older boys spoke Latin in class, and they would have had a good knowledge of classical texts and mythology.
We don’t know what Shakespeare did after school—this is the first example of his “lost years,” where Shakespeare simply disappears from the record books—but it’s likely that his father’s financial difficulties (of which there is a record) prevented him from going to university, and Will probably spent his teenage years as an apprentice in his father’s glove-making business. It’s easy to speculate how frustrating this might have been for a young man with such an intense literary gift, but then again maybe he loved it. Many critics fall into the trap of assuming it’s possible to guess Shakespeare’s thoughts and opinions from our idea of what we would like the author of such brilliant plays and poems to be like. Some seventeenth-century accounts of the “lost years” have it that he was forced to run away from home after being caught poaching deer from Sir Thomas Lucy’s nearby estate at Charlecote. Again, there’s an appeal to the idea of Shakespeare as a kind of proto–Danny the Champion of the World, but there’s evidence that the deer park was instated at Charlecote only in the seventeenth century, so the sums don’t quite add up.
Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway in 1582 when she was twenty-six and he was eighteen. The age gap was unusual, but even more unusual was Shakespeare’s youth when he got hitched. The age of consent was twenty-one, so his father would have had to agree to the match. Perhaps this is explained by the fact that Anne was three months pregnant when they tied the knot; their first daughter Susanna was born in 1583, followed by twins Judith and Hamnet eighteen months later in 1585. Their marriage has been the subject of huge speculation—did Anne ever accompany her famous husband to London and witness the literary life he led there? Was theirs a union of mutual adoration, or one dogged by ill-temper and drudgery? It was certainly a long marriage, but we have no way of knowing if it was a happy one—even Shakespeare’s last will and testament fails to set the record straight in any convincing way (see page 16).
After the record of his twins’ birth there is another long “lost” period, lasting right up to 1592, all the more frustrating because it’s during this time that he left Stratford for London, and made the transition to successful actor, playwright and part-owner of a theater. Many theories abound: taking as evidence a preoccupation with the ocean and storms in his plays (think The Tempest, Othello, Twelfth Night, etc.), some wonder if he went to sea, possibly spending time in Italy. Or perhaps he went north, working as a tutor for a Catholic family, before meeting the Lord Derby’s Men—a company of actors—and traveling south with them to the bright lights (or at least flaming torches) of London. Or did he become a player in the Queen’s Men—another acting company—and begin to ply his trade with them? We’ll never know for sure, but the next concrete placing of Shakespeare is a bit of a battering in print, in Robert Greene’s Groatsworth of Wit, Bought with a Million of Repentance (1592) (see page 16).
The coat of arms purchased by Shakespeare
By the end of the 1590s, Shakespeare was a wealthy man, probably one of the first British writers to accumulate a stash of cash from the proceeds of his literary endeavors by taking shares in the theater that performed his plays (records show he made a bit on the side from some illegal malt-hoarding and tax evasion too—he appears to have been a canny businessman). He broke the mold by securing for himself a percentage of box-office takings and was able to buy a flashy house, New Place in Stratford, and his status was so elevated that he was permitted to purchase a coat of arms bearing the motto “Non sanz droict,” or “Not without right.”
In the late summer of 1596 Shakespeare’s son Hamnet died at the age of eleven, from unknown causes. His daughters Susanna and Judith went on to marry and have children: Judith had three, but they all died young, and Susanna’s daughter Elizabeth died childless, ending the line.
By 1613, Shakespeare was spending more and more time in Stratford, and had stopped writing plays—again, the reason why he ceased writing remains a mystery. The fact that he signed his will in March 1616 probably means that his health was failing. The following month, close to his birthday, he died and was buried in the Holy Trinity Church. His will offers up another enigma: Anne Hathaway, his wife of thirty-four years, is mentioned in just twelve devastatingly brief words, “I gyve unto my wief my second best bed with the furniture.” Much has been made of this apparent slight, and of course in modern times we might feel a touch aggrieved to be honored after all those years of wedlock with a dodgy bed. But in fact it’s all about context. One theory is that the best bed would probably have been reserved for guests, and would have been considered an heirloom—i.e., an item reserved for heirs, not wives. Clearly the wondrous wordsmith didn’t see his last will and testament as the place for anything more enlightening or flowery about his marriage. The inscription on his grave is a dream for conspiracy theorists—like an English Tutankhamun it offers up a curse on whoever disturbs his remains, prompting some to speculate there may be a hidden manuscript buried with the Bard.
Robert Greene’s “upstart crow”
Robert Greene was a playwright who was about four years older than Shakespeare, and an established member of London’s literary scene when Shakespeare arrived on it. He was part of a group known as the University Wits, along with other well-educated writers like Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Lodge, George Peele and Thomas Nashe. A heavy drinker and gambler, womanizer and liar, he was also in possession of a monster ego. A fun chap to be around then, and certainly one with a chip on his shoulder about young William’s accelerating success in his milieu.
It’s not entirely clear why Shakespeare bothered Greene so much, but probably his audacity in believing he could move from being a provincial, lower-class actor to competing with the establishment playwrights rankled with this snooty, and less significant, writer. Shakespeare had not gone to Oxford or Cambridge University, as most of his contemporary playwrights had, and even though he was writing his way into the history books as one of the most brilliant minds England has ever produced, he was still just a man from the provinces. It also appears that Shakespeare did not throw himself into the gentleman poets’ scene with the gusto they might have wanted; he wasn’t a big drinker—according to John Aubrey’s Lives, he was a man who “wouldn’t be debauched”—and he had his head screwed on when it came to finances. Greene, on the other hand, died penniless and bitter at the age of thirty-two in September 1592 (with Marlowe pursuing him toward his Maker the following year), leaving behind enough unpublished work for a printer named Henry Chettle to produce a posthumous pamphlet entitled Greene’s Groatsworth of Wit, Bought with a Million of Repentance—essentially a moralistic fable which is revealed at the end to be autobiographical.
The passage we’re interested in begins with a warning to the other members of his gang not to trust actors who mangle poets’ words. And he goes on: “Yes trust them not: for there is an upstart crow, beautified with our feathers, that with his Tyger’s hart wrapt in a Player’s hyde supposes he is as well able to bombast out a blanke verse as the best of you: and being an absolute Johannes Factotum [jack of all trades], is in his owne conceit the only Shake-scene in the countrey.” That lovely “tiger’s heart” metaphor is a direct lift from the first act of Henry VI, Part 3. As Stephen Greenblatt points out in his excellent biography Will in the World, Shakespeare got his revenge, with an effusive apology from publisher Henry Chettle: “I am as sorry as if the original fault had been my fault, because myself have seen his demeanour no less civil than he excellent in the quality he professes,” and a nice dig through Polonius in Hamlet: “that’s an ill phrase, a vile phrase, ‘beautified’ is a vile phrase.”
Good frend for Jesus sake forbeare
To digg the dust encloased heare.
Blese be the man that spares thes stones,
And curst be he that moves my bones.
This, and the other gaps in his biography, opens the door for fans to look for clues in his work. Feel free to enjoy yourself conjecturing. But try not to be disappointed that we don’t know more facts about Shakespeare the man; sometimes it’s best not to get to know your heroes—it keeps the magic alive.
Why Is Shakespeare Called the Bard?
“Bard” is an ancient Gaelic term meaning poet. It initially referred to a minstrel who might travel from village to village reciting legends of chieftains and their triumphs. Shakespeare has been given the epithet because he is the definitive poet, and recognized not just in Britain but across the world as such (though Scots might disagree—Robert Burns is known as the Bard in Caledonia). It’s assumed that he was first called the Bard by David Garrick (see page 283) during the celebratory Shakespeare Jubilee held in Stratford in 1769 in his snappily titled “An Ode upon dedicating a building, and erecting a statue, to Shakespeare, at Stratford upon Avon,” which read:
Sweetest bard that ever sung,
Nature’s glory, Fancy’s child;
Never sure did witching tongue,
Warble forth such wood-notes wild!
What Was Life Like in Shakespeare’s Day?
Given how universal Shakespeare’s work feels, it’s easy to imagine he was just like us; that if we met him in the pub we’d have loads in common. However,
London in Shakespeare’s day
it is important to remember that the times he lived in in were very different from ours. Here are a few facts to help you orient yourself in his world.
• Population There were about 4 million people living in England in the late sixteenth century. The English population today is about 53.5 million.
• Disease Outbreaks of the deadly bubonic plague frequently wiped out whole communities. Stratford lost a sixth of its inhabitants in 1564.
• Queen Elizabeth Elizabeth’s rule (1558–1603) is now considered England’s golden age of stability and achievement, but things didn’t always look so rosy for her. Her father murdered her mother, she was disinherited then reinstated in line for the throne, she changed the religion of her country, the Pope sanctioned her assassination, she endured serious internal and external plots to overthrow her, she failed to subdue the rebellious Irish, and her decision not to marry and produce an heir created an atmosphere of anxiety and paranoia about the succession, resulting in a ruthless international and domestic secret-service network, reliant on torture.
• Cities London was the third-largest city in Europe, after Paris and Naples.
• Communities The majority of people lived in the countryside and depended on unreliable harvests. The biggest towns were London, Norwich, Bristol, York, Salisbury, Newcastle, Exeter and Coventry.
• Feudalism This period saw a significant change from a feudal hierarchy that encouraged a powerful chivalric noble class to a centralization of power around the absolute monarch. Historians have identified this period as one of transition from the ideals and practices of medieval times to the beginnings of the internationally connected modern age.
• Religion England had been Catholic up until 1533 when Henry VIII broke with Rome in order to marry Elizabeth’s mother, Anne Boleyn. It was then Protestant until 1553 when Mary I reinstated Catholicism. On Mary’s death in 1558 Elizabeth returned the country to Protestantism. Religion was central to the general population’s life so this was a very confusing time. Shakespeare’s sister was baptised a Catholic in 1558 but just six years later he was christened a Protestant. There were still Catholic priests in hiding around the country giving masses to those who secretly held on to the old religion.
• Violence Society was generally more violent than today. Many citizens were armed, there was no real police force, there were public executions, frequent rioting and brawling; popular pastimes included bear-baiting and dog- and cock-fighting, and the severed heads of traitors were displayed on the walls in the capital. The literary world didn’t exist in some rarefied bubble outside of this: Ben Jonson killed a man, Christopher Marlowe was stabbed in the eye and Shakespeare himself was named in a court record as having made a man fear for his life or “bodily hurt.”
• Science The general view at this time was still that the sun orbited the earth. However, it was a period of great scientific endeavors, with Galileo, Descartes, Francis Bacon and William Gilbert all making important contributions. There were also radical developments in philosophy and ethics from intellectuals like Machiavelli and Montaigne.
• Europe At the start of Elizabeth’s reign, Protestant England was surrounded on all sides by Catholic nations—Ireland, France, Scotland (until 1560) and the Spanish-controlled Low Countries. This was an uncomfortable position, particularly after 1572 when thousands of members of the previously tolerated Protestant population in France were slaughtered in the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre.
• Alcohol Much of the population was probably tipsy most of the time—water was unsafe to drink so people drank beer instead. Happy days.
• Foreign Policy The old adversary France was replaced as English Enemy Number One by Spain, ruled by Elizabeth’s brother-in-law, Mary’s widower, Philip II. Spain tried to invade in 1588. The destruction of the Armada was a source of national pride but there was great anxiety about new threats.
• Family People generally married in their twenties—Shakespeare bucked the trend by getting hitched in his late teens. Marriages were usually arranged by parents and there was little emphasis on privacy in domestic life. Wives and children belonged to, and obeyed, the man of the house. Girls did not generally go to school. The firstborn son inherited everything. Because children were so important to property rights, virginity and chastity were extremely important standards for noblewomen.
• War The Protestant Reformation and the rise of powerful nation-states led to Europe becoming a hotbed of conflict. The tensions leading to the Thirty Years War (1618–48) were ramping up, resulting in a devastating and vast conflict that would see all the major European powers set against one another, battling over religion and influence.
• Gangs Nobles had groups of men who served them and hung around with them. These “retainers” wore special clothing, a bit like gangs now, to show whom they supported. There were frequently fights between rival groups, as at the beginning of Romeo and Juliet.
• Empire The English maritime explorations that were just beginning at this time set the country on the path toward the massive British Empire and the nation’s involvement in the slave trade. The state of Virginia in America is named after Elizabeth’s persona of the Virgin Queen.
• Food Potatoes were a new and exotic food, brought to Europe by Spanish conquistadors from Peru, and people didn’t drink coffee or tea or eat chocolate.
• Race There were Moors (North Africans of Arab-Berber descent) in London (helpfully anti-Spanish), and Elizabeth had a few black servants on her staff. However, in 1596 and in 1601 she issued edicts expelling “Negroes and Blackamoors” because of fears they were using resources and taking away jobs from the English—reasoning that has familiar echoes today. There were barely any Jews in England since their expulsion in 1290. However, London was extremely cosmopolitan because of trade. People were suspicious of foreigners but not racist in the modern sense.
• Terrorism In 1605 the country was stunned by the attempted Catholic attack on Parliament by Guy Fawkes.
• Class The middle class was starting to become a force to be reckoned with and the possibility of social mobility had only just taken root. Merchants and workers in the wool trade were gaining more and more power due to their economic success. However, England was a very hierarchical country and the monarchy encouraged the population to view this hierarchy as divinely ordained. There was even a law prescribing which classes could wear certain fabrics and colors.
• Calendar England was on a different calendar from the rest of Catholic Europe, which adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1582. (England didn’t until 1752.)
• Legitimacy Illegitimate children were regarded as morally inferior. They couldn’t inherit or marry.
• Church Everyone had to regularly attend (Protestant) church services, or face fines (and be regarded with suspicion).
• London London was growing at a breakneck rate but still had a population of about 300,000 people, which is approximately the population of the Borough of Lambeth today. (London’s total population is currently more than 8,000,000.)
• Succession Elizabeth died in 1603 without ever naming her successor to the throne. James I was just the most obvious and well-supported choice.
• King James King James I’s mother, Mary Queen of Scots, was executed in 1587 for involving herself in Catholic plots against Elizabeth.
• Scotland James’s accession brought the governments of England and Scotland under one rule, although they remained separate countries until 1707.
• Sewers The main sewer in London was the Thames, which was filled with stinking rubbish, human and commercial waste, while still being used as an important travel artery and a source of water. There was only one bridge—London Bridge—which was populated with houses and shops.
• Language The English language was rapidly expanding. There were no fixed grammatical rules and the same words were often spelled in many different ways.
• America When Shakespeare was born, Europe had been aware of the existence of America for just seventy-two years. Columbus had landed in America in 1492.
• Witchcraft Belief in witchcraft was prevalent and women suspected of being witches were persecuted. James I even wrote a book about them and involved himself in witch trials.
• Regicide This was a time of great power for the British Crown but James I’s son, Charles I, would end up being executed by his people in 1649 and England would become a republic until 1660.
• Puritans Just twenty-six years after Shakespeare’s death, the politically ascendant activist Protestants called Puritans would close all the theaters. In 1648 they would destroy them and any remaining actors would be arrested and flogged. The theaters would remain closed until the 1660 restoration of the monarchy.
• Life Expectancy Surviving childhood was a difficult business, and average life expectancy was around the mid-forties. Many women died in childbirth and medical care still revolved around the idea of the four humors (see page 232), bleeding patients being a popular treatment.
• Printing The first book to be printed in English had only been made in 1473, less than a century before Shakespeare’s birth. People didn’t see many visual images in their day-to-day lives, particularly after the Reformation, when artworks were removed from churches.
Queen Elizabeth I and Shakespeare
Overcoming a tricky start in life—she was banished from her father King Henry VIII’s court at the age of two and a half—by the time Elizabeth’s and Shakespeare’s paths crossed she was firmly entrenched as the titan of royalty we recognize today.
She was wickedly clever, fluent in both French and Italian, and enjoyed translating the classics and composing her own sonnets. She was a keen patron of the arts, and under her reign there was a remarkable flowering of English literature, particularly in drama—as well as Shakespeare, other literary giants such as Marlowe, Donne, Spenser and Kyd found their voices. Though Shakespeare is thought of as an Elizabethan writer, the queen was in fact in her late fifties when the Lord Chamberlain’s Men were performing at court, and though it’s true he spent more years of his writing career under Elizabeth’s rule, he was in fact more prolific during her successor James I’s reign. Elizabeth died in 1603, and there is a suggestion that her death and the end of the golden age is alluded to in Sonnet 107, which mentions the eclipse of the “mortal moon.”
There is no evidence that Shakespeare and Elizabeth actually met but it is not beyond the realm of possibility, as Shakespeare’s plays were performed at her court many times. Understandably, in fictionalized accounts of Shakespeare’s life, particularly on film or television, the temptation to eavesdrop on what these two magnificent figures from English history might have said to each other is irresistible, so it has become a common misconception that they were acquaintances.
Women in Shakespeare’s Time
Elizabethan shepherdess
For a nation ruled by a woman considered second in authority to God, the status of women in Elizabethan times was shockingly lowly. Most, aside from a very few of noble birth, were not afforded an education. Even those lucky ones were being trained for a life at home: they learned fruit preserving and bookkeeping rather than Plato and Pythagoras. And if a girl did manage to gain a good education, there was nowhere for her to exercise that learning, because women were not allowed to enter the professions: there were no female actors, doctors, lawyers or priests, though they could become spinners or weavers if they wanted. They had no vote. The duty of women, whether rich or poor, was to their husbands; in effect, they belonged to them. Petruchio’s words about Kate in The Taming of the Shrew are full of the language of ownership: “She is my goods, my chattels; she is my house, / My household stuff, my field, my barn, / My horse, my ox, my ass, my any thing.” Women were expected to bring a dowry to marriage—goods, money or land—also known as a marriage portion. A good woman was expected to be kind, patient, chaste, humble, soft and pliant, and since outer appearance was seen to correlate directly to inner status, they had to pay attention to their looks, Elizabethans particularly prizing roundness of hips and paleness of skin. Which makes it all the more extraordinary that Shakespeare created and gave prominence in his plays to women who are complex, confident, capable of manipulation and merriment, often with the lion’s share of lines. Rosalind, Portia, Katherina, Lady Macbeth, Beatrice, Juliet, Cleopatra, Viola and Titania are as unforgettable as any Hamlet, Lear or Othello.
How Innovative Was Shakespeare?
It’s hard to imagine now, when English literature studies have revolved around him for so long, but Shakespeare’s genius did not develop out of a firmly established literary tradition of English theater. The medieval miracle, mystery and morality plays (see page 45) that were popular in his childhood were very different from the sophisticated drama he and his contemporaries produced. Their radical reimagining of what drama could and should be was part of the burgeoning of the arts across Europe, which was inspired by classical models and commonly known as the Renaissance. Shakespeare was in the vanguard of those developing the new form.
• The Earl of Surrey had only introduced blank verse to England with the 1557 publication of his translation of some of Virgil’s Aeneid.
• The same year saw the first publication of the sonnet form in English, first developed by the poet, and favorite of Anne Boleyn, Thomas Wyatt.
• The first permanent theater in England was built in 1576 by James Burbage. The lack of competition is evident in his choice of name: the Theatre.
• Plays were not seen as a serious literary enterprise. In 1612 Sir Thomas Bodley was collecting work for the new Bodleian library but told his staff not to bother with drama: “haply some plays may be worthy the keeping, but hardly one in forty.”
Shakespeare’s Globe
Engraving of Shakespeare’s London showing the Globe Theatre
One of the great leaps forward of the English Renaissance was the creation of theaters as spaces in which sophisticated works could be performed. In medieval times, theaters simply did not exist. Actors were regarded as little more than vagabonds who traveled the country performing juggling acts or mimes from the back of open carts or at inn courtyards, and the only alternative entertainments were the religious dramas presented on holy days. But by the late sixteenth century young men who had been educated at Oxford and Cambridge began to put into practice in London the fruits of a classical education; drama developed rapidly, borrowing plots from legend and classical texts, introducing elaborate time frames, multiple roles and featuring protagonists with complex psychological profiles. In 1576 James Burbage built the Theatre in Shoreditch and it was here that the careers of Shakespeare, Thomas Kyd and Christopher Marlowe really began to take off. This didn’t mean that drama became respectable: like many forms of popular entertainment it was considered by many to be vulgar, and plays were often criticized for promoting immorality and sedition. Theaters were located mainly in the red-light district, along with the bear-baiting and dog-fighting rings. Shakespeare was part of the Lord Chamberlain’s Men (founded in 1594), later renamed the King’s Men after the ascension of James I to the throne in 1603. They performed at the Theatre, the Curtain and then the Globe. The other main performing troupe in London was called the Admiral’s Men, but history remembers them as a footnote—after all, they didn’t have Shakespeare.
By 1598 the lease on the Theatre had expired and the Lord Chamberlain’s Men were in dispute with the owners of the land it stood on. James Burbage had died in 1597 and the venue had been vacant since his death; then one wintry night in December, Richard Burbage, James’s son, led the Men to dismantle the Theatre and move the valuable building materials across the river to a new site in Southwark. It wasn’t exactly theft: Richard knew his father had a clause in his contract with the owners of the Theatre, stating that while they owned the land, the theater itself belonged to the company, but it was an audacious act. By the end of the summer of 1599 the rebuilt Globe Theatre was up and running, probably opening with a production of As You Like It. Profits were shared between the five or so “housekeepers” of the company, who, along with Shakespeare, included William Kemp, Augustine Philips, John Heminges and Thomas Pope, though personnel changed over the years.
The Globe was vast: it could hold audiences of around three thousand and was extremely popular. Historians have estimated that about 20 percent of the population of London regularly visited the theater. As new plays were put on almost every afternoon there was plenty to keep people coming back. The design of the Globe followed existing venues for bear-baiting, and was loosely based on the layout of the inn courtyards and marketplaces where players had plied their trade in the 1570s. It was a twenty-sided polygon, as close as you could probably get to an O, comprising a wooden outer building around a paved courtyard into which the stage jutted. Many of the audience paid the low entrance fee of a penny to stand in the courtyard, or “pit;” these spectators were known as the groundlings. For those deeper of pocket there were three tiers of covered galleries. On each side of the stage, at the back, was a door, through which actors would enter and exit, and behind those doors was what we now call the dressing room, but in Shakespeare’s day was called the “tiring house.” Two posts at the front of the stage held up a cover to protect the actors, their very few props and costumes from the rain. No such luck for those standing in the pit. In the cover was a trapdoor through which characters could be lowered from the heavens, and underneath there was a trapdoor in the stage, too, through which a ghost, like King Hamlet, might appear. There was also a balcony that ran the length of the stage for those scenes that required an upper window. Because a large part of the audience was standing so close to the action, drinking beer and eating hazelnuts, and the plays were performed in daylight, there was a less formal atmosphere than that found in theaters today.
Audiences enjoyed the elaborate costumes, but there was minimal set dressing and no atmospheric lighting, so the words and the performances had to be incredibly powerful. Since acting was considered a dishonorable profession, women were prevented by law from becoming actresses, so female roles were played by young men or boys right up until the 1660s when the moral stigma receded. Cleopatra ironically refers to this practice in Antony and Cleopatra when she says “I shall see / Some squeaking Cleopatra boy my greatness . . .”
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Whose thirteenth studio album released in March this year is Rebel Heart? | Madonna's 'Rebel Heart': What The Critics Are Saying | Billboard
Madonna's 'Rebel Heart': What The Critics Are Saying
Courtesy Photo
The cover of Madonna's 2015 album "Rebel Heart."
Madonna dropped Rebel Heart, her thirteenth(!) studio album, in most of the world over the weekend. We already gave it three-and-a-half out of five stars , but what is the rest of the critical world saying about it?
So far, the review aggregator Metacritic has tracked an average score of 68 out of 100, or, as they say, notching "generally favorable reviews," based on the 15 critics noted so far. Highlights from just a few are below.
In a three-and-a-half out of five star review in Rolling Stone, Caryn Ganz writes, "Rebel Heart is a long, passionate, self-referential meditation on losing love and finding purpose in chilling times. It's also a chance for the Queen of Pop to floss a bit and reflect on how she painstakingly carved a path others have happily twerked down in the years since her 1983 debut."
In Time , Jamieson Cox opines, "Given all the turmoil, it's impressive -- and a little surprising -- that the final product is her most consistent album in a decade, and one that renders any hypothetical "bid for continued relevance" moot by remaining proudly scattershot. It's an album that places more emphasis on Madonna the person than Madonna the sonic visionary, and it benefits as a result."
Kitty Empire's 3 out of 5 star review in The Guardian explains, "The ageism unleashed by Capegate makes you warm to much of Rebel Heart , Madonna's 13th album. The unseemly segments, where Madonna baits and gyrates, can be a hoot. When she acts her age, it is lacklustre and over-enunciated; lived-and-loved stuff trotted out in overblown ballads."
Entertainment Weekly had two writers hash it out in a back-and-forth. Kyle Anderson wrote, "I have faith that she'll reveal herself with repeated listens. (Weirdly, for an album mostly designed to move people in a club, it's actually a pretty fascinating headphone trip.) This may be damning it with faint praise, but this is Madonna's best outing since 2000's Music, and that earns Rebel Heart a solid B." EW's Adam Markovitz concluded, "I love that she's as frustrating and ambitious as ever--still difficult, complicated, and hard to pin down. But that's how I'd describe this album, too. If Like a Virgin is her A game, and something rocky but rewarding like Bedtime Stories is B level, then this gets a C+."
In a three out of four star review for The Los Angeles Times , Randall Roberts shares, "The difference between pop agitators like Madonna and her lesser offspring is one of determination. "Rebel Heart," like its creator, pushes through the pain and, more often than not, lands solidly and with great grace on its feet."
The Associated Press writes, "In perhaps her most complex album, Madonna seems determined to plant a flag for her 30-plus year career, even giving a crash course in Madonna-ology on the self-referential "Veni, Vidi, Vici," featuring Nas, during which she playfully incorporate phrases and titles from past hits. At its best, "Rebel Heart" pulsates with a vibrancy that reveals both the sour and the sweet in Madonna's extremely complicated life and leaves no doubt that she still has a lot more to share."
Elysa Gardner for USA Today says, "When Madonna sings on the title track of her latest album, Rebel Heart (***1/2 out of four; out March 10), that she has "outgrown my past and I've shed my skin," she is both protesting too much and engaging in understatement. Our most durable pop star has indeed reinvented elements of her look and sound repeatedly over the past 30 years, but Madonna has retained the same essence: that of a woman who champions and demands love, in every sense of that loaded word. No single artist has been more crucial in shaping our modern view of celebrities as people who need people -- and attention."
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Riley was the real first name of which singer, known by initials, who died last month? | Madonna On Stage - Rebel Heart Tour
Tour Crew
The Rebel Heart Tour is the tenth worldwide concert tour in support of her thirteenth studio album, Rebel Heart. It will begin on September 9, 2015, in Montreal (Canada) and continue throughout Europe, finally concluding in Puerto Rico on January 28, 2016 in San Juan (Puerto Rico)*.
The tour was formally announced on March 1, 2015 on Madonna's official website. Titled Rebel Heart Tour, it was initially scheduled to begin on August 29, 2015, from Miami and continue throughout Europe and end on December 20, 2015, in Glasgow, Scotland. According to Billboard, Rebel Heart would be an all-arena tour, and would visit cities where Madonna has not performed before. They assumed a total of 25–30 shows in North America and 20–25 shows in Europe, with additional dates being revealed later on. The tour is expected to visit Australia and Asia in early 2016, however no dates have been announced as of May 2015. It would be Madonna's first visit to Australia and Puerto Rico in over 21 years, when she last toured there with The Girlie Show World Tour in 1993. Rebel Heart Tour will be led by Live Nation Entertainment's Global Touring Division. It is Madonna's fifth collaboration with Live Nation, with more than $1 billion ($1.03 billion in 2015 dollars) in Boxscore grosses, and 7.8 million tickets sold for 289 shows from her previous ventures with the company.
Rebel Heart Tour will be Madonna's third and final tour under the 10 year multi-rights deal with Live Nation, struck in 2007 at a valued $120 million. General sales for the tour would start from March 9, 2015, and the North American tickets purchased online would be bundled with an exclusive digital download of the Super Deluxe version of Rebel Heart. Special access was granted to members of Madonna's official fan club known as Icon, including first access to tickets and VIP passes. Citi was listed as the official bank for the tour, with cardholders having the ability to buy tickets early. Ticket prices were kept the same as Madonna's last few tours, with the top price in $300–$350 range, and the cheapest being at $35. After the tickets were available, they started selling out fast. Tickets for the initially announced shows in Edmonton, Paris and Turin sold out within minutes after going on sale, resulting in the addition of additional shows in all cities. Additional shows have also been added in a number of cities in both North America and Europe.
On June 22, 2015 Live Nation announces first performances in Australia in over two decades & first ever appearance in New Zealand! Madonna will make a historic return to Australia performing live for the first time in 23 years as well as her first ever shows in New Zealand, with her Rebel Heart Tour.
* On May 21, 2015, Madonna rescheduled the first five dates of the tour and moved them to January 20, 23, 24, 27 and 28 in 2016. The singer confirmed that the delay was due to all the assembling and arrangements for the tour not being done within the timeframe given. She released a statement saying, "As my fans already know, the show has to be perfect. Assembling all the elements will require more time than we realized. I apologize for any inconvenience this may cause my fans. I can promise you this show will be worth the wait."
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Sir Seretse Khama was from 1966 to 1980 the first President of which African country? | Sir Seretse Khama
History Home Page | Site Index | "Nation without a past" quote
A brief biography of Sir Seretse Khama, Botswana's first president:
Seretse Khama (1921-80), founding President of Botswana, 1966-80. He inherited an impoverished and internationally obscure state from British rule, and left an increasingly democratic and prosperous country with a significant role in Southern Africa.
Seretse Khama was born on 1 July 1921 at Serowe in the British protectorate of Bechuanaland. He was was the son of Sekgoma Khama, and the grandson of the internationally famous Kgosi Khama III (c.1835-1923), ruler of the Bangwato people of central Botswana. He was named Seretse-the clay that binds together-because of the recent reconciliation between his father and grandfather. Seretse's mother, Tebogo Kebailele, had been chosen by Khama to be the new wife of the ageing Sekgoma. When Sekgoma died in 1925, four-year old Seretse was proclaimed Kgosi. His uncle Tshekedi Khama became regent and later sole guardian for him.
The lonely and often sickly child was sent to boarding schools in South Africa, but developed into a healthy and gregarious adolescent sportsman. He attended Fort Hare University College and graduated with a general BA degree in 1944. In August 1945 he was sent to England for a legal education. After a year at Balliol College, Oxford, he enrolled for barrister studies at the Inner Temple, London.
In 1947 Seretse Khama met an English woman of his age, Ruth Williams, daughter of a retired army officer. They were married in September 1948. Uncle Tshekedi ordered Seretse home to berate him and demand a divorce. But, after a series of public meetings in Serowe, Seretse turned his people against Tshekedi, and was popularly recognised as Kgosi together with his wife. Tshekedi gave way and went into self-exile.
The proclamation of a black chief with a white wife, in a territory strategically placed between South Africa and the Rhodesias, caused outcry among white settler politicians. South Africa had come under the control of white Afrikaner nationalists in 1948. The British were told that there was no chance of the pro-British opposition party winning the next all-white election in South Africa, if Seretse Khama was allowed to be chief of the Bangwato.
The Labour government in Britain desperately needed South African gold and uranium. It agreed to bar Seretse Khama from chieftainship. The Commonwealth relations minister denied that the government was bowing to racism, and lied about this before the House of Commons. A judicial enquiry was set up to prove Seretse's personal unfitness to rule. However, Justice Harragin concluded that Seretse was eminently fit to rule. His report was therefore suppressed by the British government for thirty years. Seretse and his wife were exiled to England in 1951, and in 1952 the new Conservative government declared the exile permanent.
The treatment of Seretse and Ruth Khama by British governments received international press coverage, and outrage was expressed by a wide range of people including human-rights activists, Scottish, West African, Indian and West Indian nationalists, British communists, and conservatives who supported the principle of aristocratic inheritance. Eventually, in 1956, a new Commonwealth relations minister realised that Britain must distance itself from institutionalized racism in South Africa, and decided to allow Seretse and Ruth home as commoners and private citizens.
Back home, Seretse Khama was still respected as a man of principle and integrity, but was generally seen as being out-of-touch and a yesterday's man. He was a not too successful cattle rancher and dabbler in local politics, and declined in health until incipient diabetes was diagnosed in 1960. Then, however, much to everyone's surprise, in 1961 he was suddenly energized as a nationalist politician.
The Bechuanaland Democratic Party (BDP), with Seretse Khama at its head, drew overwhelming support from rural progressives and conservatives alike. The liberal-democratic BDP swept aside its pan-Africanist and socialist rivals in the small railway towns, to win the first universal franchise elections of 1965. Seretse Khama became prime minister and then, on 30 September 1966, president of the Republic of Botswana.
President Khama and the new republic began with an international image problem. It was widely assumed that his country had no option but to sell-out to its all-powerful white neighbours, South Africa (including South-West Africa) and Southern Rhodesia. Botswana was believed to be the poorest country in Africa. The new government could not cover the costs of administration from taxes, and was continually indebted to Britain.
The first task was to lay the groundwork for an export-oriented economy, based on beef processing and copper and diamond mining. President Khama then turned his personal attention to foreign policy, seeking out allies such as President Kaunda of Zambia to break Botswana free from its image of being a docile 'hostage' state. He also used his unique authority to develop local democracy and quash the powers of traditional chiefs, to develop citizen administrative capacity without over-bureaucratization, and to promote the rule of law in the operations of the state.
Though Botswana came to be described as a 'paternalist democracy' under the dominance of one political party, it succeded in establishing itself as both prosperous and peaceful. Between 1966 and 1980 Botswana had the fastest growing economy in the world. It also came to be seen a remarkable state with high principles, upholding liberal democracy and non-racialism in the midst of a region embroiled in civil war, racial enmity and corruption. State mineral revenues were invested in infrastructural development, education and health, and in subsidies to cattle production. The result was a great increase in general prosperity, in rural as well as urban areas, though with inequities that were to become increasing apparent after the death of Seretse Khama.
Seretse Khama was known for his intelligence and integrity, and a wicked sense of humour --puncturing the pomposity of those who had too high an opinion of themselves. He also went through cycles of ill-health and depression, exacerbated by diabetes. He underwent intensive medical treatment in 1968-69 and in 1976-77, when he was fitted with a heart pacemaker, but bounced back energetically in both cases with an innovative period lasting for years. His wife, Ruth Khama, remained the guardian of his health and homelife, but had relatively little influence on his politics.
In his last years Seretse Khama looked increasingly outwards and onwards. He was one of the "Front-Line Presidents" who negotiated the future of Zimbabwe and Namibia. He developed a vision of the future of Southern Africa after colonialism and apartheid, as a peaceful, democratic and prosperous region. He was thus the key founder of what has since become the Southern African Development Community.
The rigours of constant travel by air for international negotiations, leading up to the independence of Zimbabwe, finally exhausted Seretse Khama. But he had the final satisfaction of witnessing both the independence of Zimbabwe in March 1980 and the launching of the Southern African Development Coordination Conference in April, before his death on 13 July 1980. He was buried in the Khama family graveyard, on the hill at Serowe overlooking his birthplace.
Neil Parsons
We were taught, sometimes in a very positive way, to despise ourselves and our ways of life. We were made to believe that we had no past to speak of, no history to boast of. The past, so far as we were concerned, was just a blank and nothing more. Only the present mattered and we had very little control over it. It seemed we were in for a definite period of foreign tutelage, without any hope of our ever again becoming our own masters. The end result of all this was that our self-pride and our self-confidence were badly undermined.
It should now be our intention to try to retrieve what we can of our past. We should write our own history books to prove that we did have a past, and that it was a past that was just as worth writing and learning about as any other. We must do this for the simple reason that a nation without a past is a lost nation, and a people without a past is a people without a soul.
(Sir Seretse Khama, speech of Chancellor at University of Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland graduation ceremony, 15 May 1970;
Botswana Daily News
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Which is the only one of the Great Lakes which does not border the US state of Michigan? | Ian Khama (Politician) - Pics, Videos, Dating, & News
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He won a full term in the 2009 election and was re-elected in October 2014.
In 2009, Khama appeared on CNN's African Voices which painted a positive picture of the outgoing and physically fit Khama who is leading a new generation of African leaders. … Read More
Even though Ian Khama was not elected to the presidency, which some political commentators such as Kenneth Good see as a flaw in the electoral system in Botswana, he governed as if he was elected and proceeded to make some fundamental changes to the way that Botswana was governed during his "interim term". President Khama first articulated his desire to impose a 70% alcohol levy, meant to combat the scourge of excessive drinking in Botswana which had become a real problem, especially amongst the youth. Although the idea was laudable, the practical effect of such a levy was soon seen to have a deleterious effect on the brewing industry, who resisted the imposition of such a levy, along with bars and other drinking establishments. The President shifted his policy to focus on prevention and education but later imposed a 30% levy after consulting with industry leaders. Read Less
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On the economic front, Khama has been a vocal proponent of moving Botswana away from its over-reliance on diamonds and diversifying its economy, especially to the agriculture and tourism sector. Under his watch, the number of site-holders licensed to operate diamond polishing and cutting operations in Botswana has grown. ABN/AMRO, the Dutch-based diamond trading bank, has announced that it will be headquartering its African offices in Botswana. <br /><br />Politically, Khama's interim term was dominated by internal squabbling in the Botswana Democratic Party (BDP), which is now clearly divided into two major factions, the A-Team and the Barata Phati factions. The A-Team is led by President Khama, Jacob Nkate, the former Minister of Education, and Vice President Mompati Merafhe. The Barata Phati faction is led by Daniel Kwelagobe, the Chairman of the Party, Gomemelo Motswaledi, and Ponatshego Kedikilwe, who wish to bring about constitutional reform not only to the BDP but also to the country's constitution. Read Less
In the run-up to the 2009 elections, Motswaledi, who gave up on his ambition to run for a seat in Serowe in order to make way for Ian Khama's brother, Tshekedi Khama II, was also excluded from representing Gaborone when he ran afoul of President Khama. … Read More
After this incident, critics accused Khama of authoritarian tendencies, while others say that he was simply instilling discipline as part of his role as the head of the party.<br /><br /> Botswana's cabinet is headed by the President, who is also head of government.<br /><br /> President Ian Khama began his first full term with a reshuffled Cabinet which saw two women in key positions. However even with few women in primary cabinet positions, the Botswana Democratic Party was able to make a first for Botswana, by electing the first female speaker of Parliament in the form of Ms. Margaret Nasha.<br /><br /> Botswana's cabinet is headed by the President, who is also head of government.<br /><br /> Source: http://www.botswanaembassy.org/index.php?mact=News,cntnt01,print,0&cntnt01articleid=17&cntnt01showtemplate=false&cntnt01returnid=77 Read Less
LATE ADULTHOOD
2014 61 Years Old The BDP won the October 2014 parliamentary election, and Khama was sworn in for another term as President on 28 October 2014.
Original Authors of this text are noted on http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Khama .
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What is the nickname of the character Henrietta played by Anna Chancellor in the film Four Weddings and a Funeral? | Whatever happened to Duckface? - Telegraph
TV and Radio
Whatever happened to Duckface?
Famous for being jilted twice by Hugh Grant, Anna Chancellor’s star part in 'The Hour' may just lay her romcom role to rest.
'I’m comfortable around madness’: Anna Chancellor, star of 'The Hour’ Photo: MARTIN POPE
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"Righty-ho, I’m off to interview Anna Chancellor,” I announce to nobody in particular. The silence is deafening.
“Anna Chancellor,” I repeat. “You know, from Spooks? Kavanagh QC? Tipping the Velvet? Caroline Bingley in Pride and Prejudice? Now appearing as an intrepid foreign correspondent in The Hour, Britain’s stylish and amazing answer to Mad Men, set in a 1956 BBC newsroom?” Nothing. “All right then: Duckface. I’m meeting Duckface.”
“Duckface? Why didn’t you say? Oh, poor Duckface!” cries my husband, although I know for a fact that Four Weddings and a Funeral hasn’t been repeated on Film Four for, oh, at least 36 hours. Yet his sympathy (for a character in a Richard Curtis romcom made 15 years ago) remains curiously undiminished.
Duckface, you will remember, was Hugh Grant’s weepy ex-girlfriend Henrietta, whom he dumped, then took up with again, only to jilt her at the altar.
“Colin Firth, who has an Italian wife, told me that in Italy the translation of the film has me called Arse-face and in Hungary I’m Horse-cheek,” she observes merrily, clearly amused.
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Everyone seems to forget that she eventually hooked up with a much more suitable guardsman, but such is the power of the big screen that Chancellor – despite prime-time telly, modern classics at the National Theatre and two stints on Broadway – remains forever trapped in the amber of public consciousness as poor Duckface.
“I don’t mind Duckface. It would be churlish to mind a part that effectively launched my career and made me such a rarity in this business – a working actor,” says Chancellor. “And I love ducks. Someone once looked at me very intently when we met and said, slightly disappointed, that I didn’t look anything like a mallard in real life.”
Indeed she does not. Chancellor is 46, but then (and I hope she will forgive me for saying so) she looked 46 a decade ago and almost certainly will for another 20. Handsome, self-possessed and blessed with full-bodied, well-bred hair that dutifully stays where it’s put, she is wearing a wonderful vintage polka-dot and lace dress.
A clutch of statement rings on her fingers lends her an air of boho chic rebellion, an impression that only deepens as she talks; about the benign neglect of a frayed aristo upbringing in their stepfather’s marvellous old pile, where muddy gun dogs wandered through the house and the family’s two macaws would dive-bomb visitors. Bliss!
Chancellor is marvellously pedigreed. The daughter of the Honourable Mary Alice Joliffe (daughter of William Joliffe, 4th Baron Hylton), she is a great great granddaughter of former prime minister Herbert Asquith and, on her father’s side, a great great granddaughter of the 12th Earl of Winchilsea and Nottingham, and so a descendant of William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley.
There’s more: distantly related to Helena Bonham Carter, her great aunt was Jane Austen and her second cousin six times removed was Lord Byron. Throw in a link to Mary Boleyn and her edition of Who Do You Think You Are? would have to be flogged as a boxed set.
“We were posh, but very much on the fringes,” she says. “We had the lineage but not the big house to go with it. My father left when I was a year old and my stepfather very generously took us four children in when he married my mother. For that reason, I’ve always been drawn to outsiders.”
This might explain why she fell pregnant to cult punk poet Jock Scott, 13 years her senior, forcing her to drop out of drama school. The “apparent disaster” turned into the pure delight that is her 23-year-old daughter, Poppy.
“Poppy’s father was best friends with Shane McGowan from The Pogues, so the whole situation wasn’t looking good. We ended up in a basement flat, living off Fray Bentos pies and smoking a lot of Piccadilly cigarettes,” she says. “But he was clever and we really liked each other. My sister, who lived above us, would complain about how we talked late into the night.” Her mothering skills, she concedes, were extraordinary lax.
“It was chaotic – lots of love, no rules but huge fun. I would end up with all the children in the road dancing on the kitchen table to loud music, with Poppy complaining bitterly that I was being too nice to everyone else. Then my sister would come down the next day and we’d all still be asleep at lunchtime.”
Poppy attended a state school, but when she was 10, Chancellor realised with horror that her daughter could neither read nor write. She was packed her off to boarding school – for three weeks. Then she fetched her home again, as streetwise Poppy immediately fell ill (possibly in protest) and spent every day languishing in the infirmary.
“I sent her to the Harrodian School in south-west London after that. She probably wouldn’t get in now, but they took any little freak in those days and she ended up hard-working and clever and after studying illustration at university is now at The Prince’s Drawing School.
“So despite being a terrible parent, it’s all turned out well, although maybe if she was lying in a gutter with a needle in her arm, rather than sketching in the Louvre, I might not be saying that,” she says matter-of-factly.
“After Poppy was born, I didn’t work for years. I remember somebody I knew spotted me in the car and flagged me down to ask: 'Have you got a job yet?’ and from the back Poppy’s four-year-old voice piped up, “She’s never going to get a f---ing job!’ ”
Chancellor, “bold and brave” on stage, was less confident off it. Her free spirit, moreover, was often regarded with opprobrium. “I hated it when people would call me daffy because I’d left my purse in a shop five times in one day,” she says.
“I’m not academic – like Princess Diana, I left school with two O-levels – and I think it’s true that many actors aren’t very cerebral, perhaps because there’s so much about human nature that you can’t analyse, so you need to rely on gut instinct to guide you.”
A job in rep at Pitlochry Festival Theatre in Scotland eventually came up, where she played a court stenographer for six months in Witness for the Prosecution without a single line. Next, a TV role as space navigation student Mercedes Page in the 1990s sci-fi soap Jupiter Moon, broadcast on BSB. Four years later, via roles in Poirot and Inspector Morse, came Duckface.
Since then she has married twice; firstly, a cameraman, but after four years they divorced. Then she began a relationship with Redha Debbah, the Algerian-born minicab driver who would take her to work in the West End. He is now a computer engineer. They married last October, after 13 years, and are “completely in love” and don’t live a remotely showbizzy lifestyle.
Of Hugh Grant, who most certainly does and who so memorably wronged her twice in Four Weddings, she is tellingly elliptical: “Our paths don’t cross very often. I think he might like rich people a lot and I live in Acton. But Hugh is very funny and odd and I like odd people. I feel very comfortable around madness.”
Talking of which, the comparisons between The Hour and Mad Men, in terms of the styling and period detail, have burdened – or perhaps blessed – the new series, which begins tonight with a huge weight of expectation.
“Is anything ever the new anything else?” asks Chancellor. “The writer, Abi Morgan, has managed to weave together a dramatic love affair with politics, the Suez crisis and the invention of a radical new form of reporting, which makes it very different from Mad Men, apart maybe from the frocks.”
Chancellor plays intrepid reporter Lix, a hard-living Martha Gellhorn, who lives in her office and has great one-liners, which suits Chancellor’s own deadpan style.
“I think The Hour is great, classy television and I hope people like it,” she says. She will also be on our screens again shortly in a new BBC Three sitcom, Pram Face, in which she plays the wife of Angus Deayton and mother of teenager Laura, who gets pregnant by her boyfriend.
The role she currently yearns to play is Rebekah Brooks, the fallen Valkyrie of News International, with her defiantly untamed mane of russet hair and steely resolve.
“I’m obsessed by her. She doesn’t fit the mould of a female powerbroker and it would be fabulous to explore the complexities of her character – a scriptwriter would have made her all sleek and corporate, but she’s not. Her rise to the top and her current trajectory would be amazing to portray.”
Could Chancellor pull off this modern-day Boudicca, at the heart of the firestorm, clinging on, wild-eyed before tumbling dramatically from the turrets into the flames? You know, I think she could – and if she ever does, she will certainly lay poor Duckface to rest for ever.
| Duck face |
Who is the protagonist of the Robert Bolt play A Man for All Seasons? | 'Duckface' Anna Chancellor frolics on a British beach as she models M&S' | Daily Mail Online
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As the inimitable Duckface in Four Weddings And A Funeral, she was memorably dumped at the altar by Hugh Grant.
'When I die my obituary will probably be "Duckface dies",' admits the actress in a short film she's made with M&S in which she models one of its latest collections. However, her new role in season five of Downton Abbey might soon shake up the public's perception.
We shall have to wait until September to find out if Lady Anstruther captures our imaginations in the same way as her breakthrough role in Four Weddings.
Clearly keen to tap into her very British appeal, M&S has snapped the actress in the quintessential seaside town, Hastings, for its Style & Living section.
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Actress turned fashionista: Anna Chancellor, who shot to fame as Duckface in Four Weddings, is modelling M&S' latest range. Top, from £6.99 , Jacket, £49.50
Anna, 49, is the perfect poster girl for M&S' range of cosy knits, polka-dot blouses and tailored blazers.
Clearly throwing herself into her latest venture, the actress can be seen frolicking on a British beach and even jumps into the sea in the new imagery.
Down-to-earth she might be, but Anna comes from illustrious stock: she's the granddaughter of the 4th Baron Hylton, her uncle is one-time Spectator editor Andrew Chancellor and her sister Katherine was formerly married to acerbic writer Wilf Self.
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Speaking about her well-connected family, she said: 'I am related to a prime minister, Herbert Asquith and Jane Austen was my great aunt, though going back eight generations. My parents came from quite an aristocratic background. But how that has affected me? It’s difficult to say.
'You are what you are aren’t you? Genetically I suppose it has given me certain qualities but then it’s difficult to know which qualities came from whom, because of course by this stage it’s just stories - they weren’t anybody I actually knew.
'Jane Austen, I’m obviously very proud to be related to her. She was a famously good aunt, didn’t have any children herself but was very keen on her nephews and nieces so if I’m feeling a bit stressed or feeling that things aren’t going very well, I’m like "Are you looking out for me, I hope you are looking out for me."
Autumn style: Anna, 49, is the perfect poster girl for the range of cosy knits, polka-dot blouses and linen blazers
Anna, who stays in shape by swimming, can be seen splashing around in the sea in the new imagery
'Otherwise, maybe I was a bit rebellious about my background. Maybe I’ve embraced it on some levels - and probably a lot my acting skills and my ability with language is inherited.
'My father is very articulate and funny and probably would have made a good actor – there are quite a few hidden theatrical people in my family who weren’t actually actors but probably would have been quite good!'
Speaking about her family - her parents divorced and married other partners, so she has step-siblings - she said: 'It was chaotic, we were outdoors a lot and rode a lot - very privileged but I think it was difficult at times because we were quite wild, that’s for sure. We were quite crazy.
Anna went to a convent school and says she was one of those people who found learning 'very difficult.'
'I think I had learning difficulties actually, in fact, a lot of actors do find that they’re not that academic or intellectual. I often play parts where you would have had to have a very good education, a lawyer, doctor things like that - but I never could have been that in my own life. I could hardly get an o level. I was basically thick,' she said.
Colourful history: Speaking about her family she said: 'It was chaotic. We were quite crazy' Jumper, £39.50
She adds that she was 'incredibly lucky' to have found acting; otherwise she could have felt that she was an underachiever. 'I feel I should be able to tell people that it is possible, to earn a living doing something you love - it’s a great privilege and if you have that you should be very grateful.'
Reminiscing on starting out as an actress at the age of 18, she explains how she 'fell into' becoming a naked artist’s model to earn a bit of money.
'I wasn’t physically shy,' she said. 'I’d turn up and they’d say "will you take your clothes off" and I’d think it was fine. I guess coming from the country side I was never self-conscious. So that was how I earned a living when I should have been at school!'.
Anna had a baby, Poppy, who was the somewhat unexpected result of a romance the actress had at drama school with cult poet Jock Scott at the age of 21. She admits that everything looked like it was going to go 'tits up' and 'disastrously wrong' at the time.
Beach babe: Anna worked as a naked artist's model when she was younger as a way to make money when she first moved to London
She said: 'I think one of the hardest things about having a child is who is going to look after them when you’re working. And I was lucky because my mum would take her. But when you’re acting you get up very early, you could leave for work at 5am and if you’re a single mum, which I was at times, not always, you would have to think who would take Poppy and maybe drop her off somewhere the night before.
'So it wasn’t easy for Poppy or me, she didn’t have know that mum would pick her up all time - but I was very lucky because I was very unsuccessful and very unemployed, so actually, I was around a lot!'
Working mother: Anna, who had a baby when she was 21, said one of the hardest things about having a child is who is going to look after them when you're working - she was lucky to have her own mother on hand to help. Skirt £22.50
Anna, who describes her personal style as 'scruffy', can't speak highly enough about her best friend and daughter Poppy.
She said: 'I feel that it was one of life’s incredible coincidences that I happened to have a child that I love. Of course I love my child, but we just really click.
'I always found her so funny, witty, even when she was young she would say things and I’d think that’s actually really funny - you’re a genuine wit. She’s a wonderful person and we have so much in common.
'So of course you can love your child very much but find you don’t have anything in common - for either of you, but we can go to galleries and do things together - go for walks, we love animals - we’ve got a lot in common and that’s just a coincidence I think.'
She also says she has been 'incredibly lucky' to have shared 16 years of her life with her husband, Algerian-born former minicab driver Redha Debbah, who is seven years her junior.
'I was mad about him,' she reminisces. 'It’s very sweet actually, very romantic and we’ve been together a long time. We love each other.
'We lead quite separate lives, he’s busy and I’m busy - we come and go.
Despite her enduring success, Anna is modest and doesn't believe that she has all the qualities of a leading lady.
'They always seem to think I’m more the dominatrix, the stalker, the nutter or the evil,' she said.
Fit and fabulous: Revealing her secrets to looking good, Anna says she tries to swim every day as she's so bored of the gym. Blouse, £29.50
'I was always a character actress, I suppose. I think it’s a bit more fun – although sometimes it’s quite narrow the view that they see the heroine as.'
Her most defining role has to be alongside Hugh Grant in Four Weddings, of which she laughs: 'When I was in four weddings I didn’t realise that Duckface was my name - I thought it was Henrietta so it took me ages to accept that Duckface was my actual, official name. When I die my obituary will probably be "Duckface dies".
'What can I say about that – do I mind? No.'
Revealing her secrets to looking good at almost fifty, Anna says she tries to swim every day and that she's so bored of the gym.
'I hate being told I have to do 50 of this and 20 of that, by then I’m literally praying. I become a Catholic and revert to my roots, praying to the Virgin Mary for it to end. I can’t take any more of it. I just can’t do exercise in that form, but swimming is different.
'And when I come out I can’t be bothered to get dressed so I put on my dressing gown and get in my car, or sometimes I walk back home in my towelling dressing gown and I think everyone will see Duckface and think I’m a nutter,' she said.
Remember when? Anna as the inimitable Duckface in Four Weddings And A Funeral, where she was memorably dumped by Hugh Grant at the altar
Leading roles: Anna as Miss Caroline Bingley Pride & Prejudice, left, and as Diana in BBC's The Cazalets, right
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What is the atomic number of the element ununpentium? | Moscovium / Ununpentium
Heavy elements 113 and 115 have been made by combining calcium-48 and amercium-243. Image: LLNL
Discovery of Moscovium / Ununpentium
Dr. Doug Stewart
Research scientists at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia and the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), California first made element 115, moscovium, in Dubna, Russia in 2003. The work was a collaboration between science teams led by Yuri Oganessian and Ken Moody.
The discovery was formally accepted on December 30, 2015 by The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and The International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP), and a new superheavy element took its place in the seventh row of the periodic table.
The reaction was a fusion of element 20 with element 95: calcium-48 with americium-243 .
The experiment began on July 14, 2003 and ended on August 10, 2003.
Calcium ions were formed into a beam in a cyclotron (a particle accelerator) and fired at a target layer of americium deposited on titanium foil.
Four atoms of element 115 (moscovium) were produced, which alpha decayed producing element 113, ( nihonium ). (1)
The researchers stated that one atom of moscovium-287 was made, and three atoms of moscovium-288 were made. Further experiments and analysis later confirmed this result.
The element is named after Moscow in recognition of the contribution The JLNR played in the discovery of the element. Moscovium is expected to officially replace its temporary name, ununpentuim, later this year.
As a result of its position in the periodic table moscovium / ununpentium is expected to be classed as one of the “other metals” and to have similar properties to the metal bismuth .
IUPAC reviewed the evidence for the discovery of moscovium and in 2016 they said, ‘The 2010 jointly with the 2013 collaborations of Oganessian et al. have met the Criteria for discovery of the element with atomic number Z=115 in as much as the reproducibility of alpha chain energies and lifetimes of 289115 in a cross reaction comparison is very convincing.’
IUPAC has accepted the discoveries of element 113 (nihonium/ununtrium), element 114 (flerovium/ununquadium), element 115 (moscovium/ununpentium), element 116 (livermorium/ununhexium), element 117 (tennessine/ununseptium) and element 118 (oganesson/ununoctium), thus completing the seventh row of the periodic table.
Appearance and Characteristics
Moscovium / Ununpentium is harmful due to its radioactivity.
Characteristics:
Moscovium / Ununpentium is a synthetic radioactive metal and has only been produced in minute amounts.
Uses of Moscovium
Moscovium / Ununpentium is of research interest only.
Abundance and Isotopes
Abundance earth’s crust: nil
Abundance solar system: parts per trillion by weight, parts per trillion by moles
Cost, pure: $ per 100g
Cost, bulk: $ per 100g
Source: Moscovium / Ununpentium can be produced by bombarding 243Am with 48Ca ions in a heavy ion accelerator.
Isotopes: Moscovium / Ununpentium has 4 isotopes, with mass numbers from 287 to 290. None are stable.
References
| 115 |
Who owns the Empress of Blandings the creation of P G Wodehouse | ELEMENT 115
Bob Lazar stated that the “Sport Model” Flying Disc amplified the “Strong Nuclear Force” of Element 115 (UnUnPentium or UUP) to generate the gravity field for “Space-Time Compression.” Bob also stated that the U.S. Government had 500 pounds of Element 115 in their possession. The raw Element 115 was given to the U.S. Goverment at S4 by the Reticulan EBEs in the form of discs. The scientists at S4 sent the Element 115 discs through Groom Lake to Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico, to be milled for use in the Anti-Matter Reactor . The Los Alamos personnel were told it was a new form of armor. They simply followed orders, milled it in accordance with the following steps, and sent it back to Groom Lake. It was during this process that some of the Element 115 turned up missing. As you’ll see below, the machining process to form the Element 115 wedge produces a tremendous amount of waste.
Bob Lazar stated that the Element 115 used as the fuel and gravity source in the “Sport Model” Flying Disc was stable . On February 2, 2004, scientists at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, in collaboration with researchers from the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Russia (JINR), announced that they discovered two new super-heavy elements, Element 113 and Element 115 . The Isotope of Element 115, produced by bombarding an Americium-243 (95Am243) nucleus with a Calcium-48 (20Ca48) nucleus, rapidly decayed to Element 113. then continued to decay until a meta-stable isotope was obtained.
The following hypothetical reaction displays the maximum theoretical atomic mass of an Element 115 Isotope that could be produced from combining an Americium-243 nucleus with a Calcium-48 nucleus. The following reaction assumes no neutrons were liberated during the process of the reaction:
95Am243 + 20Ca48 → 115UUP291 → 113UUT287 + 2He4 → ...
The following reactions are the actual reactions that took place in the laboratory by bombarding Americium-243 with Calcium-48, which resulted in the two Isotopes of Element 115, indicated below, being identified.
95Am243 + 20Ca48 → 115UUP288 + 30n1 115UUP288 → 113UUT284 + 2He4 → ...
95Am243 + 20Ca48 → 115UUP287 + 40n1 115UUP287 → 113UUT283 + 2He4 → ...
References:
Element 115, UnUnPentium, UUP
The maximum theoretical atomic mass isotope of Element 115 that could be produced in the reaction, above, 115UUP291, would only have 176 neutrons in its nucleus. This isotope of Element 115 is shy 8 neutrons from containing the magic number of 184 neutrons. The two actual isotopes of Element 115 produced by this reaction, 115UUP288 and 115UUP287 contain 173 neutrons, shy 11 neutrons from the magic number of 184, and 172 neutrons, shy 12 neutrons from the magic number of 184, respectively.
This latest scientific breakthrough, however, provides significant credibility to Bob Lazar’s claims rather than discrediting his claims. Bob Lazar’s Element 115 discs used to make the wedge for the “Sport Model” Flying Disc Anti-Matter Reactor would have to have been the isotope of Element 115 containing the magic number of 184 neutrons, therefore, having an atomic mass of 299. The nuclear configuration of this isotope of Element 115 would be identical to the nuclear configuration of the only known stable isotope of Element 83, Bismuth, 83Bi209, containing the magic number of 126 neutrons, except that the Element 115 isotope would have one more energy level completely filled with protons and neutrons. 82 protons and 114 protons are magic numbers for protons because 82 protons completely fill 6 proton energy levels and 114 protons completely fill 7 proton energy levels. The 83rd proton for Bismuth is a lone proton in the 7th proton energy level and the 115th proton for Element 115 is the lone proton in the 8th proton energy level. 126 neutrons completely fill 7 neutron energy levels and 184 neutrons completely fill 8 neutron energy levels. Refer to the Nucleon Energy Level Table for Bismuth and Element 115 , below, for the nuclear configurations of Bismuth and Element 115. This stable isotope of Bismuth, Element 83, has very unique gravitational characteristics. Refer to the Henry William Wallace Patent: U.S. Patent 3,626,605 , “Method and Apparatus for Generating a Secondary Gravitational Force Field.”
Element 115 Wedge
NOTE:
Producing the theoretically stable super-heavy elements is very difficult because the reactant nuclei of these nuclear reactions do not have enough neutrons to result in a product nucleus with enough neutrons to obtain theoretical stability.
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Which word beginning with 'o' is the branch of medical science that deals with pregnancy and childbirth? | Obstetrics | Define Obstetrics at Dictionary.com
obstetrics
noun, (used with a singular verb)
1.
the branch of medical science concerned with childbirth and caring for and treating women in or in connection with childbirth.
Abbreviation: OB, ob.
Examples from the Web for obstetrics
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Historical Examples
His professorship included obstetrics as well as Surgery, and his practice in this department was exceptionally large.
Robert Browning G. K. Chesterton
British Dictionary definitions for obstetrics
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noun
1.
(functioning as sing) the branch of medicine concerned with childbirth and the treatment of women before and after childbirth
Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition
© William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins
Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012
Word Origin and History for obstetrics
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"science of midwifery," 1819, from obstetric (adj.); also see -ics .
Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper
| Obstetrics |
Complete the title of the 1933 book by Gertrude Stein The Autobiography of Alice B …? | Birth dictionary definition | birth defined
LINK / CITE ADD TO WORD LIST
A woman holding her baby just after giving birth.
adjective
The definition of birth is related biologically.
An example of birth used as an adjective is birth mother.
noun
Birth is defined as a baby emerging from a mother's womb or the start of something.
When a pregnant woman delivers a baby and the child comes from her womb out of the birth canal into the world, this is an example of birth.
When two friends are sitting around and one of them has an idea to start a company, which they then go on to start, the initial conversation about the company is an example of the birth of the company.
verb
Birth is the act of having a newborn travel from your womb through the birth canal and out into the world.
When a pregnant woman has contractions, goes to the hospital and has her baby delivered, this is an example of a situation where she births the baby.
birth
Middle English, probably of Scandinavian origin; see bher-1 in Indo-European roots.
birth
See also mother ; pregnancy
amniomancy a form of divination by examining the embryonic sac or amniotic fluid. autogeny the spontaneous generation of an organism in an inorganic fluid medium. —autogenous, autogenic, autogonic, autogonous, adj. —autogenously, autogonously, adv. digoneutism the ability to produce two broods in a year. —digoneutic, adj. epigenesis the theory that embryonic development is totally controlled by the cell’s environment. Cf. syngenesis. —epigenesist, n. —epigenetic, adj. epimorphosis development of an organism or form of animal life in which body segmentation is complete before hatching. —epimorphic, adj. fetation the development of a fetus; gestation. geniture Obsolete, birth; the process of generation. gestation 1. the process of carrying in the womb. 2. fetation; the process of development of the fetus in the womb. gravidity pregnancy. —gravid, adj. hysterology scientific study of the uterus. Lamaze technique psychoprophylaxis. maieusiophobia tocophobia. midwifery the prineiples and practice of a midwife. Cf. tocology. multiparity the condition or process of producing more than one offspring at one birth. —multiparous, adj. nativity 1. the time, place, and circumstances of a person’s birth. 2. the configuration of the planets at the time of a person’s birth and a representation, as a chart, of that configuration. nulliparity the condition in a woman of never having given birth. —nullipara, n. —nulliparous, adj. obstetrics the branch of medicine that deals with prenatal and postnatal care and with the delivery of a child. —obstetrician, n. —obstetric, obstetrical, adj. omphalomancy a form of divination in which the number of knots in a newborn’s umbilical cord are counted to foretell the number of children the mother will have later. omphalotomy the surgical process of dividing the umbilical cord. oviparism the bearing of offspring by laying eggs that mature outside of the body. —oviparity, n. —oviparous, adj. ovoviviparism the bearing of offspring by producing eggs that mature within the body, with the young born alive. —ovoviviparity, n. —ovoviviparous, adj. oxytocic a substance or drug that induces or stimulates childbirth. —oxytocic, adj. palingenesis 1. partial or complete regeneration. 2. the doctrine that a soul passes through several bodies in a series of rebirths. Also palingenesia, palingenesy. —palingenetic, adj. parity the state, quality, or fact of having given birth to or having borne offspring. parturiency the state or condition of bringing forth young or being about to begin parturition. —parturient, adj. parturition childbirth; the act or process of giving birth. —parturient, adj. primigravida a woman who is pregnant for the first time. primipara a woman who has given birth to one child or who is giving birth for the first time. —primiparity, n. —primiparous, adj. psychoprophylaxis a method of preparing women for childbirth without anesthetic, by means of education, psychological and physical conditioning, and breathing exercises. Also called Lamaze technique. —psychoprophylactic, adj. puerperium the state or condition of a woman during and immediately following childbirth. —puerperal, adj. recrudescence the process of renewal or rebirth. —recrudescent, adj. regeneracy the act or quality of being renewed, reformed, or reborn, especially in a spiritual rebirth. —regenerate, adj. regenesis the act or process of renewal or rebirth. secundigravida a woman who is pregnant for the second time. spermicide a substance or preparation used for killing sperm, used in contraception. —spermicidal, adj. superfetation a conception occurring after the onset of a pregnancy from an earlier conception. syngenesis the theory that the form and development of the embryo are the result of the combined influence of sperm and egg. Cf. epigenesis. —syngenetic, adj. thoracopagus a fetal abnormality, consisting of twins joined at the thorax. tocology , tokology the science of obstetrics or midwifery. —tocologist, tokologist, n. —tocological, tokological, adj. tocophobia, tokophobia an abnormal fear of childbirth. Also called maieusiophobia. unigravida primigravida. uterogestation the process of gestation taking place in the womb from conception to birth. vasectomy surgical excision of part of the vas deferens, the duet which carries sperm from the testes, performed as a form of male contraception. viviparism the bearing of living offspring, characteristic of almost all mammals, many reptiles, and some fishes. —viviparity, n. —viviparous, adj.
birth
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In which English county is the Tank Museum at Bovington? | If you are looking for acccommodation in the area, please visit Hotels Combined for options.
Access Statement:
The Tank Museum is committed to a policy of accessibility, providing excellent access in and around the site with lifts, ramps and broad pathways. There is ample disabled parking and wheelchair access to a viewing point over the arena. Please click here for a copy of our access statement
Military Discounts:
The Tank Museum is pleased to offer complimentary admission to all serving members of the armed forces (on production of a valid MOD90 card) and to all Royal Armoured Corps Regimental Association members (on production of a valid association membership card).
In addition we are pleased to acknowledge the contribution of veterans of HM Forces by offering a discounted admission of £12.00 (on production of a proof of service)
Please Note:
Dogs are not permitted in the Museum (with the exception of disability assistance dogs).
Photographs taken inside the Museum are permitted solely for personal use.
Complimentary tickets and annual admissions cannot be used on special event days. Tanks in Action Display days are not counted as a special event day.
All children aged 16 and under must be accompanied by an adult, aged 18 or over.
Please read our Terms and Conditions, at the bottom of this page for more details.
The Tank Museum, Bovington, Dorset BH20 6JG
Tel: 01929 405096 Fax: 01929 405360
email: [email protected]
| Dorset |
What is the name of the brother of Peppa Pig? | The Tank Museum, Bovington - TripAdvisor
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The Tank Museum, Bovington
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Yes
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Yes
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Yes
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Yes
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Yes
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Yes
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Does this attraction require above average amounts of physical activity (long walks, climbs, stairs or hikes)?
Yes
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Address: Bovington, Wareham BH20 6JG, England
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The Tank Museum brings history to life, with the world's best collection of...
The Tank Museum brings history to life, with the world's best collection of tanks and explosive live displays.
See almost 300 armoured vehicles as you explore seven powerful exhibitions. "The Tank Story" details tank history from 1915 to the present. "Battlegroup Afghanistan" transports you to the modern front line. In "The Second World War - Discovery Centre", you'll see the breadth of our unique collection plus "Fury" uncovering our involvement in the film. Following the First World War centenary commemorations, explore "The Trench Experience" and "Warhorse to Horsepower".
New for 2015, "Tank Factory" tells the story of the tank makers.
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Terrible
“Brilliant”
Have visited the Tank Museum many times, always see something new, never disappointed. This is a must visit when in Dorset.
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Complete the title of the 1934 book by Evelyn Waugh A Handful of. | A Handful of Dust: Evelyn Waugh: 9780316216265: Amazon.com: Books
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"All over England people were waking up, queasy and despondent."
Few writers have walked the line between farce and tragedy as nimbly as Evelyn Waugh, who employed the conventions of the comic novel to chip away at the already crumbling English class system. His 1934 novel, A Handful of Dust, is a sublime example of his bleak satirical style: a mordantly funny exposé of aristocratic decadence and ennui in England between the wars.
Tony Last is an aristocrat whose attachment to an ideal feudal past is so profound that he is blind to his wife Brenda's boredom with the stately rhythms of country life. While he earnestly plays the lord of the manor in his ghastly Victorian Gothic pile, she sets herself up in a London flat and pursues an affair with the social-climbing idler John Beaver. In the first half of the novel Waugh fearlessly anatomizes the lifestyles of the rich and shameless. Everyone moves through an endless cycle of parties and country-house weekends, being scrupulously polite in public and utterly horrid in private. Sex is something one does to relieve the boredom, and Brenda's affair provides a welcome subject for conversation:
It had been an autumn of very sparse and meagre romance; only the most obvious people had parted or come together, and Brenda was filling a want long felt by those whose simple, vicarious pleasure it was to discuss the subject in bed over the telephone.
Tony's indifference and Brenda's selfishness give their relationship a sort of equilibrium until tragedy forces them to face facts. The collapse of their relationship accelerates, and in the famous final section of the book Tony seeks solace in a foolhardy search for El Dorado, throwing himself on the mercy of a jungle only slightly more savage than the one he leaves behind in England. For all its biting wit, A Handful of Dust paints a bleak picture of the English upper classes, reaching beyond satire toward a very modern sense of despair. In Waugh's world, culture, breeding, and the trappings of civilization only provide more subtle means of destruction. --Simon Leake --This text refers to an out of print or unavailable edition of this title.
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Review
Satirical novel by Evelyn Waugh, published in 1934. The novel, which is often considered Waugh's best, examines the themes of contemporary amorality and the death of spiritual values. Precipitated by the failure of Waugh's marriage and by his conversion to Roman Catholicism, the novel points up the similarities between the savagery of so-called civilized London society and the barbarity encountered by the hero in the South American jungle. The novel's protagonist, Tony Last, is bewildered and devastated when, out of boredom, his beloved wife Brenda has an affair and sues Tony for divorce. Tony flees to South America, where he is captured by a demented, illiterate English squatter who keeps Tony a prisoner, forcing him to read aloud continuously from the works of Charles Dickens. -- The Merriam-Webster Encyclopedia of Literature --This text refers to an out of print or unavailable edition of this title.
| Dust |
Which word beginning with 'o' is the scientific study of bones? | A Handful of Dust : Evelyn Waugh : 9780375414206
A Handful of Dust
By (author) Evelyn Waugh , Introduction by William Boyd
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(Book Jacket Status: Jacketed) Evelyn Waugh's 1934 novel is a bitingly funny vision of aristocratic decadence in England between the wars. It tells the story of Tony Last, who, to the irritation of his wife, is inordinately obsessed with his Victorian Gothic country house and life. When Lady Brenda Last embarks on an affair with the worthless John Beaver out of boredom with her husband, she sets in motion a sequence of tragicomic disasters that reveal Waugh at his most scathing. The action is set in the brittle social world recognizable from Decline and Fall and Vile Bodies, darkened and deepened by Waugh's own experience of sexual betrayal. As Tony is driven by the urbane savagery of this world to seek solace in the wilds of the Brazilian jungle, "A Handful of Dust " demonstrates the incomparably brilliant and wicked wit of one of the twentieth century's most accomplished novelists. show more
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Evelyn Waugh's 1935 novel is a mordantly funny vision of aristocratic decadence and ennui in England between the wars. It tells the story of Tony Last, an aristocrat who, to the irritation of his wife, in inordinately obsessed with his Victorian gothic country house and life. Bored with her husband's old-fashioned ways, Lady Brenda begins an affair with an ambitious social climber. Faced with the collapse of his marriage and a sudden family tragedy, Tony is driven to seek solace in a foolhardy search for the fabled El Dorado in the wilds of Brazil, where he finds himself at the mercy of a jungle that is only slightly more savage than the one he left behind in England. Here is a sublime example of the incomparably brilliant and wicked wit of one of the 20th century's most accomplished novelists. show more
Review quote
"A vicious, witty novel." --"New York Times " "Waugh's technique is relentless and razor-edged...By any standard it is super satire." --"Chicago Daily News " "The most mature and the best written novel that Mr. Waugh has yet produced." --"New Statesman & Nation " "A story both tragic and hilariously funny, that seems to move along without aid from its author...Unquestionably the best book Mr. Waugh has written." --"Saturday Review " show more
About Evelyn Waugh
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"What are the first four words of the poem Funeral Blues by W H Auden read at the funeral of Gareth in film 2Four Weddings and a Funeral""?" | Manuscript of “Four Weddings and a Funeral” Poem at Bonhams - In The News
Manuscript of “Four Weddings and a Funeral” Poem at Bonhams
January 15, 2013 9:33 AM
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The manuscript of W. H. Auden’s famous poem Stop all the Clocks is to be sold in Part I of the Roy Davids Collection Part III: Poetry: Poetical Manuscripts and Portraits of Poets at Bonhams , New Bond Street on 10 April. It is estimated at £6,000-8,000.
The work became known around the world when it featured in the 1984 hit British film, Four Weddings and a Funeral as a tribute read by Matthew (played by John Hannah) at the funeral of his lover, Gareth (Simon Callow).
Stop all the Clocks first appeared as a burlesque dirge in the poetic drama The Ascent of F6 which Auden wrote in 1936 with his close friend Christopher Isherwood. At that point the work consisted of five verses but it was later recast by the poet as a cabaret song. The last three verses were dropped and two new ones added making the final poem four verses long. It was published in 1940 in Another Time under the title Funeral Blues. The manuscript for sale, which has the interim title of Blues, almost certainly dates from 1937 and is in every important respect identical to the final published version.
It was sent to a Miss Boyd, possibly as a contribution to an anthology of poetry for use in schools. In the accompanying letter Auden speaks of experimenting with songs and of the difficulties of writing poems suitable for children.
The sale at Bonhams is the fruit of 40 years of collecting by the poet and scholar Roy Davids and is the finest collection of poetry ever to come to auction. In Mr David’s own words, “it would now be impossible for the present collection to be even approximately replicated.’
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| Funeral Blues |
Which book of the Bible immediately follows Psalms? | Funeral Directors: Academy Awards for Funeral Scenes
Funeral Directors: Academy Awards for Funeral Scenes
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Industry activist Caitlin Doughty says that the role of funeral directors is to “become like directors for the stage, curating the evening's performance.”
With that in mind and in anticipation of the Academy Awards on February 22, we thought we’d look at how Hollywood does your job.
Here are our nominees for the Funeral Oscar, with our winner at the end:
Most Ludicrous: The Big Lebowski
As they performed this film John Goodman and Jeff Bridges seemed to know they were making a cult classic. The only reason these bowling-addicted deadbeats even have an adventure is because “the Dude” was mistaken for someone else. They become prey to a group of misinformed nihilists (a plot element that is, unto itself, worthy of cult status) and when Goodman’s character confronts them in the bowling alley their friend Donny dies of fear.
Donny’s funeral takes place on a cliff overlooking the Pacific, and as the Dude looks on judgmentally Goodman delivers what has to be the weirdest and most irrelevant eulogy ever uttered. When he releases the ashes they blow all over Bridges, who just stands there before erupting in an equally irrelevant critique of Goodman’s eulogy. The two end up in an awkward hug, and the audience is left wondering if either of them really understands what just happened.
Funniest: Death at a Funeral
Few families witness their beloved patriarch’s crazed lover burst out of his casket. In fact, “few” may be an overstatement.
The lover’s path into the casket is even funnier, and begins with his attempt to extort money from the family to keep him from passing around a collection of compromising photographs.
That plan is dashed when he makes his dramatic entrance, but happily the truth about the deceased comes as a great relief to many of the guests – most especially to his widow. As the revelation produces one insight after another, the eldest son manages to recover some semblance of funerary dignity by subduing the pandemonium with a proper reading of his father’s eulogy.
Best Headstone: The Royal Tenenbaums
When a father cons everyone he meets, including his wife and children, we might expect him to come to his senses late in life and try to make amends.
And since all three of his children were prodigies in one way or another we might even extend him some consideration for getting them off to a good start, even if they are all in a slump now. Perhaps as we get to know him, and come to understand that his return may provide the fodder his children need to succeed again, we might even wonder if he has reformed himself.
Until he dies, and we find out that he hasn’t learned anything at all. With his disjointed family loitering around the tombstone their father commissioned, engraved upon it we read Royal Tenenbaum’s last con:
“Died tragically rescuing his family from the wreckage of a destroyed, sinking battleship.”
Most Narcissistic: Grand Budapest Hotel
Madame Céline Villeneuve’s untimely death, or perhaps murder, sets this motion picture in motion. Before her much younger paramour and hotel concierge, Monsieur Gustave H. (Ralph Fiennes), is accused of killing her, he takes a moment to view her remains.
This nomination is due entirely to Gustave’s final words to his elderly lover: “My dear, you look absolutely fabulous. Whatever cream they used on you, I want some.”
Most Momentous: Star Trek: The Wrath of Khan
The first Star Trek episode aired in 1966 and the franchise ultimately gained world-mythology status, with nation states naming spacecraft in its honor. And at the center of the show’s celebration of morally-guided scientific inquiry stood the conflicted Vulcan, Dr. Spock, one of the most iconic characters ever created.
So when he plunged through the airlock into the core of the Enterprise’s engine room to repair a catastrophic failure and save the ship and its crew, global audiences collectively gasped. And when the radiation burned his face and weakened him to a slumping mass, even the most hardened quantum physicist among us felt his heart sink as the beloved science officer shared his last words with Captain Kirk.
The sparse and tasteful funeral gave us the emotional release we needed. Kirk eulogized his friend by saying, “Of all the souls I’ve encountered, his was the most … human.”
Most Heartwarming: Little Miss Sunshine
Would you let your heroin-addicted father choreograph your daughter’s beauty-pageant dance routine while you desperately staked your future on pitching a nine-step self-improvement program? Yeah, you probably would, because most families somehow end up entangled in ways that seem, from the outside, ludicrous.
But what if you were on a strict time line to get your daughter to the beauty-pageant and your father overdosed? Would you steal his body, throw it in the back of the van, and make a beeline so your daughter could compete? Yeah, you’d probably do that too, because when it comes down to it families stick together.
And when you watched your daughter perform his choreography, only to discover it was basically a strip-tease, would you see it as an act of defiance that proved your family’s worth? Well, yeah…
Most Sentimental: Four Weddings and a Funeral
Hugh Grant’s and Andie MacDowell’s characters spend the entire movie bumping into each other at weddings until they finally realize they are in love, but the story is so rich and the cast is so excellent that the movie’s sub-plots engage us just as much.
We come to thoroughly enjoy the wild, laughing company of Gareth (Simon Callow) and his friend Matthew (John Hannah), who tell wedding-goers they are unapologetic bachelors. But then Gareth has a heart attack in the middle of one of his bon vivant exuberances, and his is the funeral in the movie’s title.
Matthew reads W. H. Auden’s poem, “Funeral Blues,” over Gareth’s coffin, and we realize that the two playboys were actually in love. Matthew’s heart is broken, and by the time he gets to Auden’s iconic line, so is ours: “I thought that love would last forever; I was wrong.”
And the Winner: Harold and Maude
With so many changes in the funeral industry these days this clip reminds us what it’s all about: honoring the life of the deceased, taking power from what they gave us, and gathering the strength to move on to new adventures.
More and more, people want to celebrate this in their own way, and as the industry adapts there’s probably no greater requirement for a funeral home director – “director” being the operative word, Academy Awards or not – than to be flexible.
And since that requires great focus on the front end of your business, be sure the back end never causes you problems. Our check guarantee services are designed to stay out of the way while you’re closing business, and to protect your cash flow while you’re caring for your clients. Learn more here .
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Lewis Hamilton signed a new three year contract last month with which motor racing team? | How did Lewis Hamilton manage to land £100m F1 contract with Mercedes? | Sport | The Guardian
Lewis Hamilton
How did Lewis Hamilton manage to land £100m F1 contract with Mercedes?
By negotiating the three-year deal the British world champion showed he is as savvy off the track as on it
Lewis Hamilton
How did Lewis Hamilton manage to land £100m F1 contract with Mercedes?
By negotiating the three-year deal the British world champion showed he is as savvy off the track as on it
Paul Weaver in Monte Carlo
Friday 22 May 2015 10.18 EDT
Last modified on Monday 4 April 2016 09.03 EDT
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Lewis Hamilton’s idol has always been Ayrton Senna – but not when it comes to negotiating contracts. The Formula One world champion has just completed a three-year deal with Mercedes worth £100m , making him not only the best-paid British sportsman in the world but also the highest remunerated driver in F1 history.
Senna once concluded negotiations by tossing a coin: he called wrong and lost $1.5m. “Ayrton and I started to headbutt on the numbers,” says the McLaren chairman and chief executive, Ron Dennis. “There was no way he wasn’t going to drive the car and there was no way we weren’t going to contract him to us – but we couldn’t agree about the money.
“We were arguing over half a million dollars and I came up with the idea of us flicking a coin to decide. It was the only way to break the log jam. So the coin was thrown into the air, spinning. It landed and went off like a rocket. You could hear it rattling under the curtains. I pulled them back and I had won. At the time neither of us twigged that we’d tossed a coin over a three-year contract – so the net result was for $1.5m.”
Hamilton ended four months of intense talks by re-signing for the team with whom he won his second world championship last year and that is no surprise to his close friend of 10 years Marc Hynes, who deals with drivers’ contracts at the other end of the paddock, at Manor.
“What Lewis has done is very impressive,” he says. “Dealing with a big company he’s shown how smart he is. He never stops working to improve his brand, working tirelessly for his team and his sport off the track. Then he gets in his car and destroys everyone.”
No two contracts are the same. They vary from team to team and driver to driver but most of the basics are the same. A deal is normally between one and three years and once a basic agreement has been made a contract will be drawn up. This will then be scrutinised by lawyers on both sides and usually go back and forth two or three times.
“You start with the key points and these are the ones you end up arguing over, money and the length of the deal. The payment schedule is very important. The driver will normally get a business-class flight and an economy flight for his trainer, and a hotel room for the driver and the trainer. But at the front of the grid the driver will go first-class and his trainer business-class. And he will want another hotel room for his manager. The other big issues are passes, sponsorship, image rights and promotional days.”
Otmar Szafnauer deals with drivers’ contracts at Force India, where he is the chief operations officer. He says: “Usually what we negotiate most about is money. That’s the big one. The basic salary and then the bonus structure. Some drivers will want money for every point, others for podiums, extra money for wins and extra money for a world championship. Even with a pay driver [ie one financed by a sponsor] the sponsor will pay the team and then the team will pay the driver, so you still have to make a deal.”
The main points of a typical deal for an F1 driver
Duration One to three years. The smaller teams tend to sign one-year deals, conditional on sponsorship income. It is rare for a driver to have a contract for more than three years because so much can change in that time.
Options Teams like to include an option to continue if they notify the driver by a certain date. This is more likely at the lower end of the grid.
Sponsorship Some teams sell packages of sponsorship rights, brought to the team by the driver. Logo placement is for negotiation as is paddock access, paddock club and driver appearance days. There may some obligation for the team to provide live action demos if the deal is a big one.
Promotional activities The more successful the driver the more valuable the days, because they aren’t too keen to do many sponsor days. Thirty days is a common starting point, with some teams wanting limitless days.
Expenses Driver and trainer expenses are normal in smaller teams. Bigger teams may ask the driver to pay expenses as their taste may be more elaborate and expensive. Drivers fly long haul business class in smaller teams, and first for more established drivers with bigger teams.
Passes Normally a driver is given a paddock pass for his trainer and his manager. Further paddock passes can be added as part of a sponsorship or commercial rights package.
Personal sponsorship spaces Pay drivers will often negotiate personal sponsorship spaces on their helmets, caps, or race suits. As well as adding revenue this allows drivers to maintain long-standing relationships while teams can cut back on salary demands.
Prize money/bonuses Probably an area where there are differences between team-mates. Normally a price per point plus podium bonus, win bonus, championship bonus.
Driver identity The driver grants the team and their sponsors the right to use the name, fame, image and reputation (in any manner depicting the driver in his racewear or trackwear). More established drivers will try to carve out some rights here to use for their own merchandise or personal sponsors but these are usually pretty tightly controlled and owned by the teams in a racing context.
Trophies Do they become the property of the driver or the team?
Hazardous activities There is normally a list of sports that drivers cannot participate in eg snowboarding, rock climbing, parachuting, motor cross etc.
Waivers and indemnities The driver shall execute such forms of standard waiver or indemnity as may be required by any tyre or engine supplier, team sponsor, racing promoter, organiser or track owner.
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Which Welsh town was granted city status in 1969? | Rosberg signs two-year extension at Mercedes | Reuters
Fri Jul 22, 2016 | 3:12 PM IST
Rosberg signs two-year extension at Mercedes
Hungary Formula One - F1 - Hungarian Grand Prix 2016 - Hungaroring, Hungary - 22/7/16 Mercedes' Nico Rosberg during practice
Reuters/Laszlo Balogh
By Abhishek Takle | BUDAPEST
BUDAPEST Formula One championship leader Nico Rosberg has signed a new contract that will keep him at Mercedes with Lewis Hamilton until the end of the 2018 season, the team said on Friday.
The team tweeted a video of the 31-year-old, runner up to Briton Hamilton in the championship for the last two years, signing the contract to race for the team in the 2017 and 2018 seasons.
"Special moment for me, of course, this moment of signing that piece of paper," Rosberg said in a second video posted on social media by Mercedes.
"I look forward to the future of course."
There was no immediate comment from Rosberg on Friday as the German warmed up for the opening practice session for Sunday’s Hungarian Grand Prix.
"We are delighted to announce that the Mercedes AMG Petronas Formula 1 Team has signed a two-year contract extension with Nico Rosberg for the 2017 and 2018 Formula One seasons," Mercedes said in a statement.
"Nico has been a core member of the Silver Arrows since the team returned to the sport in 2010 and has played a crucial role in the team's success in that time."
Rosberg joined Mercedes from Williams in 2010 when the German marque returned to the sport as a full works outfit, and has helped the team to two constructors’ triumphs with 19 victories, including five this year.
Triple world champion Hamilton signed a three-year deal with the team through to the end of the 2018 season in May last year.
"We are very happy, we had a couple of weeks of discussions," Mercedes boss Toto Wolff said in a video. "It was always clear we wanted to continue, Nico is the real deal for us."
Rosberg and Hamilton have been the only two realistic championship contenders as Mercedes have dominated Formula One since the start of the V6 turbo-hybrid era in 2014.
The pair have often exasperated team-bosses with their on-track rivalry, most recently after they collided on the last lap of the Austrian Grand Prix while fighting for the lead, their third collision in five races that prompted Mercedes to put stricter deterrents in place.
Rosberg holds a one-point lead over Hamilton in the drivers' standings heading into this weekend's Hungarian Grand Prix, down from an imposing 43 points in May.
Rosberg’s confirmation at Mercedes puts speculation surrounding his future to bed and locks down another seat with a top team after Ferrari renewed its contract with Kimi Raikkonen at the last race in Britain.
Daniel Ricciardo and Max Verstappen also recently put pen to paper on long-term contracts with Red Bull.
Rosberg's new deal also means Red Bull team principal Christian Horner's prediction that Sebastian Vettel would move to Mercedes from Ferrari in 2018 is also unlikely to materialise.
Williams now hold the most attractive seats on the driver market with the spotlight on the future of McLaren’s Jenson Button.
(Writing by Nick Mulvenney, editing by Amlan Chakraborty)
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The peninsula of Istria is shared between Italy, Slovenia and which other country which has about 89%? | Travel in Istria, Croatia | My Istria
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Travel to Istria
Croatia is a middle european Adriatic country. It lies between Slovenia on the west, Hungary on the north, Serbia and Montenegro, as well as Bosnia and Herzegovina on the east, while the Adriatic sea divides it from its neighbor Italy. It became a full member of EU in July 2013. The capitol of Croatia is Zagreb.
Istria is the largest peninsula in the Adriatic Sea. The peninsula is located at the head of the Adriatic between the Gulf of Trieste and the Bay of Kvarner. It is shared by three countries: Croatia, Slovenia, and Italy. Istria County is the westernmost county of Croatia which includes the biggest part of the Istrian peninsula (2,820 km2 out of 3,160 km2, 89%). The area of the county is called Istra. The county administrative center is Pazin.
Pula is the main transportation hub for Istria so most people will arrive there if they are not driving. Some boat lines arrive to Poreč, as well.
Get in By Bus
Buses run from Venice and Trieste in Italy, Zagreb and other major cities to Pazin, Rovinj, and Pula and also stop in central Istrian towns such as Motovun, or Zminj.
Get in by Air
Ryanair provides a connection London (Stansted) to Pula three days a week, and Dublin Pula also. Scandjet connects Pula to Oslo, Copenhagen and Stockholm once a week (on Saturdays) during the summer. Germanwings also serves Pula. In 2013 Jet2 introduces flights to Pula from/to Leeds Bradford,Newcastle, Manchester, Glasgow. Croatian Airlines also serves flights to Pula from/to Hamburg & Frankfurt.
Trieste Airport in Italy is located only 80 km away from Istria. Ryanair flies to Trieste most days.
Good alternatives within a two hour drive are also Venice,Ljubljana, Zagreb, Rijeka.
220 V, frequency: 50 Hz
Tap water is safe to drink in all of Croatia.
Currency:
Croatia's official currency is the Kuna ( 1kn = 100lipa ). Although many tourist business owners may accept Euros, Euros are not legal tender in Croatia. Foreign currency can be exchanged in banks, exchange offices, post offices and in the majority of tourist information offices, hotels and campsites. Any amount of Kuna you have left at the end of your stay can be converted to Euros at a local bank or exchange office.
ATM:
ATMs (in Croatian “bankomat”) are available throughout Croatia. They will accept various European bank cards, credit cards (Diners Club, Eurocard/Mastercard, Visa, American Express etc.) and debit cards (Cirrus, Maestro, Visa electron etc.).
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Errol Brown who died last month was best known as a member of which band? | Earth Snapshot • Slovenia
September 22nd, 2011 Category: Clouds , Lakes , Mountains
Italy - September 21st, 2011
This image focuses on Italy, with neighbors France, Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Slovenia and Croatia also partially visible (clockwise from left). The islands of Corsica (France, above) and Sardinia (Italy, below) can also be observed in the Mediterranean Sea.
One of the most striking features of this image are the snow-capped Alps, with lakes such as Lake Garda (center) and Lake Geneva (left) at their feet. The Adriatic Coast of Italy is lined with green sediments. Also of note are the series of condensation trails (contrails) from passing airplanes that have left a criss-crossed set of lines in the air over the sea.
August 14th, 2011 Category: Mountains
Europe - August 1st, 2011
This image shows most of the Italian peninsula and Sicily, as well as parts of Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia, Macedonia, Albania and Greece.
Italy is the country with less cloud cover, allowing the Apennine Mountains to be seen running down the spine of the peninsula. Also cloud free is the coast of Croatia, where several islands can be seen near the shoreline. Most of the rest of the image is dotted by clouds, with the exception of a large valley in Romania at the upper right.
January 31st, 2010 Category: Rivers , Sediments
Italy - January 3rd, 2010
Sediments line the shores of the Gulf of Venice, particularly along its western shores and where they flow forth from the River Po (lower left). The gulf borders modern day Italy, Slovenia and Croatia, and is at the far north of the Adriatic Sea between the delta of the Po river in northern Italy and the Istria peninsula in Croatia.
Istria (right) is the largest peninsula in the Adriatic Sea. The peninsula is located at the head of the Adriatic between the Gulf of Trieste and the Bay of Kvarner. It is shared by three countries: Croatia, Slovenia and Italy.
The largest portion (89%) “Croatian Istria” (Hrvatska Istra), is further divided into two counties. The largest portion is Istria County in western Croatia. A small slice in the north lies in Slovenia and is commonly known as Austrian Littoral (Slovenska Istra), while a tiny region in Italy consisting of the comunes of Muggia and San Dorligo della Valle belongs to Italy.
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Ali Bongo Ctadimba is the President of which African country - his father Omar Bongo held the position from 1967 to 2009? | Gabonese President Omar Bongo (1935-2009) - World Socialist Web Site
World Socialist Web Site
Published by the International Committee of the Fourth International (ICFI)
Gabonese President Omar Bongo (1935-2009)
A tool of French imperialism in Africa
By Olivier Laurent
5 September 2009
Gabonese President Omar Bongo died on June 7 of intestinal cancer in a Spanish hospital, after holding power for nearly 42 years. His falling-out with France in recent years notwithstanding, his career was dedicated to the defense of French imperialism's commercial and strategic interests in sub-Saharan Africa. It testifies to the bankruptcy of the bourgeois-nationalist regimes to which France handed power at decolonization.
A consummate political survivor, Bongo kept power by placing the resources of his impoverished, oil-rich country in the hands of foreign oil companies and politicians. Unable to resolve bitter internal divisions and poverty in Gabon— the legacy of French colonial rule— the Bongo regime stayed in power only thanks to the French army. Deploying a cynicism symbolized by his repeated, politically expedient religious conversions, he amassed an immense personal fortune by taking a cut of the spoils plundered from his own country.
After Bongo's death, the power struggle for his succession was concentrated inside the ruling party, the Gabonese Democratic Party (PDG), between his daughter Pascaline and his son Ali. Ultimately, Ali was chosen as the PDG's candidate, and won the August 30 elections.
Omar Bongo was born Albert-Bernard Bongo, into a farming family with 12 children in southern Gabon. He was orphaned at age 12, then raised by an uncle working for the colonial administration. At age 17 he left home for Brazzaville, the capital of the nearby French Congo, and worked at a post office.
Upon his arrival in Brazzaville, he joined the Freemasonry and the social-democratic SFIO (French Section of the Workers’ International). Freemasonry, a bourgeois and secular secret society, had longstanding traditions in the colonial administration. During World War II, it helped rally sections of the colonial administration to de Gaulle, against the anti-Masonic Philippe Pétain, who led the Vichy regime collaborating with the Nazi occupation.
Bongo performed his obligatory French military service from 1958 to 1960, serving in air force intelligence, where he attained the rank of lieutenant. He briefly returned to work for the Post Office in the Gabonese capital, Libreville. The same year Bongo was discharged from the French armed forces, Gabon was formally granted independence from France.
These associations gave Bongo an introduction into the French political establishment; Bongo joked later in life that he still had his SFIO membership card.
More broadly, Bongo was coming to French bourgeois politics at a pivotal time. Discredited by its capitulation to Nazi Germany and then by its unsuccessful wars to maintain colonial rule in Indochina and Algeria, French imperialism was developing a layer of the native petty-bourgeoisie to protect its interests in the local state apparatus.
Decolonization: a betrayal of the masses
At the 1944 Brazzaville conference, bourgeois Resistance leader General Charles de Gaulle promised to abolish the longstanding, discriminatory Indigenous Code. In its place, he presented a vague plan where Africans, as de Gaulle said, "could rise step by step up to the level where they could participate at home in the administration of their own affairs." The Governor-General of French Equatorial Africa at the time of the conference, Félix Éboué, was himself a black man, a Mason and a social-democrat from Guyana. He advocated a policy of "assimilation" at the conference, which was accepted.
The massive repression and colonial wars needed to maintain French rule in the colonies proved too costly for France's war-torn economy and too unpopular with the working class in France. Between 1945 and 1960, France spent 32.5 billion Gold-Francs in its colonies, twice as much as its received from the US Marshall Plan for post-World War II reconstruction. As de Gaulle explained, "decolonization is our interest, and therefore it is our policy."
At the same time, however, French imperialism had no intention of giving up control of these colonies, from which it took valuable raw materials and cheap labor. The result was the so-called FranceAfrique system: in exchange for allowing a layer of the African petty-bourgeoisie to formally hold power, French imperialism would keep exploiting its former colonies.
Bongo later explained this set-up as follows: "Gabon without France, it's a car with no driver. France without Gabon, it's a car with no gas."
If French imperialism was able to carry out this policy, it was above all because the SFIO and the French Communist Party (PCF) repeatedly betrayed the struggles of the working class: the insurrectionary battles during the liberation of France from the Nazis in 1945, and the repeated strike waves after the war. These parties threw their political weight behind de Gaulle, who built his regime by winning the support of French authorities that had ruled under the Nazis.
The social democrats and the Stalinists helped fight France's colonial wars, most prominently in the war policy of SFIO premier Guy Mollet in Algeria.
The nationally oriented perspective of the PCF also helped French imperialism recruit the African cadre with which it would continue to rule Africa. PCF-affiliated Groupes d'Etudes Communistes (GEC, Communist Study Groups) liquidated into a series of African bourgeois-nationalist parties grouped in the Rassemblement Démocratique Africain (RDA, African Democratic Rally) — whose most prominent leader was future Ivory Coast president Félix Houphouët-Boigny. Within Gabon, the RDA was represented by Léon Mba, the future president of Gabon and political patron of Bongo.
With the proletariat politically strangled by the social democrats and the Stalinists, the French bourgeoisie could deploy its full financial and military resources in Gabon— not to repair the ravages of colonization, but to loot its natural resources and use it as a base for intrigue in Africa.
The Gaullists created a complex system of networks and lobbies in Africa, allowing the French bourgeoisie to not only earn huge profits, but also to plan a series of assassinations, military coups, and interventions.
The main organiser of these networks was Jacques Foccart. An ex-resistance fighter, Foccart came to be known as de Gaulle's "Mister Africa," also playing that role under Presidents Georges Pompidou and Jacques Chirac. Foccart also took part in the creation of the SAC (Service d'Action Civique – Civil Action Service) — the Gaullist movement's security service, which participated in many acts of violence against left-wing students and striking workers in France.
The regime that evolved under Bongo— a one-party dictatorship dependent on French military support to repress the masses at every major internal crisis— was perfectly suited to French imperialism's requirements.
FranceAfrique: how Bongo came to power
Bongo quickly made his first steps into politics, using his connections in Freemasonry to get involved in the first election campaign of the independent Gabon, in 1961. He managed to be spotted and courted by both main politicians contesting for power: Léon Mba and Jean-Hilaire Aubame.
Aubame favored a parliamentary regime, while Mba preferred a strong presidency. Bongo ultimately chose to side with Mba, who was also De Gaulle's choice. Before Gabon's independence, both Mba and Bongo expressed the wish that Gabon could become a French département, i.e. formally a part of France, like Martinique and Guadeloupe, with the French tricolor inserted into the Gabonese flag.
Having lost the election, Aubame agreed to become Mba's Prime minister. But Mba did not trust Aubame and tried to have him assassinated in 1963. This backfired, as a military coup briefly brought Aubame to power in 1964
France intervened, sending paratroopers to restore Mba to power. Bongo was jailed during the coup. From this experience, he reportedly drew the conclusion that he could not trust the Gabonese army, and that it was better to rely on French troops.
Bongo became defense minister in 1965, replacing Mba when his health deteriorated the same year. He was appointed Vice-President and took the interim on Mba's death in 1967. He soon proclaimed a single-party system, ruled by his own Parti démocratique gabonaise (PDG).
Bongo turned Gabon into an outpost to serve French interests in Africa. He helped France in its support for the secessionist war in the oil-rich Nigerian province of Biafra. Foccart organised the sending of weapons to Biafra, hiding them in aid cargo air-shipped by the Red Cross through the Libreville airport. He also sent in numerous mercenaries, including the best-known of France's guns-for-hire, Bob Denard.
The Catholic charity Caritas also took part in logistical support for Biafra fighters. At this point, Bongo converted to the Catholicism, visiting Pope Paul VI in 1968.
Bongo would continue to assist French interventions in Africa. In 1977, he covered up French President Valérie Giscard d'Estaing's failed attempt at overthrowing Benin's nationalist leader, Mathieu Kérékou. This decision was significant: Bongo might have helped his Gaullist allies like Jacques Chirac, who were political opponents of Giscard d'Estaing, by revealing the affair. However, on such matters, Bongo deferred to overall French strategic interests.
The plundering of Gabon
In the early 1970s, oil became Gabon's biggest export. The country joined OPEC in 1975. In order to prepare for this, Bongo converted to Islam in 1973, at the recommendation of Libyan dictator Moammar Gaddafi. He took Omar as his first name.
Gabon's oil industry was largely operated by French oil company Elf, now absorbed into French oil major Total. Besides a small portion used to bribe the ruling Gabonese clique around Bongo, the oil revenues were stolen by a corrupt layer of French businessmen and politicians.
Elf itself was a political creation, part and parcel of the FranceAfrique networks set up by de Gaulle and Foccart, designed to further French imperialism's interests in newly "independent" Africa. Deeply corrupt, it has provided funds for a variety of French political and strategic initiatives and created a string of scandals, most notably in recent times over kickbacks in France's 1991 sale of six frigates to Taiwan.
Former Elf president Loïc Le Floch-Prigent, who was convicted of embezzling millions from Elf in 2003, testified in court: “In 1962, [Elf founder Pierre Guillaumat] convinced [Charles de Gaulle] to set up a parallel structure of real oil technicians. [By creating Elf] the Gaullists wanted a real secular arm of the state in Africa...a sort of permanent ministry of oil...a sort of intelligence office in the oil-producing countries.”
Asked to explain Elf's relations with its African oil suppliers, Le Floch-Prigent said: "Let's call a spade a spade. Elf's money goes to Africa and comes back to France."
This money allowed right-wing forces to buy influence in French politics as well. Bongo reportedly financed Giscard d'Estaing in 1974 against the centre-right candidate Chaban-Delmas, and then Jacques Chirac in every subsequent presidential election until 2007.
In 1989, President François Mitterrand of the Socialist Party arranged that this money would now benefit both the left and the right, according to Le Floch-Prigent's testimony. He said: "I asked Mitterrand, 'Do you want me to cut the flow [i.e., of funds], yes or no?' and Mitterrand answered, 'Ah ! No, we continue what was put in place by General de Gaulle.' And he simply asked me to rebalance things, without forgetting [Chirac's] RPR party."
Bongo thus presided over a system whereby Gabon's economy was plundered in the interests of a narrow layer of corrupt French politicians and businessmen. Reflecting its oil and mineral wealth, Gabon has substantial GDP: $21.4 billion a year, or $14,400 per capita. This is four times that of most sub-Saharan African nations. However, with these funds siphoned off largely by France or by the ruling clique around Bongo, the Gabonese masses remain mired in bitter poverty.
Life expectancy at birth is 53 years, putting Gabon in 198th place among the world's countries, and there are only 29 doctors per 100,000 inhabitants. Only 3.8 percent of Gabon's GDP is spent on education, ranking it 118th. The UN's IRIN news service notes that 30 percent of the population lives under the official poverty line, and that "according to the IMF, Gabon's social indicators are more in line with those of low-income countries in sub-Saharan Africa."
According to former French investigating judge Eva Joly, who led an inquiry into Bongo's affairs, Gabon builds five kilometres of roads every year, for a road network that is only 900 km long.
On the other end of the social spectrum, a tiny layer of Gabonese thrives. In a recent issue of Jeune Afrique (the international edition), one learns they travel in private jets from Libreville to Paris for a day of shopping, and that last year, Gabon was the fourth largest African importer of champagne, with 181 000 bottles.
As a state whose wealth was largely based on oil revenues, Gabon remains desperately vulnerable to falls in oil prices on international markets. From 1986 to 1990, low oil prices created a massive series of strikes through all economic sectors and among students. In 1988, Bongo began to discuss with his political opponents, whose most prominent figure was father Paul Mba Abessole. Bongo hoped they could channel the anger into safe waters, but he was still hesitating over granting a multiparty system.
On January 16, 1990, students at Omar Bongo University in Libreville struck against the lack of funding. It was called the "Diarrheal Strike," because it started over a massive food poisoning of all students at the campus canteen. The next day, police evacuated the university by force. From the 18th on, the unrest spread into the city involving all sections of the population.
On February 24, Bongo obtained the capitulation of students by offering to pay for damages and inviting them publicly to a feast in his palace. But only two days later, strikes erupted in air traffic control, gas stations, railways, and the electricity company. Riots began anew, and the army took up positions to protect Bongo's palace.
On March 21, workers at oil refineries accounting for 70 percent of Gabon's exports, began striking too. On March 23, Bongo tried to calm things down by calling a national conference on a multiparty system, but the strikes did not stop. On the 27th, Bongo declared a curfew for the whole country.
The multiparty system was finally proclaimed on April 19, but the lives of Gabonese did not improve. On May 23, upon the death of opposition leader Joseph Rendjambe, a riot started at Port-Gentil, during which the French consulate was burned down. The disturbances quickly spread to the whole country once again. On the next day, France sent in troops, officially to evacuate its 1800 citizens from Gabon. They also secured the country’s oil refineries. On May 31, French troops had regained control of the situation and had again kept Bongo in power.
In the first multi-party legislative elections held in November 1990, Bongo's party won 63 seats against 57 for the various opposition parties. The first presidential election with more than one candidate was held on December 5, 1993. Bongo was re-elected on the first round with 51,1 percents of the votes, followed by Abessole. The troubles following this election, which was widely suspected of being rigged, ultimately led Bongo to sign the so-called Paris agreements with the opposition.
After 1990: an erosion of FranceAfrique
French influence in Gabon, and more broadly in Africa, began to weaken in the 1990s. This was not the reflection of any growing independence of leaders like Bongo from world imperialism, or of effective political opposition to Bongo in the Gabonese ruling elite— which Bongo continued to co-opt with state funds.
Rather, Bongo, like other African rulers, was developing closer ties with other great powers; initially to US imperialism, and more recently to commercial competition from China.
After the collapse of the USSR in 1991 removed Soviet competition as a common enemy for US and French imperialism, Washington pursued a more aggressive policy in Paris' African "backyard." This was reflected in Gabon's trade relations. In 1990, France was Gabon's leading trade partner, with 38 percent of exports and 60.6 percents of import. North America accounted for 22 and 11 percent respectively. Today, France is third for exports, with only 9.4 percent, and its leading position for imports has eroded, with 28 percent.
The US played a role in removing the French-backed regimes of Mobutu in Zaire (the former Belgian Congo) in 1997, and Habyarimana in neighboring Rwanda in 1994. Paris helped protect the Hutu regime in Rwanda, whose genocide against the Tutsis and oppositional Hutus claimed 800,000 lives. The civil war that broke out in Zaire (today the Democratic Republic of the Congo) would claim several million lives.
Bongo was too tied to France to switch alliances overnight, but he cultivated links with the US, as well. During the civil war in neighboring Republic of Congo between 1993 and 1999, he sold weapons both to Elf's proxy, Denis Sassou Ngesso, and to Pascal Lissouba, who wanted to switch oil contracts to the US company Oxy. As Gabon was one of the few countries in the region not to descend into civil war, Bongo portrayed himself as a helpful negotiator for peace in Africa.
By the onset of the present decade, Bongo was moving closer to the US. In 2000, A US Senate commission led by Democrat Carl Levin estimated that Bongo deposited $130 million in his accounts at New York's Citibank between 1985 and 1997. On November 9, 2005, the New York Times reported that Bongo had given $9 million to US lobbyist Jack Abramoff to arrange a meeting with Bush. Bongo denied this.
Tensions from corruption investigations in France, such as the Elf Affair, soured Paris' relations with Bongo. In its obituary of Bongo, Le Figaro wrote that he "knew everything about everyone, that was his best life insurance policy: 'I would sink a lot of people,' he would say, in a barely disguised threat."
Bongo himself was targeted by the French justice system in the so-called "illegally acquired goods" scandal. Bongo, President Nguesso of Congo-Brazzaville, and President Teodoro Obiang Nguéma of Equatorial Guinea were accused of embezzlement by non-governmental organizations in France. In 2008, the daily Le Monde revealed they owned 150 million Euro in luxury apartments and houses bought with state money, in France alone. The investigation was temporarily halted in May 2009, and Bongo died before it resumed.
Throughout this period, Bongo maintained his rule by using Gabon's oil wealth to buy off a series of opposition politicians. Perhaps the most famous recent case was that of Union of the Gabonese People (UPG) leader Pierre Mamboundou, who finished second in the 2005 elections behind Bongo, with 13.5 percent of the vote. Mamboundou briefly took refuge in the South African embassy in 2006, after Gabonese security forces raided UPG headquarters. However, in 2007 Bongo met with Mamboundou and negotiated a political truce in exchange for a development loan for Mamboundou's municipality, Ndendé.
Whatever concessions Bongo has made to his opponents, and French imperialism has made to its rivals in Gabon, the election of Ali Bongo to replace his father Omar symbolizes the essential continuity of imperialist influence in Gabon. Oil major Total is still a leading enterprise there, part of a French presence in the country that includes 120 companies and the stationing of France's 6th Marine Battalion in Libreville.
| Gabon |
Lake Ontario is bounded by the Canadian province of Ontario and which US state? | Famous people of Gabon
Roguy Méyé is a Gabonese football striker.
Jean Ping
Politician
Jean Ping is a Gabonese diplomat and politician who was the Chairperson of the Commission of the African Union from 2008 to 2012. He was previously the Foreign Minister of Gabon from 1999 to 2008 and served as President of the United Nations General Assembly from 2004 to 2005.
Éric Mouloungui
Soccer Midfielder
Éric Mouloungui is a Gabonese international footballer. Originally a striker, he is currently used as a midfielder.
Pierre Aubameyang
Soccer
Pierre Francois Aubameyang "Yaya" is a former Gabonese football defender. He also holds a French passport. He is the father of Catilina, Willy and Pierre-Emerick. He won over 80 caps for the Gabonese national team. He spent most of his career at French team Stade Lavallois. He is currently employed as a scout for A.C. Milan.
André Biyogo Poko
Andre Biyogho is a Gabonese football player.
Pierre Akendengué
Singer
Pierre-Claver Akendengué is a musician and composer of Gabon. In 1997, he received his country's "Prix d'excellence" at the Africa Music awards in Libreville, honoring his body of work. He also serves as a cultural advisor for the government of Gabon. Born on the island of Awuta, which is located just off the coast from Port-Gentil, Akendengué went to school in Port-Gentil, then studied psychology at the University of Caen in France during the 1960s. While in France, he met singer Mireille, who encouraged his musical interests. In 1974, Akendengué recorded his first album, Nandipo, consisted of songs of his own composition, sung in French and Nkomi, accompanied by guitar, women choir, bass and the percussion of Nana Vasconcelos. He later set to music poems by P. E. Mondjegou, such as "Le Chant du Coupeur d'Okoumé". Returning to Gabon, he studied solfeggio and plainchant at a Catholic college, and presented spectacles showcasing traditional Gabonese forms in a concert setting. In 1986, he received a doctorate from the University of Paris for his study of religion and education among the Nkomi.
Nathalie Makoma
Pop Artist
Nathalie Makoma, born in Kinshasa, Zaire on February 24, 1982, is a Dutch singer of Congolese origin. Her parents are from the Democratic Republic of Congo. She was the lead singer for the group Makoma and she later embarked on a solo musical career on her own. She took part in the Dutch Idols singing competition in its fourth season reaching the final and finishing as runner-up to Nikki Kerkhof. As a result she was signed to Sony BMG. She also took part in Dutch Dancing With the Stars coming second, in De Mattheus Masterclass.
Fanny Cottençon
Actor
Fanny Cottençon is a French actress, born in Port-Gentil, Gabon. In 1983 she won the César Award for Best Supporting Actress for her effort in the movie L'étoile du nord.
Frédéric Bulot
Soccer Midfielder
Frédéric Bulot is a French football player who currently plays for Belgian club Standard Liège in the Belgian Pro League. He is a French youth international having earned caps with all levels for which he has been eligible beginning with the under-16 team. His club describes him as a versatile left-footed box-to-box midfielder who is capable of playing as a centre midfielder or an attacker. Bulot signed his first professional contract on 18 July 2008 agreeing to a three-year deal until June 2011. After playing with the club's Championnat de France amateur team for the first two years of the contract, he was promoted to the senior team for the 2010–11 season and was assigned the number 22 shirt by manager Guy Lacombe. On 7 August 2010, Bulot made his professional debut in the club's opening league match against Lyon. He started the match and played 57 minutes before being substitute out in a 0–0 draw. Bulot is eligible for both France and Gabon on senior international level due to being born to a French father and Gabonese mother. In July 2011, he joined Caen on a three-year deal.
Lévy Madinda
Soccer Midfielder
Lévy Clément Madinda is a Gabonese professional footballer who plays for Celta de Vigo in Spain, as a midfielder.
Anthony Obame
Olympic Taekwondo Athlete
Anthony Obame Mylann is a taekwondo practitioner who represented Gabon at the 2012 Summer Olympics. Obame is currently coached by former two-time world champion Juan Antonio Ramos. He won the silver medal in the men's 80+ kg category at the 2012 Olympic Games, becoming the first Gabonese athlete to win a medal at the Olympics. Obame defeated Kaino Thomsen and Bahri Tanrikulu en route to the gold medal match, which he lost to Carlo Molfetta of Italy. Obame led in the match, but lost on a judges' decision after the match ended in a tie. Obame said he was disappointed because of what he called a "youthful error." Obame was greeted by thousands of supporters upon his return to Libreville. Obame said he felt "immense pride and joy" in having won the nation's first Olympic medal.
Didier Ovono
Didier Janvier Ovono Ebang is a Gabonese football goalkeeper who last played for Sochaux.
Catilina Aubameyang
Catilina Aubameyang is a Gabonese international football player who is currently playing for Sapins.
Fabrice Do Marcolino
Soccer Forward
Fabrice Do Marcolino is a Gabonese striker currently playing for the French side USJA Carquefou in the Championnat National. In the summer of 2009, he joined Stade Laval after signing from Angers SCO. The curious fact is that Angers and Laval are rivals. Do Marcolino has made several appearances for the Gabon national football team. His brother is fellow player Arsène Do Marcolino.
Mario Lemina
Mario Lemina is a footballer.
Zack Orji
Actor
Zachee Ama Orji, born in Libreville, Gabon, in the 1960s, is a Nigerian actor, director, producer and filmmaker. Orji is a graduate of University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Having grown up in Cameroon, Benin and Togo he speaks both English and French fluently. His first movie was in 1991, and was entitled Unforgiven Sin. Since then, Orji has starred in different movies and is now a Nollywood legend. He is married to Ngozi Orji has three children and lives in Nigeria.
Guelor Kanga
Soccer Midfielder
Guélor Kanga Kaku is a Gabonese professional football player. Currently, he plays in the Russian Premier League for FC Rostov. He made his debut in the Russian Premier League on March 9, 2013 for FC Rostov in a game against FC Alania Vladikavkaz.
André Mba Obame
Man
André Mba Obame is a Gabonese politician. After serving as an adviser to President Omar Bongo in the 1980s, he was a minister in the government of Gabon from 1990 to 1991 and again from 1997 to 2009; during that time, he was identified with the reformist wing of the ruling Gabonese Democratic Party. He held the key post of Minister of the Interior from 2006 to 2009 and then briefly served as Minister of the Coordination and Follow-up of Government Action in mid-2009. He was an independent candidate in the 30 August 2009 presidential election and placed third with 25.33% of the vote.
Jean-Hilaire Aubame
Politician
Jean-Hilaire Aubame was a Gabonese politician active during both the colonial and independence periods. The French journalist Pierre Péan said that Aubame's training "as a practicing Catholic and a customs official helped to make him an integrated man, one of whom political power was not an end in itself." Born into a Fang family, Aubame was orphaned at a young age. He was raised by the stepbrother of Léon M'ba, who became Aubame's chief political rival. Encouraged by his colleagues, Aubame entered politics, serving as Gabon's first representative in the National Assembly of France from 1946 to 1958. Aubame was also a leader in solving African problems, particularly developing the Gabonese standard of living and planning urban sites. Aubame's quick rise in Gabonese politics was spurred by the support of the missions and administration, whereas much of M'ba's strength came from the colonists. Despite a rivalry, Aubame and M'ba, now the President of Gabon, formed several political unions which were sufficiently politically balanced to appeal to the electorate. In appreciation for his help, M'ba appointed Aubame as foreign minister and later President of the Supreme Court. Tensions soon rose between the two due to Aubame's refusal to merge his party with M'ba's and create a single-party state. Aubame was installed as President of Gabon during a 1964 coup d'état against M'ba. However, the coup was toppled three days later, and although he did not participate in the coup's planning, Aubame was sentenced to 10 years of hard labor and 10 years of exile. He was beaten almost daily by his prison guards while serving out his sentence. M'ba's successor as President, Omar Bongo, allowed the return of Aubame to Gabon in 1972. The elder politician died in 1989 in Gabon's capital of Libreville.
Franck Engonga
Soccer Midfielder
Franck Engonga is a Gabonese professional footballer who currently plays for Club Africain and the Gabon national football team. He has competed at the 2012 Summer Olympics.
Pascaline Bongo Ondimba
Politician
Pascaline Mferri Bongo Ondimba is a Gabonese politician. Under her father, President Omar Bongo, she was Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1991 to 1994 and Director of the Cabinet of the President from 1994 to 2009.
Henri Antchouet
Soccer Forward
Henri Arnaud Antchouet Rebienot, known as Antchouet, is a Gabonese footballer who plays for Churchill Brothers S.C. in the I-League. Nicknamed "The Arrow" due to his agility, the striker spent most of his professional career in Portugal and played in five other countries abroad. From 2007 to 2009 he served a ban due to doping.
Patrice Trovoada
Politician
Patrice Emery Trovoada is a São Toméan politician who was Prime Minister of São Tomé and Príncipe from February 2008 to June 2008 and again from August 2010 to December 2012.
Ruddy Zang Milama
Olympic Track and field Athlete
Paulette Ruddy Zang Milama is a track and field sprint athlete who competes internationally for Gabon. Zang Milama represented Gabon at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. She competed at the 100 metres sprint and placed third in her first round heat after Shelly-Ann Fraser and Vida Anim in a time of 11.62 seconds. She qualified for the second round in which she failed to qualify for the semi finals as her time of 11.59 was the seventh time of her race. In 2012 she ran the Gabon National Record twice in 11.03s over 100m
Jean Eyeghé Ndong
Politician
Jean Eyeghé Ndong is a Gabonese politician. He was the Prime Minister of Gabon from January 20, 2006 to July 17, 2009. He was also the First Vice-President of the Gabonese Democratic Party until 2009. Eyeghé Ndong resigned as Prime Minister in July 2009 and announced his intention to stand as an independent candidate in the August 2009 presidential election. Subsequently he withdrew his candidacy in favor of a joint opposition candidate, André Mba Obame, and acted as spokesman for the opposition. He has been Vice-President of the National Union, a unified opposition party, since its creation in February 2010.
Gilles Mbang Ondo
Gilles Daniel Mbang Ondo is a Gabonese football striker who plays for Nejmeh.
Bruno Zita Mbanangoyé
Bruno Mbanangoyé Zita is a Gabonese football midfielder who is currently a free agent.
Raymond Ndong Sima
Politician
Raymond Ndong Sima is a Gabonese politician who has been Prime Minister of Gabon since February 2012.
Reïna-Flor Okori
Olympic Track and field Athlete
Reina-Flor Okori is a French hurdler of Equatoguinean and Nigerian origins. Okori was born in Gabon after her parents fled Equatorial Guinea, due to the political persecution during the dictatorship of Francisco Macías Nguema. Her grandparents were Equatoguineans, each with different ethnic groups, except for her paternal grandfather. As a junior she finished tenth in long jump at the 1996 World Junior Championships and won the 1999 European Junior Championships in 100 metres hurdles. She finished fifth at the 2001 Summer Universiade and sixth at the 2007 European Indoor Championships. She competed at the 2004 Olympics, the 2005 European Indoor Championships, the 2005 World Championships and the 2006 European Championships, without reaching the final. At the 2008 Olympics, Okori reached the semi-finals of the 100 metres hurdles. She repeated this feat at the 2012 Summer Olympics, but was disqualified in the semi-finals.
Pierre Mamboundou
Politician
Pierre Mamboundou was a Gabonese politician. He was President of the Union of the Gabonese People, an opposition party in Gabon, from 1989 to 2011.
Paul Biyoghé Mba
Politician
Paul Biyoghé Mba is a Gabonese politician who was Prime Minister of Gabon from July 2009 to February 2012. A member of the Gabonese Democratic Party, he served for years as a minister in the government prior to his appointment as Prime Minister. Since 2012, he has been President of the Economic and Social Council of Gabon.
Merlin Tandjigora
Soccer Midfielder
Merlin Abdoulaye Tandjigora is a Gabonese football player who plays French club Carquefou in the Championnat de France amateur. He plays as a defensive midfielder and previously played at the professional level with Metz. Tandjigora is a graduate of the National Football School located in his hometown. On 9 July 2010, he became the first player from the academy to sign a professional contract with a European club after signing a one-year contract with Metz. Tandjigora arrived at Metz in 2009 and joined the club's Championnat de France amateur 2 team for the 2009–10 season. He played in 21 matches and scored two goals as the reserve team of Metz were crowned champions of the league finishing with 107 points. After the season, Tandjigora signed his first professional contract and was, subsequently, promoted to the senior team and assigned the number 12 shirt by new manager Dominique Bijotat. He made his professional debut on 30 July 2010 in a Coupe de la Ligue match against Clermont. Tandjigora started the match and played 76 minutes in a 3–1 defeat. He made his league debut a week later in a 2–0 defeat to Évian. Tandjigora was formerly a Gabonese youth international having earned caps with the nation's under-20 team in qualification for the 2009 African Youth Championship. On 30 September 2010, he was called up to the senior team for the first time by coach Gernot Rohr for matches against Oman and Saudi Arabia.
Rémy Ebanega
Soccer Defender
Rémy Nenet Ebanega Ekwa is Gabonese footballer who playing for French club AJ Auxerre. In July 2012, he signed a two-year contract with French Ligue 2 side Auxerre. He was called to Gabon national football team, played at 2012 Africa Cup of Nations.
Georges Ambourouet
Soccer Defender
Georges Ambourouet is a gabonese international football defender who currently plays for Albanian club FK Kukësi.
Bruno Ben Moubamba
Bruno Ben Moubamba is a Gabonese politician.
Rose Francine Rogombé
Politician
Rose Francine Rogombé is a Gabonese politician who was Acting President of Gabon from June 2009 to October 2009, following the death of long-time President Omar Bongo. She constitutionally succeeded Bongo due to her role as President of the Senate, a post to which she was elected in February 2009. She is a lawyer by profession and a member of the Gabonese Democratic Party. Rogombé was the first female head of state of Gabon. After her interim presidency, she returned to her post as President of the Senate.
Dieudonné Londo
Soccer
Dieudonné Londo is a former Gabon international football forward who played for clubs in Gabon, Morocco, Belgium, Greece and Cyprus.
André Raponda Walker
Man
André Raponda Walker was a Gabonese author, ethnographer, Catholic priest, and missionary. Walker wrote extensively about Gabonese language and culture.
Christopher Lima da Costa
Olympic Track and field Athlete
Christopher Lima da Costa is a Gabonese-born São Toméan athlete. He competed in the 100 m event at the 2012 Summer Olympics but was eliminated in the preliminary round despite posting a personal best time of 11.56. Da Costa also represented his country at the 100 metres in the 2011 World Championships in Athletics in Daegu and at the 100 metres in the 2013 World Championships in Athletics in Moscow. Both times he was eliminated in the preliminaries.
Henri Junior Ndong
Footballer
Henri Junior Ndong Ngaleu is Gabonese footballer, who plays for French club AJ Auxerre. In July 2012, he signed a two-year contract with French Ligue 2 side Auxerre, along with his US Bitam fellow Rémy Ebanega. He played for Gabon national football team at 2012 Africa Cup of Nations. He plays in defender.
Yrondu Musavu-King
Soccer Defender
Yrondu Musavu-King is a Gabonese football player who plays for French club Uzès Pont du Gard on loan from Caen in Ligue 2 and the Gabon national team. He plays mainly as a central defender. Musavu-King made his professional debut on 23 November 2012 in a 1–0 league victory against Angers SCO. Musavu-King made his debut for Gabon in a 2014 World Cup qualifier against Congo.
Rolly Lumbala
American Football Player
Rolly Lumbala is a Canadian football fullback for the BC Lions. He was invited to training camp as a gridiron football fullback for the Miami Dolphins of the National Football League. Never making the full roster, he was cut on September 4. He was drafted by the BC Lions in the second round of the 2008 CFL Draft. He played college football at Idaho.
Paul Mba Abessole
Politician
Fr. Paul Mba Abessole is a Gabonese politician who heads the National Woodcutters' Rally – Rally for Gabon and was a leading opponent of President Omar Bongo during the 1990s. He stood as a presidential candidate twice during the 1990s and also served as Mayor of Libreville, the capital. From 2002 to 2009 he participated in the government of Gabon, holding the rank of Deputy Prime Minister for most of that period.
Guy Roger Nzamba
Soccer Forward
Guy Roger Nzamba is a former Gabonese footballer, who played as a forward. He also represented the Gabon national football team. Nzamba made his debut in the Football League for Southend United on 20 September 1997, at home to Fulham in the 1–0 victory. He came on as a substitute in the 40th minute for Paul Williams before being substituted himself in the 65th minute for Carl Beeston. He also represented the Gabon national football team on a number of occasions.
Paul Kessany
Soccer Midfielder
Paul Ulrich Kessany Zategwa, known as Paul Kessany is a Gabonese footballer who plays as a defensive midfielder for AS Mangasport. He is also a member of the Gabon national football team.
Paul Gondjout
Politician
Paul Marie Indjendjet Gondjout was a Gabonese politician and civil servant, and the father of Laure Gondjout, another prominent Gabonese politician. Gondjout was a member of the Mpongwe ethnic group, and served in the French colonial administration from 1928, and founded the Cercle amical et mutualiste des évolués de Port-Gentil in 1943. He was a delegate to the French Senate from 1949 to 1958, and founded the Gabonese Democratic Bloc. In 1954, Léon M'ba joined the party and eventually overthrew Gondjout as leader. In 1960, then President M'ba reshuffled the government without consulting Parliament. When Gondjout filed a motion of censure he was charged with attempting a coup d'état and sentenced to two years in prison. Following his release, M'ba appointed him to the largely symbolic post of President of the Economic Council, in part to silence the threat he represented. Gondjout served as Minister of State during the abortive 1964 Gabon coup d'état but was acquitted of all charges during his subsequent trial. He lived outside public view from his 1966 acquittal to his death on 1 July 1990 and there is little record of his life during this period.
Thierry Issiémou
Soccer Midfielder
Thierry Issiémou is a Gabonese international footballer who plays for Réunion Premier League side JS Saint-Pierroise, as a defensive midfielder.
Paul Toungui
Politician
Paul Toungui is a Gabonese politician who served in the government of Gabon from 1990 to 2012. He was Minister of Finance from 1990 to 1994, Minister of Mines, Energy, and Oil from 1994 to 2002, Minister of State for the Economy and Finance from 2002 to 2008, and finally Minister of State for Foreign Affairs from 2008 to 2012.
Arsène Copa
Arsène Copa is a Gabonese footballer, who currently plays for AS Mangasport.
Ernest Akouassaga
Ernest Akouassaga is a Gabonese football defender is currently a free agent.
Erwin Nguéma Obame
Erwin Blynn Nguéma Obame is a Gabonese football player who currently plays for US Bitam.
Léon Mébiame
Politician
Léon Mébiame was the Prime Minister of Gabon from 1975 to 1990. A member of the Fang ethnic group, Mébiame was born in Libreville. Under French colonial rule, he became an inspector of federal police in 1956 and was posted in Chad from January 6, 1957 to March 1959. A close associate of President Omar Bongo, he was Vice President from 1968 to 1975, when the position was abolished; he was then appointed as Prime Minister and served from April 16, 1975 to May 3, 1990. Subsequently he joined the opposition in the early 1990s. He was appointed as President of the Libreville Chamber of Commerce, Industry, and Mines on November 6, 2008. He took office on December 4, 2008, succeeding Joachim Boussamba.
Théodore Nzue Nguema
Théodore Nzue Nguema is a retired Gabon international footballer.
Charly Moussono
Footballer
Charly Moussono is a footballer who plays for Pretoria University F.C. in the South African National First Division. Although Cameroonian by birth, he has represented Gabon and Cameroon at international level. Despite representing Gabon at the Africa Cup of Nations in 2012, FIFA later found him to be ineligible to represent Gabon at international level. In 2011, Moussono played several games for Gabon and also included in a high-profile friendly game against Brazil. He was later named in the Gabon squad for the 2012 Africa Cup of Nations. He played in all four games that Gabon participated in. On 3 June 2012, he represented Gabon in a 0-0 draw with Niger in a FIFA sanctioned World Cup qualifying match. In December 2012, FIFA announced that Moussono was not an eligible player for Gabon as he had represented Cameroon in the 2006 FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup competition. Niger were awarded a 3–0 victory over Gabon.
Cédric Boussougou
Cédric Boussougou is a footballer who plays for Gabon national football team.
Jean-Boniface Assélé
Politician
Jean-Boniface Assélé is a Gabonese politician and the President of the Circle of Liberal Reformers. He served in the government of Gabon from 1975 to 1990 and again from 2004 to 2009. He was also Commander-in-Chief of the National Police Forces from 1970 to 1989 and held the rank of General. Since September 2009, Assélé has been the Fourth Vice-President of the Senate of Gabon.
Cédric Moubamba
Soccer Midfielder
Cedric Moubamba is a Gabonese footballer currently playing for AC Bongoville as a defensive midfielder. He is a regular member of the national side. http://www.transfermarkt.co.uk/en/spieler/81240/cedric-moubamba/profil.html
Zacharie Myboto
Politician
Zacharie Myboto is a Gabonese politician and President of the National Union, an opposition party. He was the Administrative Secretary of the Gabonese Democratic Party from 1972 to 1990 and served in the government from 1978 to 2001. After resigning from the government, he became an opposition leader, founding the Gabonese Union for Democracy and Development in 2005 and placing third in the 2005 presidential election. He has been the President of the Group of the Forces of Change in the National Assembly since 2007. In February 2010, the UGDD merged with two other opposition parties to create the National Union, and Myboto became its President.
Jonas Ogandaga
Soccer Midfielder
Jonas Ogandaga is a Gabonese footballer who currently plays for Gabonese club Stade Mandji. A midfielder, his previous clubs include Petrosport, Sogara, Mbilinga, Raja Casablanca, Olympique Kef, and Medenine. He also played for his nation between 1993 and 2000. He played in three tournaments which include the 1994, 1996 and 2000 African Cup of Nations.
Alexandre Sambat
Man
Alexandre Sambat was a Gabonese politician and diplomat. He was Gabon's Ambassador to the United States from 1991 to 1993 and then joined the opposition in Gabon, standing unsuccessfully as a candidate in the December 1993 presidential election. After that election, he served in the government until his death in 1998. Born in Makokou, Sambat became a chemical engineer. He was Minister of National Education until being appointed as Minister of State for Tourism, Leisure, and National Parks on 18 November 1987. He was subsequently appointed as Ambassador to the United States on 26 April 1991 and presented his credentials on 11 June 1991. A composition by Sambat, the "World Peace Song", premiered in January 1992; Sambat sang and played keyboard during the performance, which was characterized by a "bright, melodic refrain". Its lyrics were in both English and French. After the 1993 election, he was again included in the government; as of 1995 he was Minister of Human Rights. He was the only member of the opposition included in the government that was named on 28 January 1997; on that occasion he was appointed as Minister of Youth, Sports, and Leisure.
Muller Dinda
Soccer Midfielder
Muller Dinda is a Gabonese professional footballer. He plays for Gabon national football team. He has competed at the 2012 Summer Olympics.
Alain Moussi
Alain Moussi is a film producer, a screenwriter and an actor.
Armand Ossey
Football player
Armand Ossey born on 19 October 1978 in Libreville, Gabon is a former Gabonese international football striker who played between 1995 and 2008. During his career he played in Gabon as well as in France, Portugal and in Estonia in which his previous clubs include CS Stade d'Akebe Libreville, Grenoble, Valence, Créteil, Moreirense, Pau, Rouen, Kuressaare and Paris. He participated in the 2000 African Nations Cup for Gabon in 2000 in which Gabon finished in last place with one point. Armand Ossey played for Gabon between 1998 and 2000.
Samson Mbingui
Soccer Midfielder
Samson Mbingui is a Gabonese professional footballer. He plays for Gabon national football team. He has competed at the 2012 Summer Olympics.
Arsène Do Marcolino
Soccer Defender
Arsène Do Marcolino Rogombé is a Gabonese international footballer who plays club football in France for Poitiers FC.
Rodrigue Moundounga
Rodrigue Moundounga is a Gabonese international footballer who plays as a defender for CF Mounana.
Ibrahim Ndong
Soccer Midfielder
Didier Ibrahim Ndong is a Gabonese footballer, who plays as a Midfielder in the Tunisian Ligue Professionnelle 1 for CS Sfaxien, and for the Gabonese national team.
Emmanuel Issoze-Ngondet
Man
Franck Emmanuel Issoze-Ngondet is a Gabonese diplomat and political figure who has served in the government of Gabon as Minister of Foreign Affairs since February 2012. He was Gabon's Permanent Representative to the United Nations from August 2008 to January 2009. Afterwards he served in the government of Gabon as Minister of Energy, Hydraulic Resources, and New Energies from January 2009 to June 2009 and then briefly as Minister of Relations with Parliament and the Constitutional Institutions in mid-2009. He was again appointed as Permanent Representative to the UN in November 2009. In March 2010, Issoze-Ngondet was the President of the United Nations Security Council.
Edmond Mouele
Footballer
Edmond Mouele is a Gabonese football defender currently playing for AS Mangasport. He is the current captain of the Gabon national football team.
Anselme Delicat
Soccer Midfielder
Anselme Delicat is a Gabonese football manager and a former player. Since late 2000s he has been the main coach of USM Libreville.
Idriss Ngari
Man
Idriss Ngari is a Gabonese politician and army general. A relative of President Omar Bongo, Ngari rose rapidly through the ranks of the army, ultimately serving as Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces from 1984 to 1994. He then held a succession of posts in the government of Gabon, serving as Minister of Defense from 1994 to 1999, Minister of Transport from 1999 to 2002, Minister of the Interior from 2002 to 2004, Minister of Public Works from 2004 to 2007, Minister of Tourism from 2007 to 2009, and finally as Minister of Health in 2009. Considered one of Gabon's most powerful figures during Omar Bongo's rule, Ngari is a member of the Gabonese Democratic Party.
André Gustave Anguilé
Politician
André Gustave Anguilé was a former Gabonese politician and diplomat. He was the foreign minister of his country from 1960–1961. He was born in Libreville, Gabon.
Étienne Alain Djissikadié
Étienne Alain Djissikadié is a Gabonese footballer currently playing for US Bitam.
Richard Auguste Onouviet
Man
Richard Auguste Onouviet is a Gabonese politician. Holding a succession of ministerial portfolios, Onouviet served in the government of Gabon as Minister of Water and the Environment from 1999 to 2002, Minister of Mines, Energy, and Oil from 2002 to 2007, Minister of Planning from 2007 to 2009, and as Minister of Decentralization and Urban Policy in 2009. A member of the Gabonese Democratic Party, he has been a Deputy in the National Assembly since 2009.
Imunga Ivanga
Man
Imunga Ivanga: is a Gabonese filmmaker. He was born in 1967 in Libreville, Gabon. He studied at University of Libreville and has a masters in literature. Also, he speaks several languages like Mpongwe, French, English, Spanish and Italian. After a year studying film at the FEMIS in Paris, he specialised in script-writing and in 1996 obtained his degree. Also, he is a prolific writer and he has written several scripts for short films, clips and documentaries.
Thierry Mouyouma
Soccer Defender
Thierry Mouyouma is a Gabonese former football defender and current manager. He made several appearances for the Gabon national football team. In 2003, Mouyouma moved to South Africa, joining Wits University from FC Felgueiras. After he retired from playing, Mouyouma became a football coach. He manages his former club, FC 105 Libreville.
Edna Merey-Apinda
Edna Merey-Apinda is a Gabonese writer.
Georges Akieremy
Georges Akieremy Owondo is a Gabonese football striker currently playing in Israel.
Paulin Obame-Nguema
Politician
Paulin Obame-Nguema is a Gabonese politician who was the Prime Minister of Gabon from 2 November 1994 to 23 January 1999. He is currently a Deputy in the National Assembly of Gabon.
Pierre-André Kombila
Man
Pierre-André Kombila Koumba is a Gabonese politician, professor, and medical doctor. He was the First Secretary of the National Rally of Woodcutters, Gabon's main opposition party, from 1990 to 1998; he then led a split from the RNB, establishing the more radical National Rally of Woodcutters - Democrats in 1998. He was nominated as the RNB-D's candidate for the 1998 presidential election, but received only a small share of the vote. Later, he abandoned his opposition to President Omar Bongo and joined the government, serving as Minister of Technical and Vocational Education from 2006 to 2009 and as Minister of Hydraulic Resources and New Energies in 2009. Following Bongo's death, he rejoined the opposition in mid-2009.
Yanne Bidonga
Footballer
Yanne Bidonga, also called Yann Bidonga is Gabonese football goalkeeper who plays for AS Mangasport in Gabon Championnat National D1.
Yves Bitséki Moto
Footballer
Stéphane Bitséki Moto is Gabonese footballer who plays for his country club Bitam in Gabon Championnat National D1 as a goalkeeper. He was called to Gabon national football team at 2012 Africa Cup of Nations.
Blaise Louembe
Man
Blaise Louembe is a Gabonese political figure. He served in the government of Gabon as Minister of the Economy, Finance, the Budget, and Privatization from 2008 to 2009 and has been Minister of the Budget, Public Accounts, and the Civil Service, in charge of State Reform, since October 2009. In March 2000, H.E. Blaise Loumbe began his life's work with Gabon’s President Bongo to make Gabon’s GDP the third highest per capita in the area. After the elections in 2008 the new President of Gabon, Ali Bongo, showing the infinite trust in Blaise Louembe's economic genius, made Blaise Loumbe the Minister in charge of Public Accounts, Civil Service and the Budget, and in 2009 placed him in charge of State Reform for the entire Nation of Gabon. Born in Koulamoutou, Louembe was Paymaster-General of Gabon from 22 March 2000 until he was appointed to the government as Minister of the Economy, Finance, the Budget, and Privatization on 7 October 2008. When Ali Bongo took office as President, he retained Louembe in the government but modified his portfolio, appointing him as Minister of the Budget, Public Accounts, and the Civil Service, in charge of State Reform, on 17 October 2009.
Audrey Koumba
Audrey Koumba is a Gabonese judo player.
Lionel Yakouya
Lionel Yakouya is a Gabonese football player.
World Countries
| i don't know |
What is the name of the four-wheeled horse-drawn convertible carriage, named after a town in Germany, used in Blackpool? | Glossary of Carriages
Glossary of Carriages
Break (Brake)
An open country vehicle with four wheels of varying shapes. The Shooting Break carried six sportsmen with space for their dogs, guns and game in the slatted sided boot. Break vehicles, sometimes have a hood and are characterised by having longitudinal seats with the passengers sitting facing each other and alighting by a rear entry. See photographs of a real Kinross Wagonnette Break here.
Brougham
An enclosed carriage drawn by one horse without as many windows as a coach. Named after the designer, Lord Brougham, an English statesman in 1839, it was popular in the Victorian age among both aristocrats and the middle classes. See an advert for a Kinross Brougham with circular front movable glasses or a photograph here.
Buggy
A hooded Gig . The Americans use Buggy to describe various two or four wheeled vehicles, but generally it refers to light carriages built for speed. See the details of a Kinross Buggy which was withdrawn from sale or a picture of Mrs Kinross showing a Piano Box Buggy .
Coach
State carriage, four-wheeled, seating four, usually enclosed with windows all around, a curved underbody and the roof forming part of the framing of the body. A Town Coach was a massive vehicle, drawn by up to six heavy horses, with armorial bearings painted on the doors.
Curricle
A light, two-wheeled vehicle, usually drawn by a pair of horses abreast, a favourite of men-about-town before the cabriolet. This was the only two-wheeled vehicle built to be drawn by a pair, and had a steel bar attached to pads on the horses backs, which supported the weight of the pole.
Dog-Cart
A small, light two-wheeled (later four-wheeled), one-horse vehicle for driving in. Used for short trips, such as to meet guests at the railway station or going shopping. The first Perth Dog-Cart was made by Mr William Kinross in Stirling, and a good many more like it. The Dog-Cart was derived from a gig and was used for carrying four sportsmen sitting back to back with their dogs underneath in a deep boot with venetian slatted sides. Click here for photographs of a real Kinross two-wheeled Dog-Cart , a four-wheeled Dog-Cart , a Perth Cart or the Stirling Observer report of Walter Gilbey's Stirling welcome .
Governess Cart
A tub-shaped, two-wheeled, one-horsed vehicle originally designed for a governess to take young children in relative safety. The body was hung on elliptic springs with a cranked axle to give a lower centre of gravity. Access is by a rear door with a low-hung step for small children and the outside door handle is low down out of their reach. The main disadvantages are the sideways driving position and the difficulty of opening the door to get out in a hurry, to control an excited horse. The carriage on the left hand side of the picture of the Long Saloon showroom is a Governess Cart . See some real Kinross Governess Carts here.
Hansom Cab
A two-wheeled cabriolet for two inside, with the driver mounted behind and his reins going over the roof, patented in 1834. Despite being public vehicles for hire, many were privately owned and considered rather dashing vehicles such that no lady would venture out in one unaccompanied.
Hackney
A hackney coach or carriage kept for hire. These were often the discarded coaches of the nobility and were much despised on account of their shabbiness and dirty interiors. Hackney Coach comes from the French haquenée meaning a horse for hire.
Jaunting Car
A traditional Irish two-wheeled vehicle with side facing seats hung over the wheels. It was driven from the side or from a central front driver's seat above the luggage in rather unbalanced variations. Whilst the driver or jarvey required considerable skill, to drive sideways, the passengers also had to concentrate to stay seated on the corners, keep their legs dry in the wet and avoid being hit by obstacles due to the width of the vehicle. Also known as a Side Car, Irish Car or an Outside Car.
Landau
A four-wheeled carriage with a folding two-part hood, the front and back halves of which can be raised and lowered independently. Originally from Landau, Germany. The Canoe Landau has a rounded underbody, which appears lightly built, compared to the more angular Shelborne Landau in which the underbody mirrors the shape of the seating. See an advert showing a Kinross Canoe Landau built for His Highness, The Rajah of Jowar in 1871 or this Canoe Landau on the right hand side of the Long Saloon showroom.
Omnibus
A large wheeled public vehicle, plying on a fixed route, taking and picking up passengers at fixed stages or at any point along the way. Shillibeer's first omnibus of 1829 had bench seats for 18 passengers inside with a door at the back. William Kinross & Sons were awarded a silver medal for their improved omnibus design as exhibited at the 1851 Great Exhibition.
Van
A light, general purpose, four-wheeled, trade vehicle with a square body and flat sides, often covered with a canvas top on hoops. The driving seat is the entire width of the front with a low footboard and there is no proper dashboard. A van has springs whilst a waggon or cart has solid axles. The name is derived from Caravan, which was a train or convoy of goods travelling together for safety. See photographs of a real Kinross Van here.
Victoria
A light, low, four-wheeled, one horse carriage with a seat for two, a raised driver's seat and a folding hood. They have no doors and have nearly continuous front and rear mudguards, which sweep down like a running board to form an entry step. A popular ladies' carriage, partly through the snob appeal of its name.
Vis-À-Vis
A narrow coach, seating only two people face to face, used for ceremonial occasions. It was soon superseded by Dress Chariots and State Coaches, but the name was used for carriages where the occupants sat opposite each other. See a photograph of a real Kinross Vis-À-Vis here.
Waggon
A four-wheeled, heavy haulage farm vehicle handmade by the local wheelwright. The distance between the wheels was set to match the the gauge of the ruts in the local roads. There were roughly 35 local varieties of waggon around Britain. The carter walked alongside controlling the horse just by his voice and a long whip or by holding onto the bridle. There was no suspension and large wheels to cope with the uneven tracks. A heavy waggon was drawn by a team of carthorses which were expensive to run, with poor manoeuvrability and unsuitable for hilly regions. Wagon usually refers to a railway wagon and waggon to a road waggon.
| Landau |
Which heavyweight boxer retired in 1956 with a record of 49 wins from 49 fights? | Car body style - Wikicars
Car body style
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Cars can come in a large variety of different body styles. Some are still in production, while others are of historical interest only. These styles are largely (though not completely) independent of a car's classification in terms of price, size and intended broad market; the same car model might be available in multiple body styles (or model ranges). For some of the following terms, especially relating to four-wheel drive / SUV models and minivan / MPV models, the distinction between body style and classification is particularly narrow.
Please note that while each body style has a historical and technical definition, in common usage such definitions are often blurred. Over time, the common usage of each term evolves. For example, people often call 4-passenger sport coupés a "sports car", while purists will insist that a sports car by definition is limited to two-place vehicles.
Contents
In automotive engineering , the bodywork of an automobile is the structure which protects:
The occupants
Any other payload
The mechanical components.
In vehicles with a separate frame or chassis , the term bodywork is normally applied to only the non-structural panels, including doors and other movable panels, but it may also be used more generally to include the structural components which support the mechanical components.
Construction
There are three main types of automotive bodywork:
The first automobiles were designs adapted in large part from horse-drawn carriages, and had body-on-frame construction with a wooden frame and wooden or metal body panels. Wooden-framed motor vehicles remain in production to this day, with many of the cars made by the Morgan Motor Company still having wooden structures underlying their bodywork.
A steel chassis or ladder frame replaced the wooden frame. This form of body-on-frame construction is still common for commercial vehicles .
Monocoque , or unibody construction, in which the "chassis" is part of, and integrated with the metal body. It provides support to all the mechanical components, as well as protection for the vehicle occupants. Although there is no separate complete frame or chassis, many monocoque/unibody designs now often include subframes . Steel monocoque construction is now the most common form of car bodywork, although aluminum and carbon fiber may also be used.
Less common types include tube frame and space frame designs used for high-performance cars. There have also been various hybrids, for example the Volkswagen Beetle had a chassis, consisting of the floor pan, door sills and central tunnel, but this chassis relied on the stiffening provided by the bodywork, a technique sometimes called semi-monocoque construction.
Non-structural body panels have been made of wood, steel, aluminum, fiberglass and several more exotic materials.
Body styles
There are several common car body styles:
Enclosed:
Styles in current use
4x4 or 4WD ("four-by-four" or "four-wheel drive")
A four-wheeled vehicle with a drivetrain that allows all four wheels to receive power from the engine simultaneously. The terms are usually (but not exclusively) used in Europe to describe what is referred to in North America as a sport utility vehicle or SUV (see below).
Cabrio coach or Semi-convertible
A form of car roof, where a retractable textile cover amounts to a large sunroof . Fundamental to various older designs such as the Citroën 2CV ; sometimes an option on modern cars.
Coupé
A 2-door, 2- or 4-seat car with a fixed roof. Its doors are often longer than those of an equivalent sedan and the rear passenger area smaller; the roof may also be low. In cases where the rear seats are very small and not intended for regular use it is called a 2+2 (pronounced "two plus two"). Originally, a coupé was required to have only one side window per side, but this consideration has not been used for many years.
Crossover (or CUV)
A loose marketing term to describe a vehicle that blends features of a SUV with features of a car — especially forgoing the body on frame construction of the SUV in favor of the car's unibody or monocoque construction.
Hatchback
Identified by a rear door including the back window that opens vertically to access a storage area not separated from the rest of the passenger compartment. May be 3 or 5-door and 2 to 5 seats, but generally in the US the tailgate isn't counted making it a 2-door and 4-door.
Hearse
A converted luxury car usually used to transport the dead. Often longer and heavier than the vehicle on which they are usually based. Can sometimes double up as an ambulance in some countries, such as the United States, especially in rural areas.
Minibus
Designed to carry fewer people than a full-size bus, generally up to 16 people in multiple rows of seats. Passenger access in normally via a sliding door on one side of the vehicle. One example of a van with a minibus version available is the Ford Transit.
Minivan
North American term for a boxy wagon-type of car usually containing three or four rows of seats, with a capacity of six or more passengers. Often with extra luggage space also. As opposed to the larger van, the minivan was developed primarily as a passenger vehicle, though is more van-like than a station wagon. In Britain, these are generally referred to as people carriers .
People carrier or people mover
European name to describe what is usually referred to in North America as an Minivan .
Pickup truck a.k.a pickup
A small, medium, or large-sized truck, though smaller in every case than a Semi tractor truck. The passenger cabin is wholly separated from the cargo bed.
Pillarless
Usually a prefix to coupé, fastback, or hardtop; completely open at the sides when the windows are down, without a central pillar , e.g. the Sunbeam Rapier fastback coupé.
Ragtop
Originally an open car like a roadster, but with a soft top (cloth top) that can be raised or lowered. Unlike a convertible , it had no roll-up side windows. Now often used as slang for a convertible.
Roadster
Originally a two-seat open car with minimal weather protection — without top or side glass — though possibly with optional hard or soft top and side curtains (i.e., without roll-up glass windows). In modern usage, the term means simply a two-seat sports car convertible, a variation of spyder.
Sedan
A car seating four or more with a fixed roof that is full-height up to the rear window. Known in British English as a saloon. Sedans can have 2 or 4-doors. This is the most common body style. In the U.S., this term has been used to denote a car with fixed window frames, as opposed to the hardtop style wherein the sash, if any, winds down with the glass.
Sedan delivery
North American term for a vehicle similar to a wagon but without side windows, similar to a panel truck but with two doors (one on each side), and one or two rear doors . Often shortened to delivery; used alone, "delivery" is presumed to be a sedan delivery. No longer manufactured.
Spyder (or Spider)
Similar to a roadster but originally with less weather protection. The term originated from a small two-seat horse cart with a folding sunshade made of four bows. With its black cloth top and exposed sides for air circulation, the top resembled a spider. Nowadays it simply means a convertible sports car .
A car with a full-height body all the way to the rear; the load-carrying space created is accessed via a rear door or doors. Sometimes shortened to just wagon.
Surrey top
Similar to the Porsche Targa top, the surrey top was developed by Triumph in 1962 for the TR4 .
Targa top
A semi-convertible style used on some sports cars, featuring a fully removable hard top roof panel which leaves the A and B pillars in place on the car body. (e.g. Fiat X1/9 ). Strictly, the term originated from and is trademarked by Porsche for a derivate of its 911 series, the Porsche 911 Targa, itself named after the famous Targa Florio rally. A related styling motif is the Targa band, sometimes called a wrapover band which is a single piece of chrome or other trim extending over the roof of the vehicle and down the sides to the bottom of the windows. It was probably named because the original Porsche Targa had such a band behind its removable roof panel in the late 60s.
Ute
Australian/New Zealand English term for the Coupe Utility body style (see above). Sometimes used informally to refer to any utility vehicle, particularly light trucks such as a pickup truck . In American English, sport-ute is sometimes used to refer to an SUV (see above).
Van
In North America "van" refers to a truck-based commercial vehicle of the wagon style, whether used for passenger or commercial use. Usually a van has no windows at the side rear (panel van), although for passenger use, side windows are included. In other parts of the world, 'van' denotes a passenger-based wagon with no rear side windows.
North American term (mainly U.S. and Canada). Similar to a sedan delivery, with four doors. Sometimes shortened to delivery; used alone, "delivery" is presumed to be a sedan delivery. No longer manufactured.
Non-English terms
Some non-English language terms are familiar from their use on imported vehicles in English-speaking nations even though the terms have not been adopted into English.
Portuguese alternative term (less used) for a van . Used in Brazilian Portuguese.
Jeep
Russian, Bulgarian, German, Portuguese, Hebrew and Greek term for a sport utility vehicle . Originally from the English-language jeep , of which the name's origins can be researched on the Jeep page.
Kombi
is a German abbreviation of "Kombinationswagen" (Combination Car) and it is German name for station wagon . Since Germany is a major producer of cars for many European countries, the term Kombi in this meaning is also used in Russian, Swedish, Czech, Slovak, Polish, Slovenian, Serbian, Croatian, Hungarian, Spanish, Portuguese, Bulgarian. In Afrikaans, Kombi is also used to refer to a Volkswagen Microbus
Minibus
Danish term for station wagon .
Turismo
Spanish term for a sedan . Literally means tourism, used mostly in Latin American countries.
Alternative names
Car manufacturers sometimes invent names for the body styles of their cars for the purpose of differentiating themselves from other manufacturers. These names are often, but not always, adaptations of other words and terms. The body styles themselves correlate closely to those listed above.
Aerodeck
Name used by Honda in the 1990s for its station wagon /estate models.
Avant
A name used by German maker Audi for their station wagon /estate car models.
Bakkie
A generic South African term for light pickup truck.
Break
El Camino
(Spanish) In English: "the road". A trademark of Chevrolet , the 1959 El Camino was a half-car (front) and half-truck (back) with low walls surrounding the bed. In other words, it used the coupé utility body style. El Camino is used by some in the US as a generic term for any passenger car with an integral cargo bed. While the 1957 Ford Ranchero with similar body style debuted before the El Camino, it did not have the success of its Chevrolet counterpart.
Caravan
Used by Opel for its station wagon/estate car models.
Combi
The Mercedes-Benz name for their convertibles with a removable hardtop.
Fordor and Tudor
These names were coined by Ford Motor Company in the 1950s to describe four-door and two-door bodystyles respectively. These terms were used sporadically into the 1960s.
Giardinetta
Name used in Italy in the 70s and early 80s in models for an Autobianchi three-door station wagon based on Fiat 600 , as well as a similar version of the Alfa Romeo Alfasud .
Hardtop Convertible
A retractable hardtop , e.g., the 1958 Ford Skyliner or Peugeot 's décapotable électrique of 1934.
HPE
Short for High Performance Estate, a name used by Lancia for a station wagon version of their Beta model. Resurrected for the three-door hatch version of the Lancia Delta Mk II.
Kammback
Originally, a car with a tapered rear that cuts off abruptly, after that shape's inventor Wunibald Kamm , commonly seen especially on sports cars . However, this usage is rare nowadays. In North America during the 1970s this style was used in the Chevrolet Vega wagon and AMC Hornet wagon, and so many think of it as another word for "station wagon" or "hatchback" respectively even though it refers to the very specific aerodynamic design of the back of the car. This style is seeing a resurgence on modern vehicles (2004 Toyota Prius and Honda Insight ) in the interests of gasoline economy.
Nevada
Popular station wagon/estate version of the Renault 21 , so much that people dropped the 21 when referring to it.
Notchback
Originally, a sedan or possibly a coupe with a backlight (rear window) which slanted backward, so that the top of the roof extended further backward than the bottom of the window. Some types of the 1958 Lincoln had this, as well as some of Ford's British cars. Later, it became used for sedans or coupes which are not fastbacks, including many hatchbacks.
Panorama
Used by Fiat for station wagons during the late 1970s and early 1980s, notably the 127 , 128 and 131 . Replaced by the Weekend designation in the mid 1980s, but kept for passenger versions of light commercial vehicles.
Pillared Hardtop
This name was used by Ford in the 1970s to describe its bodies which had frameless door glass like a hardtop, but retained a center pillar like a sedan. The 1972-1976 Torino sedans and wagons were of this type, as were the 1975-1979 Lincoln Town Cars . When GM introduced a similar style on their intermediates for 1973-1977, they called the two-doors Colonnade Hardtop Coupe and the four-doors, in a triumph of ad agency gibberish, Colonnade Hardtop Sedan. The 1976 Buick Century sedan used this configuration. Before Ford introduced its "Pillared Hardtops" in the early seventies, GM had the same body style available on its "C" body cars (Buick Electra 225, Oldsmobile 98 and Cadillacs) from 1965 to 1970. GM called them "semi-thin pillar sedans" as they had a slightly larger center pillars than other GM sedans (that were called "thin pillar sedans") but they had no window frames like the "thin pillar sedans" had.
Prairie
A high roofed station wagon , after the Nissan model of the same name.
Sport Activity Coupe (SAC)
This name is used by BMW for their X5 -based X6 , which is called so because although it's an SUV, the X6 has the styling, ride height, and seating capacity of a typical coupe.
Sport Activity Vehicle (SAV)
This name is used by BMW for their sport utility vehicle models. It was first used on the X5 and later on the X3 .
is how General Motors calls its models by Saab automobile .
Sportshatch
This term, which has been used by GM for several European models, has been applied to a number of body styles: A sporty liftback or hatchback and a sporty variant of a 2-door estate car (e.g. Vauxhall Magnum Sportshatch).
A term used by Alfa Romeo to describe estates
Sports Wagon
A term used by a number of manufacturers in the North American market for their station wagon models, an example of the Sports Wagon would be the 1960s Buick Sport Wagon and the current Dodge Magnum . Auto manufacturers in recent years perceive a stigma attached to the term 'station wagon', and attempt to make these models sound more exciting.
SW
A term used by Peugeot to describe estates (eg. Peugeot 407 SW) The SW models of Peugeot (without 206 SW) are station wagons with glass panoramic roof. There are also BREAK versions,which are station wagons without a glass roof.
Tourer
Used by Rover for its station wagon/estate car models.
Touring
Used by BMW and Mercedes-Benz in Europe for its station wagon/estate car models. In North America, "Sports Wagon" is used instead.
Traveller
Name applied to the Mini 's estate version. Later co-opted by Nissan and used for estate versions of the Sunny and Primera in Europe.
Turnier
Used by Ford in Europe for its station wagon/estate car models. Alternatively called Clipper in some markets.
Variant
Used by Volkswagen for its station wagon/estate car models.
Vario
Used by SEAT for its station wagon/estate car models.
Verso
Used by Toyota for MPV versions of the Yaris/Vitz , Corolla and Avensis .
Volante
Landaulet (Landaulette)
A car in which there is a roof over the front seats and the rear doors (possibly with a center row of seats) but with a folding convertible roof over the rear quarters.
Phaeton
An open car, normally describing a double or triple-row phaeton. There is often a folding fabric top but no side weather protection. Early Phaetons had a high-mounted rear seat for the driver. The modern VW Phaeton derives its name, but nothing else, from this style.
Roadster utility (or Roadster ute)
A car combining an open-topped roadster body with a rear cargo bed.<ref>Larry O'Toole, The Good Old Aussie Ute, 2000, page 6</ref>
Roi des Belges
Named after King Leopold II of Belgium who ordered the first example. A large open car with high built seats and the rear seat usually set higher than the front seat. Also know more rarely as a Tulip Phaeton because of the side profile of the rear of the car resembling the shape of a tulip flower head..
| i don't know |
Name the twin city to Minneapolis on the other side of the Mississippi. | Twin Cities travel guide - Wikitravel
Understand[ edit ]
Located where the Minnesota River joins the Mississippi, the Twin Cities grew in the 1800s from its location at the intersection of the two major rivers as well as rail lines. For a period the point furthest downstream that the Mississippi could be bridged was located in the area, if only due to the fortuitous island placement. Contributing to its growth was St. Anthony Falls, a natural waterfall which provided energy to working grain mills located on the Mississippi River. Due to rapid erosion of its limestone underlayment, St Anthony Falls moved upstream until it was set in concrete by the Army Corps of Engineers.
By car[ edit ]
Two Interstate Highways, I-94 and I-35, travel through the Twin Cities travelling east/west and north/south respectively. I-35 splits as it passes through the Twin Cities, with I-35W coming through Minneapolis, and I-35E making an eastward bow through Saint Paul. Several other national and state highways also travel through the area.
Minneapolis-Saint Paul International Airport ( IATA : MSP, ICAO : KMSP), [1] .
Most travelers will arrive in Terminal 1-Lindbergh. Terminal 2-Humphrey was recently rebuilt and serves primarily charter carriers. The Lindbergh terminal (Charles Lindbergh was a Minnesotan, and one of his transatlantic planes is suspended above the ticketing area) receives the bulk of renovation fees, however, and it is an attractive, modern, convenient, and well-designed terminal. The Humphrey terminal is also quite attractive; the terminals share the same runways, have long- and short-term parking set between them, and are equally convenient for transportation. Savvy travelers might check the terminal of their arrival or departure to communicate their location to friends, relatives, or other transport.
The Blue Line light rail [2] serves both terminals as it runs between downtown Minneapolis and the Mall of America. Travel between the two terminals [3] is free. Fare for traveling outside the airport is $1.75-2.25 [4] depending on the time of day. The trains are fast and clean and, at times, one might imagine being in Holland or Disneyland while traveling their pristine route.
Airlines serving Terminal 1-Lindbergh:
By train[ edit ]
Amtrak, [5] . Trains arrive at St Paul Union Station in Saint Paul, located at 214 4th St E. The Metro Transit Green Line light rail route serves the station, along with many transit and inter-city bus routes. Daily Amtrak service via the " Empire Builder ", trains 8/28 and 7/27, terminating at Chicago and Seattle or Portland.
By bus[ edit ]
Greyhound Bus Lines and Jefferson Lines buses arrive at the Hawthorne Transportation Center, located at 950 Hawthorne Ave (at 10th St, one block west of Hennepin) in downtown Minneapolis. It's just a few minute's taxi ride away from most of the downtown hotels. It's 4-5 blocks away from a few major bus routes and the light rail. The depot is near a homeless shelter, so it's not uncommon to see a few homeless people hanging out nearby. The area is well-patrolled and quite safe. Some routes make additonal stops.
Badger Coaches, [6] . 4x weekly scheduled services in cooperation with Jefferson Lines to Wisconsin daily and Milwaukee , with a few local stops inbetween. $45-$53. edit
Greyhound, (at the Hawthorne Transportation Center), [7] . Open 24h/day. edit
Greyhound Express, (at the Hawthorne Transportation Center), [8] . Service from Chicago and Milwaukee. Fares from $1 and up. edit
Jefferson Lines, (at the Hawthorne Transportation Center), [9] . Operate scheduled services across the state to South Dakota , Wisconsin , and beyond. Jefferson prides itself on its 'eco-friendly' new coaches. edit
Megabus, [10] . Service from Madison (4 times daily), Milwaukee (4 times daily), and Chicago (8 times daily). Fares can be as little as $1 each way if reserved far enough in advance. The bus stop is located in downtown Minneapolis in the parking lot on the east side of Chicago Avenue between 3rd Street and Washington Avenue (about 1.5 blocks from the Metrodome and the Downtown East/Metrodome light rail station). Buses have wifi. edit
By boat[ edit ]
Mississippi River. The river runs through both downtowns, but passenger boats don't serve the area. Huck Finn fantasies aside, arrival via the Mississippi is not recommended. (Besides, Huck floated down river.)
Public transit[ edit ]
Minneapolis, Saint Paul, and some of the inner suburbs are all served by public transit run by Metro Transit [11] . There are also other transit authorities serving the outlying suburbs. Regular adult fares are currently $2.25 during peak periods (6AM-9AM and 3PM-6:30PM Monday thru Friday) and $1.75 during off-peak periods (these fares come with free transfers lasting 2.5 hours). Ticket machines at light rail stations will also sell 6-hour passes for $4 on weekdays or $3.50 on weekends, and 24-hour passes for $6.
Unlimited ride passes are available in 1-day, 7-day, and 31-day formats. Stored value passes (pay-per-ride) are also available. Day passes are $6 and can be purchased online [12] , at a Metro Transit Store, from a bus driver, or a ticket machine at any light rail station. 7-day ($22) and 31-day ($59-$113.50) passes must be loaded on a Go-To card [13] , which can be purchased online, at a Metro Transit Store, or participating Metro Transit sales outlets. Stored value passes can be loaded on a Go-To card in increments of $10 (up to $400), and come with a 10% bonus on each purchase (e.g. a $10 purchase would give you $11 in fare value, $20 would give you $22, and so forth). Once in possession of a Go-To card, reloading it with new unlimited ride passes is easy and can be done online, at Metro Transit stores and outlets, or at light rail ticket machines.
Light Rail[ edit ]
Although automobile transport is most useful for those who wish to explore more than the two downtown areas of the Twin Cities (e.g corporate visitors, or people visiting any of the suburbs), tourists may find the light rail the easiest, fastest, and safest transport between the Cities. There are currently two lines, the Blue Line and the Green Line, serving Minneapolis and St. Paul, respectively. The Blue Line runs from downtown Minneapolis all the way to the Mall of America, with stops servicing both of terminals of the MSP International Airport. In June 2014, Metro Transit opened the Green Line connecting Minneapolis and St. Paul. The Green Line runs primarily through University Ave, with stops at the University of Minnesota, the Capitol, and the Union Depot. Both lines operate 24 hours a day, seven days a week, with trains running every 10 minutes during the day, and every 30-60 minutes overnight.
Bus[ edit ]
The Twin Cities have an adequate bus system, hobbled by confusing connections to suburban lines, and poor service during non-rush hours (and no service after 1AM except on a few select routes with "night owl" service). The Metro Transit site (linked above) allows you to search for the best routes between your current location and your desired location, and is as good as most such systems in providing good routes and connections. Bus stops are located very nearly everywhere throughout the city, but some are served only very infrequently, and most are not labeled as to which routes serve them at which times, so take care, especially in sub-zero weather, as to which routes you choose. Buses on Hennepin Avenue, Washington Avenue, Lake Street, and University Avenue are most consistent and provide transport to the greatest numbers. Express buses operate between the two downtowns regularly during rush hours, and buses to suburbs, or connecting to light rail are limited, and best used during high traffic times.
Skyways and Tunnels[ edit ]
Minneapolis and Saint Paul both have extensive second floor ("Première étage") "skyways" that connect central city buildings with each other. Although Minneapolis is larger, the Saint Paul system, to this point, has more connections and is more extensive than Minneapolis' system. That said, one could walk from the Convention Center in Minneapolis to Washington Avenue (a block before the Mississippi) without going outside, and without stopping at a pedestrian traffic light. Highway 394 feeds into heated parking garages, so that a Wayzatan suburbanite could enter her Lexus, drive the length of 394 to the heated lot, go to work, shop at Target or Marshall Fields, see a movie, have dinner, and return home - all without having to wear a coat or change clothes, even in 20-below weather.
Even in good weather, mid-day romps in Minneapolis or Saint Paul at street level will miss most of the citizen activity, despite the appearance of crowds and farmers' markets, as many folks will choose to get their lattes, sandwiches, takeout, or copy keys, copy documents, or visit their banks, on the second level, a floor above the apparent activity.
As if to confuse you, there is an extensive network of tunnels connecting several buildings on the University of Minnesota's Twin Cities campus. Good idea, only different.
Bike[ edit ]
The Twin Cities, despite unfriendly weather for bikes from about November to April, provides many resources for both recreational and commuting bicyclers. Most major, and primary one-way, and two-way, streets have ample bike lanes which are marked and visible during fair weather months. In addition, all Minneapolis in-city lakes have bike paths that are separated from pedestrian traffic (and from motorized vehicles), and offer one-way transit around the entire Chain of Lakes, extending to Minnehaha Parkway and into Saint Paul. As if that were not adequate, former rail line paths sustain two-way bike lanes following east-west routes just South of Highway 394 and into downtown Minneapolis, known as the Cedar Lake trail; and just North of Lake Street, following a path known as the Midtown Greenway; and both are connected via a spur alongside an active freight railway just East of Cedar Lake and North of Lake Calhoun. It is possible to connect, via either east-west line, to bike trails that connect far into the Western suburbs and beyond, and recreational bicyclers can travel along historic rail lines for uncounted miles West.
Both buses and light-rail trains are equipped with bike racks. It is not uncommon, though still shocking, to see bicyclers in sub-zero weather, and in deep snow. Visitors may find late March to late November as the best period to travel on bicycles, if cold and snow don't arrive or persist.
Nice Ride [14] is a public bike sharing program that both locals and visitors can rent from. It currently services both downtowns and limited areas between and outside the central business districts.
Museums[ edit ]
Minneapolis is home to the Minneapolis Institute of Arts, Walker Art Center, Mill City Museum, Weisman Art Museum, The Museum of Russian Art and more. Saint Paul is home to the Science Museum of Minnesota, Minnesota History Center, Minnesota Children's Museums, and others.
Minneapolis Sculpture Garden, Walker Art Center, 725 Vineland Place, [15] . Open daily, 6AM-Midnight. The Sculpture garden is an outdoor exhibition of sculptures from many different artists, including the famous Spoonbridge and Cherry. The sculpture garden is adjacent to the Walker Art Center and is a popular picnic place in the summer.
Do[ edit ][ add listing ]
Being located in the Land of 10,000 Lakes, the Twin Cities offers many aquatic activities. Many lakes offer swimming beaches with on-duty lifeguards. Fishing and ice fishing are popular activities, but be sure to purchase a fishing license first. Licenses are $8.50 for 24 hours and $28.50 for 7 days if you live outside the state. They can be purchased at most sporting goods stores, bait shops, and even some gas stations.
Como Park, 1294 Lexington Parkway N, Saint Paul. A 100-acre park with a huge glass-domed Conservatory built in 1913, a lake with paddle boats, small but world-class free zoo, an amusement park with rides, and the beloved Cafesjian's Carousel [16] .
Minnesota Zoo, [17] , in Apple Valley, MN about 10 miles south of the Mall of America, is Minnesota's large world-class zoo. Open every day but Thanksgiving and Christmas, from 9AM - 4PM or 6PM seasonally, $7 - $12 admission (plus $5 for IMAX theatre); parking $5 (cars) - 15 (motorcoaches).
ValleyFair amusement park. Most common amusement park fare is available, including thrill rides, kiddie rides, and a waterpark. The roller coaster called "Wild Thing" is the most exciting and thrilling ride in this amusement park. Also, there is a place where you can dress up in old-fashioned clothes and take neat pictures, which is very fun and not so expensive.
Mall of America[ edit ]
Mall of America
Mall of America, 60 East Broadway, Bloomington , 952 883-8800. Largest indoor shopping complex in the United States . A dizzying shopping experience. It has hundreds of stores, a LEGO play area, an indoor theme park, and a large aquarium. There is an IKEA next door. You can get there by Light Rail or bus.
Smaller shopping centers[ edit ]
The Twin Cities has many shopping centers, the list gently spoofed by radio humorist Garrison Keillor in his list of imaginary malls ending in "-dale":
Telephones[ edit ]
The Twin Cities region is covered by four area codes. 612 covers Minneapolis, Richfield, St. Anthony, the airport, and the entire University of Minnesota-Twin Cities campus (including the Saint Paul campus); 651 covers Saint Paul and the east suburbs; 763 covers the northwest suburbs; 952 covers the southwest suburbs. Dialing a 1 before the area code is not necessary if just making a call from one Twin Cities area code to another.
Publications[ edit ]
Minneapolis Star Tribune, [22] . Also known as the Strib, it is Minneapolis' daily paper.
St. Paul Pioneer Press, [23] . Perhaps not as widely read as the Strib, but has a larger Pulitzer Prize-to-staff ratio keeping it well in place as a solid regional and world news source.
City Pages, [24] . The local metro weekly, with theatre and music listings, and an annual "best of" issue well worth checking out.
TwinCitiesMoms.com, [25] . Includes the Kids & Family Calendar of family-friendly activities and events in the Twin Cities.
Stay safe[ edit ]
The Twin Cities are like most major American cities when it comes to crime issues, and all standard common-sense precautions should be taken.
All seasons are prone to extreme weather. Winters are superlatively cold. Summers can be oppressively humid, and frequently have intense thunderstorms. Spring and Fall are on the cool side, but otherwise quite pleasant. The occasional freak storm during these months isn't unheard of.
Get out[ edit ]
William O'Brien State Park [26] (8am-10pm) is located in Marine on the St. Croix, approximately 50 miles east of the Twin Cities. The outer trail system is about 12 kilometers and a popular place for hiking, cross-country skiing, and jogging. Visitors can also swim, canoe, and camp in the park. A state park vehicle pass is required for entry.
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The town of Coober Pedy in South Australia is a major source of which gemstone? | Attractions - Visit Twin Cities
Attractions
See. Do. Explore.
Image by Erica Loeks/Greenspring Media
The Twin Cities of Minneapolis-St. Paul combine the best of urban spaces amidst seemingly endless miles of parks , trails and major waterways. From a culinary scene that ranks among the top in the nation to world-class theaters , museums and of course, Mall of America , there’s simply no better place to get out and explore. Your adventures await.
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Which Football League club were previously known as Singers F.C.? | Arsenal among Premier League clubs absent from EFL Trophy groups draw | Football | The Guardian
Arsenal among Premier League clubs absent from EFL Trophy groups draw
• Number of leading sides decline to take part in revamped competition
• Draw sees 16 groups of four teams split across northern and southern sections
Barnsley celebrate winning last season’s Johnstone’s Paint Trophy final. The competition is now known as the EFL Trophy and includes Category One academy sides. Photograph: Matthew Childs/Reuters
Press Association
Wednesday 27 July 2016 06.42 EDT
Last modified on Wednesday 27 July 2016 17.00 EDT
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This article is 6 months old
The revamped EFL Trophy has begun life snubbed by a host of top Premier League sides and criticised by club owners and unhappy fans.
The competition, formerly known as the Johnstone’s Paint Trophy, had already caused controversy when it was announced that 16 top-flight clubs would be invited to enter their academy teams.
However, Arsenal, Liverpool, Manchester City, Manchester United and Tottenham Hotspur opted against taking part, so the Championship sides Norwich City, Brighton & Hove Albion, Derby County, Wolverhampton Wanderers and Reading will now enter their youngsters alongside the traditional participants from Leagues One and Two.
A measure that may further enrage the clubs from outside the elite is that they will face a fine of £5,000 for fielding below strength sides in the competition, a sanction that does not apply to Premier League clubs’ academy sides.
Clubs initially voted on the changes to the competition but the Peterborough United owner, Darragh MacAnthony, is now unimpressed, telling BBC Cambridgeshire: “If I’d have known such a large amount of Premier League sides [would not take part] then no chance.” The Cambridge United chief executive, Jez George, added: “I’m surprised the package wasn’t secured with the bigger clubs ahead of the vote.”
Fans on social media were baffled by the so-called regionalisation of the 16 groups of four teams, while others threatened to boycott the competition. Cambridge are grouped with Middlesbrough, Scunthorpe United and Shrewsbury Town while Cheltenham Town face a 340-mile round trip to Blackpool, with Everton and Bolton Wanderers travelling down from the north-west to face the Robins.
The EFL Trophy Twitter feed explained that the regional split for groups was done on a divisional basis, and Cheltenham were one of the 12 most northerly clubs in League Two.
The competition was boosted when Leicester City and Chelsea decided to enter, although the Stamford Bridge club will play their first two fixtures – against Swindon Town and Exeter City – a fortnight after the rest of the round of matches. West Ham were another top-flight club to accept the invitation and were drawn against Coventry City, Wycombe Wanderers and Northampton Town.
The English Football League had initially said every invited team would play one game at home but the Hammers plan to play all three away, meaning disappointment for fans of their opponents hoping for a trip to their new home at the Olympic Stadium.
Meanwhile, Newcastle United, the only non-Premier League side of the original 16 clubs approached by the Football League, claimed in a statement they were told from the outset they would not be involved and have since made other plans.
The EFL’s chief execuitive Shaun Harvey stressed the revamp is to be a trial for one season only. He said: “Now that we have finalised what has turned out to be a longer than expected invitation process, we can start to work with our clubs and invited sides to ensure everyone gets the maximum benefit from being involved.”
“The next stage is getting the group stage under way and [Wednesday’s] draw has thrown up some exciting prospects. I’m looking forward to seeing how the competition develops on the pitch and also the reaction it gets from the crowd.
“But as stressed previously this is a one-season trial and only at the end of the pilot will we take a step back and consider what lies in wait for future seasons.
“Whilst it’s disappointing not to have some of the Premier League sides involved in this season’s competition, they were all appreciative of the opportunity to participate and could see how the EFL Trophy would benefit their squads in the long term.”
EFL Trophy groups
Group A Everton, Bolton, Cheltenham, Blackpool
Group B Wolves, Chesterfield, Crewe, Accrington
Group C Stoke, Bradford, Morecambe, Bury
Group D Blackburn, Fleetwood, Carlisle, Oldham
Group E Derby, Port Vale, Doncaster, Mansfield
Group F Sunderland, Hartlepool, Rochdale, Notts County
Group G Middlesbrough, Scunthorpe, Cambridge, Shrewsbury
Group H Leicester, Sheffield United, Grimsby, Walsall
Southern Section
Group A Reading, Bristol Rovers, Portsmouth, Yeovil
Group B Swansea, AFC Wimbledon, Newport, Plymouth
Group C Chelsea, Swindon, Exeter, Oxford
Group D West Ham, Coventry, Wycombe, Northampton
Group E Southampton, Charlton, Cochester, Crawley
Group F Norwich, Peterborough, Barnet, MK Dons
Group G Brighton, Southend, Stevenage, Leyton Orient
Group H West Brom, Luton, Millwall, Gillingham
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By what name are Football League team Heaton Norris now known? | Twenty-eight English clubs are now owned overseas, increasing the risk of tax avoidance | David Conn | Football | The Guardian
Soccer
Twenty-eight English clubs are now owned overseas, increasing the risk of tax avoidance
Research by the Guardian and the Tax Justice Network reveals 28 English clubs with substantial shareholdings overseas, opening up the football leagues to criticism for allowing ownership structures that could be used for tax avoidance
Tuesday 14 April 2015 12.10 EDT
Last modified on Monday 4 April 2016 09.20 EDT
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This article is 1 year old
Almost one in three of the 92 Premier and Football League clubs are now substantially owned overseas, including in offshore tax havens, leading to the English football leagues being accused of allowing ownership structures of clubs that could be used for tax avoidance. Research into the ownership of all the clubs by the Guardian and the campaign group the Tax Justice Network has found 28 clubs with a substantial shareholding overseas, including nine of the 20 Premier League clubs.
The Tax Justice Network, which has produced its own report, The Offshore Game , argues the ownership of football club shares via offshore companies means there is “huge potential for tax avoidance” when the clubs are sold. There is no suggestion any particular club or owner has engaged in tax avoidance; however, owners residing abroad, who hold shares in clubs through companies registered overseas, may not be liable for UK capital gains tax – currently 28% for higher rate, wealthier, tax payers – on the profits they make when they sell a club. The huge rise in offshore ownership of clubs, which were almost all UK-owned until the wave of overseas buyers moved in around a decade ago, has coincided with steepling increases in television rights and the value of clubs, in the Premier League, and in the Championship for clubs with a prospect of promotion. “The ownership of billions of pounds worth of assets through offshore shell companies means there is a huge potential for tax avoidance,” said George Turner, author of the Tax Justice Network’s report. “This should be of great concern to fans around the country, who invest so much time, commitment, emotion and money into their clubs.
“Football is not just another business and tax havens have no place in our national game, whatever the reason an owner may have for using them.”
While many of the clubs are not owned via shell companies and their locations reflect the nationalities of the businessmen who have bought the clubs – including Sheikh Mansour , the Abu Dhabi-based owner of Manchester City, the Malaysian owners of Queens Park Rangers and Venky’s, the Indian poultry company which owns Blackburn Rovers – other clubs are owned in a variety of countries widely recognised as tax havens. The Cayman Islands feature in the ownership of four clubs: Manchester United, now registered there; Birmingham City, Coventry City and Cheltenham Town.
United was re-registered in the Cayman Islands when the club was floated on the New York stock exchange in 2012 , and company documents state the club is now owned by family trusts “affiliated” with the Glazer family, via companies registered in the US state of Nevada. United and the Glazers have never explained why they employ this structure and did not respond to questions about it from the Guardian.
Why are English clubs owned overseas? Their responses
Read more
The American businessman Stan Kroenke holds his 66.8% of Arsenal via a corporation, KSE UK Inc, registered in Delaware, sometimes referred to as the tax haven state of the US, because of the anonymity it affords shareholders and its taxation laws.
The club declined to say whether this means no capital gains tax will be payable if Kroenke sells his stake at a profit but he has always been described as committed to owning Arsenal in the long term and not intending to sell.
Fenway Sports Group and Randy Lerner, the US owners of Liverpool and Aston Villa respectively, declined to say in which US state their ownership companies are registered. Ellis Short, the American owner of Sunderland, still owns the club via the Jersey company, Drumaville, which the previous Irish investors, associates of the former chairman Niall Quinn, used as their ownership vehicle. A Fulham spokesperson said Shahid Khan, the club’s American owner, will shortly fold the British Virgin Islands company previously owned by Mohamed Al Fayed, and the ownership structure will become fully UK-based.
Other countries where English clubs are owned, generally classed as tax havens because of their low tax rates and corporate anonymity for shareholders, include Bermuda, the Bahamas, Jersey, the Isle of Man, the West Indies, Luxembourg and Guernsey. The clubs owned in these jurisdictions range from the very richest, including Tottenham Hotspur – ultimately owned by Joe Lewis in the Bahamas – to some of the smallest, including Cheltenham, Shrewsbury Town, and Southend United, where a substantial shareholder is Mezcal Investments, a company listed in the BVI company register.
Prem Sikka , professor of accounting at the University of Essex, said that besides the capital gains tax saving, there can also be tax advantages if the offshore owner makes loans, on which the club pays interest from the UK.
“These clubs were at the heart of their local communities and still have that tribal following, so should be rooted there,” Sikka said. “If the local ownership is removed, they cease to be clubs; they’re just businesses.”
Richard Murphy, director of Tax Research UK, said even where clubs are owned by overseas investors who have put money into their clubs, much of the additional value comes from local fans and TV subscribers paying high prices but the owners’ wealth and capital accumulates offshore.
“Football clubs are being used as speculative business opportunities,” Murphy said.
The Premier League and Football League did not directly respond to the criticism that the use of offshore tax havens and countries overseas to own locally-rooted clubs enables capital gains tax to be avoided. The Premier League stressed that all club-companies, if not the vehicles which own them, must be registered in the UK so are subject to corporation tax if they make profits.
Manchester United fans campaigning against the Glazers’ takeover have long pointed out the £525m debt imposed by the 2005 acquisition, and steepling interest paid by the club, wiped out United’s profits for years, so led to no corporation tax being paid.
The Premier League also repeatedly stresses the amount of PAYE tax its clubs pay, given the huge wages paid to top players – some of it due to overseas owners’ investment – and the upper income tax rate of 45% – £1.3bn was paid in taxes last year, the league said.
“In most cases where clubs’ parent companies are registered overseas, this reflects their owners’ nationality or domicile and the source of the original investment in the club,” a Premier League spokesman said. He stressed that they do not have a problem with secrecy because the league insists on being shown who clubs’ owners are.
“It is clear that overseas investment has been good for the development of the English game,” the spokesman said.
The Football League requires club owners to pass the test formerly known as “fit and proper,” and to show they have the necessary funding to keep a club competing, but a spokesman said the league is “neutral” on how a club’s ownership is structured. He also pointed to article 63 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union which enshrines free movement of capital between EU states and other countries, suggesting that makes offshore ownership difficult to prevent.
Damian Collins, the Conservative MP who last year submitted a Football Governance bill to parliament, argues that capital gains tax should be made payable on the sale of football clubs, as it will be under a new law when overseas owners sell UK residential property .
Robin Osterley, the chief executive of Supporters Direct, which encourages fan ownership and involvement in the running of clubs, said it is “very concerning” so many clubs are owned offshore. He said: “This clearly creates golden opportunities to avoid paying taxes in the UK, and increases the lack of transparency and potential for obfuscation about ownership which is so harmful to the interests of the game,.
Football’s 92 clubs and four professional divisions have long been a kind of English monument, broadcasting the names of their towns and cities for almost 100 years. This is a very modern phenomenon, of the 21st century British economy, that their ownership now entails a cruise around the tax havens of the world.
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In the book of Genesis where did the Land of Nod lie? | Apologetics Press - The Land of Nod
The Land of Nod
Eric Lyons, M.Min.
After Cain killed Abel and was declared a “fugitive and vagabond” by God (Genesis 4:12), the Bible says that he “went out from the presence of the Lord and dwelt in the land of Nod” (4:16). It was in this land that “Cain knew his wife” (4:17), and it was here that his son, Enoch, was born.
When a person reads about Nod in Genesis 4, he often pictures a land where a large group of people already were dwelling by the time Cain arrived. Because the Bible gives this land a name (“Nod”), many assume it was called such before Cain went there. Furthermore, many believe that it was in this land that Cain found his wife. Based upon these assumptions, some even claim that God must have specially created other humans besides Adam and Eve, otherwise there would not have been a land of Nod, nor would Cain have been able to find a wife there. Are these assumptions and conclusions correct? What can be said about these matters?
It is very likely that when Moses wrote the name “Nod” (Genesis 4:16), he was using a figure of speech called “prolepsis” (the assignment of something, such as an event or name, to a time that precedes it). People often use prolepsis for the sake of convenience, so that the reader or audience can better understand what is being communicated. For example, I might say, “My wife and I dated two years before we got married,” when actually she was not my wife when we were dating, but a very dear friend. We may see a special on television about when President George W. Bush was a boy, but the fact is, George W. Bush was not President of the United States when he was a child. From time to time, even the Bible uses this kind of language. In John 11, the Bible speaks of a woman named Mary who “anointed the Lord with ointment” (11:1-2), yet this anointing actually did not occur for about three months. John merely spoke about it as having already happened because when he wrote his gospel account this event was generally known. Another example of prolepsis is found in Genesis 13:3 where we read that Abraham “went on his journey from the South as far as Bethel.” This area actually did not wear the name Bethel until years later when Jacob gave it that name (Genesis 28:19). However, when Moses wrote of this name hundreds of years later, he was free to use it even when writing about a time before the name actually was given.
When Moses used the name Nod in Genesis 4, the reader must understand the land probably was not given that name until sometime after Cain moved there. This is consistent with the meaning of the name Nod (“wandering”), which in all probability was given because God told Cain he was to be a wanderer upon the Earth (Genesis 4:12). Thus, the land of Nod almost certainly was not an area filled with people whom Cain would eventually befriend. It would become that in time; nevertheless, it probably was not such a place upon his arrival.
But, someone might ask, did Cain not find his wife in the land of Nod? Actually, the Bible never tells us that Cain’s wife came from Nod. The text simply says that Cain “dwelt in the land of Nod on the east of Eden. And Cain knew his wife, and she conceived and bore Enoch” (Genesis 4:16-17).
To conclude that God specially created others besides Adam and Eve because “there was a large group of people living in Nod when Cain arrived” and “from this group Cain got his wife” is faulty reasoning and sheer speculation. Scripture does not teach the above premises, nor does it ever hint that God specially created others than Adam and Eve. In fact, the Bible teaches the very opposite when it explicitly states that Adam was the first man (1 Corinthians 15:45) and that Eve would be the mother of all living (Genesis 3:20, emp. added). It seems clear that there could have been no other people on the Earth contemporaneous with them (except, of course, their own children). Even though some allege that God specially created other people in addition to Adam and Eve during the creation week, such cannot be defended logically in light of what Scripture teaches.
| East of Eden |
Which famous musician owned a film company called Handmade Films? | Genesis 4 NIV - Cain and Abel - Adam made love to his - Bible Gateway
Genesis 4New International Version (NIV)
Cain and Abel
4 Adam[ a ] made love to his wife Eve, and she became pregnant and gave birth to Cain.[ b ] She said, “With the help of the Lord I have brought forth[ c ] a man.” 2 Later she gave birth to his brother Abel.
Now Abel kept flocks, and Cain worked the soil. 3 In the course of time Cain brought some of the fruits of the soil as an offering to the Lord. 4 And Abel also brought an offering—fat portions from some of the firstborn of his flock. The Lord looked with favor on Abel and his offering, 5 but on Cain and his offering he did not look with favor. So Cain was very angry, and his face was downcast.
6 Then the Lord said to Cain, “Why are you angry? Why is your face downcast? 7 If you do what is right, will you not be accepted? But if you do not do what is right, sin is crouching at your door; it desires to have you, but you must rule over it.”
8 Now Cain said to his brother Abel, “Let’s go out to the field.”[ d ] While they were in the field, Cain attacked his brother Abel and killed him.
9 Then the Lord said to Cain, “Where is your brother Abel?”
“I don’t know,” he replied. “Am I my brother’s keeper?”
10 The Lord said, “What have you done? Listen! Your brother’s blood cries out to me from the ground. 11 Now you are under a curse and driven from the ground, which opened its mouth to receive your brother’s blood from your hand. 12 When you work the ground, it will no longer yield its crops for you. You will be a restless wanderer on the earth.”
13 Cain said to the Lord, “My punishment is more than I can bear. 14 Today you are driving me from the land, and I will be hidden from your presence; I will be a restless wanderer on the earth, and whoever finds me will kill me.”
15 But the Lord said to him, “Not so[ e ]; anyone who kills Cain will suffer vengeance seven times over.” Then the Lord put a mark on Cain so that no one who found him would kill him. 16 So Cain went out from the Lord’s presence and lived in the land of Nod,[ f ] east of Eden.
17 Cain made love to his wife, and she became pregnant and gave birth to Enoch. Cain was then building a city, and he named it after his son Enoch. 18 To Enoch was born Irad, and Irad was the father of Mehujael, and Mehujael was the father of Methushael, and Methushael was the father of Lamech.
19 Lamech married two women, one named Adah and the other Zillah. 20 Adah gave birth to Jabal; he was the father of those who live in tents and raise livestock. 21 His brother’s name was Jubal; he was the father of all who play stringed instruments and pipes. 22 Zillah also had a son, Tubal-Cain, who forged all kinds of tools out of[ g ] bronze and iron. Tubal-Cain’s sister was Naamah.
23 Lamech said to his wives,
“Adah and Zillah, listen to me;
wives of Lamech, hear my words.
I have killed a man for wounding me,
a young man for injuring me.
24 If Cain is avenged seven times,
then Lamech seventy-seven times.”
25 Adam made love to his wife again, and she gave birth to a son and named him Seth,[ h ] saying, “God has granted me another child in place of Abel, since Cain killed him.” 26 Seth also had a son, and he named him Enosh.
At that time people began to call on[ i ] the name of the Lord.
Footnotes:
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In which sea is the Gulf of Genoa? | Gulf of Genoa | gulf, Italy | Britannica.com
Gulf of Genoa
Alternative Title: Golfo di Genova
Similar Topics
Gulf of Lion
Gulf of Genoa, Italian Golfo di Genova, northern portion of the Ligurian Sea (an inlet of the Mediterranean Sea), extending eastward around the northwest coast of Italy for 90 miles (145 km), from Imperia to La Spezia . It receives the Magra, Roia, Centa, and Taggia rivers and includes the small gulfs of Spezia and Rapallo. The coastal region forms part of the Italian Riviera centred on Genoa (the gulf’s main port); it is noted for its scenery, mild winter climate, and luxuriant subtropical vegetation. Resorts include Imperia, Savona, Rapallo, Sestri Levante, and La Spezia. The Gulf of Spezia, Italy’s largest and best harbour, has been the site of the chief Italian naval station since the mid-19th century.
Genoa, Italy, on the Gulf of Genoa.
© Dubassyi/Shutterstock.com
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Article Title: Gulf of Genoa
Website Name: Encyclopædia Britannica
Date Published: June 04, 2008
URL: https://www.britannica.com/place/Gulf-of-Genoa
Access Date: January 20, 2017
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Abuja is the capitalcity of which West African republic? | CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Italy
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Italy
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In ancient times Italy had several other names: it was called Saturnia, in honour of Saturn; Œnotria, wine-producing land; Ausonia, land of the Ausonians; Hesperia, land to the west (of Greece); Tyrrhenia, etc. The name Italy (Gr. Italia), which seems to have been taken from vitulus, to signify a land abounding in cattle, was applied at first to a very limited territory. According to Nissen and to others, it served to designate the southernmost portion of the peninsula of Calabria; but some authorities, as Cocchia and Gentile, hold that the name was given originally to that country between the Sele and the Lao which later was called Lucania. We find the name Italy in use, however, among Greek writers of the fifth and the fourth centuries B.C. (Herodotus, Thucydides, Aristotle , Plato ); and in 241 B. C., in the treaty of peace that ended the First Punic War, it served to designate peninsular Italy; while in 202 B. C., at the close of the Second Punic War, the name of Italy was extended as far as the Alps.
Physical characteristics
Italy has an area of 110,646 square miles, of which 91,393 are on the Continent of Europe , and 19,253 on the islands. The area of Italy, therefore, is little more than half that of France.
Under the Romans and in the Middle Ages , under the powerful republics of Amalfi and of Pisa , of Genoa and of Venice , Italy ruled the Mediterranean Sea, which, however, after the discovery of America, ceased to be the centre of European maritime activity. The centre of European interests was carried towards the west: the Italian republics fell into decay, and sea power went to the countries on the Atlantic Ocean. But the opening of the Suez Canal (1869) and the tunnelling of the Alps (Fréjus, 1871; St. Gothard, 1884; Simplon, 1906), which brought Central and North-western Europe into easy communication with Italian ports, and especially with Genoa , have restored to the Mediterranean much of its former importance and made of Italy a mighty bridge between Europe and the Levant. Of the three great peninsulas of Southern Europe , Italy is that whose adjoining seas penetrate deepest into the European Continent, while its frontiers border on the greatest number of other states (France, Switzerland , Austria ) and are in contact with a greater number of races: French, German, Slav .
Before Italy took its present form it was part of a great body of land called by geologists Tyrrhenses, now covered by the waters of the Tyrrhenian Sea, which was united to Africa In fact, a great part of the Tuscan Archipelago and of the other islands of the Tyrrhenian Sea, the masses of the Peloritan Mountains in Sicily , of Aspromonte and of Sila in Calabria, the Roian Alps, formed of archaic rocks, all are fragments of an ancient land now for the most part submerged. Another fact that gave to the configuration of Italy its present characteristic lines was the recession of the sea from that great gulf which became the fertile plain of the Po. Glaciers that at one time occupied the greater portion of Northern Italy gave rise to many moraine ranges. When the promontory of Gargano was an island, the Adriatic Sea, which separated that elevation from the Apennines and which occupied all the table-land of Apulia, projected an arm towards the south through the Sella di Spinazzola and the valley of the rivers Basentiello and Bradano, until it met the Ionian Sea. Therefore Italy is a recent formation, and consequently is subject to telluric phenomena that are unknown, or are less frequent, in the neighbouring countries. It is due to these causes that Sicily was separated from the Continent and became an island. Within historical times, the coast of Pozzuoli , near Naples , has undergone a slow depression that caused the columns of the temple of Serapis to sink into the sea, from which they emerged later through a rising movement of the ground. In consequence of the earthquake that destroyed Messina and Reggio (28 December, 1908), the ground has undergone alteration, and telluric movements show no tendency to cease. Italy has the characteristic shape of a riding boot, of which the top is represented by the Alps, the seam by the Apennines, and the toe, the heel, and the spur, respectively, by the peninsulas of Calabria, Salento, and Gargano. The country consists of a continental portion that terminates at almost the forty-fourth parallel, between Spezia and Rimini , of peninsular, and of insular portions. It is customary to divide the peninsular portions into two parts: Central Italy and Southern Italy, of which the former is contained between the forty-fourth parallel and a straight line that connects the mouth of the Trigno River with that of the Garigliano, marking the narrowest part of the peninsula between the Adriatic and the Tyrrhenian Seas. Southern Italy is the part of the peninsula which lies south of this line. Northern Italy includes Piedmont, Lombardy , Venice , Emilia, and Liguria; Central Italy includes Tuscany , Umbria, and Lazio; Southern Italy includes Campania, the Basilicata, and Calabria.
Insular Italy will be found treated of under the articles SICILY ; SARDINIA . Piedmont , Lombardy , Tuscany , Venice , and the historic towns within those regions will also be found the subject of separate articles. Concerning the temporal power of the popes and events culminating in the seizure of Rome in 1870 see the article PAPAL STATES .
Coastline and seas
The coast-line of the Italian Peninsula measures 2100 miles. Its principal harbours are the Gulf of Genoa, the first commercial port in Italy; the Gulf of Spezia, an important naval station; Civitavecchia , an artificial harbour; the harbours of Gaeta , Naples , and the Gulf of Taranto; Brindisi , a natural port; the Gulf of Manfredonia, and the lagoons of Venice . The principal seas are:
The Sea of Italy
Also known as the Tyrrhenian Sea, which lies between the islands of Sicily , Sardinia , and Corsica and the mainland. It slopes from its shores to its centre, where it attains a depth of more than two and one-quarter miles, and scattered over it are the Tuscan Archipelago, the Ponza and Parthenopian Island groups, the Ægadian Islands, the volcanic Island Ustica, and the Lipari or Æolian Islands, the latter being all extinct volcanoes with the exception of Stromboli. The tides of this sea vary by only eight or twelve inches; it abounds in coral banks, and anchovy, sardine, and tunny fishing is remunerative along the coasts of Sicily and Sardinia .
Ligurian Sea
The Gulf of Genoa is the most inland and also the most northerly part of this open sea, which extends to the south as far as the Channels of Corsica and of Piombino, through which it communicates with the Tyrrhenian Sea. It is open towards the Mediterranean, while its south-western limit is a line drawn from Cape Lardier, in Provence, to Cape Revellata in Corsica . The tides of this sea vary from six to eight inches. On account of its depth and of the absence of tributary rivers, it contains few fish.
Sea of Sicily; Sea of Malta
That branch of the Mediterranean that lies between Tunis and Sicily is called the Channel of Tunis or of Sicily , and has a minimum breadth of 90 miles. The branch that separates the Maltese Islands from Sicily is called the Malta Channel and has a minimum breadth of 51 miles. In the former, at an average depth of 100 fathoms, there is a submarine bank that unites Africa and Sicily ; it has extensive shoals, known for their volcanic phenomena. Sponge and coral fisheries in this sea are lucrative. The tides are higher than those of other Italian waters, and a singular phenomenon, called marrobbio, is observed here, being a violent and dangerous boiling of the sea, having, possibly, a volcanic origin.
Ionian Sea
This is an open sea between Sicily and the Calabrian and the Salentine peninsulas, and the western coasts of the Balkan Peninsula; it communicates with the Tyrrhenian Sea by the Strait of Messina, which was formed by the catastrophe that violently detached Sicily from the Continent. This strait, which is one of the most frequented waterways of Europe , is funnel-shaped, having a breadth of 20 miles at its southern, and of 2 miles at its northern, opening. On the line between the islands of Sicily and Crete, the Ionian Sea reaches a depth of 2¾ miles, the greatest that has been found so far in the Mediterranean Sea. While the tides on the African coast rise over six feet, those on the coast of Italy are very slight; they are all the stronger, however, in the Strait of Messina, where the currents that pass between the Tyrrhenian and the Ionian Seas, especially when the wind blows, form vortices and surges that beat violently against the coast of Calabria. The fantasy of the ancients personified these two phenomena, in the monster Scylla, for the Calabrian coast, and Charybdis on the Sicilian side (Homer, "Odyss.", I, xii; Virgil, "Æneid", III, 420-425).
Adriatic Sea
This sea lies between the Italian and the Balkan Peninsulas, with an area of 51,000 sq. miles. It abounds in fish of exceptionally good quality.
Orology
Italy is a country of mountains and hills, with few high table-lands; while, of the latter, the two most important, those of Tuscany and of the Murgie, are broken and surmounted by hills and mountainous groups. Lowland plains are, on the contrary, the dominant characteristic of Northern Italy; plains, in fact, occupy about one-third of the surface of the country. The principal mountains of Italy are:
The Alps
They form a system of parallel ranges, at the north of Italy, forming an arc that presents its convex side to the west; they extend from the pass of Cadibona to the masses of Mt. Blanc, which is the highest point of the Alpine range (15,780 feet), and from that point, following a north-easterly direction, they extend to Vienna on the Danube. One of the greater eastern branches of this system, the Carnic and the Julian Alps, diverges in a south-easterly direction and terminates in the Fianona Point on the Gulf of Quarnero. Their length, from the pass of Cadibona to Cape Fianona, is nearly 735 miles. Their mean height is 6500 feet. The Italian watershed of the Alps is steep, with short spurs and deep valleys, while the opposite side is a gentle slope. Hence the facility of crossing over the Alps from without (France, Germany ), and the corresponding difficulty of the passage from the Italian side, as history has shown by foreign invasions. The Alps are of climatic benefit to Italy, for they are a screen against the cold winds from the north, while the vapours of warm winds from the Mediterranean and the Adriatic Seas are condensed on the Alpine heights, producing the copious rains and snows that result in those numerous glaciers which are reservoirs for the rivers. The inhabitants of the Alps are a strong and robust people, sober, and attached to their native valleys. Temporary emigration, due to the nature of the land, is very great, but permanent emigration is rare. With the Alps is connected the typical Italian figure of the chimney-sweep evoked by the fancy of artists and of poets.
The Apennines
They form parallel trunk chains, arranged in echelon, like the tiers of a theatre; they extend from the Pass of Cadibona to the Strait of Messina and are continued in the northern mountains of Sicily as far as Cape Boeo. The range is of much less elevation than the Alps, its mean height being 3900 feet, nor has it the imposing, wild, and varied aspect of the Alps. Its summits are bare and rounded, the valleys deep, and cultivation goes on well up the heights. The sides were once covered with forests, but that wealth of vegetation has been improvidently destroyed everywhere along this range, and, consequently, iron grey, the ashy colour of calcareous rocks, and the red brown of clay and sand-beds are the predominant tints of the country. The highest summit is that of Mt. Corno (9585 feet) in the group of the Gran Sasso. On account of their latitude and of their proximity to the sea, the Apennines have neither snow-clad peaks nor glaciers, and, while the Pre-Alpine hills are of moraine origin the Pre-Apennine hills were formed of sands, clay, flint and other substances disintegrated and transformed by the waters. Rains are frequent on the Apennines in autumn and winter.
The configuration of the Apennine system is simple at its two extremities, but it becomes complex towards the centre, where it consists of a group of parallel chains, arranged in steps, those curving towards the east constituting the Sub-Apennine range; while those groups that extend along the Tyrrhenian and the Adriatic coasts constitute the Anti-Apennine system. Geographers do not agree on the determining lines of these three divisions. We will adopt the line from Cadibona Pass (1620 feet) to Bocca Serriola (2400 feet) between the Tiber and the Metauro Rivers, for the northern division; from Bocca Serriola to the Pass of Rionero between the Rivers Sangro and Volturno, for the Central Apennines, and from this point to Cape Armi, for the southern division. The Northern Apennines encircle the southern basin of the Po, in a northwest to south-east direction, and the Pass of Cisa (3410 feet) divides them into two sections, the Ligurian and the Emilio-Tuscan.
The Ligurian Apennines
They form an arc around the Gulf of Genoa and have their crest near and parallel to the coast; but, to the north of Genoa , they deviate towards the east. Their southern spurs are short and steep; those towards the Po are longer and more ramified, the two principal ones among them being those of Mt. Antola and of Mt. Penna, the former of which fans out between the Scrivia and Trebbia Rivers and contains Mt. Ebro (5570 feet) and Mt. Lesima (5760 feet), and it terminates near the Po, forming the Pass of Stradella; that of Mt. Penna, with numerous branches between the Trebbia and the Taro Rivers, contains Mt. Misurasca, or Bue (5930 feet), which is the highest point of this section. The Langhe and the hills of Monferrato, which last are called also Hills of the Po, famous for their sparkling wines, form a species of promontory of the Ligurian Apennines, enclosed between the Po, the Tanaro, and the western part of the Bormida. All this hilly region consists, superficially, of greenish and of yellowish sands, and below the surface, of clay and of bluish marl, alternating with veins of gypsum, of gravel, and at times of lignite. During the Miocene period, this region was a continuation of the Gulf of the Po and communicated with the Mediterranean Sea by the channel, or possibly the archipelago, of Cadibona. Four railroads cross this section:
(i) the Savona-Torino, with a branch to Alessandria through the Cadibona Pass;
(ii) the Genova-Ovada-Asti near the summit of the Turchino;
(iii) the Genova-Novi, with two tunnels near the summit of the Giovi Pass;
(iv) the Spezia-Parma, with the Borgallo tunnel.
The Emilio-Tuscan-Apennines
There are characteristic differences between the two slopes of this section of the Apennines. The branches towards the north-east, that is towards the Adriatic Sea, are parallel, and perpendicular to the crest that separates the watersheds; they terminate at a short distance from the Emilian Way. The most important branch, on account of its length and ramifications, and also because it separates Northern Italy from Central Italy, is the one which is called Alps of Luna, beginning in the dorsal spur of Mt. Maggiore (4400 feet), between the Marecchia and the Metauro Rivers and divided into three branches, the last of which closes the great valley of the Po near the Pass of Cattolica. On the south-western watershed the spurs are almost parallel to the mother chain and are separated from it by broad longitudinal valleys, forming the Sub-Apennines of Tuscany .
The Tuscan or Metalliferous Anti-Apennines
They consist of a group of parallel chains, directed from northwest to south-east on the Tuscan uplands, ploughed by the Ombrone of Pistoia. The eastern chain, towards the Arno River and the valley of Chiana, is formed by the wine-producing mountains of Chianti, Montepulciano , and Cetona. The interior chains consist of the mountains of Siena, abounding in marbles, the mountains of Volterra, that yield alabaster, and those of Montalcino , and they terminate in the volcanic mass of Mt. Amiata, the highest point of the Anti-Apennines (5640 feet). The coast range, abounding in metals, includes the mountains of Leghorn , the Cornate di Gerfalco, and the Poggio Montieri. They contain mines of copper, lead, zinc, salt, and are rich in borax and lignite coal. The highest point of the Emilio-Tuscan Apennines is Mt. Cimone (7190 feet). Other summits are the Alps of Succiso (6610 feet) and Mt. Cusna (6960 feet). Two railroads cross this section: the Bologna-Firenze and the Faenza-Firenze. Wherefore northern and central Italy are connected by five railroads which, together with the common roads, constitute the unifying system between these two divisions of the country.
The Central Apennines are divided into two sections, the Umbro-Marchesan, from Bocca Serriola to the Torrita Pass, between the Velino and the Tronto Rivers, and the Apennines of the Abruzzi, from the Torrita Pass (3280 feet) to that of Rionero.
The Umbro-Marchesan Apennines
This range is not formed of a single, well-defined chain, as is the case in the Northern Apennines, but, of three parallel ranges, in echelon, that gradually approach the Adriatic Sea towards the south. The first chain, that is the western one, is merely the prolongation of the Northern Apennines, and extends from Bocca Serriola to the highland plain of Gubbio , to terminate on the low plain of Foligno . The second, or middle, range, called also Chain of Mt. Catria, contains many peaks over 4900 feet, Mt. Catria being 5570 feet high. These two ranges are connected by a highland plain which terminates at the defile of Scheggia (1930 feet) and over which passed the ancient Flaminian Way. The eastern or Mt. San Vicino range begins to the right of the Metauro River and follows a north-easterly direction. It is cut by many openings through which flow the rivers that rise in the central chain and empty into the Adriatic Sea. From Mt. San Vicino this range takes a southerly direction and forms the Sibilline Mountains, of which the chief summits are Mt. Regina (7650 feet) and Mt. Vettore (8100 feet). Towards the Adriatic Sea the Sub-Apennine range consisted of chains parallel to the Apennines, but it was worn away by the waters and only the mountains of Ascensione, Cingoli, and Conero remain to mark the position that it occupied. The Umbrian or Tyrrhenian Sub-Apennines are divided into two principal groups. The first of these is between the Tiber and the Valley of Chiana, and beyond the Scopettone Pass (920 feet), it receives the names of Alta di S. Egidio (3400 feet), Perugia Mountains, Poggio Montereale and others. The second group stands between the Tiber, the Topino, and the Maroggia Rivers, containing the Deruta Mountains, Mt. Martano (3500 feet), and Mt. Torre Maggiore (3560 feet). There is but one railroad that crosses this section of the Central Apennines; it is the one between Ancona and Foligno that passes near Fossato, through a tunnel about a mile and a quarter long.
The Abruzzan Apennines
This section consists of three high ranges that form a kind of ellipse of which the major axis is in a south-easterly direction. They enclose the lofty plain of the Abruzzi that is divided into the Conca Aquilana, to the east, through which flows the River Aterno, and the Conca di Avezzano or of the Fucino, to the west. The eastern range extends from the defile of Arquata to the Sangro River and is divided into three stretches, namely, the group of Pizzo di Sevo (7850 feet), from the Tronto River to the Vomano; the Gran Sasso d'Italia, between the Vomano and the Pescara Rivers, the highest group of the peninsula, its greatest elevation being that of Mt. Corno (9560 feet); and third, the group of the Majella, which is preceded by the Morone chain and the highest point of which is Mt. Amaro (9170 feet). Bears are still to be found in these mountains. The middle range of the Abruzzan Apennines parts from the Velino River near Mt. Terminillo and divides into the groups of Mt. Velino and of Mt. Sirente, from which the range is continued to the south-east, by the Scanno Mountains, which are separated from those of Majella by the plains of Solmona and of Cinquemiglia.
The Roman Sub-Apennines
The Sabine Mountains rise between the Aniene, the Tiber, the Nera, the Velino, and the Turano Rivers, containing Mt. Pellecchia (4487 feet); they are a continuation of the mountains of Spoleto and develop a most picturesque region that is rich in historic memories. The Simbruini Mountains stand between the Turano and the Aniene Rivers, following the direction of the Sabine Mountains. Between the Sacco and the Aniene Rivers are the Ernici Mountains, which are of volcanic nature. They are followed in a northwesterly direction by the Palestrina Mountains, which contain Mt. Guadagnolo (3990 feet) and which are separated from the saddle of Palestrina (1130 feet) and from the Alban Mountains, which belong to the Anti-Apennines.
The Roman Anti-Apennines
This range extends from the Fiora to the Garigliano rivers and is divided into two parts. Between the Rivers Fiora and Tiber there is a predominance of volcanic groups like that of the Volsini Mountains (2270 feet) that form a chain of volcanic stone around Lake Bolsena, which was formed, possibly, by the reunion of several extinct craters. This group is followed by the Cimini Mountains around Lake Vico; the Sabatini Mountains around Lake Bracciano: Mt. Soracte (2270 feet), standing solitary on the Tiber, and the Tolfa Mountains (2000 feet) on the sea; these are rich in alum. The Alban Mountains, also of volcanic character, rise between the Rivers Tiber, Garigliano, Sacco or Tolero, and the sea, with their highest elevation in Mt. Cavo (3100 feet) near Rome. Beyond the gap of Velletri rise the Volscian Mountains, which are of a calcareous nature and which extend to the Garigliano. They are divided into three groups: the Lepini Mountains, containing Mt. Semprevisa (5000 feet), the Ausonian Mountains, and the Aurunci Mountains, which contain Mt. Petrella (5000 feet.) and which form the promontory of Gaeta . There are three railroads that cross this section of the Apennines: the Chieti-Aquila-Terni-Roma, the Chieti-Solmona-Avezzano-Roma, and the Aquila-Isernia-Naples.
The Southern Apennines are divided into three parts: the branch that is formed by the Neapolitan and Lucan Apennines, the true continuation of the Central Apennines, of which they preserve both the nature and the direction; the Apennines of Calabria, which are different in direction, aspect, and nature from the Apennines, having an Alpine character; the Murgie range, also differing in origin and characteristics from the Apennines.
The Neapolitan Apennines
This range extends from the Pass of Rionero to the saddle of Conza. Beginning at the north, there is first the highland plain of Carovilli, and then the mountains of Frentani or of Campobasso. These are followed by the vast highland plain of the Sannio and by that of Irpino which forms the eastern border of the Beneventana basin and terminates at the saddle of Conza. This series of elevations, although of medium height, marks the principal axis of the Apennine range.
The Neapolitan Tyrrhenian Sub-Apennines
They are formed of the groups of the Matese and of the Terminio, and of the Avellino Mountains. The Matese group, which is totally isolated, has its highest elevation in Mt. Miletto (6700 feet) and consists of two parallel trunks that are very close together, having between them a narrow height that contains a small lake. The group of the Terminio (about 6000 feet high), which contains Mt. Accellica and Mt. Cervialto, constitutes one of the most important oro-hydrographic points of Southern Italy. They abound in springs, and from them come the fresh waters of the Serino with which Naples is supplied through an aqueduct. Between the two above groups rise the Avellino Mountains that close the Beneventana basin. These are groups that are isolated by deep clefts, chief among them being Mt. Vergine (4800 feet) which has upon it a celebrated sanctuary.
The Neapolitan Tyrrhenian Apennines
This Anti-Apennine range extends in the direction of the Roman Anti-Apennines, through the volcanic group of Roccamonfina and of Mt. Maggione, to the Volturno River. On the coast is the region of Campi Flegrei, formed of small, extinct volcanoes; then the active volcano Mt. Vesuvius (4070 feet), and after that the Lattari or Sorrento chain which forms the peninsula of Sorrento and terminates at Campanella Point.
The Neapolitan Adriatic Anti-Apennines
They consist of the Gargano group which is entirely isolated and which differs from the Apennines in origin and in nature. It projects into the Adriatic Sea (the Gargano Head) for 30 miles and the River Candelaro now takes the place of the branch of the sea that formerly separated this group from the peninsula. The elevation rises steep above that river and the Gulf of Manfredonia, forming a series of forest-covered terraces upon which stand dome-shaped summits, as Mt. Calvo (3460 feet), and sloping down towards the north upon Lake Varano. From this side of Mt. Cornacchia (3800 feet) the Capitanata Mountains branch towards the north and pass around the plain of Apulia on the west.
Lucan Apennines
This is a chain that extends from the Sella di Conza to the Scalone Pass and is bounded by the Sele River, the Ofanto with its affluent the Locone, the Bradano and its affluent the Basentiello, the coast of the Gulf of Taranto, the Isthmus of Calabria, and the Tyrrhenian Sea. The range is divided into two parts by the plain of San Loja, which is crossed by a highway and by the Napoli-Potenza railroad. The northern part is grouped around Mt. Santa Croce (4670 feet) that gives out several ramifications, one of which extends to the group of Mt. Volture, an extinct volcano on the right of the Ofanto River. The second, southern division contains the Maddalena Mountains (Mt. Papa, 6560 feet), a short and rugged chain that runs from north to east, and the nearly isolated group of the Pollino which bars the entrance of the peninsula of Calabria and contains the highest summits of the Southern Apennines, Mt. Pollino and Serra Dolcedormi. The group of the Cilento which projects into the sea at Capes Licosa and Palinuro may be considered as the Lucan Sub-Apennines. It is separated from the Apennines by the longitudinal valley of Diano and constitutes one of the wildest and most broken borders of Italy. Its principal summits are Mt. Cervati (6000 feet), Mt. Sacro (5600 feet), and Mt. Alburno.
Murgie
The Apulian group of the Murgie constitutes a system of its own, different from the Apennines in shape, origin, and nature. Its boundaries are the Ofanto River and its affluent the Locone, the Sella di Spinazzola, the Basentiello River, the Bradano, and the coasts of the Ionian and the Adriatic Seas. The Murgie are hills that are surmounted here and there by rounded elevations. Their height, which at the north is nearly 2000 feet, decreases more and more towards the southeast. There are no rivers or streams among these hills, for they absorb the rain-waters into deep clefts that are called lame or gravine. When the sea occupied the plain of Apulia and extended towards the south as far as the Ionian Sea, the Murgie were separated from Italy and were divided into islands and submarine banks.
The Calabrian Apennines
The mountains of Calabria, by their crystalline and granite nature, by their alpine appearance and by difference of direction, form a system that is independent of the Apennines. Their boundaries are a line drawn from the mouth of the Crati River to the Scalone Pass and the coasts of the Tyrrhenian and of the Ionian Seas. They constitute a straitened territory of mountain groups that are separated by deep depressions, or united by sharp crests, in which communication becomes very difficult. The highlands are covered with forests, and the lowlands with orange groves, vineyards, olive trees, and kindred plantations. These mountains are divided into four groups: first, the Catena Costiera, between the sea and the Crati River, extending from the Pass of Scalone to the River Amato; it contains Mt. Cocuzzo (5000 feet). As its name implies, this chain is always very near the sea, rising steeply to a mean height of 3700 feet, while at its southern extremity it is united with the highland plain of Sila. The second group is a vast highland plain of a mean height of 3900 feet, with gaps, here and there, through which flow the streams that rise on the plain. The highest summit is Botte Donato (6300 feet). The name of Sila is connected with the Latin silva and with the Greek hyle (forest) and refers to the rich growth of tall trees that covered the plain in ancient times, and even then were utilized in naval construction. To the south of Sila, between the Gulfs of Squillace and Santa Eufemia, there is the Pass of Marcellinara (800 feet), which was possibly a sea canal before the Strait of Messina existed. This pass separates the Sila from the third group, called the Sierre, which contains Mt. Pecoraro and which extends to Mercante Pass, terminating in the sea, at Cape Vaticano on the promontory of Monteleone (1600 feet). The fourth group rises between Mercante Pass and the Strait of Messina; it is Aspromonte, a vast conical mass of granite that rises by wooded grades and terraces. It contains Mt. Alto (6500 feet).
Plains
Plain of the Po
The spurs of the Alps and of the Apennines that are directed towards the valley of the Po never reach the shores of that river; on the contrary, there stretches between the base lines of those two mountain systems the vast plain of the Po (17,500 sq. miles), which may be compared to a great amphitheatre, open towards the east, the Alpine and the Apennine watersheds forming its tiers and the plain its arena. Its uniformity is broken by the hills of Monferrato and by those of the Langhe, by the Euganean hills, and by the Berici Mountains. If the sea should rise 300 feet, it would reach the base of the Monferrato hills and would enter the Apennine valleys; and if it should rise 1300 feet more it would enter the valleys of Piedmont . This plain of the Po, which is divided into plains of Piedmont , Lombardy , and Venice , on the left of the river, and into plains of Marengo and of Emilia on its right, was formerly a gulf of the Adriatic Sea that was filled in by the alluvial deposits of the rivers and was levelled by inundations. This process of filling in the Adriatic Sea is continuous, as is shown by the fact that the delta of the Po is carried forward by nearly twenty-six feet each year, while Ravenna , which in the time of the Romans was a naval station, is now five miles from the sea. The Alps contributed a greater portion of alluvial materials than did the Apennines, and therefore the course of the Po was thrown towards the lower range, so that the plain on the left of the river is greater than that on the right. The low plain of the Po has two light slopes that meet in the thalwegg of that river; one of them descends gradually from west to east (Cuneo, 1700 feet). While this plain covers only a third of the surface of the valley of the Po, it is nevertheless the historical and political centre of that valley.
Plains of central Italy
Between the mouth of the Magra River and Terracina there is a lengthy extent of low plains that vary considerably in breadth. These plains are monotonous and sad, in contrast with those of the river valleys, as that of the Ombrone, those of the Arno and of other rivers, which are fertile and beautiful. First there is the plain of Tuscany divided into the low plains of the basin of the Arno and the Maremma, of which the former were once marshy and unhealthy, especially that of the valley of Chiana; but, through the great hydraulic works of the Medicis of the sixteenth century, they are now most fertile and are model expositions of agriculture.
The Tuscan Maremma
This is a low expanse of level land where the rain-waters become stagnant and where the streams are sluggish on account of the too gentle slope of the land, and therefore they accumulate their refuse; this disadvantage, however, is now turned to profit in the fertilization of the ground by what is known as the filling-in system.
The Roman Campagna
The lightly undulating Roman Campagna lies on either side of the lower Tiber, and, although it has the monotony and sadness of all plains, it has a grandeur in itself, in its beautiful sunsets and in the gigantic and glorious ruins that witness how great a life there was in these now deserted places, abandoned to herds of cattle and to wild boars. The remains of the consular roads that traverse this plain in every direction, reminding one of the victorious armies that marched over them, are now scarcely to be discerned under the brush; the waters, no longer checked, have left their channels and formed extensive marshes, where malaria reigns; and houses and tillage are not to be found on the Campagna at many miles from Rome .
The Pontine marshes
From Cisterna to Terracina and from Porto d'Anzio to Mt. Circeo there lies a swampy expanse, 25 miles in length and from 10 to 11 miles in breadth, called in ancient times Agro Pomenzio, and now Pontine Marshes. Formerly this tract was cultivated and healthy, only a little swamp existing near Terracina ; and in the fifth century of the Roman Era the Censor Appius constructed over it the magnificent way that bears his name. But the provinces having been depopulated by wars, and the cultivation of the soil having been interrupted, the stagnant waters overlaid all. The Consul Cethegus, however, by new drainage, made these lands healthy again, but the civil wars reduced them to a worse condition than the one from which they were redeemed; and in the time of Augustus , as Horace tells us, the Appian Way ran solitary through that vast swamp. Augustus and his successors attempted to drain the tract once more; but the barbarians destroyed every vestige of their work, Popes Leo I , Sixtus II , Clement XIII , and especially Pius VI , resumed the undertaking, and by means of large canals restored it to agriculture; but once more the region is unhealthy, and almost without inhabitants.
Plains of southern Italy
The plains of Southern Italy cover nearly four-tenths of its surface, the regions which contain more of them being Campania and Apulia. There are none in the Basilicata, and few in Calabria. On the Tyrrhenian Sea, there are;
The Campania Plain
This plain extends along the coast between the Garigliano and the Sarno Rivers. Over it rise the volcanoes of the Campi Flegrei and that of Vesuvius. This is the Campania Felix of antiquity, a region of extraordinary beauty and of exceptional fertility due to the volcanic soil and to the maritime climate.
The Plain of Pesto, or of the Sele
The second is much smaller than the first. It is situated at the mouth of the Sele River, not far from where stood Posidonia, or Pæstum, the city of roses, famous for its life of delights and delicacy, but already in ruins at the beginning of the Roman Empire. Now these places are marshy and unhealthy.
The Plain of Santa Eufemia
It is situated at the end of the gulf of the same name and traversed by the Amato River, and the Plain of Gioja, traversed by the River Mesima. They are small, marshy, and unhealthy plains in the shape of amphitheatres, formed by the alluvial deposits of those two rivers. Looking towards the Ionian Sea is the plain of Sibari, where once stood, at the mouth of the Crati River, the Greek city for which the plain is named. It is of alluvial origin and nature, as are the preceding two. Towards the Adriatic Sea the plains of the coast of Apulia have their northern terminal in the famous Tavoliere delle Puglie which is almost a steppe, treeless, monotonous, and sad, exposed to the winds and traversed by a few streams that change their channels. Formerly this plain was used for winter pasturage, but, the soil being fertile, corn is now grown. It is bounded by the Candellaro River, the Apennines, the Ofanto River, and the Gulf of Manfredonia. On the Salentine peninsula there is a species of Tavoliere, contained between the Brindisi-Oria railroad and a line drawn from Torre dell' Orso, on the Adriatic Sea, to Nardò on the Ionian.
Volcanoes and earthquakes
As Italy is one of the most recently developed parts of the mainland and of the crust that has risen above the waters, it is subject to the phenomena that are due to that internal energy of the earth called volcanism, which is manifested in the various forms of volcanic activity, in earthquakes and in microseisms. The valley of the Po contains no active volcano, but the Berici Mountains and the Euganean Hills that are rich in thermal springs (as at Abano) were, in remote times, two very active centres, as is shown by the great quantity of volcanic matter around them. In the peninsula of Italy and on the islands, volcanic activity is still very great, especially towards the Tyrrhenian coast. The Apennine zone that extends from the group of Mt. Amiata to Mt. Roccamonfina is almost entirely covered by extinct volcanoes: the San Vincenzo hills, to the north of Campiglia, and the Sassofondino hills, to the west of Roccastrada, are of volcanic nature, as is also the great cone of Mt. Amiata, which is the highest volcanic elevation of the peninsula; to the east of the Amiata rises the picturesque basaltic mass of Radicofani, and the Lakes of Bolsena (Vulsinio), Vico (Cimino), Bracciano (Sabatino), and Albano (Latino) are merely the principal craters of the many volcanoes that form the Roman group. A great number of these volcanoes began their activity under the sea which they filled in with their products, creating in this way the broken Campagna that consists chiefly of volcanic materials. In the valley of the Tolero or Sacco, near Frosinone, rise the Ernici volcanoes, of which the chief summits are those of Posi, Ticchiena, Callano, and of San Giuliano; and to the south of the plain through which the Volturno River flows stands the group of extinct craters that constitute Mt. Roccamonfina. The volcanic group of Naples is the most important one of them all, and the most famous, because it contains the oldest active volcano in Europe , namely Mt. Vesuvius (4000 feet). That ancient volcano rises between the destroyed cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, at about six miles from Naples . Diodorus Siculus, Vitruvius, Plutarch, and Strabo speak of it as a volcano that had been extinct for centuries in their day. In the year 79 of the Christian Era it suddenly became active again, burying in molten stone, sand, and ashes the cities of Stabia, Herculaneum, and Pompeii, and by its noxious vapours terminating the life of Pliny the Elder. Between the years 79 and 1631 Vesuvius had a few eruptions: those of 203, 472, 512, 689, 913, 1036, 1139, 1500; but, on 16 December, 1631, the diameter of the crater was increased nearly two miles, and nearly 72,000,000 cubic metres of lava were ejected from it in a few hours, while there descended from the summit devastating torrents of boiling mud. Thereafter eruptions became more frequent, the principal ones having occurred in 1737, 1794, 1822, 1858, 1861, 1862, 1868, 1872, and the last in 1906; but flickering flames and smoke are almost always emerging from the crater. The Campi Flegrei to the west of Naples occupy a surface of nearly 60 sq. miles and consist of low craters that have been partly filled in by the waters. Notable among these are Mt. Montenuovo, which was developed in a single night in September, 1530; and Mt. Solfatara, from the fissures of which, called chimneys, there constantly emanate smoke and vapours of sulphuretted hydrogen. The Vulture volcanic region to the east of the Apennines is not allied to the Tyrrhenian volcanic region. The Vulture consists of two concentric craters of which the interior one is more recent; this contains the two small lakes of Monticchio (2050 feet).
Thermal springs are very abundant in Italy, especially those containing sulphur and carbonic acid. Of gaseous springs, there are in Italy the so-called fumaiole that emit aqueous vapour with carbonic acid, the boraciferous blowers of Tuscany , and the sulphur-producing spring of Pozzuoli which burst into an eruption in 1198. Near Rome there are the Albula Springs. Lastly there are the mephitic springs that produce carbonic acid, the most famous of them being the so-called Grotta del Cane, near the Lake of Aguano, which is an ancient, extinct crater, near Naples.
Besides her volcanic characteristics, Italy, like Japan , is the classic land of earthquakes. The regions that are most subject to them are;
(a) the southern parts of the Alps,
(b) the coast region of the basin of the Po, from Venice to Pesaro ,
(c) the Apennines of the Marches and of the Abruzzi,
(d) the neighbourhood of Mt. Vesuvius, that of Mt. Vulture, and that of Mt. Etna,
(e) the Luco-Calabrian district,
(f) the islands of volcanic origin.
Of the famous catastrophes due to earthquakes, the best known are those of 1783, in Calabria, when there were destroyed 109 cities and villages, under the ruins of which 32,000 people were buried; the one of 1857 in the Basilicata that cost 10,000 victims to Potenza and its neighbourhood. The earthquake that shook the western Ligurian Riviera in 1887, although the most terrible catastrophe of its kind that has befallen continental Italy, was, withal, much less severe than those that have visited the southern portion of the peninsula. Calabria may be said to have been for ten years on the brink of the earthquake that culminated fatally on the morning of 28 December, 1908, when, in a few moments, the city of Messina , with 150,000 inhabitants, the city of Reggio , with 45,000 inhabitants, the town of Sille, and other smaller ones, were razed to the ground, burying more than 100,000 people under their ruins. Italy was comforted by all the civilized nations, and especially the United States, which built a town in the beautiful district of Santa Cecilia, in the neighbourhood of Messina , with nearly 1500 frame houses, after the fashion of Swiss chalets, prettily finished, and painted in white. The United States Avenue, parallel with the sea, and Theodore Roosevelt Avenue, parallel with the torrent of Zaera, divide the town into four quarters that are intersected by streets having the names of those generous Americans who helped in the work: Commander Belknap of the Navy, who was the head of the relief Commission; Lieutenants Buchanan and Spofford; Engineer Elliot, director of construction; Dr. Donelson, and others.
Hydrography
Rivers
The rivers of Continental Italy empty into the Adriatic and the Ligurian Seas. The water-courses of the Ligunian slope are rapid torrents, dry in summer, while in autumn and in winter they carry enormous volumes of water. Chief among them are the Roja, the longest and most important water course of Liguria, on the banks of which are Tenda and Ventimiglia ; the Taggia; the Centa, which is formed of the Arroscia and the Neva; the Bisagno and the Polcevera, between the mouths of which is the city of Genoa ; and the Entella. The Adriatic watershed being bounded by the Alps and by the Apennines, it follows that the rivers flowing from the latter mountains are shorter than those coming from the Alps, and as they do not receive the drainage of the glaciers, but only that of the snow and of the rains, they have the nature of torrents, rather than that of rivers. This is a providential condition because it minimizes the danger of inundations in the valley of the Po; for the rivers of the Apennines come down charged with alluvial matter and enter the Po almost at right angles, engaging its channel; but the Alpine rivers that flow into the Po, farther down its stream, with less turbulence, yet with a strong flood, spread the alluvial deposits of the other rivers over the entire bed. Notwithstanding this, the bed of the Po tends continually to rise, and the waters of that river, contained by embankments, are seven, ten, and even seventeen feet above the level of the lands through which they flow.
The rivers of Continental Italy that empty into the Adriatic Sea are divided into four groups: (a) the Po and its tributaries; (b) the Venetian rivers; (c) the rivers of the Romagna, and (d) the rivers of Istria, grouped on account of their special characteristics.
The Po
The Po, which is the principal river of Italy, rises on the Piano del Re, on Mt. Viso, at a height of 6500 feet above the sea. It makes a first descent of 500 feet in a distance of only 10 miles, after which it opens into the plain near Saluzzo , and from there follows a northerly direction as far as Chivasso, where the Cavour Canal begins. Throughout the remainder of its course it flows from west to east, winding along the 45th parallel, and empties into the sea through a vast delta, the chief branch of which is Po della Maestra, which is unnavigable, while the other branch, the Po delle Tolle, has two navigable entrances. The surface of its basin is 27 square miles and its mean flood is 53,000 cubic feet per second, but when at its height, more than 70,000 cubic feet. In the middle of its course, at Cremona , its greatest breadth is three fifths of a mile, but at its greatest height, farther down the valley, it attains a breadth of two and one-half miles. Notwithstanding the volume of its waters, the Po is not well suited to navigation, on account of the instability of its bed, for which no artificial remedy has heen found. Available navigation begins at Casale for boats of about 9 tons, and from Pavia to the sea the river is navigable for boats of 120 to 130 tons. The River Po, unlike the Rhine, the Danube, and the Elbe, was never a politically unifying element, having always divided the inhabitants of its valley into two parts.
Among the Venetian rivers
The principal Venetian river is the Adige, which is the second river of Italy; after that are the Brenta, the Piave, the Tagliamento, the Isonzo, and others. The Alpine basin of the Adige has the shape of a triangle, with its summit at Verona , and its base on the Alps, between the Reschen hill, where are the sources, and the base of Tolbach, where are the sources of the Rienz. It enters the Italian region at Salurno and receives the Noce River, on the right, and the Avisio on the left, and it passes the boundary between the Kingdom of Italy and the Austrian Empire to the south of Ala. At Verona it enters the plain and flows parallel to the Po, flanked by massive embankments. Between the two rivers is a territory, portions of which have yet to be redeemed, as are the valleys of Verona , while the remaining portion is drained already by a labyrinth of canals, as for example, the Polesine. The Adige empties into the Adriatic Sea, after a course of 248 miles, having an average breadth of 330 feet between Trent and Verona , and of 220 feet between Verona and the sea. The Venetian rivers enter the plain charged with alluvial materials that would make them overflow, if they were not held in their beds by artificial embankments. Although the sources of some of these rivers are known, it is difficult to say where and how they empty into the sea; the Bacchiglione is a type of them.
The rivers of Romagna
The Po di Volano, once a branch of the Po, with which river, however, it is no longer connected, rises in the springs of the plain near Cento; at Ferrara it divides into two branches, one of which is navigable and, flowing towards the east, empties into the sea at Porto Volano; the other branch, which is not available for navigation, turns towards the south-east, terminating against the embankment of the Reno, a river that rises near Prunetta, passes to the east of Bologna, flows by Pieve di Cento, and, turning towards the east, enters the old channel of the Po di Primaro and empties into the sea at Porto Primaro, after a course of 124 miles. The Idice, Santerno, and the Senio are its affluents.
The rivers of Istria
They are very short, with little water, and flow in channels from which they disappear into the ground, to appear again in other channels or near the sea. The Recca-Timavo is the most important one of them; after a course of 28 miles in a narrow channel, it disappears into a cave, and it is probable that its waters go through the Carso and that they are the same that emerge from great springs, near Monfalcone, and empty into the Monfalcone Gulf under the name of Timavo. The other rivers, the Dragogna, the Quieto, the Lerne, which rises under the name of Foiba, all develop fords at their mouths, and the Foiba disappears and reappears several times; the Arsa empties into the Gulf of Quarnero.
On account of the bow shape of the Central Apennines the rivers that empty into the Adriatic Sea are very short and almost straight, while those that empty into the Tyrrhenian Sea are longer, and have a sinuous course in the longitudinal valleys through which they flow. They cut narrow channels through the mountain ranges or at times form cataracts like those of Marmore, near Terni (530 feet), those of Tivoli , and those of the Fibreno. Many of the long valleys between the Anti-Apennine and the Sub-Apennine ranges were occupied by lakes that were either filled in naturally by the alluvial deposits of the rivers or were artificially drained, as were the valley of Chiana, the valley of the Tiber, the plain of Foligno , the lands of Reati, of Fucino, and others. The Arno River, which has an average breadth of from 330 to 500 feet, rises on Mt. Falterona (5400 feet) and flows towards the southeast between the Apennines and the Pratomagno, through a beautiful spacious valley that is the continuation of the Val di Chiana and is called Casentino. It appears that formerly the Arno flowed into the lake that occupied the valley of Chiana and was a tributary of the Tiber through the Paglia. Now the Arno, abreast of Arezzo, arches round the Pratomagno and flows through a series of narrow passes between that chain and the mountains of Chianti. At Pontassieve it receives the Sieve which flows through the valley of Mugello, and then, turning directly to the west, it enters upon the second straight course; it flows through Florence, receives the Bisenzio and the Ombrone of Pistoia and flows through the plain of Prato which was once the bottom of a lake; it enters the Pass of Golfolina, 7 miles in length, between Mt. Albano and the mountains of Chianti; thereafter it receives the Pesa, the Elsa, and the Era, on the left, and the Pescia on the right — and in all this second course it flows over a low plain, between powerful artificial embankments. It empties into the sea at 6 miles from Pisa through a delta that is carried forward 16 feet each year.
The Tiber (Tiberis). — This is the most famous of all rivers, because there stands on its banks the city which of all has exercised the greatest influence upon the world, in ancient, as well as in modern, times. Geographically, the Tiber is the second river of Italy, in relation to its basin, and the third, in relation to its length, the first and the second being the Po and the Adige respectively. It flows from north to south, winding along the tenth meridian East of Greenwich, with an average breadth of about 500 feet, while the volume of its flood is 9500 cubic feet per second. It has a very sinuous course which is divided into four parts; the first of them is through a longitudinal valley, between the Apennines and the Sub-Apennines, called the Valley of the Tiber, the river passing by the town of Santo Sepolcro and the Città di Castello . It leaves Perugia on the right and receives the Chiascio, a river that has for affluents the Topino, which comes from the plain of Gubbio , and the Maroggia which itself receives the abundant waters of the Clitunno. At its juncture with the Chiascio, the Tiber begins its second tract: flowing in a south-easterly direction through a narrow valley of the Sub-Apennines of Umbria, it leaves Todi on its right and flows through the pass of the Forello, to receive the Paglia near Orvieto . The third division is in a south-easterly direction from the juncture of the Paglia to Passo Corese, where the Tiber receives the Nera, its largest tributary. The Nera, near Terni , receives the waters of the Velino through the falls of Marmore which are 530 feet high, the second waterfall of Italy, the first being that of Toce. The fourth division of the Tiber is through the Roman Agro, from Passo Corese to its mouth. The river divides Rome into two parts, and a little beyond the city it receives the Aniene, or Teverone, which forms the waterfall of Tivoli (347 feet) at the town of that name . The Tiber always carries a great amount of alluvial material, and consequently its mouth has always made encroachment upon the sea, and does so now by about 13 feet each year. The Isola Sacra divides the river into two branches; the southern one which washes Ostia is not navigable; the other, to the north, known as the Fiumicino Channel, is navigable and is formed by the so-called Trajan ditch. The Garigliano River in the first part of its course is called the Lin (Liris), but, after receiving the Rapido, it takes the name of Garigliano, because the Rapido in its lower part preserves its ancient name of Gari. Changing its direction, the Garigliano River flows around the Aurunci Mountains into the Gulf of Gaeta. In its higher course the River Liri, near Capistrello, receives the waters of the basin of Fucino through a subterranean passage nearly four miles long, the volume of the waters of the Liri being increased by 10,600 cubic feet per second.
The rivers of Southern Italy empty into three different seas, the Tyrrhenian, the Ionian, and the Adriatic. With the exception of the Volturno, the Sele, the Bradano, the Basento, and the Sinni, none of the streams of Southern Italy deserve the name of river; they have the nature rather of torrents, especially those of Calabria which, when running full, are very destructive. The rivers of the Adriatic watershed flow perpendicularly to the coasts, with the exception of the Candellaro, which flows in a south-easterly direction; those on the Tyrrhenian in their upper courses form longitudinal valleys. The alluvial plain of Sibari, which is the largest plain of Calabria, was developed by the Crati and its affluents.
The principal rivers of Southern Italy are: the Volturno (115 miles) which rises at Capo d'Acqua, on Mt. Rocchetta, with a considerable volume of water, receives the Vandra that flows from the plain of Carovilli, increased by the waters of the Cavaliere, on the banks of which stands Isernia . The Volturno thereafter flows through a broad valley, the bottom of which consists of the alluvial deposits of that river which, at the height of Presenzano, turns into a direction parallel to the Matese Mountains; in former times it probably maintained a southerly direction through the Teano depression and flowed along the present bed of the Saccione River. It receives the Calore River which flows into the Volturno at almost right angles, while the latter, turning to the west, flows through the Caiazzo Pass and opens onto the plain at Capua , with a breadth of about 500 feet, and from there on it is navigable as far as the sea (17½ miles). It flows into the sea through swampy lowlands that have been developed by its own alluvial deposits. The Sele takes its rise from numerous copious springs. Its principal affluent is the Tanagro, which disappears into the ground at Polla and appears again about one-third of a mile farther down the valley. The most important river of the Ionian versant is the Crati, that rises on the highland plain of Sila, passes through Cosenza , and flows through the depression between the Sila and the coast chains of the Apennines, which constitutes the valley of Cosenza . Near its mouth it receives the Coscile or Sibari, flowing from the Campotenese Pass, after having been engrossed by the waters of the Pollino. The Basento passes by Potenza and flows into the sea near the ruins of the ancient Metaponto. The Salerno-Potenza-Taranto railroad lies along the whole course of this river. The only stream of any importance on the Southern Adriatic watershed is the Ofanto River which beyond Conza describes an arc around the Vulture mass, the waters from which flow into the Ofanto through the Rendina River; the Locone is another of its affluents. Between the latter and the sea, the Volturno River supplies the waters of the artificial canal by which it is connected with Lake Salpi.
Lakes
The Italian region has more lakes than rivers, especially on the plain of the Po, at the foot of the Alps. They are usually divided into (a) pre-Alpine lakes, (b) volcanic lakes, and (c) coast lakes.
Pre-Alpine lakes
These lakes that temper the climate of the Continental portion of the pre-Alpine region are one of the principal causes of the fertility of the soil, making possible the cultivation of the southern plains. The zone that contains them extends from Lake Orta to Lake Garda and is north of the moraine hills that close the entrance of the valleys of the Central Alps. Lake Orta or Cusio, northwest of Arona, is 950 feet above the level of the sea and has an area of about 7 sq. miles, with a maximum depth of 80 fathoms; its waters flow through the Nigaglia River into the Strona, a stream that enters into the Toce River which itself empties into Lake Maggiore (Lacus Verbanus). This lake stretches from north to south, the principal streams that flow into it being, at the north, the Ticino and the Maggia; on the west the Toce, and on the east the Tresa, which flows from Lake Lugano, and the Bardello which flows from Lake Varese. The River Ticino flows into Lake Maggiore at Magadino and leaves it at Sesto Calende. In its Gulf of Pallanza, Lake Maggiore contains the Borromean Islands, so famous for their beauty. The principal towns situated on the shores are Locarno in Canton Ticino, Pallanza, Intra, Luino, and Arona, the birth-place of St. Charles Borromeo , where stands his colossal statue in bronze, erected in 1697, having a height of 100 feet, including the pedestal, and representing the saint in the act of blessing Arona. Lake Lugano or Ceresio lies between Lake Maggiore and Lake Como; the Agno is the principal stream that flows into it, while its waters empty into Lake Maggiore through the Tresa River, On the shores of this lake are Lugano at the north, and Porlezza at the north-east, Capolago at the south, and Ponte Tresa at the west. Lake Como or Lario is formed by the River Adda that enters the lake at Colico and leaves it at Lecco, to form the minor lakes of Pescarenico, Olginate, and Brivio. Other streams flowing from Lake Como are the Mera, which receives the Liro, and the Pioverna. To the north of Lake Como is the minor lake of Mezzola through which flows the Mera. This small lake is in reality the narrowed part of Lake Como, developed by the alluvial deposits of the Adda. Bellagio Point divides Lake Como into two branches, the south-western one, which terminates at Como , and a south-eastern branch called Lake Lecco. Its varied shores are a beautiful garden of luxuriant vegetation, studded with villages, chapels , inns, and sumptuous villas. Manzoni made it still more celebrated by the description that he gave of it in his immortal novel, "I Promessi Sposi". Lake Iseo or Sebino is situated between Lakes Como and Garda, at the entrance of the valley of Camonica, and is formed by the Oglio River which enters it at Lovere and flows from it at Sarnico. It contains the island of Monte Isola on which are two villages of fishermen. Lake Garda or Benaco is the largest of the Italian lakes and the most southerly one of the Sub-Alpine region. The River Sarca is the principal stream that flows into it, while the Mincio is its chief outlet. Its smiling shores are covered with a growth of southern vegetation, the most notable places upon them being Riva, Salò, Desenzano, Peschiera, and Bardolino. The narrow peninsula of Sermione that protrudes into the lake between Desenzano and Salò was the happy sojourn of the Latin poet Catullus (Catul., XXXI, i); it is nearly two miles in length. Lake Idro is formed by the Chiese River, which is an affluent of the Oglio; it has an area of over 4 sq. miles, and its surface is 1200 feet above the level of the sea. Other minor lakes are those of Azeglio to the south-east of Ivrea , Varese, Alserio, Pusiano, Annone, and Segrino, between Como and Lecco; Lake Endine or Spinone between Val Seriana and Lake Iseo; Lake Molveno, Lake Ledro, west of Riva, and Lakes Caldonazzo and Levico, from which flows the Brenta.
The lakes of the peninsula, besides being smaller than those of Continental Italy, are, almost all of them, of a volcanic nature, or are coast lakes. The lakes of Montepulciano and of Chiusi, however, at the southern extremity of the valley of Chiana, constitute a class of their own, together with Lakes Perugia and Matese, the latter, on the mountain group of the same name, having a length of 25 miles and a breadth of 625 mile, To this class belongs also the small Lake of Pergusa, in the Erei Mountains, in Sicily . The Lake of Perugia or Trasimeno is the largest lake of peninsular Italy and contains three islands, Polvese, Maggiore, and Minore. Its shores are low and marshy, and its waters, which abound in fishes, are carried by an artificial outlet into a sub-affluent of the Tiber. The lake in fact is a remnant of a larger one that covered nearly all of the valley of Chiana, and there is a project on foot to drain it dry. It was near Lake Trasimeno that Hannibal defeated the Romans in 217 B.C. The two minor lakes of Montepulciano and of Chiusi are of the same nature, and were probably a part of Lake Trasimeno, At the first of the two begins the Canal of Chiana, a work of the Grand Dukes of Tuscany , which drains the Chiana valley and directs its waters into the Arno. From the second flows the Chiana River, which empties into the Paglia, au affluent of the Tiber. Wherefore, through these two lakes, connected by a canal, the Tiber and the Arno communicate with each other.
Volcanic lakes
Volcanic lakes are very plentiful in the peninsula; they are so called because they occupy the craters of extinct volcanoes, which accounts for their small dimensions. The principal one among them is Lake Bolsena (Lacus Vulsinius), containing two islands, Bisentina and Martana, on the second of which, it is said, Amalasuntha, the only daughter of Theodoric , was killed by Teodato in 534, The outlet of this lake is the Marta River. Other smaller volcanic lakes are those of Bracciano or Sabatino and Vico (Lacus Ciminus) which is situated between Lakes Bolsena and Bracciano at a height of 1650 feet above the level of the sea; also Lakes Albano and Nemi, near Rome , on the Albanian Mountains, having an area of 2.33 sq. miles and of .625 sq. miles, respectively, and an altitude of 961 ft. and of 1050 ft. Lake Albano having a depth of 558 ft., and Lake Nemi, a depth of 112 ft.; lastly, Lakes Averno, Agnano, and Lucrino, with others, in the Campi Flegrei, and Lake Gurrita, to the northwest of Mt. Etna.
Coast lakes
The Italian region abounds in lakes of this kind, but in many cases, rather than lakes, they are swamps that should be drained and their sites redeemed for agriculture. Among them the best-known are Lake Varano, to the north of Mt. Gargano; that of Salpi, between the Ofanto and the Carapella Rivers; Lake Lesina; Lake Massaciucoli, near the mouth of the Serchio (nearly 25 sq. miles); Lake Orbetello to the east of Mt. Argentario, with an area of 10 sq. miles; Lake Salso between the Carapella and Manfredonia; Lake Fondi to the east of Terracina ; and the Lake of Fogliano, to the west of the Pontine Marshes; the lakes of Alimeni, in the Salentine peninsula; the swamps of Quartu, near Cagliari .
Canals
There is no country in which a system for the distribution of waters is more complete than is that of northern Italy, a pre-eminence which the other portions of the kingdom do not share. In the country between the Adda and the Ticino, especially, a close network of canals and ditches, rivulets and aqueducts, now meeting, now separating from each other, intersecting or passing over and under one another, makes all the waters, whether of spring, river, or rain, available. Probably works of this kind existed in ancient times; it is certain, however, that they were resumed in the twelfth century; and from that time, the Italians spent enormous sums of money on this undertaking and employed in it a special intelligence that established their position as the first hydrologists of Europe . There is no greater manifestation of the wealth and of the civilization of medieval Italian Republics than these gigantic works.
Physical divisions
Northern Italy is divided into the following regions, Piedmont , Lombardy , Venice , Emilia, and Liguria, which are politically subdivided into provinces. Piedmont , Lombardy , and Venice are the subjects of special articles.
Emilia is subdivided into the provinces of Bologna, Ferrara , Forlì, Modena , Parma , Piacenza , Ravenna , Reggio nell' Emilia.
Emilia, a region through which passes the ancient Emilian Way, whence the name, is quadrilateral in shape and embraces the territory formed by the north-east watershed of the Northern Apennines, and by the triangular plain, the sides of which are the Emilian Way, the Po, and the Adriatic Sea. The former is a rolling country ploughed by torrential streams that have washed out deep valleys, on which account its inhabitants live on the mountain sides; the apex of the triangular plain points towards Piacenza , while the base between Rimini and the mouths of the Po attains a length of 60 miles. It is a part of the great plain of the Po, the origin and nature of which it shares. In the district between Ferrara , the Po della Maestra, and Ravenna , it has lands that have not yet been drained, containing the so-called valli or lagoons of Comacchio , abounding in fish, and near which stands the town of the same name. They are connected with the sea by the Magnavacca Canal. Some of these valleys, like the polders of Holland , have been drained and are very fertile. The River Reno divides this region into two parts: the western, Emilia properly so-called, and the eastern, Romagna, a name that recalls the time when Ravenna was capital of the Western Roman Empire, and therefore called Romandiola, meaning Little Rome. All the roads from France , Germany , and Austria that lead directly to Brindisi , and by the Suez Canal to the Indies, pass through Emilia. The climate of this region is almost the same as that of the Continent, and agriculture is its chief industry, principally corn, sugar-beet, and cattle raising. In the lands around Bologna and Ferrara the cultivation of hemp predominates, of which staple these two districts are the chief centres of production. The cities of Emilia, with the exception of Ferrara and Ravenna , are all built on the Emilian Way, which skirts the base of the Apennines. Piacenza (pop. 36,000), on the Po, was an ancient Roman colony that became a republic in the Middle Ages and later with Guastalla a duchy of the House of Farnese. It is now a stronghold, defending the Pass of Stradella. Its communal palace of the thirteenth century and its cathedral of the twelfth century are notable structures. Piacenza was the birth-place of Melchiorre Gioja (1797-1829) and of the famous man of letters, Pietro Giordani. To the southwest of this city is the Field of Roncaglia, where the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa convoked his feudal lords to support the claims of the empire (1154-1159). The city of Bobbio (pop. 5000), on the River Trebbia, is famous for the convent founded there by St. Columbanus; and on the lower course of that river was fought a battle in 218 B.C. between Hannibal and the Romans, and one between MacDonald and Suvaroff in 1799. On the Arda is Fiorenzuola d'Arda (pop. 12,000), the birthplace of Cardinal Giulio Alberoni. In its neighbourhood were discovered the ruins of the ancient Veleia, and among them the famous Table of Trajan . Near Borgotaro, on the Taro River, where it receives the Ceno, is Fornovo, where Charles VIII of France defeated the Italian Confederation in 1495. In the valley of Stirone is Salsomaggiore, famous for its therapeutic springs; and in the plain is Borgo San Donnino (pop. 12,000), with its Gothic cathedral , and Busseto, the birth-place of the great musician Giuseppe Verdi . Parma (pop. 48,000), a very ancient Etruscan city on the Parma River, contains noble monuments, such as its cathedral and its baptistery . It became famous by its defence against Frederick II , who besieged it unsuccessfully (1247-48). It was the capital of a duchy under the princes of the House of Farnese and under the Bourbons of Spain . At the foot of the Pietra Bismantova (3440 feet) is the Castle of Canossa , where Queen Adelaide took refuge and where Gregory VII humiliated the Emperor Henry IV.
Reggio (pop. 59,000), on the Crostolo River, once the capital of Cisalpine Gaul, was the birth-place of the poet Ariosto and of the famous astronomer of our times, Angelo Secchi, S.J. Where the River Secchia opens into the plain, stands Sassuolo, famous on account of its volcanic phenomena, called salse; and to the north-east is Modena (pop. 63,000), the ancient Roman city of Mutina, which became the capital of a duchy and was the birth-place of the naturalist Spallanzani , of Sadoleto , of Sigonio, and of Tassoni. It contains a military school, Vignola is the birth-place of Ludovico Antonio Muratori, and contains the famous Abbey of San Silvestro.
Faenza (pop. 40,000) on the Lamone River was once famous for its majolica, called Faïence by the French. It is the birth-place of the physicist Torricelli.
Cesena (pop. 42,000) is the birth-place of Pius VI and of Pius VII . Rimini (pop. 44,000), at the termination of the Emilian, and the beginning of the Flaminian Way, is rich in historical memories. It contains the bridge and the arch of Augustus , the church of St. Francis, called the Malatestan Temple, after the Malatestas , lords of the city, who caused the church to be built by Leon Battista Alberti . Two hours from Rimini , between the Marecchia and the Conca Rivers, rises San Leo, the stronghold where Berengarius II was made prisoner by Otto I and where the famous Cagliostro died.
Ravenna (pop. 36,000), a most important port under the Romans, became the capital of the Western Empire, later the capital of the Goths , and finally of the Greek Exarchate. It has exceptionally fine examples of Byzantine architecture, among which should be mentioned the basilica of San Vitale. It is in this city that the immortal Catholic poet Dante Alighieri died, and where also is preserved his sepulchre. The ancient military port that was constructed by Augustus is now covered over, and the town is at a distance from the coast, with which it is connected by a small canal, 5 miles in length. Along the coast stretches the famous Pineta, 25 miles long, and from 1 to 2½ miles broad; but the negligence with which it is treated is allowing it to waste away. Liguria comprises the provinces of Genoa and Porto Maurizio and is bounded by the Apennines and the Ligurian Alps, and by the Roia and the Magra rivers. It is a mountainous country, with no other plains than the small one near Albenga . The mountain spurs that project into the sea produce an arc-shaped bay at the highest point of which is the port of Genoa . Rains, especially in the Apennines, are abundant (50 inches). This region is separated from the rest of Continental Italy by steep mountain ranges, but this barrier has been overcome by railroads that have made Liguria the natural outlet to the Mediterranean Sea for the valley of the Po and for western Germany . It has a maritime climate, but the natural fertility of its soil does not correspond with that climatic advantage, and therefore its inhabitants devote themselves to a seafaring life, as the fisheries along this coast are not remunerative. Sixty-one per cent of the population live on the coast. Where its soil is arable, Liguria produces oil, fruits, and flowers; but commerce is its chief industry. Between the Polcevera and the Bisagno Rivers, in the form of an amphitheatre, stands Genoa .
Central Italy contains five regions: Tuscany , Umbria, Lazio, the Marches, Abruzzo and Molise. While northern Italy may be called the head, central Italy is the heart of Italy, for it was this section of the country which in ancient times, as well as in the Middle Ages , predominated by its prowess, by its laws, and by its religion, as in modern times by its arts and by its letters. The fertile genius of its inhabitants, together with the happy conditions of its soil and freedom from prolonged foreign domination, all conspire to intensify an artistic and literary sentiment and to maintain in the race the ethnical type of its ancestors, the Etruscans, the Marsians , the Umbrians, and the Latins — who together conquered the world. The chief occupation of its inhabitants is farming, there being few manufacturing industries. Although this section has a coastline of 600 miles, it has only three ports: Ancona , which is the only one on the Adriatic Sea, and Leghorn and Civitavecchia on the Tyrrhenian Sea. The coasts of the latter sea being almost without inhabitants, owing to the malaria, Tuscany and Lazio have little or no seafaring populations; the corresponding shores on the Adriatic Sea, however, are abundantly peopled, but, as they are straight and low, they have no natural harbours, and consequently at the mouths of rivers small canal-ports have been dug out for fishing craft. This explains why the Marches and the Abruzzi have a considerable seafaring population that is devoted to the fishery, and not to navigation, as is the case in Liguria and Venice . The principal inland cities are Florence, on the banks of the Arno, and Rome on the Tiber. All the others, as Siena, Perugia , Urbino , and Pesaro , are famous cities that flourished in past centuries; but they have not a brilliant future under present economical conditions.
Umbria consists of a single province called Perugia. It has an area of 3800 sq. miles, an estimated population, on 1 January, 1908, of 693,253 inhabitants. It is an essentially mountainous region, of which the elevation is determined by the dorsal aspect of the Apennines and by the parallel chains of the Umbrian Sub-Apennines that form the upper basin of the Tiber, the valley of Foligno , and the basin of the Nera and its affluents, or the highland plain of Norcia , the basin of Rieti , and the Sabine mountains. In the Middle Ages , the preference given to the Tuscan roads over the Flaminian Way, left Umbria in an isolated position, on which account it lived apart a life of faith and of artistic inspiration all its own. It has a mild climate, and agriculture and the raising of cattle are the chief occupations of its inhabitants. Perugia (pop. 61,000), one of the twelve Etruscan lucumonies or sacred towns, not far from the Tiber, contains many monuments of art , for the most part churches, and many antiquities. It was the adopted country of the Perugian Pietro Vannucci (1446-1524), the master of Raphael.
Orvieto (pop. 18,000) is famous for its magnificent thirteenth-century cathedral , one of the grandest in Italy, especially on account of its splendid façade . At Gubbio , on the Chiascio, the Gubbio Tables were found. Assisi, the birth-place of St. Francis and of St. Clare , was the cradle of the Order of the Friars Minor . Its convent and church contain treasures of the mystic art of Umbrian painters and are the objects of devout pilgrimages . Spoleto (pop. 25,000), between the Ticino and the Maroggia Rivers, was the seat of a powerful Longobard duchy, and afterwards the residence of the Frankish dukes, of whom the last two, Guido and his son Lambert, were Kings of Italy. Terni (pop. 30,000), the ancient Interamna, home of the historian Tacitus, is now the site of important metallurgical works that use the waters of the Nera River, into which flows the Velino, over the famous Falls of Terni. Norcia (Nursia) was the home of St. Benedict; Narni , a very ancient city, on a precipitous height near the Nera, was the home of the Condottiere Gattamelata; Rieti is on a high plain called Agro Reatino, one of the most fertile lands in Italy, where celebrated grain is produced.
Lazio consists of but one province, called Rome, and has an area of 7400 sq. miles, a population estimated to be 1,300,014 inhabitants, on the 1st January, 1908. Its boundaries are the Mediterranean from the mouth of the Fiora to Terracina , and the Rivers Liri, Turano, Farfa, Tiber, and Paglia. It includes the Roman Sub-Apennines and Anti-Apennines, the deserted, undulating Roman Campagna, the Pontine Marshes, and the promontories of Linaro, Anzio, and Circeo. The lands on the right of the Tiber, formerly inhabited by the Etruscans and afterwards conquered by the Romans, constitute the territory of Viterbo and the Campagna of Civitavecchia . The Albanian and Sabine hills and the valley of the Tiber among them constitute the Comarca, better known by the name of Agro Romano; the valley of the Sacco or Tolero, with the hills that surround it, forms a region that is called Ciociaria on account of the style of footgear affected by its inhabitants. Lazio has essentially a maritime climate. The principal occupation of its inhabitants is the growing of corn, grapes, and olives, and the raising of horses and of cattle. The region is represented by Rome, that owes its origin and the beginning of its greatness to the advantages of its topographical position. In the volcanic zones of the Roman Anti-Apennines the centres of population are on the hill-tops, the principal ones being Acquapendente , an Etruscan city on the Paglia, that received its name on account of a neighbouring waterfall; Bolsena, on the lake of the same name; Montefiascone , to the south of that lake, famous for its Moscato wine; Viterbo , on the skirts of Mt. Cimino, rich in historical memories of the popes , and in the neighbourhood of which are the famous hot springs called Bulicame: Civita Castellana, near the ruins of the ancient Faleria and of the Castello di Patierno, where Otto II died; Corneto , built on the site of the ancient Tarquinia; Civitavecchia (pop. 17,000), the ancient Centumcellæ, a port built by Trajan , and now the principal one of Lazio, Rome . Ostia, founded by Ancus Marcius, was the ancient port of Rome , but now its ruins are totally buried and at a distance of one and a half miles from the sea. In the valley of the Aniene is Subiaco , and near it the cave to which St. Benedict, the founder of monasticism in the West, was wont to withdraw; Tivoli (Tibur) contains many ruins of ancient monuments and palaces. The falls of the Athene River at this point furnish Rome with electricity. In this neighbourhood are found the rich quarries of travertine marble that the Romans used so much in their monuments, and the sulphur springs, which are a bathing resort. By the wooded and vine-clad Albanian hills are the Castelli Romani, small villages that are popular summer resorts; Frascati , near the ruins of ancient Tusculum; Castelgandolfo, the papal villa; Marino; Ariccia, that has a splendid viaduct; Albano and Velletri (pop. 19,000). In the valley of the Sacco are Palestrina , upon the ruins of the ancient Præneste, which was the home of Pier Luigi , known as Palestrina , the prince of sacred music . Here remain still the ruins of the Temple of Fortune, famous for its oracles, called sortes prœnestinœ. Anagni , the home of Boniface VIII , who there received grievous offence at the hands of Sciarra Colonna and of Nogaret , envoy of Philip the Fair , King of France . Alatri, which has a Pelasgian burial-ground; Terracina (pop. 11,000) on the sea, the former Anxur, a watering-place that was much frequented by the ancient Romans.
The Marches, comprising the provinces of Ancona , Ascoli Piceno , Macerata , Pesaro e Urbino , is bounded by the Apennines, the Adriatic Sea, the Marecchia River at the north, and the Tronto at the south; it unites the ancient maritime Umbria and the northern half of the ancient Picenum. Originally, its elevation was formed by a group of mountain chains, parallel to the Apennines and diminishing in height as they approached the sea, but the rivers washed their way through these hills, cutting deep passes into them, so that now are seen only some isolated trunks that indicate the primitive direction of the chains. The climate of the Marches is less mild than that of Tuscany , and agriculture is its chief industry, while the fisheries, if they were well directed, would make the fortune of the numerous portion of the population that lives by that industry. This region, which in ancient times was inhabited by different peoples, became Romanized after the Flaminian Way, which was the chief outlet of Rome , had been carried through; but it lost somewhat of its importance when preference came to be given to the shorter way through Tuscany . It is a mountainous country that was subject to petty lordships, some of which were promoters of literature and the arts. The principal centres of population and places of historic interest are: Urbino (pop. 18,000), formerly the capital of a duchy (1213-1631) that was made famous by its fine arts; it was the birth-place of Raphael and of Bramante; Pesaro (pop. 25,000) at the mouth of the Foglia, the birth-place of the great musician Gioachino Rossini, and of the philosopher Terenzio Mamiani; Senigallia (pop. 23,000), the birth-place of Pius IX ; Jesi (pop. 23,000), the birth-place of the Suabian Emperor Frederick II ; Ancona (pop. 56.000), on the incline of a hill which forms an angle projecting into the sea. After Triest and Venice it is the most important port on the Adriatic Sea; it is famous for its heroic and successful defence when besieged in 1144 by Frederick Barbarossa . Not far from the mouth of the Musone, on a pleasant height, is Loreto , with its famous sanctuary, erected from plans by Bramante, and which according to pious tradition contains the Holy House of Nazareth that was transported from Dalmatia , by angels , to the place where later was erected this beautiful temple in honour of the glories of the Virgin . Macerata (pop. 23,000), between the Chienti and the Potenza, containing a university; Recanati (pop. 17,000), the birth-place of the modern lyric poet Giacomo Leopardi; Tolentino (pop. 13,000), famous for its sanctuary of St. Nicholas, of the Order of Hermits of St. Augustine . It was here that the treaty was signed between Napoleon I and Pius VI in 1797, and here, also, Murat was defeated in 1815. Camerino (pop. 12,000) was once the seat of a duchy, and has still a free university; Fermo (pop. 21,000) distinguished itself in the First Punic War by its firm fidelity to the Romans, whence its name; and finally, on the right of the Tronto, amid fertile lands, is Ascoli Piceno (pop. 29,000), a very ancient city and an enemy of Rome .
Abruzzi and Molise
The boundaries of Abruzzi and Molise are the Tronto River, the Adriatic Sea, the Fortore River, and an irregular line towards the Apennines. This region consists of the Altipiano or Abruzzo-Aquilano, along the seashore, which is divided into Abruzzo Teramano and Chietino; Molise, that consists of the entire watershed between the Sangro and the Fortore Rivers; the Marsica, which is formed of the basin of the Fucino River and of the upper valleys of the Liri and of the Salto. The climate is variable; severe on the uplands of Aquila and mild on the coast. The land is not very fertile, but pastoral pursuits are considerably developed: the flocks go for wintering to the Agro Romano or to Apulia, and especially to Capitanata, following very ancient grass-grown tracks called tratturi, which the flocks alone use. Industries are not flourishing, but they are being developed by the hydro-electric plants. The central part of this region may be called the Helvetia of the peninsula; in ancient times it was the home of the intrepid Sabini, Marsi , Marrucini, Peligni, and Frentani, who for more than a century checked the progress of Roman arms. They were subjugated, and then revolted under the Italic League; but Rome triumphed again, and from that time these people furnished the sinew of the Roman armies. Being a mountainous and poor country, it had little importance in the Middle Ages . Abruzzians have a great love for their native region; each winter great numbers of them, poor , honest, and industrious, go in search of work to Rome and to Naples , but invariably return to their homes in the spring, with their savings. This population furnishes the largest contingent of Italian cooks, scullions, stable boys, hotel servants, and policemen. The principal centres of population are Teramo (pop. 24,000) on the Tordino River, formerly the capital of the Pretuzii, whence the name Aprutium, Abruzzo; Aquila (pop. 21,000) on the Aterno River, founded in 1240 by Frederick II , not far from the ruins of Amiterno, the capital of the Sabines and birth-place of Sallust; it is famous for its saffron; Solmona (pop. 18,000), a city of the Peligni and the home of Ovid; Castel di Sangro, a strategic point at the opening of the Aquila -Naples road; Lanciano (pop. 18,000) has a beautiful cathedral ; Campobasso (pop. 15,000), having a very old cutlery industry, and Tagliacozzo, at the source of the Salto or Imele River, an affluent of the Velino, where Conradin was defeated by Charles of Anjou, in 1268. Avezzano, formerly on the now drained Fucino River, is the most important place in the Marsica.
Southern Italy
The line drawn from the mouth of the Trigno River, on the Adriatic Sea, to that of the Garigliano, on the Tyrrhenian Sea, marks the shortest distance between those two waters and separates Southern from Central Italy. This division of the peninsula lies between three seas, the Adriatic, the Ionian, and the Tyrrhenian, and at its southern extremity, bifurcates into two peninsulas, the Salentine, which follows a south-easterly direction, and the Calabrian, which follows a south-westerly direction; and as the coasts are much more sinuous than those of Central Italy, it has yet other smaller peninsulas; they are the peninsula of Gargano, that of Sorrento, the promontory of Monteleone, and the headland of Sila, between the Gulfs of Squillace and of Taranto. The distance between the Gulf of Salerno and that of Manfredonia is 80 miles; between the Gulf of Taranto and the Tyrrhenian Sea, 30 miles, and between the Gulfs of Squillace and of Santa Eufemia 18 miles.
Southern Italy is divided into the following regions: Campania, Apulia, the Basilicata, and Calabria. On account of its distance from the rest of Italy, which was increased by want of ways of rapid communications, Southern Italy had a civil and political life of its own; it suffered little from the incursions of the barbarians, but was occupied by the Greeks and by a few Normans who established there the first Kingdom of Italy. The Carlovingians and the Othonians did not succeed in binding it to the empire. Notwithstanding the fact that the peoples of the two watersheds of Southern Italy were politically united for eight centuries, and notwithstanding the undeniable ascendancy of Naples , its capital, the various sections of which this region consists were almost strangers to each other until within recent years, although the Apennines offered no serious obstacles to communication between the different parts of the country; this was due to the want of roads, for which little provision has been made, although laws have been passed to that effect. The great majority of the inhabitants are agriculturists whose homes, contrary to the custom in Northern and in Central Italy, are in the towns, of which they have all the vices, without any of the rural virtues. The country is divided into vast estates whose owners live at Naples or abroad, so that the labourer gives his day's work without any interest or love for the soil he cultivates. The soil is very fertile and rewards even the poorest tillage. The principal products are maize, corn, wine, olives, almonds, figs, and vegetables. Notwithstanding its length of coast, the region contains a sparse maritime population, and therefore secures little advantage from a sea that teems with riches for other people. Its industries are as yet little developed; nevertheless, there is already a naval arsenal at Castellamare , important metallurgical works at Naples and at Pozzuoli ; factories for farinaceous foods, cotton mills, and others (Laws of 31 March, 1904, and 15 July, 1906, in favour of the Basilicata, of the South of Italy, Sicily and Sardinia ).
Campania comprises the provinces of Avellino or Principato Ulteriore, Benevento , Caserta or Terra di Lavoro, Naples , and Salerno or Principato Citeriore. It stretches from the Bay of Terracina to the Gulf of Policastro, except the valleys of the Tolero or Sacco and the Liri. Its elevation is formed by the Neapolitan and the Lucan Sub-Apennines and by the Neapolitan Anti-Apennines which form three different sub-regions, the Campania Plain or Terra di Lavoro, the Beneventana Basin, and the mountains of Cilento.
The ancient Campania (from campus), so famous for the fertility of its soil and for the enchantments of its coast, extended from the Garigliano to the Gulf of Policastro and was the ancient seat of the Oscians and of the Ausonians. It was later subjugated by the Etruscans and the Samnites, and later still by the Romans, who made it a place of recreation. This delightful region, which seems to have been destined always to be conquered, whether by Romans or Greeks, Normans, French, or Spaniards , always assimilated its conquerors to itself, by the fascination of its beauty. Its climate is variable, and agriculture is the chief occupation of its people; the raising of cattle, however, is not much pursued. The industries are few, but they are being developed gradually by means of fiscal assistance, for which provision is made by the recent law that was promulgated in behalf of Southern Italy. The chief cities of this section are placed along the coast, between the coast and the Sub-Apennines, and between this mountain range and the Apennines.
In the valley of the Liri is the thriving town of Sora (pop. 16,000), with its famous paper mills, called the Fibreno, after the waterfall of this tributary of the Liri which furnishes their power; the town is of Pelasgic origin; Arpino, the birth-place of Marius and of Cicero; Pontecorvo , a former possession of the Church; Aquino , the home of Juvenal and of St. Thomas , the prince of scholastic philosophy; on the Gari is Cassino, above which there stands upon an eminence the great Abbey of Montecassino , mother-house of the order established in 519 by St. Benedict of Nursia and the most ancient monastery in western Europe ; Capua (pop. 14,000), on the Volturno River, a strong town that was founded by the Longobards on the ruins of the ancient Casilinum, where Narses defeated the Goths, and further to the south-east is Santa Maria Capua Vetere (pop. 22,000), occupying a part of the site of ancient Capua , which proved so harmful to the interests of Hannibal, and which, until the defeat of the Longobards, remained the second city of Italy; it was destroyed by the Saracens .
The chief town of the Beneventana basin is Benevento . Avellino is an agricultural city in the neighbourhood of which is the famous sanctuary of Monte Vergine to which pilgrimages are made. In the Campania plain are Caserta (pop. 33,000), founded by the Longobards in the eighth century, having a villa and royal palace, built by Charles III of Bourbon; this wonderful architectural production of Vanvitelli, after many years of deplorable abandonment, is about to be restored by Victor Emmanuel III; Nola (pop. 15,000), a very ancient city where Augustus died and where were born St. Paulhius, one of the best Christian poets, and the apostate Giordano Bruno ; Aversa (pop. 23,000), the first possession of the Normans in Italy; Montesarchio, southeast of Benevento , is probably in the neighbourhood of the ancient Caudium on the Appian Way; from which the famous pass, so fateful to the Romans, was named the Caudine Forks. On the coast is Gaeta , a stronghold; it has a good port and is noted for the sieges that it underwent in 1799, 1806, and 1861. Pius IX took refuge there in 1848, as did also the last King of Naples , Francis II of Bourbon. Naples is treated in a special article. In Pozzuoli (pop. 17,000) the ruins of the Temple of Augustus and of that of Serapis are witnesses of the former splendour of the town, near which is obtained the pozzolana earth that is excellent for building purposes. At the foot of Mt. Vesuvius are Portici and Resina, under which, at a depth of from 65 to 100 feet lies Herculaneum that was buried under torrents of lava in the year 79 of the Christian Era. Farther to the east are the ruins of Pompeii, buried also by the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius; but, contrary to what happened at Herculaneum, Pompeii was buried under heaps of ashes, on which account the excavations that were begun there in 1748 were relatively easy, and now the town is almost entirely unearthed. Another city destroyed by Mt. Vesuvius, in the same eruption, was Stabiæ over which is now built Castellamare , amid attractive surroundings, and having a good harbour and important docks. Sorrento , a beautiful spot, was the home of Torquato Tasso . The Parthenopian Islands rise around the Bay of Naples; they are Nisida, at the entrance of the Gulf of Baja; Procida that gave its name to the conspirator Giovanni da Procida, the enemy of the French; Ischia , with the volcano of Epomeo; Capri, mountainous and picturesque, and famous for its blue cave and for its wines; it was the last home of Tiberius . Salerno (pop. 42,000) is at the northernmost point of the gulf of its name; it was once the seat of a famous school of medicine and was an important place under the Longobard and the Norman kings; the cathedral of St. Matthew, where the great Pope Gregory VII is buried, was erected by Robert Guiscard and is one of the grandest Norman structures in Italy. Amalfi , in the Middle Ages , one of the strongest of the maritime republics, a rival of Genoa and of Pisa , was destroyed by them. It had the glory of framing laws, the "Amalfian Tables", by which maritime and commercial relations were regulated. Cava dei Tirreni contains a famous abbey of the Benedictine Order . To the south-east of the mouth of the Sele are the much admired ruins of Pæstum, which was founded by the Greeks, about the year 600 B. C., under the name of Poseidonia; the Temple of Neptune there is one of the most beautiful examples of Greek architecture in existence. Eboli (pop. 12,000) is an important road centre of this part of Italy.
Apulia comprises the provinces of Bari or Terra di Bari, Foggia or Capitanata, Lecce or Terra d'Otranto. The territorial boundaries of this region are the coasts of the Ionian Sea, as far as the mouth of the Bradano, this river and its tributary the Basentiello, the Saddle of Spinazzola, the Locone, the crest of the Apennines and that of the mountains of Capitanata as far as the mouth of the Biferno. Its topographical configuration is determined by the Promontory of Gargano, by the heights of the Murgie, and by the Tavoliere. The Murgie heights and the Promontory of Gargano at one time were two separate islands, and it is probable that the southern Murgie, to the south-east of Brindisi and Taranto were also islands. Apulia was debarred from exercising influence on neighbouring peoples, and its subjugation by them was made easy by reason of its position, its topographical conditions, and the character of its inhabitants, the Apulians, the Daunians, the Messapians, the Japygians, who were never of a warlike disposition. In ancient times, as at present, Apulia was the station between the East and the West; it was in the possession of the Greeks until the tenth century, when the Normans conquered it and established there the countship of Apulia, their first possession. This region has a mild climate and is essentially an agricultural country, wonderfully fertile in some parts; it has the disadvantage of lacking a sufficiency of water, but this defect is being remedied by the construction of a great aqueduct that will bring the waters of the Sele to this section. Its chief products are wines, oil, grain, almonds, and figs. Manufacturing industries are as yet little developed. Its principal towns are Foggia (pop. 53,000), the capital, on the right bank of the Celone River, in the heart of the Tavoliere; it is a railroad centre and a grain and wool market; it contains the notable ruins of the palace of Frederick II ; Lucera (pop. 17,000), an ancient city upon a height, destroyed in the seventh century and rebuilt by Frederick II , who took to it Saracens from Sicily ; Manfredonia (pop. 12,000) was founded by King Manfred, near the ruins of Sipontum; Monte Sant' Angelo, at the foot of Gargano, contains the famous sanctuary of St. Michael the Archangel; Cerignola (pop. 33,000), famous for the victory of the Spaniards over the French in 1503; Barletta (pop. 42,000), a former fortress, on the coast; here occurred the challenge of Barletta on 16 May, 1503; and in its neighbourhood was Cannæ, where Hannibal destroyed the Roman army; Trani, a port that was famous during the Crusades ; Bari (pop. 78,000), a commercial port, containing the famous sanctuary of St. Nicholas. In the interior is Canosa (pop. 24,000), the ancient Canusium, not far from the position on the Ofanto River where the Romans found refuge after the defeat of Cannæ it contains ancient tombs and also that of Bohemund the crusader ; Altamura , on the Murgie Mountains, was the birth-place of the musician Mercadante.
Terra d'Otranto, which comprises nearly the entire Salentine peninsula, was called the Tuscany of Southern Italy. Its four important seaports, Brindisi , Otranto , Taranto , and Gallipoli are situated respectively at the angles of a quadrangle, in the interior of which is Lecce , the capital. Brindisi (pop. 25,000), which is built on two inlets in the shape of horns, was in the time of the Romans a most important commercial and naval port, where the Appian, the Trajan, and the Tarentine Ways terminated. It was neglected in the Middle Ages , but in our days it has returned to new life and has become a station of communication with India. Otranto is famous for its sack by the Turks in 1480. Gallipoli (pop. 14,000) does a considerable commerce in oil and in wines. Taranto (pop. 61,000), the ancient Tarentum, is on the canal that unites the Mare Grande and the Mare Piccolo; it was founded by the Spartans , and through the fall of Sibani, became the strongest and richest town of Magna Græcia, but decayed after its defeat by the Romans; now it is one of the three principal points of naval defence and supplies of the Kingdom of Italy, the other two being Spezia and the Maddalena. Lecce (pop. 32,000) stands at a distance of less than a mile from the sea in a fertile plain, where tobacco is cultivated.
The Basilicata forms a single province called Potenza, after the name of its chief town. It is bounded by the valley between the Murgie and the Apennines, the Ofanto River, the group of Mt. Santa Croce, the Maddalena Mountains, the Pollino group, and the Ionian Sea. It has the shape of a horseshoe, with its calks on the Ionian Sea. Originally the Basilicata must have been a high plain, like that of Sila, but having been deeply ploughed by the waters, it became a rough and disjointed country, in which communication is very difficult. Its coasts are infected by malaria, on account of the swamps formed by the rivers and of neglect; and yet on these now deserted coasts there flourished Metapontum and Eraclea, cities of Magna Græcia. Besides its dense forests, the mode of life of its inhabitants, separated as they are from the rest of the country on account of the difficulty of communications, contributes to keep this region in a condition inferior to that of the other parts of the kingdom. The climate varies with the altitudes, and is also subject to sudden changes. Agriculture and herding are the principal occupations of its people, among whom industries and commerce are not developed. In view of the fact that the country is divided into vast estates, the peasants are very poor, and they emigrate , so that the census of 1901 showed a great falling off in the population. Potenza (pop. 16,000), the chief town, built at a height of 2700 feet above the sea, near the source of the Basento River, is relatively a modern city, because the ancient one, which was on the plain, at the place called La Murata, was destroyed by Frederick II and by Charles of Anjou. Melfi (pop. 15,000), on the slopes of Mt. Vulture, was the capital of the Normans and a stronghold of Robert Guiscard . Venosa was the home of Horace; Matera (pop. 17,000) has a splendid site.
Calabria comprises the provinces of Catanzaro or Calabria Ulteriore II, Cosenza or Calabria Citeriore, Reggio Calabria or Calabria Ulteriore I. Calabria includes the extreme western limit of the Italian peninsula and is connected with the rest of Italy by the Pollino group, which is its northern boundary, on all other sides it is bounded by the sea. A considerable narrowing between the Gulfs of Santa Eufemia and Squillace divides Calabria into its northern and southern parts. In ancient times it was called Bruzio, and on its Ionian coast stood the luxurious Sibari and the powerful Cotrone , with other famous cities of Magna Græcia. In the Middle Ages the pirates infested the coasts, whose inhabitants were driven to the mountains and abandoned the care of the waters so that the coasts became swampy; this is the reason why Calabria does not furnish a maritime population in proportion to the development of its coasts. Calabria is the land of all Europe that is most desolated by earthquakes. Its climate varies, according to altitude, between a southern climate on the Ionian coast and an Alpine one on the heights. It is an agricultural country of which the principal products are grain, oil, wines, figs, and especially bergamot, for the extraction of its essence. The extensive forests of Sila produce timber; there is some grazing of cattle, but the prevalence of vast landed estates keeps the labourers in poverty, and they emigrate to countries beyond the sea. Beginning at the north, the principal cities are Cosenza (pop. 21,000), capital of the Bruttians, on the Crati River, at its confluence with the Basento, in the bed of which, according to tradition, Alaric was buried with his treasures. On the mountain sides there are distributed sixteen Albanian towns, of which Spezzano is the most important. Corigliano (pop. 13,000) has a beautiful castle. San Giovanni in Fiore (pop. 13,000), on the Sila, was so called on account of a famous abbey that it contains; here, in 1844, the brothers Bandiera, who landed at the mouth of the Neto River to bring about an insurrection in Calabria, were defeated and taken prisoners. Castrovillari (pop. 10,000) is an ancient city on the slope of the Pollino, and Paola on the Tyrrhenian coast, the birth-place of St. Francis of Paola, the founder of the Order of Minims (1416-1507), contains a very famous sanctuary. Catanzaro (pop. 32,000) is built upon a height above the valley of Marcellinara. Squillace , on the gulf of the same name, was the birth-place of Cassiodorus , a civil officer of Theodoric . Cotrone , on the site of the victorious rival of Sibari, and seat of the Pythagorean school, is now only a small port. At Pizzo, on the Gulf of Santa Eufemia, Joachim Murat, once King of Naples , was shot 17 October, 1815. Nicastro (pop. 18,000) has a population of Albanian origin. Filadelfia was founded in 1783 by the survivors of Castelmenardo, a town that was destroyed by an earthquake. Reggio (pop. 45,000), a beautifully situated city of Greek origin, has undergone many calamities at the hands of men and by the action of nature; it was devastated by the Romans, by Totila, by the Saracens , by the Pisans , by Robert Guiscard , and by the Turks, and it was almost totally destroyed by the earthquake of 1783. It rose again, beautiful and splendid, but a more terrible earthquake on 28 December, 1908, reduced it to a heap of ruins, under which were buried more than the half of its inhabitants. As has been seen, large cities are numerous in Italy; in fact, that country contains a greater number of them, in proportion to territorial extent and to population, than does any other country in Europe ; there are 65 cities with a population of more than 35,000 inhabitants each. This abundance of large cities, surrounded by smaller ones, is of great historical and artistic importance; it is also the cause of the limited influence of the capital upon the life of the nation, in contrast with the rule that obtains in other countries.
Climatology
As a whole, Italy has a good climate, due to the Alpine wall that screens it from the northern wind and to the sea that surrounds it on three sides. From the Tyrrhenian and the Adriatic Seas arise vapours, with alternating winds, those from the southwest (Libeccio) and those from the south-east (Scirocco), which blow from the middle of September to the end of spring and which accumulate the sea vapours on the Apennine heights, where they are precipitated in rain and snow, and whence they furnish to the soil the humidity necessary for vegetation. Unhappily, the ill-advised devastation of forests over a great portion of the Apennines has destroyed, in great measure, what provident nature had done in that connexion for the good of Italy. The mean rainfall as a rule is between 20 inches and 60 inches, but it is subject to a considerable fluctuation on account of topographical conditions; so that it increases to a maximum of 100 inches on the Alps. The Tyrrhenian coast has a heavier waterfall than that of the Adriatic; while the plain of Apulia and the Salentine peninsula are the driest regions of Italy. In the north the most copious rainfalls occur in October and in the spring, and then the rivers of the valley of the Po are at their highest, whereas little rain falls in winter. In peninsular and in insular Italy the winter rains, on the contrary, are heaviest, and the absence of drainage causes the waters that overflow from the river-beds to inundate the lowlands of the coast and thereby to develop malaria. from which only six provinces are free. The regions where this evil prevails to the greatest extent are the Tuscan Maremma, the Roman Agro, the Basilicata, and almost the whole of Sardinia . Snow falls with frequency in the Alpine region and in the valley of the Po; it is more abundant along the Adriatic watershed than on that of the Tyrrhenian Sea.
Fauna and flora
Italy lies within the Palearctic region, in which live a majority of the animals useful to man. It lies within the Mediterranean division of the floral kingdom and contains five botanical divisions:
(1) the Alpine region, limited to the higher parts of the Alps and of the Apennines, between the highest line of forest vegetation and the lowest line of perpetual snows; characteristic of it are the edelweiss (Leontopodium alpinum), the rhododendron and the Alpine grasses of the reed (Cyperaceœ), the rush and the clover variety.
(2) The mountain or forest region, of which the pines and beeches are characteristic.
(3) The region of the Po, devoid of forests and of evergreens; here grow vines, the elm, the mulberry, the poplar, the willow, the elder, hemp, flax, etc.
(4) The Mediterranean or evergreen region, which comprises the remainder of the peninsula and of which are characteristic the evergreen trees and plants, as the olive, the fir, the cypress, the orange, the lemon, the myrtle, and the oleander.
(5) The submarine region, which comprises the various sea-weeds.
The Italian flora contain 14,912 species, of which 325 have been introduced from Asia, Africa , and America.
Demography
The people of Italy
It would seem that in the quaternary period man lived in Italy, together with species of animals that have been lost or have emigrated, and witnessed those great commotions of the earth through which the sea receded from the lands of the Po, the Apennines arose, and the volcanoes of Lazio and of Campania became active. There has been much discussion as to the origin of the early inhabitants of Italy, as to the way by which they came, and as to the periods of their immigration, but, until now, only the most contradictory hypotheses have been reached. The most recent results that have been furnished by palæontology , by linguistics, and by archæology would show that Italy and a considerable part of Western Europe were primitively occupied by a race having a dolichocephalic cranium, and therefore of a branch of the family of Cham . Relatively nearer to our times, there are two orders of the Aryan immigration into Italy: the primitive and the posterior immigrations. In the former (1200-800 B.C.) we find two very ancient races, the Messapico-Iapygian, which came of the Illyrian trunk, and the Italic, properly so called. It would seem that the Messapians came by sea from Greece ; and at a later period, by land, the Iapygians, who occupied the Adriatic coast, from Gargano to Cape Leuca, and were, possibly, the historical Autochthonians of the peninsula. The Italics, who are divided into two great families , the Latins and the Umbrians, descended into Italy from the East, or, as seems more probable, from the North, by the valleys of the Inn, of the Adige, and of the Adda, and occupied the plain of the Po; but, other peoples appearing, they moved to the south of the peninsula and became identified with the Latins, occupying the western watershed and dividing into the branches called Oscans, Ausonians, and Œnotrians or Italics. Then came the Umbrians, whose rule lasted a short time; and, having heen defeated by the Gauls on the Po and by the Etruscans on the Arno, they withdrew to that region to which they gave the name of Umbria. But, a great family of this race, the Sabines, passed farther on and established itself on the highland of Rieti , nearer Campania and Apulia; and having increased greatly in their new territory, they gave origin to the Samnian, Marsian, Pelignian, Vestinian, Marrucinian, and other peoples.
That broad territory that lies between the right of the Tiber, the Apennines, and the sea, came to be inhabited by the Etruscans, called also Rasenans or Tyrrhenians. As to the origin of this people there are two opinions, that of Herodotus, according to which the Etruscans came by sea, driven from Lydia by famine; and the other, that of Niebuhr, Mommsen, and Helbig, according to which the Tyrrhenians came into Italy by land, over the Rhætian Alps. Of the primitive inhabitants of Italy, these were the ones who reached the highest degree of civilization, as is shown by the splendid remnants of their cities and by the objects found in their tombs; it is a pity that their language is not yet known. Later immigrations were those of the Gauls and of the Greeks. The Gauls, who were formerly held to be of Celtic origin, which now, however, is doubted, came down from the Alps at the beginning of the sixth century B. C., divided into several families : Cenomanian, Insubrian, Boian, Senonian, etc. They were harsh and rapacious peoples, who made Cisalpine Gaul return to the barbarous state out of which the Etruscans had taken it, and often, in later historical ages, their nefarious influence was carried over the whole of Italy. On the southern portion of the peninsula there were established numerous Greek colonies, whose cities, as we have seen, arose to great power and splendour, whence the name Magna Grœcia, given to the southern part of Italy. This portion of the peninsula was also inhabited by the Ligurians and by the Venetians , the origin of which races is not yet established. Some persons consider the Ligurians to be a very ancient race, preceding the Aryans and allied to the Iberians, while other authorities hold that the Ligurians were of Celtic origin. However that may be, this people occupied a great portion of the western watershed of Italy, and then, expelled by the Italics and by the Etruscans, they sought new homes on the Rhone and on the Pyrenees. It would seem that the Venetian race originated in Illyria and that its expansion in Continental Italy was stopped by the Gauls; at any rate, this people, who, unlike the Etruscans, had not abandoned a pastoral life and its habits, knew a great deal about agriculture, which was the basis of private life and social relations among the primitive Italic peoples.
Population
In 1770 the population of the territory that now constitutes the Kingdom of Italy was in round numbers 16,477,000 inhabitants; at the beginning of the nineteenth century it had grown to 18,125,000; and the census of 1901 showed a population of 32,475,253 inhabitants, implying an average annual increase of 7.38 per cent from 31 December, 1881. On 1 January, 1908, Italy had 33,909,776 inhabitants, being, therefore, the sixth state of Europe from the standpoint of population. The mean density of the population is 307 inhabitants per sq. mile, which is the highest in Europe , after Belgium , Holland , and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland; but, when it is considered that those countries are agricultural, industrial, and commercial while Italy is devoted essentially to agriculture, and is backward in the development of that industry, its population is shown to be dense, which accounts for emigration. The population, moreover, is very unevenly divided over the territory, according as life is more or less easily supported by the fertility of the soil, by industry, or by commerce. The most crowded population is that of the province of Naples : 3448 inhabitants per sq. mile; after that come the province of Milan , the district of Genoa , the coast of Apulia, between Barletta and Monopoli , and the slope of Mt. Etna. The province of Sassari is the one least inhabited (80 inhabitants per sq. mile); but there are extensive regions, such as the Roman Campagna and the plateau of the Murgie, that are almost uninhabited. As to the distribution of population, 71.8 per cent of the inhabitants live in towns and 28.2 per cent live a country life. It is only in Venice and in Tuscany that the numbers of the town and country dwellers almost balance each other, while in Emilia, the Marches, and Umbria the country population is almost double that of the towns, while the opposite is the case in Sicily and in Sardinia . It is to be regretted that an ever-increasing tendency towards agglomeration is manifested, which, together with the absence of the landowners from the small centres where their properties are located, is the source of great economical, educational , and moral evil .
Foreign residents in the kingdom, on 10 January, 1901, which is the date of the last census, numbered 61,606, of whom 37,762 were permanent residents, and of these there were 9079 Swiss, 7995 Austrians, 5748 Germans, and 5033 French, after whom came in order of numbers the English and the North Americans .
The highest averages of marriages are furnished by Abruzzi and Molise (9.1), Campania and Calabria (8.1), Apulia (8.2), and the Basilicata (9). The highest birthrates are those of Lombardy , Venice , Apulia, and Calabria. And here it maybe observed that depopulation through the vice of neo-Malthusianism begins to show itself also in Italy, especially in the large cities, considering that the average of 36, in 1872-75, is reduced now to 31.4, notwithstanding the fact that the average of marriages has remained approximately constant; and while there is an average excess of 10.6 per 1000 of births over deaths, it is due, not entirely to the increase in births, but to the notable decrease in mortality, the average of which has fallen from 30.5, in 1872-75, to 20.8 in 1907. Sociology cannot overlook the alarming increase in the number of the still-born which is found especially in the cities of more than 100,000 inhabitants. In 1907 there were 4.33 for every 100 births, including those born dead. The lowest averages of mortality are furnished by Piedmont and by Liguria (19.7); and the highest are those of Lombardy (23), Apulia (25), the Basilicata (27), and Sardinia (24). Tubercular and intestinal maladies and pneumonia furnish the highest figures to the death-rate, together with acute and chronic bronchitis and heart disease. In 1907 there were 1315 homicides (3.9 per 100,000 inhabitants) and 2312 suicides (6.9 per 100,000 inhabitants).
Emigration
Italy is subject to this very important sociological phenomenon, not only on account of over-population, as some believe, but, because capital does not promote industries, which is due to a moral as well as to an economic cause, the former being a lack of confidence between lender and borrower, and the latter, an exaggerated fiscalism and the want of a protective tariff; it is due also to a social cause, namely the subverting theories with which socialism inspires the working classes. These are the true mediate reasons for Italian emigration that produces a lack of labour, and, therefore, economical disorder, which itself is the immediate cause of Italian expatriation ; all the other causes, such as the example of relatives and of friends who emigrate , the cheapness of travel, the facility of receiving news and of returning home, and the propaganda of navigation companies are of little consequence, when they do not rest upon economic uneasiness — which has been the determining element of every migratory movement in the world — nor can any human power prevent its effects. The law of 31 January, 1901, regulates emigration , and it is to be hoped that its provisions will remain in force, because the State should not promote, encourage, or guide the currents of emigration . Figures are clearer than words in these matters.
YEARS
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49
The difference between temporary and permanent emigration is no longer taken into account in statistics, for the very good reason that it does not show positive facts, either because of the facility of translocation, or because the emigrant, having found work and comforts at the place to which he has emigrated , may establish there his home. In any case, temporary emigration occurs more frequently from the provinces of Venice , Lombardy , and Piedmont , and is directed more especially towards France , Switzerland , Austria , and the Balkans. Sixty-four per cent of the emigrants are farm labourers. The regions that furnished the largest numbers to the total emigration in 1906 were Piedmont , Venice , the Marches, the Abruzzi, Campania, the Basilicata, Calabria, and Sicily . With relation to transoceanic emigration the largest proportions per 100,000 were furnished by the Marches (2222), the Abruzzi (3593), Campania (2677), the Basilicata (3764), Calabria (3953), and Sicily (3390). From 1 July, 1906, to 30 June, 1907, there emigrated to the United States 285,731 Italians, nearly 43 per cent of the total of emigration . In 1907, during the economical crisis in the United States 154,500 Italians who had emigrated returned to their country, and there was a suspension in emigration — only a suspension, because in the first six months of 1909 there were 210,432 emigrants, of whom 187,086 went to the United States , an increase of 152,320 and 151,406, respectively, over the corresponding figures for the first six months of 1908. The undesirable element in Italian emigration is not furnished by the illiterate cafone, who has given — and continues to give — actual value to lands in the United States but rather, by ungodly educated emigrants who use their unfortunate fellow-countrymen, as well as the native of his class, for their own ends.
Is Italian emigration a good or an evil ? For the economy of Italy it is a good, seeing that the credit of Italians in foreign countries, on 31 December, 1908, in the savings postal accounts amounted to 290,979,711.94 lire ($12,000,000 nearly), and the deposits of emigrants for the period of 1 January, 1909, to 31 August, 1909, amounted to 21,702,664.20 lire. In other words, there are nearly 4,000,000 Italians scattered over the world, like the overflow of a prolific and sober race, in search of better living; and over the world is said advisedly, because the Italian emigrant, overcoming all obstacles, as poverty and ignorance , goes, exploited and little protected withal, into distant lands, among peoples whose customs are totally different from his own, and whose languages are unknown to him. This adaptability to climate and to social life is indicative of his cosmopolitan character.
Language and religion
Although the population of Italy is ethnically mixed, and although there is considerable variation in its physical types, it is nevertheless different from that of all the other countries of Europe in the astonishing unity of its culture, of its language, and of its religion. That which is foreign is soon absorbed; and the Italian nation has the further advantage that, although it has a population of nearly 36,000,000 inhabitants, only 2,000,000 of them are subject to foreign governments. The Roman conquests spread popular Latin, first, over Italy, and then over the known world; it was at first slowly altered by the linguistic habits of the various countries, and then, more rapidly, through the decay of the Roman Empire and through distance from Rome . Thus originated the Romanesque or neo-Latin languages, and the first of them, by its historical excellence, is the Italian , which is the pure and clear continuance of vulgar Latin, because the latter, in Italy, was unaccompanied by other tongues. Formerly it was the principal commercial language known by foreign peoples, especially by those of the Levant. At present it is spoken by nearly 36,000,000 people.
The dialects that properly belong to the Italian system are the Tuscan , which is the typical and the literary language of the Italians, the Venetian , Corsican , Sicilian and Neapolitan , the Umbro-Roman, and the Marchisan. To the Gallo-Italic system belong the dialects of Liguria and of Piedmont and the Lombard-Emilian. Those are the principal dialects, spoken in the various regions after which they are respectively named, having themselves subdivisions that are due to phonetic alterations. To the neo-Latin non-Italian dialects belong the Franco-Provençal, which is spoken in the high valleys of the Western Alps, and the Ladino or Reto-Roman dialect, which is spoken in the Canton of the Grisons, in Friuli, and in Molise. The German language is spoken in Piedmont and in Venetia by the descendants of colonies that were established in those provinces in the eleventh and in the twelfth centuries. The language of Albania is spoken by the descendants of colonists who went to Southern Italy and to Sicily , in 1461, with Skanderbeg after the fall of Albanian independence. The descendants of the Greeks who migrated to Calabria and to the territory of Otranto , between the ninth and the eleventh centuries, preserve their original language. In all, there are nearly 770,000 persons in Italy who speak languages other than Italian.
The predominant religion is the Catholic , to which belong 97.12 per cent of the population. The census of 1901 showed the presence of 65,595 Protestants and of 35,617 Jews , while 795,276 persons made no mention of their religion in their declarations.
Arts
In the first half of the Middle Ages , among the fine arts religious architecture reached a certain degree of perfection; the churches which it created reproduced the ancient Roman basilicas (Santa Maria Maggiore, San Clemente, and others, in Rome ), and its baptisteries , octagonal in form, imitated cellœ of the Roman baths; in this way the Christian-Roman or neo-Latin style was developed. At the same time the Greeks brought the Byzantine style to Italy (San Vitale in Ravenna , 537, and San Marco in Venice , 876). Towards the year 1000 there appeared in Italy the Romanesque style, which substituted the vaulted roof for the plain ceiling (the cathedral of Pisa ); while Arabic influence was felt in Sicily in the construction of the magnificent cathedral of Monreale and of its adjacent cloister . Towards the latter part of the Middle Ages , painting, through the impetus given to it by Giotto , produced true masterpieces. Among the painters who became famous at that time are Senesi, Buoninsegna , and Martini , the two Gaddi , Fra Angelico , and Masaccio , who was the true founder of the modern school of painting. Among the famous sculptors were the two Pisanos , Orcagna , Ghiberti , and — most famous of them all — Donatello (1386-1466), who may be called the Masaccio of sculpture . Finally, we should name Luca della Robbia , a popular sculptor who invented the terra-cotta process that is known by his name. The erroneously so-called Gothic style that was developed in France was brought into Italy, where, however, it was not fully adopted, except in the cases of the church of St. Francis at Assisi and of the cathedral of Milan ; the churches of Santa Maria Novella and of Santa Croce in Florence , the cathedrals of Siena and of Orvieto and others are based upon it, as are, among other civil edifices, the Ducal Palace in Venice , the Orcagna Loggia, in Florence , and the communal palaces of Udine and Siena .
The Renaissance in the first decades of the sixteenth century led to the further development of the fine arts , and great masterpieces were produced. Here it is enough to mention the three great names of Leonardo da Vinci (1425-1519), Michelangelo Buonarroti (1474-1564), and of Raphael Sanzio (1483-1520), which have made that age immortal. In architecture Roman forms were adopted, and the first examples of Renaissance architecture were the churches of Santa Maria dei Miracoli in Venice , San Lorenzo in Florence , etc.; and among civil buildings, the Pitti and the Strozzi palaces in Florence , the ducal palace of Urbino , etc. The best architects were Bramante , Giacomo Barozzi, called Vignola , Peruzzi , Palladio , the two Sangallos , Sansovino , and Buonarroti , who planned the cupola of St. Peter's . Sacred music reached its acme in the compositions of Palestrina (1529-1594). The straining after odd and exaggerated forms which were condemned in the literature of the seventeenth century also appears in the architecture and in the sculpture of that time. Bernini (1598-1680) and Borromini (1599-1677), men of great but bizarre genius, introduced the barocco style which was disfigured by their imitators. But painting remained free from the defects of that period, through the influence of Dolci , Sassoferrato , the two Carracci , Albani, Domenichino , and Guido Reni . The heavy and contorted manner of building which prevailed in the seventeenth century gave way to a lighter but peculiar style marked by ornamentation; it was brought to Italy from France . This style, which is called rococo , corresponds to what in literature is known as preciosity; but towards the middle of the eighteenth century classical forms were revived, especially in the works of the famous architects Vanvitelli and Juvara, while Canova restored its simplicity to sculpture , combining the study of nature with that of classic forms. Music also continued its ascendant progress under Pergolesi , Porpora, and Paisiello. In the nineteenth century architecture attempted the "liberty" style, which came from beyond the Alps; sculpture developed, as is shown by the names of Bertolini, Tenerani, Dupré , Monteverde , and others; but painting produced less noted names (Celentano, Fracassini, Morelli, Maccari, Michetti, etc.). Profane music, on the other hand, reached its greatest height in Bellini, Donizetti, Rossini , and Verdi .
Economical factors
Agriculture
Italy was once the classic land of agriculture; but, in our day, notwithstanding a reawakening that foretells better times, it is one of the countries in which agriculture is most backward. This is due to many causes, of which the chief are fiscalism and the landlord system (there were 3,351,498 landed proprietors in 1882, which number was reduced to 3,286,691 in 1901); absenteeism and the inertia of the large landowners, the ignorance of agriculture and the lack of capital and of agrarian credit are also to blame. And consequently the average yield of an acre of corn in Italy is less than one-half the yield in Germany and England , notwithstanding better conditions of soil and of climate. Exact data concerning these matters will not be had until the valuations that are made conformably to the law of March, 1886, are available. So far investigations have been limited to agricultural products, to the silk-worm industry and to the cultivation of tobacco. But, in order to remedy this evil , there was established, in 1907, an office for the express purpose of collecting agricultural statistics. The production of wheat is inferior to the demands of the population, and great quantities of that staple are imported, notwithstanding the high duty . On the other hand, there is an over-production of wine. The cultivation of vegetables is important, as is also that of kitchen herbs and of fruits, in which there is a great deal of exportation that could be profitably increased if refrigerator cars were used for transportation, as in America. In the production of silk-worms, Italy is the leading country of Europe , and the third, after Japan and China, in the world: in 1906, there were produced 538,380 new cocoons, and the native and the imported cocoons that were spun by the factories throughout the kingdom produced a total of 6666 tons. Among industrial plants hemp and flax hold an important place in Italian agriculture, there being a yearly product of nearly 80,000 tons of the former and of nearly 20,000 tons of the latter, furnished in greater part by Lombardy . Among the other industrial plants are the sumac and the manna in Sicily , saffron in Aquila , liquorice, hops, madder, straw for the manufacture of hats, etc. Cotton is imported from America, and of late years there has been a successful effort to cultivate beet-root for the manufacture of sugar, and also to cultivate tobacco, which, in 1905, yielded a product of more than 7000 tons from 12,500 acres. Horticulture also has made notable progress in recent times, especially in Tuscany and on the Ligurian Riviera, which has an exceptionally favourable climate for this industry. Unfortunately, notwithstanding so many favourable conditions, agriculture, which is a source of great profit in foggy England , in Italy is in a rudimentary state as yet. Between 1867 and 1906 there were reafforested, at the expense of the Government and with its assistance, 114,000 acres, costing in all $1,700,000, a very small showing in the presence of the serious problem of reafforestation.
Livestock
There is not much raising of live stock in Italy, not enough even to supply the home demand, in which that country is behind the nations of Central and of Northern Europe ; and it is not easy to understand why agriculturists do not profit by the advantages offered by the Government in this connexion. The animals that are chiefly raised are oxen, horses, asses, mules, goats, sheep, and hogs. On account of the natures of the different peoples, in northern Italy is found chiefly the raising of the larger animals, while on the peninsula the raising of smaller animals is prevalent. Poultry and eggs are a special source of wealth; still their supply is not equal to the demand. The fisheries, of river and of sea, are neglected by the Government; each year there is a retrogression in these pursuits that is stayed by the co-operative efforts of a few fishermen of the Adriatic shores of the Marches, assisted by their priests .
Minerals
In view of the lack of coal, Italy is not very rich in mineral products, although lignite, anthracite, and peat are not scarce. It is the first country in the production of sulphur, however, as we have seen, when speaking of Sicily ; formerly there was no competition in this commodity, but now California has closed the American markets to the Italian product, Italy abounds in salts (Salsomaggiore and Volterra ); it is rich also in iron ores of the best quality, found in the regions of Brescia , Bergamo , and Comasco, and more especially in the island of Elba . In Liguria, Piedmont , and Venice is found copper, but more abundantly in Tuscany , near Campiglia Marittima, where there is a great establishment for smelting the ores of Lanzi and of Mt. Temperino; these mines were known to the Etruscans and to the Romans, who left there the traces of their industrial spirit. The greatest yield of mercury is obtained from the mines of Grosseto , near Mt. Amiata, and from those of Siena . In 1906 the total production of minerals, in which 69,224 workmen were employed, amounted to a value of $20,000,000. Another source of wealth to Italy are the quarries that produce valuable materials for construction, as pozzolana (cement), volcanic tufa, calcite, sandstone, etc., and stone, such as decorative and statuary marbles, granite, slate, peperine etc., as well as other materials for use in the arts, such as pumice stone, lithographic stone, asbestos, and colouring clays, etc. Italy is rich in thermal and in mineral waters that compare favourably, from the therapeutic standpoint, with those of other countries, and they could be made the sources of considerable profit, if they were competently exploited. Among these thermal waters special mention should be made of those of Acqui (Alessandria) , Salsomaggiore (Parma), Telese (Benevento), and Bormio. Among the mineral waters, the following obtain highest favour: Montecatini (Tuscany), Recoaro (Venice), San Gemini and Nocera (Umbria), and Ischia and Casamicciola (Naples).
Of late years Italy has not been idle in regard to the redemption of lands: from 1884 to the present time nearly 4,000,000 acres have been redeemed, whether by the process of filling-in, by draining, or by the use of hydraulic machines. In 1905 the King of Italy, at the petition of the American agriculturist Lubin, initiated the establishment of an International Agricultural Institute which, totally independent of all political connexion, should study agricultural conditions in the different countries for the general good. All the Powers accepted the initiative and appointed each a representative in accordance with it, so that the institution is now an accomplished fact.
Industries
Industries and manufactures fell from the prosperous condition in which they were in the Middle Ages when Italy was the teacher of other countries. Political dissensions, internal strife, and lack of technical instruction, the want of capital, and an exaggerated protectionism produced a certain relaxation and want of care, in consequence of which national industry neither followed the progress of the times nor even produced the supply required by national demand; and it fell entirely upon the discovery of steam, which revolutionized the economy of peoples and of states. But in recent years Italy has reawakened and, notwithstanding obstacles in the way of development, increased by an exaggerated and ill-advised fiscalism, has made notable progress in its industrial life, especially through the intelligent efforts of its northern population, to the extent, in fact, of attaining the highest ranks in the silk industry, as well as in those of cotton, wool, leather, of the metals, and of alimentary products (cheese, salted meats, and pastes). Notable also are the soap industry, the chemical products and the paper industries, the manufacture of artistic furniture, of jewellery, of objects in straw, matches, glasses, beads, porcelains, majolica, mosaics , and, in general, all of the artistic industries, due to the natural good taste of the Italian people. Visitors to Italy take into the country from $60,000,000 to $80,000,000 each year. Available fuel and motor power are the measure of industrial activity, and in 1887, in which year regular investigations on these points began, the amount of fuel used in the industries aggregated a tonnage of 4,004,065, representing a value uf $18,000,000 while, in 1905, according to the most recent statistics, the tonnage was 6,912,183, with a value of $33,000,000. The importation of coal alone, deducting the amount of that commodity that was exported or entered into the manufacture of conglomerates, was nearly 6,000,000 tons. The total sum of the various motor forces available on 1 January, 1904, according to the statistics of the "Ispettorato generale dell' Industria e Commercio", published in 1906, was as follows: steam engines, 2,472,133 horse power; gas motors, 45,855 horse power; hydraulic forces, 490,000 horse power; motors of other kinds, exclusive of windmills, 446 horse power — total, 3,008,452. As regards textile industries, in which Italy is making an effort to regain the primacy that it enjoyed in the glorious Middle Ages , we give in round numbers the following approximate data:—
INDUSTRY
300,000
. . . . . . . . . . . .
The mechanical industries, in the working of iron, are also growing, as in the manufacture of arms, foundries, and naval construction. Coal has been used until now almost exclusively in the industries, and consequently Italy is yearly a tributary to foreign countries in the sum of nearly $50,000,000; but now it can substitute electrical power, derived from its numerous watercourses, an inexhaustible wealth that Raddi estimates to be equal to 10,000,000 horse power. This is the white coal, according to the happy expression of Bergès, which will be capable of supplying both the great and the small industries; and the Italian mind must have presaged this new force, in which the future prosperity of Italy lies, seeing that in this country, where, nearly a century ago, Volta discovered the electric pile, have appeared also the two greatest transformers of electrical energy, Pacinotti and Galileo Ferraris; while Marconi, utilizing the Hertzian waves, has opened up a new horizon.
The principal centres of the silk industry are Milan , Como , Genoa , Turin , and Florence ; those of the cotton industry are Milan , Bergamo , Como , Turin , Novara , Genoa , Salerno , Udine , and Pisa ; the principal centres for the wool industry are the Biellese , Vicenza (Schio), and Tuscany ; the principal centres for the manufacture of linen textures and for the hemp industry are in Lombardy , Emilia, Venice , and Campania; the metallurgical industries are centred at Follonica ( Grosseto ), Cecina, Piombino, Portoferraio, Terni , Iglesias , and Pertusola in Sardinia . Pozzuoli , Terni , and Brescia enjoy a high reputation for their metallurgical industries in general, and for the manufacture of arms in particular, while the products of important shops in Lombardy , Piedmont , Venice , Tuscany , Liguria, and Naples , in marine engines, railroad supplies, automobiles, and kindred productions enjoy high favour. Naples , Leghorn , Spezia, Genoa , and Sestri Ponente have considerable dock yards, while the largest arsenals are at Spezia, Venice , Naples , Castellammare di Stabia , and Taranto .
Italy occupies an important position with regard to the industrial trades, the development of which is being promoted through the establishment of the museums of Turin , of Rome and of Naples , and by the opening of industrial schools. Florence, Venice , and Rome are famous for their mosaic productions; Venice , the Romagna, the Milanese , and Tuscany , for their terra-cotta, majolica, and porcelain arts; Venice and Murano for their mirrors, for glass, and for glass beads; Naples , Genoa , Leghorn , and Trapani are famous for their coral works, and Turin , Naples , Venice , Rome , and Florence, for their bronzes, statues, pictures, tapestry, etc. Tuscany , and especially Florence, enjoys a good reputation for the manufacture of straw hats, as do the establishments of Piedmont , Lombardy , and Liguria for the manufacture of paper, and especially so Fabriano , in the Marches, for its hand-made paper, one of the oldest establishments of its kind in Europe . Milan is the principal centre of Europe for the printing of music and is the chief centre of Italy for the polygraphic industries. In alimentary products Liguria and Naples lead for pastry, and Bologna and Modena for their sausages; Liguria for salt fish; Lombardy for its cheeses; Tuscany and Liguria lead in the production of oil. The best-known wines, enjoying high esteem in foreign countries, are Barolo, Barbera, Grignolino, and Vermouth of Piedmont ; Sangiovese and Canino, of the Romagna; Chianti, Pomino, and Rufina, of Tuscany ; Orvieto and Aleatico, of Umbria; the wines of the Roman Castelli; Tauraso, Capri, and Falerno, from the southern provinces.
Commerce
More intimate relations with the principal powers, with which Italy has commercial treaties, and the increase of ways of communication by land and sea, especially the tunnelling of Fréjus, the St. Gotthard, and the Simplon, and the opening of the Suez Canal, have facilitated commercial relations and have increased the intercourse of Italy with other countries. This is sufficiently shown by the fact that, while the sum total of Italian commerce in 1861 was of a value of $3,200,000, it was of a value of $922,000,000 in 1907, exclusive of precious metals, of which amount $552,000,000 represent the imports, and $370,000,000 the exports. The most important commercial centres are Lombardy , Piedmont , Liguria, and Venice , which is due not only to the greater activity of the inhabitants of those regions and to their contact with the neighbouring foreign peoples, but also to the many good highways of those provinces, and to their navigable canals and railroad development. In the second rank are Emilia, Tuscany , the Marches, Umbria, and Lazio. The commerce of Southern Italy and of Sicily is yet at a low standard, although it is slowly awakening. The greater portion of foreign commerce is done by maritime transportation, the most active ports being those of Genoa , Leghorn , Naples , Palermo , Catania , Brindisi , and Venice . The economical conditions of Italy, on the whole, are not unfavourable, but the nation is far from enjoying the prosperous conditions to which other countries have attained in this regard. The weak points are in the backward unscientific conditions of agriculture and of the raising of cattle, wavering on the verge of excessive cultivation; while there is a considerable danger in the exaggerated protectionism that gradually is fixing its roots in the sentiment of the people and in that of nations.
The merchant marine is not at the height that it attained in the Middle Ages under the glorious maritime republics, and a complication of historical and of geographical causes, added to the inertia of Governments and to the lack of judicial protection, have obstructed its favourable progress. Nevertheless private enterprise has not been abated in the development of the merchant marine, although it be true that it has not attained the favourable results that have crowned like efforts in other countries. In the last four years, however, the Società di Navigazione Generale Italiana, the Veloce Company, the Italia Company, the Italian-Lloyd, the Sabaudo-Lloyd, and the Società Siculo-Americana have added thirty-five large, twin-screw, transatlantic steamships to the emigrant service, with a capacity of 240,000 tons burden, and accommodation for nearly 70,000 passengers, which was done at an expense of not less than $28,000,000. The Italian merchant marine occupies the seventh position among those of the large countries. The State, to assist the merchant marine, grants navigation prizes and compensation for the construction of ships and for repairs that are carried out in Italian yards, amounting in all to a yearly maximum of $1,600,000. This system, however, which has been in force since 1886, and involving a larger sum of money, has not produced the results desired, because the cost of construction in Italian yards is higher than those in other countries, and consequently the Government's compensation is without practical effect. According to a new bill, the direct protection of the State would assist the mercantile marine by a compensation of equipment for a duration of not less than ten months per ton burden and by compensation for velocity, for every half mile above a 14-knot speed, as well as per ton. For ships constructed in foreign yards, the bill provides that these compensations be one-half of those granted in the case of ships that are built at home. It grants a great many reimbursements of taxes and other compensations to the thirty-one shipyards of the kingdom, if they use the home metallurgical products. This bill continues the former policy of uniting the metallurgical, the shipyard, and the navigation interests. The sum total of merchandise that was shipped or unloaded in 1906 amounted to 23,287,916 tons, of which less than half (10,503,815 tons) was carried on Italian bottoms; this is worthy of consideration, in view of the fact that 75% of the value of Italian commerce with foreign powers is transported by sea. There are 302,296 persons bearing certificates of matriculation or whose names appear on the registers of seafaring people. On 31 Dec., 1907, 4981 sailing ships, with a tonnage of 503,260, and 548 steamships with a tonnage of 497,537, had received certificates of nationalization.
Coinage
The metrical system is in force in Italy for the measure of objects and of value; the lira is the unit of value; its nominal worth is 20 cents. Italy, France , Belgium , Greece , and Switzerland form the Latin Monetary Union, having a bimetallic basis, which is imperfect, however, because since 1879, suspicion has attached to the coinage of the pieces of five lire; the fractional coins were nationalized. From 1862 to 1907 the State coined, in all denominations, a sum total of $220,000,000 and a sum total of $154,000,000 were withdrawn from circulation, with a loss of 7.2 per cent on their nominal value. On 31 December, 1907, the treasury resources were: gold, 303,313,673 lire; silver, 71,862,419 lire; nickel, 2,537,285 lire; copper, 2,595,212 lire; total, 380,309,129 lire ($76,061,826).
The Bank of Italy, the Bank of Naples , and the Bank of Sicily are the only financial establishments that are authorized by law to issue bank-notes that are legal currency; this authorization is for a limited time and upon condition of financial compensation to the State; the bank-notes are for values of 50, 100, 500, and 1000 lire respectively (law of 9 October, 1900). The Treasury also issues state notes of 5, of 10, and of 25 lire, all legal currency, and to some extent, legal tender, because, although they are de jure convertible into metallic money, the treasury de facto does not redeem them. This kind of paper circulation is limited by law to 467,500,000 lire, and on 31 December, 1907, it actually amounted to 437,518,410 lire, being 26.8 per cent of the gold security. The amount of the bank-notes in circulation on the same date was 1,851,541,950 lire, being 72.4 per cent of the gold reserve. In sum, the paper circulation on 31 December, 1907, amounted to 2,289,060,360 lire, or 68 lire per head of the population.
Labour organization
The highest wages for workmen in the manufacturing industries and in commerce is of slightly more than a dollar a day, and the lowest is 30 cents, for men; and the salaries for women vary from 60 to 10 cents a day. According to the census of 1901, there were 2,471,672 wage-earning women , above the age of 9 years, as compared with 5,662,672 men; and according to the declaration made by employers conformably with the law of 19 June, 1902, concerning the work of women and of children, there were, in 14,510 establishments, 414,915 workmen and 414,975 working women . The laws of 17 May, 1898, and of 29 June, 1903, compel the employer, in some trades, to insure his workmen against accidents in work, and by the law of 8 July, 1883, the Cassa Nazionale was established for that purpose, without, however, prohibiting such insurance in private companies or in syndicates of mutual insurance. According to the statistics of the Ufficio del Lavoro, working men and women , insured and non-insured, who suffered through accident, in 1906, numbered 166,561, of whom 9963 were women ; there were 398 cases of death and 259 accidents in which many workmen suffered. It should be noted that the great increase in the number of accidents is not to be ascribed to a noteworthy increase of industrial activity, or to less prudence, but rather to the malice of the workmen, and it is extremely doubtful whether there does not exist a medical criminal school, established for the purpose of encouraging the men to simulate serious injuries. Recently a bill has been introduced into the Legislature to remove these evils, which cause high insurance premiums and are otherwise detrimental to industry and to insurance societies. The statistics compiled by the "Ispettorato generale del Credito e della Previdenza" in 1906 show that there were 63,369 accidents for which financial compensation to the amount of $120,900 was paid. In 1905 there were 540,850 workmen insured in the Cassa Nazionale di assicurazione; the number of injured among them amounted to 145.50 per 1000, and the indemnities paid to $830,000. In the third quarter of the year 1908 there were 48,621 accidents.
Regarding the organization of workmen , on 1 January, 1908, there were 4477 leagues, having a membership of 612,804 industrial workmen; on 1 January, 1909, there were 98 camere del lavoro, having 3834 sections with 501,220 members; 43 of these camere belonged to the Confederazione del Lavoro; there were 22 federazioni of trades, on 1 January, 1908, with 2550 sections and 191,599 members. There were 2814 leagues registered in the camere del lavoro, and 1324 in the federazioni of trades, while 339 were independent. In 1906 there were 1302 strikes, affecting 257,809 workmen; in 1907 there were 1963 strikes, affecting 276,535 workmen, and in 1908 there were 1543 strikes in which 218,289 workmen participated. The year 1907 developed the greatest number of strikes, much in excess of those of 1903, in which latter-named year there occurred the maximum of industrial strikes. The chief cause of strikes related to wages, to hours, to the monopoly of labour, and to discipline, and, as is natural, the first two produced the greatest number of strikes, and questions of discipline more than those related with the monopoly of labour. In 1906 20.5 per cent of the strikes were entirely successful, while 2.53 per cent were unsuccessful; in 1907, 25.5 per cent succeeded, as compared with 27.7 per cent that failed; in 1908, 21.1 per cent were successful, and 36.4 per cent failed. The remainder were partly successful. In the first quarter of 1909 there were 217 strikes, in which 34,118 workmen took part. There are in all Italy 69 organizations for the defence of the demands of workmen in the industries and in commerce.
The habit of making savings, which is one of the forms of natural provision, and also that of attending to the needs of parents have always obtained among Italians, especially in the labouring classes, whether agricultural or industrial, with greater force, in fact, than that of physical and intellectual development, and this is reflected in the remittances made by emigrants to their homes. Prior to the establishment of savings banks, these fruits of economy were merely hoarded up by individuals and exposed to the dangers of loss; when those banks were established, however, offering ample security through the supervision of the State, and also facilities in relation to time and place, the proportion of savings was vastly increased. In 1872, there were 120 savings banks in Italy, a number that has been increased now to 208, while the number of depositors, which was 676,237, has now grown to 2,048,364. The aggregate of deposits in 1872 amounted to nearly $100,000,000, and is now equal to $400,000,000. The people's banks, which take savings accounts, had, in 1898, deposits to the sum of $75,000,000, and now have deposits of a total of $147,000,000; and the post-office savings bank that was established in 1876 has now 5,000,000 depositors, with accounts to their favour of more than $300,000,000. The sum total of savings, therefore, may be estimated, in round numbers, at $800,000,000. Unhappily the savings banks are obliged to invest their deposits in state bonds and in first-class hypothecary loans, while the post-office bank invests deposits in loans to the Communes and to the provinces; the former, therefore, are not available in the manufacturing industries and in agriculture. Here it may be observed that while the figures given above are evidence of the habit of Italians of making savings, which is nothing but deferring consumption, those figures show also the want of the habit of placing savings in profitable investments, that other form of provision which consists in renouncing the possession of the sum saved, that is, of the power of consumption, to transform it into other powers, or for one's own security against want. Hence the slow and laboured progress of the professional unions and of the leagues, of the societies of mutual assistance and of insurance against sickness, loss of employment, or old age, the existence of which institutions depends upon the contributions of their members. Possibly this condition may be in a measure due to the malversation of funds by the directors of such corporations and to the failure of kindred establishments that are without solid foundations or competent direction, all of which causes have increased the want of economical confidence that is instinctive in the Italian character. The proof of this is furnished by the national bank that was established in 1898 for insurance against disability and against old age for workmen, conformably with the law of 31 May, 1907, No. 376; for in this establishment notwithstanding its total amount of funds of nearly $13,000,000, there were registered on 28 February, 1909, only 297,749 workmen, mainly by public corporations which, in their own interests, wished to provide for the old age of their employees.
Communications
Highways
The highways of Italy, exclusive of those bordering on private property, in 1904, measured in the aggregate 85,757,300 miles; while there was a total length of 35,400 miles of mule and foot roads.
Railroads
The first railroad in Italy, the Napoli-Portici, was opened on 4 October, 1839; in 1871 there were 3960 miles of railroad in operation, and on 30 June, 1907, there were 10,705 miles of railroads. The principal railroad lines are:
(3) that from Genoa to Naples , by Pisa , Rome , Salerno , and Reggio-Calabria .
The Italian railroads and those of France communicate by two lines, that from Genoa to Marseilles and that from Turin to Lyons , through the Fréjus , and they will soon connect, also, by the Cuneo -Nice line. They connect with the Swiss and with the German railroads by the Novara-Luino-Bellinzona line, by the Milan , Chiasso, Lugano, Bellinzona, and Airolo (the St. Gotthard road), by the Genoa , Alessandria , Novara , Domodossola (the Simplon Way); lastly, the Italian railroads connect with those of Austria by the Verona -Trent (the Brennero line), by the Venice-Udine (the Pontebba line) and by the Udine , Cormons, Görz , and Monfalcone line.
Tramways
The first tramway that was operated by mechanical traction was opened in 1875 between Turin and Moncalieri, and on 31 December, 1904, there were 2450 miles of tramway lines in operation, 475 miles being electrified; and the combined personnel employed on all these lines included 14,742 persons. With the tramways are connected waterways, aggregating a length of 1100 miles by river, and 680 miles by navigable canals. Interior navigation, however, has been neglected until now by Italy, to the detriment of commerce and of industry, and it is a matter for congratulation that the Bertolini bill, bearing upon this matter, became law on 2 Jan., 1910.
The postal service
On 30 June, 1908, the postal-telegraph offices and the places for collection numbered together 10,580, an average of 28 for each 100,000 inhabitants; there were, moreover, 143 such offices on wheels or afloat. This important public service is due in great measure to mutual conventions with other countries, on the basis established at Berne , 9 October, 1874, and developed in subsequent congresses (Berne, 1876; Paris, 1878 and 1880; Lisbon, 1885; Vienna, 1891; and Washington, 1897), leading to the establishment of the Universal Postal Union. In some foreign places where the Italian colonies are considerable, whether through the number of emigrants or by the importance of their commerce, post-offices have been established, as in the Republic of San Marino , in Albania , Tripolitania, and Crete, at Constantinople, Valona , Salonica , Jerusalem, and in the Italian colony of Eritrea and Somalia. On 30 June, 1908, there were in all 24,198 employees in the postal and telegraphic service, and in 1908-1909 the postal, telegraph, and telephone receipts continued to increase, notwithstanding the effects of the great economical crisis in the United States that caused a stagnation in business, in exchanges, and in emigration. The combined expenses in 1898-1899 amounted to $12,490,000, and in the last year of the following decade, that is, 1907-1908, they amounted to $24,610,000. The combined issue of stamps, postal orders, post-cards, cards for packages, registrations, and answers prepaid amounted in value to $17,296,000. During the above year there were 12,749,309 packages mailed, and 2,205,214 packages were received from foreign countries. These figures were due no doubt to the convention with the United States , providing for the direct exchange of packages of from 6 lb. to 11 lb., which came into force on 1 August, 1908. There were established 11 automobile services; and in order to expedite the distribution of letters and of telegrams in Rome , Milan , and Naples , there is about to be established the pneumatic postal service of the American engineer Batcheller, in a total length of 23.4 miles of tubes. By the law of 5 April, 1908, the postal service of the navigation lines between Italy and the islands of Sicily and of Sardinia was placed under the administration of the railroads of the State, while the postal and the commercial service of other lines is entrusted to private parties, with the assistance of a subsidy by the State to which, however, all profits above 5 per cent. must be paid. The contract period is limited to twenty years, the present contracts coming to an end on 30 June, 1910.
Telegraphs
Statistics for 30 June, 1908, show that there were 30,650 miles of telegraph lines, with 157,044 miles of wires; the submarine cables belonging to the State are of a combined length of approximately 1250 miles, There are 5312 telegraph offices belonging to the Government, while the number of those belonging to railroads and to other companies is 2582; in all, 7894.
Telephones
Telephone service was established in Italy in 1881, and, until 1907 it was furnished by private companies, except for international communication; but, by the law of 15 July, 1907, the State assumed control of city telephones, for which purpose was established the Direzione Generale dei Telefoni. There are 10 international lines, and 303 lines between cities. Moreover, there are four submarine telephone cables of a combined length of 22 miles. On 30 June, 1908, there were 2988 telephone employees and 50,278 subscribers to city telephones.
Wireless telegraphs
Italy has 14 fixed wireless telegraph stations that transmitted, in the period of 1907-1908, 1478 messages, containing 29,320 words, and received 4760 messages containing 77,186 words.
History
With the foundation of Rome (754 B.C.) the historical life of Italy begins. About 600 B.C. the Gauls appear settled on either side of the Po (Padus); to the west along the Mediterranean are the Ligurians, and eastward around the Adriatic the tribes of Venice and Istria. In central Italy the Etrurians, of mysterious origin, had reached a high degree of civilization, as their sepulchral architecture and art remain to prove. Their neighbours, the Italici, were divided into two great groups, the Latin tribes and those of Umbro-Sabine origin. To the south was "Greater Greece" (Magna Græcia), a number of Greek colonies, the most important of which was Tarentum . This is not the place to relate how gradually the small city of Rome extended its rule until all Italy, the Mediterranean lands, Gaul and Germany , Egypt and the hither Orient, i. e. the known world (orbis terrarum) acknowledged its authority (see ROME ). In those centuries of conquest and assimilation Rome was alternately a kingdom, a republic, and finally an empire. It was under the first Roman emperor, Augustus Cæsar , and through his world-wide edict, that Jesus Christ came to be born at Bethlehem in Judea , and in an incredibly short time the religion of the Crucified One had been established at Rome ( Romans 1:17 ; 15:23 ; Suetonius, "Vita Claudii", xxv; Tertullian , "De Præscr.", xxxvi; Tacit., "Ann.", lib. XV, xliv; see SAINT PETER ; SAINT PAUL ), had penetrated all parts of the peninsula and made converts in every class. Not to speak of the more or less reliable claims of many Italian cities to Apostolic origins for their churches (Cappelletti, "Le chiese d' Italia", Venice , 1844-71; J. Rivière, "La propag, du Christ. dans les trois premiers siècles", Paris, 1907), the historian Eusebius exhibits Christianity as vigorous and expansive in Italy previous to Constantine (see Fabricius , "Lux salutaris Evangelii"; Harnack, "Mission und Ausbreitung des Christenthums", 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1905; Duchesne, "Hist. Ancienne de l'Église", I, Paris , 1906, and Idem, "The Roman Church before Constantine", New York, 1909).
Political necessity eventually led to the abandonment of Rome as the administrative centre of the unwieldy empire and the foundation (327) of a new city (Constantinople, New Rome) on the site of ancient Greek Byzantium, in a situation so incomparable for defence and attack that for many centuries the new city was impregnable (Bury, "History of the Later Roman Empire", London, 1889). In the meantime had been fought (311) near Rome the battle of the Milvian Bridge which sealed the fate of paganism , though in the higher classes and amid the rural population it lingered to the end of the fourth century (De Broglie, "L'église et l'empire romain au IVme siècle", Paris, 1856-66; Duchesne, "Hist. ancienne de l'Église", II, Paris, 1907; Allies , "The Formation of Christendom", IV, VI, London, 1861-95; G. Boissier, "La fin du paganisme", 5th ed., Paris, 1907). Outside of Rome , the cities of Milan , Aquileia , and Ravenna acquired ecclesiastical rank and influence, largely for political reasons. The synodal life of the peninsula was vigorous ( Hefele , "History of the Councils") in the fourth and fifth centuries, particularly at Rome , and the relations with Constantinople were close and often friendly, a situation that was sadly affected by the momentous Acacian schism that divided Constantinople and Rome for thirty-five years (484-519) and inaugurated, though remotely, the final separation of Italy from the Eastern Empire.
The barbarian invasions reached their height at precisely this time. After a century of destructive assaults on various parts of the empire, including the capture of Rome (408) by Alaric, King of the Goths , the Roman imperial authority collapsed in Italy, where Odoacer, King of the Heruli, ruled the peninsula (476-93) until overthrown by Theodoric , King of the Ostrogoths (493-526). Despite the beneficent genius of this great king, and the efforts of his patriotic prime minister, Cassiodorus , the short-lived Ostrogothic State fell before the assaults of the Byzantine generals Belisarius and Narses (553), and Italy was again part of the Roman Empire, governed by an exarch at Ravenna , subject also to the cæsaropapism of its Byzantine rulers (see POPE VIGILIUS ; THE THREE CHAPTERS) and helpless as before in presence of new invasions (Hodgkin, "The 'Variæ' of Cassiodorus"; Pfeilschifter, "Theod. d. Grosse und d. Kirche", 1896; Bury, "Later Roman Empire"). In 568 the German Langobardi (Lombards) overran Northern Italy and by the middle of the eighth century had almost extinguished Byzantine authority in the peninsula (Hodgkin, "Italy and her Invaders", London, 1880; Kurth, "Origines de la civilisation moderne", Paris, 1905; Grisar, "Gesch. Roms u. der Päpste", I, Freiburg, 1901; Dahn, "Könige der Germanen", Munich, 1861-97). Rome itself was on the point of falling into their hands, when Pope Stephen II made his famous journey across the Alps and persuaded King Pepin (754) to intervene and save the Romans from a yoke that they equally feared and detested. He took from the Lombards the Pentapolis and Romagna, former Byzantine territory, twenty-four cities, and gave them to the Roman Church (see PEPIN THE SHORT ). Again in 774, at the call of Pope Adrian, Charlemagne entered Italy, suppressed the Lombard kingdom, united it with his own, and by new gifts added the greater part of the exarchate to the papal possessions.
The generosity of the faithful , the political results of the attempt to spread Iconoclasm in Italy, the hard need of self-defence, and culpable neglect on the part of the Byzantine court, had already done much to make the papacy a quasi-sovereign power. Thus arose in Italy the States of the Church (Stato Ecclesiastico, Patrimonium Petri, Temporal Power; Duchesne, "Les premiers temps de l'état pontifical", 2nd ed., Paris, 1904; Miles, "History of the States of the Church; Schnürer, "Entstehung des Kirchenstaats", 1894). At Christmas , 800, Charlemagne was crowned Western emperor by Leo III in the Basilica of St. Peter (J. de la Servière, "Charlemagne et l'Église", Paris, 1904), and for the next two centuries his descendants laid claim to, and occasionally enforced the title of King of Italy, constantly disputed by the Italian descendants of great Frankish nobles and by other ambitious and violent rivals, foremost among them the factious nobles of Rome , represented typically by the Counts of Tusculum, whose rule in the tenth century was the occasion of shameful ecclesiastical disorder (see PAPACY ). While in Northern and Central Italy during the ninth and tenth centuries, the bishops often represented, as missi dominici, the imperial power, the Lombard duchies to the south ( Spoleto , Friuli, Benevento ) were never able to overcome their chronic anarchy long enough to withstand a new peril, the invasion of the Saracens . In the ninth century the latter seized on Corsica and (848) advanced to the gates of Rome ; in the eleventh century they conquered Sardinia and Sicily , and meanwhile set foot firmly in some districts of Southern Italy, the greater part of which, however, continued always subject to Constantinople, and took on in this period strongly accentuated Greek characteristics (C. Lenormant, "La Grande Grèce", Paris, 1884).
With Otto I the German imperial authority reasserted (951) its right to the crown of Italy, and henceforth made use of the episcopal sees , especially in Northern and Central Italy, in order to sustain its claims (Cantù, "Storia degli Italiani", 4th ed., Turin, 1893-96; M. Hartmann, "Gesch. Italiens im Mittelalter", 1897-1903; Leo, "Gesch. der ital. Staaten", 1829-32). Secularly minded bishops were only too often imposed on the population of these cities, which soon resented the feudal rights and privileges of their spiritual rulers, while these, on the other hand, found support in the German emperor , whose ambitious aims at that period culminated in the world-empire that Otto III (died 1002) hoped to realize (Dresdner, "Kultur- u. Sittengesch. d. ital. Geistlichkeit im 10. u. 11. Jahrhundert", Berlin, 1890; A. Vogel, "Ratherius v. Verona u. das 10. Jahrhundert", 1854; Atto of Vercelli ," De pressuris ecclesiasticis", in P.L., CXXXIV). The second half of the eleventh century ushered in the long and disastrous conflict between the papacy and the empire, whose protagonists were Gregory VII (died 1085) and Henry IV (died 1106). Meanwhile a new political power, the Normans, had been growing up in Southern Italy at the expense of the Byzantines , the Saracens , and the remnants of the former Lombard duchies. During the first half of the eleventh century descendants of the ninth- and tenth-century Northmen had sought fortune in these lands and found it; by 1070 their new kingdom was held as a fief of the Apostolic See , a new order of things made possible by the length and intensity of the conflict between the papacy and the Western Empire and the wretched weakness of the Byzantines (Von Schack, "Normannen in Sicilien", 1889; Von Heinemann, "Normannen in Unteritalien u. Sicilien", I, 1894; Chalandon, "Domination normande en Italia et en Sicile", Paris, 1907; Dondorf, "Normannen u. ihre Bedeutung f. europ. Culturleben", 1875). Owing to them, and to the hearty support of the Lombard League of cities, the papacy was victorious in the first phase of its conflict with the empire (Peace of Venice , 1177).
Matilda, Countess of Tuscany (1064-1115), had meanwhile passed away, and left to the papacy her vast possessions in central Italy (Reggio, Lucca , Modena , Mantua , Ferrara , etc.), a new bone of contention with the empire that asserted its overlordship over rights of inheritance and administration (Tosti, "La Contessa Matilde", 3rd ed., Rome, 1886; Renée, "La grande Italienne", Paris, 1859; M. Huddy, "The Countess Mathilda", London, 1905). When Emperor Henry VI married in 1194 Constance, heiress of the great Norman house, the Kingdom of Sicily (with Southern Italy) passed into the hands of the Hohenstaufen, a combination most odious to the papacy, which rightly feared the near extinction of its independence. Out of this union of the imperial German crown and the royal crown of Sicily arose the second phase of the great medieval conflict between pope and emperor (see FREDERICK II ; POPE GREGORY IX ; POPE HONORIUS III ) that ended (1265) in the complete ruin of the Hohenstaufen and the establishment of a French dynasty, the House of Anjou, on the throne of Naples . Only a few years did Charles of Anjou retain Sicily , for the native population came to detest the French knights and in the famous "Sicilian Vespers" (1282) cast off the yoke of France and called in the Spanish line of Aragon (Broglio, "Storia del Vespro Siciliano", Milan, 1858; see "Scienza e Fede", 1882, 241-61).
Meantime, Italian genius had been culminating variously during this stirring thirteenth century. Education had been nobly fostered by the growth of universities like Bologna and Padua , created or protected by the papacy; law and order had been put on a solid basis by the growth and academic acceptance of the Roman Law (see LAW ; PANDECTS ); and by the new codification of the canon law ( PAPAL DECRETALS ; CORPUS JURIS CANONICI ); religion had been honoured and confirmed by the rise of the Mendicant orders (Franciscans, Dominicans ); the fine arts had thriven despite feudal and municipal conflict endlessly various and passionate ( Cimabue , Giotto , the Pisani); the civic spirit had developed with the growth of the communes in wealth, population, and self-consciousness, especially in Northern and Central Italy. Commerce and industry had taken on vast proportions (Venice, Florence , Milan , Genoa , Pisa ); a glorious vernacular literature had sprung up ( Dante ), and in general Italy had entered deeply into all the phases of human activity that she was soon to develop so rapidly and so richly. At the same time the papacy, which with Innocent III (died 1216) had entered the "trecento" as arbiter of rulers, peoples, and nations and the acknowledged conscience of Europe , touched its lowest depths of humiliation when the century ended.
French ambition and interests had gradually been supplanting the immemorial imperial influence, and with the death of Boniface VIII (1303) and the establishment of Avignon (1307) as the future seat of the papacy , a new political order set in for the peninsula. The Angevin kings dominated the south, while in the north the last traces of German overlordship (imperial vicars) disappeared after the ill-fated attempts of Henry VII (1308-13) and Louis the Bavarian (1314-47) to dominate in Italy after the manner of the Ottos and the Fredericks. The former power of empire and papacy was now eagerly divided up between their more or less authorized representatives, and soon the "age of the despots", the nubes tyrannorum, set in, bold and resourceful men who kept and increased on all sides the power they had once obtained. The Visconti and Sforza at Milan , the Baglioni at Perugia , the Malatesta at Ravenna , the Scaligers at Verona , and a hundred others are types of a masterful and unique race that dominated for personal ends the prevailing anarchy (J. A. Symonds, "The Age of The Despots", New York, 1888). The great Spanish captain and cardinal , Gil d' Albornoz , between 1350 and 1370 restored in great measure the papal authority in its hereditary possessions (Wurm, "Cardinal Albornoz", 1894), but it was not until after the close of the Western Schism (1417) that in Martin V the States of the Church again recognized in a practical way the domination of the pope (Von Reumont, "Gesch. d. Stadt Rom", Berlin, 1867).
Fifteenth-century Italy beheld the famous reform councils of Basle (1431), Ferrara-Florence (1438-39), the vain attempts at a parliamentary organization of the Roman Church, the equally vain efforts at reunion with the Greeks, the fall of Constantinople (1453), the rapid and influential development of a pagan-minded humanism (Symonds, "The Revival of Learning in Italy", New York, 1888; Burckhardt, "The Culture of the Renaissance") and of the fine arts , the moral disorders of some high-placed ecclesiastics , offset however by an extraordinary development of sanctity ( St. Bernardine of Sienna , St. John Capistran, St. Antonine of Florence, St. Frances of Rome , and others). For a while the well-known "five states" of Italy (Milan, Venice , Florence , Naples , Rome ) represented the political order, but from the end of the fifteenth and the first half of the sixteenth century Spain and the pope divided the mastery of the peninsula until early in the eighteenth century. After vain efforts to establish its suzerainty at Naples and Milan , France was obliged to abandon the rich prize, and after the first quarter of the sixteenth century no longer repeated its earlier attempts at the hegemony of the peninsula. The Protestant Reformation made little headway in Italy, owing to the vigorous measures of the civil and ecclesiastical order, the antipathetic genius of the people, the Inquisition (reorganized at Rome , 1542), the Society of Jesus (1540), the Council of Trent (1545-63), the lives of holy reformers like St. Charles Borromeo , the new orders and congregations, and the combined religious, ecclesiastical, and theological activities known as the Counter-Reformation (Cantù, "Gli eretici d' Italia", Florence , 1865-67; see PROTESTANTISM ; SOCINIANISM ; GIORDANO BRUNO ).
The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries offer a rather sad spectacle in the various politico-ecclesiastical conflicts of Catholic states with the Holy See , in large measure, however indirectly, a result of the Thirty Years War (1618-48), e.g. Naples apropos of the so-called Monarchia Sicula; the conflict of Venice in 1605-07 with Paul III , on which occasion its state-theologian, Fra Paolo Sarpi, contributed power fully to the Venetian opposition; the stubborn purpose of Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy , to control fully all larger ecclesiastical appointments in his state; the offensive attitude of Louis XIV apropos of his ambassador's impossible privileges (1685), and other similar troubles. To these may be added the political workings of Jansenism (see JANSENIUS AND JANSENISM ; also UNIGENITUS ) and Gallicanism, and the concern for the safety of Christendom against the encroachments of Islam . By the Treaty of Utrecht (1713-14) Austria succeeded Spain in Northern Italy (Mantua, Milan ) and later (1737) obtained the Grand Duchy of Tuscany . Savoy received Sardinia (1720) and by the middle of the century, Naples and Sicily , Parma and Piacenza acknowledged the rule of Spanish Bourbons. The ecclesiastical relations of the new powers with the Holy See , much troubled in the previous fifty years, were placed on a more satisfactory basis by a series of concordats, with Sicily in 1741, Sardinia in 1742, and Milan in 1745 (Vincenzo Nussi, "Concordata" etc., Rome, 1870). The Patriarchate of Aquileia, whose territory lay partly in Austria and partly in the Republic of Venice , was divided into two archiepiscopal sees , Görz for Austria and Udine for Venice . Italy was henceforth alternately the instrument of Spanish or Austrian policy, as was seen when in 1767 the Bourbons of Naples , Parma , and Piacenza expelled the Jesuits , and in 1786 when the ill-famed Synod of Pistoia promulgated in Italy the anti-ecclesiastical principles and measures of the Austrian Emperor Joseph II (see POPE PIUS VII ; SCIPIO RICCI). Religious life nevertheless flourished in Italy where the orders of the Redemptorists (1732) and the Passionists (1741) were established by their respective holy founders, St. Alphonsus Liguori and St. Paul of the Cross . Ecclesiastical learning was also vigorously cultivated, and few ages show more erudite scholars than Muratori, Mansi, Bianchi, Bianchini , the Ballerini brothers, Zaccharia, Nons, and others.
The French Revolution put an end to the ancient Republic of Venice (1797) which fell to Austria , while the latter lost Lombardy , where the short-lived Cisalpine Republic of northern Italy was soon followed by the equally ephemeral Ligurian (Genoa, 1798), the Roman (1798), and the Parthenopean (Naples, 1799) republics. The Congress of Vienna (1815) restored the ante-revolution situation, save in Venice , which remained subject to Austria , henceforth mistress of northern and central Italy, the rest of Italy being subject to three other powers, the Kingdom of Sardinia (Turin), the papacy , and the Spanish Bourbons of Naples and Sicily . The second quarter of the nineteenth century is noted for a deep unrest in Italy against Austrian rule (the Carbonari , also Mazzini, Gioberti, Balbo, and others) culminating in a general adhesion of all the dissatisfied to the House of Piedmont whose prime minister, Cavour, was henceforth the soul of the new Italian unity ( Kraus , "Cavour", Munich, 1901; Von Reumont , "Charakterbilder", 1886). The revolutionary agitations of 1848 led to the flight of Pius IX to Gaeta and the establishment of the second "Roman Republic" soon suppressed by the French under General Oudinot (July, 1849).
Prior to 1859, Italy was divided into the following states: the Kingdom of Sardinia , the Duchies of Modena , Parma , and Piacenza , the Grand Duchy of Tuscany , the Pontifical States , the Republic of San Marino , the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and the Principality of Monaco . The Italian territories subject to foreign powers were: Corsica , belonging to France ; the group of Malta , belonging to England ; the Canton Ticino, belonging to Switzerland ; Lombardy , Venice , Trent , Triest , and Istria , belonging to the Austrian Empire . In 1848 Piedmont went to war with Austria for Italian independence, but was defeated at Novara in 1849. Ten years later, however, Piedmont made an alliance with France , the second war of independence was declared, and Austria having been defeated at Solferino, 20 July, 1859, by the Franco-Sardinian allies, Lombardy was annexed to Piedmont . In 1860 the Duchies of Modena and Parma , the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Romagnas (12 March), the Marches and Umbria (5 November), Naples and Sicily (21 October), were incorporated with Piedmont , and on 17 March, 1861, the Parliament at Turin proclaimed the Kingdom of Italy. In 1866, by its alliance with Prussia , Italy obtained Venice ; finally, on 20 September, 1870, Rome , having been taken by force of arms, declared its union with the Kingdom of Italy through the plebiscite (2 October) of that year.
In the formation of the new kingdom, says Minghetti, the revolution was the impelling force, not abandoned, however, to the hands of conspirators unorganized and without authority, but directed by the government of Piedmont , especially by Baron Cavour, who used it in the interest of Piedmontese supremacy, while he appealed to the sentiments of independence and of Italianism very strong in the people of northern Italy. By these two forces, ably manipulated, Cavour secured the political unity of Italy under the sceptre of Savoy . The unification of Italy was essentially an act of the Piedmontese Government; otherwise Cavour himself and Massimo d'Azeglio would not have said that once Italy was created it remained to create Italians, nor would there be still, after fifty years of legal unity, that latent germ of regionalism which occasionally asserts itself more or less vigorously. If the truth of history be regarded, it will be recognized that the idea of Italian unity arose towards the end of the eighteenth century; with the exception perhaps of Machiavelli , who thought Duke Valentino (Cæsar Borgia) able to bring about the union of the Italians, not one of the great men of Italy like Dante , Petrarch , and others, and none of the popes , had the idea of Italian unity. Joachim Murat, by his Rimini proclamation (1815), first suggested this idea but was not understood and was left to perish alone. His idea , however, was taken up and was vigorously pressed by the enemies of Christianity who held that, if, under the pretext of the unification of Italy, his temporal power should be wrested from the pope , the Church of Christ would of necessity come to an end. In 1871 Rome was declared the capital of the Kingdom of Italy. In that same year Pius IX refused to accept the Law of Guarantees , and in 1878 issued the decree "Non Expedit" against Catholic participation in elections to the Italian Chambers. Pius X modified this measure (1905), and has permitted, under given circumstances, the participation of Catholics in the national elections.
Political and civil government
Political establishment
The Kingdom of Italy took the form of a constitutional monarchy, hereditary in the male line of the House of Savoy, according to the Salic law, and conformably to the Fundamental Statute that was promulgated by King Charles Albert on 4 March, 1848, for the Sardinian states. This statute which was extended to the various parts of Italy, as they were annexed by the Piedmontese realm, is similar to the French Constitution of 1830; according to it, sovereignty is divided between the king and the nation, the latter electing its representatives by popular suffrage. The legislative power is exercised by the king and Parliament, which consists of the Senate and of the Chamber of Deputies. With the exception of the right of initiative, which is common to all, these three governmental entities have each special functions: it is the province of the king to convoke both houses of Parliament, to close the sessions, to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies, to sanction and promulgate the laws. The Senate and the Chamber of Deputies have the functions of legislation and of watching over the finances, that is to say, the approval of the state budget, which is prepared by the executive branch of the Government; the houses of Parliament have also the function of investigation in both political and administrative matters; it is exercised through interrogation, interpellation, inquest, committees of vigilance, and by other means. Laws of taxation, however, and those concerning the budget must first be approved by the Chamber. On the other hand, the Senate has judicial functions, that is, by royal decree the house may be turned into a high court of justice , to pass upon cases of high treason and of attempts against the security of the State and to judge the ministers who may be accused by the Chamber of Deputies. The latter consists of 508 members who are elected upon the uninominal system by as many electoral constituencies, into which the nation is divided, there being an average population of 66,000 inhabitants for each constituency; the constituent districts may be changed every five years. The period between two general elections is called a legislatura, of which there have been 23, since 8 May, 1848, when the first legislatura was opened. The electoral franchise is exercised by all male citizens who, enjoying their civil and political rights , have attained the age of twenty-one years, know how to read and write (Electoral Law of 28 March, 1895), and have the minimum requirements of intellectual capacity and of income. All citizens who have attained the age of thirty years and who enjoy political and civil rights are eligible to office. In 1909 there were 2,930,473 registered voters, an average of 11.7 per cent of the total population of the kingdom. In the last general election there were 1,903,687 voters, or 65.3 per cent of the total electorate.
The Senate consists of members, partly hereditary (the princes of the blood), and partly appointed by the king for life, and without a definite limitation in their number, the age of forty years being a requisite for appointment. Since 1848, 1392 senators have been appointed, there being 370 of them at the present time, not counting the princes of the blood, who become senators at the age of twenty-one years and receive the voting power at the age of twenty-five. Senators and deputies enjoy personal immunity in penal matters, and therefore the Senate alone is competent to judge a senator; while to judge a deputy the magistrate must have the consent of the Chamber of Deputies. A senator or a deputy cannot be arrested, except in flagrante delicto. Their Service is without financial remuneration. The king, as the head of the executive power has the assistance of ministers who are responsible to Parliament; they constitute the cabinet, and are responsible collectively for the official acts of each. They are named and dismissed by the king, who, however, in the exercise of this function must hold in account the manifest tendencies of the Chamber; wherefore the government of Italy is strictly parliamentary. The minister who is the head of the cabinet, called also president of the council, represents the unity of action of the Government, in contraposition to the diversity of functions among the different ministers. The royal prerogatives are: power to declare war , to conclude treaties of peace and of alliance, providing they do not require the cession of territory or of funds, the right of pardon, and that of decree . In the relations of individuals to the State the constitution establishes the following general principles of justice : legal equality, individual liberty, inviolability of domicile, that of property and of public debt , liberty of the press, freedom of association and of meetings, and, finally, equity and proportion in taxation.
Church and state
The first article of the constitution of the kingdom declares the Catholic religion to be the only state religion. Nevertheless the Italian State and its jurisprudence are atheistical ; and in all solemn public functions, as in speeches from the throne, for several years past, any reference to the Divinity is studiously avoided, while the Government, whether conservative or liberal, has always been more or less covertly Voltairian and given to State-worship. The famous formula of Cavour, "A free church in a free state", which is a truth in the United States of America , in Italy is applied only to the domestic concerns of the Church; in all else the Church, in civil and in parliamentary matters, is subject to the State through a jus singulare, which places it in a worse condition than a private citizen in regard to property rights . The laws affecting the Church in Italy are mainly Articles 1 to 18 of the Fundamental Statute of the kingdom; the fundamental constitutional law of 13 May, 1871, on the prerogatives of the sovereign pontiff and on the relations of the State to the Church, called the Law of Guarantees ; the law on the suppression of regular and of secular ecclesiastical legal entities, and on the conservation of others (laws of 7 July, 1866, and 5 August, 1867). By the eighteenth article of the constitution, excepting Rome and the six suburbicarian episcopal sees , the revenues from ecclesiastical benefices that are vacant belong as of royal right to the Crown, which, after deducting expenses of administration and those incurred in the interest of the vacant benefice , ought to apply the funds to purposes of worship and of charity, such as subsidies to priests and parochial needs, public worship, and the repair of poor churches.
By the Law of Guarantees , the person of the sovereign pontiff is sacred and inviolable; offences committed against him are punished as those committed against the king; royal honours are granted to him; the precedence recognized in him by Catholic sovereigns is maintained, and he is given the right to have guards for his person and for the protection of his palaces. The latter, that is the Vatican, the Palace of the Lateran and the Villa of Castel Gandolfo, with all their appurtenances, enjoy the right of extraterritoriality, which makes them free from visitations and inspections by public authorities, without the authorization of the pope . The exercise of his spiritual ministry is freed from all intervention by extraneous authority, and to this end the pope is given the right to post his decrees on the doors of the churches of Rome , without censorship and with immunity for those persons whose office it is to make such publication. The law also ensures to the sovereign pontiff freedom of correspondence with the Catholic world, there being preserved to him, with this object, the head houses of the various religious orders in Rome , while he is given the faculty of establishing postal and telegraphic offices, with employees of his choosing, at his residence. The envoys of the pope and those accredited to him by foreign powers are guaranteed the prerogatives and immunities that are recognized in diplomatic agents, by international law. Finally, the law sets aside an annuity of $645,000, to be paid to the pope for the needs of the Holy See , for the maintenance of the Apostolic palaces, and for the salaries of servants attached to his person; this annuity is exempted from taxation for all time. During a vacancy of the pontifical throne no judicial or political authority may interfere with the personal liberty of cardinals , and the Government is obliged to protect the meetings of the conclave from any external violence. The cardinalate is among the titles that make the holder eligible to the Senate, and, in matters of ceremonial precedence and of military honours, cardinals are made equal with the princes of the blood. The law assigns a sum of $20,000 to be paid to the Holy See for the maintenance of the houses of the various religious orders, excepting that of the Jesuits .
The right of royal exequatur over the acts of the sovereign pontiff and that of royal placet over the acts of diocesan bishops , is exercised by the State only in regard to the use of ecclesiastical property and to the provision for the benefices , except in the city of Rome and in the suburbicarian sees ; this royal prerogative, however, is of a provisional nature, because it is to cease with the re-arrangement of ecclesiastical property that is promised by the Law of Guarantees . All religious character has been taken from matrimony and from oaths ; all intervention that the Church exercised in public charities and in education , according to historical tradition, has been suppressed and has been more and more replaced by lay authority ; the cemeteries have been placed under civil authority ; the courses of theology have been abolished in the universities, as has also the office of military chaplain , except in the case of penal establishments; there remains only the ancient custom of blessing the flags in the army and in the navy. The law that suppressed religious corporations, the regular ecclesiastical bodies having legal personality, and kindred secular ecclesiastical bodies, that is simple benefices , collegiate churches, chaplaincies, prelacies, pious legacies, and every other perpetual religious institution having religious cult for its object, was deprived of legal personality, which, contrary to Roman and canon law, is merely a concession of the State, while the property of these establishments was absorbed into the public treasury and civil patrons were given the right to receive in part the goods of the suppressed benefices . The same laws, however, maintained the episcopal sees , the seminaries , cathedral chapters (although reducing the number of canons), the confraternities, and the admnistratorships. A part of the property of these bodies, excepting parishes , confraternities, and administrations, equivalent to 30 per cent of their value, was taken into the public treasury for the benefit of the State, and the remainder of their real possessions was transformed into movable property, i.e., into state revenues, less 5 per cent for the expense of administration, exception being made of parishes , confraternities, artistic buildings and those destined to religious cult, and the building necessary to these bodies in performance of their functions, as episcopal palaces, seminaries , and others.
Simultaneously with the suppression of ecclesiastical bodies, there was established an autonomous administration, independent of government superintendence, called Fondo per il Culto, with the function of administrating the property of the suppressed bodies, despoiled of 30 per cent of its value and converted into public bonds, and of applying the income thereof to the purposes of religion and charity. The first duty of this administration was to provide for the charges upon the suppressed bodies in the cases of the existence of their personal incumbents, who have the right to require such provision through process of law; the duty also devolved upon this establishment of paying pensions to the members of suppressed religious orders; and when the pensions become extinct, three-fourths of the capital sum registered in favour of the Fondo per il Culto, representing the property of the suppressed corporations, will revert to the State. The administration in question is obliged to supplement the episcopal incomes that may not have reached the sum of $1200, as also to supplement the salaries of parish priests whose net income is less than $200. Under the pretext of distributing the remainder of its revenue in equitable proportions among the different ecclesiastical benefices , but in reality to bolster up the Fondo per il Culto, upon which were imposed expenses beyond its resources, all the ecclesiastical bodies that were retained are obliged to make yearly increasing contributions, called "quota of assistance". As to the confraternities , the law places them among the bodies who must assist in the support of the infirm; and as these institutions have always secondary, beneficent ends, the State obliges them to render account of their operations in this field, and authorizes the communes to require them to divert their resources to lay works, for local benefit, allowing the confraternity only a minimum annuity for expenses of religious worship. Wherefore, of all the property of the Church in Italy, the State has left only a small portion to the bodies that have been retained, and that under strong vigilance and censorship, as regards either the diminution or the increase of that remnant. Another portion was taken from proprietary bodies, to establish a fund for religious cult; and a small part was taken from the Church , to be returned to lay patrons who might ask for it, or to apply it to purposes of instruction and of beneficence. In short the greater part of the ecclesiastical property , under different showings and by subtle expedients, was confiscated.
Ecclesiastical circumscription
The territory of the kingdom is divided into 275 dioceses , including that of Rome , the Pontifical See , of which the bishop is the Vicar of Jesus Christ , successor of the Prince of the Apostles and Pontiff of the Universal Church; 6 dioceses are suburbicarian, namely, Ostia and Velletri , Porto and Santa Rufina , Albano , Frascati , Palestrina , and Sabina. The titular cardinalates , i.e. the suburbicarian sees , the titular churches, and the diaconal ones existing in Rome number 75. Of Italian sees , 75 are immediately subject to Rome , of which 13 are governed by archbishops , and the remaining 200 constitute 37 ecclesiastical provinces , consisting each of a metropolitan see, which is one of the archdioceses , and of a number of suffragan sees that are governed by bishops . Among the metropolitan sees, that of Venice is that of a patriarchate . There are 11 abbeys and prelacies nullius diœceseos . Each diocese is subdivided into parishes , of which there are 20,685 in all the kingdom; there are 60,446 churches, chapels , and public oratories , the service of which is maintained by 69,310 priests , regular and secular. The episcopal seminaries have 21,453 students. There are 30,564 religious; lastly, the Catholic educational establishments consist of 532 schools for boys, having 55,870 scholars, and 1302 for girls, with 102,491 scholars.
Codes
In Italy there are seven codes, namely, the civil , the commercial, the penal, the civil procedure, the penal procedure, the military, and the mercantile marine codes.
The confusion between Roman and canon law, Germanic and Italian written law, and local common law obstructed the straightforward and expeditious administration of justice ; and this gave rise to the first codifications, chief among which in Italy is the "Codice Vittorio", formulated in 1723, under Victor Amadeus III of Savoy ; but the most important and best prepared work of codification was without doubt the "Codice Napoleone", which was published on 21 March, 1804, and which served as a model for the civil legislation of almost every country in Europe or in America, including the states into which Italy was divided; the present civil code of the kingdom is directly derived from it, and for this reason, the history of French law is of great importance for the interpretation of Italian law. The authors of the Napoleonic Code were not carried away by the doctrines of the school of natural right, as were German legislators, but they sought in the countries de droit coutumier and in the jurisprudence of parliaments guides to make the Roman written law, the Germanic law, and the law of the land more harmonious with the requirements of the times.
Once Italy had constituted itself into a nation, there was felt the need of a common civil code which should unify the various codes of the former states of the peninsula; accordingly, on 25 June, 1865, there was published the Civil Code of the Kingdom of Italy, which went into force on 1 January, 1866. This code, which is based upon Roman law, is the only civil law of the land; and it needs some reformation to make it more consonant with new economical and social needs. The code consists of three books and, like the French code, follows the clear and traditional Gaian division: "Omne jus, quo utimur, aut ad personas, aut ad res, aut ad actiones pertinet." Furthermore, the code is preceded by twelve articles which, as leges legum, lay down rules for the publication, the interpretation, and the application of laws in general.
The very ancient rules of merchant guilds, which date back to the eleventh century and which did much to promote the greatness of the Italian communes, were the source of the commercial legislation, and little by little they were systematically put in order, so that between the years 1200 and 1800 the various statutes, when approved by the overlord, came to constitute the written mercantile law of the different states of Italy. By two ordinances of Louis XIV (1673, 1681) the commercial law was codified and from this the Napoleonic Code was partly taken (1808). The latter was carried by French arms into many European countries. The Italian Code, the Albert Code of 1842, and the code of 1865 also were modelled on the French Code. But, as the one of 1865 was no longer in harmony with the modern conditions of traffic, it was succeeded on 1 January, 1883, by the new Code of Commerce, which shows progress by the wealth of its contents, by its recognition of the freedom of the contracting parties, by the simplicity of its forms, by the conciseness of its language, and by its efficacious protection of credit, specially in regard to exchange. Rumania adopted this code, almost literally, in 1887. Contrary to the order obtaining in civil matters, the law regards commercial matters as resting, primarily, on the code and on commercial legislation; in the second place, on mercantile practices; and in the third place, on civil law. The code is divided into four books; the first relates to commerce in general, the second to maritime commerce and to navigation, the third to bankruptcy , and the fourth to commercial causes.
Before the unification of Italy, each one of the states into which the country was divided had penal laws of its own; when, however, the union had been accomplished, the Albert Code of 1859, which was in force in Piedmont , was made applicable to the other states, excepting Tuscany , where there remained in force the Code of 1853. Reasons, analogous to those suggested in relation with commercial matters, made apparent the need of a new penal code, and one was published on 30 June, 1889, which came into force on 1 January of the following year. This code deals first with transgressions and punishments in general, and then with transgressions in detail, and it adopts the rational, ontological division of violations of the law into felonies and misdemeanors. On the other hand, in the case of participation of several persons in a crime, by articles 63 and 64, the law accepts the sound doctrine of aiding and abetting, while the system of intensive cumulation of punishments of Bauer was adopted for cases of multiplicity of crimes and punishments. With regard to relapsed criminals the following principles were adopted:—
(a) relapse into crime aggravates its malice against the State;
(b) such malice may be incurred even though the criminal has not hitherto been brought to the bar for his crimes;
(c) the fact that a crime is habitual must be kept in sight;
(d) a crime can only be branded as habitual if committed within a certain fixed period of time dating from last conviction.
The system of punishment adopted, and known as the Irlandese, consisted in:—
(a) a period of solitary confinement;
(b) a period of hard labour with solitary confinement at night;
(c) a period of intermediate imprisonment;
(d) a period of ticket-of-leave.
Imprisonment for life has taken the place of the death sentence, and periods of imprisonment for various offences vary from three days to twenty-three years, with or without hard labour according to the nature of the offence. Another penalty enforced for periods of not less than a month and not more than three years is enforced residence within assigned limits but without imprisonment . The only financial punishment is in the nature of a fine of not less than $2 and not more than $2000. Finally, there is the loss of civil and political rights , and of public office, which may be temporary, for periods varying from three months to five years, or it may be perpetual. The punishments for misdemeanours are arrest for not less than one day or more than 2 years, and fine, of not less than $0.20 or more than $400, and finally suspension from the practice of a profession or of a trade, for a period of not less than three days or more than two years. Domiciliary arrest and judicial reprimand may be substituted for other punishments; admonition, surveillance, and forced residence in a certain place are additional punishments. A recent law sanctions conditional condemnation. Causes that may nullify the trials, besides the death of the accused, are amnesty, or withdrawal of the charge by the interested party, and prescription. A special reason for annulling a trial in cases of misdemeanour is voluntary surrender. Amnesty, pardon and rehabilitation are special causes of the nullification of a trial. In civil proceedings the usual course is to issue a summons citing the individual to appear for trial on a fixed day. Arrest in civil proceedings is the exception. Finally, as the present Code of Penal Procedure does not fulfil the modern requirements of a speedy trial and of fairness to the accused, several modifications have already been provided, especially in the preparation of the case for the purpose of avoiding the evils of long preliminary arrest, which violates the principles of habeas corpus, especially as the State pays no indemnity to those detained in prison while awaiting trial.
Judicial establishment
Justice emanates from the king and is administered in his name by judges whom he appoints. To secure judicial independence judges cannot be degraded, their salaries cannot be withheld, and their residences cannot be changed. In Italy the function of the judge is limited to recognizing the existence of a law and to applying it. As regards the acts of the executive power, these, to be valid before the courts, must be conformable to the laws. For the administration of justice the kingdom is divided into five principal districts with High Courts of Appeal, for civil cases, subdivided into twenty districts with Courts of Appeal, for both civil and criminal cases and consisting each of one or more Assize Circuits, which have only criminal jurisdiction, there are 162 districts of civil and criminal tribunals, and 1535 preture, or petty-sessions courts having civil and criminal jurisdiction. Every commune, according to its population, has one or more arbitration judges, dealing only with civil cases. These unsalaried officials may be called on to arbitrate money disputes, and they have the right to pass sentence in trials not involving sums of more than $20. The prætor, who sits alone in his court, is the representative of the law in the popular imagination , and the State attaches to his office many functions of a purely administrative nature; in civil matters his court is also one of appeal from the sentence of the arbitration magistrates, and is the court of first instance for civil cases involving sums of more than $20 and less than $300, and for cases of possession, whatever be the sums involved, excepting questions of taxation, in which only the tribunals have jurisdiction. The prætor has jurisdiction in all felonies and misdemeanours in which the accused may be sentenced to confinement or imprisonment for not more than three months, to restriction of residence for not more than one year, or to a fine of not more than $200. Each tribunal consists of three members and has civil and commercial jurisdiction, as a court of first instance, in all cases that are above the competency of the prætor, from whose judgments there is an appeal to the tribunal. In criminal matters, the Tribunal is the court of first instance, in cases not belonging to the jurisdiction of the prætors or of the Assize Courts, and it hears appeals from the sentences of the prætor. Jurisdiction in the second instance, in cases that are appealed from civil or criminal tribunals, belongs to the Courts of Appeal, which consist each of five members. The Assize Courts consist each of a president, who is a state judge, and of twelve citizens, called jurors, who are selected by lot from the district lists of those who are duly qualified by age and by intelligence, to fill the office. The Assize Courts have jurisdiction in criminal cases in which the punishment may be imprisonment or other restriction of personal liberty, for a period of not less than five years or more than ten years, and also in Cases concerning political rights , those relating to the offences by ministers of religion in the exercise of their functions, and to public violations of the liberty of the press.
The High Courts of Appeal are the supreme custodians of the law and of judicial functions, and therefore their jurisdiction is limited to matters of law, determining only the question of legal error on the part of inferior courts, confirming the sentence, if such error be not found, or, on the contrary, annulling the sentence and ordering the rehearing of the case by another judge. If the new judge does not observe the principles of law laid down by the High Court of Appeal, the defeated party may again appeal to a competent High Court of Appeal, which will thereupon decide on the merits of the case, such decision to be final. Contrary to the functions of the other High Courts of Appeal, which are established respectively at Turin , Florence , Naples , and Palermo, that of Rome is final in criminal, in revenue, and in ecclesiastical matters. According to statistics of 1904, published in 1908, civil proceedings were instituted in 1,900,856 cases, an average of 57 per cent of the population, the greater number of which originated in the southern provinces; the criminal statistics of the year show 804,683 indictments, 523,206 for felony and 281,477 for misdemeanours. The number of convictions, which in 1881 was 305,593, was increased by 24.29 per cent to 379,820 in 1904. Crimes of violence, resistance to authorities, commercial dishonesty, crimes against public and private morality, and criminality among juveniles have increased. All suggest remedies for this condition of things, ignoring, either through stupidity or malice, the fact that the only remedy consists in religious education.
Administrative departments
The ministries are the superior directing offices of the Italian administration at the capital; each one of them is under a minister assisted by a sub-secretary of state; they are eleven in number, and are known as Ministers of the Interior, of Foreign Affairs, of Finance, of the Treasury, of War, of the Navy, of Clemency, of Justice and of Religious Worship, of Public Works, of Agriculture, of Industry and Commerce, and of Public Education. There is a Council of State, the function of which is to advise the Government; it is a supreme assembly whose duty it is, besides that of administrative justice , to give the administration "opinions", which are called "obligatory" in those cases in which the law obliges the minister to seek such opinions; and in these cases, if the Council be not consulted, the administrative act is unconstitutional and legally void. Another supreme assembly, exercising control over the public administration, is the Court of Accounts; its chief functions are to examine all decrees, from the standpoint of their legality, and thereafter to affix to such decrees its approval, after which they become executive, to control and audit all income and expenditure, to represent the State in all litigation over public funds or other securities of the State or for which the State is liable, and over those salaried officials guilty of peculation or maladministration of public funds.
Political divisions
The kingdom is divided into 69 provinces, 284 departments, 1805 boroughs, and 8290 communes. The province and the commune are self-governing entities, having a legal personality, exercising their activity in their own interest and indirectly in the interest of the State; they are, moreover, territorial organs of the national administration. On the other hand, the district is a hierarchical division of the province, while the borough is a division of the large communes or an aggregation of small ones and is an electoral territory, and in some measure a judicial and fiscal one. Although the commune is a natural division, like the Italian province, it is a creation of the Italian law. In the province, which is regarded as the local arm of governmental administration, the State exercises its functions through a prefect, who represents the central executive power and is assisted by a prefectoral council and an office of his own. Under him are the sub-prefects at the capitals of districts, the executive and governmental offices, and the public charities. In the commune the State exercises its functions through a syndic, who, therefore, is a government officer. The province and the commune have deliberative bodies that are self-governing and are called respectively provincial council and communal council; they consist of a membership that varies in numbers according to population, there being from sixty members to twenty members in the provincial councils, and from eighty to fifteen in the communal council, all of whom are elected by the people. The executive branch of the province is the deputation, consisting of from ten to six members, according to population, while that of the commune is composed of the syndic and the communal board, which consists of from ten to two members called assessors. All of these bodies are drawn from their respective councils. The prefect, representing the State, exercises juridic control over all the acts of the provincial council, of the communal council, of the deputation, and of the boards; and if they be not according to law, he annuls them. By administrative control, a semi-elective assembly, called provincial board, over which the prefect presides, examines, for its approval, all of those acts of the above bodies that are beyond those of normal administration, as are the alienation or the hypothecation of capital, expenses that are binding upon the budget for more than five years, regulations, etc. Finally, for weighty reasons of public order or because of maladministration, the Government may dissolve the communal or the provincial councils and name, to replace them, a commissary for the commune, and a commission for the province, for the time required to reconstruct the councils.
Administration of justice
In Italy, conformably with the principle of unum jus, una jurisdictio, all differences between the citizen, the self-governing political divisions of the country, and the State are referred to the judicial power, whether it be a question of civil or of political rights ; but controversies concerning private interests or damage through a given act of the Government are referred to two administrative bodies which have jurisdiction in litigation of this nature; they are the administrative board, in each province, and the Council of State (sections 4 and 5). The former determines the right and wrong, in the first instance, of cases of illegality on the part of provincial or of communal administrators or of those of corporations, in acts that may be done by those officials to the detriment of private persons or of corporations in cases that are enumerated by the law. The Council of State judges in cases of appeal from the decisions of the provincial administrative boards (section 5); moreover it exercises jurisdiction alone in cases of incompetency, of abuse of power, or of violation of the law by a deliberating administrative body, except in regard to acts of government done in the exercise of political power (section 4). By this novel institution, which the executive power has borrowed from the judicial, the Staatsrecht has been established in Italy. In the not remote possibility of conflict between the judicial and the executive powers, the Court of Cassation of Rome , which is the supreme organ of the judicial branch of government, has the deciding power. Finally, for the protection of the property of the commune, under certain conditions, the actio popularis procuratoria may be exercised by any taxpayer, as actio suppletiva, to supplement the work of the communal authorities, or as actio correctiva, in pursuance of a right of the commune against its functionaries; but the actio popularis, or motion on behalf of the people, must be made before the usual magistrate, whether criminal or civil, excluding, however, the administrative magistrate.
Finance
The new Kingdom of Italy not only inherited the financial burdens of the former Italian states, but also bore those of the debt incurred on account of the wars and of the expense of maintaining the army on a war footing, so that the first budget (1862) was closed with a deficit of nearly $90,000,000, which in 1866, on account of the war for the acquisition of Venice , was increased to $144,000,000. From that time the financial policy of Italy has had no other purpose than to balance its budget, and consequently new taxes were imposed upon the people, e.g. by the taxation of the grinding of cereals and by an increase of one-tenth on all direct taxation, while the expense of the civil administration was reduced from $6,300,000 to a little more than $4,000,000, notwithstanding the annexation of Venice ; and the military expenses were reduced from $116,000,000 to little more than $37,000,000. As, notwithstanding these measures, the deficit continued, law of 11 August, 1870, increased existing taxations and created new taxes, till finally, in 1875, the budget closed with a surplus of nearly $3,000,000; nevertheless the former deficits still weighed upon the treasury: 50 per cent of the receipts was disbursed in the payment of interest on debt , and the compulsory acceptance of paper currency encumbered circulation and maintained money at a high price, impeding the development of national progress. Under these conditions the parliamentary revolution of 8 March, 1876, was accomplished, and the party of Cavour (the right) fell from power. The party of the opposition, having assumed the administration of public affairs, directed its financial policy towards the equalization of taxes by reducing some of them and by increasing others; in 1884 it abolished the odious tax on the grinding of cereals, which brought over $16,000,000 to the treasury. To this great loss of revenue was added an increase of 83.18 per cent to the expenses of administration and defence, besides the interest on the debt caused by the suppression of compulsory acceptance of paper currency; and, in the fiscal year of 1885-86 there reappeared the deficit, which in 1888-89 reached the sum of $50,000,000. The Government then bethought itself of putting a stop to the increase of burdens upon the budget and of eliminating all unnecessary expense; as, however, the finances remained unbalanced and the debt was increased by the war in the colony of Eritrea, further economies and new taxes were devised; so that, in the fiscal year 1895-96, when Italy celebrated the twenty-fifth anniversary of the taking of Rome , it was possible to foresee financial equilibrium; but, owing to the war with Abyssinia , that expectation was not realized until the fiscal year 1897-98. Then, however, the position of the treasury being more favourable and circulation having become more free, there were three objects towards which financial policy could tend: the immediate lightening of taxation, the improvement of the public service, and the preparation for the conversion of the debt ; and the economical awakening of the nation and the improvement of financial conditions made it possible to seek the attainment of these three ends almost simultaneously; thus, while the expense for the army and for the navy was increased, the law of 23 January, 1902, abolished the internal taxes on farinaceous products; by law of 22 April, 1905, the State assumed control of the railroads, and by law of 29 June, 1906, was effected the conversion of the Rente, the 5 per cent gross and the 4 per cent net, into 3.5 per cent net. In the period from 1862 to 1907-1908 the receipts amounted to $12,260,000,000, the expenses to $12,883,000,000, with a total deficit of $1,623,000,000. The Treasury receipts for the year 1907-1908 amounted to nearly $400,000,000, the expenditure for the same period being $340,000,000. The extraordinary cash expenses for the same year amounted to $41,000,000. The intangible expenses, which, in 1868, represented 50.28 per cent of the total of extraordinary expenses, amounted only to 39.85 per cent for 1907-1908. The greater portion of these disbursements is connected with the payment of interest on the debts and with the payment of civil and of military pensions. From the establishment of the kingdom to the last named fiscal year, the State has paid more than $5,000,000,000 in interest on debts . From 1868 to 1907-1908 this expense has been increased by $32,000,000, 39.8 per cent. This increase is due to the suppression of compulsory paper money in 1882, to the expense for the war in Abyssinia , to the redemption of the Adriatic railways, and to the provision of funds for the operation of the state railways. The expenses for pensions in the same period of time increased by 76.09 per cent; general expenses of civil administration, which in 1886 were $3,750,000, are now more than $8,000,000, haying increased 221.49 per cent, while those of the public service have increased about 219.55 per cent. The increase of $35,500,000 between 1868 and 1907-1908 in the ordinary military expenses is the result of an increase in the war budget of $17,200,000 and of $18,300,000 for the navy. The nominal capital of the public debt on 30 June, 1908, was $2,655,000,000. The law on the administration of the property of the State and on the general accounts, and the corresponding rules and regulations, establishes the methods for all accounting, whether in regard to economical or to property matters or in regard to the budget.
Defence of Italy
The Alps and the sea, the natural boundaries of Italy, constitute the best frontiers that a nation could desire, while they do not isolate the country from the neighbouring states. But the many political vicissitudes that Italy has undergone have left considerable portions of the Alpine region in foreign hands; consequently the northern barrier is partially nullified for defensive purposes; and with a view to strengthening the weakened points of the western frontier, many fortifications were built, as those of Zuccarello, St. Bernard, Tenda, Fenestrelle, Assietta, Cenisio, and others. The River Po constitutes the second line of defence, protected along its western portion by the fortresses of Genoa and of Alessandria ; at the centre, by those of Piacenza and Pizzighettone, and on the east, by the Quadrilateral and by Venice . The Northern Apennines constitute the third line of defence; it is not as strong as the former two, but is none the less important because it is oblique to the line of invasion; on the west it has the fortresses of Genoa and of Piacenza , and the fortifications of Bologna at the centre. Peninsular Italy has no lack of good positions for defence, but they are of little value if the army be not supported by a powerful fleet. It should be noted, as history shows, that the determining events of war in Italy always take place — or thus far have done so — on the Continental portion of the territory. The present parliamentary committee of inquiry or the army, in order to correct the serious defects in the defence of the frontier, has proposed the establishment of new defensive works costing approximately $28,000,000 for the land frontiers, and $10,000,000 for the coasts.
Army
The army is divided into the permanent army, the movable militia, and the territorial militia. All citizens capable of bearing arms are obliged to serve in the army or in the navy (law of 6 August, 1888); this compulsory service extends from 20 to 39 years of age, partly in the ranks and partly under unlimited leave; while service in the ranks should be three years, a new law has reduced the length of service to two years. After the eighth or ninth year of compulsory service, the citizen is transferred from the permanent army to the movable militia, where he remains registered until 31 December of the twelfth year of compulsory service, and during the last seven years of it he is in the territorial militia. The recruiting is done under the mixed system, that is, national, with movable posts, in time of peace, to strengthen the sentiment of union; and territorial in the case of mobilization; the first is based upon the district, and the second upon the regimental reserves. In 1907 and 1908, 225,000 men constituted the army on a peace footing; on this basis the average strength of a company of infantry is 80 men. About 29,300 men of all arms (except cavalry) on unlimited leave are recalled each year for instruction, that is, less than 22 men per company, as compared with 75 who are recalled in Germany , 100 in France , and 135 in Austria-Hungary . The contingent of men that must join the ranks is determined annually by Parliament and is thereafter divided among the provinces, the districts, and the commanderies; it constitutes the first draft; the men over and above that number are given unlimited leave and belong to the second draft. Whether a man will belong to the first or second draft will depend on the number of men in his year, on the number of recruits wanted, on the chance of his drawing a high number from the urn, and on the number of recruits dismissed as unfit for military service. The third draft consists of young men who have been declared capable of bearing arms, but who are exempt from service in the ranks for family reasons, determined by law (law of 15 December, 1907). Soldiers registered in the second class may be called to arms in time of peace once or oftener, but for a combined length of time of not more than six months (law of 24 December, 1908). The rapid or progressive increase in the losses of the yearly contingent, notwithstanding the growth of the population, is alarming. In the decade comprising the call of those born between 1864 and 1873, 18.44 per cent of those registered were excused from service; in the call for 1906 the proportion of those excused from service was 26.09 per cent, 14.48 per cent of these on account of weak chests and 19.24 per cent on account of diseased constitutions, making 33.72 per cent. Wherefore more than one-third of those excused from service owe their release to lack of nutrition or to the effects of vicious living, and in 1909, 39 out of every 100 conscripts have been found unfit to bear arms; in the southern provinces those unfit for service amount to three-fifths of the whole; Sicily furnishes an average of 1 out of 5 competent for the service, and Sardinia only 1. The insufficiently nourished come from the country, and those broken down by vice from the towns and large centres. There is a markedly increasing reluctance among the young men in answering the call to arms and in presenting themselves for military training. Between 1901 and 1905, 8.1 per cent were disaffected: in 1906, 8.8 per cent; and in 1906 alone the number of defaulters was 11,443. Nor does the number seem to have diminished in succeeding years.
The law of 20 June, 1897, divides the Italian army in time of peace into twelve army corps of two divisions each; the territory of a division is subdivided into eighty-eight districts, the recruiting for each division being under the charge of from two to seven of these districts in time of peace, while mobilization is under the charge of the regimental reserves. Each division contains two brigades of infantry, consisting of two regiments, one of cavalry and one of artillery, besides two skeleton regiments of infantry and one section of artillery of the movable militia. The Bersaglieri and the Alpine regiments are under the direct orders of the commanders of army corps. The territorial service of troops and of administration is under territorial direction, 13 for the artillery, 15 for the engineers, 12 for the sanitary corps, 12 for the commissary department, and 13 military tribunals. There are 96 regiments of infantry, two of them grenadiers, and 94 of the line, and consisting each of 3 battalions of 4 companies, each company in time of war consisting of 250 men; 12 regiments of bersaglieri, each of 3 battalions, with 1 cyclist company for each regiment; 7 Alpine regiments that are divided into 22 Battalions and 75 companies. The permanent army and the movable militia are armed with the Manlicher-Carcano rifle, model 91, calibre 6.5 mm., with a fixed magazine for 6 cartridges; the territorial militia is armed with a modification of the Wetterly rifle. The total force of the army in time of peace consists of 13,765 officers and 272,187 non-commissioned officers and men, and 52,548 horses and mules. In 1908 the army on a war-footing amounted to 3,401,038 men, that is, 272,187 men under arms; 488,487 men on leave; 372,560 in the movable militia, and 2,274,737 belonging to the territorial militia, besides 39,067 officers.
The infantry and cavalry officers are educated at the Military School of Modena , and those of the artillery and of the engineers at the Military Academy of Turin; there are, moreover, the military colleges of Naples and of Rome for primary military education , while the School of War, the School of Application for the artillery and the engineers, the Central School of Marksmanship for artillery, furnish instruction to officers; non-commissioned officers are taught at the Central Military School of Defence; and surgeons are trained at the School of Applied Military Hygiene.
The service of military intendance is exercised by twelve bodies, having the function of direction and vigilance, and by twenty-four commissary sections, stationed with each commander of an army corps or of a division. This body, in time of war , has the duty of assuring the subsistence of the army, of managing the funds, and of providing the uniforms and equipment; while the accountants have charge of the accounts and administration in these matters. The regiments provide themselves by means of the fixed allowance granted by the State per man and per day of service as follows; daily pay 10 centimes; food 61 centimes; uniform 12 centimes; extras 16 centimes, total, 99 centimes, or nearly 20 cents. This allowance goes to meet the cost of mess, uniform, etc., and is used by each regiment to best advantage.
The permanent Council of Administration of the regiment has charge of the regiment's administrative matters and is responsible to the ministry. This system, which has the merit of being a well-ordered decentralization of power does not satisfy present military requirements; whether through the interference of the central administration or because the assignment is no longer in harmony with economical conditions, the messes of the regiments are either in debt or must have recourse to makeshifts.
Navy
For the administration of the navy the coasts of the Kingdom of Italy are divided into three maritime departments: Spezia, Naples , and Venice . The department of Spezia comprises the coast from the French frontier to Terracina , the island of Sardinia and its dependencies, and the Tuscan Archipelago; the department of Naples comprises the coast from Terracina to Cape Santa Maria di Leuca and the island of Sicily and its dependencies; the department of Venice includes the littoral from Cape Santa Maria di Leuca to the Austrian frontier. The twenty-four maritime divisions, the six arsenals, the ports of construction, the depots of stores and of coal, the maritime fortifications and the sixty-four telegraphic posts along the coast are all under their respective maritime division. The recruiting for the navy is, in principle, identical with that for the army: all citizens registered in the twenty-four maritime divisions are liable to be called for naval service, those who have served their time are put on unlimited leave, and are at once transferred to the permanent army, so that, with the exception of the officers, there is scarcely any naval reserve. In 1908 there were in the naval service 23,143 men, afloat, 5249 on the coasts, and 2035 officers; total peace strength, 30,427 men. In 1909 the fleet consisted of 15 battleships, 10 armoured cruisers, 25 protected cruisers, 122 torpedo-boats, torpedo-gunboats, and torpedo-destroyers, and 7 submarines. There were, moreover, 2 battleships, 1 protected cruiser, and 10 torpedo-boats in course of construction.
In 1909-1910 the expenses on naval construction are anticipated to amount to nearly $9,000,000. Italy is the seventh of the naval powers and has an efficient tonnage of 150,980. The naval academy at Leghorn and the engineering school of Venice provide officers for the navy.
Education
In the Kingdom of Italy education is divided into primary or elementary, secondary and superior, and the scholastic administration, in general, is under the Ministry of Public Instruction, which is assisted by a partly elective Superior Council, consisting of thirty-two members; local educational administration, excluding universities, is under the prefect, a provincial scholastic council, the superintendent of studies, the board of vigilance for the technical and nautical institutes, and the district inspectors of the elementary schools . Elementary instruction is divided into two grades, the lower and the superior, each of which is divided into three classes, and the law compels the communes to furnish it; it is, as a rule, gratuitous, and parents and guardians are obliged to see that their charges receive it between the ages of six years and twelve years, unless they provide otherwise for their children's instruction (laws of 15 July, 1877, and 8 July, 1904). The State furnishes primary instruction, also, in schools established in foreign parts. No citizen is allowed to vote who has not passed the examination at the end of the primary course. The normal schools train the teachers of the elementary schools . It is evident, however, that compulsion in regard to this elementary education , both so far as the communes and the heads of families are concerned, is as yet only a laudable wish, seeing the very slow diminution in the numbers of those unable to read and write. Those who did not know how to read and write, according to the census of 1872 constituted an average of 68.7 per cent of the population; the same class, in the census of 1901, furnishes a corresponding average of 52.3. The illiterate among the army conscripts born in 1886 numbered 50,642, or 29.3 per cent of the enrolled, and the corresponding figures of the navy conscripts born in 1885 were 5833 or 48.7, In the marriages contracted in 1906 there was a proportion of 29.3 per cent of the men, and 42.1 per cent of the women illiterate. The causes of permanent illiteracy, notwithstanding expenditure and government effort, are poverty of workingmen's families , which are constrained to make their children earners before they have reached the age of twelve years; the moral debasement of the teachers who, with some exceptions, have become apostles of socialism and atheism , because of their miserable remuneration, which is inferior to the salary of a workman; the want of care on the part of the communes in regard to the hygiene of the schools , which makes the school a repellent rather than an attractive centre; the fact that the agricultural population is scattered through the country, which makes profitable attendance at school difficult for the children; many children leave school without having acquired instruction, knowing scarcely how to write their names. What are the remedies?
ARCHDIOCESES AND DIOCESES OF ITALY Part A
Suburbicarian Sees
?
?
According to the law of 13 November, 1859, secondary instruction is of two kinds, classical and technical. The classical course of the first grade is given in the gymnasia (colleges) and extends over a course of five years; that of the second grade is given in the lyceums, the course being three years. The technical instruction is also of two grades, the first, given in the technical schools, lasts three years, and the second, in the technical or in the nautical institutes, the course lasting four years. Ordinarily the burden of secondary instruction is divided among the State, the province, and the communes.
SECONDARY EDUCATION
?
?
There are thirteen government institutes for the study and assistance of the fine arts , and as many other establishments of the same kind that are not governmental, with two hundred and twenty-seven teachers. In the school year of 1905-1906 these schools had in all 3759 students, a decrease of 445 during the preceding five years. There are five conservatories of music belonging to the Government and forty-eight private institutions, with five thousand five hundred students and four hundred and forty-four teachers. Superior instruction includes four faculties: law, medicine and surgery, mathematics, physics and natural science, philosophy, and rhetoric. There belong to it also the schools of pharmacy and the independent veterinary schools of Milan , Naples , and Turin , the schools of applied engineering of Rome and of Bologna, the superior schools of commerce of Bari , Genoa , Venice , Milan , and Rome , those of agriculture of Milan , Portici, Perugia , and Florence, those for teachers at Rome and at Florence , and the naval school at Genoa . Superior instruction is given in seventeen state universities, which, in the Middle Ages , had been centres of knowledge and culture for all Europe : the Universities of Bologna (1200?), Padua (1222?), Naples (1224), Rome (1303), Cagliari , Catania , Genoa , Macerata , Messina , Modena , Palermo , Parma , Pavia , Pisa , Sassari , Siena , and Turin . There are four free universities, those of Perugia , Camerino , Urbino , and Ferrara . Higher education is also furnished by three law schools connected with the lyceums of Aquila , Bari , and Catanzaro , by the three polytechnic schools of Milan , Turin , and Naples , by the Finishing Institute of Social Science at Florence and by the Scientific and Literary Academy at Milan . In the scholastic year of 1893-1894, these universities and higher educational establishments were attended by 22,289 students, an average of 71.9 per 100,000 inhabitants; and in the scholastic year of 1905-1906 the number of students was 27,009, an average of 81 per 100,000 of the population. The professors are divided into ordinary (who are irremovable), extraordinary, special lecturers, and privat-dozents. The university is governed by a rector, appointed by the king on the recommendation of the body of ordinary professors, by an academic council, consisting of the rector and of the presidents of the different faculties, and by the general assembly of professors. There are other institutions connected with public instruction, as the libraries, some of which enjoy the prerogative of incorporation, while others are merely the property of the State, of the commune, or of the province. The public has not the same free use of all these libraries, there being a distinction between those that are independent and those that are annexed to other institutions, or to offices, as those of the ministries, of the Senate, of the Chamber of Deputies, etc.; the first are public in the full sense of the word, while the second are so only upon certain conditions. Only persons over the age of sixteen years may receive books for reading in the libraries. Books are permitted to be taken out of the library only in special cases. There are approximately 1830 libraries open to the public, 32 of them belonging to the Government.
Other educational institutions are: the national boarding schools for boys, and those for girls, under the direct supervision of the Ministry of Public Instruction; institutions belonging to the provinces or to the communes; endowed institutions; the seminaries ; and private boarding schools. Those of the Government are 43 in number for boys, and 8 for girls, and according to the last statistics the former had 4165, and the latter 593 pupils. The others together number 880, with 60,000 boarders. There are no precise statistics as to the teachers in boarding schools for boys; it is known, however, that in 1906, 360 of the directors, approximately, were laymen , while the remainder were of the regular or of the secular clergy . In 320 boarding schools, all the teachers were laymen ; in 215 all were ecclesiastics , and in the remainder of these schools the teachers were, some ecclesiastics , and some laymen . The number of persons who are connected with the administration and with the teaching of the boarding schools for girls is nearly 8686, of whom only 3587 are lay , the remainder belonging to the secular clergy or to religious congregations. New publications, including new editions of works already published, amounted to 9975 in the year 1900, at which time statistics on this subject were discontinued; this was exclusive of monthly publications, which, in 1898, amounted to 971. There were 151 new daily papers, and the total number of periodicals in 1905 was 3120, published in 363 cities, 815 of these publications dealing with politics, and 147 daily. Lombardy has the greatest proportion of periodicals (544), and the Basilicata the smallest (11).
Charities
Charity, which was unknown to paganism , is a Christian growth that found a fertile soil in Italy, the home of the head of the Christian Church ; and under his influence that country developed a wealth of beneficent institutions for the relief of every form of want; while the Council of Trent formulated laws to prevent the waste of the funds of the poor (Sess. VII, "De reform.", c. xv; Sess. XXV, "De reform.", c. viii). And the stream of charity flows on, notwithstanding the exclusion of the Church from all intervention in charitable works, for, between 1881 and 1905, there were founded 1626 new charitable institutions, with a combined capital of nearly 27,000,000, while the donations and legacies of that same period to already existing establishments amounted to 31,328, with an aggregate value of $56,000,000. There are 27,078 charities in Italy, with an aggregate capital of $400,000,000, an average of $12 per inhabitant; their combined income is nearly $34,000,000, and their charitable disbursements amount to $22,000,000. The English system of official charities (taxation on behalf of the poor) is unknown in Italy, where charity is left to the voluntary action of individuals, and as we shall see is made compulsory only in fixed cases. The law of 17 July, 1890, limits the action of the State to protecting and favouring the free exercise of public charities , to watching over the opere pie, which are the chief benefactors of the poor , and to reforming them by the union of several, by statutory revision, and by the changing of their purpose. In Italy the forms in which charity is generally practised are: aid to infants (foundling asylums, orphanages , asylums for education , hospices, etc.); aid to those who are in want and unable to work (retreat for mendicants , dormitories, etc.); eleemosynary aid (economical restaurants, patronages, home assistance. etc.); hospital aid ( hospitals , insane asylums, etc.), and monti di pietà. The law requires the existence of a charity association in each commune for the care of the interests of the poor; its members are taken from the communal council and consist of a president and of from 4 to 12 councillors, according to the population. The charitable association and the opere pie are required by law to give aid in urgent cases, to support the needy who are unable to work, where there is no local home for the poor , and to care provisionally for orphans and for deserted minors, for the blind, and for the deaf mutes who are poor.
Besides the work of institutions that are created for the purpose, the State, the province, and the commune are obliged to provide otherwise for certain public charities ; thus the commune is compelled to provide sanitary service, doctors, midwives, surgeons, and medicines for the poor , when they are not provided for by any institution. The province is bound to care for the insane poor, and the law divides between the province and the commune the expense of the support of foundlings. Lastly, the support of those who are not able to work falls upon the State, when the province and the commune are unable to provide for them. According to the last statistics, in 1899, the communes spent $9,000,000 in public charity; the provinces spent $4,600,000; and the State, in 1905-1906, spent $1,500,000. There were assisted by orphan asylums or placed out with nurses directly by the communes, in the five years from 1902 to 1906, 127,586 children, of whom 8456 were born in lawful wedlock. According to the last statistics of the monti di pietà, on 31 December, 1903, there were 527 of these establishments that loaned money on 4,790,539 pledges to the amount of $14,000,000, of which 1,405,206 were renewed for an amount of $4,899,205; there were 4,425,422 redemptions for an amount of $13,348,493 and 412,336 sales of a total amount of $769,345.
All institutions of public beneficence are under the watchful care of the Government with the assistance of a superior council for public aid and charity, which has an advisory function. In all that concerns economical ends, local vigilance is exercised by provincial commission; and the administration of any opera pia may be dissolved for grave reasons, but must be reconstructed.
Hygiene and health
Sanitation, which is an important juridical and social function of the modern State, has made no little progress in Italy, where it is regulated, in general, for all the kingdom by the law of 7 August, 1907, by other sanitary laws, and by corresponding rules and regulations, while it is regulated for local purposes by various provincial and communal regulations of importance. The sanitary laws provide for the safety of the public health by a series of imposts on the citizen, and by police restrictions regarding the practice of medicine, of surgery, of the veterinary art, of pharmacy, and of obstetrics, all of which professions are subject to supervision and have special obligations imposed upon them for the security of the sick and for the gratuitous attendance of the poor.
MEDICO-SURGICAL SERVICE
23,499
69
In order to prevent the spreading of infectious diseases, physicians are obliged to denounce cases of infectious disease, and citizens are obliged to submit to visitations, to disinfections, and to vaccination. Under this head comes a special supervision over aqueducts, the sewage system, and the right of the Minister of the Interior to prevent or to suppress evils regarded as causes of contagious disease. There are, moreover, burial laws, the chief end of which is to prohibit the burial of bodies elsewhere than in cemeteries, exception being made in favour of illustrious personages and of private burial grounds that are situated in the country and not open to the public. Landing in Italy is made under special supervision, for which purpose there is a medical officer in each port. There are many pure food regulations, the first of which is the right of inspection and that of provisional seizure of suspected articles by the sanitary authorities, the establishment of laboratories for chemical analysis, the prohibition of slaughtering unhealthy animals, or of any animals outside of the regular slaughter houses. Special attention is given to preventing the adulteration of wines and to the prevention of skin diseases.
OBSTETRICAL SERVICE
658
13,000 (?)
Hygiene is under the Minister of the Interior, and in charge of the prefects, the sub-prefects and the syndics, under him. He is assisted by a superior sanitary council, or advisory body, and by a General Directory of Sanitation; the prefect is assisted by a Provincial Sanitary Council; the former care for the sanitary conditions of the whole kingdom; the latter, for the communes of the whole province. In each province there is a physician and a provincial office whose function is to watch over the sanitary service, the hygienic conditions of the communes, the sanitary institutions and the execution of the sanitary laws; the physician investigates the causes of diseases and inspects pharmacies, hospitals , etc. There is a provincial veterinary whose business is to supervise disease among animals. In each commune, moreover, there is a sanitary officer, who, besides his supervisory duties , must inform the syndic and the provincial physician of all circumstances that may in any way affect health or hygiene.
Foreign possessions
Colonies
At about the time of the Mahdi's revolt in Upper Egypt , European nations were seized with the desire of acquiring lands in Africa; Italy also entered upon the course of colonial conquest, and consequently it has come into the possession of territories, and has created protectorates and zones of influence on the western coast of the Red Sea , on the Gulf of Aden, and on the Indian Ocean.
The direct possessions of Italy are the colonies of Eritrea and Italian Somalia (Benadir). The colony of Eritrea originated in the possession of the Bay of Assab, which was proclaimed by law of 5 July, 1882. The colony extends along the western coast of the Red Sea from Cape Kasar (18.2° N.) to Cape Doumeirah (12.30° N.) on the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. From Cape Kasar the boundary line has a generally south-western direction to the confluence of the Khor-Um-Hagar and the Setit Rivers. The southern or Abyssinian boundary is formed by a line drawn towards the west from the confluence of the Khor-Um-Hagar and the Setit Rivers, along the latter stream, to its confluence with the Maiteb, and follows the course of the latter to the Mareb at the confluence of the Mai-Ambessa; it follows the Mareb River as far as its junction with the Belesa, and then the latter river, after which it follows the course of the Munma, and turning to the south-east, at a distance of 37 miles from the coast it reaches the frontier of French Somalia, near which the boundary line leaves the extreme point of Doumeirah and follows the watershed line of the promontory of that name, for one mile, and turns to the place called Bisidiro on the Weima; from this point it turns east and south-east as far as Daddato (Italo-British Agreements of 15 April, 1891; 7 December, 1898; 1 June, 1899; 16 April, and 22 November, 1901; Italo-French Protocols of 24 January, 1900, and 10 July, 1901; Italo-British Ethiopian Convention of 15 May, 1902; Italo-Ethiopian Conventions of 10 July, 1900, and 16 May, 1908). The Archipelago of Dahlac and the minor islands along the Dancala coast belong to the Colony of Eritrea. The Colony of Somalia consists of that region of eastern Africa that lies between the Sultanate of Obbia, which is an Italian protectorate, the Giuba River, the Indian Ocean, Ethiopia , and English Somalia. The boundary between Somalia and the Ethiopian Empire is a line that, beginning at Dolo, reaches the confluence of the Daua and the Ganale Rivers, and, to the north of the fourth parallel, it takes an easterly course, as far as Uebi-Scebeli, which is located at the extreme north of the Baddi Addi country; from Uebi-Seebeli it follows a north-easterly direction towards British Somaliland.
The Colony of Eritrea, within its present boundaries, has an area of nearly 50,000 sq. miles, of which the Dahlac Archipelago occupies 580, and its population is 279,551 inhabitants, of whom 3949 are Italian. The area of the Colony of Somalia may be estimated at 146,000 sq. miles, with half a million of inhabitants who, along the coast, are Somalians, and in the interior, Galla. The plain of Danakil and the coast country about Massowah, in Eritrea, are worthless for agricultural purposes, but the higher portion of the territory and the lands which are intermediary between it and those of the coast and which are watered by the Barka and by the Anseba Rivers, may become fertile through a good system of irrigation. In the colony there is little industry and less commerce, as is shown by the statistics of the custom house of Massowah, which show imports for a value of 2 millions of dollars, and exports for $600,000, approximately. The United States send to the colony only petroleum, and cotton textiles, carried in English bottoms, for a value of about $40,000, and they export a small amount of hides. Commerce by caravan with Ethiopia increases continually; in 1906 it amounted to $1,200,000 for imports, and to nearly $2,000,000 for exports. The commerce of the country is in the hands of Greeks and of Banians, Indian merchants. Hair, musk, wax, medicinal plants, and especially pearls and mother-of-pearl, are exported. The imports of the Colony of Somalia for 1906 amounted to $720,000, and the exports to $546,000. The principal exports include animal products: hair, ivory, and amber. The arrivals at the port of Massowah numbered 146 steamships, and 1893 sailing vessels, with an aggregate tonnage of 164,148; the clearances were 147 steamers and 1874 sailing vessels, with an aggregate tonnage of 204,814. In Eritrea there are 10 post offices, for both the postal and telegraph services; there are 4 offices of the kind in Somalia. The number of postal orders issued in the Colony of Eritrea in 1904-1906 was 28,619, to the value of $3,650,000, and 14,507 were cashed, for an aggregate sum of $2,770,000. There were 2395 deposits in the postal savings banks, amounting in all to $100,000, and there were 1305 withdrawals to the amount of $70,000. The number of telegrams sent was 15,697, and of those received, 2610. The telegraph system of Eritrea consists of:
(a) Massowah-Assab and the Assab-Perim cables, which connect with the wires of the Eastern Telegraph Company;
(b) the land line of Massowah-Asmara-Cheren-Sabderat, which at Kassala connects with the Sudano-Egyptian wires;
(c) the Asmara-Addis-Abeba line.
The law of 14 July, 1907, authorized the expenses for the establishment of wireless telegraph stations at Asmara, in the Colony of Eritrea, and at Mogadiscio, Brava, Merka Giumbo, Bardera, and Lugh, in Somalia. The first railroad line, the Massowah-Saati, 16½ miles long, was opened in 1887; thereafter, the line was extended to Ghinda, and so attained a length of 43 miles. In 1907 the Ghinda-Asmara line, 31 miles long, was opened to traffic. The colonial budget is approximately $2,000,000, both for receipts and expenses; and the nation's African expenses since 1882 have amounted to nearly $92,000,000, exclusive of provisions and materials to the army and to the navy. The corps of colonial troops consists of 126 officers and 4451 men, 193 horses, 521 small mules, 147 mules, and 10 scouting camels. Each one of the colonies is governed by a civil governor, assisted by residents, who are placed under his orders. The chief centres of population in Eritrea are Massowah (population, 10,000), situated upon an islet that is connected with the mainland by an embankment, Keren (population, 2000), and Asmara, the capital. The chief places in Somalia are the ports of Brava, Merka, Mogadiscio, Marshek, and Obbia. The administration of justice is under colonial judges, and is based upon Moslem jurisprudence (Cheriat), the common native law (Testur), and the different religious regulations and habits.
Protectorates
Under the protectorate of the Kingdom of Italy are;
(a) the territory of the Sultan of the Migiurtins, which extends along the coasts of the Gulf of Aden and of the Indian Ocean from Bender-Ziade (49° E. of Greenwich) to Cape Bovven in the Bay of Dar-es-Saleh (Convention of 7 April, 1889, and 18 August, 1901);
(b) the territory of Nogal, the head of which is Sayed ben Abdallah, called the Mullah; this territory extends from Cape Bovven to Cape Garad (Agreement of Illig, 5 March, 1905);
(c) the territory of the Sultan of Obbia, which extends from Cape Garad to the northern boundary of the territory of Uarsceik, 2° 30' N. (Treaty of 8 February, 1889).
The limits of the zone of influence in Somalia were established by the Italo-British protocols of 24 March, 1891, and 5 May, 1894. They first established the western and the southern boundaries by a line which, from the sea, follows the wady of the Giuba River to the sixth degree of northern latitude, and from there to the thirty-fifth meridian E. of Greenwich, where it reaches the Blue Nile. The second protocol established the boundary by a line from Gildessa towards the eighth degree of N. latitude, along the north-eastern frontier of the territories of the Girri, Bertiri, and Rer Ali tribes; from that point, the line follows latitude 8° N. to its intersection with parallel 48° E. of Greenwich, whence it goes to the intersection of latitude 9° N. with the parallel of 49° E. of Greenwich, and thence on follows that meridian to the sea. Bender-Ziade, although situated to the west of the forty-ninth meridian, is included within the sphere of Italian influence.
By the agreement of 7 June, 1902, the Chinese Government recognized the concession of Tien-tsin, in China, a small territory that is situated on the right of the Pei-ho River, which constitutes the southern boundary for nearly a mile; on the east this territory is conterminous with the Russian concession, and on the west with the Austrian concession, while the lands of the Imperial Chinese Railroad Company form its northern boundary; its area is nearly 18 sq. miles and it contains a village and some salt mines; its native inhabitants number about 17,000. The concession is in charge of the consul, who is assisted by an administrator.
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Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon ( 2000 )
Wo hu cang long (original title)
PG-13 |
Two warriors in pursuit of a stolen sword and a notorious fugitive are led to an impetuous, physically skilled, adolescent nobleman's daughter, who is at a crossroads in her life.
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From $2.99 (SD) on Amazon Video
ON DISC
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Title: Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000)
7.9/10
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Won 4 Oscars. Another 95 wins & 127 nominations. See more awards »
Videos
A defense officer, Nameless, was summoned by the King of Qin regarding his success of terminating three warriors.
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In Shanghai, China in the 1940s, a wannabe gangster aspires to join the notorious "Axe Gang" while residents of a housing complex exhibit extraordinary powers in defending their turf.
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During World War II era, a young woman, Wang Jiazhi, gets swept up in a dangerous game of emotional intrigue with a powerful political figure, Mr. Yee.
Director: Ang Lee
During China's Tang dynasty the emperor has taken the princess of a neighboring province as wife. She has borne him two sons and raised his eldest. Now his control over his dominion is complete, including the royal family itself.
Director: Yimou Zhang
In 1937, a Chinese martial artist returns to Shanghai to find his teacher dead and his school harassed by the Japanese.
Director: Gordon Chan
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Storyline
In 19th century Qing Dynasty China, a warrior gives his sword, Green Destiny, to his lover to deliver to safe keeping, but it is stolen, and the chase is on to find it. The search leads to the House of Yu where the story takes on a whole different level. Written by Jwelch5742
A film by Ang Lee
Genres:
Rated PG-13 for martial arts violence and some sexuality | See all certifications »
Parents Guide:
12 January 2001 (USA) See more »
Also Known As:
Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon See more »
Filming Locations:
$663,205 (USA) (8 December 2000)
Gross:
Company Credits
Production Co:
Did You Know?
Trivia
According to old Taiwanese newspapers, in 1959 there was a Taiwanese-speaking movie called "Luo Xiao Hu and Yu Jiao Long," an earlier adaptation of Du Lu Wang 's novel. The old newspapers noted that this version was also a martial arts film. The leading actress, Hsiao Yan-Chiou, was originally traditional Taiwanese opera actress. After this movie released, Hsiao married, leaving "Luo Xiao Hu and Yu Jiao Long" as her last movie. This movie is thought to be no longer in existence now, and it seems to hold no connection with Ang Lee 's "Wo Hu Cang Long" except the adaptation source. See more »
Goofs
(at around 40 mins) When Jen and her mother are receiving wedding gifts from Sir Te with Shu Lien, the two older women are chatting with Jen standing plainly in the back of the room, facing the two women. In the next shot, Jen is seen turning to face the room from the balcony. See more »
Quotes
Performed by CoCo Lee featuring Cello Solo by Yo-Yo Ma
Coco Lee appears courtesy of Sony Music Entertainment (Holland) B.V.
– See all my reviews
I just saw this film today. I was totally captivated... when it was all over, and the credits began to run, it took me a couple of seconds to realize where I was. I didn't want to get out of my seat. And once I got out of the theatre, I couldn't even talk about it for an hour or so. I kept running the details over and over in my head. It's rare that a film has such an impact on me. The cinematography was stunning. The special effects were beautifully done. The characters' moves were effortless. The acting was wonderful. I really think that Michelle Yeoh should have been nominated for an Oscar for Best Actress. I thought that the effects and storyline complimented each other brilliantly. There were so many different layers to the plot. There were many things that couldn't be explained with dialogue that were expressed in the characters' faces. This film had lighthearted moments, heartwrenching moments, romantic interludes, inspirational sentiments, wonderful plot twists, superb acting, beautifully done fight scenes, never before seen special effects...it had it all. Some scenes may have been a little over the top, but it's *fantasy*... and yet, after a few brief moments, it somehow became completely believable. That's how much this film draws you in. This is a one of a kind film; there is just no comparing it to any other. It transports you to another place and time. I highly recommend it.
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| Ang Lee |
Of which African country is Malabo the capital? | Movie Review - - FILM FESTIVAL REVIEW; Action Fans, Be Prepared For Heart And Feminism - NYTimes.com
FILM FESTIVAL REVIEW; Action Fans, Be Prepared For Heart And Feminism
By ELVIS MITCHELL
Published: October 9, 2000
In Ang Lee's soulful action film, ''Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon,'' Chow Yun Fat strides onto the screen proud, erect and easy; he's Cary Grant with a ponytail. His witty reserve is used beautifully here, and the picture is more fun than it has a right to be.
Any collaboration featuring Mr. Lee, Mr. Chow, Michelle Yeoh, Yo-Yo Ma and the wizard martial arts choreographer Yuen Wo-Ping is bound to spike expectations through the roof as well as start more than a few hands scratching heads in confusion. What are these guys doing working together? They're applying their specialties to a Hong Kong action movie that rings with confidence, and is being shown tonight as the closing film of the New York Film Festival.
Mr. Lee takes the action form, which often attacks the screen with energy and movement, and creates a placid surface that offers a new perspective and a spirituality not normally found in these pictures. In terms of action nothing much takes place for the first 10 minutes. That's so he can set up the incredibly complicated plot, which has as much romance, intrigue, free-wheeling action -- and rousing silliness -- as any five Hong Kong throw-down fests. This is no small feat, given the dizzying amount of exposition in these movies. Outrageous plot pile-ons certainly take place in ''Tiger'' -- a practice as ritualistic as having a martial arts master and student square off against each other, also a part of the picture. Fans of the genre will giggle with delight over the canny way Mr. Lee handles the intersections, and audiences new to these films will shudder with excitement. Mr. Lee puts things together artfully and stages this movie like a comedy of manners; it could be ''Sense and Sensibility'' with a body count.
The script, by James Schamus, Wang Hui Ling and Tsai Kuo Long, incorporates the rusty machinery that's a part of almost every culture's folklore. Li Mu Bai (Mr. Chow), legendary martial artist, is tracking the murderer of his master. Poised, fit and self-assured, he can handle anything except his feelings for the lithe, pantherish Yu Shu Lien (Ms. Yeoh, who gives one of the most adult and deeply felt performances ever seen in such a movie). They talk about the intrigues with the intensity others append to matters of the heart. Jen (Zhang Ziyi), the tremulous and spoiled daughter of the governor of the province, is fascinated by Shu Lien's glamorous life: that a woman can have so many adventures and such freedom is marvelous to her. The refined Jen is to be married off into respectability. By night, though, she's a masked and cunning thief and fighter, out to steal the Green Destiny, an invincible blade once wielded by Li.
A mouthful of plot, and that doesn't even take into account the battles with the spurned female warrior Jade Fox. ''Tiger'' uses the familiar twists of the willful young heroine and combines them with the tradition of ''The Scarlet Pimpernel'' and ''Zorro,'' only this time the foppish young noble is a fiery young woman determined to taste a life denied her. And because she ends up being the ruination of others, with the added complication of the love that Li and Shu Lien dare not pursue, it's as if Mr. Lee and his team were out to fold parts of ''The Bostonians'' into this mix.
It's a heady and delirious brew, too. The action is dexterously produced, thanks to the martial choreography of Mr. Yuen, best known to American audiences for the high-flying fights of ''The Matrix.'' The action in ''The Matrix'' was put together with a process called Bullettime, and here it should be termed Ballettime, as the performers soar gracefully over rooftops and up the sides of buildings as softly as leaves dancing in the air on an autumn day. Mr. Lee has found a way to make even the action feel poetic and spiritual, while sparked by a high adrenaline content. The first fight scene, which brings all the principals together, will make you want to applaud. And each action sequence builds on what has come before, increasing the stakes with a dignified hilarity.
At times ''Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon'' is like a compendium of every line from a Hong Kong action film ever made, and the cliches include someone intoning, ''It only looks so pure because blood washes so easily from its blade'' about the Green Destiny.
Mr. Lee brightens the stockpiling by giving the picture a knockabout, screwball comedy bounce. With pairs of lovers expressing their affection through nose-to-nose physicality, it could be ''Hit Me, Kate!'' Because the women are treated as generously as the men -- and are more important to the narrative -- ''Tiger'' is just the film for an audience transfixed by the weekly girl-power cool and soap-opera bloodshed of ''Buffy, the Vampire Slayer.'' Ms. Zhang is just as commanding a presence as Sarah Michelle Gellar, and even now Internet sites devoted to her talents are probably being created: the typing heard 'round the world. The picture frees the genre from being part of a man's, man's, man's world.
The formality is just part of the texture, which Mr. Lee uses for purposes other than comedy: he also exploits the calm for its ominous purposes, to build suspense. (The ringing sound that emanates from the admiring strokes given the Green Destiny emphasizes the toll of the violence.) And Mr. Ma's gorgeous -- sometimes almost weeping -- cello solos speak to the tragic elements. ''Crouching Tiger, Hidden Tigers'' glides through the trees like its characters; it's an epic that breaks the laws of gravity.
CROUCHING TIGER, HIDDEN DRAGON
Directed by Ang Lee; written (in Mandarin, with English subtitles) by James Schamus, Wang Hui Ling and Tsai Kuo Jung, based on the novel by Wang Du Lu; director of photography, Peter Pau; edited by Tim Squyres; music by Tan Dun; action choreographer, Yuen Wo-Ping; production designer, Tim Yip; produced by Bill Kong, Hsu Li Kong and Mr. Lee; released by Sony Pictures Classics. Running time: 120 minutes. This film is not rated. Shown tonight at 9 P.M. at Avery Fisher Hall as the closing-night film of the 38th New York Film Festival.
WITH: Chang Chen (Lo), Chow Yun Fat (Li Mu Bai), Cheng Pei-Pei (Jade Fox), Lung Sihung (Sir Te), Michelle Yeoh (Yu Shu Lien) and Zhang Ziyi (Jen Yu).
| i don't know |
Who played detective 'Alex Cross' in the 2000 film 'Along Came A Spider'? | Along Came a Spider (2001) - IMDb
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17 January 2017 4:34 PM, UTC
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Along Came a Spider ( 2001 )
R |
When a congressman's daughter under Secret Service protection is kidnapped from a private school, detective Alex Cross investigates the case even though he's recovering from the loss of his partner.
Director:
From $2.99 (SD) on Amazon Video
ON DISC
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Title: Along Came a Spider (2001)
6.3/10
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1 win & 1 nomination. See more awards »
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Police hunting for a serial kidnapper are helped when a victim manages to escape for the first time.
Director: Gary Fleder
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 6.3/10 X
High powered lawyer Claire Kubik finds her world turned upside down when her husband, who has been living under a false name, is arrested by military police and placed on trial for the murder of villagers while he was in the Marines.
Director: Carl Franklin
A woman framed for her husband's murder suspects he is still alive; as she has already been tried for the crime, she can't be re-prosecuted if she finds and kills him.
Director: Bruce Beresford
CIA analyst Jack Ryan must stop the plans of a Neo Nazis faction that threatens to induce a catastrophic conflict between the United States and Russia's newly elected president by detonating a nuclear weapon at a football game in Baltimore.
Director: Phil Alden Robinson
An agoraphobic psychologist and a female detective must work together to take down a serial killer who copies serial killers from the past.
Director: Jon Amiel
A quadriplegic ex-homicide detective and his female partner try to track down a serial killer who is terrorizing New York City.
Director: Phillip Noyce
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Storyline
Detective/psychologist Alex Cross loses his partner in an out of control 'bust.' He stops working and cannot forgive himself. He is drawn back to work reluctantly when a senator's daughter is kidnapped and the kidnapper seems to want to deal with Alex personally. Written by Lindsay
The game is far from over. See more »
Genres:
Rated R for violence and language | See all certifications »
Parents Guide:
6 April 2001 (USA) See more »
Also Known As:
$16,712,407 (USA) (6 April 2001)
Gross:
Did You Know?
Trivia
Mika Booreem (Megan) and Anton Yelchin (Dimitri) would later go on to star together in "Hearts in Atlantis"(2001) as Carol & Bobby. See more »
Goofs
When Alex Cross breaks into Jezzie Flanagan's apartment, he is shown turning on her computer. But the monitor is already on and showing a blue screen before he reaches the desk where the computer is located. See more »
Quotes
Tracie : Tonight was your first night at the club, wasn't it?
Jim : No. I've been there a few times before.
Tracie : Really? Well, how come I haven't seen you?
Jim : I noticed you the first night I walked in. You always stand out.
See more »
Crazy Credits
The final two characters listed are Man Who Can't Answer Phone and Potentially Evil Guy On Train See more »
Connections
(Elmira, NY) – See all my reviews
Along Came a Spider is not a bad movie all in all. It is just a generic movie and a pretty decent generic movie at that. Lets face it, every plot is based on clichés. What counts is how these clichés are used. The screenwriter's challenge is this: Can he blow enough smoke and juggle his mirrors in such a way as to make the viewer believe he is seeing something new or, at least, enjoy the same old crap? Shakespeare did it. Dickens did it. Stephen King has made a career out of it. The problem with Along Came a Spider is that no-frills clichés are all you get, basic and unadorned. The movie's ad campaign should have featured bare white posters, a bar code and the word `Thriller' printed in the middle. Okay, I overstate. You do get Morgan Freeman and Michael Wincott. Mr. Freeman has never given a bad performance and doesn't start with this film. Mr. Wincott is also very, very good. He makes you feel a little sorry for his character despite his murderous escapades. You rather want to comfort him when the inevitable problems start cropping up.
To make sure you are getting your moneys worth, the writers have thrown in a `Guaranteed Surprise Ending". Now some movies sport twist endings that are knockouts. These endings not only come as genuine surprises and are completely satisfying; they force you to reconsider everything that went before in the film. Think of The Sixth Sense, The Usual Suspects or The Crying Game. First, in all these movies the ending was prepared for. No matter how unexpected ultimately the twists make sense in the terms of the logic of the movie. Second, you recognize these movies as superior long before you reach the conclusion. Had The Sixth Sense ended five minutes before it did you still would have remembered the performances, the genuinely scary moments and the fantastic plot. The twist came as icing on an already fine cake. Along Came A Spider has a surprise ending because, well, 'Thrillers' have `Surprise Endings'. That's all. You probably won't guess it, but even so you won't be all that surprised. You will realize that since because such and such happens, the movie can only end in two or three different ways. Like the rest of the movie the twist is mechanical and non-descript. It's satisfying enough but it operates more as a punctuation mark than anything else.
This sounds like a pretty negative review - and I guess it is. In fairness I should say I enjoyed myself watching it. A predictable experience is not necessarily a bad experience. Sometimes all you want is a no frills `Thriller'. You have a taste in your mouth for guns and psychopaths and you've already seen Hannibal, so what do you do? Sure, a movie that sautés it's clichés with a bit more sauce and spice would be preferable, but if your only other option is a Matlock rerun, Along Came A Spider looks pretty darn good!
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| Morgan Freeman |
Which 'Grease' track was covered by Hilda Baker and Arthur Mullard? | Along Came A Spider - Rolling Stone
Along Came A Spider
All Stories
Confession: I am an Alex Cross junkie. The character created by author James Patterson in the 1992 suspense novel Along Came a Spider is an African-American homicide detective, with a doctorate in psychology, who works and lives in the ghettos of Washington, D.C., where he chases the kinkiest collection of serial killers in modern crime fiction. Cross is the protagonist in several Patterson best sellers, including Kiss the Girls, Pop Goes the Weasel and Roses Are Red. Sometimes Patterson writes books, like the current 1st to Die, in which Cross does not appear. This drives me nuts. Don't do it again, do you hear me, Patterson? I know my Cross habit is indefensible — Patterson writes plots to plow through, not to savor. But Cross is the real deal, a character who matters.
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Then Hollywood nabbed him. It should have been good news in 1997 when Kiss the Girls — the second Patterson novel featuring Cross — hit the screen. Morgan Freeman, then sixty, was too old to play the thirty-eight-year-old Cross. But the man was and is cool; also a great actor, world-class, capable of getting past age barriers. But the movie, crudely directed by Gary Fleder ( Things to Do in Denver When You're Dead ), wasn't up to Freeman or Patterson. It dodged characterization in favor of suspense mechanics about a killer who held women captive in a private harem. Ashley Judd played one of the captives with spark. Yet Freeman wasn't asked to do much more than stand there and watch the plot go by. The movie never told us about his late wife, Maria, who had died in a drive-by shooting three years before. We never saw Cross at home with his two children — Damon, 6, and Janelle, 4 — and his smartass grandma, called Nana Mama in the books, who kept his house in order and his head on straight. No sign either of John Sampson, his six-foot-nine partner in crime and verbal sparring. As for sex, forget it. The white villain got to kiss the girls but this black detective didn't, even with a receptive Judd around as temptation. I shrugged off the film's failure, figuring the movie jerks would get it right next time.
Well, next time is here, and Hollywood has screwed up again, big-time. Along Came a Spider, being the first book in the series, seemed a snug fit to fill in the details the first movie missed. So I waited. But director Lee Tamahori (Mulholland Falls) is just as plot-obsessed as his predecessor. The villain, Gary Soneji (Michael Wincott is at his creepiest, which is saying something), using makeup to disguise himself as a teacher, kidnaps a child, the daughter of a senator (Michael Moriarty), from her private school. Cross (again played by Freeman) is called in to investigate, along with Jezzie Flanagan (Monica Potter), a Secret Service agent assigned to the detail of protecting the politician's kid from just such a calamity. There is an immediate attraction between Cross and Jezzie, a leggy, blond twenty-something. At least there was an attraction in the book. You'd never know it from the movie. For starters, Potter is a problem. If she wants a career, she is going to have to give back the DNA she stole from Julia Roberts. In every movie (Patch Adams, Head Over Heels), but in this one especially, Potter walks, talks and gesticulates like a Julia clone. I'm surprised that Cross, a savvy guy, didn't call her on it. In fact, Cross hardly looks Jezzie's way. The man is all business, never monkey business. In the book, Jezzie relates deeply to Cross. He takes her home to meet his kids and Nana Mama and plays her the blues on his porch piano. Hallmark pap? Nah. It's Cross' life as a family man that motivates him to be a cop, to nab the bad guys, especially those who prey on children. The film leaves all that out.
And the sex? Not a hint. Patterson offers a terrific parody of detective pulp when Cross and Jezzie get it on in the novel: "Jezzie's hands played with the buttons of my trousers, then the zipper. Our mouths came together, lightly at first, then hard." Later, they both reach orgasm in a bathtub, with Jezzie on top and Cross' head underwater with "more water on the floor than in the bathtub."
Um, so what's the excuse for dumping such a hot movie moment? Is Freeman, now sixty-three, too old to cut it? Would Denzel Washington, 46, have been better? Or Samuel L. Jackson, 52? Yeah, right. Remember the love scenes Jackson had in Shaft or Washington in Remember the Titans ? None. The age cop-out is just that — Sean Connery was pushing seventy when he romanced Catherine Zeta-Jones in Entrapment. The problem is the same-old same-old: Hollywood racism. Alex Cross has been neutered on film, deprived of his sexuality, his family, his friends and all traces of a social context except as a smart black cop in service to a white power elite. And why? Ask the studio heads, who think audiences want it so. Ask Patterson, who sold his character into Hollywood chains. Ask Freeman, who is credited as the film's executive producer. Ask yourself how Cross can be a fully dimensional character on the page and a bloodless cipher on the screen. Demand answers. Alex Cross would.
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What is the name given to a young Salmon that returns to fresh water after one Winter at sea? | Grilse | Define Grilse at Dictionary.com
grilse
noun, plural grilses (especially collectively) grilse.
1.
a young Atlantic salmon as it returns from the sea to fresh water for the first time.
Origin of grilse
1375-1425; late Middle English grills, grilles (plural) < ?
Dictionary.com Unabridged
Examples from the Web for grilse
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Historical Examples
Like the grilse, it returns to the river the summer of its spring migration, weighing about a pound and a half upon an average.
Gairloch In North-West Ross-Shire John H. Dixon, F.S.A. Scot
Here was the winch, after much service, accounting for a grilse in Norway!
The Haunters of the Silences Charles G. D. Roberts
The grilse rose sharply at the lure, but I “struck” too late.
The Haunters of the Silences Charles G. D. Roberts
My perseverance was rewarded, and I managed to secure three grilse.
Chats on Angling H. V. Hart-Davis
The grilse is wonderfully active and spirited, and will often give as much play as a salmon of three times his size.
| Atlantic salmon |
Which British boxer lost a world title fight to Roberto Duran in June 1972? | Frequently Asked Questions | Farmed And Dangerous
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What is CAAR’s position on ocean ranching?
What is Salmon Farming?
Salmon farming is the practice of rearing hatchery-origin salmon from smolt to adult size in a net-cage, pond or contained system. As currently practiced on a commercial scale, salmon farming in most regions involves the use of large floating open net-cage pens, usually located in sheltered bays along the coast. In BC, the open net-cages are generally sited in close proximity to wild salmon streams and rivers. Learn more salmon farming facts .
What is the difference between Atlantic and Pacific salmon?
Other than the obvious fact that wild Atlantic salmon are found in the Atlantic Ocean and wild Pacific salmon are generally found in the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic salmon are from the genus Salmo and Pacific salmon are from the genus Oncorhynchus. The major distinction is that, unlike the Salmo genus, most species of the Oncorhynchus genus die after spawning once. There are seven species within Oncorhynchus that populate BC waters: pink, coho, sockeye, spring/chinook, chum, cutthroat and steelhead. Learn more at thinksalmon.com .
How Can You Tell if the Salmon is Farmed or Wild?
In the marketplace: If it isn’t labeled, you can’t always be certain without asking the retailer or restaurant. It is always best to ask. However, there are some clues. If the label reads “Atlantic” salmon then it is farmed. In Canada, there are no legal commercial fisheries for Atlantic salmon and virtually all Atlantic salmon served in restaurants or sold in stores are farmed fish. If the label simply reads “fresh salmon”, there is a good chance it is farmed. Most wild salmon will be identified by species – pink, coho, sockeye, spring/chinook or chum salmon. But chinook (also called spring) salmon are farmed as well so the name is not a guarantee. Always ask. If it’s farmed, don’t buy it and tell the store to stop selling it until the industry adopts better practices.
On the water: Escaped farmed Atlantic salmon have been captured as far away from BC’s farms as Alaska, where they are considered an invasive species. Although Atlantic salmon look somewhat like coho, here are a few ways to tell the difference:
Atlantic salmon have large black spots on their gill covers and no spots on their tails. Pacific species of salmon do not have spots on their gill covers but many species have spots on their tails
The upper lip on Atlantic salmon doesn’t extend past the back of their eye
Atlantic salmon have 8-12 fin rays on their anal fin, while Pacific salmon usually have more than 12
If you do see escaped Atlantic salmon, keep the fish and report the capture by calling Fisheries and Oceans Canada’s (DFO) Atlantic Salmon Watch Program’s toll-free reporting line at 1-800-811-6010.
Is canned salmon farmed or wild?
Health Canada states that salmon used in canning is primarily wild, although some can be farmed. Fresh salmon can be either wild or farmed, however, a large amount of fresh salmon is farmed. There are no labeling requirements in Canada distinguishing between wild or farmed salmon. If the label on the can reads pink or sockeye salmon it’s probably wild. In the United States, retailers are required by law label fresh or frozen fish with the country of origin and whether it is wild caught or farmed. Canada needs to catch up and adopt similar labeling laws.
Does eating farmed salmon help protect wild salmon because there is less pressure placed on wild stocks?
Quotas for the wild salmon fishery are based on management decisions which are not influenced by the availability of farmed salmon but ideally are guided by the health and abundance of the wild salmon populations. In other words, fishermen will fish what they are allowed to fish – catches won’t be reduced because farmed salmon are being consumed. The industrial-scale production of farmed salmon can, however, flood the market with a cheaper product which pushes down the price fishermen can obtain for wild salmon, leading to a loss of income in coastal communities.
Salmon farmers often claim their industry is helping to “feed the world.” In truth, the salmon farming industry is producing a luxury product for the western world that accelerates the depletion of wild fish stocks and strains the food chain in poorer nations. On average, it takes two to five kilograms of wild fish (used in the feed) to produce one kilogram of farmed salmon. In Chile, the ratio is often much higher with as much as 8 kilos of wild fish used to produce 1 kilo of farmed salmon ( Terram Foundation Report ). Most of the wild feed for BC farmed salmon is taken from the southern hemisphere, diverting local protein to raise a luxury product for northern consumers.
Farmed salmon also pose a threat to wild stocks by transferring parasites and diseases through net-cages and contaminating wild salmon stocks. Farmed salmon often escape their nets and disrupt the spawning of wild salmon species in local rivers or compete for food.
Are the levels of hormones and antibiotics higher in farmed or wild salmon?
It depends on the source of the fish, but generally farmed salmon are more likely to have residual traces of antibiotics than wild salmon would be since antibiotics are frequently administered to the farmed fish via their feed. Canada requires a withdrawal period from antibiotics prior to harvesting but not all fish sold in Canada is raised here. The Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) has issued numerous import alerts for farmed salmon imported from Chile – the most recent being in March, 2008 for farmed salmon containing “Amphenicols”, a class of antibiotics. CIFA issued several alerts in 2007 for Chilean salmon containing the pesticide Emamectin and/or Ivermectin.
Learn More: Les Burridge, Judith Weis, Felipe Cabello, and Jaime Pizarro (March 2008). Chemical Use in Salmon Aquaculture: A Review of Current Practices and Possible Environmental Effects . Salmon Aquaculture Dialogue Technical Report, World Wildlife Federation.
I’ve heard farmed salmon is naturally a grey colour and that it is dyed pink or red – is this true?
Yes. Wild salmon get their pink to red flesh from the diet they consume including crustaceans such as shrimp or krill. Since farmed salmon eat a diet of pellets, the colorants canthaxanthin or astaxanthin are added to the feed to create that appealing ‘salmon’ color. Retailers in the United States are required by the Food and Drug Administration to label salmon containing colorants. There are no similar regulations in Canada.
What are sea lice?
Sea lice are small marine ‘ecto’ (surface) parasites that occur naturally on many different species of wild fish. Sea lice feed on fish by attaching to the outside, usually on the skin, fins and or gills. The two native species of sea lice in British Columbia, Lepeophtheirus salmonis and Caligus clemensi, share a similar lifecycle (planktonic larvae maturing into juvenile and adult parasitic stages), with the main difference being that L. salmonis requires a salmon host to complete its lifecycle while C. clemensi can survive to reproduce on salmon as well as other fish. Learn more about sea lice and the chemical treatments of sea lice .
If sea lice are a natural part of the ecosystem, why are they considered a problem?
Before fish farms arrived on our coast, nature had a system to protect juvenile wild fish from the lice that were common on adult salmon. When wild adult salmon spawn in rivers, they break the life cycle of the sea lice. Sea lice cannot tolerate freshwater and as the adults enter their natal rivers, the lice are shed and die. The following spring when the young wild salmon migrate from the freshwater to the ocean, there are virtually no sea lice in their path. But salmon farms changed that – acting as unnatural reservoirs for parasite populations to over-winter. The chances of juvenile wild salmon encountering sea lice on their way to the open ocean are now greatly increased by the lice infested salmon farms located along the out-migration routes.
Do salmon farms harm other wildlife such as birds and seals?
A number of wild creatures are naturally attracted to salmon and fish farmers use deterrents like perimeter nets meant to keep these predators away from their fish. Sometimes the predators get tangled or trapped in the nets and drown. Salmon farms are also allowed to shoot and kill “nuisance” predators such as seals and sea lions. There have been some reports that salmon farms have shot grizzly bears attracted to the farm waste and storage tubs containing “morts” – dead farm fish. At night salmon farmers use bright lights to increase the growth of their fish. Numerous marine organisms such as fish larvae, herring, oolichans and juvenile salmon are attracted to the night lights and become easy prey for both the penned farm fish and other natural predators including dogfish, cod, sharks, marine mammals and birds.
What do farmed salmon eat?
Farmed salmon eat pellets made up of a variety of ingredients but with a fishmeal content for starter feed of 30-70%, and grower feed of 20-50%. The majority of this protein is fishmeal and fish oil derived from wild pelagic (open ocean) fish such as anchovy, menhaden and capelin often sourced from the southern hemisphere.
I’ve heard some salmon farms are switching to soy-based feed. How does raising a high-protein product such as salmon on a vegetarian diet work?
Results to date show that it is possible to significantly reduce the amount of fishmeal and fish oil in carnivorous diets but not to a level where complete replacement is possible. Carnivorous species such as salmon are highly susceptible to dietary imbalances and the anti-nutritional factors present within plant meals. In addition, an increasing percentage of the soy and canola grown in North America are genetically modified. The long-term health and environmental consequences of genetically engineering food crops are still unknown.
Why do most BC salmon farms raise Atlantic salmon and not native Pacific species?
Good question. Farming Atlantic salmon in Norway began in the 1970s. By the mid 1980s Norwegian companies began expanding their operations to BC waters due to our physical geography, and the introduction of production limits and controls in Norwegian waters. The influx of Norwegian operators meant the importation of the Norwegian species of choice —Atlantic salmon (Volpe, 2006). In Super Un-Natural (2001), Dr. John Volpe notes three reasons why Atlantic salmon is now the primary species being farmed:
The Norwegian-dominated industry had decades of experience with Atlantic salmon (vs. Pacific species).
Norwegian companies had already invested heavily in developing markets for an Atlantic salmon product.
Atlantic salmon are, on average, less aggressive and grow faster and more efficiently than Pacifics. Pacific salmon are more aggressive and prone to diseases, which makes production costs higher. (p.9).
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada state that on Canada’s west coast, salmon farming (starting with chinook, coho and sockeye) was first established around the town of Sechelt on the Sunshine Coast. However, the BC industry had problems with water temperature and algae blooms and by the mid-’80s many companies left the Sunshine Coast and relocated to more remote sites on Vancouver Island. At about the same time, BC farmers began culturing Atlantic salmon to capitalize on the demand created by Norwegian and Scottish farmed salmon.
Learn More: Volpe, John (2001). Super Un-Natural: Atlantic Salmon in BC Waters . David Suzuki Foundation.
Volpe, John (2006). “Salmon Sovereignty” and the Dilemma of Intensive Atlantic Salmon Aquaculture Development in British Columbia (Chapter 5). In: Resetting the Kitchen Table: Food Security, Culture, Health and Resilience in Coastal Communities. Editors: C.C. Parrish, N.J.Turner and S.M.Solberg, Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Why doesn’t Canada label farmed salmon? What can I do to support labeling?
Successive Canadian federal governments have long been proponents of the salmon aquaculture industry, supporting its growth and the relatively minor economic benefits the industry brings to struggling coastal communities while ignoring the global weight of scientific evidence documenting concerns associated with the industry. As an active proponent of salmon farming, the government doesn’t want to make it easier for consumers to identify – and possibly reject – net-cage farmed salmon in the marketplace. In general, Canada has lower consumer information standards than the US and the EU. The US, for example, requires all fresh and frozen fish labels to identify country of origin, whether the fish is wild or farmed and whether it contains colouring agents. Write to the Canadian Food and Inspection Agency and demand labeling laws to protect and inform Canadian consumers.
What are PCBs, and why are higher levels found in some farmed salmon?
Polychlorinated Biphenyls, or PCBs, are persistent, cancer-causing chemicals that were widely used from the 1930s to the 1970s and are now banned from North America. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers or PBDEs, are chemical fire retardants used in several products and are found in the environment.
A study published in the American Journal of Environmental Science and Technology on August 11, 2004 found on average higher levels of PCBs in farmed salmon than in wild salmon. The authors of the study concluded that frequent consumption of farmed salmon is more likely to boost exposure to PBDEs than wild salmon. In a global assessment of farmed salmon in Science in 2004, 13 persistent organic pollutants we found.
The economic incentive to speed the growth of farmed species has led to the use of an increasingly high-energy diet, which means farmed salmon have a higher fat content than their wild counterparts. This makes them more vulnerable to contamination by fat-soluble pollutants (i.e. PCBs) that accumulate up the food chain. And, since feed ingredients are sourced from fisheries all over the world, “local” farmed salmon can contain contaminants from distant seas.
Read CBC’s 2002 story on Vancouver geneticist Michael Easton’s study that found even one meal a week of B.C. farmed salmon could pose health hazards.
Find out Health Canada’s position on PCBs and PBDEs .
What are the solutions to salmon farming problems?
Separate wild and farmed fish.
Remove open net-cage salmon farms from the BC coast and rapidly transition to land or ocean based closed containment systems.
No new open net-cage farm sites in British Columbia.
Until the transition to closed containment is complete, provide safe migration routes for juvenile wild salmon via the removal of farms along key routes.
No increase in production levels at current farm sites.
Fish meal and fish oils used in farm fish feed must be harvested from verified sustainable and well-managed sources.
Learn more about the solutions CAAR is working towards.
What is CAAR’s position on ocean ranching?
Ocean ranching is the artificial propagation and release of juvenile fish to support future fishing opportunities. The term ocean ranching implies priority access to returning hatchery/enhanced fish, possibly including the use of relatively selective capture methods in terminal areas near where the salmon were released.
Potential impacts of ocean ranching to aquatic ecosystems include:
competition with and predation of wild fish in the marine environment;
increased exploitation pressures on fish co-migrating with hatchery fish;
loss of genetic integrity and diversity of wild salmon (through interbreeding and harvest impacts); and
localized impacts from disease/parasites, exploiting mature adults for brood stock, and the physical impacts of the facility.
In Alaska, where ocean ranching is commonly practiced, small fish are generally held in sea pens for only very short periods of time (compared to fish grown to market size in commercial scale finfish aquaculture operations), which limits disease outbreaks and the spread of disease pathogens to wild fish.
| i don't know |
Who duetted with Celine Dion on the song 'Tell Him'? | Celine Dion and Barbra Streisand - Tell him - YouTube
Celine Dion and Barbra Streisand - Tell him
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Uploaded on Dec 4, 2008
lyric:
So afraid to show I care
Will he think me weak
If I tremble when I speak
Oooh - what if
There's another one he's thinking of
Maybe he's in love
I'd feel like a fool
Life can be so cruel
I don't know what to do
I've been there
With my heart out in my hand
But what you must understand
You can't let the chance
To love him pass you by
Tell him
Tell him that the sun and moon
Rise in his eyes
Tender words so soft and sweet
I'll hold him close to feel his heart beat
Love will be the gift you give yourself
Touch him (ooohh)
With the gentleness you feel inside(I feel it)
Your love can't be denied
The truth will set you free
You'll have what's meant to be
All in time you'll see
ooohh
I love him(then show him)
Of that much I can be sure(hold him close to you)
I don't think I could endure
If I let him walk away
When I have so much to say
Tell him
Tell him that the sun and moon
Rise in his eyes
| Barbra Streisand |
Who did Mohammed Alibeat in May 1975 to retain his Heavyweight crown? | BARBRA STREISAND LYRICS - Tell Him
BARBRA STREISAND LYRICS
So afraid to show I care
Will he think me weak
If I tremble when I speak
Oooh
There's another one he's thinking of
Maybe he's in love
I'd feel like a fool
Life can be so cruel
I don't know what to do
I've been there
With my heart out in my hand
But what you must understand
You can't let the chance
To love him pass you by
Tell him
Tell him that the sun and moon
Rise in his eyes
Tender words so soft and sweet
Hold him close to feel his heart beat
Love will be the gift you give yourself
Touch him (Oooh)
With the gentleness you feel inside (I feel it)
Your love can't be denied
The truth will set you free
You'll have what's meant to be
All in time you'll see
Oooh
I love him (Then show him)
Of that much I can be sure (Hold him close to you)
I don't think I could endure
If I let him walk away
When I have so much to say
Tell him
Tell him that the sun and moon
Rise in his eyes
| i don't know |
Which opera singer duetted with Celine Dion on the song 'Let's Talk About Love'? | Céline Dion | LetsSingIt Lyrics
One Heart [2003]
Biography
Céline Marie Claudette Dion, CC, OQ (French pronunciation: [selin djɔ̃] ( listen); born March 30, 1968) is a French Canadian singer. Born in Repentigny, Quebec, at the "Le Gardeur" hospital, to a large family from Charlemagne. Dion emerged as a teen star in the French-speaking world after her manager and future husband René Angélil mortgaged his home to finance her first record. In 1990, she released the anglophone album Unison, establishing herself as a viable pop artist in North America and other English-speaking areas of the world.
Dion had first gained international recognition in the 1980s by winning both the 1982 Yamaha World Popular Song Festival and the 1988 Eurovision Song Contest. Following a series of French albums in the early 1980s, she signed on to CBS Records Canada in 1986. During the 1990s, with the help of Angélil, she achieved worldwide fame after signing with Epic Records and releasing several English albums along with additional French albums, becoming one of the most successful artists in pop music history. However, in 1999 at the height of her success, Dion announced a hiatus from entertainment in order to start a family and spend time with her husband, who had been diagnosed with cancer. She returned to the top of pop music in 2002 and signed a three-year (later extended to almost five years) contract to perform nightly in a five-star theatrical show at the Colosseum at Caesars Palace, Las Vegas.
Dion's music has been influenced by genres ranging from rock and R&B to gospel and classical. While her releases have often received mixed critical reception, she is renowned for her technically skilled and powerful vocals. Dion is the best-selling Canadian artist of all time, is the second best-selling female artist in the United States of America during the Nielsen SoundScan era, and is the only female artist to have two singles that have sold more than a million copies in the United Kingdom. In addition, her 1995 album D'eux, is the best-selling French-language album of all time. In 2004, after surpassing 175 million in album sales worldwide, she was presented with the Chopard Diamond Award at the World Music Awards for becoming the best-selling female artist of all time. According to Sony Music Entertainment, Dion has sold over 200 million albums worldwide.
childhood
The youngest of fourteen children born to Adhémar Dion (1923-2003) and Thérèse Tanguay, both of French Canadian descent, Céline Dion was raised a Roman Catholic in a poverty-stricken, but, by her own account, happy home in Charlemagne, Quebec, Canada. Music had always been a part of the family (Dion was named after the song Céline, recorded by French singer Hugues Aufray two years before her birth), as she grew up singing with her siblings in her parents' small piano bar called Le Vieux Baril. From an early age Dion had dreamed of being a performer. In a 1994 interview with People magazine, she recalled, "I missed my family and my home, but I don't regret having lost my adolescence. I had one dream: I wanted to be a singer."
At age twelve, Dion collaborated with her mother and her brother Jacques to compose her first song, "Ce n'était qu'un rêve" ("It Was Only a Dream"). Her brother Michel Dondalinger Dion sent the recording to music manager René Angélil, whose name he discovered on the back of a Ginette Reno album. Angélil was moved to tears by Dion's voice, and decided to make her a star.
Dion first met her husband and manager, Rene Angelil in 1980, when she was 12 and he was 38, after she and her mother sent him a demo tape of a song they had written. They began a relationship in 1987, and became engaged in 1991. They married on December 17, 1994, at the Notre-Dame Basilica in Montreal, Quebec. On January 5, 2000, Dion and Angelil renewed their wedding vows in Las Vegas.
In 1981, he mortgaged his home to fund her first record, La voix du bon Dieu ("The Voice of the Good God"), which later became a local number-one hit and made Dion an instant star in Quebec. Her popularity spread to other parts of the world when she competed in the 1982 Yamaha World Popular Song Festival in Tokyo, Japan, and won the musician's award for "Top Performer" as well as the gold medal for "Best Song" with "Tellement j'ai d'amour pour toi" ("I Have So Much Love for You").
By 1983, in addition to becoming the first Canadian artist to receive a gold record in France for the single "D'amour ou d'amitié" ("Of Love or of Friendship"), Dion had also won several Félix Awards, including "Best Female performer" and "Discovery of the Year". Further success in Europe, Asia, and Australia came when Dion represented Switzerland in the 1988 Eurovision Song Contest with the song Ne partez pas sans moi (Don't Go Without Me) and won the contest by a close margin in Dublin, Ireland. However, American success was yet to come, partly because she was exclusively a Francophone artist. At eighteen, after seeing a Michael Jackson performance, Dion told Angélil that she wanted to be a star like Jackson. Though confident in her talent, Angélil realized that her image needed to be changed in order for her to be marketed worldwide. Dion receded from the spotlight for a number of months, during which she underwent dental surgery to improve her appearance, and was sent to the École Berlitz in 1989 to polish her English.
In 1989, during a concert on Incognito Tour, Dion injured her voice. She consulted the otorhinolaryngologist William Gould. He gave her an ultimatum: have surgery on her vocal chords, or not utilize them at all for three weeks. Dion chose the latter and underwent a vocal formation with William Riley, because, according to Gould and Riley, she "doesn't know sing, she makes a bad use of her vocal chords".
1990 - 1992
Two years after she had learned English, Dion made her debut into the Anglophone market with Unison (1990), the lead single having originally been recorded by Laura Branigan. She incorporated the help of many established musicians, including Vito Luprano and Canadian producer David Foster. The album was largely influenced by 1980s soft rock music that quickly found a niche within the adult contemporary radio format. Unison also hit the right notes with critics: Jim Faber of Entertainment Weekly wrote that Dion's vocals were "tastefully unadorned", and that she never attempted to "bring off styles that are beyond her". Stephen Erlewine of Allmusic declared it as, "a fine, sophisticated American debut." Singles from the album included "(If There Was) Any Other Way", "The Last to Know", "Unison", and "Where Does My Heart Beat Now", a mid-tempo soft-rock ballad which made prominent use of the electric guitar. The latter became her first single to reach the top 10 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100, peaking at number four. The album established Dion as a rising singer in the United States, and across Continental Europe and Asia.
In 1991, Dion was also a soloist in Voices That Care, a tribute to American troops fighting in Operation Desert Storm. Dion's real international breakthrough came when she duetted with Peabo Bryson on the title track to Disney's animated film Beauty and the Beast (1991). The song captured a musical style that Dion would utilize in the future: sweeping, classically influenced ballads with soft instrumentation. Both a critical and commercial hit, the song became her second U.S. top ten single, and won the Academy Award for Best Song, and the Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal. "Beauty and the Beast" was featured on Dion's 1992 self-titled album, which, like her debut, had a strong rock influence combined with elements of soul and classical music. Owing to the success of the lead-off single and her collaboration with Foster and Diane Warren, the album was as well received as Unison. Other singles that achieved moderate success included "If You Asked Me To" (a cover of Patti LaBelle's song from the 1989 movie Licence to Kill) which peaked at number four on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100, the gospel-tinged "Love Can Move Mountains", and "Nothing Broken But My Heart".
As with Dion's earlier releases, the album had an overtone of love. Also during this time, Dion released the Francophone album Dion chante Plamondon in 1991. The album consisted mostly of covers, but included 4 new songs, which included "Des mots qui sonnent", "Je danse dans ma tête", "Quelqu'un que j'aime, quelqu'un qui m'aime" and "L'amour existe encore". It was originally released in Canada and France during the 1991–1992 period, but then got an international release in 1994, the first French Celine Dion album to do so. "Un garçon pas comme les autres (Ziggy)" became a smash hit in France, reaching number 2 and being certified gold. In Quebec, the album was certified Gold the day it was released. To date, Dion chante Plamondon has sold 1.5 million records worldwide.
By 1992 Unison, Céline Dion, and media appearances had propelled Dion to superstardom in North America. She had achieved one of her main objectives: wedging her way into the Anglophone market and achieving fame. However, while she was experiencing rising success in the U.S., her French fans in Canada criticized her for neglecting them. She would later regain her fan base at the Félix Award show, where, after winning "English Artist of the Year", she openly refused to accept the award. She asserted that she was—and would always be—a French, not an English, artist. Apart from her commercial success, there were also changes in Dion's personal life, as Angélil, who was twenty-six years her senior, transitioned from manager to lover. However, the relationship was kept a secret as they both feared that the public would find their relations inappropriate.
1993 - 1995
In 1993, Dion announced her feelings for her manager by declaring him "the colour of [her] love" in the dedication section of her third Anglophone album The Colour of My Love. However, instead of criticizing their relationship as Dion had feared, fans embraced the couple. Eventually, Angélil and Dion married in an extravagant wedding ceremony in December 1994, which was broadcast live on Canadian television.
As it was dedicated to her manager, the album's motif focused on love and romance. It became her most successful record up to that point, selling more than six million copies in the U.S., two million in Canada, and peaking at number-one in many countries. The album also spawned Dion's first U.S., Canadian, and Australian number-one single "The Power of Love" (a remake of Jennifer Rush's 1985 hit), which would become her signature hit until she reached new career heights in the late 1990s. The single "When I Fall in Love", a duet with Clive Griffin, achieved moderate success on the U.S. and Canadian charts, and was nominated for two Grammy Awards, winning one. The Colour of My Love also became Dion's first major hit in Europe, and in particular the United Kingdom. Both the album and the single "Think Twice" simultaneously occupied the top of the British charts for five consecutive weeks. "Think Twice", which remained at number one for seven weeks, eventually became the fourth single by a female artist to sell in excess of one million copies in the UK, while the album was eventually certified five-times platinum for two-million copies sold.
Dion kept to her French roots and continued to release many Francophone recordings between each English record. Generally, they achieved more credibility than her Anglophone works. She released À l'Olympia, a live album that was recorded during one of Dion's concerts at the Olympia Theatre in Paris, in 1994. It had one promotional single, a live version of "Calling You", which peaked at seventy-five on the French Singles Chart. D'eux (also known as The French Album in the United States), was released in 1995, and it would go on to become the best-selling French-language album of all time. The album was mostly written and produced by Jean-Jacques Goldman, and amassed huge success with the singles "Pour que tu m'aimes encore" and "Je sais pas". "Pour que tu m'aimes encore" reached number 1 in France and stayed at the top position for twelve weeks. It was later certified Platinum in France. The single also reached the top ten in the UK and Ireland, a rare accomplishment for a French song. The second single off the album, "Je sais pas", reached number one on the French Singles Chart as well and was certified Silver in France. These songs would later become "If That's What It Takes" and "I Don't Know" on Dion's next English album, Falling into You.
During the mid-1990s, Dion's albums continued to be constructed on the basis of melodramatic ballads, but also with up-tempo pop and adult contemporary themed music. She collaborated with talented craftsman such as Jim Steinman and David Foster who helped her devise more adult contemporary songs. While critical reviews fluctuated, Dion's releases performed increasingly well on the international charts, and in 1996 she won the World Music Award for "World's Best-selling Canadian Female Recording Artist of the Year" for the third time. By the mid-1990s, she had established herself as one of the best-selling artists in the world
1996 - 1999
Falling into You (1996), Dion's fourth Anglophone album, presented the singer at the height of her popularity, and showed a further progression of her music. In an attempt to reach a wider audience, the album combined many elements, such as complex orchestral sounds, African chanting and elaborate musical effects. Additionally, instruments like the violin, Spanish guitar, trombone, the cavaquinho and saxophone created a new sound. The singles encompassed a variety of musical styles. The title track "Falling into You" and "River Deep, Mountain High" (a Tina Turner cover) made prominent use of percussion instruments; "It's All Coming Back to Me Now" (a remake of Jim Steinman's song) and a remake of Eric Carmen's "All by Myself" kept their soft-rock atmosphere, but were combined with the classical sound of the piano; and the number-one single "Because You Loved Me", which was written by Diane Warren, was a ballad that served as the theme to the 1996 film Up Close & Personal.
Falling into You garnered career-best reviews for Dion. While Dan Leroy wrote that it was not very different from her previous work. Falling Into You became Dion's most critically and commercially successful album: it topped the charts in many countries and became one of the best-selling albums of all time. In the United States, the album reached number-one, and was later certified 11x Platinum for over 11 million copies shipped. In Canada, the album was certified diamond for over one million copies shipped. The IFPI certified Falling into You 9x Platinum, an accolade that has been given to only two other albums in history, with one of the two being Dion's own album, Let's Talk About Love. The album also won Grammy Awards for Best Pop Album, and the academy's highest honor Album of the Year. Dion's status on the world stage was further solidified when she was asked to perform "The Power of the Dream" at the opening ceremonies of the 1996 Atlanta Olympic Games. In March 1996, Dion launched the Falling into You Tour in support of her new album, giving concerts around the world for over a year.
Dion followed Falling into You with Let's Talk About Love (1997), which was publicized as its sequel. The recording process took place in London, New York City, and Los Angeles, and featured a host of special guests, such as Barbra Streisand on "Tell Him"; the Bee Gees on "Immortality"; and world-renowned tenor Luciano Pavarotti on "I Hate You Then I Love You". Other musicians included Carole King, Sir George Martin, Bryan Adams and Jamaican singer Diana King, who added a reggae tinge to "Treat Her Like a Lady". As with Falling into You, Let's Talk About Love was a major success for Dion, reaching number-one all over the world, attaining platinum status in twenty-four sales territories, and becoming Dion's fastest selling album of her career. In the United States, the album topped the chart in its seventh week of release, and was later certified 10x Platinum in the U.S. for over 10 million copies shipped. In Canada, the album sold 230,212 copies in its first week of release, which became, and still is, a record. It was eventually certified diamond in Canada for over 1 million copies shipped. The most successful single from the album became the classically influenced ballad "My Heart Will Go On", which was written and composed by James Horner and Will Jennings, and produced by Horner and Walter Afanasieff. Serving as the love theme for the 1997 blockbuster film Titanic, the song topped the charts across the world, and became Dion's signature song; as well as winning the Academy Award and Golden Globe for Best Original Song. The song also gave Dion two Grammy Awards for "Best Female Pop Vocal Performance" and the most coveted "Record of the Year", (the song itself won four awards, but two were presented to the songwriters). "My Heart Will Go On" and "Think Twice" made her the only female artist in the UK to have two singles to sell more than a million copies. In support of her album, Dion embarked on the Let's Talk About Love Tour between 1998 and 1999.
Dion ended the 1990s with three more extremely successful albums—the Christmas album These Are Special Times (1998), the French-language album, S'il suffisait d'aimer, and the compilation album All the Way... A Decade of Song (1999). On These Are Special Times, Dion became more involved in the writing process. She co-wrote the song, Don't Save It All For Christmas Day along with Ric Wake and Peter Zizzo. The album was her most classically influenced yet, with orchestral arrangements found on virtually every track. "I'm Your Angel", a duet with R. Kelly, became Dion's fourth U.S. number one single, and another hit single across the world. All the Way... A Decade of Song drew together her most successful hits coupled with seven new songs, including the lead off single "That's the Way It Is", a cover of Roberta Flack's "The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face", and "All the Way", a duet with Frank Sinatra. The album itself was also extremely successful worldwide, reaching number-one in the United States for three weeks. The album was later certified 7x Platinum in the U.S. for 7 million copies shipped. Her last French-language studio album of the 1990s, S'il suffisait d'aimer, was very successful as well, topping the charts in every major French-speaking country. In France, the album was certified diamond, selling 1.5 million copies. By the end of the 1990s, Celine Dion had sold more than 100 million albums worldwide, and had won a slew of industry awards. Her status as one of the music industry's biggest pop divas was further solidified when she was asked to perform on VH1's Divas Live special in 1998, with superstars Aretha Franklin, Gloria Estefan, Shania Twain and Mariah Carey. That year she also received two of the highest honors from her home country: "Officer of the Order of Canada for Outstanding Contribution to the World of Contemporary Music" and "Officer of the National Order of Quebec". A year later she was inducted into the Canadian Broadcast Hall of Fame, and was honoured with a star on Canada's Walk of Fame.
During this time, the pop-rock genre that was more noticeable in her earlier releases, was replaced by a more adult contemporary feel. However, the theme of "love" remained in most of her releases, which led to some critics dismissing her music as banal. Other critics, like Elysa Gardner and Jose F. Promis, praised her vocals during this period, describing it as a "technical marvel". However, others, like Steve Dollar, who reviewed These Are Special Times, stated that Dion is a "vocal Olympian for whom there ain't no mountain—or scale—high enough."
2000 - 2002
After releasing and promoting thirteen albums during the 1990s, Dion stated that she needed to settle down, and announced on her latest album All the Way... A Decade of Song, that she needed to take a step back from the spotlight and enjoy life. Angélil's diagnosis with throat cancer also prompted her to hiatus. While on break, Dion was unable to escape the spotlight. In 2000, the National Enquirer published a false story about the singer. Brandishing a picture of Dion and her husband, the magazine misquoted Dion, printing the headline, "Celine — 'I'm Pregnant With Twins!'" Dion later sued the magazine for more than twenty million dollars. The editors of the Enquirer printed an apology and a full retraction to Dion in the next issue, and donated money to the American Cancer Society in honor of Dion and her husband. A year after the incident, after undergoing fertility treatments, Dion gave birth to a son, René-Charles Dion Angélil, on January 25, 2001, in Florida. Following the September 11, 2001, attacks, Dion returned to the music scene, and in a televised performance sang "God Bless America" at the benefit concert America: A Tribute to Heroes. Chuck Taylor of Billboard wrote, "the performance... brings to mind what has made her one of the celebrated vocalists of our time: the ability to render emotion that shakes the soul. Affecting, meaningful, and filled with grace, this is a musical reflection to share with all of us still searching for ways to cope.' In December 2001, Dion published her autobiography, My Story, My Dream which chronicled her rags to riches story.
2002 - 2003
Dion's aptly titled A New Day Has Come, released in March 2002, ended her three-year break from the music industry. The album was Dion's most personal yet, and established a more mature side of Dion with the songs "A New Day Has Come", "I'm Alive", and "Goodbye's (The Saddest Word)", a change that resulted from her new-found maternal responsibilities, because, in her own words, "becoming a mother makes you a grown-up." She stated, "A New Day Has Come, for Rene, for me, is the baby. It has everything to do with the baby...That song "A New Day Has Come" represents very well the mood I'm feeling right now. It represents the whole album." A New Day Has Come debuted at number one in over 17 countries, including the United Kingdom and Canada. In the United States, the album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, with first week sales of 527,000 copies; marking her first number one debut on the chart. It was eventually certified 3x Platinum in the United States, and 6x Platinum in Canada.
Drawing inspiration from personal experiences, Dion released One Heart (2003), an album that represented her appreciation for life. The album largely consisted of dance music—a deviation from the soaring, melodramatic ballads, for which she had once been given mixed reception. Although the album achieved moderate success, One Heart was met with mixed criticism, and words such as "predictable" and "banal" appeared even in the most lenient reviews. A cover of the 1989 Cyndi Lauper hit "I Drove All Night", released to launch her new advertising campaign with Chrysler, incorporated dance-pop and rock and roll. The advertising deal itself, however was met with mixed criticism, with some stating that Dion was trying to please her sponsors. However, people like Bonita Stewart, who was the director of Chrysler Group Marketing Communications stated that "Chrysler was taken by how her appeal crossed ethnic lines." She also added, "She brings sophistication, refinement, romance and passion to the brand."
After One Heart, Dion released her next English Language studio album, Miracle (2004). Miracle was a multimedia project conceived by Dion and photographer Anne Geddes, and had a theme centering on babies and motherhood. The album was filled with lullabies and other songs of maternal love and inspiration, the two most popular being covers of Louis Armstrong's "What a Wonderful World" and John Lennon's "Beautiful Boy". The reviews for Miracle were mixed. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic.com gave the album three of out five stars, stating, "The worst you can say about the record is that there are no surprises, but the audience for this record doesn't want surprises; they want comfort, whether it arrives in polished music or artsy photos of newborns, and Miracle provides both, which makes it appealing for those expectant or new mothers in Dion's audience. Miracle debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 chart and number one in Canada , and was eventually certified platinum by the RIAA.
The Francophone album 1 fille & 4 types (1 Girl & 4 Guys), released in October 2003, fared better than her first two releases, and showed Dion trying to distance herself from the "diva" image. She recruited Jean-Jacques Goldman, Gildas Arzel, Eric Benzi, and Jacques Veneruso, with whom she had previously worked on two of her best-selling French albums S'il suffisait d'aimer and D'eux. Labeled "the album of pleasure" by Dion herself, the album cover showed Dion in a simple and relaxed manner, contrary to the choreographed poses usually found on her album covers. The album achieved widespread commercial success in France, Canada, and Belgium where it reached number one. In France, the album debuted at number one and was later certified 2x platinum after selling over 700,000 copies.
Though her albums were commercially successful, they did not achieve the sales or the reception of her previous works. Albums like The Collector's Series, Volume One (2000), and One Heart (2003) did not perform as well critically. Her songs received less airplay as radio became less embracing of balladeers like Dion, Carey, and Houston, and was focused on more up-tempo, Urban/Hip-hop songs. However, by 2004, Dion had accumulated sales of more than 175 million albums worldwide, and received the Chopard Diamond Award from the World Music Awards for her achievements. According to the official World Music Awards website, the award is rare; it's not even "presented every year" and an artist can only be presented with the award for selling "over 100 million albums during their career."
2004 - 2007
In early 2002 Dion had announced a three-year, 600-show contract to appear five nights a week in an entertainment extravaganza, A New Day..., at The Colosseum at Caesars Palace, Las Vegas. This move was seen as "one of the smartest business decisions in years by any major recording artist". She conceived the idea for the show after seeing O by Franco Dragone early in her break from recording, and began on March 25, 2003, in a 4,000-seat arena designed for her show. Many stars attended opening night including Dick Clark, Alan Thicke, Kathy Griffin, and Justin Timberlake, who hosted the television special. The show, put together by Dragone, was a combination of dance, music, and visual effects. It included Dion performing her biggest hits against an array of dancers and special effects. Reviewer Mike Weatherford felt that, at first, Dion was not as relaxed as she should be, and at times, it was hard to find the singer among the excessive stage ornamentations and dancers. However, he noted that the show had become more enjoyable, due to Dion's improved stage-presence and simpler costumes.
The show was also well-received by audiences, despite the complaints of expensive tickets; the show routinely sold out until its end in late 2007. Ticket prices averaged $135.33. The show was choreographed by Mia Michaels, who is a world renowned choreographer. According to Pollstar, Dion sold 322,000 tickets and grossed US$43.9 million in the first half of 2005, and by July 2005, she had sold out 315 out of 384 shows. By the end of 2005, Dion grossed more than US$76 million, placing sixth on Billboard's Money Makers list for 2005. A New Day... was the 6th biggest selling tour in America in 2006. Because of the show's success, Dion's contract was extended into 2007 for an undisclosed sum. On January 5, 2007 it was announced that the show would end on December 15, 2007, with tickets for the period after October 2007 having gone on sale from March 1. During its entire run, the show accumulated a total gross of $400 million, while being seen by nearly 3 million fans. The Live in Las Vegas - A New Day... DVD was released on December 10, 2007 in Europe and the following day in North America.
2008 - 2010
Dion's latest French language album, D'elles (About Them), released on May 21, 2007, debuted at the top of the Canadian album charts, selling 72,200 copies in its first week. She released her latest English album Taking Chances on November 12 in Europe, and on the 13th in North America. Her first English studio album since 2003's One Heart, it features pop, R&B, and rock inspired music. Dion has collaborated with John Shanks, ex-Evanescence guitarist Ben Moody, as well as Kristian Lundin, Peer Astrom, Linda Perry, Japanese singer Yuna Ito, and R&B singer-songwriter Ne-Yo. Dion stated, "I think this album represents a positive evolution in my career ... I'm feeling strong, maybe a little gutsier than in the past, and just as passionate about music and life as I ever was." She launched her year-long worldwide Taking Chances Tour on February 14, 2008 in South Africa, performing 132 dates in stadiums and arenas across five continents.
Taking Chances Tour was a great success in the United States, reaching the Number 1 spot on the Billboard Boxscore and sold out every concert in the U.S. and Canada. In addition, she appeared on Idol Gives Back for a second year in a row. Céline Dion was nominated for 6 Juno Awards in 2008, leading the group of Canadians to receive this honour. Dion has added to her 53 previous nominations. Her nominations included Artist of the Year, Pop Album of the Year (for Taking Chances), Francophone Album of the Year (for D'elles) and Album of the Year (for both Taking Chances and D'elles). The following year, Dion was nominated for 3 Juno Awards including the Fan Choice Award, Song of the Year (for Taking Chances), and Music DVD of the Year (for Live in Las Vegas — A New Day...)
Céline Dion on stage during a concert in Montréal, Canada, August 2008.On August 22, 2008, Celine Dion presented a free show, exclusively francophone, outside on the Plains of Abraham, in Quebec City, Canada, for the 400th anniversary of Quebec City. The celebration gathered approximately 490,000 people (total with TV broadcast). The concert, called Céline sur les Plaines, was released on DVD on November 11, 2008 in Quebec and was released on May 20, 2009 in France. The end of October saw the worldwide release of her first ever comprehensive English greatest hits album called My Love: Essential Collection.
In May 2009, Celine Dion was named the 20th best-selling artist of the decade in the United States and the 2nd best selling female artist of the decade in the United States, selling an estimated 17.57 million albums In December 2009, Pollstar announced that Celine Dion was the best-selling solo touring act of the decade and the second best-selling touring act of the decade, only to the Dave Matthews Band.
On February 17, 2010 Dion released into theatres a documentary film about her Taking Chances Tour, titled, Celine: Through the Eyes of the World. The documentary shows behind-the-scenes footage of Dion both onstage and offstage, along with footage of Dion with her family as they traveled with her. The distributor is the Sony Pictures subsidiary, Hot Ticket. The film was later released on Blu-ray and DVD on May 4, 2010, along with the CD/DVD, Taking Chances World Tour: The Concert, which chronicled her world tour of the same name.
Additionally, Dion was named "Artist of the Decade" in her native Canadian province of Quebec, announced by the Montreal-based newspaper, Le Journal de Quebec in 2009 December. A public online survey asked responders to vote for who they believe deserved the above-mentioned accolade.
Furthermore, in a May 2010 Harris Poll, Dion was named the most popular musician in the United States, ahead of U2, Elvis Presley, and The Beatles, while factoring in gender, political affiliations, geographic region of residence, and income. Specifically, Dion was the most popular musician in the female demographic, as well as among all Democrats, those who live in the eastern United States and southern United States, and those who have incomes between US$35k and US$74.9k.
In September 2010, she released the single "Voler", a duet with French singer Michel Sardou. The song was later included on Sardou's album. In addition, it was announced in October 2010 that Dion wrote and composed a new song for Canadian singer, Marc Dupré entitled "Entre deux mondes".
present
In an interview with People Magazine published in February 2010, Dion announced that she will be returning to Caesars Palace in Las Vegas for a three-year residency for seventy shows a year, beginning March 15, 2011. She stated that the show will feature, "all the songs from my repertoire that people want to hear" and will contain a selection of music from classic Hollywood films. Dion has also announced that she is working on two new studio albums, in French and English.
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'Simon Tappertit' appears in which novel by Charles Dickens? | Céline Dion - Let's Talk About Love - Amazon.com Music
Let's Talk About Love
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2. Immortality - Céline Dion feat. the Bee Gees
3. Treat Her Like A Lady
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Product Details
Audio CD (March 3, 2011)
Original Release Date: March 3, 2011
Number of Discs: 1
for 307 albums, discussions, and more.
Customer Reviews
By A Customer on October 5, 1999
Format: Audio CD
...and nothing proves the point more than listening to this brilliant album and then reading the 200-plus reviews found here. Celine's voice is truly distinctive, incredibly wide-ranging in pitch and style -- and guaranteed to make you love her or (God help you) hate her as an artist.
Yes, this album is "commercial" -- but it's the very opposite of heartless. Yes, it's slickly produced -- but what's wrong with perfection in arrangement and performance? Yes, she pulls in a lot of big names on this album -- but isn't she humble in their presence and amazed to call them friends? Yes, Celine is first and last a singer -- but since when does that make an artist lack integrity? Yes, I think some of the songs on the album aren't worth singing by Celine or anybody else; we don't need more bad attitudes in the world. (That's the only reason I gave this album 4 stars.) Should that detract from the many really excellent tracks, like my personal favorites (the remake of "When I Need You", "My Heart Will Go On", and "To Love You More")? That's what programming on CD players is for: to let one pick what he likes to hear...
Celine, don't let your detractors get you down. Just keep on keeping on and (if you have to) cry all the way to the bank.
| i don't know |
Which European freshwater fish is also called a 'Pope'? | Ruffe | Define Ruffe at Dictionary.com
ruffe
noun
1.
a European freshwater teleost fish, Acerina cernua, having a single spiny dorsal fin: family Percidae (perches) Also called pope
Word Origin
C15: perhaps an alteration of rough (referring to its scales)
Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition
© William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins
Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012
Examples from the Web for ruffe
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Historical Examples
The ruffe or pope (Acerina vulgaris) is a little fish common in the Thames and many other slow-flowing English rivers.
| Ruffe |
Which Premiership Rugby Union club side play at The Recreation Ground? | Ruffes - definition of ruffes by The Free Dictionary
Ruffes - definition of ruffes by The Free Dictionary
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/ruffes
Also found in: Thesaurus , Medical , Encyclopedia .
ruffe
(rŭf)
n.
1. also ruff A small spiny freshwater fish (Gymnocephalus cernuus) of the family Percidae, native to Eurasia but introduced into and spreading in the Great Lakes.
2. Variant of ruff 3..
[From variant of ruff .]
ruff
n
(Animals) a European freshwater teleost fish, Acerina cernua, having a single spiny dorsal fin: family Percidae (perches). Also called: pope
[C15: perhaps an alteration of rough (referring to its scales)]
Translations
Kaulbarsch
acerina
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References in periodicals archive ?
Crawford likens The true discripcion of a Childe with Ruffes (1566) to the slightly earlier Elizabethan "Homilie Against Excess of Apparel," both of which "preached specifically to women"--or, to quote the homily, to "the proude and haughtie .
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| i don't know |
Which chemical element has the symbol ' V '? | Chemical Elements.com - Vanadium (V)
From the University of New South Wales
If you know of any other links for Vanadium, please let me know
Bentor, Yinon. Chemical Element.com - Vanadium.
<http://www.chemicalelements.com/elements/v.html>.
For more information about citing online sources, please visit the MLA's Website .
This page was created by Yinon Bentor.
Use of this web site is restricted by this site's license agreement .
Copyright © 1996-2012 Yinon Bentor. All Rights Reserved.
| Vanadium |
What place near Lewes in Sussex was the site of a famous scientific forgery of 1912? | Chemical Elements.com - Vanadium (V)
From the University of New South Wales
If you know of any other links for Vanadium, please let me know
Bentor, Yinon. Chemical Element.com - Vanadium.
<http://www.chemicalelements.com/elements/v.html>.
For more information about citing online sources, please visit the MLA's Website .
This page was created by Yinon Bentor.
Use of this web site is restricted by this site's license agreement .
Copyright © 1996-2012 Yinon Bentor. All Rights Reserved.
| i don't know |
Which chemical element has the symbol 'Ce'? | Chemical Elements.com - Cerium (Ce)
Bentor, Yinon. Chemical Element.com - Cerium.
<http://www.chemicalelements.com/elements/ce.html>.
For more information about citing online sources, please visit the MLA's Website .
This page was created by Yinon Bentor.
Use of this web site is restricted by this site's license agreement .
Copyright © 1996-2012 Yinon Bentor. All Rights Reserved.
| Cerium |
From which British port did John Cabot set sail in the 'Mathew' in 1497? | Chemical Elements.com - Cerium (Ce)
Bentor, Yinon. Chemical Element.com - Cerium.
<http://www.chemicalelements.com/elements/ce.html>.
For more information about citing online sources, please visit the MLA's Website .
This page was created by Yinon Bentor.
Use of this web site is restricted by this site's license agreement .
Copyright © 1996-2012 Yinon Bentor. All Rights Reserved.
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In which year did William Hague become leader of the Conservative Party? | William Hague in Profile: Best Prime Minister the Tories Never Had?
William Hague in Profile: Best Prime Minister the Tories Never Had?
By Nick Assinder Political Editor
January 24, 2014 12:44 GMT
Britain's foreign secretary William Hague speaks at a news conference at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office in London.
British foreign secretary William Hague's presence at the heart of the Geneva II peace talks may have underlined the UK's reputation for "punching above its weight" on the world stage, as predecessor Douglas Hurd once claimed, but it has also reminded many that Hague is probably the best Prime Minister the Tories never had.
He has become the great lost leader of the Conservative party, and all because of two key events – one major the other trivial, but both in their own ways career-defining.
First, when John Major was swept from power by the Tony Blair landslide in 1997, the 36 year old Hague, was talked into becoming party leader against his better judgement "for the good of the party" and to drag it into a new age.
He will never say so, but it was an offer he couldn't refuse, and was just about as toxic as those Mafia-style offers usually are.
And secondly, there was a PR disaster involving a baseball cap and funfair ride from which he never recovered. More of that later.
The near tragedy of his extraordinary rise to becoming one of the most respected of current politicians is that Hague is almost exactly the sort of leader the Tory party might look to if Cameron fails again in 2015. But they won't.
He is suitably Eurosceptic, but not anti-Europe, he is hugely experienced and cool under fire and he is a brilliant Commons performer who routinely bests his opponents, from Blair on.
William Hague once claimed to drink 14 pints of beer a day when youngReuters
He even pioneered "compassionate Conservatism" that has more than an echo in Cameron's current "liberal Conservatism". And he is a state-educated northerner.
But, thanks to that decision to accept the leadership challenge as the party went into shock after the Labour landslide, his moment has passed.
Hague first hit he headlines exactly 20 years before when, at just 16, he delivered a barnstorming, if embarrassingly geeky, party conference speech in which, in a strangulated Yorkshire accent, he warned the party of a possible Labour government with the words: "Half of you won't be here in 30 or 40 years' time" to feel the consequences.
No one was surprised when, after his time at Oxford, he was elected MP during a by-election in Richmond in 1989. He had a swift rise through the cabinet ranks and by by the time of the 1997 election he was Welsh Secretary and had a solid reputation under his belt.
But then the Tory "men in blue suits" came knocking. They needed a fresh, young face to replace the defeated John Major and the other likely candidates, Ken Clarke and Michael Howard were neither fresh or young. Hague was talked into doing the right thing for his party and was elected.
It turned out to be the wrong thing – for both of them. He struggled to make the transition and made a couple of disastrous PR blunders.
There was the baseball cap incident. He visited a theme park with his chief of staff, Sebastian Coe, and – presumably to show how young and groovy they were - they went down a log flume ride wearing baseball caps emblazoned with the word "Hague".
His boyish face peeking out from under the cap made him look like a Thunderbirds puppet and the media had a field day.
Later, when chatting to an interviewer about his youth – during which he helped out on his father's business delivering soft drinks to pubs – he claimed he would often drink 14 pints of beer a day. Cue much hilarity and mickey taking.
By the end of his leadership in 2001 an opinion poll for the Daily Telegraph newspaper showed 66% of voters thought he was "a bit of a wally". And that was that. After gaining exactly one seat in the 2001 election defeat, he quit and one of those stale, old faces, in the shape of Michael Howard, was talked into taking over.
For a long while Hague faded into the background, earning plenty in business and as a brilliant after-dinner speaker. He wrote books, notably a biography of Pitt the Younger, and made many TV and radio appearances.
His reputation and standing quietly built and, in 2005, David Cameron offered him the post of shadow Foreign Secretary. He handled the Tories withdrawal from the European People's Party grouping in the European parliament and started to cut an authoritative figure on the world stage, rubbing shoulders with other global leaders.
He became foreign secretary in 2010 and has proved a successful and steady hand on issues from the euro and EU membership, through relations with Iran to the crisis in Syria. On the last, he was defeated over the government's call for military action against the Assad regime and even saw calls for his resignation as a result.
Political Times: Lib Dem Family Feud, Farage and the Fruitcakes IBTimes UK
His personal life also became the centre of media attention in 2010 when newspapers raised questions over his relationship with his 25-year-old special adviser, Christopher Myers.
Hague, who married his wife Ffion Jenkins in 1997, took the unusual and much criticised decision to publicly refute the allegations. He admitted he had occasionally shared a hotel room with Myers but flatly denied suggestions he had ever had a relationship with any man.
For a while he appeared to lose his enthusiasm for politics and his job. But more lately he has recovered and is now widely viewed in Westminster as a Tory grandee, albeit at 52 a relatively young one.
But, when the time comes for his party to look for a replacement for David Cameron, and that may even be as soon as next year if the election goes badly wrong for him, it remains unlikely the men in blue suits will turn to Hague again.
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| one thousand nine hundred and ninety seven |
Who played vampire hunter 'Van Helsing' in the film 'Bram Stoker's Dracula'? | William Hague - Biography - IMDb
William Hague
Jump to: Overview (3) | Mini Bio (1) | Spouse (1) | Trivia (3)
Overview (3)
5' 10" (1.78 m)
Mini Bio (1)
William Jefferson Hague was born on 26 March 1961 in Rotherham, Yorkshire. He was educated at Wath-upon-Deane Comprehensive School and was regarded by many of his teachers as a model pupil - hard-working, well behaved and a credit to the school. It was during his youth that he developed his passion for Conservativism. Aged just 16, he addressed the 1977 Conservative Party Conference with a spirit, humour and conviction that led then Conservative leader Margaret Thatcher to describe him as the next William Pitt. His academic success made it possible for him to study at Magdalen College, Oxford. He went into politics, was elected Conservative Member for Richmond and served in John Major's cabinet as Welsh Secretary (during which time he met his future wife, Ffion). After the Conservatives' landslide defeat at the hands of New Labour in 1997, John Major resigned as Tory leader. In the resultant leadership election, William, aged just 36, was chosen to lead the party. As leader, William failed to dent Prime Minister Tony Blair's consistently high public ratings. He also became ridiculed for a series of misjudgments, such as his decision to wear a baseball cap to appeal to young voters, his boast that he had regularly drunk 14 pints of beer a day as a young man, his judo sessions and his wisecracking comments at Prime Minister's Questions. He fought the 2001 General Election on the issues of keeping the pound and rejecting the European Single Currency, locking up all asylum seekers and lowering the tax burden. His failure to make any clear commitments to better public services was regarded by many as severely damaging to his election chances. On June 7, the Conservatives were resoundingly beaten by the Labour Party for a second successive time. Although he was re-elected to his Richmond seat, Hague resigned as Tory leader the next day. He became only the second Conservative Party leader in the history of British politics never to serve as Prime Minister. His future is uncertain, although careers in either enterprise or broadcasting are realistic possibilities.
- IMDb Mini Biography By: Anonymous
Spouse (1)
| i don't know |
In Western Australia, what object might be known as a 'Kylie'? | kylie - Wiktionary
kylie
( Australia , chiefly Western Australia) A boomerang .
1889, Annie Brassey, Mary Anne Broome, The Last Voyage, to India and Australia, in the Sunbeam, 2010, page 252 ,
Then we drove up to the cricket-ground to see them throw their boomerangs or kylies, which they did very cleverly. One of the kylies was broken against a tree, but most of the others flew with unerring precision.
1916, Royal Society of Western Australia, Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Volume 1, page 57 ,
The islanders have discovered that kylies made out of thin iron, such as ship′s tanks, are the most serviceable, and they show great dexterity in making them (see Fig. 6).
2001, Jacqueline L. Longe, How Products Are Made, page 55 ,
Kylies were used by prehistoric people in all parts of the world. Usually made of wood, they were banana shaped; both faces of each arm were carved into curved, airfoil surfaces.
| BOOMERanG experiment |
In what year did Tony Blair become leader of the Labour Party? | Boomerangs - Crystalinks
Boomerangs
A boomerang is a flying tool with a curved shape used as a weapon or for sport. Although it is usually thought of as a wooden device, modern boomerangs used for sport are often made from carbon fibre-reinforced plastics or other high-tech materials. Historically, boomerang-like devices have also been made from bones. Boomerangs come in many shapes and sizes depending on their geographic or tribal origins and intended function. The most recognizable type is the returning boomerang, which is a throwing stick that travels in an elliptical path and returns to its point of origin when thrown correctly. A returning boomerang has uneven arms or wings, so that the spinning is lopsided to curve the path.
Although non-returning boomerangs throw sticks (or kylies) were used as weapons, returning boomerangs have been used primarily for leisure or recreation. Returning boomerangs were also used as decoy birds of prey, thrown above long grass in order to frighten game birds into flight and into waiting nets. Modern returning boomerangs can be of various shapes or sizes as can be seen in the diagram of modern Boomerangs to the right of page.
Historical evidence also points to the use of non-returning boomerangs by the ancient Egyptians, Native Americans of California and Arizona, and inhabitants of southern India for killing birds and rabbits. Some boomerangs were not thrown at all, but were used in hand to hand combat by Indigenous Australians.
Boomerangs can be variously used as hunting weapons, percussive musical instruments, battle clubs, fire-starters, decoys for hunting waterfowl, and as recreational play toys. The smallest boomerang may be less than 10 centimetres (4 in) from tip to tip, and the largest over 180 centimetres (6 ft) in length. Tribal boomerangs may be inscribed and/or painted with designs meaningful to their makers. Most boomerangs seen today are of the tourist or competition sort, and are almost invariably of the returning type.
History
The use of the throwing wood is verified by rock paintings dating from the Neolithic Age (since approx. 5000 v.Chr.). Finds from this time are not really suitable as unique proofs, because wooden pieces of equipment are only hard to preserve through thousands of years. The throwing wood was mainly a hunting weapon (long-range weapon, flying weapon) to hunt hares, birds and other small animals. Its use as a battle weapon played a minor role.
Its character as a battle weapon was lost as soon as the culture reached a higher stage of development. The throwing wood developed separately in different places of the planet.
There are returning boomerangs and non-returning boomerangs.
Non- returning boomerangs were used for hunting. Hunting boomerangs, called Kylies, are about three feet long and have a chord width of three to four inches across, being about one half inch thick and similar in shape to a banana. When thrown they fly straight and do not return to the thrower. A throw stick can fly great distances. One hundred to one hundred fifty-yard flights are not uncommon. Throwsticks have been found in many countries such as Egypt, Africa, Poland, Holland, United States and of course Australia, just to name a few.
How did the kylie come into existence? The best thinking is that prior to throwing sticks people used clubs to settle their differences. They'd use them like a battle-axe and even throw them at their opponent when they ran away. Perhaps it was discovered that a curved club flew further when thrown than a straight one did. They then realized that a thin club flew further than a thick one. At this point the basic concept of a throwing stick was established and used. In Australia it became engrained into the culture and was handed down from generation to generation.
How old are Kylies? The oldest known kylie found carbon dated back to 20,000 years old and was made from Mammoth tusk! By the way it was found in Poland. Hopi Indians in the Southwest United States used kylies, though they called them rabbit sticks.
No matter what you call them the Kylie, throwstick or Rabbit stick was a well-suited weapon for hunting in open country. Imagine a three-foot wide stick spinning around its center of rotation as it traveled through the air. Since you aim the kylie at what you are throwing at it has an advantages over a spear. With a spear if you want to hit something off in the distance you have to throw the spear up, which gives it a curved flight. This is because a spear does not generate lift as it travels through the air. Kylies do and so can stay "afloat" at it travels.
So where did boomerangs come into the picture? Truthfully no one can answer the question with surety. Based upon what has been found, it is common belief returning boomerangs originated in Australia. That really doesn't surprise you does it? How do we know that? Primarily from the abundance of boomerangs found there and the lack of returning boomerangs anywhere else in the world. There are a few examples found in other regions that many return, but that is still questionable.
How was the returning boomerang developed? Once again, we really don't know for fact. See if this makes since to you. One day an Aboriginal person was shaping a smaller, lighter slightly more bend throwstick than he normally used. When he tested his small throwstick he was very surprised to observe that it didn't fly straight at all but rather it started returning back to him. Viola the birth of first returning boomerang! Created by chance or skill? No one really knows. What we do know is they made it and passed the technique down through generations of time and we have it today, thankfully.
What were boomerangs used for? Life is no fun without playtime. Wouldn't you agree? Returning boomerangs were used as toys and for sport. Of course the Aborigines used what few tools they had for all manner of tasks. They would use Kylies and boomerangs to dig up roots to eat. They would use them as cooking tools. They would also use them to rub or clack together to make music. They also used them as clubs and for throwing.
Modern day: Sport enthusiasts in many countries of the world use boomerangs today. The pure joy and pleasure of throwing a boomerang is unmatched to other sports, in my opinion.
Boomerangs are also used in competitions. Yes Boomerang Competitions. Some of the events include Long Distance, Fast Catch, Endurance, Trick Catch, Doubling and Accuracy and Aussie round.
Boomerangs today are fashioned in hundreds of different shapes. Some have three or more wings! A boomerang can be crafted to fill a certain niche or have specific flight characteristic. Airfoils can be modified to increase lift or decrease lift. Drag can be added to the design to slow the boomerang down on its return. Even the material itself can be changed. Don't think of boomerangs being made from wood only. Today boomerangs can be made from high-grade plywood, exotic woods, and plastics of all sorts, resin impregnated paper, linen and fiberglass cloth. Even space age materials like kevlar and carbon fiber are used by some manufactures.
Lenoch assumes in his thesis that an object of examination (such as the throwing wood and boomerang) is determined by function, shape and material. The genesis of the throwing wood and the boomerang is therefore directly linked with the prevailing environmental conditions and the stage of development of the corresponding people.
Lenoch describes the throwing wood as follows: The throwing wood is a crooked piece of wood, which is able to fly with or without having a grip. Generally it is thrown and then rotates in the air, but occasionally it also can be used as a club. Unlike the throwing club, the throwing wood does not concentrate on the effect of hitting. Only the variant which returns to the thrower is called a boomerang.
With his description of the object, Lenoch distinguishes the term of "throwing wood" from other terms like "throwing club" or "throwing stick". With the throwing club the effect of hitting is mostly concentrated at the distal end, while the throwing stick is a straight rod of hard wood that rotates while flying. The throwing stick is mostly sharpened at both ends and hits top first.
A boomerang can be understood as the variant of the throwing wood which is used for playing and sports and with which a return throw can be made. The origin of the name remains unsolved, though Lenoch tries some etymological approaches.
In the second chapter dealing with Europe Lenoch already comes to a conclusive result, in our opinion, in which he determines the localities where the historical origins of the boomerang must be located. For this reason, we went beyond Lenoch's description here and have investigated his source texts to analyze the evidential value of his core statement. Afterwards we will describe his geographical outline.
The invention of the boomerang is commonly ascribed to the Australians, however, according to Lenoch, it is probable to have been invented in India and the ancient Orient; and for ancient Europe it is even proved. Lenoch refers to two historical texts, mainly to the one by Isodorus Hispalensis, the bishop of Sevilla of that time. He wrote in the 7th century in his Origines.
The terms in brackets refer to differing passages from the original text of Isodori. A possible translation of the text-here by Beate Rodenberg- is: It was called the clava (stick) - of the same composition like the one Hercules had- because it was fixed with two iron clubs on either side; it has a length of half a cubit.
This is the cateia (throwing club), which was called caia (club, cudgel) by Horaz. There is a kind of a Gallic missile consisting of very flexible (inert) material, which does not fly very long, when it is thrown because of its heavy weight, but arrives there nevertheless.
It only can be broken with a lot of power. But if it is thrown by a master (its builder), it returns to the one who threw it. Vergil reminds us with the following words: " One used to fling throwing clubs similar to the habit of the Teutons". Since then both the Spanish and the Germanics call those "teutonas.
The oldest pieces of evidence (rock paintings) for the use of the throwing wood exists in the Young Paleolithic Age (approx. 5000-1800 BC); since then constantly used until the pre-Christian ancient world:
In the Cretan-Minoic Region (ca. 2000 BC): Sign of rank and dignity of military leaders. In Greece commonly used weapon with the term "lagobolon" hare club, hare thrower.
The throwing wood is not proved to have been used by the Romans (from approx. 500 BC), only for the rural populations hunt of hares. The Cateia seems to have been a crooked weapon with the characteristic ability of returning -ergo a boomerang- which was used by the Gauls and the Teutons (From approx. 100 AD).
For the North, the use of the boomerang is proved for the bird hunt, approximately at the times of the Goths (from approx. 100 AD).
Northern Scandinavia: Throwing wood known since the Young Stone Age (Approx. 5000 BC)
The Urals: Finds from the time of 2000 BC
Poland: Surely the oldest find from the: "Olazowa Cave" in the "Polish Carpathians"
Germany: boomerang find in the: Elbschottern near Magdeburg (approx. 800 - 400 BC).
The origin of the throwing wood remains unsolved. That it was introduced by cultures outside Europe is unlikely, but an influence from the ancient Orient (Near East) is probable.
Africa
In North Africa, the constant use of the throwing wood can be proved from the Neolithic Age (from approx. 6000 BC) up to the recent past. It is likely to have been spreading from the North-East to the North-West up to the Atlantic Ocean (Sudan, Cameroon, Guinea, Niger, Morocco, Canary Isles).
Towards the South, no exact boundaries can be found. The African center of the idea of the throwing wood was located in the Sudan. The throwing wood was a characteristic element of the old culture of the steppe hunters. After the introduction of iron (approx. 600 BC) it developed into the throwing knife. In Morocco, it was used as a toy and a piece of jewelry with lots of ornaments.
Egypt
Though it was used as a battle weapon (throwing and hitting weapon), the real application of the throwing wood was hunting. Especially the noble Egyptians used it for the bird hunt (social value of the throwing wood). Hardly proved to had been a sign of rank and dignity or as a weapon of the gods or for battle. Throwing woods of ivory with a ritual character (finds from the grave of Tut-anch-Amun, approx. 1340 BC).
Many various types of throwing woods were developed until the end of the time of the Pharaohs. The existence of boomerangs is not really proved, though the possibility of the flight in curves can hardly have gone unnoticed in Egypt because of the large number of possible variants of throwing woods.
Near East
In the Near East, advanced civilizations (from approx. 3000 BC) used throwing woods as royal badges, signs of dignity of gods and kings and as symbols. The shape of the throwing woods did not seem to be suitable for practical use. They can be found in the cuneiform script as picture symbols. Most proofs were found within the Assyrian and Babylonian regions.
Further development of the throwing wood into the scimitar. Its land of origin is Babylon. Later it was transferred to Egypt and Greece; most recent past: the oriental scimitar. According to Winckler the idea of the throwing wood came from the advanced civilizations of the Near East and spread in Europe, Africa, India and even in Australia; Bork maintains that the Australian boomerang was derived from the Babylonian weapon of the gods.
India
In the region of India, the throwing woods are not very popular. They are used in two regions of the Near East till today (1949). 1. The North Indian throwing wood; the primitive throwing woods were only used for hunting and made of wood. 2. The South Indian throwing wood, which was used as a battle weapon before India became a British colony. By now, the boomerang has lost its use as a weapon and has become a cult object. Parallel to the functional change the material was changed from wood to iron and ivory. The question as to whether the South Indian throwing woods were returners, i. e. boomerangs, is seen as controversial. More recent examinations deny it, although the returning throw is not unknown to the Indian mythology. Indras Thunderbolt, for example, returned into the hands of the god after he had thrown it.
America
In the region of America, throwing woods were highly important as hunting weapons. The throwing wood was used for the first time approx. in 100 AC and was used for the rabbit and duck hunt. The building material was wood.
There is a striking concentration of the use of throwing woods in the Southwestern part of Northern America. After a detour to the Southeast, the throwing wood made its way to the East to todays Canada. There it mainly served as a battle weapon, which caused the throwing wood to alter its shape and be shaped more and more like a hatchet.
On its way to the South, it reached Mexico, where it was mainly used to hunt hares. Additionally, the throwing wood was treated as a weapon of the gods.
The throwing wood can be found sporadically on the southern continent as well. And in today's Brazil sorcerers are said to have known boomerangs.
Australia
On South Celebes, throwing woods were used to drive birds out of the rice fields. On Central Celebes, Java and Sumatra and also in Queensland, a cross-like throwing wood, made of bamboo splinters, serves as a toy for children. It has a boomerang-like flight line and became known as a "cross Boomerang", though it generally "does not have anything in common with the boomerang", according to Lenoch.
Besides the throwing woods made of wood, which show a bow-like flight line, the inhabitants of the New Hebrides use also stone weapons shaped like throwing woods.
Australia is today's main country of the throwing wood, although the throwing wood cannot be found in all the regions of Australia. The throwing wood does not exist e.g. in the extreme north and in Tasmania. In addition, the throwing wood is not used as a battle weapon in the other regions. The thinnest and lightest throwing wood can be found in Western Australia, where it is used mostly for fish hunting. In Southern Australia, the throwing wood is also used to hunt fish, but it is much heavier there.
The existence of the real boomerang is restricted to the East and the South and also to Southern Australia. It is not nearly as popular as the throwing wood and is always found in the company of the throwing wood. In its shape, the boomerang differs slightly from the throwing wood and even natives need to throw it to make a distinction.
J. E. J. Lenoch Throwing Wood and Boomerang
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Who played the title role in the 1955 film 'Davy Crockett, King Of The Wild Frontier'? | Davy Crockett | Archive of American Television
From Wikipedia :
Davy Crockett aired on ABC in five episodes on the Disneyland series, the series stars Fess Parker in the title role and Buddy Ebsen as Georgie Russel, aired in five episodes on the Disneyland series.
The first three episodes of the miniseries were edited together as the 1955 theatrical film Davy Crockett, King of the Wild Frontier. The series and film are known for the catchy theme song, "The Ballad of Davy Crockett". The series was filmed in color at the Great Smoky Mountains National Park at the Gatlinburg, Tennessee, entrance.
The series began with "Davy Crockett, Indian Fighter" (December 15, 1954): Crockett seeks a truce with Indians who assaulted a military outpost. He and Russell fight in skirmishes under the command of General Andrew Jackson, portrayed by Basil Ruysdael. Along the way, Crockett kills a bear armed only with his knife.
The second episode is "Davy Crockett Goes to Congress" (January 26, 1955): Crockett, with his companion Russell, travels to Tennessee, where he learns of the death of his wife, Polly Crockett, played by Helene Stanley. He wins a seat in the Tennessee House of Representatives and later the United States House of Representatives.
The third episode is "Davy Crockett at the Alamo" (February 23, 1955): Crockett and Russell join a gambler named Thimblerig, played by Hans Conreid, who urges them to go to Texas, where they arrive to battle Mexico's General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna at the fortress, the Alamo. Although Crockett and all the defenders perished at the Battle of the Alamo, two other segments followed.
In "Davy Crockett's Keelboat Race" (November 16, 1955), Crockett and Russell are fur trapping in Kentucky when they meet Mike Fink, known as the best boatman around and portrayed in the miniseries by Jeff York. Fink challenged Crockett to a keelboat race to New Orleans.
In "Davy Crockett and the River Pirates" (December 14, 1955), Crockett and Fink team up with Russell to catch pirates posing as Indians.
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| Fess Parker |
Which city in Cambridge shire was the stronghold of Anglo-Saxon rebel 'Hereward the Wake'? | Obituary: Fess Parker / Actor played Davy Crockett, Daniel Boone | Pittsburgh Post-Gazette
Obituary: Fess Parker / Actor played Davy Crockett, Daniel Boone
Aug. 16, 1924 - March 18, 2010
March 19, 2010 6:00 AM
Disney/Associated Press
Actor Fess Parker died Thursday of natural causes.
By Jeff Wilson The Associated Press
Actor Fess Parker, who became every baby boomer's idol in the 1950s and launched a craze for coonskin caps as television's Davy Crockett, died Thursday of natural causes. He was 85.
Family spokeswoman Sao Anash said Mr. Parker, who was also TV's Daniel Boone and later a major California winemaker and developer, died at his Santa Ynez Valley home about 40 miles from Santa Barbara, Calif. His death comes on the 84th birthday of his wife of 50 years, Marcella.
"She's a wreck," Mr. Anash said, adding Mr. Parker was coherent and speaking with family just minutes before his death. Funeral arrangements will be announced later.
The first installment of "Davy Crockett," with Buddy Ebsen as Crockett's sidekick, debuted in December 1954 as part of the "Disneyland" TV show.
The 6-foot, 6-inch Mr. Parker was quickly embraced by youngsters as the man in a coonskin cap who stood for the spirit of the American frontier. Boomers gripped by the Crockett craze scooped up Davy lunch boxes, toy Old Betsy rifles, buckskin shirts and trademark fur caps. "The Ballad of Davy Crockett" ("Born on a mountaintop in Tennessee ...") was a No. 1 hit for singer Bill Hayes while Mr. Parker's own version reached No. 5.
The first three television episodes were turned into a theatrical film, "Davy Crockett, King of the Wild Frontier," in 1955.
True to history, Disney killed off its hero in the third episode, "Davy Crockett at the Alamo," where the real-life Crockett died in 1836 at age 49. But spurred by popular demand, Disney brought back the Crockett character for some episodes in the 1955-56 season, including "Davy Crockett's Keelboat Race." In reporting this development, Hedda Hopper wrote: "Take off those black armbands, kids, and put on your coonskin caps, for Davy Crockett will hit the trail again."
But just as suddenly as it had taken the country by storm, the craze died down.
Mr. Parker's career then leveled off before he made a TV comeback from 1964-1970 in the title role of the TV adventure series "Daniel Boone" -- also based on a real-life American frontiersman. Actor-singer Ed Ames, formerly of the Ames Brothers, played Boone's Indian friend, Mingo.
After "Daniel Boone," Mr. Parker largely retired from show business, except for guest appearances, and went into real estate.
"I left the business after 22 years," Mr. Parker told The Associated Press in 2001. "It was time to leave Hollywood. I came along at a time when I'm starting out with Gary Cooper, John Wayne, Sterling Hayden and Gregory Peck.
"Who needed a guy running around in a coonskin cap?"
Mr. Parker had made his motion picture debut in "Springfield Rifle" in 1952. His other movies included "No Room for the Groom" (1952), "The Kid From Left Field" (1953), "Them!" (1954), "The Great Locomotive Chase" (1956), "Westward Ho, the Wagons!" (1956), "Old Yeller" (1957) and "The Light in the Forest" (1958).
Several of Mr. Parker's films, including "The Great Locomotive Chase" and "Old Yeller," came from the Disney studio.
It was Mr. Parker's scene as a terrified witness in the horror classic "Them!" that caught the attention of Walt Disney when he was looking for a "Davy Crockett" star. He chose Mr. Parker over another "Them!" actor, James Arness -- who became a TV superstar in the long-running "Gunsmoke."
After departing Hollywood, Mr. Parker got into real estate with his wife, Marcella, whom he had married in 1960.
He bought and sold property, built hotels (including the elegant Fess Parker's Wine Country Inn & Spa in Los Olivos and Fess Parker's Doubletree Resort Santa Barbara) and grew wine grapes on a 2,200-acre vineyard on California's Central Coast, where he was dubbed King of the Wine Frontier and coonskin caps enjoyed brisk sales.
After its inaugural harvest in 1989, Mr. Parker's vineyard won dozens of medals and awards. The Parkers' son, Eli, became director of winemaking and their daughter, Ashley, also worked at the winery.
Mr. Parker was a longtime friend of Ronald Reagan, whose Western White House was not far from the Parker vineyards. Reagan sent Mr. Parker to Australia in 1985 to represent him during an event, and when Mr. Parker returned he was asked by White House aide Michael Deaver if he was interested in being ambassador to that country.
"In the end, I decided I'd better take myself out of it. But I was flattered," Mr. Parker said.
Mr. Parker also once considered a U.S. Senate bid, challenging Alan Cranston. But Nevada Sen. Paul Laxalt said it would be a rough campaign, and a key dissenter lived under the same roof.
"My wife was not in favor," Mr. Parker said. "I'm so happy with what evolved."
Fess Elisha Parker Jr. was born Aug. 16, 1924, in Fort Worth, Texas -- Mr. Parker loved to point out Crockett's birthday was Aug. 17. He played football at Hardin-Simmons University in Abilene but was injured in a nearly fatal road-rage knifing in 1946.
"There went my football career," Mr. Parker had said.
He later earned a bachelor's degree from the University of Texas.
Mr. Parker was discovered by actor Adolphe Menjou, who was Oscar-nominated for "The Front Page" in 1931 and who was a guest artist at the University of Texas. Menjou urged him to go to Hollywood and introduced Mr. Parker to his agent.
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What type of foodstuff is a Red Savina Habanero? | Amazon.com : Red Savina Habanero Sauce : Hot Sauces : Grocery & Gourmet Food
Red Savina Habanero Sauce
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Product Description
Melinda's Red Savina Hot Sauce (5 FL.OZ. / 148 ml): Laboratory tested and certified at over 577,000 scoville units, the Red Savina Pepper packs a punch twice as hot as the regular habanero pepper and 65 times as hot as the jalapeno pepper. It is the hottest of all habanero varieties and the king of all chiles. Melinda's blends the fiery Red Savina with the same fine ingredients present in our famous Original Habanero Recipe to make a sauce that is extremely hot and flavorful. Melinda's is the original habanero pepper sauce and is world renowned for it's exceptional balance of heat and flavor. The Red Savina pepper packs a punch twice as hot as a regular habanero chile pepper. Melinda's blends the super-hot Red Savina with carrots, onions, garlic and a hint of lime juice for a truly fiery taste that enhances the original flavor of your foods without overpowering. All-Natural with Fresh Ingredients, No Artificial Preservatives or colors, gluten free, No GMO's. Ingredients: Red Savina Peppers, Hand-Select Choice Red Habanero Peppers, Fresh Carrots, Onions, Lime Juice, Vinegar, Garlic, and Salt.
Product Details
| Chili pepper |
The announcement of the divorce of which member of the'Royal Family' was publicised in May 1978? | Gluten Free Hot Sauce, Hot Pepper Sauce, Hot Wing Sauce and More | All Captain Foods
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Captain Foods
From the mild-medium heat of our Key West Chipotle Pepper Sauce with added Habanero chunks, onions, garlic and chives to the “call the local hose brigade” of our Red Savina Habanero Hot Sauce, this selection of all-natural hot sauce recipes has something for everyone. Gluten free hot sauce, hot pepper sauce, hot wing sauce and more is available here and just the way we know you like it.
Try the Mango or Papaya Scotch Bonnet Pepper Sauces if you're looking for some fruity and flavorful gourmet hot sauce choices with medium heat. Our signature Habanero and Tabasco pepper sauce is so popular that we put it in a 2 oz. bottle so you can take it anywhere. Just slip it into your pocket or purse and enjoy!
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5 oz Chipotle Wing Hot Sauce
Heat Level: 5 out of 10
An excellent sauce with smooth chipotle peppers, which gives off your favorite flavors and heat on your next meal!
5 oz Mean Green Jalapeno Hot Sauce
Heat Level: 6 out of 10
Our gourmet Jalapeno Hot Sauce gives you that refreshing jalapeno taste you’re looking for! Excellent on your tacos and burritos, but be sure to try them on your favorite pizza, burger or anything you’re looking to add a little Jalapeno Heat!
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Which vehicle manufacturer produced the Charade model? | Daihatsu Charade
Daihatsu Charade
1991–1993 Daihatsu Charade (G102) sedan
Overview
Daihatsu Storia
The Daihatsu Charade is a supermini car produced by the Japanese manufacturer Daihatsu from 1977 to 2000. It is considered by Daihatsu as a “large compact” car, to differentiate it from the smaller compacts in its line-up, such as the Daihatsu Mira . It replaced the Daihatsu Consorte , although the Charmant took over from the bigger-engined Consortes.
In China, the Daihatsu Charade is called Xiali and is produced by FAW Tianjin , under the registered mark of “China FAW”. From September 1986 to 2009, it sold over 1.5 million units in that country.
Contents
First generation (G10, G20; 1977–1983)
First generation (G10/G20)
843 cc CD I3 (petrol)
993 cc CB I3 (petrol)
3,460–3,530 mm (136.2–139.0 in)
Width
Height
1,360 mm (53.5 in)
The first generation (G10) appeared in October 1977. It was a front-engined front-wheel drive car, originally available only as a five-door hatchback , powered by a 993 cc three-cylinder , all-aluminum engine (CB20) with 50 PS (37 kW). Japanese market cars claimed 55 PS (40 kW) JIS at 5,500 rpm. [1] The three-door hatchback version (“Runabout”), introduced in the fall of 1978, received two little round opera windows in the C-pillars. [2] The Charade was a surprise best-seller in Japan, where ever tighter emissions standards had made many observers consider the one-litre car dead in the marketplace. The Charade became an overnight success and also became the Japanese “Car of the Year” for 1979. [3]
Daihatsu Charade Runabout (G10)
Facelift Daihatsu Charade (G20)
The early G10 (Series 1) had round headlights and the later G10 (Series 2) had square headlights. The Series 2 was introduced for 1981. Between the introduction in 1977, and December 1982, Daihatsu built 89,792 G10/G20 type Charades. [4]
The Daihatsu Charade was very popular in Chile and some other Latin American countries during the 1970s and 1980s. Originally the same as in the rest of the world, later Chilean Charades (called G20s) came equipped with a downsleeved 843 cc version (CD) of Daihatsu’s three-cylinder engine . This engine produced 41 PS (30 kW) at 5,500 rpm and has also appeared in export versions of the Daihatsu Hijet . [5] The G20 appeared in 1980 and was developed as a result of a Chilean decision to lower import tariffs on cars with engines of less than 850 cc in May 1979. [6] [7] The G20 was also able to run on low-octane fuel or even ethanol. [6] The first G20 version (1978–1981) had round headlights, while the second generation G20 (sold from 1981 to 1984) received the same facelift as did the G10, meaning square headlights and slightly different rear lights. The three-door “Runabout” retained the larger 1,000 cc CB20 engine, and also received a five-speed manual transmission and a tachometer.
Greece
The Greek Automeccanica company, founded in 1979, developed an off-road style torpedo design version of the Charade à la the Citroën Méhari . With a metal body, the “Zebra” used Daihatsu mechanicals, grille and headlights, and many other Daihatsu parts. Production began in 1981 and continued until 1985, by which point changing Greek tax laws meant that this “fun car” could no longer be registered as a commercial vehicle and the market evaporated. [8] The very first cars used the Series 1 round headlights; these were changed to the square Series 2 units before the first year of production had ended. Automeccanica also assembled regular Charades. [8]
Competition
Viera’s Brother Daihatsu Charade G10 at the 13° Rally 19 Capitals Historic of Uruguay finish line.
Uruguayan pilot Guillermo Viera driving his Daihatsu Charade G10, and his brother Agustín Viera as copilot, had competed several times in the 19 Capitals Historic Rally of Uruguay . In 2011 they finished 41 in the rank, [9] in 2012 they finished 18 in the rank, [10] in 2014 they finished 9 in the rank, [11] and in 2016 they finished second [12] with a tight final difference with the winners of only two hundredths of a second after nearly 50 hours of competition. [13]
They were ranked 7th overall and first in its class at the 500 miles rally of Entre Ríos in 2011. [14]
They also had an outstanding performance in the Uruguayan Championship of Historical Tourism 2013, where they won first place in category A. [15]
Second generation (G11; 1983–1987)
Second generation (G11)
1983–1985 Daihatsu Charade CS 5-door (Europe; with slat grille)
1985–1987 Daihatsu Charade CX 5-door (Australia)
The second generation (G11) was released in March 1983, again as a three- or a five-door hatchback . [17] It featured several variations of the three-cylinder 1.0-litre engine, including a turbocharged version with 68 PS (50 kW) JIS and diesel and turbo-diesel versions. The turbo diesel first appeared in the fall of 1984. [18] The base Charades received the naturally aspirated, three cylinder, 993 cc CB23 engine with 50–55 PS (37–40 kW). 0–60 mph takes around 12–13 seconds. Japanese market models had twin carburettors as standard, while most export versions received a single unit which made marginally less power. [17]
The Charade Turbo and Charade DeTomaso models had the upgraded CB23 engine, called the CB60. The CB60 was also a 993 cc engine, but was fitted with a very small IHI turbocharger, which increased its power to 80 PS (59 kW) in Japanese market cars, 68 PS (50 kW) in export models. The tiny turbocharger meant that an intercooler was not necessary. The suspension was lightly upgraded, with thicker anti-roll bars and slightly stiffer suspension, and the car also received alloy wheels rather than the standard steel items. [19] The turbo version was available in both bodystyles.
There were also high roofed versions available in some markets, either with the three- or five-door bodywork. This was called the “Dolphin Roof” in Japan. The Japanese market “van” version also received the higher roof. To escape quotas and some of the ADR strictures, the high-roof van version was sold in Australia as the Daihatsu Charade Duet in parallell with the passenger models. [20] In Chile (and some other Latin American countries) this generation was called the G21 (although the labels on the trunk read “G20″), and like the G20 before it, it was equipped with the smaller CD-series 41 PS (30 kW) 843 cc three-cylinder engine. [21] The G21 was sold between 1985 and 1990 approximately.
The G11 was produced with two frontends, with square headlights (Series 1) and rectangular “cat’s eye” shaped headlights (Series 2). The facelift was first presented in the summer of 1985. [18] In Europe, the G11 underbody and various engines and transmissions also formed the basis for the Innocenti Minitre after Innocenti ‘s contract with British Leyland expired. The G11 underpinnings continued to be used by the Italian automaker until 1992. Aside from four- and five-speed manuals a two-speed automatic option called the “Daimatic” was also available.
In Australia the range began with the high roofed two-seater, three-door CC model, while the rest of the range (CS, CX, CX-A, and turbo CX-T) had five-door bodywork. [22] The Taiwanese assembler also developed a longer notchback version of the five-door, similar to the Subaru Tutto , sold as the Daihatsu Skywing. In New Zealand, the naturally aspirated petrol model was assembled locally. The Turbo was also sold there, imported fully built-up. [16]
In 1985, at the Tokyo show, Daihatsu introduced the 926R, a prototype of a mid engine Charade, developed together with DeTomaso and designed to take part in the World Rally Championship for cars under 1,300 cc. With a 1.4 equivalence factor for forced induction engines, this meant that the downsized engine was classified as being of 1296.4 cc. The 926R had a mid-mounted 926 cc twelve valve, twin-cam, turbocharged three-cylinder engine (“CE”) – moving the rear wheels through a five-speed manual transmission and delivering 120 PS (88 kW). The 926R weighed 800 kg and had wider fenders to cover the 205/225 15″ wheels. However, following significant crashes in the 1985 championship, Group B was banned and the 926R project was called off. There was also a limited homologation series of 200 Charade 926 Turbos built, with the same 926 cc engine producing 73 PS (54 kW).
Nonetheless, the second generation Daihatsu Charade did see some rally usage. The Swiss Daihatsu importer campaigned a Charade Turbo in their national Group A rally championship in 1985, with Florence L’Huillier as a driver. [23]
South Africa
In South Africa, Alfa Romeo ‘s local subsidiary assembled Daihatsu Charades beginning in March 1983. The only model available was the naturally aspirated petrol 1.0, with five doors and the high roof. Power is 60 PS (44 kW), and either a four- or five-speed manual transmission was available. [24] These Charades were also exported to Italy to circumvent Italian laws hindering the import of Japanese cars. [25] South African assembly ended in 1985.
Third generation (G100,G102; 1987–1993)
Third generation (G100,G102)
740–760 kg (1,630–1,680 lb)
1988–1991 Daihatsu Charade (G100) TS 3-door (Australia)
1991–1993 Daihatsu Charade (G102) CS 5-door (Australia)
1991–1993 Daihatsu Charade (G102) SG Getaway Pack sedan (Australia)
1991–1993 Daihatsu Charade (G102) SG sedan (Australia)
1997-2006 Xiali TJ 7100A/7101/7131 (China)
The third generation of the Daihatsu Charade (G100) debuted in 1987. With styling by Daihatsu chief stylist Hiroshi Aoki and colleague Hideyuki Ueda, [26] it originally shipped with a carburetted 1.0-litre three-cylinder engine (CB23), also available as a diesel and turbodiesel, or with a 1.3-litre four-cylinder with single carburetor (HC-C). The four-cylinder was built with lightness in mind, featuring a hollow crankshaft and camshaft, and the weight of a four-cylinder car was no higher than a similarly equipped three-cylinder model. [27] Featuring fully independent suspension front and rear, either three-door or five-door hatchback body styles were originally offered. A four-door sedan later expanded the range, sold as the Charade Social in Japan. There was also a version with permanent four-wheel drive and the fuel injected 1.3 liter engine, called the TXF/CXF (3-door/5-door). [27]
A 1.0-litre twin-cam fuel injected intercooled turbo (CB70/CB80), named GTti and delivering 105 PS (77 kW) JIS was later added, only available as a three-door hatch. Fuel injected versions of the 1.3-litre four-cylinder (HC-E) and three-cylinder (CB90) were later added. A four-door sedan was released with the 1.3-litre EFI engine in 1988. There were two different sport models available (both with G100S-FMVZ model codes), the GTti and the GTxx. Both versions are mechanically identical, but the GTxx features many added luxury items. These include full bodykit, lightweight 14-inch speedline alloys, air-conditioning, power steering, one-touch electric window down, and electric sunroof. Some of these options were also available to buy as optional extras on the GTti. Side-skirts were also fitted to many GTtis, but in some countries they were only sold as a dealer optional extra. The Charade GTti was the first production car to produce 100 brake horsepower (75 kW) per liter and the fastest 1.0-liter car produced. [28]
The GTxx is much rarer than the GTti, mainly being sold in Japan, although some were exported and sold in other countries in small numbers. All GTxxs have engine code CB70, whereas GTtis can have CB70 or CB80, depending on the country and region sold. There are no known differences with the actual engine internals, all CB70s feature catalyst emissions control systems. Even some CB80s for Europe featured the catalyst, although UK cars did not. There are more than likely slight differences between the CB70 and CB80 ECU mapping, with CB70 cars quoted as producing 105 PS (77 kW) compared to the CB80′s 101 PS (74 kW). This is probably down to the CB70 having the ignition timing mapped more advanced to suit the higher octane fuel used in Japan.
A slight facelift in 1991 gave the cars smoother style rear lights and reflector panel, a slightly longer tailgate top spoiler, and a revised interior trim with fabric also on the door trim panels. There was also a four-wheel drive version of the fuel injected 1.3-litre (90 PS or 66 kW HC-E engine, G112 chassis code) sold at home and also exported to a few countries, for example in Scandinavia and Switzerland.
The third-generation car was sold in the United States for just five years, from 1988 through 1992. The car sold poorly, despite construction “as tight as a frozen head bolt” [26] and attractive styling for the market segment, [26] perhaps because of its high price, few dealerships, rough-running three-cylinder, low performance (0-60 mph or 97 km/h in 15 seconds), [26] Toyota, which had recently procured a controlling interest in Daihatsu, withdrew all Daihatsu-badged cars from the US market. Sales for 1989 were 15,118. Only the three-door hatchbacks and four-door sedans were available. The North American Charade appeared in three different trim levels until 1989; the CES (base model), CLS, and CLX. The CES came with a 53 bhp (40 kW), 1.0-litre three-cylinder, fuel injected engine called the CB90. The other two variants were available with the standard CB90 or the more powerful 1.3-litre four-cylinder SOHC 16-valve fuel injected , all-aluminum HC-E engine. In 1990, the trim levels were reduced to just two, the SE (base) and more luxurious SX. Four-cylinder models were available with a five-speed manual gearbox or a three-speed automatic transmission, while three-cylinder models were offered with the manual transmission only.
In the Australian market, the GTti was unavailable and the turbocharged petrol Charade used the lower powered carbureted engine (CB60/61) from the previous generation. [19] However, quite a few GTtis and GTxxs have been imported from Japan and so do have a good following. In Australia, the third generation was assessed in the Used Car Safety Ratings as providing “worse than average” protection for its occupants in the event of a crash and the second generation was assessed as “significantly worse than average”. [29]
The G100 Charade was built by FAW Tianjin as the Tianjin Xiali from 1988 to 2006, replacing brief CKD production of the previous generation model there. Heavily facelifted versions with more modern Toyota engines were put into production until 2011. One exception, the Xiali N3, has been produced since June 2004.
Competition
In the UK, the GTti had a fairly successful rally career competing in the RAC Lombard Rally in 1989 and 1990 and was highly competitive in the Safari Rally . The GTti won class honours many times and was able to mix it with some of the 2.0-litre cars and on occasion troubling some of the considerably more powerful 4WD cars. With the “turbo factor” increased to 1.7, the one-litre Charade was forced into the same category as the 2.0-litre cars. The best result was in the 1993 Safari Rally , where Charade GTxx models finished fifth, sixth, and seventh overall. [30]
Fourth generation (G200; 1993–2000)
Fourth generation (G200)
1993–1996 Daihatsu Charade TX 3-door (Germany)
1993–1996 Daihatsu Charade CS 5-door (Australia)
1994–1996 Daihatsu Charade GLXi sedan (UK)
1996–2000 Daihatsu Charade Social sedan (Japan)
The fourth generation was introduced in January 1993, again with hatchback and (later) sedan bodies. The design was more conservative than that of the third generation model. [31] Being somewhat larger than the predecessor, in spite of a marginally shorter wheelbase, the 1.0-litre engines were no longer offered in most markets. The 1.0 did remain available in Australia and also in Brazil (where a lower tax rate for vehicles equipped with engines displacing less than 1.0 litres was in effect at the time) in the G202 Charade. The G202 came equipped with the CB24 1.0-litre engine; the heads and emission hose layout are completely different from those of the earlier CB23. The SOHC 1.3-litre became the base motor instead for most markets. The sedan , introduced in 1994, featured a 1.5-litre engine with optional 4WD. The bigger engines were also available with hatchback bodywork. The four-wheel drive models received the G213 chassis code, while front-wheel-drive models had codes in the G200 range. The diesel models were dropped in all markets where they had previously been available. In Australia, the fourth generation was assessed in the Used Car Safety Ratings as providing “worse than average” protection for its occupants in the event of a crash and the second generation was assessed as “significantly worse than average”. [29]
The turbocharged GTti version was replaced by a more conventional GTi with an SOHC 16-valve 1.6-litre engine. In the Japanese domestic market this version was named in honour of Italian ex-racing driver Alessandro deTomaso (the previous owner of Innocenti, who had worked closely with Daihatsu), including a racing-derived camshaft , and was capable of 124 PS (91 kW) JIS in the Japanese market. The export version, simply called “GTi”, was detuned to 105 PS (77 kW) DIN. De Tomaso also added their own bodykit, Recaro seats, a Nardi Torino steering wheel, and Pirelli sports tires. A total of 120,000 Charade GTis were produced following this joint effort.
The Charade was restyled in 1996, only two years after release. It now had a “smiley face” grille and changed headlights, looking more like its Toyota sibling, the Starlet. It was produced until 2000, when it was replaced by the Sirion and Storia .
Nameplate use with other vehicles
In Australia, the name had previously been used for the L500 series of the Daihatsu Mira , which was sold there as the Daihatsu Charade Centro between March 1995 and 1998.
In 2003, the Charade name was resurrected in Europe, Australia, and South Africa, on a rebadged version of the Daihatsu Mira (L250) . It was positioned one market segment below its previous generations and was available as a three- or five-door hatchback with a 1.0-litre inline-four engine . It has since been discontinued in Australia in 2006, due to Toyota retiring the Daihatsu nameplate there. The L250 series of the Daihatsu Mira was produced for other markets until 2007.
From 2007, Daihatsu in South Africa offered the Daihatsu Mira (L275) as the Charade in that market. [32] Production ended in c. 2011.
Between 2011 and 2013, Daihatsu Europe brought the Thai-built Toyota Yaris (XP90) on the market as the Daihatsu Charade. [33] This was the last Charade model introduced under the Daihatsu nameplate in Europe.
1995–1998 Daihatsu Charade Centro
2003–2007 Daihatsu Charade
| Daihatsu |
What type of foodstuff is a 'Tanche'? | Find Car Tyres For DAIHATSU Vehicles
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Tyre Shopper, the UK’s number one online tyre retailer, is ready to equip your vehicle with top of the line Daihatsu tyres .
Daihatsu Motor Company is the oldest Japanese car manufacturer. They are known for their small model vehicles and off-loading vehicles. The company had a bumpy start, but found sales success in the 1980s. Last year, Daihatsu announced plans to pull their automobiles out of the Europeon market by the end of 2013.
Tyre Shopper embraces the historical significance of the Daihatsu brand and offers a wide selection of Daihatsu tyres. Its 225 branches nationwide and over 1,000 Daihatsu tyre specialists are ready to aid in the next purchase of your Daihatsu tyres.
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Charade
The Daihatsu Charade is a supermini that was introduced in 1977. Keeping with their tradition of small cars, this super-mini is actually considered by the company to be a large compact car. It has a wheelbase of 2,300 millimetres. It is available in two body types: the hatchback and saloon. The saloon version was introduced in 1994 and featured a 1.5L engine with optional four-wheel drive.
The Charade name was brought back by the company in the United Kingdom and Australia in 2003. The new Charade is a re-badged version of the Daihatsu Mira.
A new turbocharged version was named after Italian racing driver Alessandro deTomaso who had worked closely with the company. The car included a racing camshaft, a special body-kit, Recaro seats, a Nardi Torino steering wheel and Pirelli sports tyres. The effort created over 100,000 of these Charade GTI vehicles.
Replacement Daihatsu tyres include the Goodyear NCT5 , the Bridgestone ER30 and the ContiEco Contact.
Copen
The Daihatsu Copen is a two-door roadster with an aluminium retractable hard top. It first debuted at the 1999 Tokyo Motor Show as a concept car. Production began on this model in 2002 and it is scheduled to halt in August 2012. The final 500 cars will be special, limited, tenth anniversary editions.
It has been featured on Top Gear where James May attempted to find the best convertible car. It competed against cars like the Mercedes-Benz CLK, Audi A4, Citreon C4, and the Volkswagen New Beetle. While the car wasn’t chosen by May, he had plenty of nice things to say about it.
The wheelbase for the vehicle is 2,230 millimetres.
This model comes with factory fitted Daihatsu tyres: the Bridgestone Potenza RE050 . The Toyo Proxes R888 and ContiSport Contact 3 are suitable replacement Daihatsu tyres.
Sirion
The Daihatsu Sirion is a sub-compact super mini vehicle that features a five-door hatchback. It has been produced since 1998. The Sirion name has been used on the export versions of the Daihatsu Storia (1998-2004) and the Daihatsu Boon (2004-present).
It is factory fitted with the economical Bridgestone ER30 Daihatsu tyres. The Pirelli P3000 energy tyres and the Michelin Energy EA3 tyres are also suitable Daihatsu tyres for fuel economy.
Choose Tyre Shopper for all your Daihatsu tyre needs.
Customers who own a Daihatsu left the following reviews for the tyres they bought
- 06/08/2013
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Which sports goods manufacturer signed a £100m contract with the Brazilian Football Confederation in 1996? | Ronaldo faces jail over his Nike deal | Football | The Guardian
Ronaldo faces jail over his Nike deal
Hand over $1m contract, superstar told. Alex Bellos in Brasilia reports
Thursday 11 January 2001 17.59 EST
First published on Thursday 11 January 2001 17.59 EST
Close
This article is 16 years old
Ronaldo runs the risk of going to prison in Brazil if he does not provide the country's congress with full details of his personal contract with the sportswear manufacturer Nike.
The demand was made by Brazilian congressmen yesterday during Ronaldo's appearance at a parliamentary inquiry into the $100m (£67m) contract between Nike and the Brazilian Football Confederation (CBF), and the circumstances surrounding the 1998 World Cup final.
He has 10 days to produce the document, but he flew out of Brasilia to his home in Rio de Janeiro yesterday leaving his lawyers, Nike's legal team and the congress's lawyers to decide how the contract should be handed over. The Internazionale striker is currently recuperating from a serious knee injury.
The day's proceedings brought back uncomfortable memories of Brazil's 3-0 defeat by France in Paris. Ronaldo suffered a fit only hours before the final but was deemed to have recovered sufficiently to be inserted in the teamsheet minutes before kick-off. But he was a shadow of himself in the game.
The 10-year Nike-CBF contract, the largest sponsorship deal with a national football side, has been controversial since it was signed in 1996.
Politicians have been suspicious that psychological pressure from Nike may have brought about Ronaldo's fit, which in turn affected the team's performance. Others suggest he was forced to play by Nike despite medical advice. But Ronaldo told congressmen he played because he felt healthy enough and medical tests after the fit had showed there was nothing wrong.
He refused to reveal details of his personal contract with Nike - believed to be worth $1m a year - when asked by congressmen. But the inquiry's lawyers said he was legally obliged to submit the document.
Ronaldo said that if his contract was made public there would be no surprises. "There is no clause saying what I had to do during the World Cup. My relationship with Nike is very good. They never demanded me to do anything. The only thing they wanted was for me to score some goals wearing their boots."
More than 30 people have been interviewed over issues stemming from the Nike-CBF contract. Edmundo, who was originally given Ronaldo's place in the final only to be demoted to substitute, the then Brazil coach Mario Zagallo and his team doctors in France 98 have all given evidence about events at the squad's hotel on the day of the final.
For virtually every other country second place in a World Cup would be a source of pride but in Brazil the result was seen as an embarrassing failure. Since football success is seen as important to Brazil's national identity, politicians launched a congressional inquiry into the causes of the defeat. A second inquiry is focusing on the organisation and alleged corruption of the domestic game.
Politicians are trying to open up the workings of the CBF, which is run by Ricardo Teixeira, the former son-in-law of Joao Havelange, who ran football's world governing body Fifa for 24 years.
Suspicion of Nike's influence grew when the contract with the CBF was revealed to include a clause committing Brazil to 50 "Nike friendlies" in which at least eight first-team regulars had to play.
Ronaldo yesterday came to the multinational company's defence, saying it promoted Brazilian football all over the world and invested heavily in the national team. He said Brazilians were ungrateful. "If I was Nike I'd not think twice about ripping up the contract and leaving Brazil."
The questioning yesterday centred on Ronaldo's mysterious fit in Paris. Zagallo said that he was asleep in his room during the afternoon of the final. However, Edmundo and the team doctors said the coach visited Ronaldo in his room.
Ronaldo also slept that afternoon and, having woken after his fit, he was not told what had happened until another player, Leonardo, asked him if he was feeling well. Then he was taken to a Paris clinic for tests. These showed him to be healthy and he went straight to the Stade de France to play.
Ronaldo authorised the records taken at the clinic to be released to the inquiry.
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What does the Latin phrase 'Vox Populi' mean? | San Francisco Seals - (San Francisco, CA) - powered by LeagueLineup.com
Welcome to the home of the
San Francisco Seals
Weekly Brief
June 13, 2008
The Weely Brief, highlighting recent soccer industry stories from around the World is provided to San Francisco Seals Fans courtesy of FMMInternational See below for more information regarding FMMInternational.
Current and past issues of the Weekly Brief can be found in our News/Information section under the " Weekly Brief Archives ".
*
* June 13, 2008
Spanish Agree Record Fee for American
Villarreal CF,who finished second to Real Madrid in La Liga, this week confirmed they’ve signed American Jozy Altidore for a record $10m, though he is yet to agree personal terms and undergo a medical. The 18-year-old, who scored 18 goals in 36 starts for the New York Red Bulls, is seen by many as the best player produced by MLS. Source: Sky Sports
Development of MLS Fan-Culture has Negatives
Along with the positive developments in supporter culture in MLS, concern has been expressed in some quarters relating to a growing number of fan incidents at recent games. During a match in Columbus, Revolution midfielder Steve Ralston was pelted with coins, beer cups and batteries while a fan invaded the field during the Galaxy/Toronto FC game in Toronto. Most recently, MLS was forced to release a statement condemning a racist comment aired at game at Crew Stadium. Source: Soccer365
Cooper Expects Investment to be Lined Up by Summer
Chairman of St Louis Soccer United, Jeff Cooper, indicated that St Louis hopes to secure the funding needed to become MLS’s 17th franchise sometime this summer. “We're very close. There are several individuals we've been in contact with about becoming investors and there is some real promise there.” Cooper said. Source: The Alton Telegraph
New American Owners Leave Their Mark
Liverpool Manager Rafael Benítez has been assured that his transfer budget will not be affected by the $66m losses incurred by Americans Tom Hicks' and George Gillett's takeover of the club. The first set of accounts released by Kop Holdings Limited, the company formed to facilitate the purchase of the club in February last year also revealed Gillett and Hicks reclaimed $2.4m in personal expenses and wrote off over $20m when they abandoned the original plans for the new club stadium in favour of their own design. Source: The Guardian
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EURO 2008 Generating Huge Revenues and TV Ratings
The European Championship will generate a record income of about $2b, which is about 50% higher than EURO 2004 generated. Most of the revenue will come from TV deals and sponsorships. According to Uefa, television viewing figures for the first 8 matches of the European Championship have been ‘absolutely extraordinary’, far higher than for EURO 2004. Viewership in countries involved in matches has sometimes exceeded 80% of the market share. Sources: Reuters & Yahoo! Sports
Uefa Eyes End to Free TV Monopoly
British fans may not get to watch EURO 2012 entirely on free-to-air TV. Uefa is challenging the British list of ‘crown jewel’ sporting events — on the grounds that not all 31 games are of national importance, particularly given the 2008 tournament has no British participants. Uefa would still allow future games featuring British home nations to be shown on terrestrial TV, as well as the final and opening games, but BBC and ITV, who have divided this year's match schedule between them, would face competition from pay TV broadcasters Sky and Setanta. Source: BBC
Ukraine Struggles Towards Euro 2012!
The delays in the redevelopment of Kiev’s 80,000 seat Olympic stadium may result in Ukraine losing the right to co-host the event. Taiwanese company Archaisa Design Group won the $300m contract for the work but “…appears incapable of finishing the project and building work in time because of a lack of appropriate materials and building resources” according to Boris Voskresensky, a deputy head of Ukraine's Soccer Federation. UEFA President Michel Platini will visit the country in early July to check on progress. Poland is the co-host. Source: The Guardian
Transfer Market Breaking Records?
Real Madrid are believed to have offered Cristiano Ronaldo a $19m a year salary, equating to nearly $400,000/week after tax, upping the Champions League winners reputed $300,000 a week offer to the Portuguese star. Meanwhile, though United have reported Real to Fifa over their attempts to lure Ronaldo, they themselves have signed 16 year old Davide Petrucci, star of AS Roma’s youth team, for about $400,000, with the player earning about $200,000 in wages. “It is a nightmare” said Il Romanista, a newspaper dedicated to Roma, “Manchester United have dealt us another low blow, stealing Petrucci from under our noses, probably the best product of our youth system. In 3 to 4 years, he will be worth 100 times as much.” Sources: The Daily Telegraph & The Daily Telegraph
EPL Chairman Alleges the League Is Undermining the National Team
EPL chairman Sir David Richards alleged that his own member clubs have damaged the England team by signing too many ‘foreign players’ and not giving 1st-team chances to the graduates from their own academies. He also argued that the EPL should be cut-back to 18 teams to reduce fixture congestion. Richards subsequently claimed that what he had said was not quite what he had meant and the EPL made it clear that his comments ‘do not represent the collective view of the Premier League.’ Source: The Guardian
Former Newcastle Boss Considers Spanish Bid
Former Newcastle United chairman Freddy Shepherd may make an $80m bid to buy Spanish team Real Mallorca. The Spanish club president Vicenc Grande has put his 93% stake up for sale with an asking price of around $60m but has warned that a foreign buyer will have to pay more because he would prefer the club to remain under Spanish control. Source: The Daily Mirror
Italian Fines
Current Serie A champions Inter Milan, 7-times European champions AC Milan, Sampdoria, Genoa, Udinese and Reggina have all been fined for false accounting. The Federazione Italiana Giuoco Calcio (Italian Federation) reported that the fines, ranging from $140,000 to $30,000, were payable by the clubs and some club directors, as a result of financial irregularities between 2003 and 2005. Source: Stuff.co.nz
Former Chelsea Employee Files Suit
Paul Smith, Chelsea FC's former group business affairs director, who was sacked in August after returning from Chelsea's lucrative pre-season US tour, has rejected the $120k offered by the club to settle his unfair dismissal claim. Instead, he is bringing an action to an employment tribunal for loss of pay and bonus under the Wages Act for an estimated $1m. He also plans to sue Chelsea FC in the High Court for breach of contract, perhaps for an additional $1m. The club maintains Smith was made redundant as a result of a management restructuring. It is speculated that Smith’s lawyers may call on Chelsea’s reclusive Russian owner as a witness. Source: The Daily Telegraph
Portuguese FA Suspends 26 Referees
The Portuguese FA have suspended 26 referees, for between 1 and 9 years, as part of the 'Golden Whistle' match-fixing scandal. Last season’s champions Porto were docked 6 points and barred from next season’s Champions League, while Boavista were relegated and handed a $280k fine, and already-relegated Uniao de Leiria were docked 3 points. Source: ESPNsoccernet
Everton’s Stadium Plan Moves Forward
Plans for a new 50,000-seat stadium for Everton, as well as an adjoining Tesco superstore, have been approved by Knowsley council, but the government office may still decide to send the proposal for a public enquiry. Opposition has been led by the Kirkby Residents Action Group, which claims the scheme is too big for the size of the town, and that the combination of the stadium and superstore would cause traffic chaos, especially on match days. Kirkby is about 6 miles north-east of the centre of Liverpool and has a population of about 40,000. Source: BBC
New Investors Sought!
Newly promoted West Bromwich Albion is seeking major new investment in order to compete in the EPL next season. “To be successful a club of our size needs significantly more financial backing” said chairman and majority shareholder Jeremy Peace. “We will listen to any substantive and sensible proposals, which are in the best long-term interests of the club.” Source: BBC
Blades Still Seek Compensation Over Tevez-gate
Sheffield United have taken West Ham to an arbitration hearing before the FA, and are seeking between $60 and $100m in compensation, on the grounds that the Hammers caused their relegation by playing Carlos Tevez, who they claim was ineligible. West Ham contend that they had provided all the relevant information about Tevez to the EPL, who then declared the striker eligible after the Hammers had paid an $11m fine for breaching rules on 3rd-party ownership of players. Source: The Independent
EPL Delays Decision on 39th-Game Proposal
EPL clubs have delayed a final decision on the controversial ‘39th game’ proposal after discussions at their summer meeting. Three clubs, including Liverpool and Manchester United, are fiercely opposed, but the proposal has not been ruled out. Officials are also exploring the possibility of holding pre-season tournaments abroad instead. In a related story, chief executive Richard Scudamore recently met with Mohamed bin Hammam, the influential president of the Asian Football Confederation, in the hope of improving the league's international relations in the wake of the row over the proposal. Sources: BBC & The Guardian
Strasbourg Unveil Ambitious Stadium Plans
Despite being relegated to Ligue 2, Racing Club Strasbourg has announced plans to spend $385m on a new 42,000 capacity stadium. The club have tentatively suggested that the new multi-sports facility could be ready for the start of the 2013-14 season. Source: Goal.com
EURO 2008 Sponsors Move Beyond Product Placement
Not only are sponsors paying up to $29m each for rights to Euro 2008 - about 40% more than 8 years ago - they will likely spend twice that on promotions via ancillary events and exposure. They have moved beyond the ‘one-dimensional’ product placements, putting increased emphasis on online games and promotions as well as providing live experiences at the games or offline promotions to fans across Europe. Source: Spiegel
Website Attracts Record Traffic
Manchester United’s climactic 2007-08 season was reflected in the fact that a record 5.4 million unique users accessed the club’s official website in May. Traffic on the site is currently trebling every 2 years, and this season’s figures were also boosted by the launch of Chinese, Japanese and Korean versions. Source: SportBusiness
* Rest of the World *
Construction Costs for 2010 World Cup Soar
South Africa’s World Cup organising committee chief executive officer Danny Jordaan told Reuters he expected the final cost for the construction and renovation of 10 venues to finish well above the current budget of $1.24b. “It will probably be over 10 billion rand ($1.25b). We are dealing with now with final costs of the stadiums, which are soaring as a result of the downturn in the world economy and rising fuel prices.” Source: ESPNsoccernet
More Countries Consider Hosting Competitions
Oil-rich Qatar, whose bid to host the 2016 Olympics was recently rejected, may now turn their attention to bidding to host the 2018 World Cup. “They are deadly serious about bringing a major event to Qatar and after the Olympics, the World Cup was always next on their list,” said an insider who is close to the Emir. Meanwhile, the possibility of Wales and Scotland submitting a joint bid to host the European Championships in 2016 moved a step closer after Welsh First Minister Rhodri Morgan confirmed he will discuss the possibility with his Scottish counterpart. Sources: The Guardian & The Daily Post
Ferdinand Makes African Pledge
After completing a 2-day tour of Lagos, Nigeria, Manchester United’s Rio Ferdinand pledged to use his status to build an academy and help promote Nigerian soccer. “I want to help attract wealthy business people to put money in all these charities and schemes just to give these kids a chance. With what I have seen, I can help build an academy here that will see the best of Nigerian talent realise their dreams of being a professional footballer.” Source: BBC
Chelsea Schedule Earthquake Relief Match
Chelsea will play the Chengdu Blades from the devastated Sichuan province in a special game July 26th at the Macau national stadium to raise funds for Chinese earthquake relief. The Chengdu Blades are 90% owned by Championship side Sheffield United. Chelsea we also play matches in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and against Guangzhou Pharmaceutical at the Olympic Stadium in Guangzhou as part of an Asian tour. Source: The Sheffield Telegraph
* Comment: The People's Game Should be Televised, for Free *
Uefa, and Fifa, for that matter, may be well within their legal rights to allow pay TV channels to bid for international competitions, but is doing so in the best interest of the game? Pay TV companies such as Sky and Setanta would certainly raise the bidding for the European Championships and the World Cup, with more revenue potentially boosting grassroots development, but exposure of the game could suffer if free to air broadcasters lose matches with the next Ronaldinho, Maradona or Gascoigne might be deprived of the inspirational greatest feasts soccer offers. And many would argue that any extra money will just end up fuelling player wage inflation. A balance must be struck between profits and viewer access.
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* Interested in using the Weekly Brief for Press/Media Releases, then please contact us via info@fmminternational
* The information contained herein is believed to be correct, but should not be relied upon as such. All financial figures should be seen as indicative only as they may have been converted from another currency.
Weekly Brief - 2008-05-18
May 18, 2008
The Weely Brief, highlighting recent soccer industry stories from around the World is provided to San Francisco Seals Fans courtesy of FMMInternational See below for more information regarding FMMInternational.
Current and past issues of the Weekly Brief can be found in our News/Information section under the " Weekly Brief Archives ".
*
* May 16, 2008
Spanish Giant Signs 5-Year Agreement with MLS
FC Barcelona will tour the US later this year as part of a 5-year commercial agreement with MLS. No details of the tour were disclosed, but officials of MLS' marketing arm, Soccer United Marketing, revealed that the contract also included the soccer league negotiating the club's sponsorship rights and handling the PR and marketing in the US. “If you want to be a global brand, you have to be in the United States” said a club marketing executive. “We want to have a permanent presence here, and maybe that permanent presence will mean a team here someday.” Source: the Toronto Star
Texas Southern University Offers Help with Dynamo Stadium
Texas Southern University athletic director Charles McClelland said the university is interested in investing in the Houston Dynamo’s stadium in exchange for the rights to use it as a home to Tigers Athletics. The Dynamo, who are still negotiating with the city of Houston, were quick to point out that any such stadium would not have a track around it or those football lines soccer fans can't seem to stand. “We definitely understand the issue and I think we will be sensitive to it if the deal is done” said Dynamo president Oliver Luck. “We understand that football lines are something the soccer community isn't really interested about.” Source: the Houston Chronicle
AEG Buy Stake in De La Hoya’s Golden Boy Promotions
AEG, owners of the LA Galaxy and Houston Dynamo among other properties, has become the 2nd-largest shareholder in Golden Boy Promotions - behind De La Hoya. Golden Boy, which was founded by the former Olympic champion in 2001, will use the deal to put boxing events in many of AEG's arenas, probably starting later this year. Source: ESPN
ESPN and Coldplay Strike EURO 2008 Deal
Coldplay and ESPN have signed a marketing deal that will see Coldplay's music used in promotions for ESPN's coverage of Euro 2008. ESPN, which has the broadcast rights for the tournament in the US, Canada, Mexico, South America and India, will also incorporate music from Coldplay's new release, ‘Viva La Vida,’ due out 12 June, into game and studio production. Source: ESPNsoccernet
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Manchester United Seeing More Red
Accounts released this week by Red Football Joint Venture Ltd show that Manchester United posted a nearly $115m loss in the financial year ending 30 June, 2007. While this figure represents a significant improvement on the $160m loss recorded in the previous year, figures suggest that the club is being adversely affected by the global credit crunch. The club still owes almost $300m to hedge funds, at an annual rate of interest of 14.25%, and it paid off only $80m of the $160m in interest due on their debts last year. The figures also revealed that the club had borrowings of nearly $1.3b, up from less than $1.2b in the previous year, which took the total owed to all creditors to just under $1.5b, including approximately $110m in transfer fee instalments. Source: the Daily Mail
Gunners Chairman Reverses Stance on American Bidder
Chairman Peter Hill-Wood softened his stance against American Stan Kroenke eventually purchasing a controlling interest in Arsenal FC. “Contrary to what I said before, I now believe he may well have a vital contribution to make to the future of this football club.” Kroenke, who currently owns a 12% stake, might soon be invited to join the board. Russian billionaire Alisher Usmanov has amassed a 25% stake, but he is seen as a less palatable candidate. Source: the Daily Telegraph
Hicks Reportedly Approaches Hedge Funds to End Dispute
Liverpool co-owner Tom Hicks is seeking help from hedge funds to end his acrimonious relationship with partner George Gillett. Hicks has approached several hedge funds about financing his buyout of Gillett, including some that helped finance fellow American Malcolm Glazer’s purchase of Manchester United in 2005. But, according to the Daily Telegraph, at least one of those funds has balked at Hick’s request. “It was turned down because the investment case for Liverpool is not the same as Manchester United.” Source: FINalternatives
Financial Figures for Juve Show Improvement
Juventus, which returned to Serie A this season, announced a net loss of approximately $1.25m in its 3rd-quarter, significantly less than the $7m loss it reported a year earlier. The rise is attributed to higher sales of TV rights, which rose to from $40m to around $59m, and sponsorship sales, which grew from $11.5 to nearly $16m. The club said that operating results in the three months to March saw profit of just over $3.5m, down from around $4.2 the previous year, while sales rose to $84m, up from $60m. Source: SportBusiness.com
EURO 2008 Predicted to Boost Austrian Economy
Austrian economists estimate that the EURO 2008 will generate $490m, equal to about 0.15% of annual GDP. In addition, net spending of more than $400m and the creation of the equivalent of 6,000 jobs are predicted for the duration of the tournament, which Austria is jointly hosting with Switzerland. Source: Reuters
The Fourth Most Watched Soccer League
Only being beaten by the EPL, Germany’s Bundesliga and Spain’s La Liga, the English Football League has announced that the Coca-Cola Championship is the fourth most watched league in Europe, with an average of over 17,000 visiting games this past season Source: The Scotsman
Porto Escape Severe Punishment in Corruption Scandal
FC Porto was deducted 6 points Friday for trying to bribe referees in 2 games during the 2003-04 season, but the punishment will not affect its ability to collect a 3rd consecutive title this weekend. Other clubs involved in the biggest scandal in Portuguese soccer history were not so fortunate. Cross-city rivals Boavista dropped to the 2nd division and Leiria lost points. All three clubs denied the charges, but 5 referees also were found guilty and drew suspensions ranging from 2½ to 6 years. Source: ESPNsoccernet
Relegated Derby Earn $56m Windfall
Despite the fact that Derby County secured only 11 points in the worst ever EPL campaign, they banked around $56m in prize money and TV revenue. All 20 clubs receive an equal payment of about $26m from the domestic TV package, plus an extra $18m from the overseas deal. They also receive extra money each time one of their games is screened live or ‘near live’. This explains why Manchester United, which had 25 such matches, earned just short of $100m. Source: the Daily Mail
Wembley Could Stage 2011 Champions League Final
Wembley Stadium could stage the 2011 Champions League final after the British Treasury announced that foreign players involved in the match would be exempt from a law stipulating that even sportspeople based overseas are liable to pay tax on earnings from bonuses and endorsements if they appear at UK events. Uefa had indicated that Wembley would not be given the lucrative game unless the tax was waived. Source: the Times
Cup Finalists Turn Down Offer
The major sponsors of Cardiff City, who play Portsmouth in tomorrow’s FA Cup Final, have turned down an offer of $1m from an Asian gambling company to buy their advertising rights for the game. The value of current sponsors CommsDirect’s 2-year deal is believed to be in the order of $0.5m per year – and expires after the match. Source: SportBusiness.com
* Rest of the World *
UAE Seeks Club World Championship
The United Arab Emirates FA wants to stage the 2009 and 2010 Club World Championship, which has been held in Japan up until now. UAE FA president Mohammed Khalfan al Rumaithi expressed confidence: “We have sufficient experience of hosting events of this kind. The most important was the Fifa World Youth Cup in 2003, which according to the participants and observers was a great success in more than just organisational terms.” Source: Goal.com
* Comment: ESPN's Coldplay *
The news that ESPN has struck a partnership with Coldplay could signify an important step (depending on your musical taste) for US soccer broadcasting. The last 2 European Championships were only available on pay-per-view via Setanta, which meant that the event passed virtually unnoticed in the US, but ESPN is clearly committed to promoting it more heavily. Not only did they sign Coldplay, but they indicated that matches will be shown in HD on ESPN and ESPN2 too. It will be interesting to see if the network promotes the event during other broadcasts and whether SportsCenter will show more than goal highlights. Still, it’s another step forward.
* The Weekly Brief is published every Friday and delivered free via e-mail to registered users.
* FMMInternational is a London-based soccer consultancy with offices in
New York
. For more information about our business, click here
* Interested in using the Weekly Brief for Press/Media Releases, then please contact us via info@fmminternational
* The information contained herein is believed to be correct, but should not be relied upon as such. All financial figures should be seen as indicative only as they may have been converted from another currency.
Weekly Brief - 2008-05-09
May 9, 2008
The Weely Brief, highlighting recent soccer industry stories from around the World is provided to San Francisco Seals Fans courtesy of FMMInternational See below for more information regarding FMMInternational.
Current and past issues of the Weekly Brief can be found in our News/Information section under the " Weekly Brief Archives ".
*
* May 9, 2008
VW Signs Partnership with MLS and DC United
Volkswagen will be the official automotive partner of MLS and also partner with DC United. VW’s logo will be on DC United’s jerseys and prominently featured through a variety of other club and in-stadium marketing components. In addition, fans attending games at RFK Stadium can visit Volkswagen's Garage, which will serve as a hospitality area and vehicle showroom with space for 1,000 people. Source: MLSnet
MLS Sees Big Future for Seattle
MLS commissioner Don Garber expressed excitement about the 14,700 season ticket deposits sold by the Seattle Sounders, even though their 1st match will not be until 2009, and suggested that they might emulate the success enjoyed by Toronto FC, who averaged 20,127 fans in its 20,522-seat stadium in 2007. “We're very excited about Seattle. (Part owner) Joe Roth is very passionate about the game, he's very engaged in the team. He's got great ideas and he's deeply involved in strategic areas of the league. I'm anxiously awaiting '09. I think we got lightning in a bottle in the Pacific Northwest. I'm looking forward to the cork coming out of that bottle and the magic coming out.” Source: the Seattle PI
Reports Link Canadian Corp with Sheffield Wednesday Purchase
The Canadian Press reports that Maple Leaf Sports and Entertainment (MLSE), which owns most of the major sports franchises in Toronto, may be interested in adding Sheffield Wednesday to its stable. The Championship club announced it is looking for the investment needed to regain promotion to the EPL and last month executives from MLSE met club officials during a fact-finding mission to England. Source: the Canadian Press
Brazil Schedule Friendly in US
For the 2nd consecutive year Brazil will be playing in Foxboro (near Boston), this time against Venezuela as part of an 8 June doubleheader that will also include a match between the New England Revolution and FC Dallas. Last year, an area record 67,584 came to Gillette Stadium to see their team edge Mexico, 3-1. Source: O Journal
Vancouver Sets-up Youth Development Program
The USL’s Vancouver Whitecaps FC, in conjunction with the Delta School District, have set up 2 youth programs focused on education and soccer skill development. The Whitecaps Delta Prospects Academy is for boys in grades 11 and 12, and the Whitecaps Delta School Academy is for boys grades 8 to 10. Both programs will start September 2008, and the partnership will be extended to include a girls’ academy a year later. Source: Vancouver Whitecaps FC
Comment: MLS Should Keep Future Stadium Options Open
The news that Seattle, which will not even begin to compete in MLS until next season, has already sold 14,700 season ticket deposits raises an interesting issue. Unlike most MLS franchises, which covet stadiums with capacities of around 20,000 seats, Seattle will play at Qwest Field, a state-of-the-art facility accommodating up to 72,000. Can Seattle do this capacity justice? While this is not necessarily a suitable approach for other franchises, at least for the foreseeable future, it might be wise to consider building stadiums that can be easily expanded. If the Sounders average more than 30,000 per match, MLS may have to reconsider some basic assumptions about its potential.
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EPL Promotion worth $120m for Clubs
According to accountants Deloitte, promotion to the EPL can be worth up to $120m to a club. The promoted Championship teams who win a place get $60m from TV rights, as well as $10m from extra sponsorship and merchandising deals each season. Even those who are relegated after 1 season receive $47m over the next 2 years. By comparison, participation in the Champions League can net clubs from England around $60m. Source: Sky News
European Parliament Rejects Blatter’s ‘6+5 Proposal’
The European Parliament this week called on governments and sports associations to block Fifa plans aimed at promoting the use of home-grown players because it would discriminate against players on the basis of their nationality. The EP's vote came just 1 day after Fifa president Sepp Blatter said he did not foresee a conflict with the European Union over his plans to force professional clubs to field at least 6 players from the club's nation and no more than 5 foreigners. Source: International Herald Tribune
Liverpool Gets Green Light for New Stadium, but Everton Face Problems
The city council has given Liverpool the go-ahead to build their redesigned $780m stadium in Stanley Park. The new ground will initially hold 60,000 fans but further applications to add seats may up the capacity to 76,000. Meanwhile, plans for Everton’s new stadium in Kirkby could be ‘killed off’ if the scheme is called in for a public inquiry, which could come on the heels of Sefton council’s planning committee’s formal objection to the plan. Any substantial delay might be fatal because the money assembled for this scheme, both by Everton and Tesco, will not be available indefinitely. Sources: the Daily Mail and icLiverpool
Scudamore Worried Europe Suffers from ‘EPL-Envy’
EPL chief executive Richard Scudamore claimed that the rest of Europe may take ill-advised steps to weaken the English league: “Another worry is European colleagues in other leagues getting jealous or envious. I'm sure the legislators and regulators in Europe would like to see us levelled down or dumbed down. We would never say to the French that we like their wine but can't make it as good. Would you mind making yours worse so ours can compete? It's the same the other way around.” Source: TeamTalk
Russia Waves Visa Requirement for Champions League Final
UEFA president Michel Platini successfully petitioned Russian President Vladimir Putin to allow all fans travelling to the Champions League final in Moscow on May 21 to use their match tickets as visas. The tickets will be valid as visas for a 72-hour period between May 19 and 23, and must be kept after the match to be shown on leaving the country. Meanwhile, Russia has alleged that Zenit St Petersburg supporters, hoping to travel to the Uefa Cup final at the City of Manchester stadium on 14 May, were being held up by the insistence that they undergo a biometric test and personal interviews. Source: CNN and the Independent
Spurs on Verge of New Stadium?
Tottenham Hotspur chairman Daniel Levy is reportedly close to confirming plans for a new 50,000-capacity stadium to be built next to White Hart Lane. According to Sportsmail, work will start before the end of the year and the $585m project bears ‘more than a passing resemblance to Arsenal's Emirates home.’ Source: Goal.com
More Funding for Football Foundation
The Football Foundation, a partnership among the EPL, the Football Association and British government, announced that it will invest $260m in grass roots sport over a 3-year period. Since it was launched in July of 2000, the Foundation has invested in over 5,000 projects worth $1.25b, with the goal being to rebuild the infrastructure of community sports facilities across the country. Source: the Premier League
Consortium to Bid for Southampton?
A source has told BBC Radio Solent that, after several months of discussions, a consortium led by barrister Jonathan Fulthorpe is close to tabling a full offer for Southampton's parent company. If the bid stalls, former Saints chairmen Michael Wilde and Rupert Lowe are poised to take control of the club ahead of a planned Extraordinary General Meeting on 16 May. Source: BBC
MP Pushes for Alcohol Ban
A ban on alcohol advertising at sporting events is being demanded by a Labour MP Dr. Howard Stoate in an attempt to tackle binge drinking among young people. “Watch any top-flight football match these days on television and you'll see dozens of references to alcohol products. You see drinks firms' logos on team shirts, drinks commercials at half-time and bottles of champagne for the 'man of the match'– the list is endless. We need a more radical measure that will prevent alcohol companies from associating themselves with the excitement and glamour of professional sport and using it to boost their sales among the young in particular.” Both Merseyside teams, Liverpool and Everton, currently have brewers as their main club sponsor. Source: the Independent
* Rest of the World *
Hyundai Extends Partnership in Australia
Football Federation Australia (FFA) and Hyundai Motor Company Australia announced that the naming rights partnership of the Hyundai A-League football competition will continue for an additional 4 years to the end of the 2011-2012 season. The S Korean conglomerate also sponsored the Hyundai Club Challenge last November that saw an Australian record crowd (for a match between club teams) of 80,295 watch Sydney FC face LA Galaxy at ANZ Stadium in Sydney. Source: Hyundai official website
German Government Funds Liberia Tour
The German government will pay $75k to fund Liberia's 2-week training tour of the European country later this month, as part of the Lone Star’s preparation for the 2010 World Cup qualifiers in June. “We feel a special commitment to football in Africa and this is part of our assistance to the continent's preparation for the 2010 World Cup,” explained German ambassador to Liberia, “moreover, many Germans like African football because players from the continent play with passion and fun.” Source: BBC
* The Weekly Brief is published every Friday and delivered free via e-mail to registered users.
* FMMInternational is a London-based soccer consultancy with offices in
New York
. For more information about our business, click here
* Interested in using the Weekly Brief for Press/Media Releases, then please contact us via info@fmminternational
* The information contained herein is believed to be correct, but should not be relied upon as such. All financial figures should be seen as indicative only as they may have been converted from another currency.
Weekly Brief - 2008-04-25
The Weely Brief, highlighting recent soccer industry stories from around the World is provided to San Francisco Seals Fans courtesy of FMMInternational See below for more information regarding FMMInternational.
Current and past issues of the Weekly Brief can be found in our News/Information section under the " Weekly Brief Archives ".
*
* April 25, 2008
Negotiations Between Dynamo And Houston Get Boost
The Houston Dynamo's efforts to partner with the City of Houston on a downtown stadium received a boost when Texas Southern University expressed interest in playing its college football games there. The additional funds this would generate might help the Dynamo and the City who are in the midst of negotiations on a project estimated to cost $110m. The City has already purchased the land for around $15m, but Mayor Bill White claims the property can be used for a variety of projects should the stadium deal not be consummated. Source: My Fox Houston
German Club Announces US Tour
In the wake of a marketing and cooperation agreement between the Bundesliga and MLS that was reached 13 months ago, Borussia Moenchengladbach, which leads Germany's 2nd division by 6 points with 5 games left, will play exhibition games at FC Dallas and the Colorado Rapids in July during a 10-day preseason training camp in the United States. Source: Sports Illustrated
EC Clears US Company’s 30% Purchase Of PSG
The European Commission said it has cleared US-based private equity group Colony Capital's proposed acquisition of a 30% stake in Paris Saint-Germain's holding company Colfilm. The purchase was cleared under the EU's ‘simplified’ merger review procedure for cases the commission believes do not pose competition concerns. Source: Forbes
WPS Owner Tries To Work Around Media Apathy
Peter Wilt, the 1st president and general manager of the MLS’s Chicago Fire and currently the CEO of Chicago’s Women’s Professional Soccer’s franchise, which will begin play in 2009, argued that American teams should make extensive use of the internet and blogs to keep fans informed: “Soccer in general, and women’s soccer in particular, still doesn’t generate the amount of traditional media coverage that allows other major league teams to inform their fan base so easily. We will need to be proactive to keep our fans informed and engaged. That is the motivation behind my blog. I believe the transparency of our organization through my posts gives our fans, and potential fans, a clear window into our team, clarifies misunderstandings, explains important (and not so important) decisions. This helps connect fans emotionally and helps them care more about the team. Source: Soccer Science
US Soccer Development Academy Receives Assessment
The Associated Press’s David Mercer wrote a lengthy piece examining the strengths and weaknesses of the evolving American youth system, focusing on the US Soccer Development Academy programs set up over the past year by the USSF to train the 2,500 or so American players. John Hackworth, technical director of the national academies, wants to bridge the vast gap between the kind of training US players receive and the no-nonsense grooming players get elsewhere. He claimed American players lack technical expertise and tend to develop bad habits playing for club teams that often emphasize winning over developing skills and games over practice. However, former Liverpool player Steve Nicol, who now coaches the New England Revolution, warned against too much practice: “You can have all this organization. The one thing you have to make sure when the players come into it, whether it's 2 days a week or it's 7 days week, is that the players enjoy it." Source: the Charlotte News & Observer
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EC Officials Warn Against Foreign Player Quotas
The European Commission has warned Fifa not to seek "gentleman's agreements" to limit foreign players at soccer clubs. "EU laws are superior to any such gentleman's agreements," said one official at the EU executive. Another added, "Footballers are treated as workers and will always be treated as such, therefore must be allowed access to work in all member states by national authorities." Source: The International Herald Tribune
Report: Wembley Suffers Large 1st Year Losses
According to the Guardian, next month Wembley National Stadium Limited is expected to declare losses of more than $40m for its 1st year of operation, with a pre-tax deficit closer to $80m. The board is also expected to receive an update on refinancing negotiations with a consortium of banks, led by WestLB and Barclays, which will see the interest on the stadium's outstanding loan of $685m reduce from 8% to 7%. Sources claim the loss is a result of increased start-up costs in the 1st year of operation, the rush to be open in time for the FA Cup final last year, as well as increased security, stewarding and staffing costs. Source: The Guardian
England FA Moves Forward With World Cup Bid
According to a 63-page report given to FA board members, England's bid for the 2018 World Cup will focus on producing “a legacy which enriches the opportunities for football to flourish in all parts of the world,” and cost an estimated $30m. The board will now start the hunt for a chairman and chief executive and will set up a bid company similar to the one that achieved success with the London 2012 Olympics. Source: ESPNsoccernet
May Day Beckons For Leeds
The arbitration hearing into Leeds United's 15-point penalty has confirmed will be decided by 1 May, before the final game of the season, in order to avoid the complication a delay could cause with the League One play-offs. The Football League docked Leeds 15 points for going into administration (bankruptcy), but the club maintains that the sanction was unlawful. Source: BBC
MPs To Investigate Power Struggle At Liverpool
The All Party Parliamentary Football Group is to launch a new inquiry into the governance of English soccer, and the ownership crisis at Liverpool is one of the areas it will target. Alan Keen MP, chairman of the group, said, “English club football is enjoying great success in Europe at the moment. Yet many questions remain about the standard of corporate governance and whether it is best equipped to deal, at every level, with the long-term challenges of the game's future. This is the focus of the group's new inquiry. The group will examine case studies on governance, including Liverpool FC where the role of the owners has raised significant public concerns and overshadowed achievements on the field.” Source: ESPNsoccernet
Berlusconi Supports Possible Roma Takeover
The recently re-elected Italian prime minister Silvio Berlusconi announced that he is stepping down as president of AC Milan, and also that he has cleared the way for George Soros to mount a takeover of Roma. "Roma fans want a winning team, so if someone comes in who can put in the resources to build a winning team who will be protagonists in Italy and Europe, they will be enthusiastic and I hope things develop as they want them to. I don't see how I could get in the way of something like this." Source: The Guardian
England-Scotland Discussions Revived
Scottish FA chief executive Gordon Smith said that discussions about reviving internationals between England and Scotland are at an advanced stage. “I've had discussions with Brian Barwick about resurrecting the Scotland v England games and it's definitely back on. It might be 2010 before we get a game. The idea would be to establish some sort of relationship for one-off games or even have them biannually.” Source: ESPNsoccernet
Rotherham Takeover Candidate Withdraws Bid
A billionaire Russian businessman has withdrawn his offer to buy League 2 Rotherham due to failure to agree a deal to lease Millmoor. The bid was 1 of the 2 shortlisted, out of 5 received, for preferred bidder status by administrator Jeremy Bleazard. Source: BBC
Portsmouth To Submit Plans For New Training Ground
Portsmouth are to submit plans for a new 35-acre training ground in Gosport, which will cost $16m and be ready for the 2009/10 season. It will include 10 full-size pitches, with 2 set aside for use by the community, an indoor pitch available to local schools and a dedicated goalkeeping area. Source: BBC
Rovers Deny Takeover Rumours
Reports have surfaced that Chris Ronnie, the chief executive of JJB Sports, has put together a team of foreign and domestic investors, to negotiate with Blackburn Rovers about a possible $50m buy-out. But, while a well-placed Rovers source confirmed the trustees' advisers, Rothschild, ARE still in active talks with a number of parties in regard to a possible takeover, those discussions have not involved Ronnie. Source: The Citizen
Unnamed Club Sought Genetic Testing
According to Aberdeen University's Dr Henning Wackerhage, for the 1st known time an unnamed football club have approached a leading sports scientist in an effort to apply genetic research to their players. The club wanted to discern through a genetic test whether players had been born with the ACTN3 gene that is common to all top-class sprinters. Wackerhage refused to carry out the test, which is commercially available in Australia, and informed them that the World Anti-Doping Agency’s ethical stance against such testing should be binding. "My advice was that there are questions of legality, with an employer doing genetic tests on its employees," said Wackerhage, who also expressed concerns about maintaining confidentiality. Separately, after a series of tragedies in which players suffered heart failure during matches, Uefa has ordered every international player taking part in the European Championship in June to undergo cardiac screening and now hopes to extend the policy to club level. Sources: The Guardian and Fox Sports
* Comment: Blatter's Determination *
Given that genetic testing is already commercially available, it is a matter of time before clubs make extensive use of it. Some may have done so already. However unethical, the focus will likely be on testing children rather than adults. Clubs may be inclined to spend their resources developing top-class sprinters at the expense of those who lack that yard of pace. This may not be good for the evolution of soccer. There is an increasing emphasis on speed, work-rate, physical challenges and organization, all of which tend towards defensive caution. The powers that be should ask whether this in the best interest of the sport—aesthetically or commercially. Do we want to make it more or less impossible for a player like the Argentine Juan Roman Riquelme—consummately skilled and adroit but slow—to prosper?
* The Weekly Brief is published every Friday and delivered free via e-mail to registered users.
* FMMInternational is a London-based soccer consultancy with offices in
New York
. For more information about our business, click here
* Interested in using the Weekly Brief for Press/Media Releases, then please contact us via info@fmminternational
* The information contained herein is believed to be correct, but should not be relied upon as such. All financial figures should be seen as indicative only as they may have been converted from another currency.
Weekly Brief - 2008-04-18
The Weely Brief, highlighting recent soccer industry stories from around the World is provided to San Francisco Seals Fans courtesy of FMMInternational See below for more information regarding FMMInternational.
Current and past issues of the Weekly Brief can be found in our News/Information section under the " Weekly Brief Archives ".
*
*
Blatter will Press for Foreign Player Quota Plan
Fifa president Sepp Blatter is pressing on with plans to implement a ‘gentlemen’s agreement’ to limit the number of foreign players in the starting XI at clubs to 5, despite Uefa and the European Union’s insistence that the plan violates laws on free movement of labour and could lead to widespread legal action. Blatter would need 75% of the 208 member associations to vote in favour of his proposal at a congress in Sydney in May. Source: the BBC
Leeds Go to Court to Overturn Penalty
Leeds United started their court challenge against the 15-point penalty imposed on the club for entering ‘administration’ (UK chapter 11 equivalent) on the grounds that the Coca-Cola League One acted outside its jurisdiction by docking the points at the start of this season. If the sanction is overturned, Leeds would be thrust into the 2nd automatic promotion place at the expense of Carlisle United with 3 matches left this season. Source: The Times
EPL Goes to Court Over Foreign Satellite Feeds
The EPL filed suit in the high court in order to stop companies supplying equipment that enables British viewers to receive games via a foreign broadcaster rather than BSkyB. QC Leisure and AV Station, which stand accused of supplying domestic decoding cards from Greece and North Africa, claim European law allows the free movement of goods throughout the community and if the cards are available on the market then they can be sold anywhere within the EU. Source: The Guardian
Four Nations Tournament will Begin in 2011
Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland- but not England - are set to play in a Four Nations Tournament beginning 2011. The annual tournament will be hosted by a single country and rotate among the nations, with 2 matches being played on each match-day. Source: The Times
Poland Struggling to Prepare for EURO 2012
Ukraine’s preparation to host EURO 2012 is proceeding well, but Poland’s effort has been beset with problems. The entire governing board of the Polish Football Federation have announced that they will resign because of a corruption and match-fixing scandal; Poland and Uefa have not even settled on which 4 venues will be used; construction of the 65,000 seat stadium in Warsaw has not begun; and the government has agreed to pay 1/3 of the costs towards the stadia in Wroclaw, Gdansk and Poznan (assuming they will be the venues), but the sources for the remaining funding are unclear. Source: The Guardian
Bournemouth’s Takeover Bid Collapses
AFC Bournemouth's administrator Gerald Krasner has revealed that preferred bidders EU UK Ltd have withdrawn their bid to buy the League One club. Krasner told BBC Radio Solent: “The bidder was due to lodge the money by 1700 BST today (Monday) which they haven't. Over the weekend they asked for an extension - I said if they lodged the money even if it was to their order, and released me enough to do some funding, they could have the extension until 22 April. They seemed to be upset at this and have withdrawn their offer.” Source: the BBC
Benitez Still Committed to Liverpool
As the ownership saga at Liverpool rumbles on, manager Rafael Benitez cast doubts about his long-term future after a row over exactly who attended meetings before Christmas with prospective replacement Jurgen Klinsmann, yet Benitez said “At this moment I have 2 years of my contract still to go, I am really pleased and really happy here. And I want to stay. And I want to stay for a long time.” Source: ESPNsoccernet
FA Schedules Meeting with Foreign Owners
FA chairman Lord Triesman will meet with overseas owners of EPL clubs, and their managers, to encourage them to invest more in youth development and also guarantee that players are released for England duty. Source: The Telegraph
FA Back Cardiff for Uefa Cup
Under current Football Association rules, Cardiff City would not qualify for the Uefa Cup even if they beat Portsmouth in the FA Cup Final next month, as Welsh clubs can only qualify through their own competitions. But the FA's professional game board voted to approve their entry at a meeting, with their recommendation expected to be approved by the FA's executive board and subsequently Uefa. (The 3 largest Welsh clubs –Cardiff, Swansea and Wrexham - all play in the English League system) Source: The Independent
English Players Lead Man City to FA Youth Cup Triumph
Manchester City secured their 1st FA Youth Cup since 1986 completing 4-2 aggregate victory over Chelsea this week. Only 9 of the 22 players who started are eligible to play for England, and 8 of those 9 lined-up for City. It was also revealed that City’s Youth Academy had cost £20m to run since 1998, but had made the club over $65m from the sale of players. Source: The Telegraph
EPL Clubs to Adopt Rovers’ Business Training Program
Blackburn Rovers' football business training scheme, which teaches 13 and 14-year-olds about business planning and finance of a football club, has proved so successful that it will be extended across the country and adopted by all EPL clubs. Source: Lancashire Evening Telegraph
Big Guns head East
For the 1st time since Roman Abramovich’s purchase, Chelsea will travel to Russia to compete against Lokomotiv Moscow, AC Milan and Sevilla in a cup knockout tournament in August. Chelsea will also play pre-season matches in Guangzhou, China and in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia in July. Manchester City and Juventus announced that they will travel to Hong Kong to face 2 teams from South China in the summer also. Sources: CNN and the Press Association
Irish Property Developer Buys 50% of Livingston
Irish property developer Anthony McMullen, who was recently linked with financially troubled SPL side Gretna, has purchased a 50% stake in Scottish First Division club Livingston. The McMullen Group will invest about $4m over the next 3 years, adding to an investment from West Lothian businessman Ged Nixon. Source: the BBC
* Comment: Blatter's Determination *
Fifa president Sepp Blatter’s determination to push for foreign player quotas is almost certain to lead to a protracted political and legal battle. He may be able to garner the necessary 75% of the 208 votes at the Fifa congress in May, but he will struggle to gain the support of the major clubs, the major domestic leagues, and he has already lost the support of Uefa president Michel Platini, normally a staunch ally. Platini has shared Blatter’s belief that soccer needs to ‘return to its roots’, but seems to have conceded that EU regulations are insurmountable and that a ‘gentlemen’s agreement’ is unworkable.
* The Weekly Brief is published every Friday and delivered free via e-mail to registered users.
* FMMInternational is a London-based soccer consultancy with offices in
New York
. For more information about our business, click here
* Interested in using the Weekly Brief for Press/Media Releases, then please contact us via info@fmminternational
* The information contained herein is believed to be correct, but should not be relied upon as such. All financial figures should be seen as indicative only as they may have been converted from another currency.
Weekly Brief - 2008-04-11
The Weely Brief, highlighting recent soccer industry stories from around the World is provided to San Francisco Seals Fans courtesy of FMMInternational See below for more information regarding FMMInternational.
Current and past issues of the Weekly Brief can be found in our News/Information section under the " Weekly Brief Archives ".
*
*
English FA Seeks Crackdown on Dangerous Tackles
The English FA may propose banning players who launch into dangerous challenges by up to 6 matches and also plans to approach Fifa to remove a restriction that prevents the sanctioning of players who escape red cards for violent conduct. The two clean-up measures will be discussed at a summer review of the FA's penal procedures, along with a move to clear players who incur wrongful yellow cards. The Guardian reports that this is a part of ‘a new resolve within the English game to challenge Fifa president Sepp Blatter's edict that ‘a game cannot be refereed twice’’. Source: The Guardian
Soros Stalks AS Roma?
Despite losing this week to Manchester United in the Uefa Champions League, there is mounting speculation that billionaire financier George Soros is considering a takeover of the Italian giants AS Roma. The controlling Sensi family have denied that they are looking to sell the club but the parent company is known to have accumulated debt approaching $600m so may be forced into a sale. Source: Reuters
Birmingham Execs Arrested in Corruption Probe
Trading in shares of Birmingham City’s was temporarily suspended on Thursday morning after managing director Karren Brady and co-owner David Sullivan were arrested on suspicion of conspiracy to defraud and false accounting. “We answered every single question they put to us,” Sullivan said. “We have absolutely nothing to hide. We have done nothing wrong, and we think in due course this will be proven.” The club also released an official statement: “The City of London Police investigation is focusing on payments to a football agent and two players dating back to 2002/2003.There is absolutely no allegation that any director of the company or the club itself has benefited financially from any of this activity.” Source: ESPNsoccernet
Gillett Defends Parry Against Hicks
Liverpool co-owner George Gillett publicly backed chief executive Rick Parry after partner Tom Hicks sent Parry a letter demanding he ends his tenure at the club. “Rick Parry retains our full support. Any decision to remove him would need the approval of the full Liverpool board which, it should be remembered, consists of 6 people – myself, Foster, David Moores, Rick himself, Tom Hicks and Tom junior. Parry was appointed Liverpool chief executive at Liverpool in July 1998, having held a similar position at the EPL since 1992. Source: the Liverpool Echo
Derby go Dutch
Though bottom of the EPL, Derby County today announced a link-up with Dutch Eredivisie team FC Utrecht. The club’s pre-seaosn tour will now be to Holland as opposed to the U.S, where the club’s owners are based. Source: Derby Evening Telegraph
German and Spanish Leagues Support39th Game Plan
The EPL’s controversial 39th game concept was backed by leading officials from the Spanish and German leagues this week. Speaking at Soccerex, Francisco Roca Perez, CEO of the Spanish league, said: “I was really surprised by the reaction and many of the criticisms were misunderstandings of what the objectives are. I think this first step has reached a mass opposition but eventually it will become normal as this league and these teams are so well liked all over the world.” Tom Bender, director of marketing for the Bundesliga, added, “I think it was very good example of how a good idea can be ruined in 3 seconds. It was not sold very well. I think it's a great idea, commercially fantastic, but the repercussion was tremendous and they (the EPL) did not fight back.” Source: the International Herald Tribune
Setanta Calls Off Possible Sale
After potential buyers balked at the prospective $2b asking price Setanta Sports, which broadcasts EPL and Scottish PL matches, has abandoned plans to sell itself. Existing shareholders, which include Balderton Capital, Doughty Hanson and Goldman Sachs may be asked for more funds to secure additional sports rights, and some analysts estimate that the company may need another $300m to break-even. Source: The Times
Portsmouth Announce Huge Losses
English FA Cup Finalists Portsmouth FC have recorded a loss of over $46m for the financial year ending 31 May 2007, after showing a 10% increase in revenue to over $80m. Source: The News
Ajax Extends Sponsorship
Ajax and adidas have agreed to extend their technical supplier deal until July 2019. This contract earns Ajax $110m over 10 years which can be increased by a performance-related bonus. Source: footballshirts.co.uk
Stan Kroenke Buys Arsenal Broadband Stake
American tycoon Stan Kroenke, who already owns 9.9% of Arsenal, has agreed to buy broadcaster ITV's 50% share in Arsenal Broadband, the operator of the side's website, in a deal worth $45m. ITV has now received a total of $130m for its interests in Arsenal. ITV will pay the north London club $2m for certain rights, while the broadcaster will cease to be the commercial agent for Arsenal and will no longer represent the licensing activities at Arsenal. Source: The Daily Telegraph
Milan Star Seeks ‘Investments for His Country’
AC Milan star Kakha Kaladze and 2 former members of the Georgian government, including a former Prime Minister, announced plans to raise $1.5b to invest in projects ranging from property development to hydropower in their country. Situated in eastern Europe, Georgia has seen economic growth averaging 9.3% a year since 2004. Source: Bloomberg
New Owners for Bournemouth
Marc Jackson’s consortium was declared victorious in the race to buy financially troubled AFC Bournemouth and he has until Monday to deposit the money. Jackson originally appeared to have lost out to the rival bid fronted by Cherries chairman Jeff Mostyn, but reports claim that administrators Begbies Traynor let his bid lapse because further financial clarification was needed. Source: the Dorset Daily Echo
Spurs Still Mulling Over Expansion Options
Tottenham Hotspur are exploring the possibility of building a new 55,000 seat stadium on the Wingate estate adjacent to White Hart Lane, but the global credit crunch has made fundraising for major capital projects difficult. The club's other option is to expand White Hart Lane, which presently holdd 36,310 fans, but expansion plans are complicated because the ground is boxed-in on all sides. An announcement is expected by the club this summer. Source: the Guardian
Millwall Board Refuse Meeting Call
League 1 club Millwall's board have rejected a call for an Extraordinary General Meeting by their largest single shareholder. Graham Ferguson Lacey, who owns a 28.9% stake in the club, wants shareholders to have a greater say in the board's plans to regenerate their New Den stadium. “We are involved in a range of discussions with regeneration plans for the area and when we look to form different views and decide on our approach these resolutions seem to suggest that we would have to go and consult shareholders,” said Lions chief executive Heather Rabbatts. “The reason we have a board is to enable the board to carry out the strategy on behalf of all the shareholders and in the best interests of the company.” Source: BBC
* The Rest of the World *
Fifa Evaluate Win in India Plan
A delegation from India, headed by the President of the All India Football Federation, Priya Ranjan Dasmunsi, met with FIFA president Sepp Blatter and other officials to discuss FIFA's Win in India with India initiative, one year after its launch on 14 April 2007. It was decided that the program ‘would concentrate on developing Indian football at elite level, namely the top 2 divisions in India. The initiative will most notably focus on helping to develop infrastructure for clubs and on providing support in management and club licensing. The initiative will also support the development of national teams, particularly with regard to infrastructure. Training coaches, referees and technical directors will be another cornerstone of the initiative.’. Source: Noticias Info
Argentina Still Top!
Argentina retained their narrow lead over Brazil in the most recent Fifa world rankings. A 2-0 friendly win over Egypt last month helped Argentina hold the top spot for the 7th consecutive month, though Brazil narrowed the gap with a 1-0 victory against higher-ranked Sweden. There was no movement among the top 7, but Greece climbed above Portugal into 8th after beating Luiz Felipe Scolari's men 2-1. England remains 11th and the U.S rose to 21st. Source: The Guardian
* The Weekly Brief is published every Friday and delivered free via e-mail to registered users.
* FMMInternational is a London-based soccer consultancy with offices in
New York
. For more information about our business, click here
* Interested in using the Weekly Brief for Press/Media Releases, then please contact us via info@fmminternational
* The information contained herein is believed to be correct, but should not be relied upon as such. All financial figures should be seen as indicative only as they may have been converted from another currency.
Weekly Brief - 2008-04-04
4The Weely Brief, highlighting recent soccer industry stories from around the World is provided to San Francisco Seals Fans courtesy of FMMInternational See below for more information regarding FMMInternational.
Current and past issues of the Weekly Brief can be found in our News/Information section under the " Weekly Brief Archives ".
*
*
FA to Investigate Match-Fixing Allegation
The English FA will investigate a newspaper report that a player with a serious gambling debt accepted a $100k bribe to fix a match played in Britain within the last 2 years by getting himself sent-off and persuading 3 teammates to get booked. Source: The Times
Porto Accused ff Match-Fixing
FC Porto face possible demotion to the 2nd division and a heavy fine after they were formally accused by the Portuguese league (LPFP) of match-fixing 2 games during the 2003-4 season. A source said the allegations ‘referred to possible corruption of referees’ but there was no mention of in the report of Jose Mourinho, who guided the club to triumphs in both the domestic league and Champions League that season. Source: The Daily Telegraph
AFC Bournemouth on the Verge of Extinction
Administrator Gerald Krasner confirmed that Bournemouth, who are $8m in debt, are facing possible extinction after the collapse of a $2m deal by a consortium led by chairman Jeff Mostyn to buy the Cherries. “If people in the area do not wish to support the football club by making a bid, one of the options is to close the club down” said Krasner. Source: BBC
Becks Helps Cause Real Madrid Cash Crisis
According to Spanish newspaper reports, Real Madrid has been forced to take out a loan of $49m to cover day-to-day costs, in part because of David Beckham's departure. Beckham's transfer to the LA Galaxy is estimated to have cost Real between $57m and $75m in annual revenue. Officials would not confirm any part of this story, but reports also claim that club directors have been asked to raise more money because the amount provided by La Caixa bank might not be sufficient. Source: The Independent
English FA Plans Crackdown On Religious Abuse By Fans
English football clubs could be docked points from their league campaigns as part of a new zero-tolerance policy against fans who engage in anti-Semitic or Islamophobic abuse. The FA is also thinking about forcing them to play behind closed doors in extreme cases. Lucy Faulkner, equality manager at the FA, said: “We now have a 5-point action plan that will look at how stewards manage incidents, the way grounds are policed, how the FA monitors incidents, strengthening reporting mechanisms and the role of referees.” Source: The Guardian
French League Launches Investigation into Racial Incident
The French football league (LFP) has launched an inquiry after Paris St Germain supporters unfolded a racist banner during the French League Cup final against Lens at the Stade de France last Saturday. “A great party about football, fraternity and solidarity in the fight against racism was partly spoiled by a handful of idiots full of hatred” said LFP president Frederic Thiriez. Source: The Guardian
Chelsea Offer Fans Free Away Tickets
Chelsea are giving 2,900 free tickets to their fans and also plan to pay for train or bus tickets, for this month's away match at Everton because the match has been moved back 2 days to accommodate TV broadcast. “We've continued to make very strong representations for the date of the Everton away game to be changed” the club said in a statement. “This now seems unlikely. Under these circumstances, Chelsea believes it would be inappropriate to profit from the television fee for this match as per normal.” Source: ESPNsocernet
Ronaldo…the 8th Best Paid Player
According to new figures published in a blog called Iain Dale's Diary, Christiano Ronaldo is currently only the 8th highest paid player, making $245k per week, or $12.7m per year. AC Milan's Kaka tops the list at $285k per week, or just under $15m a year. Source: The Daily Telegraph
President Labels English Clubs ‘Pirates’
Palermo President Maurizio Zamparini attacked English clubs calling them ‘pirates’ due to their practice of poaching Italy’s best youngsters. “They are like pirates taking treasure. It’s a shame that they opt for the youngsters when they have the means to buy them when they are fully developed.” Chelsea recently snapped up Reggina’s 15-year-old prospect Vincenzo Camilleri and Atalanta’s Fabio Zamblera, while a few years back Parma-duo Giuseppe Rossi and Arturo Lupoli were signed by Manchester United and Arsenal respectively. Source: Goal.com
Rotherham Takeover Talks Progressing, Slowly
Although several different parties have expressed an interest taking over League Two side Rotherham United, some of the 8 candidates have already been discounted for failing to meet the criteria set down by the Administrator Jeremy Bleazard. Discussions with the remaining candidates are at an ‘early, informal stage’. Source: BBC
Reports Claim Southampton Will Settle for Early Walcott Payment
Championship strugglers Southampton refused to confirm reports claiming that, in order to ease immediate financial problems, they have accepted an early payment from Arsenal for Theo Walcott. Walcott moved to Arsenal in January 2006 for an initial $10m fee, which could rise to $24m based upon his progress, but the Saints have allegedly accepted a total payment of $18m for the England striker. The club has reduced its financial losses but still face an uncertain future, according to their latest half-year report. In the 6 months ending 31 December 2007, Saints' loss after tax was $1.4m, with a drop in revenue of more than $10m. Source: The Independent
* The Rest of the World *
Concerns over South Africa 2010 Grow
FIFA has been forced to build an $800m contingency fund in case the 2010 World Cup collapses, and insurers are holding-off on a decision to provide coverage for the event in South Africa amid fears about security, transport infrastructure, the local political climate, and most glaringly the lack of progress in stadium construction. While FIFA is prepared to cover its commercial obligations for the 2010 tournament, future bids must provide evidence of adequate insurance support. Source: The Guardian
Spurs Consider Playing Friendly in India
Tottenham Hotspur could become the first English team to play a friendly match in India after holding discussions about a game against Kingfisher East Bengal in Kolkata on May 18, but their financial demands of about $1.3m could be a stumbling block. East Bengal director Amit Sen said that United Breweries, the club sponsor, is interested but needs to be persuaded of its worth, adding that a club such as Tottenham would ordinarily be paid about half that sum to play an exhibition match in South-East Asia. Meanwhile, Subhankar Mondal reports in Goal.com that ‘soccermania’ is sweeping through India. Few hard facts are provided, but Mondal uses a series of anecdotes to argue that Indians, especially younger ones, regularly watch European matches and play soccer instead of cricket. Source: The Times & Goal.com
* The Weekly Brief is published every Friday and delivered free via e-mail to registered users.
* FMMInternational is a London-based soccer consultancy with offices in
New York
. For more information about our business, click here
* Interested in using the Weekly Brief for Press/Media Releases, then please contact us via info@fmminternational
* The information contained herein is believed to be correct, but should not be relied upon as such. All financial figures should be seen as indicative only as they may have been converted from another currency.
Weekly Brief - 2008-03-30
March 30, 2008
The Weely Brief, highlighting recent soccer industry stories from around the World is provided to San Francisco Seals Fans courtesy of FMMInternational See below for more information regarding FMMInternational.
Current and past issues of the Weekly Brief can be found in our News/Information section under the " Weekly Brief Archives ".
*
*
Gretna Releases Players And is on Verge Of Extinction
Gretna moved a step closer to extinction after the club's administrators issued redundancy notices to 9 1st-team players, 13 youth players, 1 scout and the 6-strong community coaching team. The administrators took the dramatic course of action to keep the Scottish Premier League club alive but the players only have until Monday to find new clubs or face unemployment until the summer. Administrators announced last week that finance had been secured from the SPL club to fulfil their remaining fixtures, but this announcement leaves the club with a skeleton staff as they prepare for a match against St Mirren that could confirm relegation. Source: the Herald
PFA Chief Claims Players and Managers Must Clean-Up Behaviour
In the wake of last week’s incidents involving Chelsea defender Ashley Cole's and Liverpool midfielder Javier Mascherano, Professional Footballers' Association chief executive Gordon Taylor believes referees have to become a `no-go area' in order for the game to clean up its act. “As a general rule we should treat referees as no-go areas and learn from other sports. It is time managers and players did accept a responsibility because what happens at the top level happens lower down. It is the bad points that get highlighted and the game has to be very much aware and do all it can to eradicate it.” Source: ESPNsoccernet
ITV Renew Champions League Rights Contract
British broadcaster ITV has retained the rights to show Uefa Champions League matches for 2009-2012 seasons. They will broadcast the 1st pick of Wednesday night games, including the final and Uefa Super Cup Final, and BSkyB will cover live matches and highlights on a Tuesday, plus matches other than the 1st choice on Wednesdays. Contrary to previous reports, the BBC announced that they did not bid for live Champions League rights. Source: BBC
QPR Sign Huge Kit Deal
Mid-table Championship team Queen Park Rangers' announcement that Lotto Sport Italia would become their kit supplier in a deal worth $40m. The west London side attracted attention in November when it was taken over by Flavio Briatore, owner of the Renault F1 team, and Bernie Ecclestone, Formula 1 Management's chief executive. After clearing a $26m debt, they attracted investment from Lakshmi Mittal, the billionaire steel magnate, and have now persuaded one of Italy's biggest sports clothing retailers to sign on. Source: the Financial Times
West Ham To Play Host To American Prospects
The 12 players selected from the USL’s American Super Y-League Olympic Development Project National Camps, held earlier this year, embarked on a 9-day visit to West Ham Youth Academy today. The 10 field players and 2 goalkeepers will watch an EPL match, train at West Ham’s youth academy, be formally evaluated, and they will join the West Ham Academy as they travel to Leicester, England to face Leicester City and face the Under-14 and Under-15 from Ipswich Town 2 days later. Source: USLsoccer.com
Norwegian Club Director Convicted Of Forging Mikel Contract
Morgan Andersen, former director of the Norwegian club Lyn, has been convicted of forging a contract with Jon Obi Mikel, the player who became embroiled in a transfer row between Manchester United and Chelsea. The court case has attracted a lot of attention in Norway because it shines a light on the often mysterious ways in which young African players end up in Europe, but very little in England despite the fact that it included testimony by Rune Hauge, the well-known Norwegian agent, who claimed Chelsea were behind the placing of four young Nigerians, including Mikel, in Norway waiting for them to turn 18. Source: BBC
* Comment: Simple Solutions to Address Player Conduct *
The unseemly incidents that occurred last week involving Chelsea’s Ashley Cole and Liverpool’s Javier Mascherano could easily be avoided in the future. Rules could be instituted that prohibit any player who is not directly involved in an incident, besides the captain, from even speaking to an official. Or the referee could be given the right to force a team to substitute a player, as already happens in non-competitive matches. Giving the referee an option between tolerating intolerable dissent or severely damaging the match by forcing a team play shorthanded could easily be explored.
* The Weekly Brief is published every Friday and delivered free via e-mail to registered users.
* FMMInternational is a London-based soccer consultancy with offices in
New York
. For more information about our business, click here
* Interested in using the Weekly Brief for Press/Media Releases, then please contact us via info@fmminternational
* The information contained herein is believed to be correct, but should not be relied upon as such. All financial figures should be seen as indicative only as they may have been converted from another currency.
Weekly Brief - 2008-02-01
The Weely Brief, highlighting recent soccer industry stories from around the World is provided to San Francisco Seals Fans courtesy of FMMInternational See below for more information regarding FMMInternational.
Current and past issues of the Weekly Brief can be found in our News/Information section under the " Weekly Brief Archives ".
*
MLS announced that
Seattle
will become the league's 15th team and begin play at Qwest Field, which will be downsized to accommodate 24,500 fans, in 2009. The team will be owned by
Hollywood
movie studio executive Joe Roth, Seattle Sounders Managing Partner Adrian Hanauer, actor Drew Carey and Vulcan Sports and Entertainment (VSE), the owner of the NFL's Seattle Seahawks. The Pennsylvania Senate Appropriations Committee authorized spending $45m on a stadium in
Chester
and other area projects, which means that most of the funding is in place for the $115m project that could prompt MLS to award
Philadelphia
a franchise. Finally, commissioner Don Garber indicated that MLS will not seriously consider
Vancouver
for expansion until a plan to build a new stadium is in place. Sources: ESPNsoccernet, the
Philadelphia
Sun.
CONCACAF Appoints New Deputy General Secretary
CONCACAF announced that Italo Zanzi will replace Jason Hughes as Deputy General Secretary. Hughes will return to his native
England
after 4 years of service, and Zanzi, who was vice president of International Broadcast Sales & Latin America/US Hispanic Marketing at Major League Baseball, will have responsibility for a range of activities including CONCACAF’s commercial program and communications. Source: CONCACAF
Becks Signs Deal With Armani
David Beckham has signed a 3-year endorsement deal with Giorgio Armani, worth an estimated $41m, to promote the fashion designer's new Emporio SS08 line of underwear. The advertisements will begin running on billboards and in fashion magazines in January. Source:
Los Angeles
Business
MLS Receives Mixed Diversity Grade
Major League Soccer ranks among the most racially diverse leagues in American professional sports but lags behind its peers in gender diversity, according to a report authored by Richard Lapchick, director of The Institute for Diversity and Ethics in Sport at the
University
of
Central Florida
. MLS earned an A grade for racial diversity, behind only the NBA, but ranked last in gender with a D-plus. MLS commissioner Don Garber claimed that the league's relatively small number of employees means that a few departures can lead to a wide fluctuation in percentages and expressed confidence that effective initiatives are in place. Source; Sporting News
Boca Announces Stadium Expansion
Boca Junior's board has approved redevelopment work at its stadium that will take the capacity of the Estadio Alberto J. Armando, better known as La Bombonera, beyond 60,000 from its current 57,395. Plans call for 5,000 new seats, with 2,800 of those in private boxes and the remainder in the stands, the extension the bathroom and restaurant facilities, and the construction a new section to exhibit the club's trophies. Source: SoccerEx
*
*
FA Denies Rumours Of Revising Home Internationals
The English Football Association denied that there have been discussions with other British countries about resuming the Home International tournament for the 1st time since 1984. The statement, which did not dismiss the possibility of future talks, came in response to rumours that there would be interest because of the likelihood that no British country would qualify for EURO 2008. Source: Irish Examiner
Benelux
Countries Will Bid For 2018 World Cup
Although president Sepp Blatter has stated that FIFA prefer that the World Cup be hosted by one nation, the
Benelux
countries announced they will bid for the 2018 event.
Belgium
and
Holland
successfully staged Euro 2000, and organizers have announced that there will be “one candidate and not with two separate organizing committees," which they hope will assuage Blatter’s fears, and argued that, “
Belgium
can be a good example to smaller football associations." Source: Guardian
Platini Addresses Controversial Issues
UEFA president Michel Platini spoke out on a number of issues this week. Although he was unable to convince
Europe
's five biggest football associations of the merits of his plan to hand domestic cup winners one of the spots awarded to the top placed domestic sides, he claimed that, “We can do that in three years.” He refused to throw his support behind any of the European countries bidding to host the 2018 World Cup: “If there are two or three European countries going to bid, they all have to convince me.” And he criticized the youth policies at Arsenal and Manchester United, argued that players need to be nurtured in their country of origin until they turn 20 or 21, and noted that
England
has regulations preventing clubs poaching young players from each other. Source: ESPNsoccernet
Spurs Win Approval For New Facility
Tottenham Hotspur has overcome vigorous opposition and won approval to build a $62M training ground on
Enfield
's Green Belt, north east of
London
. The project will see the construction of a two-story training facility, the demolition of a sports club and the appropriation of 11 hectares of agricultural land, which is part of the Forty Hall estate and currently used by
Capel
City
Partners To Expand Globally
Manchester City owner Thaksin Shinawatra this week revealed plans to make the club a global power, starting with academies in Thailand and China and link-ups with a host of clubs around the world - China's Shanghai Shenhua, Thailand's Chonburi FC, Australian A-league outfit Perth Glory, Grasshoppers Club Zurich of Switzerland, Thanda Royal Zulu FC of Durban and Russian side FC Moscow. The clubs will exchange coaches, hold youth tournaments, strengthen commercial ties, and seek out joint marketing opportunities and initiatives. City, which already has
China
's Sun Jihai on its books, also handed trials to three Chinese as part of the link-up with Shenhua. They also signed a 3-year 7-figure sponsorship deal with Thai beer Singha where Singha will have “extensive stadium branding, advertising and promotional rights both in the
UK
and overseas,” and that the beer will be on sale at the City of
Manchester Stadium
FCand Yahoo.com
Website Takes Over Club
MyFootballClub, a 20,000-member website-based consortium, has agreed to take over Blue Square Premier (formerly the Conference) club Ebbsfleet United ionthe fifth tier of English football. The first of its kind purchase was made possible by $72 contributions by each member, who now own equals share of the club, entitling them to vote on transfers and other issues. Source: Tech.co.uk
Record Financial Figures For
Watford
Watford FC announced a record turnover of $61m for the year ending June 30 2007. This increase, $44m on the previous year, was driven primarily by increased TV income from being in the EPL together with higher income generated from ticket sales and corporate hospitality. The profit on ordinary activities before taxation was $16.4m compared to an $11.5m the previous year. Source:
Watford
Observe
Prominent English Figures Express Concern About Foreign Influx
Although British Sports minister Gerry Sutcliffe stopped short of backing the quota system proposed by FIFA president Sepp Blatter, he called for an independent inquiry into whether the number of foreign players in the EPL is having a detrimental effect on the
England
team. “I understand the complexities of the issues around freedom of movement and competition issues, but it just doesn't feel we have got the balance right at the moment and that we need to look at what is possible.” In a similar vain, Reading manager Steve Coppell has called on the EPL to limit the number of foreigners in the English game in the hope a quota of English players in each team's matchday squad will encourage clubs to develop homegrown talent and protect the league's identity. "We have to protect our own development. I think it's a necessity that over the course of the next couple of years, even if it starts with one English player per 16, we protect our identity by having a limited number of English players within our own environment.” Sources: ESPNsoccernet and Yahoo! Sport
Hicks Claims No Interest In Roma
AS Roma's controlling shareholder Italpetroli released a statement on the team’s official website saying the company had "been informed by a third party of the possible interest of an American businessman wanting to invest in AS Roma's capital," but Roy Winnick, a spokesman for Liverpool co-owner Tom Hicks, denied he has any interest in acquiring the Serie A giant. "There is absolutely no truth whatsoever in the rumor that Mr. Hicks is even considering investing in Roma football club" Source: Yahoo! Sport
* Rest of World *
Problems With Stadium Construction In
South Africa
Although World Cup organizers insist there is no threat to
South Africa
hosting the 2010 tournament, they have admitted that the deadline for completing two of the five stadia being built is “very, very tight.” Plans to hold Confederations Cup matches at the Nelson Mandela Bay Stadium in
Port Elizabeth
a year before the World Cup may have to be shelved due to construction delays. Source: Graphic Online
Chelsea
,
New Jersey
will begin next week. The announcement comes less than 2 weeks after Red Bull, which owns the New York MLS franchise, bought out AEG's 50% stake in the facility. The final design has been modified to become a soccer-specific facility, which will seat 25,189. Gone are the concert stage and the supports that would have obstructed views from some seats, and the number of luxury suites have been reduced from 50 to 30. Perhaps the biggest change is that a translucent polycarbonate and aluminum structure will cover every seat, as opposed to the cantilevered roof that would have left several thousand fans exposed to the elements. Source: the Star Ledger
Lalas Claims Galaxy Plan On Being Superclub
Despite all the measures that MLS has put in place to promote parity, GM Alexi Lalas still has grand plans for the LA Galaxy: “Make no mistake, we are hell-bent with the vision of being the first MLS soccer team to emerge as a Superclub. I think what we've done in the past year has certainly established ourselves as a global brand in that there are people now that wake up and, when they think about American soccer, they think about the Galaxy.” In a related story, Commissioner Don Garber announced that the
Home
will host the MLS Cup on November 23, 2008. Source: Yahoo! Sports and Goal.com
Pan-Pacific Cup Announced
David Beckham and the LA Galaxy will lead a 4-team field in the inaugural Pan-Pacific Championship exhibition tournament in
Hawaii
next February. The event also will include Japanese league cup champion Gamba Osaka, the MLS Cup champion Houston Dynamo and a team from the Australian A-League Final Series. The tournament will consist of doubleheaders February 20 and 23, with winners of the 1st matches playing for the title and the losers for 3rd place. Source: Yahoo! Sports
Bundesliga Reaching Out To MLS
There have been few tangible results from the strategic partnership between the Bundesliga and MLS announced last spring, but Bundesliga chief executive Christian Seifert indicated that some German clubs may conduct preseason training in the
US
, which would allow them to compete against MLS clubs, possibly in the All-Star game. “Right now we have 12 teams that do preseason training in
Spain
and
India
. We want to put out our message that the Bundesliga is entertaining and exciting, we do our own TV production in high-definition, and we want to share our expertise.” Source: the New York Times
*
*
Nike And Football Foundation Form Partnership
Nike and the Football Foundation* have agreed to run a number of initiatives aiming to boost community sport, including the ‘Nike Player Panel’, beginning next year. The scheme will see 4 soccer players, based in 4 regions, become ‘Football Foundation Ambassadors’ charged with helping community sports projects get funding. Clubs and schools will also be able to apply for football strips on the Junior Kit Scheme, via the Football Foundation’s website, and the Foundation will also be helping to promote Nike’s global competition ‘Sport for a better world.’ Source: Leisure Opportunities * The Football Foundation is the
UK
's largest sports charity funded by the EPL, The Football Association, Sport England and the Government. Its mission is to ‘improve facilities, create opportunities and build communities throughout
England
Five Arrested In Bung Probe
City of
police arrested 5 men - including
Portsmouth
manager Harry Redknapp, the club's CEO Peter Storrie and its former chairman Milan Mandaric - on suspicion of conspiracy to defraud and false accounting after launching a series of raids across
England
. Redknapp, who said he was "bitterly disappointed" at the way police have handled an inquiry, and three others have since been released on police bail, though a 30-year-old remains in custody. Source: BBC
FIFA Considers Olympic-Style Bidding Process
President Sepp Blatter said that FIFA may adopt an Olympic-style bidding process to cut down the number of countries applying to host the 2018 World Cup finals. “If there is actually as many candidates as there appears to be then we will have to do what the IOC does and have a preliminary elimination and only go with those who have given the right guarantees.” During the week
Spain
chairman David Gold may buy back Carson Yeung's 29.9% stake in the club if the
Hong Kong
businessman's prospective takeover of the club collapses this week. Yeung has until Friday to convince the Blues board he can come up with the $72m he needs to become the club's new owner by December 20th. Despite the resignation of Chairman David Allen and debts exceeding $55m,
Sheffield
Wednesday's board has insisted “the club's finances are not in any way threatened.” Millionaire casino owner Allen, the club's second largest creditor after loaning them $5.5m, quit his post last Friday, citing a breakdown of trust in his fellow directors as the reason for his sudden departure.
Coventry
City
are also believed to be in negotiations as they look to fight-off Administration. Sources: BBC and The Daily Mail
Le Mans Sets Naming Rights Precedent
Le Mans
has become the 1st French club to sign a contract for commercial naming of its stadium, with the insurance company MMA agreeing to pay nearly $15m over 10 years to be associated with the club’s new 25,000-seat stadium beginning in 2009. In a related story, Espanyol have hired Mediapro to find a sponsor willing to pay approximately $6.5m for the naming rights to its new Cornella-El Prat stadium. Mediapro will also be in charge of the club’s commercialization in
Spain
FIFA Makes Investment In African Infrastructure
FIFA pledged to spend $70m to develop soccer infrastructure throughout
Africa
. An important part of the ‘Win in Africa with
Africa
’ campaign will be the construction of artificial pitches across the continent. Danny Jordaan CEO of the 2010 World Cup Organizing Committee said, “This is a truly momentous moment for African football. The 20 centers for 2010 Campaign reflects our goal to make a difference for all of
Africa
. This campaign is a very concrete step towards giving thousands of African youngsters the chance of a better future.” Source: sagoodnews.co.za
Indian Corporation Becomes WC Sponsor
India
’s Satyam Computer Services announced that it signed up as one of the 4 sponsors of the FIFA World Cup and has become an official IT services provider. The relationship, the 1st FIFA have inked with a corporation from
India
Star
Becks Tops Player Rich List
David Beckham was the highest placed player in FourFourTwo’s annual ‘British Football Rich List’, with his $183m in assets nearly triple that of 2nd placed player Michael Owen’s $67m. Club owners dominated the list, with Beckham ranking just 34th, but its interesting note that players occupied 21 of the top 100 spots compared to just nine in 2004. Source: FourFourTwo
Maracana Renovation Requires Joint Administration
A study ordered by Rio's state government, done by the
US
consulting firm Booz Allen Hamilton, concluded that a “joint administration” comprising two local clubs and the Brazilian football confederation (CBF) would be the best management choice for renovating the Maracana in advance of the 2014 World Cup. Flamengo announced a consortium with the Bonham Group and AEG Worldwide to fight for exclusive rights to manage the historic stadium, but Booz Allen Hamilton also stated that the joint administration would only be economically viable to “at least two big clubs in
Rio
, and
Spain
will go directly into the group stage and the 4th-placed one will play two qualifying rounds. Source: The Guardian
EC Scuttles Blatter Quota Plan
FIFA president Sepp Blatter's proposal to reduce the number of foreign players competing in European leagues was dealt a crippling blow by the European Commission, which announced that imposing quotas on EU nationals is “direct discrimination,” The EC will consider imposing a quota on clubs to ensure they employ a minimum number of “home-grown” players, but provided these players are permitted to work in the European Union, their nationality will be irrelevant. Source: BBC Sport
Sheffield
United Seek Compensation For Relegation
Sheffield United chairman Kevin McCabe announced that the club’s case for compensation following relegation from the EPL will be heard by a Football Association tribunal in 2008. Although last July the High Court refused to reverse the EPL arbitration panel's decision over ‘Tevezgate’, the clubs hopes to be compensated for what they claim was their unjust demotion. “If you say that the Championship play-off game is worth GBP60m ($126m) and Sheffield United's attendance last year was 31,000, with full hospitality boxes and restaurants and broadcasting income,” McKabe reasoned, “you would say compensation is around GBP50m ($105m)." Source: BBC Sport
Spurs, West Ham, and
. Source: BBC Sport
BBC and Sky Acquire Rights To Championship and Carling Cup
The BBC and Sky Sports haves secured the broadcast rights Football League and Carling Cup matches for $185m per season, which represents a 135% percent increase for the Championship, from the 2009 to 2012. Ten Championship matches will be aired live on the BBC every season, and the Carling Cup final will be simulcast live with Sky, and two semi-final legs shown exclusively live on the BBC. The BBC Sport website will also show goals from all Football League clubs. Source: BBC
* Rest of World *
Australian League Sponsor Negotiations Stall\
The Australian A-League faces a cash crisis because major sponsor Hyundai is reportedly baulking at Football Federation Australia's $18m asking price for a contract extension. News of the impasse hit just 24 hours after it was revealed the FFA has recorded a $10m loss for the past financial year. On a more positive note, Football Federation Australia announced that it plans to spend $9m to make
Australia
a “world leader in the world game” by overhauling its youth system. Plans include a national youth league, a woman’s A-league, an emphasis on having youth players participate in small-sided games and futsal, a unified national curriculum, and a greater effort to develop talent from country areas. Sources: FourFourTwo; Fox Sports
ESPN STAR Renews Contract With English FA
Figures were not released, but Asian sports broadcaster ESPN STAR Sports has renewed a multi-year exclusive agreement with
England
African Star Urges CAF To Reschedule Nations Cup
Senegal
captain El Hadji Diouf has urged the Confederation of African Football (CAF) to reschedule the Nations Cup so that it does not conflict with the European season. CAF maintains that the tournament cannot be moved to summer because that is
Africa
’s rainy season, but Diouf warned that players feel conflicted: “We are keen to defend the colors of our country and we are conscious of the importance of our national jerseys, but people must not forget that players have duties to their employers who pay big salaries. All our matches are important now if we are to save our place among the elite.” Source: BBC
* The Weekly Brief is published every Friday and delivered free via e-mail to registered users.
* FMMInternational is a London-based soccer consultancy with offices in
New York
* Americas *
Earthquake Introduce New General Manager
The new San Jose Earthquake franchise, which will rejoin MLS next season, unveiled a redesigned uniform and logo, and announced that former player and assistant coach John Doyle would be the GM. Michael Crowley, who is president of the Oakland A’s as well as the Earthquake, indicated that Doyle’s deep passion for soccer and ties to the local community stood out. Source: San Jose Mercury News
Seattle Sounders Reportedly MLS Bound
Although MLS will only concede that it plans to award 2 more franchises by the 1st quarter of 2008, the Herald News of New Jersey and Sports Illustrated both reported that the Seattle Sounders, who will leave the USL as champions, will be one of them. The team, which will be the first located in the Northwest, will reportedly join the league for the 2009 season and play at Qwest Field. Philadelphia, St. Louis, and, to a lesser extent, Portland are reported to be in the running for the final allocation. Sources: the Herald News of New Jersey; Sports Illustrated
Lalas Assesses Hispanic Fans
Although LA Galaxy GM Alexi Lalas expressed excitement about the possibility of courting second and third generation Hispanic soccer fans, who are open to supporting different teams than their parents because they “look at themselves as Americans,” he warned that they are soccer savvy. "You could have a big-name player come over (from a Latin American country), but if the player is poor or the team is poor, the Hispanic fans quickly turn off." Source: HispanicBusiness.com
GolTV Hires Prominent Consultant
Kevan Pipe, who was head of the Canadian Soccer Association for 21 years, and continues to represent CONCACAF and FIFA internationally, has been hired by Insight Sport’s GolTV as a consultant. Pipe will assist with the strategic business development in the areas of events, sales, marketing and programming. Source: Sports Features Communications
Makita Sponsors Cup Competition
Makita, who sponsors tools for MLS, will hold a cup competition for contractors in Dallas from October 6-11. The aim of the Copa Makita is to reach out to Hispanic contractors, who account for 25% of that workforce, and their families, who can attend the Fiesta Makita, which will feature food, music, merchandise, and games. Sponsors include Monster Energy Drink, Chevy, Western Union, and Dr. Pepper. Source: PR Newswire
Dynamo Form Elite Youth Academy
The Houston Dynamo, in conjunction with the McAllen Youth Soccer Association, announced the formation of the Dynamo South Texas Academy, consisting of U-17 and U-15 teams. "The South Texas region is an absolute hot bed of talent for soccer," said Dynamo Director of Youth Development James Clarkson. "We've established this academy not only to further the awareness of soccer in the South Texas region, but also to identify talent that is looking for the future opportunity to play professionally with the Houston Dynamo or in Major League Soccer." Source: Our Sports Central
New Sponsor Deals
Banco Santander of Spain has become the title sponsor of the Copa Libertadores, CONMEBOL’s premier club competition. They replace Toyota. Separately, The Columbus Crew this week announced the signing of ICI Paints brand Glidden as the clubs ‘Presenting Sponsor’. Glidden branding will feature on the team jerseys as part of the deal: Sources: Yahoo Finance & MLS.net
More Fallout At Corinthians
Brazilian club Corinthians are at the centre of controversy once again centering around former presidents use of the word ‘robbed’ in relation to the clubs 2005 title win. Brazil’s top sports tribunal is looking into the context of the comment which was made during a telephone conversation recorded by federal police. Source: The Guardian
* Europe *
New Sponsorship Deals
Chelsea has signed a 3 year deal with Gatorade that will see PepsiCo International brand become their official sports drink. Meanwhile Möbel Kraft, a furnishings vendor, has penned a deal that sees them become a ‘co-sponsor’ of Bundesliga side Hertha BSC. Source: Sportfive.com & Chelseafc.com
Usmanov To Ditch Dein?
While Arsenal managing director Keith Edelman earlier declared himself ‘relaxed’ about businessman Alisher Usmanov increased stake in the club, media reports suggest the Russian billionaire has held talks with the Arsenal board that have resulted in David Dein, former vice-chairman and ‘persona non grata’ effectively being sidelined. Meanwhile, following a meeting with the Arsenal board, Stan Kroenke has been urged by the club to join the ‘lockdown’ and agree not to sell his shares in the club. Source: Various
Battle For Control Of Championship Team
Local press are reporting that West Bromwich Albion’s second largest shareholder Geoff Hale has bettered Chairman Jeremy Peace’s offer to club shareholders. Peace is trying to take full control of the club but Hale believes his intention is to sell the club on at a massive profit and hopes his move will block this. Source: Express & Star
Chelsea Tie Up With NFL
Chelsea have agreed a partnership with NFL ahead of the Dolphins v Giants game at Wembley later this month. John Terry and Didier Drogba have been appointed honorary captains of the Giants as part of the partnership and New York team will base at Chelsea’s training centre as part of the arrangement. Source: Chelsefc.com
Roman Clubs Face Action
AS Roma and Lazio could face fines of $680,400 in a false accounting case according to the Italian media. Franco Sensi, the President of AS Roma and Sergio Cragnotti, the former Lazio president are currently standing trial in relation to the case. Source: The Guardian
EPL Team Announce Stadium Development Plans
EPL side Fulham FC plan to add 4,000 seats to their Craven Cottage stadium. The team has outlined the plans to the local authority which is now consulting with local residents. Fulham hope the plans will secure their long term future at Craven Cottage, which has one of the smallest capacities in the EPL at little over 22,000. Source: The Guardian
Luton Town Continuing Losses
League One strugglers Luton Town are losing $6m per year according to their Chairman David Pinkney. The blame is laid at the door of unsustainably high (football) operating costs inherited from the previous ownership and Pinkney concedes the situation is unlikely to stabilize until current player contracts have expired. This summer the team announced plans to build a new 22,000 seat stadium. Source: Bedford Today
* The Weekly Brief is published every Friday and delivered free via e-mail to registered users.
* FMMInternational is a London-based soccer consultancy with offices in
New York
Group closer to MLS Franchise
By a vote of 4-1, the City Council of Collinsville, Illinois, adjacent to St. Louis, agreed to enter into formal negotiations with St. Louis Soccer United’s Jeff Cooper to secure the farmland and subsidies that will facilitate the construction of a $573m soccer complex. The plans include an 18,500-seat stadium, 240 hotel rooms, several youth soccer fields and nearly 500,000 square feet of office and retail space. Cooper said he was ‘very confident’ that MLS would grant St. Louis an expansion franchise in November, and believed that they could begin playing in 2009. Source: St. Louis Post Dispatch
CFL Franchise Explores Move to MLS Stadium
The Canadian Football League’s Toronto Argonauts are investigating the feasibility of moving to FC Toronto’s 25,000-seat BMO Field. Argos’ co-owner David Cynamon told Rogers Sportsnet that the process was just beginning, and doubts have been raised because it might take years to reconstruct one end of the soccer-specific stadium. The CFL franchise has until early next year to exercise their option for an additional 5-year lease with the Rogers Centre, which they share with Major League Baseball’s Toronto Blue Jays. Source: Toronto Globe and Mail
Beckham Injury Forces Postponement of Exhibition Match
David Beckham’s knee injury has forced the postponement of an exhibition match between the LA Galaxy and the USL’s Vancouver Whitecaps that was scheduled to be played in Vancouver on October 3rd until November. 45,000 tickets were sold but the agreement between the two clubs stipulated that Beckham must play at least 45 minutes. The specific date will not be finalized until the Galaxy know whether they will qualify for MLS’s playoffs, which run until mid November. Source: The Vancouver Sun
MLS Franchise For Philly gets high level endorsement
On September 7th, MLS commissioner Don Garber said that Philadelphia is almost certain to be granted a franchise ("It's not an 'if' question; it's a 'when' question."). Although he indicated that the public and private financing must be formally sorted out by December if the team wants to begin playing in the 2010 season, he expressed confidence in the ownership group, which is led by Jay Sugarman, chief executive of New York-based iStar Financial, and in the ongoing negotiations with Chester City, Delaware over the financing to build a stadium projected to cost $120m. Source: The Philadelphia Daily News
EPL Team Set Up Academy With US Club
Everton have reached an agreement with the FC Revolution to set up a training academy in Eastern Pennsylvania. Everton will provide the curriculum, training videos, and technical advisers over the next 3 years. Everton announced a similar partnership in western Pennsylvania with the Pittsburgh Riverhounds less than a month ago. Source: Evertonfc.com
Chivas USA Name New CEO
Chivas USA hired Shawn Hunter to be their new president and CEO. The club, which is averaging just over 12,000 fans per match, hopes that the former AEG Sports chairman can raise those figures like he did during previous jobs with the National Hockey League’s Colorado Avalanche and Phoenix Coyotes. Source: LA Times
* Europe *
Glazers Deny that Man U’s Debts Have Increased
The Glazer family, which owns Manchester United, has denied claims made by the Manchester United Supporters Trust (MUST) that the club’s debts have increased by approximately $57m. The report issued by MUST also alleges that the debts are being paid by using income from the club’s TV and shirt sponsorship agreement with AIG. A spokesperson for the Glazers categorically denied the allegations: “Nothing has changed. The debts continue to be comfortably serviced by the business, which is performing better than ever.” Source: Soccernet
EPL Star Arrested In Corruption Probe
Tottenham Hotspur defender Pascal Chimbonda was arrested this week as part of Operation Apprentice, the UK’s long-standing investigation into corruption in soccer. It was reported that detectives questioned Chimbonda with regards to ‘suspicion of conspiracy to defraud,’ with focus on his $700,000 transfer from French club Bastia to Wigan in 2005. Both Wigan and Tottenham declined to comment, citing the sensitive nature of the ongoing investigation. Source: Daily Telegraph
Mixed Views On Platini Plans
Manchester United and Liverpool’s chief executives, David Gill and Rick Parry, voiced opposition to UEFA president Michel Platini’s proposal to give a place in the Champions League to winners of domestic cup competitions from 2009 at a meeting of the 102 members of the European Club Forum in Switzerland this week. Italian clubs are generally in favor of the proposal as they hope it will revitalize the Coppa Italia, Spanish and French clubs believe the decision should be taken by individual FA’s while the German clubs could not reach a consensus. Source: The Press Association.
Coventry Deny Threat
Championship club Coventry City has denied they face administration and that a U.S consortium has pulled-out of talks to takeover the club. Managing Director Paul Fletcher has stated the club is still in talks with Manhattan Sports Capital Partners and that the club has attracted interest from 3 additional groups. Coventry City has debt at around $56m and does not own the Ricoh Arena, where it plays home matches. Source: Sky Sports
G-14 Announces Proposals
The G-14, the 18-member group representing Europe’s top professional clubs, has announced plans to expand to 50 members by the end of the year in the hope of resolving a dispute with UEFA. The group, which has been criticized by UEFA and FIFA for pursuing the interests of only the elite clubs, plans on changing its name and rewriting its constitution. Source: Soccernet
Bates Claims Leeds Not For Sale
Leeds United chairman Ken Bates admits that he is seeking investors but insisted that the club is not for sale. Rumors surfaced that ex-Newcastle chairman Freddie Shepherd was an interested buyer, but Bates said that discussions between the pair had not advanced and claims he is ‘in it for the long haul.’ Source: The Bradford Telegraph & Argus
UEFA Convenes Meeting To Discuss Safety
Last week UEFA, in conjunction with the Dutch National Football Information Point (CIV), convened a meeting in Amsterdam to discuss safety and security at international soccer matches, especially forthcoming Champions League matches. Attendees shared information, coordinated security, and worked on implementing UEFA President Michel Platini’s plan for zero tolerance. Source: UEFA.com
* The Weekly Brief is published every Friday and delivered free via e-mail to registered users.
* FMMInternational is a London-based soccer consultancy with offices in
New York
* Americas *
Beckham attracting more stars?
FC Dallas this week announced the signing of 29 year old Brazilian World Cup winner Denilson, who joins from Al-Nasr of Saudi Arabia. Denison was famously sold by São Paulo to Spain’s Real Betis for $40 million in 1998.
Semi-Finals on the road
With the New England Revolution’s Foxborough home stadium unavailable on September 4th the MLS team will host USL’s Carolina RailHawks in the Open Cup semi-final at the 8,500 capacity Veteran's Memorial Stadium in the city of New Britain, Connecticut - some 100 miles away.
World Cup bidder tells cities to shape-up
The Brazilian Football Confederation (CBF) has asked its 18 candidate cities to prove to FIFA that they are suitable venues to host the competition. Despite being the only country bidding to host the 2014 competition, dilapidated stadiums and a strained public transport system, allied to social and economic issues have put the bid under scrutiny in Brazil.
Stadium finance go-ahead
The Deseret News reported this week that The Sandy City Council has signed-off the $35 million in bonds for Real Salt Lake's new stadium project, putting in place the final city approvals to build the $110 million, 20,000-seat stadium.
New PDL franchise
USL announced that Juan Carlos Hernandez has acquired the Premier Development League (PDL) franchise rights for the greater Houston area with Houston Leones, slated to start playing at the 17-acre facility Soccer World Center, Richmond, TX in the 2008 season. The PDL focuses on developing young players with rules dictating a maximum of 8 players in each team's 26-man roster can be over 23 years old, while at least 3 players must be 18 or younger.
* Europe *
Italian soccer channel launched
SerieA.tv, a dedicated Serie A broadband internet channel is to be launched this week. The channel, run by Infront Advanced Media Solutions, will offer live and delayed matches along with magazine content to fans in Asia and the Americas.
EPL side dismiss (more) takeover rumours
Newcastle United have denied the club is about to change hands for the second time this year. Growing speculation had linked the club, which was taken over by English sportswear magnate Mike Ashley less than 2 months ago, with a bid from Icelandic businessmen Jon Asgeir Johannesson and Palmi Haroldsson.
Possible takeover?
West London based Championship team Queens Park Rangers has confirmed it is talking to various parties about a takeover. Italian Flavio Briatore, principal of Renault’s Formula 1 racing team, has confirmed he is interested in the team but has denied making a bid.
Doubtful takeover?
Portuguese businessman Joe Berardo is finding it difficult to acquire shares for his takeover of Benfica. Having launched a bid for an 85% holding in the club last month, the Lisbon Stock Exchange announced this week that he’d only acquired 1% of the club's stock. Berardo remains bullish and is expected to maintain his interest in a takeover.
Impressive figures in Scotland
Current Scottish Premier League champions Celtic FC announced record profits of $30m for the last 12 months, due largely to reaching the last 16 of the UEFA Champions League - which was thought to have produced up to $24m. Revenue for the period stood at $150 million.
EPL price cuts taking effect
EPL team Blackburn Rovers has seen their ticket price-cutting strategy reap rewards with a 15% increase in season ticket sales. Rovers cut the cost of the average ticket by 25% passing on to fans some of the benefits of the record EPL TV deal. The club now has around 14,500 season ticket holders.
Development plans in Edinburgh
Heart of Midlothian, the Scottish Premier League team based in the Scottish capital announced plans for a $100m development of their Tynecastle stadium. The plans centre on the building of a new 10,000 capacity stand that will incorporate a hotel and leisure facilities and will raise the capacity to 23,000.
* The Rest of the World *
European giants continue to look east
Following on from Bayern Munich’s signing of a Memorandum of Understanding with The Cong Viettel in Vietnam, Spanish giants Barcelona confirmed that they are looking at a possible link with rival V-League club Dong Thap.
* The Weekly Brief is published every Friday and delivered free via e-mail to registered users.
* FMMInternational is a London-based soccer consultancy with offices in
New York
* Americas *
International matches announced
Mexico will play China at the LA Coliseum on October 17 in the final match of its 5-game 2007 tour. They will also play Brazil at Foxborough, Mass. on September 12 as well as Colombia on August 22 in Denver.
Beckham presence being felt
DC United sold out nearly 47,000 (triple its season average) for Thursday's game with the Galaxy which saw Beckham make his MLS debut. New York Red Bulls have sold more than 50,000 seats at Giants Stadium for their August 18 match - at double their usual prices.
Canadian teams on MLS horizon
With Toronto FC having made a positive impression on the MLS this season, other Canadian cities are looking at the MLS and receiving encouraging signs from the League, with both Montréal and Vancouver – home to successful USL-1 teams - being touted as future expansion cities.
Stadia plans
The Deseret Morning News reports that negotiations between Real Salt Lake and the city of Sandy on the new soccer specific stadium are nearing conclusion. Sandy officials have received copies of the agreement outlining the conditions under which RSL will receive $35m from the state for its stadium. Meanwhile, the Kansas City Star reports that the Wizards will propose an 18-22,000 capacity stadium on the Bannister Mall, to include between 12 to 18 soccer fields and more than a million square feet of mixed-use space as well as a further million square feet of retail.
WSF signs another team
Rio-based Flamengo has become the first non-European club to sign-up to the World Superleague Formula (WSF), which sees team branded F1-type cars compete in a racing series. They join European giants AC Milan, FC Porto, PSV Eindhoven, Olympiacos, Borussia Dortmund and Anderlecht to commit to the project. For more information on WSF please contact FMMI.
Red Bull Park opening changed again but training centre plans announced
With two dates already proposed, a letter to Red Bulls season-ticket holders this week from MD Marc de Grandpre said, "… we now anticipate that the opening of RBP will take place in (April) 2009 due to a lengthier cleanup phase..." Meanwhile, the Red Bulls will build their new training facility in Hanover NJ. The facility will consist of 6 soccer fields, a 50,000 sqft office building/training center and a field house. Completion is expected in December 2008.
Concacaf President speaks his mind
Jack Warner said he will battle to stop England hosting the 2018 FIFA World Cup. Speaking to the BBC World Service, Warner said "Nobody in Europe likes England. England invented the sport but has never made any impact on world football. It will be Italy, Spain, or even France who will get the World Cup if it goes to Europe”. All 3 countries have hosted the tournament since England hosted it in 1966.
* Europe *
Boss says he will not tolerate interference
Steve Bruce, manger of EPL side Birmingham City has warned that he will quit his post if Carson Yeung (the club’s biggest shareholder with 29.9%) meddles in team affairs. Yeung was known for exerting influence over team selection when he owned Hong Kong Rangers.
$20 takeover completed
Property magnate Steve Morgan this week completed his $20 takeover of Championship club Wolverhampton Wanderers. Former owner Sir Jack Haywood agreed to sell to Morgan for the token sum on the condition the new owner pumped $60m into the club to revive it.
Leeds penalty upheld
Leeds United, relegated to the third tier of English professional soccer for their first time in their history, will start the season with a 15 point deficit after Football League members voted not to overturn the penalty. Leeds described the decision to uphold the punishment for breaching insolvency rules as ‘perverse’.
Another team ties with UNICEF
Argentinean giants Boca Juniors will display the UNICEF logo on their shirts as a result of a deal between the team, UNICEF and Nike. Nike will donate a portion of revenues generated from Boca shirt sales and the club will collaborate with UNICEF on Argentina-based initiatives. Barcelona last year signed a similar arrangement with UNICEF.
The ‘Old Lady’ cuts losses
Serie A club Juventus announced its net loses were down in the 4th quarter of the financial year - $16.m from $50.m the previous year. The improvement was due to a 10.5% increase in revenue coupled with a 27.1% fall in operating expenditure.
Real debt levels
Real Madrid president Ramon Calderon disclosed that the club had a debt of $370m when he took over last year. Calderon maintains the club is in good financial shape; Real generated $400m in 2005/06.
Changes in player ownership regulations
The EPL is expected to pass new regulations on third party ownership of players at a board meeting next week. The new guidelines will also cover loans and ‘gentlemen’s agreements’ on the availability of loaned or transferred players. ‘Tevezgate’ and the revelation that Manchester United made gentlemen’s agreements over the availability of 2 of their loaned keepers have driven the changes.
Gambling loses out
Following government pressure, the gambling industry has agreed to restrictions that include the removal of betting companies logos from children's replica football shirts. EPL teams Tottenham Hotspur, Aston Villa, Middlesbrough, Blackburn and Sunderland have main-partner agreements with gaming/gambling companies. Tottenham though are resisting attempts to remove their sponsor Mansion from their replica shirts, arguing that children want exact replicas of the shirts the team are wearing.
* The Weekly Brief is published every Friday and delivered free via e-mail to registered users.
* FMMInternational is a London-based soccer consultancy with offices in
New York
* Americas *
Another trans-Atlantic partnership announced
West Ham United of the EPL have announced a ‘development partnership’ with USL, covering areas such as ‘player identification, player exchange, coaching and club development initiatives’. One component will see West Ham identifying up to 20 youth players from the USL Super Y-League and Super-20 League to attend the club’s Youth Academy for training and evaluation.
Battle for MLS franchise in Pacific north-west hots up
A potential rival to the Keston Family has emerged in the quest to bring MLS to the Seattle area. Atletico Seattle Management Co. LLC - a consortium of Los Angeles-based Investors led by Nevin Sanli and including real estate developer Larry Kosmont and former player Frank Leboeuf, are proposing a 25,000-seat soccer stadium in the Puget Sound region. Separately, a group in Portland led by Timbers’ owner Merritt Paulson is trying to win an expansion franchise for the city.
European broadcaster continues to push on in North America
Irish based broadcaster Setanta has agreed a deal with EchoStar Communications Dish Network in the US to distribute its 24-hour digital sports channel. Setanta has US rights for live European football including EPL matches as well as rugby and other sports. In addition, Setanta will launch a Canadian soccer channel with extensive rights to live EPL matches in partnership with Rogers Communications.
South America to get even more international tournaments?
Positive remarks from FIFA President Sepp Blatter indicate the possibility of Venezuela hosting a future FIFA World Youth Championships following its successful hosting of the Copa America. Also this week, the Brazilian Football Federation formally submitted its proposals to host the FIFA 2014 World Cup.
MLS group suggest novel stadium proposal
Press in Milwaukee report that local real estate and sports lawyer Marty Greenberg, who is trying to bring an MLS franchise to the city, is looking into the viability of having a $40m pitch built on a tray that could be moved when motor sports events are being held at the Milwaukee Mile NASCAR track (similar to the Arizona Cardinals' field in Phoenix).
US player makes move to Europe!
While all the publicity has been on players moving in the opposite direction, Freddy Adu completed his transfer to Portuguese giants Benfica this week. In addition to the transfer fee between MLS and Benfica, it is believed that through a sell-on clause, the league could receive a percentage of any future transfer if Adu subsequently moves to another team.
* Europe *
Scotland takes on the cheats
Scottish football is to launch a groundbreaking scheme to punish diving (simulation) using video evidence. Referees will review matches they have officiated and will be able to hand out yellow cards retrospectively. Testing will start from the beginning of this season with the system ‘going live’ from January 1st 2008.
Tevez saga finally at an end
Reports in the UK suggest that the Carlos Tevez dispute between MSI/Just Sports and West Ham has been resolved and the player completed a move to Manchester United, after the parties reached an out-of-court agreement.
Champions League qualification affects financial figures
Failure to qualify for last seasons Champions League has had a marked effect on the latest annual financial results of Scottish giants Rangers FC. The club made an operating loss of $10m to June 30, 2007 compared to a $9m profit the previous year. Revenue at the club was also down by 4% to $82m compared to $87m in 2006, though net operating expenses fell by 22% to $86m mainly due to outsourcing the club’s retail and merchandising operations.
EPL defend their Fit and Proper Persons Test
Responding to criticism from Human Rights Watch this week relating to Thaksin Shinawatra purchase of Manchester City, the EPL defended their Fit and Proper Persons test stating the controls ‘go above and beyond any requirement by company law and are some of the sternest in any UK industry’.
Real Asian Academy
Today Real Madrid made a formal announcement that agreement had been reached to launch a Real Madrid Academy in Bali, Indonesia – the club’s first in Asia. The Academy will “offer youngsters between the ages of 9 and 18 from Indonesia and the rest of Asia-Pacific, the opportunity to enrol for professional football training under the guidance of International Real Madrid coaching staff while continuing their top level academic studies.” A new facility is slated to open in August 2008.
More stadia plans
Atletico Madrid have agreed a deal to move to La Peineta stadium – planned for the city’s unsuccessful 2012 Olympic bid. The facility will be redeveloped at a cost of $220m for a possible 2016 Olympic bid and the club is expected to move in 2010. Meanwhile EPL team Derby County unveiled plans for a $40m redevelopment of their wider Pride Park stadium complex. A hotel, office space and bars/restaurants are planned in the scheme which Derby hope will commence in 2008.
German backs England bid!
Franz Beckenbauer has backed England to secure the 2018 World Cup. Beckenbauer, who helped deliver a successful tournament in Germany, has said that England is the only serious candidate to host the event. "The Premier League at the moment is the best league in Europe and the stadiums are outstanding.” he told the BBC.
Ownership and boardroom changes
Polish born contact lens tycoon Waldemar Kita has acquired French club Nantes in a deal believed to be worth close to $14m. Nantes have won the French Championship on 8 occasions but were relegated to Ligue 2 last season. Separately, major Everton shareholder Robert Earl - founder of the Planet Hollywood restaurant chain – has been appointed to the board of the EPL club.
“Clubs spending too much” says club Chairman Sunderland Chairman Niall Quinn has blasted EPL clubs for inflating prices in the transfer market by spending too much on average players. Quinn’s Sunderland recently paid $10m for Manchester United’s Kieran Richardson.
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* FMMInternational is a London-based soccer consultancy with offices in
New York
* Americas *
South American team to break into MLS?
Argentinean giants Boca Juniors have confirmed they are looking at the possibility of a ‘Boca team’ playing in the MLS. Any deal may involve a franchise in Arizona, Miami, Los Angeles or New York. Boca would lend its name to a local franchise, in return for a reported 10-15% equity in the new team.
MLS in PA?
A group of investors led by Pennsylvania Senate Majority Leader Dominic Pileggi is talking to MLS officials and local state lawmakers about bringing a professional team to Philadelphia. The deal would involve a $100m soccer specific stadium being built in the town of Chester, a suburb south of the city.
Joorabchian in the headlines again
British-Iranian businessman Kia Joorabchian is involved in further controversy after the partnership between Brazilian club Corinthians and MSI was terminated by the club. Joorabchian, who has a warrant out for his arrest on money-laundering charges in Brazil, is threatening to take legal action to recover $25m compensation for the company. In England, Joorabchian has started legal proceedings against West Ham as part of the Tevez transfer saga.
Red Bull Park stake sold?
In a deal that could be worth around $50m, AEG is reported to be selling its 50% stake in Red Bull Park to Red Bull GmbH, according to a report in the New Jersey Herald News. AEG sold the then NY/NJ Metrostars franchise to Red Bull in March 2006.
U20 World Cup closes
With Argentina winning the competition for the sixth time by beating the Czech Republic in the final, and despite the poor showing from the host country, the FIFA U20 World Cup in Canada was deemed a great success. FIFA announced that the tournament officially set the record for the highest cumulative attendance in FIFA U-20 World Cup history with more than 1.2m spectators at 52 matches, surpassing the previous record set in Mexico in 1983. It was also the largest single-sport event ever held in Canada.
* Europe *
US owners look at naming rights
Tom Hicks and George Gillett, the new American owners of EPL team Liverpool FC, are reportedly keen to sign a naming rights deal for the club’s proposed new stadium according to the Liverpool Daily Post. In the same week that the club presented plans for its new 60,000 capacity stadium there is speculation that the club will look to raise $200m for the naming rights. The team has played at its current stadium, Anfield, since its foundation in 1892.
Takeover warning!
As reports continue to link Stan Kroenke with a bid for EPL giants Arsenal, the club MD Keith Edelman has gone public to warn fans that overseas investors will look to make money from EPL clubs - and will not necessarily invest significant amounts into the squad. There was speculation earlier in the week that F1 racing supremo Bernie Ecclestone was considering investing in the Gunners.
Latest English team takeover news
The failed takeover of Championship club Sheffield Wednesday by Paul Gregg has been blamed on the supporters trust group, ‘Wednesdayite’, for not agreeing to sell its shares without conditions. Meanwhile Coventry City’s proposed takeover by Manhattan Sports Capital Partners continues to move forward, albeit slowly according to the club’s MD Paul Fletcher.
* The Weekly Brief is published every Friday and delivered free via e-mail to registered users.
* FMMInternational is a London-based soccer consultancy with offices in
New York
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Who followed William Taft as US President? | William Howard Taft - U.S. Presidents - HISTORY.com
William Howard Taft
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Introduction
The Republican William Howard Taft worked as a judge in Ohio Superior Court and in the U.S. Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals before accepting a post as the first civilian governor of the Philippines in 1900. In 1904, Taft took on the role of secretary of war in the administration of Theodore Roosevelt, who threw his support to the Ohioan as his successor in 1908. Generally more conservative than Roosevelt, Taft also lacked his expansive view of presidential power, and was generally a more successful administrator than politician. By 1912, Roosevelt, dissatisfied with Taft’s presidency, had formed his own Progressive Party, splitting Republican voters and handing the White House to the Democrat Woodrow Wilson. Nine years after leaving office, Taft achieved his lifelong goal when President Warren Harding appointed him chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court; he held that post until just before his death in 1930.
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Taft’s Early Life and Career
William Howard Taft was born on September 15, 1857, in Cincinnati, Ohio . His father was Alphonso Taft, a prominent Republican attorney who served as secretary of war and attorney general under President Ulysses S. Grant , then ambassador to Austria-Hungary and Russia under President Chester A. Arthur . The younger Taft attended Yale University (graduating second in his class) before studying law at the University of Cincinnati. He was admitted to the Ohio bar in 1880 and entered private practice. In 1886, Taft married Helen “Nettie” Herron, the daughter of another prominent local lawyer and Republican Party activist; the couple would have three children.
Did You Know?
As U.S. president from 1909 to 1913 and chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court from 1921 to 1930, William Howard Taft became the only man in history to hold the highest post in both the executive and judicial branches of the U.S. government.
From early in his career, Taft aspired to a seat on the U.S. Supreme Court. His ambitious wife, meanwhile, set her sights on becoming first lady. With her encouragement, Taft accepted several political appointments, beginning in 1887 when he was named to fill the term of a judge in Ohio Superior Court. He was elected to a five-year term himself the following year. (Other than the presidency, it would be the only office Taft ever obtained through a popular vote.) In 1890, he was appointed as U.S. solicitor general, the third-highest position in the justice department. Two years later, he began serving as a judge on the U.S. Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals, which had jurisdiction over Ohio, Michigan , Tennessee and Kentucky .
Taft’s Path to the White House
In early 1900, President William McKinley called Taft to Washington and tasked him with setting up a civilian government in the Philippines, which had become a U.S. protectorate after the Spanish-American War (1898). Though hesitant, Taft accepted the post of chairman of the Second Philippine Commission with the knowledge that it would position him well to advance further in national government. Taft’s sympathetic administration in the Philippines marked a dramatic departure from the brutal tactics used there by the U.S. military government since 1898. Beginning with the drafting of a new constitution (including a Bill of Rights similar to that of the United States) and the creation of the post of civilian governor (he became the first), Taft improved the island economy and infrastructure and allowed the people at least some voice in government. Though sympathetic to the Filipino people and popular among them, he believed they needed considerable guidance and instruction before they could be capable of self-rule, and predicted a long period of U.S. involvement; in fact, the Philippines would not gain independence until 1946.
After McKinley was assassinated in 1901, President Theodore Roosevelt twice offered Taft a Supreme Court appointment, but he declined in order to stay in the Philippines. In 1904, he agreed to return and become Roosevelt’s secretary of war, as long as he retained supervision of Filipino affairs. Taft traveled extensively during his four years in this post, including overseeing the construction of the Panama Canal and serving as provisional governor of Cuba. Roosevelt, who had pledged not to run for a third term in office, began promoting Taft as his successor. Though he disliked campaigning, Taft agreed to mount a presidential run in 1908 at the urging of his wife, and soundly defeated Democrat William Jennings Bryan by pledging to continue the Rooseveltian program of progressive reforms.
The Taft Presidency
Despite his pledge, Taft lacked Roosevelt’s expansive view of presidential power, as well as his charisma as a leader and his physical vigor. (Always heavy, Taft weighed as much as 300 pounds at times during his presidency.) Though he was initially active in “trust-busting,” initiating some 80 antitrust suits against large industrial combinations–twice as many as Roosevelt–he later backed away from these efforts, and in general aligned himself with the more conservative members of the Republican Party. In 1909, Taft’s convention of a special session of Congress to debate tariff reform legislation spurred the Republican protectionist majority to action and led to passage of the Payne-Aldrich Act, which did little to lower tariffs. Though more progressive Republicans (such as Roosevelt) expected Taft to veto the bill, he signed it into law and publicly defended it as “the best tariff bill that the Republican Party ever passed.”
In another key misstep where progressives were concerned, Taft upheld the policies of Secretary of the Interior Richard Ballinger, and dismissed Ballinger’s leading critic, Gifford Pinchot, a conservationist and close friend of Roosevelt who served as head of the Bureau of Forestry. Pinchot’s firing split the Republican Party further and estranged Taft from Roosevelt for good. Often overlooked in the record of Taft’s presidency were his achievements, including his trust-busting efforts, his empowering of the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to set railroad rates, and his support of constitutional amendments mandating a federal income tax and the direct election of senators by the people (as opposed to appointment by state legislatures).
Taft’s Post-Presidency and Supreme Court Career
By 1912, Roosevelt was so incensed with Taft and the conservative Republicans that he chose to break from the party and form his own Progressive Party (also known as the Bull Moose Party). In the general election that year, the divide among Republicans handed the White House to the progressive Democrat Woodrow Wilson , who received 435 electoral votes to Roosevelt’s 88. Taft received only eight electoral votes, reflecting the repudiation of his administration’s policies in the wave of progressive spirit that was then sweeping the nation.
Undoubtedly relieved to be leaving the White House, Taft took a position teaching constitutional law at Yale University Law School. In 1921, President Warren Harding fulfilled Taft’s lifelong dream by appointing him chief justice of the United States Supreme Court. In that post, Taft improved the organization and efficiency of the nation’s highest court and helped secure passage of the Judge’s Act of 1925, which gave the court greater discretion in choosing its cases. He wrote some 250 decisions, most reflecting his conservative ideology. Taft’s most prominent opinion came in Myers v. United States (1926), which invalidated tenure of office acts limiting the president’s authority to remove federal officials; President Andrew Johnson’s violation of a similar act had led to his impeachment by the House of Representatives in 1868. Taft remained chief justice until shortly before his death, on March 8, 1930, from complications of heart disease.
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What was the name ofthe sports label bought out by JJB Sports in 2002? | William Howard Taft Biography < Biographies < American History From Revolution To Reconstruction and beyond
William Howard Taft Biography
William Howard Taft, a scion of a long-prominent family, was born in Cincinnati on September 15, 1857. His father, Alphonso Taft, had a distinguished career in law and foreign service. Alphonso Taft was a state judge from 1865-72, U.S. Secretary of War in 1876 (a position his son would later hold), U.S. Attorney General from 1876-77, Minister to Austria-Hungary from 1882-1884, and Minister to Russia from 1884-1885.
Young Taft attended Woodward High School in Cincinnati, finishing second in his class. He followed family tradition and went to Yale, again finishing as salutatorian-he was nothing if not consistent. He then returned to Cincinnati and received his law degree from The Cincinnati Law School, which would later merge with the University of Cincinnati.
William Howard Taft's first public office was as Assistant Hamilton County Prosecutor, in 1881. Then, at age 30, he served as judge on the Superior Court in Cincinnati for three years, before being appointed Solicitor General of the United States in 1890.
Continuing his meteoric rise in the legal profession, Taft was appointed by President Benjamin Harrison as a judge of the newly created Sixth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in Cincinnati, at age 34. He served on that court from 1892-1900. At the same time, he also served as the first Dean of the University of Cincinnati College of Law (after the merger of The Cincinnati Law School with the university). In his judicial career, he was known for the quality of his opinions and for his diligence. He found great satisfaction in the "writing up" of appellate decisions. His ability to marshal detail into a coherent whole served him well in appellate work.
Taft contributed to the legal profession in Cincinnati in many other ways. For instance, when he was a young lawyer of twenty-eight, he was in charge of rebuilding the collection of books for the county law library, which had lost all but one volume in the courthouse riot and fire of 1884.
William Howard Taft would have been happy to serve out his career in the judiciary, but his wife, Helen Herron (Nellie) Taft, and perhaps history, had other plans.
Taft was persuaded by his wife to accept appointment by President William McKinley as chief administrator in the Philippines. His charge was to transfer government from military to civilian rule. He served as civil governor there from 1901-1904. Taft was widely praised for his work in the Philippines, in sponsoring land reform, road building, and honest and efficient government. In the Philippines, Taft demonstrated that his talent as an administrator was equal to his prowess as a jurist.
After McKinley's assassination in 1901, Theodore Roosevelt assumed the presidency. Roosevelt recognized Taft's extraordinary abilities by naming him Secretary of War in 1904. One primary assignment was to supervise the building of the Panama Canal, the greatest engineering project yet attempted. Taft's grasp of detail served him well. He received praise for his able administration of the War Department, and became somewhat of a darling of the press, a situation that would later reverse.
Teddy Roosevelt and Big Bill Taft became good friends, and Roosevelt, who had made a pledge (which he later regretted) not to run again in 1908, picked Taft as his successor. Taft promised to carry out the "trust busting" and other progressive policies of the Roosevelt administration. With the popular Roosevelt's strong support, he trounced Democratic Party candidate William Jennings Bryan to become the twenty-seventh President of the United States.
But Taft's honeymoon period in the presidency was brief. The Republican Party was bitterly divided between the western progressives, who hoped that Roosevelt's reforms were just a beginning, and the eastern conservatives, who thought Roosevelt had gone too far.
President Taft, for all his administrative talent, lacked the political savvy to unite, or at least mediate between, the two factions. His presidency drifted, and became mired in the troubles within his own party-troubles not of his making, but beyond his ability to solve.
Progressives, livid at his defense of the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act, failed to credit him with bringing more "trust busting" cases than Roosevelt (Standard Oil was dissolved in 1911), instituting an eight-hour day for federal employees, and supporting the Sixteenth Amendment, allowing the income tax (ratified in 1913).
The previous friendship with Roosevelt fell apart, amid perceived snubs and misunderstandings on both sides. The families had never liked each other, even during the good times between the two men. And the friendship had been more political than personal. The men were such different personalities that a true intimate friendship would have been difficult-Roosevelt the brash "big picture" thinker, and Taft the affable but reserved detail person. Ultimately, Roosevelt, having given Taft the presidency, believed it was his to reclaim.
The progressives wanted Teddy Roosevelt back in the White House. When the Republican convention of 1912, controlled by the conservatives, renominated Taft, they bolted and formed the Progressive, or "Bull Moose" Party, to support Roosevelt.
Once Roosevelt was on the ballot, Taft was doomed. Though Roosevelt and Taft together outpolled the Democratic candidate, Woodrow Wilson, by over a million votes, the spilt gave an overwhelming Electoral College victory to Wilson. Taft came in third, carrying only two states (Vermont and Utah).
Taft's presidency is remembered as honest, civilized, and middle-of-the-road. The latter was its downfall. Aside from the achievements mentioned above, a few notable facts from the Taft administration are that he had the first presidential automobile and the largest bathtub. (Taft was a large man -our biggest president- standing 6'4" and weighing more than 300 pounds.) He began the presidential tradition of throwing out the first pitch of the baseball year at the season opener between the Washington Senators and the Philadelphia Athletics on April 14, 1910. His wife, first lady Helen Herron Taft, was responsible for the Japanese cherry trees in Washington D.C., planting the first saplings (out of 3,000) with the Japanese ambassador's wife.
After the Presidency, Taft went back to his first love, the law -first as a professor of law at Yale. He taught law for eight years, and was then nominated by President Warren Harding to be the ninth Chief Justice of the United States. The Senate confirmed him the same day-certainly a contrast with today's often-grueling confirmation process. He was the only person in history to be both President and Chief Justice. Upon his elevation to Chief Justice, he proclaimed: "I don't remember that I was ever President."
As Chief Justice, Taft's tenure was marked by hard work and by efforts for judicial reform. Taft was concerned about the delay and inefficiency in the federal court system. His first task was to secure the passage of The Judges Act in 1922. The act was the first major reform of the federal judiciary since 1789. It gave the Chief Justice more power over the federal courts-Taft used it to reduce delay and streamline operations.
Most legal scholars rate Taft as a good, if conservative, Chief Justice. He would usually side with "property rights" over labor and government power over civil rights. These views were generally shared by his colleagues on the court at the time, with the notable exceptions of Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., and Louis D. Brandeis, who often dissented.
The most visible legacy of Taft's Chief Justiceship is the Supreme Court Building, for which he lobbied. Prior to having its own building, the Supreme Court heard arguments in the Capitol, and the justices, having no offices, worked from their homes. The new structure, complete with offices, was completed after Taft's death.
Taft served as Chief Justice from 1921-30, retiring shortly before his death in March 1930. Strangely enough, he is one of only two Presidents buried at Arlington Cemetery. (The other is John F. Kennedy.)
The Taft legacy of public service continues to this day. William Howard and Nellie's son, Robert A. Taft, "Mr. Republican," became a U.S. Senator from Ohio, and thrice sought the Republican nomination for President. Another son, Charles P. Taft II, was mayor of Cincinnati. Robert A.'s son, Robert Taft, Jr., served in the U.S. House of Representatives and then the Senate. William Howard's great-grandson, Robert A. Taft II, was elected Governor of Ohio in 1998.
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What name is given to abottle that is the equivalent of 12 standard bottles? | Guide to Wine Bottle Sizes | Wine Folly
Articles , Beginner , Favorite , Handling Wine , Wine Basics , Wine Storage
Meaning of Wine Bottle Sizes
Curiously, the historic convention for naming wine bottle sizes is based on the names of biblical kings. As with many parts of the aesthetics of wine, nomenclature for wine bottle formats reconnects us to the structures of wine culture. Wine has long been a living part of our history and day-to-day lives, and so unsurprisingly the bottle names are connected to one of our oldest documents. To be fair, no one really knows how this convention started for sure. If you know, we’d love to be enlightened. We could do some “research” and see if the answer can be found at the bottom of six liter? I bet you we’d discover something. Below is a list of wine bottle sizes and their names.
Wine Bottle Size Chart
187.5 ml Piccolo or Split: Typically used for a single serving of Champagne.
375 ml Demi or Half: Holds one-half of the standard 750 ml size.
750 ml Standard: Common bottle size for most distributed wine.
1.5 L Magnum: Equivalent to two standard 750 ml bottles.
3.0 L Double Magnum: Equivalent to two Magnums or four standard 750 ml bottles.
4.5 L Jeroboam (still wine): Equivalent to six standard 750 ml bottles.
6.0 L Imperial: Equivalent to eight standard 750 ml bottles or two Double Magnums.
9.0 L Salmanazar: Equivalent to twelve standard 750 ml bottles or a full case of wine!
12.0 L Balthazar: Equivalent to sixteen standard 750 ml bottles or two Imperials.
15.0 L Nebuchadnezzar: Equivalent to twenty standard 750 ml bottles.
The original box wine is 3 liters aka a double magnum
Facts about wine bottle sizes
Box wine is commonly 3 liters or a double magnum size
Rehoboam in terms of Champagne Bottles is only 4.5 litres or 6 bottles.
Methuselah is the same size as an Imperial (6 litres) but the name is usually used for sparkling wines in a Burgundy-shaped bottle
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Who preceeded Herbert Hoover as President of the USA? | Bottle sizes and wine names - Wine Notes
Wine Notes
Gwendolyn
The other day, to celebrate the Wine.com office move and 13th holiday season, we all opened up a Methuselah of Champagne. A what? A Methuselah. That would be six literes (there are about 40 of us after all). Of course as we watched our founder open it, hoist it and try to “gently” pour it into our glasses, everyone wanted to know, what do you call this bottle? Though I know all the names, I’d already fogotten which size goes with which name. I’ve posted on bottle sizes before, but to re-cap for the holidays, in case you need something extra bit to impress…
A few numbers: A standard bottle holds 750mL and is the most common bottle size you will see.
A magnum holds 1.5 liters or 2 bottles
After the magnum, the names of bottle sizes come from the names of kings noted in the Old Testament.
Jeroboam
Bottle – 3 liters/4 bottles in Champagne & Burgundy (as well as most New World). In Bordeaux this size is called a Double Magnum.
King – After the death of Solomon, Jeroboam led a revolt against Rehoboam and became King of a newly independent kingdom of Israel.
Rehoboam
Bottle – 4.5 liters/6 bottles (in Bordeaux this size is called a Jeroboam, just to confuse you).
King – King of Judea after the death of his father, Solomon.
Methuselah
Bottle – 6 liters/8 bottles (in Bordeaux this size is called Imperiale).
King – Here is an exception, as Methuselah is not a king, but rather the oldest man cited in the Bible at 969 years old.
Salmanazar
King – King of Assyria, also known as Shalmaneser. Mentioned in 2 Kings, Chapter 17.
Balthazar
Bottle – 12 liters/16 bottles
King – In the Book of Daniel, King Belshazzar (or Balthazar) was the last king of Babylon.
Nebuchadnezzar
Bottle – 15 liters/20 bottles
King – King of Babylon (before Balthazar) who conquered and exiled many Jews. Also built the “Hanging Gardens of Babylon). Seen here in painting by William Blake.
There are larger bottles said to be out there – Melchior for 24 bottles and Sovereign for 34 bottles. These are rare.
The largest wine bottle made so far was commissioned by Morton’s Steakhouse in 2004. At 4.5 feet tall, the bottle held 130 liters (173 bottles, 1200 glasses) of wine. The wine itself was Beringer Vineyards 2001 Napa Valley Cabernet Sauvignon Reserve.
What’s the biggest bottle you’ve drunk?
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What does the Latin phrase 'Ad Valorem' mean? | What does ad valorem mean?
Definitions for ad valoremæd vəˈlɔr əm, -ˈloʊr-
This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word ad valorem
Princeton's WordNet(0.00 / 0 votes)Rate this definition:
ad val, ad valorem(adverb)
in proportion to the estimated value of the goods taxed
"the goods were taxed ad valorem"
Wiktionary(0.00 / 0 votes)Rate this definition:
ad valorem(Adjective)
Measured by or in proportion to value.
Webster Dictionary(0.00 / 0 votes)Rate this definition:
Ad valorem
a term used to denote a duty or charge laid upon goods, at a certain rate per cent upon their value, as stated in their invoice, -- in opposition to a specific sum upon a given quantity or number; as, an ad valorem duty of twenty per cent
Origin: [L., according to the value.]
Numerology
The numerical value of ad valorem in Chaldean Numerology is: 6
Pythagorean Numerology
| according to value |
"What line follows ""Suddenly, I'm not half the man I used to be"", from the Beatles song 'Yesterday'?" | Ad Valorem | Definition of Ad Valorem by Merriam-Webster
adjective ad va·lo·rem \ˈad-və-ˈlōr-əm, ˈäd-vä-ˈlō-rem\
Legal Definition of ad valorem
: imposed at a rate based on a percent of value <an ad valorem tax on real estate>
Origin and Etymology of ad valorem
Latin, according to the value
Learn More about ad valorem
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What is the heaviest land mammal confined to the northern hemisphere? | North American Mammal - Plains bison | Natural History Museum of Los Angeles
North American Mammal - Plains bison | Natural History Museum of Los Angeles
Home > Explore Exhibits > Permanent Exhibits > North American Mammals > Plains bison
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Bison (Bos) bison bison (Linnaeus, 1758)
Scene:
October morning: looking westward toward the Big Horn Mountains in north central Wyoming
Background artist:
Brown-headed Cowbird (Molothrus ater)
The bison is the largest living land mammal native to the Western Hemisphere. Bison migrated from Asia into North America about 200,000 years ago.
Bison were hunted almost to extinction during the nineteenth century but today the bison population exceeds 400,000 individuals, more than half of which live on private farms and ranches.
The bison in this exhibit were obtained from Antelope Island in Utah's Great Salt Lake. They were first displayed in 1925 and at that time constituted the world's largest exhibit of a single species.
Biological Information
Range:
Central North America south of 55°N and northern Mexico. Nearly all herds now confined by fences
Habitat:
| American bison |
Complete this list of nations for Group 10 in football's 'Euro 2004' tournament - Albania, Republic of Ireland, Georgia, Russia and ...? | Ask/Tell About This Top 10 Largest Mammals
African Elephant
African elephant is one of the heaviest living mammals on the Earth. It is bigger than Asian Elephant. Adult male elephant stand 12 ft tall and weigh 5,600kg but male can be as heavy as 7,000 kg. It is also known as Loxodonte which is Greek word means oblique-sides tooth. In 1970 their population was around 400000 but today it is only 10000 due to hunting. The average length of African elephant is 24 feet.
White Rhinoceros
The White Rhinoceros is most commonly found species of Rhinoceros. It has two subspecies i.e. Southern White Rhino (found in the Southern Africa) and Northern White Rhino (found in Northern Africa). The species of White Rhino is in danger of extinction as their population is around 11000 only. It is considered as one of the heaviest mammals of the earth as male adult white rhino weighs around 4500 kg so it is the second heaviest animal on earth.
Hippopotamus
Hippopotamus is the second largest land animal of the earth after African Elephant. The word Hippopotamus or Hippo is ancient Greek word which means “the river horse”. This herbivorous animal found in sub Saharan Africa and adult male animal can be as heavy as 3,000 kg therefore it is considered as the third heaviest animal in the world. The population of this aggressive and ferocious animal is around 125000 to 150000.
Giraffe
It is the tallest land-living animal. Average height of adult male Giraffe is between 14 ft to 17 ft but it can be as tall as 20 ft. It feeds on leaves and vegetation. This animal is inhabitant of Central and South Africa. There is no danger to this animal as for as their extinction is concerned. It is famous for its unique and long neck. The average weight of Giraffe can vary between 12,00 Kg to 1650 Kg so it is the fourth heaviest animal on earth.
American Bison or American Buffalo
American Bison or American Buffalo is found in the grasslands of North America. In wilds it lives in huge herds but it is also be used as domestic livestock. Bison is Greek word which means Ox-like animal. There is no danger of its extinction and it is considered as one of the heaviest living-mammals. Its average weight is around 1,000 Kg.
Dromedary Or Arabian Camel
Dromedary or Arabian camel is found in Middle East and Arabian Peninsula. It is domestic animal and there is no threat of its extinction. The weight of Dromedary is between 400 to 700 kg and it is considered as one of the heaviest animals in the world. From ancient times it is used by human for purpose of transportation and this animal is also famous as “airplane of desert”.
Polar Bear
Polar bear is the largest bear of the world. It is also the largest carnivore (animals who exclusively depends upon the flesh or meat of other living animals for their food) animal of the world. It is found in Arctic circle including Arctic Ocean and land masses around it. Global warming is greatest threat to its existence and their total population is around 20000-25000 which is declining with the passage of time. Their weight can be 600 Kg.
Moose
Moose belongs to the family of dear and famous for its beautiful antlers. It is found in North America and Northern Europe. In Europe it is known as European Elk. It is one of the heaviest living-mammals of the Earth. Its milk and meat is used by human beings and it is domestic animal. Weight of Moose can be 550 Kg.
Siberian Tiger
The Siberian tiger is only found in Siberia also it is the largest among all tiger species. Usually tigers attack and eat humans but Siberian tiger rarely attack on human. Due to hunting, this species is in danger of extinction. It is also known as Amur, Manchurian, Altaic and Ussuri tiger. In 19th century it inhabited many parts of central Asia and Europe but today it is only confined to the Siberia. Its maximum weight can be about 300 Kg.
Gorilla
A gorilla is the native animal of central Africa and they are the closest living relatives to humans after chimpanzees. This herbivorous animal can be divided into 5 sub-species. This highly intelligent animal lives in dense forests, marshes and swamps. Their species is in danger of extinction because of human activities. The maximum weight of Gorilla can be around 220 Kg.
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In 1936, Germany re-occupied the officially demilitarised province of the 'Rhineland', in defiance of which treaty? | RASSINIER: The real Eichmann Trial 4/8 (1962)
Chapter III
CONSPIRACY AND CRIMES AGAINST PEACE
As defined in paragraph (a) of Article 6 of the Nuremberg Charter, crimes against the peace were concerned either with, aggravation or participating in a conspiracy with the intention of perpetrating such acts of aggravation. As has been pointed out, premeditation had to be established.
This is roughly the way the indictment went, on this point: in the course of 1920, a number of not very respectable individuals, scattered all over Germany, arranged to meet at various places, principally in Munich, where they formed an association of malefactors whose purpose was to launch aggressive warfare against neighbouring states. Hitler became the head of this association in 1921. They must have been fairly astute, since they managed to give this association the baptismal name N.S.D.A.P. (National Sozialistische Deutsche Arbeiter Partei), and the appearance of a political party. They must have been fairly intelligent, too, since they understood that in order to launch aggressive warfare against neighbouring states, it had absolutely to be done in the name of Germany, which seemed to indicate that they must first seize power. Hence, the conspiracy against peace -- which in more modern and more diplomatic language would be called conspiracy against collective security -- was in addition found to be tied in with conspiracy against the internal security of a state. As for premeditation, that had been in the air for nearly twenty years. It must be conceded that rarely have criminals had so much time at their disposal, to take stock of their crime, and thus to become more guilty.
Taking things in chronological order, the Tribunal first had to pass judgement on the conditions under which the accused had seized, consolidated and maintained power, the methods used, particularly subversion by terrorism, the domestic doctrine that was applied, etc.
I would like to be clearly understood. I, too, condemn National Socialism, Fascism, Bolshevism, and in general all doctrines that, on the pretext of arousing a revolutionary spirit, preach insurrection and the seizure of power, by means of subversion by terrorism, doctrines to which, after success has been achieved in a blood bath, their followers are held fast by more or less open, and always ferocious, repression. But my purely philosophical censure is separated by a gulf from the condemnation of legal authority. I disapprove of their conception of life and their methods, but I also disapprove of the use of coercion against National Socialism, Bolshevism, Fascism, etc. to prevent them from expressing themselves, or to send them to the gallows, if by chance they lose the play-off in a tied match. In the name of that special liberty which belonged only to those who had won it, Saint Just [51] killed the French Revolution. Freedom belongs to everyone, even to those who fight against it. All these disoriented people are, furthermore, only the product of disoriented societies, whether it is a question of Spartacus or Hitler, Mussolini or Castro, Lenin or Franco. To call the one lot criminals and the other benefactors is only a political viewpoint, and will not stand up under examination. It is the same sociological problem for all, in that all are morally or philosophically culpable; they are all juridically innocent, which cannot be said of the social structures themselves, which are all morally, philosophically and juridically culpable. As long as there are societies which oppress, there will be rebels to resist with violence, and - alas! - many more rebels who are taken for revolutionaries, than there are true revolutionaries. Therefore, it is societies which must be attacked, not men. The guillotine, according to the wisdom of the ancients, can eliminate the criminal, but not the crime; nothing could be truer.
But these considerations are only subjective. In all objectivity it can rightly be claimed that among the judges one at least was not qualified to condemn the origins, ideas and methods of National Socialism, because his own origins, ideas and methods were in every point similar to those of National Socialism, and his place should have been on the bench of the accused, not that of the judges. And as for the others, they were hardly better qualified, since in their origins, ideas and methods they did not refuse to deal with that 'association of malefactors'; until 1939 its ambassadors and other emissaries were recognised and respected in all the capitals of the world and therefore in their own, and it had a place at Geneva in the League of Nations. It was even politely regretted when the 'association' departed slamming the door. And since then, what were they all busy with? Since when has International Law been entitled to sanction a government which a people, in one way or another, makes for itself, or to which it submits, beyond the right granted to the government of other peoples to recognise it or not, to maintain or not to maintain relations with it? Strictly speaking, one could understand if this had happened to the German people, because it is traditional for a victorious insurrection to massacre the representatives of the power it has overthrown or, the other way round, that the existing power massacres the leaders of an insurrection that failed. But for a Tribunal, international besides, not elected (except by force of arms and by itself), to declare itself qualified passes all understanding. So far as I know there never has been and never will be, I hope, any question of shouldering arms to free the Russians from Kruschev, the Cubans from Castro, or the Spaniards from Franco. We are no longer in the era of Metternich and the Congress of Vienna, and the Holy Alliance.
As for the seizure of power by subversion, the methods by which the accused were charged could not be compared with those employed by Kruschev in Hungary, Fidel Castro in Cuba, or [52] Franco in Spain. If it was actually a question of subversion by insurrectional violence up to November 8th, 1923 (the date of the Munich putsch that did not come off), from that date on the N.S.D.A.P. no longer considered taking over power except by constitutional and legal means. There is no question th@@@at its propaganda retained a certain violent character, that all the public meetings were conducted with the protection of its own police force (S.A. - Stürmabteilung, security service, then S.S. - Schutztaffel, elite security service), nor that these S.A. and S.S. were not armed to the teeth and had quick reflexes and a heavy hand. But it must also be taken into account that the actions of the N.S.D.A.P. were in response to the communists' threat to put a stop to the meetings with violence, and to achieve this by sending in elements just as heavily armed, just as quick in reflex and just as heavy-handed. On them, in addition, lay the responsibility for provocation.
With this exception, for which its adversaries were responsible, the N.S.D.A.P. pursued the conquest of power by those methods employed by all parties in all countries where party activity is free, that is, by means of elections. I do not deny that there was still a question of subversion. In my opinion, in all the democracies in the world, those who carry the elections are those who have the money, and are best able to- subvert public opinion through the written and spoken press, that is, the ones who can buy the greatest number of papers. This was not the case with the N.S.D.A.P. before 1930, and until then the election results were not brilliant. But, from 1930 on, once heavy industry had sided with them, everything changed, as can be seen by the German Reichstag election tables, 1924 to 1933 (compare the votes obtained by the N.S.D.A.P. with the number of unemployed at the time of voting):
1. From 1924 to 1930
Dates
288
5,598,855
Heavy industry was just as worried by the mounting unemployment as the working class. Contemporary economists generally agree that when the percentage of unemployed exceeds 5% of the active population, there is a danger of social disorders. Precisely at the beginning of 1930 this margin of tolerance was not only reached but passed. Furthermore, the consequences of the Wall Street crash, which were beginning to be felt in Europe, gave a [53] disturbing indication that this rate was rising. Finally, after the fall of the German Mark, heavy industry attributed the collapse to the government parties, and registered their inability to correct the situation. In a word, they had no other card to play but National Socialism, and they played it, cautiously at first, behind the scenes, and then openly. That explains the reversal of the electoral trend after the ballot of September 14th, 1930.
In the second half of 1932, when the two dissolutions that brought about the balloting of July 31st and November 6th had shown that the possibility no longer existed of finding in the Reichstag a majority of the kind of the earlier parliamentary coalitions, the national parties (Centre Party and Catholic Bavarian party), whose leaders were respectively Hugenberg and von Papen, turned to the N.S.D.A.P. - the first just for a short time and the second for good. Thus it was that on January 30th., 1933, Hitler was appointed Reich Chancellor by old Marshal Hindenburg, then President of the Republic. (In similar circumstances, President Coty appointed General de Gaulle Prime Minister on June 30th, 1958). In the elections which took place the following March 5th, the Hitler-Papen tandem was triumphant: 288 seats for the first, 52 for the second, or a total of 340 out of the 648 seats of the Reichstag, thus an assured majority of 16 in the electoral body, 52% of the vote.
Up to this point everything took place in conformity with pure democratic tradition, as it is understood by democrats today.
If there was conspiracy the number of accomplices is impressive and it would be a mistake to think that they were all German. We know, as I have just said, that the accession to power of the N.S.D.A.P. was financially, and very substantially, assisted by German heavy industry. This aid came from the Central Propaganda Treasury, whose distributors were the banker Schroeder, and Hugenberg. Now, when the German Mark began to depreciate during the Weimar Republic, almost all the industries which contributed to that fund were subsidised by British or American banks or trust companies. For example, the American chemical consortium Dupont de Nemours, and the English trust Imperial Chemical Industry, subsidised I.G. Farben, with whom they shared the world explosives market, and the Dillon Bank of New York subsidised the Vereinigte Stahlwerke, a German steel trust. Others were subsidised by Morgan or Rockefeller, etc. Thus, the Pound and the Dollar were part of the conspiracy which brought Hitler to power. But no one has heard that the Dupont de Nemours, the Dillons, Morgans, Rockefellers, etc. were summoned to appear as accomplices before the Nuremberg Tribunal.
At the time when this conspiracy was directed against collective security, that 'association of malefactors' did not lack for political aid and abetment from outside; Britain in the matter of rearmament (naval agreement of June 18th, 1935), Russia in the matter of aggression (German-Soviet pact and the partition of [54] Poland), even France, if you take into consideration, a propos of Munich, the condemning of pre-war governments by post-war governments. But, for all that, there was no question of having them leave the judges' bench for that of the defendants.
Here we touch on the heart of the problem of crime against peace. This is described in Article 6, paragraph a. of the Indictment as follows:
The aims and purposes of the Nazi Party and of the defendants and divers other persons from time to time associated as leaders, members, supporters or adherents of the Nazi Party (hereinafter called collectively the "Nazi conspirators") were, or came to be, to accomplish the following by any means deemed opportune, including unlawful means, and contemplating ultimate resort to threat of force, force and aggressive war:
1. To abrogate and overthrow the Treaty of Versailles and its restrictions upon the miliary armament and activity of Germany;
2. To acquire the territories lost by Germany as the result of the World War of 1914-18 and other territories in Europe asserted by the Nazi conspirators to be occupied principally by so-called "racial Germans";
3. To acquire still further territories in continental Europe and elsewhere claimed by the Nazi conspirators to be required by the "racial Germans" as "Lebensraum "or living space . . .
The first point was aimed at Germany's secret rearmament from 1933 to 1935, after that carried on openly; her departure from the League of Nations on October 14th, 1933; the decision to build up a military air force, March 10th, 1935; compulsory military service restored on the 16th of the same month, with a peace-time strength fixed at 500,000 men; the re-occupation of the Rhineland on March 7th, 1936.
The second point was aimed principally at Silesia, divided up among the tiny artificial states created by the Treaties of Versailles and Saint Germain, the Danzig corridor, Teschen, Malmédy, etc. It might have included the Saar, too, if the Saar had not almost unanimously voted by plebiscite, on January 13th, 1935, to return to Germany.
As for the third point, which embraced all the territories conquered by the German armies in operations against Poland, Russia, Norway, Denmark, Luxembourg, Belgium, the Netherlands, Greece, Yugoslavia, etc., which should have been dealt with in peace treaties, once the war was over, it stated precisely how the responsibility for everything that had happened fell solely on Germany:
"(Their) aims and purposes were not fixed or static but evolved and expanded as they acquired progressively greater power and became able to make more effective application of threats of force and threats of aggressive war. When their expanding aims and purposes became finally so great as to provoke such strength of resistance as could be overthrown by armed force and aggressive [55] war, and not simply by the opportunistic methods theretofore used, such as fraud, deceit, threats, intimidation, fifth column activities, and propaganda, the Nazi conspirators deliberately planned, determined upon, and launched their aggressive wars and wars in violation of international treaties, agreements..."
The Tribunal acceded to these conclusions arrived at by the prosecution, and recorded them as justified in the judgement rendered (Volume 1, pp. 184 ff). It appeared clear to them, from the documents produced from the beginning, that there really had a conspiracy hatched by the Germans in 1920, with the intention of committing these crimes, of which they were accused, and that they had committed them deliberately and in full knowledge. The most important among these documents were: the programme of the N.S.D.A.P. made public in Munich on February 25th, 1920 (in 25 points, of which the first three were considered particularly incriminating); a number of extracts, out of context, from the speeches of Hitler to the Reichstag, in the Sportspalast, or in other public places; a number of the same person's talks to the General Staff, in particular that of November 5th, 1937 (Hossbach document, P.S. 386, original Volume XXXVII, pp. 546 and 556, and in French, Volume II, pp. 281-288), and on August 22nd, 1939, for which three contradictory documents existed. The two most contradictory were retained by the Tribunal (P.S. 798, Volume XXVI, pp. 338-344, and P.S. 1014, Volume XXVI, pp. 523-524).
And now I would like to call attention to something all these documents had in common: the distortions made of them which disappeared in the translations and which formed the basis - the distortions, not the texts themselves! - of the argument maintained by the Prosecution and upheld by the court.
For example, point 1 of the N.S.D.A.P. programme of February 20th, 1920, reads: "Wir forden den Zusammenschluss aller Deutschen auf Grund des Selbstbestimmungsrechtes der Voelker zu einen Gross-Deutschland." (We demand the union of all Germans on the basis of the right of self-determination of peoples into a Greater Germany.) Used at the trial, we find the following translation: "Nous demandons la réunion de tous les Allemands dans la 'Plus Grande Allemagne' en accord avec le principe du droit des peuples à disposer d'eux-mêmes." (We demand the reunion of all Germans into the "Greater Germany" in accordance with the principle of the right of self-determination of peoples.) One is obliged to see that by putting quotation marks around the words "Greater Germany" where none existed in the original a change which alters the meaning of the text has been made.
The same holds for point 3, where the original reads: "Wir forden Land und Boden (Kolonien) zur Ernaehrung unseres Volkes und Ansiedlung unseres Bevolkerungsüberschusses," (We demand land and soil (colonies) for the nourishment of our people and the settlement of our excess population).
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"Nous demandons de la terre et des territoires pour nourrir notre peuple et la possibilité d'employer à la colonisation l'excédent de notre population." (Volume II, p. 185). (We demand land and territories for the nourishment of our people, and the possibility to employ our excess population in colonisation). Here the suppression of the parentheses and the word between them shifted the main point of the article to second importance, namely the colonies.
The same thing again with the Hossbach document, a series of conjectures written in the hypothetical conditional mood, but translated as a series of statements in the present tense, from which it was deduced at Nuremberg that Hitler had already decided by November 5th, 1937, as head of the government, to resort to that war which he (according to the indictment), as head of the party, had decided on back in 1920, as the only way to resolve the German problem.
The Hossbach document was considered most accusatory because of this sentence: "La question allemande ne pourrait être résolue que par la force, laquelle ne va jamais sans risques." (The German problem may not be resolved except by force, which is always attended by risks) which was translated as "La question allemande ne PEUT être résolue, etc. " (The German problem can only be solved by, etc.) At the time all politicians everywhere, with a few exceptions, formed the same opinion, "the only way to stop Germany from realising her objectives is with force." This was an application of the famous Roman adage, Si vis pacem para bellum (If you wish for peace, prepare for war), which was and still is the rule all over the world, witness General de Gaulle's New Year Message to the French troops on January 1st, 1962. "Prepare yourselves," he said, "prepare yourselves for great warrior actions which may be imposed upon the nation, and her European allies. That the destiny of France is linked with her military power has never been more true." This is a good deal more specific than the words the Hossbach paper puts into Hitler's mouth as he addresses his military commanders. Should we conclude that if this war for which they are to be prepared could not be averted, and should end in another Nuremberg, the General would be hanged? And if one day war breaks out between the U.S.A. and Russia (a war which, like the war of 1939-45, could not fail at once to become a World War) will Kruschev's famous speech to the U.S. in 1961 be remembered when, striking at his desk with his shoe, he threatened the United States with complete destruction?
It should be further clearly stated that, the following year, when it became a question of translating into action the first of the eventualities hypothesised in the Hossbach document (Czechoslovakia), Keitel's directive determining the preparatory steps to be taken, specified on December 17th, 1938, "Externally it must be very clear that it is only a question of a peaceful action, and not of a military operation." (Not retained at Nuremberg by [57] the Prosecution or the court.)
We have an explanation of the interpretation of the text of the Hossbach document, given by W. L. Shirer -- unless it was given by the French translator, since it does not appear in the German edition -- in a footnote to p. 333 (p. 305, American edition) in his book The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich.
"Almost all the German records of the remarks of Hitler and of others in private talks were written down in the third person as indirect discourse, though frequently they abruptly slipped into direct, first-person discourse without any change of punctuation. This question posed a problem for American English.
"Because I wanted to preserve the accuracy of the original document and the exact wording used or recorded, I decided it was best to refrain from tampering with these accounts by rendering them into first-person direct discourse or by excluding them from within quotation marks. In the latter case it would have looked as though I were indulging in liberal paraphrasing when I was not.
"It is largely a matter in the German records of verb tenses being changed by the actual recorders from present to past and of changing the first-person pronoun to third-person. If this is borne in mind there will not be, I believe, any confusion. "
It was Hossbach, the recorder of the report, who used the wrong tense, as Mr. Shirer knows better than anyone else. The prosecutors and the judges knew it too. I think falsification could hardly be more ingenuously confessed. Thus, at least on this point, the defendants were condemned on the basis of what Hitler was supposed to have said, not on what he did say. If they knew that their report was in addition in no way official, that it was written down on the 10th of November 1937, five days later, from notes hastily taken on the 5th, that it was not read over by the person concerned, nor brought to anyone's attention (Volume XIV, p. 40) the historian and judge of the future will certainly be startled. And the same holds for the Schmundt document.
One last comment a propos of this document. On May 16th, 1946, Dr. Siemers, counsel for Admiral Raeder, cast a doubt on the authenticity of the document because it was not labelled "State Secret" (Volume XIV, p. 40). A written deposition was requested of the author, who had been located, but not his appearance in court; that would have been too dangerous. On the 18th of May, 1946, he said that he could not guarantee that the text presented to the Tribunal.was an exact copy of his notes (Volume XLII, pp. 228-230).
The case of documents P.S. 798 and 1014 is even more typical. On August 22nd, 1939, Hitler gave a talk to his military leaders which, it is very likely, no one was asked to type out. But, on November 26th, 1945, the Prosecution preserved three versions of the talk, all of which were claimed to be authentic (probably they had not been read) even though they were obviously in [58] contradiction to each other. Moreover, not one of them had been communicated to the Defence beforehand, as required by the Charter, although all three had been released to the press. At the end of the reading of the second version the Defence objected, arguing first that procedure had been violated, second that it was not possible to put in evidence two contradictory documents concerning the same event. The objection was overruled. However, the third version was dropped. And until May 16th, 1946, for nearly seven months, the Prosecution maintained its general thesis, leaning, to the applause of the international press, first on one version and then on the other. Each time the Defence naturally wanted to object, and each time it was cut short.
Finally on May 16th, 1946, Dr. Siemers, counsel for Raeder, who was implicated in both documents, became angry. He was not, however, being difficult since he was quite willing to have one document accepted, but not both. Nothing could be more logical.
The President saw that this time he would not desist. "What are your reasons?" he finally asked.
Dr. Siemers: "...this document (he was speaking of the more vulnerable, P.S. 1014) is nothing but two pieces of paper headed "Second Speech by the Führer, on 22 August, 1939." The original is without a heading, has no file number, no diary number, no stamp 'secret', no signature, no date... On all the documents which the Prosecutor has submitted, even in the case of minutes, you will find the date of the meeting, that of the drafting of the minutes, the place where the minutes were typed, the name of the person who typed them, a stamp 'secret', or some other. Furthermore, Hitler certainly talked for two and a half hours. I believe it is also generally known that Hitler spoke very fast. It is out of the question that the minutes could be only 1 and 1/2 pages long if they are to give the meaning and content of a speech which lasted 2 and 1/4 hours. Later, I will submit the original of document P.S. 798. I am not an expert on handwriting or typewriters, but it is plain to see that this document, which bears no signature and whose origin we do not know, was written on the same kind of paper and with the same typewriter." (Volume XIV, p. 51).
A long discussion began. It will suffice to give the argument of the Prosecution presented by Thomas J. Dodd, American Trial Counsel who, after having said that he would make an effort "to find out where this document came from, that all that he knew was that it had been captured in the German archives, and, as such, was to be admitted," concluded:
"...whether true or not, it is a question of weight. On my respectful submission, we cannot go into intrinsic comparisons in order to decide the admissibility of the document. We would have a great deal to do if we compared the documents in detail. It is a question we do not have to discuss." (Volume XIV, p. 53).
A last objection by the Defence, then the President: "Yes, very well. The request to strike out the minutes of document P.S. 1014 [59] is denied."
One document was as false as the other, and if the Tribunal had admitted it about the second, given what Dr. Siemers said, they would have had to admit it about the first. They did not fall into the trap. There was another reason for having the second document admitted, in spite of the flagrant contradiction, and that was that it contained three important sentences, not found in the first: "Destruction of Poland, main objective. Aim: elimination of vital forces, not an attempt to arrive at a certain line... close your hearts to pity, adopt a brutal attitude I am only afraid that at the last minute some swine will propose an arbitration plan."
In his anxiety, the falsifier had simply overdone it. Doubtless he had observed, when it was done, that he had been too modest in the first document and wanted to make up for it in the second. And in his zeal he did not notice that the second contradicted the first.
We would never finish if we tried to cite the distortions and the forgeries. We will see further on, in the chapter on "Crimes against Humanity", that M. Edgar Faure broke all records with the report, duly dated and signed (by someone dead, of course) of an anti-Jewish congress which took place at Krumheubel on April 3rd and 4th, 1944, and which was proved, before a full court on April 2nd, 1946 (Volume X, p. 420), never to have taken place'
I would like to add this concerning warped documents. One day when he was having a little vacation from the trial in Paris, a former friend, a journalist representing one of the big Paris newspapers at Nuremberg, told me how surprised he was at the attitude of the defendants. "It's funny," he said, "the texts are read to them in their own language, and naturally they understand them. Then when the arguments against them in the texts are taken up one by one, they act as if they no longer understood, and their counsels even more so. You say they do not understand... and I say. 'bosh'!"
Just reading these documents, which were not made public at the time, explains everything. If one spoke of them in Grande Allemagne and then argued Plus Grande Allemagne, or of Colonies to argue Silesia or Poland or the Ukraine, or if a text was read to them in the conditional tense and then arguments were drawn from it in the present, how could they understand?
This process of reading to the German defandants a text written in their mother tongue asking them to acknowledge it as authentic, then producing English, Russian and French translations which had nothing in common with the original, then taking from these translations arguments which were then re-translated into German, was not without, as I have said, a certain Machiavellianism. Many distortions of texts were corrected by the defendants or their counsel acting together -- in a way in flagrante dilecto -- but there were so many that inevitably several escaped them, and it was their bad luck that they were not the least important.
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Like war crimes, crimes of peace require that we go into the materiality of the facts. Naturally, we will not go into detail any more than we need to give the reader a general picture of the whole, just enough to give him something to think about.
The Lion in the fable of La Fontaine, after he had been hunting with the Heifer, the Nanny and the Ewe, divided up the spoils into four parts and explained to them, if I recall correctly, that the first went to him because he was the King, the second because it was his share, the third because he was the strongest, and as to the fourth, he would at once throttle anyone making a claim to it. It did not occur to the writer of the fable to assemble a Court of Justice to condemn this marked breach of the laws and customs of hunting. If he had, he would have found some jurist Fox to claim that there was an infringement, that this infringement constituted one hunting crime, and surely not four. For the jurist Fox as for the defendant Lion, the fraudulent division into four parts of the spoils of the hunt, in this case the Deer, left one, the body of the crime, and also only one infringement (in this case the right of the strongest) analysed and redivised under only four explanatory headings.
To claim that this destruction of the Versailles Treaty, the rearmament of Germany, the acquisition of territories lost as a result of the First World War, and the acquisitions of others for expansion, coupled with the deliberate intention of making aggressive wars, added up to so many counts of indictment was perhaps an ingenious idea. If it had not been for the overcrowded and overcharged atmosphere in which the trial took place - that extraordinary proliferation of fish-wives, stocking knitters and the like who invaded that improvised court, and who fed the interest of the lowest and highest - even the least informed spectator would quickly have grasped that if crime existed, buried under this mass of headings, there was in reality only one, the destruction of the Versailles Treaty, or the right of the strongest of the fable.
To continue the analogy of the fable: imagine that the democratic Heifer, Nanny and Ewe, having been joined by a Jenny just for the sake of being represented, a Turkey because every farce has a fool, a Fox for the scenery, and a Wolf for the moral, have managed to catch the Lion in a snare, firmly tied to the ground, and that they put him to death little by little, taking care to prolong the spectacle, all of them gathering round every day so as to miss nothing -- we would have a League of Nations of animals, in which a Monkey all bedecked could well play the part of the mace-bearer, and the press could be represented by an old cackling hen. Imagine?.. this place in the concert of nations, this Lion in a snare -- did not the Treaty of Versailles want to condemn Germany to just about exactly that? One day, maggot-ridden and half dead, the Lion managed to break his leash, that is all. As in the world of La Fontaine, an English Rat, or an American, if not one of their interbreeding, came out of his hole [61] at the right moment and gnawed through the rope at just the right spot.
To return to the world of men, the question which presents itself is whether the German Lion had the right to break out of the snare, and this question on another level is that of the sacredness of treaties, especially peace treaties.
A treaty does not necessarily have to be the written expression of a relation of forces, e.g. a customs conventions, the European Common Market. In the case of the European Common Market it must be admitted that it was imposed on the Six by an outside danger that threatened all of them and that Germany, although deriving little advantage from this agreement, nonetheless was forced into it by the new situation in the world in which she found herself as a result of World War II, and because Britain's non-cooperation would be tantamount to her exclusion from the most important markets on the Continent. There are relations of forces that are purely economic. In the beginning they are all of this character, which they retain as long as the problems inherent in commerce and the conquest of markets can be solved peaceably, and merchants do not request the State to send soldiers to help them to keep what they have, or to acquire a market prohibited to them, or that they have lost in price competition. Contingent on these conditions, treaties which are made or dissolved peaceably are quite imaginable and, insofar as the interests involved are only of relative importance, they are fairly common. It is remarkable that on that score no jurist has thought of invoking the argument of Eternal Inviolability.
The same does not hold for peace treaties, since they are always the written expression of relations of military forces, in that there is always a conqueror who imposes his will on the vanquished, who in turn submits only with the knife at his throat. Ceaselessly and eternally denounced in the name of Ethics, the process has never been codified in the name of Law, in the sense of the limitation of the rights of the conqueror and the protection of the inalienable rights of the vanquished.
Until the beginning of this century, the tradition of ages has been that the superior interests of State were reasons enough for declaring war, and no moral or judicial justification was necessary. The savagery of the fighting was limited only by the stage of invention in the art of destruction at the time. One ransomed oneself or was ransomed at the discretion of the conqueror, depending on how the battle had turned out. White flags, truces, treaties... from the declaration of war to the conclusion of peace, everything unfolded according to a kind of code, honour handed down from chivalry. There was always a traitorous knight, who was of course always the enemy. After the signing of the peace, which ended the war, the adversaries separated according to convention, shook each other ceremoniously by the hand, the loser accepting the conditions of the victor, wrapping himself in [62] his dignity, and both promising to see each other again some day. The Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 was declared and conducted, and peace was concluded in that style. And even though in the meantime many attempts had been made, especially at The Hague, to give war a code, drawn up by jurists and not by men of the sword, so, too, was the war of 1914-1918, at least in its preparation and declaration. Germany did nothing at Frankfurt to hinder the policy of revenge openly carried on by Poincaré -- unquestionably a war criminal in the terms of the Nuremberg Charter! -- but she took umbrage in an untraditional way, by threatening to reply with more of the same. And she declared herself ready, if necessary, to pick up the gauntlet which for many years had been daily thrown at her. The intangibility of treaties was not an article of Law, but an established fact which, in spite of international conventions, it was admitted on both sides could only last until wars changed it. Just as Poincaré proclaimed that the Frankfurt treaty was a disgrace for France, and that it should be destroyed by force of arms, so it was in Germany, where Bethmann-Hollweg allegedly called all the other treaties that bound them in Central and Balkan Europe, in Africa and the Near East, "scraps of paper." The phrase went around the world in the press and even in schools and universities. In reality, Bethmann-Hollweg had only said "a bit of paper." (Renouvin)
In order to decide whether these examples are exceptions which permit no generalisations, or on the contrary are case-types on which rules can be based, the reader can ask himself what public opinion today would think of jurists who proclaimed as sacrosanct the following: the treaty of Verdun (843, partition of Charlemagne's empire), the treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559, end of the Italian wars, and the cleaning up of the unhappy after effects of the Hundred Years War, which had come to an end in 1453 without any treaty other than the Treaty of Troyes of 1429, from which the King of England derived the title of King of France, still part of the realm of England at the end of the past century), the treaty of Westphalia (1648, end of the Thirty Years War), the treaty of Vienna (1814-15, end of the Napoleonic Wars) etc. But, in fact, there is no middle way. If the inviolability of treaties is a law, all treaties are inviolable without exception, each treaty being the negation of the inviolability of the preceding one. It is a fact that while the jurists at Nuremberg were talking about the sacredness of treaties, they really had in mind a general rule for which the Treaty of Versailles served as the only basis and only application. But why Versailles rather than Frankfurt, or Frankfurt rather than Vienna or Verdun?
It is clear that the argument of the inviolability of the single Versailles Treaty is without moral, historic or legal grounds, that it rests solely on the chances of war, and that if the war had been won by the losers, things would be reversed and no fewer or less well qualified jurists would be upholding the opposite argument.
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On the other hand, it is fairly elastic, taking into account the fact that in the matter of monetary sanctions, the same judges did not consider the Treaty inviolable since, from 1919 to 1930, the considerable indemnities which Germany was sentenced to pay ranged, with their acquiescence, from 132 billion gold Marks ( 1 ) to a sum close to zero; and in its territorial clauses it was only in the case of Germany that it was inviolable, since today all those clauses have been annulled - with new and appreciable aggravations - to the profit of Russia.
I have already said that Britain, with the backing of the United States, never considered the military clauses inviolable, not even under Hitler (Naval Agreement of June 1935). As for Russia, until September 18th, 1934 when she was admitted to the League at Litvinov's request and on the recommendation of M. Yvon Delbos and M. Barthou, the Versailles Treaty was in Russian eyes a "dictate of hate and plunder" and the League itself a "League of Bandits." On April 17th, 1922, acting on this main idea, she even signed the Rapallo Treaty with Germany (completed by the first German-Soviet non-aggression pact, April 24th, 1926), the first act of her then foreign policy which was to gather into one bloc all the defeated countries of the war of 1914-1918 who were oppressed by the "dictate of the bandit conquerors." By which it can be seen that in the view of at least three of the judges at Nuremberg this elastic inviolability of the Treaty of Versailles was also in eclipse.
So, if I now conclude that no treaty can be considered sacred, I do not think I can be accused of saying so improperly. Up until Versailles, treaties were not inviolable because they were the expression of relations of force, which are not immutable. Each moment of history has its own possibility of an outburst of violence which sweeps away the treaty which a preceding outburst of violence has produced. It is a vicious circle. As with all vicious circles you cannot escape from it without breaking it, and perhaps now is the time to survey the attempts that have been made in this direction. And it will be seen that the Treaty of Versailles and the Nuremberg Trial have been placed in a quite curious and original context.
At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries Intellectual circles were seized with a fit of conscience over war. This reached the workers and public opinion generally and caused the leading persons of nearly all countries to envisage a humanisation of war which would lead progressively to its being outlawed. The conventions adopted at the international conferences at The Hague in 1899 and 1907 should be viewed as materialisations of that fit of conscience. A paradox: it was not France that boasted [64] of having originated all the generous ideas, but Tsarist Russia which took the initiative in this movement in 1899; and in 1907, once again it was not France but the United States which took it up. France was busy preparing her revenge for Frankfurt, and she threw herself into that body and soul, while at the same time she participated in the conferences and the decisions made there. Another paradox: during all this period, as public opinion favoured these conferences more and more (27 participants in 1899, 44 in 1907), and specific measures putting a limitation on recourse to war which tended to eliminate or restrict its inhumanity were adopted in the texts, at the same time all the dangers increased, accumulated and ended by making war inevitable in 1914. Many worthy people thought at that time that the real aim in the minds of most of the participants of The Hague conference was to lay a false scent.
In short, there was fighting from August 2nd, 1914 until November 11th, 1918. The Peace Conference opened at Paris on January 19th, 1919 and on June 28th the treaty which put an official end to the war was signed at Versailles. In the memory of warriors such a humiliation had never been inflicted on the loser, and in the memory of jurists never was there such an infringement of the right of self-determination of people - except, of course, in 1945 and after. The military clauses alone were acceptable in that they recognised reciprocity. But for the rest, one cannot compare without a sense of amazement the 132 billion gold Marks, or the 165 billion gold francs ( 2 ) demanded of Germany in reparations, with the 5 billion in the same currency which Germany exacted from France at Frankfurt (and which brought forth screams from Thiers) nor the amputations of territory, the justifications for them, and what happened to them.
Right after the signing of the Versailles Treaty the victors found themselves in this situation. Having gone to war for "law and civilisation", in the spirit created by the Hague conferences, and against the "Might makes Right" formula attributed to Kaiser Wilhelm II and his Chancellor, Bethmann-Hollweg, they could do no better than themselves to apply the latter formula to a beaten Germany. And yet a unique opportunity existed after the war to break the vicious circle, which could not be done before, by ignoring the results achieved by force of arms and making a treaty with clauses to show that, in conformity with the war aims of the Allies, Right made Might. One has only to read the Fourteen Points to see that that is what President Wilson would have liked to see, and it was the only possible way to get out of the vicious circle. And what a lesson the Allies could have taught the world! Instead of that... but I do not wish to say that then the Treaty of Versailles would have been sacrosanct! The law of force having been forever excluded from international life, they had only to [65] modify it from time to time through the instrument of the Permanent Court of Justice instituted at The Hague in 1899, as required by the changing conditions in society, the structures of society being no more stable than the relationships of force.
The Preamble of the Treaty of Versailles, framed by the Pact of the League of Nations and inseparable from it, did contain an article - No. 19 - making provision for its revision in case it ever became decrepit. The many requests for revision which Germany presented from 1920 to 1939 were based on article 19 -- the Treaty was indeed decrepit, from the very hour that it was signed! It will be easily understood, I think, that no more could a treaty which was acceptable in feudal times (whether it was the expression of force or of general consent freely given) today serve to govern relations among the great modern nations, than could a treaty, even though accepted with universal consent in 1919, claim to control in its propositions what might become of the world, say, two hundred years later.
No. If treaties are not 'scraps of paper', neither can they ever be sets of unalterable rules in a world that is not unalterable. The only problem is that of their periodic revision and there are two alternatives. The periodic revision will be made by relations of force and by war, or by international conferences of the Hague type.
Once peace was restored it was thought at Geneva that, in the bosom of the League instituted by the Versailles Treaty, those conversations begun at The Hague could be resumed. They led to nothing, precisely because they took place in the presence of both relations of forces and general consent. On the one side there were the former Allies, victors armed to the teeth and therefore in a position to force acceptance of their most unrealistic stands; on the other there was Germany disarmed and without recourse, obliged to bend to the others' wishes like the Lion of La Fontaine in his snare, if a Rat had not opportunely come on the scene.
The situation was untenable, all the more so because it constituted a marked violation on the part of the victors of the Treaty of Versailles, of which the Preamble to the five sections of military articles said: "In view of making possible preparation for a limitation of armaments of all nations, Germany undertakes to observe strictly the military, naval and air clauses hereinafter stipulated. "
Germany having kept her promises and disarmed to the limit imposed by the Versailles Treaty, the victors no longer wished to keep theirs -- especially France, followed by the others not wishing to be disobliging or interfere with her interests. We have seen that Britain, at least until 1935, saw no objection.
The error -- not to call it worse -- of the prosecution and judges at Nuremberg was to claim the right to express opinions, as if the Treaty of Versailles had not been the expression of a relation of forces, as if those who drew up the articles had not been the first [66] to break them, as if in Germany the decision to destroy it had not been a reply to the violations initially committed by the victors.
This sort of reply is found in fact in all the phases of German rearmament, imputed to Germany as crimes by the Indictment.
1. October 14th, 1933. Germany leaves the League of Nations. For years Germany discharged the military clauses of the Treaty of Versailles; the Treaty of Locarno (October 16th, 1925) took legal cognisance of the fact, and Marshal Foch confirmed it in 1927 on his return from a tour of inspection in Germany. In spite of that, France refused to fulfil those same clauses incumbent on her and in spite of the objections of Britain and the United States. The League was powerless to bend France, but maintained its hostile attitude to Germany with regard to equality of rights. The disarmament conference came to grief on this problem. The MacDonald Plan for the limitation of armaments (abolition of all offensive weapons, bombers, tanks, heavy artillery etc.) was not accepted by France. On May 18th, 1933, President Roosevelt addressed the heads of state of 44 nations with a message which took up again the MacDonald Plan. On May 17th, Hitler gave a speech to the Reichstag which was an acceptance of the MacDonald Plan. France did not budge, the League was helpless to persuade her, did not even try and insisted on maintaining her stand to refuse equal rights to Germany, whose doctrine was that either France and the other nations keep to the engagements undertaken at Versailles and also disarm, or she would re-arm. When this point of view was not admitted, Germany slammed the door on the League on October 14th, 1933. On November 12th this decision to quit the League was approved by a plebiscite of 95% of the registered voters.
In the House of Commons on October 15th, Lloyd George put the responsibility on France with these words: "For years France has refused to keep her promise to disarm, and since Locarno she has not ceased to increase her armaments year after year." This added a violation of the spirit of Locarno to that of the Treaty of Versailles. And in his book La France a sauvé l'Europe, M. Paul Reynaud admits that this attitude on the part of France made her "seem responsible, in the eyes of the world, for the arms race, which was clearly leading to war." (Volume I, p. 294)
2. March 10th-16th, 1935, Germany builds a Military Force, restores compulsory Military Service and brings the Peace-Time strength of the German Army to 500,000. On the 6th of February 1934, the Doumergue government came to power in France. Barthou was the Minister for Foreign Affairs. One of his acts was to reverse the Locarno policy and substitute the encirclement of Germany for it, preparing the way for a rapprochement with Soviet Russia, which he later got admitted into the League of Nations on September 18th. In March 1935, public pronouncements leading to the Franco-Soviet Pact signed the following May 2nd, were in full flow. Stalin declared that France "was [67] entitled to bring her arms to the level of her security needs"; lengthening the term of military service in France, etc., was achieved. Taking cognisance of this breach of the Versailles and Locarno Treaties, Hitler officially repudiated all the military clauses of the Versailles Treaty, decided to create an air fleet and to restore compulsory military service. If the security of France called for action, so did that of Germany, encircled as it was.
It must be observed that while throwing the responsibility on to France - and rightly, that is indisputable - for a state of affairs that continually worsened, Britain (which at Nuremberg accused the Germans of violating the Treaty of Versailles) was at the same time not so very unforgiving, since she had concluded a naval agreement with Germany in June 1935 which notably increased Germany's naval tonnage, both surface and submarine, in comparison with that allowed at Versailles. The creation of an air. fleet, the re-establishment of compulsory military service, the increase of the standing military strength were imputed to Germany as crimes, but obviously not the naval re-armament which was, moreover, done without the assent of France. Britain would have to have been accused of complicity and Britain was one of the judges. There were State's pardons -- even at Nuremberg!
3. March 7th, 1936. Germany re-occupied "symbolically" the Demilitarised Rhineland. It was a marked infringement of the Treaty of Versailles. It was the logical outcome of what preceded and Germany's reply to the last act, the signing of the Franco-Soviet Pact on May 2nd, 1935. This pact was not ratified by the French parliament until February 27th, 1936. Hitler had expected a reversal. Contrary to his hopes, it was ratified by 353 votes to 164. On February 21st, Hitler had said to Bertrand de Jouvenel who had come to interview him for Paris-Midi:
"You see before you a Germany nine-tenths of whose people have confidence in their leader, and this leader says to you: Let us be friends. Yes, I know what all of you think. You say: Hitler makes declarations of peace to us, but is it in good faith? Is he .sincere? Consider! Would it not be ruinous for both our countries we were to tear each other to pieces again on the battlefield?
My personal efforts towards such a rapprochment will always continue, however. In fact, this more than deplorable pact would naturally create a new situation. You are letting yourselves be dragged into a diplomatic game with a power whose sole aim is to sow disorder among the great European nations, a disorder from which she will benefit.
There are in the lives of nations decisive occasions. Today France can, if she will, forever put an end to that 'German peril' which generations of your children learn to fear. You can remove the heavy burden which weighs on the history of France - the opportunity is given to all of you. If you do not seize it, think of your responsibility to your children."
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For fear that this might compromise the vote on which Hitler had placed so much hope - there was little danger that it could -- the government intervened with the director of Paris-Midi to the effect that the interview which was to have appeared on the 23rd, only came out on February 28th, that is, the day after the vote in Parliament. There was not long to wait for Hitler's answer to the manoeuvre of the French government and the vote of Parliament. On the 7th of March he re-occupied the Rhineland with military forces.
And so it was with all the grievances enumerated against the defendants at Nuremberg in the Indictment, and sustained by the judgement. It was enough to cite those few examples to demonstrate that in the infernal arms race which led to the war, Germany -- even Hitler's Germany -- was not alone in bearing all responsibility. The judges played as great a part as the accused and, to be more precise, the initial responsibility was incumbent on France because she alone had prevented the Disarmament Conference from reaching conclusions, conclusions which she alone did not want.
It is often asked what was the reason for France's obstinacy in not desiring disarmament. The answer to this question is given in the Journal officiel de la République française of March 26th, 1938, which was addressed to the Ministry of National Economy - at the request of Senator Paul Laffont -- concerning the quantities of iron ore exported to Germany from France. since 1934, and obtained the following information:
"The amounts of iron ore (No. 204, customs' tariff) exported to Germany during 1934, 1935, 1936 and 1937, are recorded in the following table:
Year
The whole book in one clic
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What follows the Elephant and Rhinoceros as Africa's third heaviest land mammal? | Nuremberg Trial – Day 1
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Nuremberg Trial – Day 1
First Day:
Tuesday, 20th November, 1945
THE PRESIDENT : Before the defendants in this case are called upon to make their pleas to the indictment which has been lodged against them, and in which they are charged with Crimes against Peace, War Crimes, and Crimes against Humanity, and with a Common Plan or Conspiracy to commit those Crimes, it is the wish of the Tribunal that I should make a very brief statement on behalf of the Tribunal.
This International Military Tribunal has been established pursuant to the Agreement of London, dated the 8th of August, 1945, and the Charter of the Tribunal annexed thereto. The purpose for which the Tribunal has been established is stated in Article I of the Charter to be the just and prompt trial and punishment of the Major War Criminals of the European Axis.
The signatories to the Agreement and Charter are the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Government of the United States of America, the Provisional Government of the French Republic and the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
The Committee of the Chief Prosecutors, appointed by the four signatories, have settled the final designation of the War Criminals to be tried by the Tribunal, and have approved the indictment on which the present defendants stand charged here today.
On Thursday, the 18th of October, 1945, in Berlin, the indictment was lodged with the Tribunal and a copy of that indictment in German has been furnished to each defendant, and has been in his possession for more than thirty days.
All the defendants are represented by counsel. In almost all cases the counsel appearing for the defendants have been chosen by the defendants themselves, but in cases where counsel could not be obtained the Tribunal has itself selected suitable counsel agreeable to the defendant.
The Tribunal has heard with great satisfaction of the steps which have been taken by the Chief Prosecutors to make available to defending counsel the numerous documents upon which the prosecution rely, with the aim of giving to the defendants every possibility for a just defence.
The trial which is now about to begin is unique in the history of the jurisprudence of the world and it is of supreme importance to millions of people all over the globe. For these reasons, there is laid upon everybody who takes any part in this trial a solemn responsibility to discharge his duties without fear or favour, in accordance with the sacred principles of law and justice.
The four signatories having invoked the judicial process, it is the duty of all concerned to see that the trial in no way departs from those principles and traditions which alone give justice its authority and the place it ought to occupy in the affairs of all civilised states.
This trial is a public trial in the fullest sense of those words, and I must, therefore, remind the public that the Tribunal will insist upon the complete maintenance of order and decorum, and will take the strictest measures to enforce it. It only remains for me to direct, in accordance with the provisions of the Charter, that the indictment shall now be read.
MR. SIDNEY ALDERMAN: May it please the Tribunal:
INDICTMENT
I. The United States of America, the French Republic, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics by the undersigned, Robert H. Jackson, Francois de Menthon, Hartley Shawcross and R. A. Rudenko, duly appointed to represent their respective Governments in the investigation of the charges against and the prosecution of the major War Criminals, pursuant to the Agreement of London, dated 8th August, I945, and the Charter of this Tribunal annexed thereto, hereby accuse as guilty, in the respects hereinafter set forth, of Crimes against Peace, War Crimes, and Crimes against Humanity, and of a Common Plan or Conspiracy to commit those Crimes, all as defined in the Charter of the Tribunal, and accordingly name as defendants in this cause and as indicted on the counts hereinafter set out: HERMANN WILHELM GOERING, RUDOLF HESS, JOACHIM VON RIBBENTROP, ROBERT LEY, WILHELM KEITEL, ERNST KALTENBRUNNER, ALFRED ROSENBERG, HANS FRANK, WILHELM FRICK, JULIUS STREICHER, WALTER FUNK, HJALMAR SCHACHT, GUSTAV KRUPP VON BOHLEN UND HALBACH, KARL DOENITZ, ERICH RAEDER, BALDUR VON SCHIRACH, FRITZ SAUCKEL, ALFRED JODL, MARTIN BORMANN, FRANZ VON PAPEN, ARTUR SEYSS-INQUART, ALBERT SPEER, CONSTANTIN VON NEURATH and HANS FRITZSCHE, individually and as members of any of the Groups or Organisations next hereinafter named.
II. The following are named as Groups or Organisations (since dissolved) which should be declared criminal by reason of their aims and the means used for the accomplishment thereof, and in connection with the conviction of such of the named defendants as were members thereof: DIE REICHSREGIERUNG (REICH CABINET); DAS KORPS DER POLITISCHEN LEITER DER NATIONALSOZIALISTISCHEN DEUTSCFIEN ARBEITERPARTEI (LEADERSHIP CORPS OF THE NAZI PARTY); DIE SCHUTZSTAFFELN DER NATIONALSOZIALISTISCHEN DEUTSCHEN ARBEITERPARTEI (commonly known as the “SS”) and including the SICHERHEITSDIENST (commonly known as the “SD”); DIE GEHEIME STAATSPOLIZEI (SECRET STATE POLICE), (commonly known as the “GESTAPO”); DIE STURMABTEILUNGEN DER N.S.D.A.P. (commonly known as the “SA”); and the GENERAL STAFF and the HIGH COMMAND of the GERMAN ARMED FORCES. The identity and membership of the Groups or Organisations referred to in the foregoing titles are hereinafter in Appendix B more particularly defined.
COUNT ONE-THE COMMON PLAN OR CONSPIRACY
(Charter, Article 6, especially 6 (a))
III. Statement of the Offence
All the defendants, with divers other persons, during a period of years preceding 8th May, 1945, participated as leaders’, organisers, instigators or accomplices in the formulation or execution of a common plan or conspiracy to commit, or which involved the commission of, Crimes against Peace, War Crimes, and Crimes against Humanity, as defined in the Charter of this Tribunal, and, in accordance with the provisions of the Charter, are individually responsible for their own acts and for all acts committed by any persons in the execution of such plan or conspiracy. The common plan or conspiracy embraced the commission of Crimes against Peace, in that the defendants planned, prepared, initiated and waged wars of aggression, which were also wars in violation of international treaties, agreements or assurances. In the development and course of the common plan or conspiracy it came to embrace the commission of War Crimes, in that it contemplated, and the defendants determined upon and carried out, ruthless wars against countries and populations, in violation of the rules and customs of war, including as typical and systematic means by which the wars were prosecuted, murder, ill-treatment, deportation for slave labour and for other purposes of civilian populations of occupied territories, murder and ill-treatment of prisoners of war and of persons on the high seas, the taking and killing of hostages, the plunder of public and private property, the wanton destruction of cities, towns, and villages, and devastation not justified by military necessity. The common plan or conspiracy contemplated and came to embrace as typical and systematic, and the defendants determined upon and committed, Crimes against Humanity, both within Germany and within occupied territories, including murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation and other inhumane acts committed against civilian populations before and during the war, and persecutions on political, racial, or religious grounds, in execution of the plan for preparing and prosecuting aggressive or illegal wars, many of such acts and persecutions being violations of the domestic laws of the countries where perpetrated.
IV. Particulars of the nature and development of the common plan or conspiracy
(A) NAZI PARTY AS THE CENTRAL CORE OF THE COMMON PLAN OR CONSPIRACY
In 1921 Adolf Hitler became the supreme leader or Fuehrer of the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (National Socialist German Workers Party) also known as the Nazi Party, which had been founded in Germany in 1920. He continued as such throughout the period covered by this Indictment. The Nazi Party, together with certain of its subsidiary organisations, became the instrument of cohesion among the defendants and their co-conspirators and an instrument for the carrying out of the aims and purposes of their conspiracy. Each defendant became a member of the Nazi Party and of the conspiracy, with knowledge of their aims and purposes, or, with such knowledge, became an accessory to their aims and purposes at some stage of the development of the conspiracy.
(B) COMMON OBJECTIVES AND METHODS OF CONSPIRACY
The aims and purposes of the Nazi Party and of the defendants and divers other persons from time to time associated as leaders, members, supporters or adherents of the Nazi Party (hereinafter called collectively the “Nazi conspirators”) were, or came to be, to accomplish the following by any means deemed opportune, including unlawful means, and contemplating ultimate resort to threat of force, force and aggressive war:
(i) to abrogate and overthrow the Treaty of Versailles and its restrictions upon the military armament and activity of Germany;
(ii) to acquire the territories lost by Germany as the result of the World War of 1914-1918 and other territories in Europe asserted by the Nazi conspirators to be occupied principally by so-called “racial Germans”;
(iii) to acquire still further territories in continental Europe and elsewhere claimed by the Nazi conspirators to be required by the “racial Germans” as “Lebensraum,” or living space, all at the expense of neighbouring and other countries.
The aims and purposes of the Nazi conspirators were not fixed or static, but evolved and expanded as they acquired progressively greater power and became able to make more effective application of threats of force and threats of aggressive war. When their expanding aims and purposes became finally so great as to provoke such strength of resistance as could be overthrown only by armed force and aggressive war, and not simply by the opportunistic methods theretofore used, such as fraud, deceit, threats, intimidation, fifth column activities and propaganda, the Nazi conspirators deliberately planned, determined upon and launched their aggressive wars and wars in violation of international treaties, agreements and assurances by the phases and steps hereinafter more particularly described.
(C) DOCTRINAL TECHNIQUES OF THE COMMON PLAN OR CONSPIRACY
To incite others to join in the common plan or conspiracy, and as a means of securing for the Nazi conspirators the highest degree of control over the German community, they put forth, disseminated, and exploited certain doctrines, among others, as follows :-
1. That persons of so-called “German blood” (as specified by the Nazi conspirators) were a “master race” and were accordingly entitled to subjugate, dominate or exterminate other “races” and peoples
2. That the German people should be ruled under the Fuehrerprinzip (leadership principle) according to which power was to reside in a Fuehrer from whom sub-leader were to derive authority in a hierarchical order, each sub-leader to owe unconditional obedience to his immediate superior but to be absolute in his own sphere of jurisdiction; and the power of the leadership was to be unlimited, extending to all phases of public and private life
3. That war was a noble and necessary activity of Germans
4. That the leadership of the Nazi Party, as the sole bearer of the foregoing and other doctrines of the Nazi Party, was entitled to shape the structure, policies and practices of the German State and all related institutions, to direct and supervise activities of all individuals within the State, and to destroy all opponents.
(D) THE ACQUIRING OF TOTALITARIAN CONTROL OF GERMANY: POLITICAL
1. First steps in acquisition of control of State machinery
In order to accomplish their aims and purposes, the Nazi conspirators prepared to seize totalitarian control over Germany to secure that no effective resistance against them could arise within Germany itself. After the failure of the Munich Putsch of 1923 aimed at the overthrow of the Weimar Republic by direct action, the Nazi conspirators set out through the Nazi Party to undermine and capture the German Government by “legal” forms supported by terrorism. They created and utilised, as a Party formation, Die Sturmabteilungen (SA), a semimilitary, voluntary Organisation of young men trained for and committed to the use of violence, whose mission was to make the Party the master of the streets.
2. Control acquired
On 30th January, 1933, Hitler became Chancellor of the German Republic. After the Reichstag fire of 28th February, 1933, clauses of the Weimar constitution guaranteeing personal liberty, freedom of speech, of the Press, of association and assembly were suspended. The Nazi conspirators secured the passage by the Reichstag of a “law for the Protection of the People and the Reich” giving Hitler and the members of his then cabinet plenary powers of legislation. The Nazi conspirators retained such powers after having changed the members of the cabinet. The conspirators caused all political parties except the Nazi Party to be prohibited. They caused the Nazi Party to be established as a para-governmental Organisation with extensive and extraordinary privileges.
3. Consolidation of control
Thus possessed of the machinery of the German State, the Nazi conspirators set about the consolidation of their position of power within Germany, the extermination of potential internal resistance and the placing of the German nation on a military footing.
(a) The Nazi conspirators reduced the Reichstag to a body of their own nominees and curtailed the freedom of popular elections throughout the country. They transformed the several states, provinces and municipalities, which had formerly exercised semiautonomous powers, into hardly more than administrative organs of the Central Government. They united the offices of the President and the Chancellor in the person Of Hitler, instituted a widespread purge of civil servants, and severely restricted the independence of the judiciary and rendered it subservient to Nazi ends. The conspirators greatly enlarged existing State and Party organisations, established a network of new State and Party organisations, and “coordinated” State agencies with the Nazi Party and its branches and affiliates, with the result that German life was dominated by Nazi doctrine and practice and progressively mobilised for the accomplishment of their aims.
(b) in order to make their rule secure from attack and to instil fear in the hearts of the German people, the Nazi conspirators established and extended a system of terror against opponents and supposed or suspected opponents of the regime. They imprisoned such persons without judicial process, holding them in “protective custody” and concentration camps, and subjected them to persecution, degradation, despoilment, enslavement, torture and murder. These concentration camps were established early in 1933 under the direction of the defendant Goering and expanded as a fixed part of the terroristic policy and method of the conspirators and used by them for the commission of the Crimes against Humanity hereinafter alleged. Among the principal agencies utilised in the perpetration of these crimes were the SS and the Gestapo, which, together with other favoured branches or agencies of the State and Party, were permitted to operate without restraint of law.
(c) The Nazi conspirators conceived that, in addition to the suppression of distinctively political opposition, it was necessary to suppress or exterminate certain other movements or groups which they regarded as obstacles to their retention of total control in Germany, and to the aggressive aims of the conspiracy abroad.
Accordingly :
(1) The Nazi conspirators destroyed the free trade unions in Germany by confiscating their funds and properties, persecuting their leaders, prohibiting their activities, and supplanting them by an affiliated Party Organisation. The leadership principle was introduced into industrial relations, the entrepreneur becoming the leader and the workers becoming his followers. Thus any potential resistance of the workers was frustrated and the productive labour capacity of the German nation was brought under the effective control of the conspirators.
(2) The Nazi conspirators, by promoting beliefs and practices incompatible with Christian teaching, sought to subvert the influence of the Churches over the people and, in particular over the youth of Germany. They avowed their aim to eliminate the Christian Churches in Germany and sought to substitute therefor Nazi institutions and Nazi beliefs, and pursued a programme of persecution of priests, clergy and members of monastic orders whom they deemed opposed to their purposes, and confiscated church property.
(3) The persecution by the Nazi conspirators of pacifist groups, including religious movements dedicated to pacifism, was particularly relentless and cruel.
(d) Implementing their “master race” policy, the conspirators joined in a programme of relentless persecution of the Jews, designed to exterminate them. Annihilation of the Jews became an official State policy, carried out both by official action and by incitements to mob, and individual violence. The conspirators openly avowed their purpose. For example, the defendant Rosenberg stated: ” Anti-Semitism is the unifying element of the reconstruction of Germany.” On another occasion he also stated: “Germany will regard the Jewish question as solved only after the very last Jew has left the greater German living space…Europe will have its Jewish question solved only after the very last Jew has left the continent.” The defendant Ley declared: “We swear we are not going to abandon the struggle until the last Jew in Europe has been exterminated and is actually dead. It is not enough to isolate the Jewish enemy of mankind – the Jew has got to be exterminated.” On another occasion he also declared: “The second German secret weapon is anti-Semitism, because if it is consistently pursued by Germany, it will become a universal problem which all nations will be forced to consider.” The defendant Streicher declared: “The sun will not shine on the nations of the earth until the last Jew is dead.” These avowals and incitements were typical of the declarations of the Nazi conspirators throughout the course of their conspiracy. The programme of action against the Jews included disfranchisement, stigmatisation, denial of civil rights,subjecting their persons and property to violence, deportation, enslavement, enforced labour, starvation, murder and mass extermination. The extent to which the conspirators succeeded in their purpose can only be estimated, but the annihilation was substantiallycomplete in many localities of Europe. Of the 9,6000,00 Jews who lived in the parts of Europe under Nazi domination, it is conservatively estimated that 5,700,000 have disappeared, most of them deliberately put to death by the Nazi conspirators. Only remnants of the Jewish population of Europe remain.
(e) In order to make the German people amenable to their. will, and to prepare them psychologically for war, the Nazi conspirators reshaped the educational system and particularly the education and training of the German youth. The leadership principle was introduced into the schools and the Party and affiliated organisations were given wide supervisory powers over education. The Nazi conspirators imposed a supervision of all cultural activities, controlled the dissemination of information and the expression of opinion within Germany as well as the movement of intelligence of all kinds from and into Germany, and created vast propaganda machines.
(f) The Nazi conspirators placed a considerable number of their dominated organisations on a progressively militarised footing with a view to the rapid transformation and use of such organisations whenever necessary as instruments of war.
(E) THE ACQUIRING OF TOTALITARIAN CONTROL IN GERMANY: ECONOMIC; AND THE ECONOMIC PLANNING AND MOBILISATION FOR AGGRESSIVE WAR
Having gained political power, the conspirators organised Germany’s economy to give effect to their political aims.
In order to eliminate the possibility of resistance in the economic sphere, they deprived labour of its rights of free industrial and political association as particularised in paragraph (D) 3 (c) (1) herein.
They used organisations of German business as instruments of economic mobilisation for war.
They directed Germany’s economy towards preparation and equipment of the military machine. To this end they directed finance, capital investment, and foreign trade.
The Nazi conspirators, and in particular the industrialists among them embarked upon a huge rearmament programme and set out to produce and develop huge quantities of materials of war and to create a powerful military potential.
With the object of carrying through the preparation for war the Nazi conspirators set up a series of administrative agencies and authorities. For example, in 1936 they established for this purpose the office of the Four Year Plan with the defendant Goering as Plenipotentiary, vesting it with overriding control over Germany’s economy. Furthermore, on 28th August, 1939, immediately before launching their aggression against Poland, they appointed the defendant Funk Plenipotentiary for Economics; and on 30th August, 1939, they set up the Ministerial Council for the Defence of the Reich to act as a War Cabinet.
(F) UTILISATION OF NAZI CONTROL FOR FOREIGN AGGRESSION
1. Status of the conspiracy by the middle of 1933 and projected plans
By the middle of the year 1933 the Nazi conspirators, having acquired governmental control over Germany, were in a position to enter upon further and more detailed planning with particular relationship to foreign policy. Their plan was to re-arm and to re-occupy and fortify the Rhineland, in violation of the Treaty of Versailles and other treaties, in order to acquire military strength and political bargaining power to be used against other nations.
2. The Nazi conspirators decided that for their purpose the Treaty of Versailles must definitely be abrogated, and specific plans were made by them and put into operation by 7th March, 1936, all of which opened the way for the major aggressive steps to follow, as hereinafter set forth. In the execution of this phase of the conspiracy the Nazi conspirators did the following acts :-
(a) They led Germany to enter upon a course of secret re- armament from 1933 to March, 1935, including the training of military personnel and the production of munitions of war, and the building of an Air Force.
(b) On 4th October, 1933, they led Germany to leave the International Disarmament Conference and the League of Nations.
(c) On 10th March, 1935, the defendant Goering announced that Germany was building a Military Air Force.
(d) On 16th March, I935, the Nazi conspirators promulgated a law for universal military service, in which they stated the peace-time strength of the German Army would be fixed at 500,000 men.
(e) On 21St May, 1935, they falsely announced to the world, with intent to deceive and allay fears of aggressive intentions, that they would respect the territorial limitations of the Versailles Treaty and comply with the Locarno Pacts.
(f) On 7th March, 1936, they re-occupied and fortified the Rhineland, in violation of the Treaty of Versailles and the Rhine Pact of Locarno of 16th October, 1925, and falsely announced to the world that “we have no territorial demands to make in Europe.”
3. Aggressive Action against Austria and Czechoslovakia
(a) The 1936-1938 phase of the plan: planning for the assault on Austria and Czechoslovakia.
The Nazi conspirators next entered upon the specific planning for the acquisition of Austria and Czechoslovakia, realising it would be necessary, for military reasons, first to seize Austria before assaulting Czechoslovakia. On 21St May, 1935, in a speech to the Reichstag, Hitler stated that: “Germany neither intends nor wishes to interfere in the internal affairs of Austria, to annex Austria or to conclude an Anschluss.” On 1st May, 1936, within two months after the re-occupation of the Rhineland, Hitler stated: “The lie goes forth again that Germany tomorrow or the day after will fall upon Austria or Czechoslovakia.” Thereafter, the Nazi conspirators caused a treaty to be entered into between Austria and Germany on 11th July, 1936, Article I of which stated that “The German Government recognises the full sovereignty of the Federal State of Austria in the spirit of the pronouncements of the German Fuehrer and Chancellor of 21st May, I935.” Meanwhile, plans for aggression in violation of that treaty were being made. By the autumn of 1937, all noteworthy opposition within the Reich had been crushed. Military preparation for the Austrian action was virtually concluded. An influential group of the Nazi conspirators met with Hitler on 5th November, 1937, to review the situation. It was reaffirmed that Nazi Germany must have “Lebensraum” in Central Europe. It was recognised that such conquest would probably meet resistance which would have to be crushed by force and that their decision might lead to a general war, but this prospect was discounted as a risk worth taking. There emerged from this meeting three possible plans for the conquest of Austria and Czechoslovakia. Which of the three was to be used was to depend upon the developments in the political and military situation in Europe. It was contemplated that the conquest of Austria and Czechoslovakia would, through compulsory emigration of 2,000,000 persons from Czechoslovakia and 1,000,000 persons from Austria, provide additional food to the Reich for 5,000,000 to 6,000,000 people, strengthen it militarily by providing shorter and better frontiers, and make possible the constituting of new armies up to about twelve divisions. Thus, the aim of the plan against Austria and Czechoslovakia was conceived of not as an end in itself but as a preparatory measure toward the next aggressive steps in the Nazi conspiracy.
(b) The execution of the plan to invade Austria : November, 1937, to March, 1938
Hitler on 8th February, 1938, called Chancellor Schuschnigg to a conference at Berchtesgaden. At the meeting of 12th February, 1938, under threat of invasion, Schuschnigg yielded a promise of amnesty to imprisoned Nazis and appointment of Nazis to ministerial posts. He agreed to remain silent until Hitler’s next speech in which Austria’s independence was to be reaffirmed, but Hitler in that speech, instead of affirming Austrian independence, declared himself protector of all. Germans. Meanwhile, subversive activities of Nazis in Austria increased. Schuschnigg on 9th March, 1938, announced a plebiscite for the following Sunday on the question of Austrian independence. On 11th March Hitler sent an ultimatum, demanding that the plebiscite be called off or Germany would invade Austria. Later the same day a second ultimatum threatened invasion unless Schuschnigg should resign in three hours. Schuschnigg resigned. The defendant Seyss-Inquart, who was appointed Chancellor, immediately invited Hitler to send German troops into Austria to “preserve order.” The invasion began on 12th March, I938 On 13th March, Hitler by proclamation assumed office as Chief of State of Austria and took command of her armed forces. By a law of the same date Austria was annexed to Germany.
(c) The execution of the plan to invade Czechoslovakia: April, 1938, to March, 1939
1. Simultaneously with their annexation of Austria, the Nazi conspirators gave false assurances to the Czechoslovak Government that they would not attack that country. But within a month they met to plan specific ways and means of attacking Czechoslovakia, and to revise, in the light of the acquisition of Austria, the previous plans for aggression against Czechoslovakia.
2. On 21st April, 1938, the Nazi conspirators met and prepared to launch an attack on Czechoslovakia not later than 1st October, 1938. They planned to create an “incident” to “justify” the attack. They decided to launch a military attack only after a period of diplomatic squabbling which, growing more serious, would lead to the excuse for war, or, in the alternative, to unleash a lightning attack as a result of an ” incident” of their own creation. Consideration was given to assassinating the German Ambassador at Prague to create the requisite incident. From and after 21st April, 1938, the Nazi conspirators caused to be prepared detailed and precise military plans designed to carry out such an attack at any opportune moment and calculated to overthrow all Czechoslovak resistance within four days, this presenting the world with a fait accompli, and so forestalling outside resistance. Throughout the months of May, June, July, August and September, these plans were made more specific and detailed, and by 3rd September, it was decided that all troops were to be ready for action on 28th September, 1983.
3. Throughout this same period, the Nazi conspirators were agitating the minorities’ question in Czechoslovakia, and particularly in the Sudetenland, leading to a diplomatic crisis in August and September, 1938. After the Nazi conspirators threatened war, the United Kingdom and France concluded a pact with Germany and Italy at Munich on 29th September, 1938, involving the cession of the Sudetenland by Czechoslovakia to Germany. Czechoslovakia was required to acquiesce. On 1st October, 1938, German troops occupied the Sudetenland.
4. On 5th March, 1939, contrary to the provisions of the Munich Pact itself, the Nazi conspirators completed their plan by seizing and occupying the major part of Czechoslovakia, i.e., Bohemia and Moravia, not ceded to German by the Munich Pact.
4. Formulation of the plan to attack Poland : preparation and initiation of aggressive war : March, 1939, to September, 1939
(a) With these aggressions successfully consummated, the conspirators had obtained much desired resources and bases and were ready to undertake further aggressions by means of war. Following the assurances to the world of peaceful intentions, an influential group of the conspirators met on 23rd May, 1939, to consider the further implementation of their plan. The situation was reviewed and it was observed that “the past six years have been put to good use and all measures have been taken in correct sequence and in accordance with our aims,” that the national- political unity of the Germans had been substantially achieved, and that further successes could not be achieved without war and bloodshed. It was decided nevertheless next to attack Poland at the first suitable opportunity. It was admitted that the questions concerning Danzig which they had agitated with Poland were not true questions, but rather that the question was one of aggressive expansion for food and “Lebensraum.” It was recognised that Poland would fight if attacked and that a repetition of the Nazi success against Czechoslovakia without war could not be expected. Accordingly, it was determined that the problem was to isolate Poland and, if possible, prevent a simultaneous conflict with the Western Powers. Nevertheless, it was agreed that England was an enemy to their aspirations, and that war with England and her ally France must eventually result, and therefore that in that war every attempt must be made to overwhelm England with a “Blitzkrieg” or lightning war. It was thereupon determined immediately to prepare detailed plans for an attack on Poland at the first suitable opportunity and thereafter for an attack on England and France, together with plans for the simultaneous occupation by armed force of air bases in the Netherlands and Belgium.
(b) Accordingly, after having denounced the German-Polish Pact Of 1934, on false grounds, the Nazi conspirators proceeded to stir up the Danzig issue, to prepare frontier “incidents” to “justify” the attack, and to make demands for the cession of Polish territory. Upon refusal by Poland to yield, they caused German armed forces to invade Poland on 1st September, 1939, thus precipitating war also with the United Kingdom and France.
5. Expansion of the war into a general war of aggression: planning and execution of attacks on Denmark, Norway, Belgium, The Netherlands, Luxembourg, Yugoslavia, and Greece: 1939 to April, 1941
Thus the aggressive war prepared for by the Nazi conspirators through their attacks on Austria and Czechoslovakia was actively launched by their attack on Poland, in violation of the terms of the Briand-Kellogg Pact, 1928. After the total defeat of Poland, in order to facilitate the carrying out of their military operations against France and the United Kingdom, the Nazi conspirators made active preparations for an extension of the war in Europe. In accordance with these plans, they caused the German armed forces to invade Denmark and Norway on 9th April, 1940; Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg on 10th May, 1940; Yugoslavia and Greece on 6th April, 1941. All these invasions had been specifically planned in advance.
6. German invasion on 22nd June, 1941, of the U.S.S.R. territory in violation of the Non-Aggression Pact Of 23rd August, 1939
On 22nd June, 1941, the Nazi conspirators deceitfully denounced the Non-Aggression Pact between Germany and the U.S.S.R. and without any declaration of war invaded Soviet territory, thereby beginning a war of aggression against the U.S.S.R. Schuschnigg yielded a promise of amnesty to imprisoned Nazis and appointment of Nazis to ministerial posts. He agreed to remain silent until Hitler’s next speech in which Austria’s independence was to be reaffirmed, but Hitler in that speech, instead of affirming Austrian independence, declared himself protector of all. Germans. Meanwhile, subversive activities of Nazis in Austria increased. Schuschnigg on 9th March, 1938, announced a plebiscite for the following Sunday on the question of Austrian independence. On 11th March Hitler sent an ultimatum, demanding that the plebiscite be called off or Germany would invade Austria. Later the same day a second ultimatum threatened invasion unless Schuschnigg should resign in three hours. Schuschnigg resigned. The defendant Seyss-Inquart, who was appointed Chancellor, immediately invited Hitler to send German troops into Austria to “preserve order.” The invasion began on 12th March, I938 On 13th March, Hitler by proclamation assumed office as Chief of State of Austria and took command of her armed forces. By a law of the same date Austria was annexed to Germany.
From the first day of launching their attack on Soviet territory the Nazi conspirators, in accordance with their detailed plans, began to carry out the destruction of cities, towns and villages, the demolition of factories, collective farms, electric stations and railroads, the robbery and barbaric devastation of the natural cultural institutions of the peoples of the U.S.S.R., the devastation of museums, churches, historic monuments, and mass deportation of the Soviet citizens for slave labour to Germany, as well as the annihilation of old people, women and children, especially Byelo-Russians and Ukrainians. The extermination of Jews was committed throughout the territory of the Soviet Union.
The above-mentioned criminal offences were perpetrated by the German troops in accordance with the orders of the Nazi Government and the General Staff and High Command of the German Armed Forces.
7. Collaboration with Italy and Japan and aggressive war against the United States : November, 1936, to December, 1941
After the initiation of the Nazi wars of aggression the Nazi conspirators brought about a German-Italian-Japanese ten- year military-economic alliance signed at Berlin on 27th September, 1940. This agreement, representing a strengthening of the bonds among those nations, established by the earlier but more limited pact of 25th November, 1936, stated: ” The Governments of Germany, Italy and Japan, considering it as a condition precedent of any lasting peace that all nations of the world be given each its own proper place, have decided to stand by and co-operate with one another in regard of their efforts in Greater East Asia and regions of Europe respectively wherein it is their prime purpose to establish and maintain a new order of things calculated to promote the mutual prosperity and welfare of the peoples concerned.” The Nazi conspirators conceived that Japanese aggression would weaken and handicap those nations with which they were at war, and those with whom they contemplated war. Accordingly, the Nazi conspirators exhorted Japan to seek “a new order of things.” Taking advantage of the wars of aggression then being waged by the Nazi conspirators, Japan commenced an attack on 7th December, 1941, against the United States of America at Pearl Harbour and the Philippines, and against the British Commonwealth of Nations, French Indo-China and the Netherlands in the South-west Pacific. Germany declared war against the United States on 11th December, 1941.
(G) WAR CRIMES AND CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY COMMITTED IN THE COURSE OF EXECUTING THE CONSPIRACY FOR WHICH THE CONSPIRATORS ARE RESPONSIBLE:
1. Beginning with the initiation of the aggressive war on 1st September, 1939, and throughout its extension into wars involving almost the entire world, the Nazi conspirators carried out their Common Plan or Conspiracy to wage war in ruthless and complete disregard and violation of the laws and customs of war. In the course of executing the Common Plan or Conspiracy, there were committed the War Crimes detailed hereinafter in Count Three of this Indictment.
2. Beginning with the initiation of their plan to seize and retain total control of the German State, and thereafter throughout their utilisation of that control for foreign aggression, the Nazi conspirators carried out their Common Plan or Conspiracy in ruthless and complete disregard and violation of the laws of Humanity. In the course of executing the Common Plan or Conspiracy there were committed the Crimes against Humanity detailed hereinafter in Count Four of this Indictment.
3. By reason of all the foregoing, the defendants with divers other persons are guilty of a Common Plan or Conspiracy for the accomplishment of Crimes against Peace; of a conspiracy to commit Crimes against Humanity in the course of preparation for war and in the course of prosecution of war; and of a conspiracy to commit War Crimes not only against the armed forces of their enemies but also against non-belligerent civilian populations.
(H) INDIVIDUAL, GROUP AND ORGANISATION RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE OFFENCE STATED IN COUNT ONE:
Reference is hereby made to Appendix A of this Indictment for a statement of the responsibility of the individual defendants for the offence set forth in this Count One of the Indictment. Reference is hereby made to Appendix B of this Indictment for a statement of the responsibility of the groups and organisation named herein as criminal groups and organisations for the offences set forth in this Count One of the Indictment.
MR. SIDNEY ALDERMAN: If the Tribunal please, that ends Count One, which is America’s responsibility. Great Britain will present Count Two.
SIR DAVID MAXWELL FYFE: If your Lordship pleases.
COUNT TWO-CRIMES AGAINST PEACE (Charter, Article 6 (a))
V. Statement of the Offence
All the defendants with divers other persons, during a period of years preceding 8th May, 1945, participated in the planning, preparation, initiation and waging of wars of aggression, which were also wars in violation of international treaties, agreements and assurances.
VI. Particulars of the wars planned, prepared, initiated and waged
(A) The wars referred to in the Statement of Offence in this Count Two of the Indictment and the dates of their initiation were the following: against Poland, 1st September, I939; against the United Kingdom and France, 3rd September, 1939; against Denmark and Norway, 9th April, 1940; against Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg, 10th May, 1940; against Yugoslavia and Greece, 6th April, 1941; against the U.S.S.R., 22nd June, 1941; and against the United States of America, 11th December, 1941.
(B) Reference is hereby made to Count One of the Indictment for the allegations charging that these wars were wars of aggression on the part of the defendants.
(C) Reference is hereby made to Appendix C annexed to this Indictment for a statement of particulars of the charges of violations of international treaties, agreements and assurances caused by the defendants in the course of planning, preparing and initiating these wars.
VII. Individual, group and Organisation responsibility for the offence stated in Count Two
Reference is hereby made to Appendix A of this Indictment for a statement of the responsibility of the individual defendants for the offence set forth in this Count Two of the Indictment. Reference is hereby made to Appendix B of this Indictment for a statement of the responsibility of the groups and organisations named herein as criminal groups and organisations for the offence set forth in this Count Two of the Indictment.
That finishes, Mr. President, Count Two of the Indictment.
THE PRESIDENT: Sir David.
SIR DAVID MAXWELL FYFE: If your Lordship pleases.
THE PRESIDENT: The Tribunal will now adjourn for 15 minutes.
SIR DAVID MAXWELL FYFE: If your Lordship pleases. The reading will be resumed by a representative of the French Republic.
(A recess was taken.)
THE PRESIDENT: The Tribunal understands that the defendant Ernst Kaltenbrunner is temporarily ill. The trial will continue in his absence. I call upon the Chief Prosecutor for the Provisional Republic of France.
M. MOUNIER:
(Charter, Article 6, especially 6 (b))
VIII. Statement of the Offence
All the defendants committed War Crimes between 1st September, 1939, and 8th May, 1945, in Germany and in all those countries and territories occupied by the German armed forces since 1st September, 1939, and in Austria, Czechoslovakia and Italy, and on the High Seas.
All the defendants, acting in concert with others, formulated and executed a Common Plan or Conspiracy to commit War Crimes as defined in Article 6 (b) of the Charter. This plan involved, among other things, the practice of “total war” including methods of combat and of military occupation in direct conflict with the laws and customs of war, and the perpetration of crimes committed on the field of battle during encounters with enemy armies, against prisoners of war, and in occupied territories against the civilian population of such territories.
The said War Crimes were committed by the defendants and by other persons for whose acts the defendants are responsible (under Article 6 of the Charter) as such other persons when committing the said War Crimes performed their acts in execution of a Common Plan or Conspiracy to commit the said War Crimes, in the formulation and execution of which plan and conspiracy all the defendants participated as leaders, organisers, instigators and accomplices.
These methods and crimes constituted violations of international conventions, of internal penal laws and of the general principles of criminal law as derived from the criminal law of all civilised nations, and were involved in and part of a systematic course of conduct.
(A) MURDER AND ILL-TREATMENT OF CIVILIAN POPULATIONS OF OR IN OCCUPIED TERRITORY AND ON THE HIGH SEAS
Throughout the period of their occupation of territories overrun by their armed forces, the defendants, for the purpose of systematically terrorising the inhabitants, ill- treated civilians, imprisoned them without legal process, tortured and murdered them.
The murders and ill-treatment were carried out by divers means, such as shooting, hanging, gassing, starvation, gross overcrowding, systematic under-nutrition, systematic imposition of labour tasks beyond the strength of those ordered to carry them out, inadequate provision of surgical and medical services, kickings, beatings. brutality and torture of all kinds, including the use of hot irons and pulling out of finger nails and the performance of experiments by means of operations and otherwise on living human subjects. In some occupied territories the defendants interfered with religious services, persecuted members of the clergy and monastic orders, and expropriated church property. They conducted deliberate and systematic genocide, viz. the extermination of racial and national groups, against the civilian population of certain occupied territories in order to destroy particular races and classes of people, and national, racial or religious groups, particularly Jews, Poles and Gypsies, and others.
Civilians were systematically subjected to tortures of all kinds, with the object of obtaining information.
Civilians of occupied countries were subjected systematically to “protective arrests,” that is to say they were arrested and imprisoned without any trial and any of the ordinary protections of the law, and they were imprisoned under the most unhealthy and inhumane conditions.
In the concentration camps were many prisoners who were classified ” Nacht und Nebel.” These were entirely cut off from the world and were allowed neither to receive nor to send letters. They disappeared without trace and no announcement of their fate was ever made by the German authorities.
Such crimes and ill-treatment are contrary to International Conventions, in particular to Article 46 of The Hague Regulations, 1907, the laws and customs of war, the general principles of criminal law as derived from the criminal laws of all civilised nations, the internal penal laws of the countries in which such crimes were committed, and to Article 6 (b) of the Charter.
The following particulars and all the particulars appearing later in this count are set out herein by way of example only, are not exclusive of other particular cases, and are stated without prejudice to the right of the prosecution to adduce evidence of other cases of murder and ill-treatment of civilians.
I. In France, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Norway, Luxembourg, Italy and the Channel Islands (hereinafter called the “Western Countries”) and in that part of Germany which lies West of a line draw due North and South through the centre of Berlin (hereinafter called “Western Germany”).
Such murder and ill-treatment took place in concentration camps and similar establishments set up by the defendants, and particularly in the concentration camps set up at Belsen, Buchenwald, Dachau, Breendonck, Grini, Natzweiler, Ravensbrueck, Vught and Amersfoort, and in numerous cities, towns and villages, including Oradour sur Glane, Trondheim and Oslo.
Crimes committed in France or against French citizens took the following Forms:
Arbitrary arrests were carried out under political or racial pretexts; they were either individual or collective; notably in Paris (round-up of the 18th Arrondissement by the Field Gendarmerie, round-up of the Jewish population of the 11th Arrondissement in August, 1941, round-up of Jewish intellectuals in December, 1941, round-up in July, 1942); at Clermont-Ferrand (round-up of professors and students of the University of Strasbourg, which had been evacuated to Clermont-Ferrand, on 25th November, 1943); at Lyons, at Marseilles (round-up of 40,000 persons in January, 1943); at Cluny (round-up on 24th December, 1944); at Figeac (round- tip in May, 1944); at Saint-Pol-de-Leon (round-up in July, 1944); at Locmine (round-up on 3rd July, 1944); at Eyzieux (round-up in May, 1944) and at Moussey (round-up in September, 1944). These arrests were followed by brutal treatment and tortures carried out by the most diverse methods, such as immersion in icy water, asphyxiation, torture of the limbs, and the use of instruments of torture, such as the iron helmet and electric current, and practised in all the prisons of France, notably in Paris, Lyons, Marseilles, Rennes, Metz, Clermont-Ferrand, Toulouse, Nice, Grenoble, Annecy, Arras, Bethune, Lille, Loos, Valenciennes, Nancy, Troyes and Caen, and in the torture chambers fitted up at the Gestapo centres.
In the concentration camps, the health regime and the labour regime were such that the rate of mortality (alleged to be from natural causes) attained enormous proportions, for instance
1. Out of a convoy of 250 French women deported from Compeigne to Auschwitz in January, 1943, 180 had died of exhaustion at the end of four months.
2. 143 Frenchmen died of exhaustion between 23rd March and 6th May 1943, in Block 8 at Dachau.
3. 1,797 Frenchmen died of exhaustion between 21st November, 1943, and 15th March, 1945, in the Block at Dora.
4. 465 Frenchmen died of general debility in November, I944, at Dora.
5. 22,761 deportees died of exhaustion at Buchenwald between 1st January, 1943, and 15th April, 1945.
6. 11,560 detainees died of exhaustion at Dachau Camp (most of them in Block 30 reserved for the sick and the infirm) between 1st January and 15th April, 1945.
7. 780 priests died of exhaustion at Mauthausen.
8. Out of 2,200 Frenchmen registered at Flossenburg Camp, 1,600 died from supposedly natural causes.
Methods used for the work of extermination in concentration camps were: bad treatment, pseudo-scientific experiments (sterilisation of women at Auschwitz and at Ravensbrueck, study of the evolution of cancer of the womb at Auschwitz, of typhus at Buchenwald, anatomical research at Natzweiler, heart injections at Buchenwald, bone grafting and muscular excisions at Ravensbrueck, etc.), gas chambers, gas wagons and crematory ovens. Of 228,000 French political and racial deportees in concentration camps, only 28,000 survived.
In France also systematic extermination was practised, notably at Asq on 1st April, 1944, at Colpe on 22nd July, 1944, at Buzet-sur- Tarn on 6th July, 1944, and on 17th August, 1944, at Pluvignier on 8th July, 1944, at Rennes on 8th June, 1944, at Grenoble on 8th July, 1944, at Saint Flour on 10th June, 1944, at Ruisnes on 10th June, 1944, at Nimes, at Tulle, and at Nice, where, in July, 1944, the victims of torture were exposed to the population, and at Oradour-sur-Glane where the entire village population was shot or burned alive in the church.
The many charnel pits give proof of anonymous massacres. Most notable of these are the charnel pits of Paris (Cascade du Bois de Boulogne), Lyons, Saint-Genies-Laval, Besancon, Petit Saint-Bernard, Anlnat, Caen, Port-Louis, Charleval, Fontainebleau, Bouconne, Cabaudet, L’hermitage-Lorges, Morlas, Bordelongue, Signe.
In the course of a premeditated campaign of terrorism, initiated in Denmark by the Germans in the latter part of 1943, 600 Danish subjects were murdered and, in addition, throughout the German occupation of Denmark, large numbers of Danish subjects were subjected to torture and ill- treatment of all sorts. In addition, approximately 500 Danish subjects were murdered, by torture and other-wise, in German prisons and concentration camps.
In Belgium between 1940 and 1944 torture by various means, but identical in each place, was carried out at Brussels, Liege, Mons, Ghent, Namur, Antwerp, Tournai, Arlon, Charleroi and Dinant.
At Vught, in Holland, when the camp was evacuated, about 400 persons were shot.
In Luxembourg, during the German occupation, 500 persons were murdered and, in addition, another 521 were illegally executed, by order of such special tribunals as the so- called “Sondergericht.” Many more persons in Luxembourg were subjected to torture and ill-treatment by the Gestapo. At least 4,000 Luxembourg nationals were imprisoned during the period of German occupation, and of these at least 400 were murdered.
Between March, 1944, and April, 1945, in Italy, at least 7,500 men, women and children, ranging in years from infancy to extreme old age, were murdered by the German soldiery at Civitella, in the Ardestine Caves in Rome, and at other places.
(B) DEPORTATION, FOR SLAVE LABOUR AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES, OF THE CIVILIAN POPULATIONS OF AND IN OCCUPIED TERRITORIES
During the whole period of the occupation by Germany of both the Western and the Eastern Countries, it was the policy of the German Government and of the German High Command to deport able-bodied citizens from such occupied countries to Germany and to other occupied countries to force them to work on fortifications, in factories, and in other tasks connected with the German War effort.
In pursuance of such policy there were mass deportations from all the Western and Eastern Countries for such purposes during the whole period of the occupation.
These deportations were contrary to the international conventions, in particular to Article 46 of the Hague Regulations, 1907, the laws and customs of war, the general principles of criminal law as derived from the criminal laws of all civilised nations, the internal penal laws of the countries in which such crimes were committed, and to Article 6 (b) of the Charter.
Particulars of deportations, by way of example only and without prejudice to the production of evidence of other cases, are as follows:-
1. From the Western Countries:-
From France the following “deportations” of persons for political and racial reasons took place-each of which consisted of from 1,500-2,500 deportees:-
1940 — 3 Transports.
1943 — 257 Transports.
1944 — 326 Transports.
Such deportees were subjected to the most barbarous conditions of overcrowding; they were provided with wholly insufficient clothing and were given little or no food for several days.
The conditions of transport were such that many deportees died in the course of the voyage, for example:
In one of the wagons of the train which left Compiegne for Buchenwald, on the 17th of September, 1943, 80 men died out of 130.
On 4th June, 1944, 484 bodies were taken out of a train at Sarrebourg.
In a train which left Compiegne on the 2nd July, 1944, for Dachau, more than 600 dead were found on arrival, i.e., one- third of the total number.
In a train which left Compiegne on the 16th January, 1944, for Buchenwald, more than 100 persons were confined in each wagon, the dead and the wounded being heaped in the last wagon during the voyage.
In April, I945, of 12,000 internees evacuated from Buchenwald, 4,000 only were still alive when the marching column arrived near Regensburg.
During the German occupation of Denmark, 5,200 Danish subjects were deported to Germany and there imprisoned in concentration camps and other places.
In 1942 and thereafter, 6,000 nationals of Luxembourg were deported from their country under deplorable conditions and many of them perished.
From Belgium between 1940 and 1944, at least 190,000 civilians were deported to Germany and used as slave labour. Such deportees were subjected to ill-treatment and many of them were compelled to work in armament factories.
From Holland, between 1940 and 1944 nearly half a million civilians were deported to Germany and to other occupied countries.
(C) MURDER AND ILL-TREATMENT OF PRISONERS OF WAR, AND OF OTHER MEMBERS OF THE ARMED FORCES OF THE COUNTRIES WITH WHOM GERMANY WAS AT WAR, AND OF PERSONS ON THE HIGH SEAS
The defendants ill-treated and murdered prisoners of war by denying them suitable food, shelter, clothing and medical care and other attention; by forcing them to labour in inhumane conditions; by humiliating them, torturing them and by killing them. The German Government and the German High Command imprisoned prisoners of war in various concentration camps, where they were killed or subjected to inhuman treatment by the various methods set forth in paragraph VIII (A).
Members of the armed forces of the countries with whom Germany was at war were frequently murdered while in the act of surrendering. These murders and ill-treatment were contrary to International Conventions, particularly Articles 4, 5, 6 and 7 of the Hague Regulations, 1907, and to Articles 2,3, 4 and 6 of the Prisoners of War Convention (Geneva, 1929), the laws and customs of war, the general principles of criminal law as derived from the criminal laws of all civilised nations, the internal penal laws of the countries in which such crimes were committed and to Article 6 (b) of the Charter.
Particulars by way of example and without prejudice to the production of evidence of other cases, are as follows:-
In the Western Countries :-
French officers who escaped from Oflag XC were handed over to the Gestapo and disappeared; others were murdered by their guards; others sent to concentration camps and exterminated. Among others, the men of Stalag VI C were sent to Buchenwald.
Frequently prisoners captured on the Western Front were obliged to march to camps until they completely collapsed. Some of them walked more than 600 kilometres with hardly any food; they marched on for 48 hours running, without being fed; among them a certain number died of exhaustion or of hunger; stragglers were systematically murdered.
The same crimes were committed in 1943, 1944 and 1945, when the occupants of the camps were withdrawn before the Allied advance, particularly during the withdrawal of the prisoner from Sagan on February 8th, 1945.
Bodily punishments were inflicted upon non-commissioned officers and cadets who refused to work. On December 24th, 1943, three French N.C.0’s. were murdered for that motive in Stalag IV A. Much ill-treatment was inflicted without motive on other ranks; stabbing with bayonets, striking with rifle- butts and whipping; in Stalag XX B the sick themselves were beaten many times by sentries; in Stalag III B and Stalag III C, worn-out prisoners were murdered or grievously wounded. In military gaols, in Graudenz for instance, in reprisal camps as in Rava-Ruska, the food was so insufficient that the men lost more than 15 kilograms in a few weeks. In May, one loaf of bread only was distributed in Rava-Ruska to each group of 35 men.
Orders were given to transfer French officers in chains to the camp of Mauthausen after they had tried to escape. At their arrival in camp they were murdered, either by shooting or by gas and their bodies destroyed in the crematorium.
American prisoners, officers and men, were murdered in Normandy during the summer of 1944 and in the Ardennes in December, 1944. American prisoners were starved, beaten and mutilated in various ways in numerous Stalags in Germany or in the occupied countries, particularly in 1943, 1944 and 1945.
(D) KILLING OF HOSTAGES
Throughout the territories occupied by the German armed forces in the course of waging their aggressive wars, the defendants adopted and put into effect on a wide scale the practice of taking and killing hostages from the civilian population. These acts were contrary to International Conventions, particularly Article 50 of the Hague Regulations, 1907, the laws and customs of war, the general principles of criminal law, as derived from the criminal laws of all civilised nations, the internal penal laws of the countries in which such crimes were committed and to Article 6(b) of the Charter.
Particulars by way of example and without prejudice to the production of evidence of other cases, are as follows:-
In the Western Countries :-
In France hostages were executed either individually or collectively; these executions took place in all the big cities of France, among others in Paris, Bordeaux and Nantes, as well as at Chateaubriant.
In Holland many hundreds of hostages were shot at the following among other places – Rotterdam, Apeldoorn, Amsterdam, Benschop and Haarlem.
In Belgium many hundreds of hostages were shot during the period 1940 to 1944.
M. GERTHOFFER (continuing the reading of the Indictment)
(E) PLUNDER OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE PROPERTY
The defendants ruthlessly exploited the people and the material resources of the countries they occupied, in order to strengthen the Nazi war machine, to depopulate and impoverish the rest of Europe, to enrich themselves and their adherents, and to promote German economic supremacy over Europe.
The defendants engaged in the following acts and practices, among others:
1. They degraded the standard of life of the people of occupied countries and caused starvation, by stripping occupied countries of foodstuffs for removal to Germany.
2. They seized raw materials and industrial machinery in all of the occupied countries, removed them to Germany and used them in the interest of the German war effort, and the German economy.
In all the occupied countries, in varying degrees, they confiscated businesses, plants and other property.
4. In an attempt to give colour of legality to illegal acquisitions of property, the forced owners of property to go through the forms of “voluntary” and “legal” transfers.
5. They established comprehensive controls over the economies of all of the occupied countries and directed their resources, their production and their labour in the interests of the German war economy, depriving the local populations of the, products of essential industries.
6. By a variety of financial mechanisms, they despoiled all of the occupied countries of essential commodities and accumulated wealth, debased the local currency systems and disrupted the local economics. They financed extensive purchases in occupied countries through clearing arrangements by which they exacted loans from the occupied countries. They imposed occupation levies, exacted financial contributions, and issued occupation currency, far in excess of occupation costs. They used these excess funds to finance the purchase of business properties and supplies in the occupied countries.
7. They abrogated the rights of the local populations in the occupied portions of the U.S.S.R. and in Poland and in other countries to develop or manage agricultural and industrial properties, and reserved this area for exclusive settlement, development, and ownership by Germans and their so-called racial brethren.
8. In further development of their plan of criminal exploitation, they destroyed industrial cities, cultural. monuments, scientific institutions, and property of all types in the occupied territories to eliminate the possibility of competition with Germany.
9. From their programme of terror, slavery, spoliation and organised outrage, the Nazi conspirators created an instrument for the personal profit and aggrandisement of themselves and their adherents. They secured for themselves and their adherents:
(a) Positions in administration of business involving power, influence, and lucrative prerequisites.
(b) The use of cheap forced labour.
(c) The acquisition on advantageous terms of foreign properties, raw materials, and business interests.
(d) The basis for the industrial supremacy of Germany.
These acts were contrary to International Conventions, particularly Articles 46 to 56 inclusive of the Hague Regulations, 1907, the laws and customs of war, the general principles of criminal law as derived from the criminal laws of all civilised nations, the internal penal laws of the countries in which such crimes were committed and to Article 6 (b) of the Charter.
Particulars by way of example and without prejudice to the production of evidence of other cases are as follows:-
1. Western Countries :
There was plundered from the Western Countries from 1940 to 1944, works of art, artistic objects, pictures, plastics, furniture, textiles, antique pieces and similar articles of enormous value to the number of 21,903.
In France statistics show the following:
REMOVAL OF RAW MATERIALS
Various kinds of alcohol – 1,830,000 hectolitres
REMOVAL OF MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS
to a total of 184,640,000,000 francs.
PLUNDERING
Francs 257,020,024,000 from private enterprise.
Francs 55,000,100,000 from the state.
FINANCIAL EXPLOITATION
From June, 1940, to September, 1944, the French Treasury was compelled to pay to Germany 631,966,000,000 francs.
LOOTING AND DESTRUCTION OF WORKS OF ART
The museums of Nantes, Nancy, Old-Marseilles were looted. Private collections of great value were stolen. In this way, Raphaels, Vermeers, Van Dycks and works of Rubens, Holbein, Rembrandt, Watteau, Boucher disappeared. Germany compelled France to deliver up “The Mystic Lamb” by Van Eyck, which Belgium had entrusted to her.
In Norway and other occupied countries decrees were made by which the property of many civilians, societies, etc., was confiscated. An immense amount of property of every kind was plundered from France, Belgium, Norway, Holland and Luxembourg.
As a result of the economic plundering of Belgium between 1940 and 1944 the damage suffered amounted to 175 billions of Belgian francs.
(F) THE EXACTION OF COLLECTIVE PENALTIES
The Germans pursued a systematic policy of inflicting, in all the occupied countries, collective penalties, pecuniary and otherwise, upon the population for acts of individuals for which it could not be regarded as collectively responsible; this was done at many places, including Oslo, Stavanger, Trondheim and Rogaland.
Similar instances occurred in France, among others in Dijon, Nantes and as regards the Jewish population in the occupied territories. The total amount of fines imposed on French communities add up to 1,157,179,484 francs made up as follows:
A fine on the Jewish population – 1,000,000,000
Various fines – 157,179,484
These acts violated Article 50, Hague Regulations, 1907, the laws and customs of war, the general principles of criminal law as derived from the criminal laws of all civilised nations, the internal penal laws of the countries in which such crimes were committed and Article 6 (b) of the Charter.
(G) WANTON DESTRUCTION OF CITIES, TOWNS AND VILLAGES AND DEVASTATION NOT JUSTIFIED BY MILITARY NECESSITY
The defendants wantonly destroyed cities, towns, and villages and committed other acts of devastation without military justification or necessity. These acts violated Articles 46 and So of the Hague Regulations, 1907, the laws and customs of war, the general principles of criminal law as derived from the criminal laws of all civilised nations, the internal penal laws of the countries in which such crimes were committed and Article 6 (b) of the Charter.
Particulars by way of example only and without prejudice to the production of evidence of other cases, are as follows:
1. Western Countries:
In March, 1941, part of Lofoten in Norway was destroyed.
In April, 1942, the town of Telerag in Norway was destroyed.
Entire villages were destroyed in France, among others, Oradour-sur-Glane, Saint-Nizier in Gascogne, La Mure, Vassieu, La Chappelle en Vercors. The town of Saint Die was burnt down and destroyed. The Old Port District of Marseilles was dynamited in the beginning of 1943 and resorts along the Atlantic and the Mediterranean coasts, particularly the town of Sanary, were demolished.
In Holland there was most widespread and extensive destruction, not justified by military necessity, including the destruction of harbours, locks, dykes and bridges; immense devastation was also caused by inundations which equally were not justified by military necessity.
(H) CONSCRIPTION OF CIVILIAN LABOUR
Throughout the occupied territories the defendants conscripted and forced the inhabitants to labour and requisitioned their services for purposes other than meeting the needs of the armies of occupation and to an extent far out of proportion to the resources of the countries involved. All the civilians so conscripted, were forced to work for the German war effort. Civilians were required to register and many of those who registered were forced to join the Todt Organisation and the Speer Legion, both of which were semi-military organisations involving some military training. These acts violated Articles 46 and 52 of the Hague Regulations, 1907, the laws and customs of war, the general principles of criminal law as derived from the criminal laws of all civilised nations, the internal penal laws of the countries in which such crimes were committed and Article 6 (b) of the Charter.
Particulars, by way of example only and without prejudice to the production of evidence of other cases, are as follows
1. Western Countries:
In France, from 1942 to 1944, 963,813 persons were compelled to work in Germany and 737,000 to work in France for the German Army.
In Luxembourg in 1944 alone, 2,500 men and 500 girls were conscripted for forced labour.
(I) FORCING CIVILIANS OF OCCUPIED TERRITORIES TO SWEAR ALLEGIANCE TO A HOSTILE POWER
Civilians who joined the Speer Legion, as set forth in paragraph (H) were required, under threat of depriving them of food, money and identity papers, to swear a solemn oath acknowledging unconditional obedience to Adolf Hitler, the Fuehrer of Germany, which was to them a hostile power.
THE PRESIDENT: The Tribunal will now adjourn until 2 o’clock.
(A recess was taken until 14.00 hours.)
THE PRESIDENT: Will the Chief Prosecutor for the French Republic continue the reading of the indictment.
M. MOUNIER:
(I) FORCING CIVILIANS OF OCCUPIED TERRITORIES TO SWEAR ALLEGIANCE TO A HOSTILE POWER
Civilians who joined the Speer Legion, as set forth in paragraph (H) were required, under threat of depriving them of food, money and identity papers, to swear a solemn oath acknowledging unconditional obedience to Adolf Hitler, the Fuehrer of Germany, which was to them a hostile power.
In Lorraine, civil servants were obliged, in order to retain their positions, to sign a declaration by which they acknowledged the “return of their country to the Reich,” pledged themselves to obey – without reservation the orders of their chiefs and put themselves “at the active service of the Fuehrer and the Great National Socialist Germany.”
A similar pledge was imposed on Alsatian civil servants by threat of deportation or internment.
These acts violated Article 45 of the Hague Regulations, 1907, the laws and customs of war, the general principles of International Law and Article 6 (b) of the Charter.
(J) GERMANISATION OF OCCUPIED TERRITORIES
In certain occupied territories purportedly annexed to Germany the defendants methodically and pursuant to plan endeavoured to assimilate those territories politically, culturally, socially and economically into the German Reich. The defendants endeavoured to obliterate the former national character of these territories. In pursuance of these plans and endeavours, the defendants forcibly deported inhabitants who were predominantly non-German and introduced thousands of German colonists.
This plan included economic domination, physical conquest, installation of puppet Governments, purported de jure annexation and enforced conscription into the German Armed Forces.
This was carried out in most of the Occupied Countries including: Norway, France (particularly in the departments of Upper Rhine, Lower Rhine, Moselle, Ardennes, Aisne, Nord, and Meurthe), Luxembourg, the Soviet Union, Denmark, Belgium, Holland.
In France in the Departments of the Aisne, the Nord, the Meurthe and Moselle, and especially in that of the Ardennes, rural properties were seized by a German State Organisation which tried to have them exploited under German direction; the landowners of these exploitations were dispossessed and turned into agricultural labourers.
In the Department of the Upper Rhine, the Lower Rhine and the Moselle, the methods of Germanisation were those of annexation followed by conscription.
1. From the month of August, 1940, officials who refused to take the oath of allegiance to the Reich were expelled. On 21st September expulsions and deportation of populations began and on 22nd November, 1940, more than 70,000 Lorrainers or Alsatians were driven into the South zone of France. From 31st July, 1941, onwards, more than 100,000 persons were deported into the Eastern regions of the Reich or to Poland. All the property of the deportees or expelled persons was confiscated. At the same time, 80,000 Germans coming from the Saar or from Westphalia were installed in Lorraine and 2,000 farms belonging to French people were transferred to Germans.
2. From 2nd January, 1942, all the young people of the Departments of the Upper Rhine and the Lower Rhine, aged from 10 to 18 years, were incorporated in the Hitler Youth. The same thing was done in the Moselle from 4th August, 1942. From 1940 all the French schools were closed, their staffs expelled, and the German school system was introduced in the three departments.
3. On 28th September, 1940, an order applicable to the Department of the Moselle ordained the Germanisation of all the surnames and Christian names which were French in form. The same thing was done from 15th January, 1943, in the Departments of the Upper Rhine and the Lower Rhine.
4. Two orders from 23rd to 24th August, 1942, imposed by force German nationality on French citizens.
5. On 8th May, 1941, for the Upper Rhine and the Lower Rhine, 23rd April, 1941, for the Moselle, orders were promulgated enforcing compulsory labour service on all French citizens of either sex aged from 17 to 25 years. From 1st January, 1942, for young men and from 26th January, 1942, for young girls, national labour service was effectively organised in the Moselle. It was from 27th August, 1942, in the Upper Rhine and in the Lower Rhine for young men only. The classes 1940, 1941, 1942 were called up.
6. These classes were retained in the Wehrmacht on the expiration of their time and labour service. On 19th August, 1942, an order instituted compulsory military service in the Moselle. On 25th August, 1942, the classes 1940-1944 were called up in three departments. Conscription was enforced by the German authorities in conformity with the provisions of German legislation. The first revision boards took place from 3rd September, 1942. Later in the Upper Rhine and the Lower Rhine new levies were effected everywhere on classes 1928 to 1939 inclusive. The French people who refused to obey these laws were considered as deserters and their families were deported, while their property was confiscated.
These acts violated Articles 43, 46, 55 and 56 of the Hague Regulations, 1907, the laws and customs of war, the general principles of criminal law as derived from the criminal laws of all civilised nations, the internal penal laws of the countries in which such crimes were committed and Article 6 (b) of the Charter.
IX. Individual, Group and Organisation Responsibility for the Offence stated in Count Three
Reference is hereby made to Appendix A of this Indictment for a statement of the responsibility of the individual defendants for the offence set forth in this Count Three of the Indictment. Reference is hereby made to Appendix B of this Indictment for a statement of the responsibility of the groups and organisations named herein as criminal groups and organisations for the offence set forth in this Count Three of the Indictment.
THE PRESIDENT: I will now call upon the Chief Prosecutor for the Soviet Union.
CAPTAIN V. V. KUCHIN:
COUNT THREE – WAR CRIMES
All the defendants committed War Crimes between 1st September, 1939 and 8th May, 1945, in Germany and in all those countries and territories occupied by the German armed forces since 1st September, 1939, and in Austria, Czechoslovakia, Italy, and on the High Seas.
All the defendants, acting in concert with others, formulated and executed a common plan or conspiracy to commit War Crimes as (refined in Article 6 (b) of the Charter.. This plan involved, among other things, the practice of “total war” including methods of combat and of military occupation in direct conflict with the laws and customs of war, and the commission of crimes perpetrated on the field of battle during encounters with enemy armies, and against prisoners of war, and in occupied territories against the civilian population of such territories.
The said War Crimes were committed by the defendants and by other persons for whose acts the defendants are responsible (under Article 6 of the Charter) as such other persons when committing the said War Crimes performed their acts in execution of a common plan and conspiracy to commit the said War Crimes, in the formulation and execution of which plan and conspiracy all the defendants participated as leaders, organisers, instigators and accomplices.
These methods and crimes constituted violations of international conventions, of internal penal laws and of the general principles of criminal law as derived from the criminal law of all civilised nations, and were involved in and part of a systematic course of conduct.
(A) MURDER AND ILL-TREATMENT OF CIVILIAN POPULATIONS OF OR IN OCCUPIED TERRITORY AND ON THE HIGH SEAS.
Throughout the period of their occupation of territories overrun by their armed forces the defendants, for the purpose of systematically terrorising the inhabitants, murdered and tortured civilians, and ill-treated them, and imprisoned them without legal process.
The murders and ill-treatment were carried out by divers means, including shooting, hanging, gassing, starvation, gross overcrowding, systematic under-nutrition, systematic imposition of labour tasks beyond the strength of those ordered to carry them out, inadequate provision of surgical and medical services, kickings, beatings, brutality and torture of all kinds, including the use of hot irons and pulling out of fingernails and the performance of experiments by means of operations and otherwise on living human subjects. In some occupied territories the defendants interfered with religious services, persecuted members of the clergy and monastic orders, and expropriated church property. They conducted deliberate and systematic genocide, viz., the extermination of racial and national groups, against the civilian populations of certain occupied territories in order to destroy particular races and classes of people and national, racial or religious groups, particularly Jews, Poles and Gypsies and others.
Civilians were systematically subjected to tortures of all kinds, with the object of obtaining information.
Civilians of occupied countries were subjected systematically to “protective arrests” whereby they were arrested and imprisoned without any trial and any of the ordinary protections of the law, and they were imprisoned under the most unhealthy and inhumane conditions.
In the concentration camps were many prisoners who were classified “Nacht und Nebel.” These were entirely cut off from the world and were allowed neither to receive nor to send letters. They disappeared without trace and no announcement of their fate was ever made by the German authorities.
Such murders and ill-treatment were contrary to International Conventions, in particular to Article 46 of the Hague Regulations, 1907, the laws and customs of war, the general principles of criminal law as derived from the criminal laws of all civilised nations, the internal penal laws of the countries in which such crimes were committed, and to Article 6 (b) of the Charter.
The following particulars and all the particulars appearing later in this count are set out herein by way of example only, are not exclusive of other particular cases, and are stated without prejudice to the right of the prosecution to adduce evidence of other cases of murder and ill-treatment of civilians.
2. In the U.S.S.R., i.e., in the Byelo-Russian, Ukrainian, Esthonia , Latvian, Lithuanian, Karelo-Finnish and Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republics, in nineteen regions of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, and in Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Greece, and the Balkans (hereinafter called “the Eastern Countries”).
From 1st September, 1939, when the German armed forces invaded Poland, and from 22nd June, 1941, when they invaded the U.S.S.R., the German Government and the German High Command adopted a systematic policy of murder and ill- treatment of the civilian populations of and in the Eastern Countries as they were successively occupied by the German armed forces. These murders and ill-treatments were carried on continuously until the German armed forces were driven out of the said countries.
Such murders and ill-treatments included:
(a) Murders and ill-treatments at concentration camps and similar establishments set up by the Germans in the Eastern Countries and in Eastern Germany including those set up at Maidanek and Auschwitz.
The said murders and ill-treatments were carried out by divers means including all those set out above, as follows :
About 1,500,000 persons were exterminated in Maidanek and about 4,000,000 persons were exterminated in Auschwitz, among whom were citizens of Poland, the U.S.S.R., the United States of America, Great Britain, Czechoslovakia, France and other countries.
In the Lwow region and in the city of Lwow the Germans exterminated about 700,000 Soviet people, including seventy persons in the field of the arts, science and technology, and also citizens of the U.S.A., Great Britain, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Holland, brought to this region from other concentration camps.
In the Jewish ghetto from 7th September, 1941, to 6th July, 1943, over 133,000 persons were tortured and shot.
Mass shooting of the population occurred in the suburbs of the city and in the Livenitz forest.
In the Ganov camp 200,000 citizens were exterminated. The most refined methods of cruelty were employed in this extermination, such as disembowelling and the freezing of human beings in tubs of water. Mass shooting took place to the accompaniment of the music of an orchestra recruited from the persons interned.
Beginning with June, 1943, the Germans carried out measures to hide the evidence of their crimes. They exhumed and burned corpses, and they crushed the bones with machines and used them for fertiliser.
At the beginning of 1944, in the Ozarichi region of the Bielorussian S.S.R., before liberation by the Red Army, the Germans established three concentration camps without shelters, to which they committed tens of thousands of persons from the neighbouring territories. They intentionally brought many people to these camps from typhus hospitals, for the purpose of infecting the other persons interned and for spreading the disease in territories from which the Germans were driven by the Red Army. In these camps there were many murders and crimes.
In the Esthonian S.S.R. they shot tens of thousands of persons and in one day alone, 19th September, 1944, in Camp Kloga, the Germans shot 2,000 peaceful citizens. They burned the bodies on bonfires.
In the Lithuanian S.S.R. there were mass killings of Soviet citizens, namely in Panerai at least 1,000,000; in Kaunas more than 70,000; in Alitus about 60,000, at Prenai more than 3,000; in Villiampol about 8,000; in Mariampol about 7,000; in Trakai and neighbouring towns 37,640.
In the Latvian S.S.R. 577,000 persons were murdered.
As a result of the whole system of internal order maintained in all camps, the interned persons were doomed to die.
In a secret instruction entitled “the internal regime in concentration camps,” signed personally by Himmler in 1941, severe measures or punishment were set forth for the internees. Masses of prisoners of war were shot, or died from the cold and torture.
(b) Murders and ill-treatments at places in the Eastern Countries and in the Soviet Union, other than in the camps referred to in (a) above, included, on various dates during the occupation by the German armed forces:
The destruction in the Smolensk region of over 135,000 Soviet citizens.
Among these, near the village of Kholmetz of the Sychev region, when the military authorities were required to remove the mines from an area, on the order of the Commander of the 101st German Infantry Division, Major-General Fizler, the German soldiers gathered the inhabitants of the village of Kholmetz and forced them to remove mines from the road. All of these people lost their lives as a result of exploding mines.
In the Leningrad region there were shot and tortured over 172,000 persons, including over 20,000 persons who were killed in the city of Leningrad by the barbarous artillery barrage and the bombings.
In the Stavropol region in an anti-tank trench close to the station of Mineralny Vody, and in other cities, tens of thousands of persons were exterminated.
In Pyatigorsk many were subjected to torture and criminal treatment, including suspension from the ceiling and other methods. Many of the victims of these tortures were then shot.
In Krasnodar some 6,000 civilians were murdered by poison gas in gas vans, or were shot and tortured.
In the Stalingrad region more than 40,000 persons were killed and tortured. After the Germans were expelled from Stalingrad, more than a thousand mutilated bodies of local inhabitants were found with marks of torture. One hundred and thirty-nine women had their arms painfully bent backward and held by wires. From some their breasts had been cut off, and their ears, fingers and toes had been amputated, The bodies bore the marks of burns. On the bodies of the men the five-pointed star was burned with an iron or cut with a knife. Some were disembowelled.
In Orel over 5,000 persons were murdered.
In Novgorod and in the Novgorod region many thousands of Soviet citizens were killed by shooting, starvation and torture. In Minsk tens of thousands of citizens were similarly killed.
In the Crimea peaceful citizens were gathered on barges, taken out to sea and drowned, over 144,000 persons being exterminated in this manner.
In the Soviet Ukraine there were monstrous criminal acts of the Nazi conspirators. In Babi Yar, near Kiev, they shot over 100,00 men, women, children and old people. In this city in January, 1941, after the explosion in German headquarters on Dzerzhinsky Street the Germans arrested as hostages 1,250 – persons old men, minors, women with nursing infants. In Kiev they killed over 195,000 persons.
In Rovno and the Rovno region they killed and tortured over 100,000 peaceful citizens.
In Dnepropetrovsk, near the Transport Institute, they shot or threw alive into a great ravine 11,000 women, old men and children.
In the Kamenetz-Podolsk region 31,000 Jews were shot and exterminated, including 13,000 persons brought there from Hungary.
In the Odessa region at least 200,000 Soviet citizens were killed.
In Kharkov about 195,000 persons were either tortured to death, shot or gassed in gas vans.
In Gomel the Germans rounded up the population in prison, and tortured and tormented them, and then took them to the centre of the city and shot them in public.
In the city of Lyda in the Grodnen region on 8th May, 1942, 5,670 persons were completely undressed, driven into pens in groups of 100 and then shot by machine guns. Many were thrown in the graves while they were still alive.
Along with adults the Nazi conspirators mercilessly destroyed even children. They killed them with their parents, in groups and alone. They killed them in children’s homes and hospitals, burying the living in the graves, throwing them into flames, stabbing them with bayonets, poisoning them, conducting experiments upon them, extracting their blood for the use of the German Army, throwing them into prison and Gestapo torture chambers and concentration camps, where the children died from hunger, torture, and epidemic diseases.
From 6th September to 24th November, 1942, in the region of Brest, Pinsk, Kobryn, Dyvina, Maloryta and Bereza-Kartuzka about 400 children were shot by German punitive units.
In the Yanov camp in the city of Lwow the Germans killed 8,000 children in two months.
In the resort of Tiberda the Germans annihilated 500 children suffering from tuberculosis of the bone, who were in the sanatorium for the cure.
On the territory of the Latvian S.S.R. the German usurpers killed thousands of children, whom they had brought there with their parents from the Byelo-Russian S.S.R., and from the Kalinin, Kaluga and other regions of the R.S.F.S.R.
In Czechoslovakia, as a result of torture, beating, hanging, and shooting, there were annihilated in Gestapo prisons in Brno, Seim and other places over 20,000 persons. Moreover many thousands of internees were subjected to criminal treatment, beatings and torture.
Both before the war, as well as during the war, thousands of Czech patriots, in particular Catholics and Protestants, lawyers, doctors, teachers, etc., were arrested as hostages and imprisoned. A large number of these hostages were killed by the Germans.
In Greece in October, 1941, the male populations between 16 and 60 years of age of the Greek villages Amelofito, Kliston, Kizonia Mesevunos, Selli, Ano-Kerzillon and Kato- Kerzilion were shot-in all 416 persons.
In Yugoslavia many thousands of civilians were murdered. Other examples are given under paragraph (D), “Killing of Hostages,” below.
THE PRESIDENT: Paragraph (B) on page 16 was read by the Chief Prosecutor for the French Republic. Paragraph 2 on page 17 was omitted by him. So had you better not go on at paragraph 2 at page 17?
CAPTAIN KUCHIN:
2. From the Eastern Countries
The German occupying authorities deported from the Soviet Union to slavery about 4,978,000 Soviet citizens.
750,000 Czechoslovakian citizens were taken away for forced labour outside the Czechoslovak frontiers in the interior of the German war machine.
On 4th June, 1941, in the city of Zagreb (Yugoslavia) a meeting of German representatives was called with the Councillor Von Troll presiding. The purpose was to set up the means of deporting the Yugoslav population from Slovenia. Tens of thousands of persons were deported in carrying out this plan.
(C) MURDER AND ILL-TREATMENT OF PRISONERS OF WAR
THE PRESIDENT: Will you read paragraph 2 at page 18?
CAPTAIN KUCHIN:
2. In. the Eastern Countries: At Orel prisoners of war were exterminated by starvation, shooting, exposure, and poisoning.
Soviet prisoners of war were murdered en masse on orders from the High Command and the Headquarters of the SIPO and SD. Tens of thousands of Soviet prisoners of war were tortured and murdered at the “Cross Lazaret” at Slavuta.
In addition, many thousands of the persons referred to in paragraph VIII (A)2, above, were Soviet prisoners of war.
Prisoners of war who escaped and were recaptured were handed over to SIPO and SD for shooting.
Frenchmen fighting with the Soviet Army who were captured were handed over to the Vichy Government for “proceedings.”
In March, 1944, fifty R.A.F. officers who escaped from Stalag Luft III at Sagan, were murdered when captured.
In September, 1941, 11,000 Polish officers, who were prisoners of war were killed in the Katyn Forest near Smolensk.
In Yugoslavia the German Command and the occupying authorities in the person of the chief officials of the Police, the SS troops (Police Lieutenant General Rosener) and the Divisional Group Command (General Kubler and others) in the period 1941-43 ordered the shooting of prisoners of war.
THE PRESIDENT: Now paragraph 2 of (D).
LIEUTENANT-COLONEL J. A. OZOL (continuing the reading of the indictment):
2. In the Eastern Countries:
At Kragnevatz in Yugoslavia 2,300 hostages were shot in October, 1941.
At Kraljevo in Yugoslavia 5,000 hostages were shot.
THE PRESIDENT: Will you turn now to (E), paragraph 2, page 21
LIEUTENANT-COLONEL OZOL:
2. Eastern Countries: During the occupation of the Eastern Countries the German Government and the German High Command carried out, as a systematic policy, a continuous course of plunder and destruction including:
On the territory of the Soviet Union the Nazi conspirators destroyed or severely damaged 1,710 cities and more than 70,000 villages and hamlets, more than 6,000,000 buildings and rendered homeless about 25,000,000 persons.
Among the cities which suffered most destruction are Stalingrad, Sevastopol, Kiev, Minsk, Odessa, Smolensk, Novgorod, Pskov, Orel, Kharkov, Voronezh, Rostov-on-Don, Stalino and Leningrad.
As is evident from an official memorandum of the German Command, the Nazi conspirators planned the complete annihilation of entire Soviet cities. In a completely secret order of the Chief of the Naval Staff (Staff 1A No. 1601/41, dated 29.IX.1941) addressed only to staff officers, it was said:
“The Fuehrer has decided to erase St. Petersburg from the face of the earth. The existence of this large city will have no further interest after Soviet Russia is destroyed. Finland has also said that the existence of this city on her new border is not desirable from her point of view. The original request of the Navy that docks, harbour, etc., necessary for the fleet be preserved – is known to the Supreme Commander of the Military Forces but the basic principles of carrying out operations against St. Petersburg do not make it possible to satisfy this request.
It is proposed to approach near to the city and to destroy it with the aid of an artillery barrage from weapons of different calibres and with long air attacks …
The problem of the lives of the population and of their provisioning is a problem which cannot and must not be decided by us.
In this war … we are not interested in preserving even a part of the population of this large city.”
The Germans destroyed 427 museums, among them the wealthy museums of Leningrad, Smolensk, Stalingrad, Novgorod, Poltava and others.
In Pyatigorsk the art objects brought there from the Rostov museum were seized.
The losses suffered by the coal mining industry alone in the Stalin region amount to 2,000,000,000 roubles. There was colossal destruction of industrial establishments in Malerevka, Carlovka, Yeliakievo, Monstantinovka, Kariupol, from which most of the machinery and factories were removed.
Stealing of huge dimensions and the destruction of industrial, cultural and other property was typified in Kiev. More than 4,000,000 books, magazines and manuscripts (many of which were very valuable and even unique) and a large number of artistic productions and divers valuables were stolen and carried away.
Many valuable art productions were taken away from Riga.
The extent of the plunder of cultural valuables is evidenced by the fact that 100,000 valuable volumes and seventy cases of ancient periodicals and precious monographs were carried away by Rosenberg’s staff alone.
Among further examples of these crimes are:
Wanton devastation of the city of Novgorod and of many historical and artistic monuments there. Wanton devastation and plunder of the city of Rovno and of its province. The destruction of the industrial, cultural and other property in Odessa. The destruction of cities and villages in Soviet Karelia. The destruction in Esthonia of cultural, industrial and other buildings.
The destruction of medical and prophylactic institutes, the destruction of agriculture and industry in Lithuania, the destruction of cities in Latvia.
The Germans approached monuments of culture, dear to the Soviet people, with special hatred. They broke up the estate of the poet Pushkin in Mikhailova-koye, desecrated his grave, and destroyed the neighbouring villages and the Svyatogor monastery.
They destroyed the estate and museum of Leo Tolstoi, “Yasnaya Polyana” and desecrated the grave of the great writer. They destroyed, in Klin, the museum of Tchaikovsky and, in Penaty, the museum of the painter Repin and many others.
The Nazi conspirators destroyed 1,670 Greek Orthodox Churches, 237 Roman Catholic Churches, 67 Chapels, 532 Synagogues, etc.
They also broke up, desecrated and senselessly destroyed the most valuable monuments of the Christian Church, such as the Kievo-Pecherskaya Lavra, Novy Jerusalem in the Istrin region, and the most ancient monasteries and churches.
Destruction in Esthonia of cultural, industrial and other premises; burning down of many thousands of residential buildings; removal of 10,000 works of art; destruction of medical and prophylactic institutions. Plunder and removal to Germany of immense quantities of agricultural stock including horses, cows, pigs, poultry, beehives and agricultural machines of all kinds.
Destruction of agriculture, enslavement of peasants and looting of stock and produce in Lithuania.
In the Latvian Republic destruction of the agriculture by the looting of all stock, machinery and produce.
Carrying away by Rosenberg’s Headquarters of 100,000 valuable volumes and seventy cases of ancient periodicals and precious monographs; wanton destruction of libraries and other cultural buildings; destruction of the agriculture of the Latvian Republic by the looting of all stock, machinery and produce.
The result of this policy of plunder and destruction was to lay waste the land and cause utter desolation.
The overall value of the material loss which the U.S.S.R. has borne, is computed to be 679,000,000,000 roubles, in State prices of 1941.
Following the German occupation of Czechoslovakia on 15th March, I939, the defendants seized and stole large stocks of raw materials, copper, tin, iron, cotton, and food; caused to be taken to Germany large amounts of railway rolling stock, and many engines, carriages, steam vessels and trolley buses; robbed libraries, laboratories, and art museums of books, pictures, objects of art, scientific apparatus and furniture; stole all gold reserves and foreign exchange of Czechoslovakia, including 23,000 kilograms of gold, of a nominal value of 5,265,000 pounds; fraudulently acquired control and thereafter looted the Czech banks and many Czech industrial enterprises; and otherwise stole, looted and misappropriated Czechoslovak public and private property. The total sum of defendants’ economic spoliation of Czechoslovakia from 1938 to 1945 is estimated at 200,000,000,000 Czechoslovak crowns.
(G) WANTON DESTRUCTION OF CITIES, TOWNS AND VILLAGES, AND DEVASTATION NOT JUSTIFIED BY MILITARY NECESSITY
The defendants wantonly destroyed cities…
THE PRESIDENT: Will you go to paragraph 2 of (G) ? The French read the first paragraph. Do you want to go to paragraph 2 of (G)?
LIEUTENANT-COLONEL OZOL: I have begun
THE PRESIDENT: I thought we had read paragraph 1. We might take up at paragraph 2, beginning “In the Eastern Countries the defendants pursued…
LIEUTENANT-COLONEL OZOL:
2. Eastern Countries :
In the Eastern Countries the defendants pursued a policy of wanton destruction and devastation: some particulars of this (without prejudice to the production of evidence of other cases) are set out above under the heading “Plunder of Public and Private Property.”
In Greece in 1941, the villages of Amelofito, Kliston, Kizonia, Messovunos, Selli, Ano-Kerzilion and Kato-Kerzilion were utterly destroyed.
In Yugoslavia on 15th August, 1941, the German military command officially announced that the village of Skela was burned to the ground and the inhabitants killed on the order of the command.
On the order of the Field Commander Hoersterberg a punitive expedition from the SS troops and the field police destroyed the villages of Machkovats, and Kriva Reka in Serbia and all the inhabitants were killed.
General Fritz Neidbold (369 Infantry Division) on 11th September, 1944, gave an order to destroy the villages of Zagnlezde and Udora, hanging all the men and driving away all the women and children.
In Czechoslovakia the Nazi conspirators also practised the senseless destruction of populated places. Lezaky and Lidice were burned to the ground and the inhabitants killed.
(H) CONSCRIPTION OF CIVILIAN LABOUR
Throughout the occupied territories the defendants conscripted and forced the inhabitants to labour and requisitioned their services –
THE PRESIDENT: I think paragraph (H) has been read, the first paragraph of it. There only remains for you to read paragraph 2 of (H).
LIEUTENANT-COLONEL OZOL:
2. Eastern Countries :
Of the large number of citizens of the Soviet Union and of Czechoslovakia referred to under Count Three Vlll (B) 2 above many were so conscripted for forced labour.
IX. Individual, Group and Organisation Responsibility for the Offence stated in Count Three
Reference is hereby made to Appendix A of this Indictment for a statement of the responsibility of the individual defendants for the offence set forth in this Count Three of the Indictment. Reference is hereby made to Appendix B of this Indictment for a statement of the responsibility of the groups and organisations named herein as criminal groups and organisations for the offence set forth in this Count Three of the Indictment.
COUNT FOUR-CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY (Charter, Article 6, especially 6 (c))
X. Statement of the Offence
All the defendants committed Crimes against Humanity during a period of years preceding 8th May, 1945, in Germany and in all those countries and territories occupied by the German armed forces since 1st September, 1939, and in Austria and Czechoslovakia and in Italy and on the High Seas.
All the defendants, acting in concert with others, formulated and executed a Common Plan or Conspiracy to commit Crimes against Humanity as defined in Article 6 (c) of the Charter. This plan involved, among other things, the murder and persecution of all who were, or who were suspected of being, hostile to the Nazi Party and all who were, or who were suspected of being, opposed to the common plan alleged in Count One.
The said Crimes against humanity were committed by the defendants, and by other persons for whose acts the defendants are responsible (under Article 6 of the Charter) as such other persons, when committing the said War Crimes, performed their acts in execution of a Common Plan or Conspiracy to commit the said War Crimes, in the formulation and execution of which plan and conspiracy all the defendants participated as leaders, organisers, instigators and accomplices.
These methods and crimes constituted violations of international conventions, of internal penal laws, of the general principles of criminal law as derived from the criminal law of all civilised nations and were involved in and part of a systematic course of conduct. The said acts were contrary to Article 6 of the Charter.
The prosecution will rely upon the facts pleaded under Count Three as also constituting Crimes against Humanity.
(A) MURDER, EXTERMINATION, ENSLAVEMENT, DEPORTATION AND OTHER INHUMANE ACTS COMMITTED AGAINST CIVILIAN POPULATIONS BEFORE AND DURING THE WAR
For the purposes set out above, the defendants adopted a policy of persecution, repression, and extermination of all civilians in Germany who were, or who were believed to be, or who were believed likely to become, hostile to the Nazi Government and the Common Plan or Conspiracy described in Count One. They imprisoned such persons without judicial process, holding them in “protective custody” and concentration camps, and subjected them to persecution, degradation, despoilment, enslavement, torture and murder.
Special courts were established to carry out the will of the conspirators; favoured branches or agencies of the State and Party were permitted to operate outside the range even of Nazified law and to crush all tendencies and elements which were considered “undesirable.” The various concentration camps included Buchenwald, which was established in 1933 and Dachau, which was established in 1934. At these and other camps the civilians were put to slave labour and murdered and ill-treated by divers means, including those set out in Count Three above, and these acts and policies were continued and extended to the occupied countries after the 1st September, 1939, and until 8th May, 1945.
(B) PERSECUTION ON POLITICAL, RACIAL AND RELIGIOUS GROUNDS IN EXECUTION OF AND IN CONNECTION WITH THE COMMON PLAN MENTIONED IN COUNT ONE
As above stated, in execution of and in connection with the common plan mentioned in Count One, opponents of the German Government were exterminated and persecuted. These persecutions were directed against Jews. They were also directed against persons whose political belief or spiritual aspirations were deemed to be in conflict with the aims of the Nazis.
Jews were systematically persecuted since 1933; they were deprived of liberty, thrown into concentration camps where they were murdered and ill-treated. Their property was confiscated. Hundreds of thousands of Jews were so treated before the 1st September, 1939.
Since the 1st September, 1939, the persecution of the Jews was redoubled; millions of Jews from Germany and from the occupied Western Countries were sent to the Eastern Countries for extermination.
Particulars by way of example and without prejudice to the production of evidence of other cases are as follows:
The Nazis murdered amongst others Chancellor Dollfuss, the Social Democrat Breitscheid and the Communist Thaelmann. They imprisoned in concentration camps numerous political and religious personages, for example, Chancellor Schuschnigg and Pastor Nieimoller.
In November, 1938, by orders of the Chief of the Gestapo, anti-Jewish demonstrations all over Germany took place. Jewish property was destroyed, 30,000 Jews were arrested and sent to concentration camps and their property confiscated.
Under paragraph VIII (A), above, millions of the persons there mentioned as having been murdered and ill-treated were Jews.
Among other mass murders of Jews were the following:
At Kislovdosk all Jews were made to give up their property; 2,000 were shot in an anti-tank ditch at Mineralniye Vodi; 4,300 other Jews were shot in the same ditch.
60,000 Jews were shot on an island on the Dvina near Riga.
20,000 Jews were shot at Lutsk.
32,000 Jews were shot at Sarny.
60,000 Jews were shot at Kiev and Dniepropetrovsk.
Thousands of Jews were gassed weekly by means of gas-wagons which broke down from overwork.
As the Germans retreated before the Soviet Army they exterminated Jews rather than allow them to be liberated. Many concentration camps and ghettos were set up in which Jews were incarcerated and tortured, starved, subjected to merciless atrocities and finally exterminated.
About 70 000 Jews were exterminated in Yugoslavia.
XI. Individual, Group and Organisation Responsibility for the Offence stated in Count Four
Reference is hereby made to Appendix A of this Indictment for a statement of the responsibility of the individual defendants for the offence set forth in this Count Four of the Indictment. Reference is hereby made to Appendix B of this Indictment for a statement of the responsibility of the groups and organisations named herein as criminal groups and organisations for the offence set forth in the Count Four of the Indictment.
Wherefore, this Indictment is lodged with the Tribunal in English, French and Russian, each text having equal authenticity, and the charges herein made against the above- named defendants are hereby presented to the Tribunal.
HARTLEY SHAWCROSS Acting on Behalf of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
ROBERT H. JACKSON Acting on Behalf of the United States of America.
FRANCOIS DE MENTHON. Acting on Behalf of the French Republic.
R. RUDENKO. Acting on Behalf of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
Berlin, 6th October, 1945
THE PRESIDENT: Has anybody been designated to read the appendices?
MR. ALDERMAN: May it please the Tribunal, I shall read Appendix A and Appendix B, and the British delegation will read Appendix C. One word of explanation as to Appendix A. The Court will have observed that the defendants are seated in the dock in the same order in which they are named in the Indictment. By a mechanical slip-up they are not named in Appendix A in exactly the same order. I think it would be too much difficulty for the interpreters or for me to arrange them in the same order, and if the Court will permit I will read Appendix A as it is printed –
APPENDIX A
STATEMENT OF INDIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR CRIMES SET OUT IN COUNTS ONE, TWO, THREE AND FOUR
The statements hereinafter set forth following the name of each individual defendant constitute matters upon which the prosecution will rely inter alia as establishing the individual responsibility of the defendant
Goering:
The defendant Goering between 1932-1945 was: a member of the Nazi Party, Supreme Leader of the S.A., General in the S.S., a member and President of the Reichstag, Minister of the Interior of Prussia, Chief of the Prussian Police and Prussian Secret State Police, Chief of the Prussian State Council, Trustee of the Four- Year Plan, Reich Minister for Air, Commander in Chief of the Air Force, President of the Council of Ministers for the Defence of the Reich, member of the Secret Cabinet Council, head of the Hermann Goering Industrial Combine, and Successor Designate to Hitler. The defendant Goering used the foregoing positions, his personal influence, and his intimate connection with the Fuehrer in such a manner that: he promoted the accession to power of the Nazi conspirators and the consolidation of their control over Germany set forth in Count One of the Indictment; he promoted the military and economic preparation for war set forth in Count One of the Indictment; he participated in the planning and preparation of the Nazi conspirators for Wars of Aggression and Wars in Violation of International Treaties, Agreements and Assurances set forth in Counts One and Two of the Indictment; and he authorised, directed and participated in the War Crimes set forth in Count Three of the Indictment, and the Crimes against Humanity set forth in Count Four of the Indictment, including a wide variety of crimes against persons and property.
Ribbentrop:
The defendant Ribbentrop between 1932-1945 was: a member of the Nazi Party, a member of the Nazi Reichstag, Adviser to the Fuehrer on matters of foreign policy, representative of the Nazi Party for matters of foreign policy, special German delegate for disarmament questions, Ambassador Extraordinary, Ambassador in London, organiser and director of Dienststelle Ribbentrop, Reich Minister for Foreign Affairs, member of the Secret Cabinet Council, member of the Fuehrer’s political staff at general headquarters, and General in the S.S. The defendant Ribbentrop used the foregoing positions, his personal influence, and his intimate connection with the Fuehrer in such a manner that: he promoted the accession to power of the Nazi conspirators as set forth in Count One of the Indictment he promoted the preparations for war set forth in Count One of the Indictment he participated in the political planning and preparation of the Nazi conspirators for Wars of Aggression and Wars in Violation of International Treaties, Agreements and Assurances as set forth in Counts One and Two of the Indictment in accordance with the Fuehrer Principle he executed and assumed responsibility for the execution of the foreign policy plans of the Nazi conspirators set forth in Count One of the Indictment; and he authorised, directed and participated in the War Crimes set forth in Count Three of the indictment and the Crimes against Humanity set forth in Count Four of the Indictment, including more particularly the crimes against persons and property in occupied territories.
Hess:
The defendant Hess between 1921 and 1941 was: a member of the Nazi Party, Deputy to the Fuehrer, Reich Minister without Portfolio, member of the Reichstag, member of the Council of Ministers for the Defence of the Reich, member of the Secret Cabinet Council, Successor Designate to the Fuehrer after the defendant Goering, a General in the S.S. and a General in the S.A. The defendant Hess used the foregoing positions, his personal influence and his intimate connection with the Fuehrer in such a manner that: he promoted the accession to power of the Nazi conspirators and the consolidation of their control over Germany set forth in Count One of the Indictment; he promoted the military, economic and psychological preparations for war set forth in Count One of the Indictment; he participated in the political planning and preparation for Wars of Aggression and Wars in Violation of International Treaties, Agreements and Assurances set forth in Counts One and Two of the Indictment; he participated in the preparation and planning of foreign policy plans of the Nazi conspirators set forth in Count One of the Indictment; he authorised, directed. and participated in the War Crimes set forth in Count Three of the Indictment and the Crimes against Humanity set forth in Count Four of the Indictment, including a wide variety of crimes against persons and property.
Kaltenbrunner:
The defendant Kaltenbrunner between 1932-1945 was: a member of the Nazi Party, a General in the S.S., a member of the Reichstag, a General of the Police, State Secretary for Security in Austria in charge of the Austrian Police, Police Leader of Vienna, Lower and Upper Austria, Head of the Reich Main Security Office and Chief of the Security Police and Security Service. The defendant Kaltenbrunner used the foregoing positions and his personal influence in such a manner that: he promoted the consolidation of control over Austria seized by the Nazi conspirators as set forth in Count One of the Indictment; and he authorised, directed and participated in the War Crimes set forth in Count Three of the Indictment and the Crimes against Humanity set forth in Court Four of the Indictment including particularly the Crimes against Humanity involved in the system of concentration camps.
Rosenberg:
The defendant Rosenberg between 1920 and 1945 was: a member of the Nazi Party, Nazi member of the Reichstag, Reichsteiter in the Nazi Party for Ideology and Foreign Policy, the Editor of the Nazi newspaper Volkischer Beobachter, and the NS Monatshefte, head of the Foreign Political Office of the Nazi Party, Special Delegate for the entire Spiritual and Ideological Training of the Nazi Party, Reich Minister for the Eastern Occupied Territories, organiser of the “Einsatzstab Rosenberg,” a General in the S.S. and a General in the S.A. The defendant Rosenberg used the foregoing positions, his personal influence and his intimate connection with the Fuehrer in such a manner that: he developed, disseminated and exploited the doctrinal techniques of the Nazi conspirators set forth in Count One of the Indictment; lie promoted the accession to power of the Nazi conspirators and the consolidation of their control over Germany set forth in Count One of the Indictment; he promoted the psychological preparations for war set forth in Count One of the Indictment; he participated in the political planning and preparation for Wars of Aggression and Wars in Violation of International Treaties, Agreements and Assurances set forth in Counts One and Two of the Indictment; and he authorised, directed and participated in the War Crimes set forth in Count Three of the Indictment and the Crimes against Humanity set forth in Count Four of the Indictment, including a wide variety of crimes against persons and property.
Frank:
The defendant Frank between 1932-1945 was: a member of the Nazi Party, a General in the S.S., a member of the Reichstag, Reich Minister without Portfolio, Reich Commissar for the Co-ordination of Justice, President of the International Chamber of Law and Academy of German Law, Chief of the Civil Administration of Lodz, Supreme Administrative Chief of the military district of West Prussia, Poznan, Odz and Krakow, and Governor General of the Occupied Polish territories. The defendant Frank used the foregoing positions, his personal influence, and his intimate connection with the Fuehrer in such a manner that: he promoted the accession to power of the Nazi conspirators and the consolidation of their control over Germany set forth in Count One of the Indictment; he authorised, directed and participated in the War Crimes set forth in Count Three of the Indictment and the Crimes against Humanity set forth in Count Four of the Indictment, including particularly the War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity involved in the administration of occupied territories.
Bormann:
The defendant Bormann between 1925-1945 was: a member of the Nazi Party, member of the Reichstag, a member of the Staff of the Supreme Command of the S.A., founder and head of “Hilfskasse der NSDAP”, Reichsleiter, Chief of Staff Office of the Fuehrer’s Deputy, head of the Party Chancery, Secretary of the Fuehrer, member of the Council of Ministers for the Defence of the Reich, organiser and head of the Volkssturm, a General in the S.S. and a General in the S.A. The defendant Bormann used the foregoing positions, his personal influence and his intimate connection with the Fuehrer in such a manner that: he promoted the accession to power of the Nazi conspirators and the consolidation of their control over Germany set forth in Count One of the indictment he promoted the preparations for war set forth in Count One of the Indictment and he authorised, directed and participated in the War Crimes set forth in Count Three of the Indictment and the Crimes against Humanity set forth in Count Four of the Indictment, including a wide variety of crimes against persons and property.
Frick:
The defendant Frick between 1932-1945 was: a member of the Nazi Party, Reichsleiter, General in the S.S., member of the Reichstag, Reich Minister of the Interior, Prussian Minister of the Interior, Reich Director of Elections, General Plenipotentiary for the Administration of the Reich, head of the Central Office for the Reunification of Austria and the Reich, Director of the Central Office for the Incorporation of Sudetenland, Memel, Danzig, the Eastern incorporated territories, Eupen, Malmedy, and Moresnet, Director of the Central Office for the Protectorate of Bohemia, Moravia, the Government General, Lower Styria, Upper Carinthia, Norway, Alsace, Lorraine and all other occupied territories and Reich Protector for Bohemia and Moravia. The defendant Frick used the foregoing positions, his personal influence, and his intimate connection with the Fuehrer in such a manner that: he promoted the accession to power of the Nazi conspirators and the consolidation of their control over Germany set forth in Count One of the Indictment; he participated in the planning and preparation of the Nazi conspirators for Wars of Aggression and Wars in Violation of International Treaties, Agreements and Assurances set forth in Counts One and Two of the Indictment; and he authorised, directed and participated in the War Crimes set forth in Count Three of the Indictment and the Crimes against Humanity set forth in Count Four of the Indictment, including more particularly the crimes against persons and property in occupied territories.
Ley:
The defendant Ley between 1932-1945 was: a member of the Nazi Party, Reichsleiter, Nazi Party Organisation Manager, member of the Reichstag, leader of the German Labour Front, a General in the S.A., and Joint Organiser of the Central Inspection for the Care of Foreign Workers. The defendant Ley used the foregoing positions, his personal influence and his intimate connection with the Fuehrer in such a manner that: he promoted the accession to power of the Nazi conspirators and the consolidation of their control over Germany as set forth in Count One of the Indictment; he promoted the preparation for war set forth in Count One of the Indictment; he authorised, directed and participated in the War Crimes set forth in Count Three of the Indictment, and in the Crimes against Humanity set forth in Count Four of the Indictment, including particularly the War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity relating to the abuse of human beings for labour in the conduct of the aggressive wars.
Sauckel:
The defendant Sauckel between 1921-1945 was: a member of the Nazi Party, Gauleiter and Reichsstatthalter of Thuringia, a member of the Reichstag, General Plenipotentiary for the Employment of Labour under the Four Year Plan, Joint Organiser with the defendant Ley of the Central Inspection for the Care of Foreign Workers, a General in the S.S. and a General in the S.A. The defendant Sauckel used the foregoing positions and his personal influence in such manner that: he promoted the accession to power of the Nazi conspirators set forth in Count One of the Indictment; he participated in the economic preparations for Wars of Aggression and Wars in Violation of Treaties, Agreements and Assurances set forth in Counts One and Two of the Indictment; he authorised, directed and participated in the War Crimes set forth in Count Three of the Indictment and the Crimes against Humanity set forth in Count Four of the Indictment, including particularly the War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity involved in forcing the inhabitants of occupied countries to work as slave labourers in occupied countries and in Germany.
Speer:
The defendant Speer between 1932-1945 was a member of the Nazi Party, Reichsleiter, member of the Reichstag, Reich Minister for Armament and Munitions, Chief of the Organisation Todt, General Plenipotentiary for Armaments in the Office of the Four Year Plan, and Chairman of the Armaments Council. The defendant Speer used the foregoing positions and his personal influence in such a manner that: he participated in the military and economic planning and preparation of the Nazi conspirators for Wars of Aggression and Wars in Violation of International Treaties, Agreements and Assurances set forth in Counts One and Two of the Indictment; and he authorised, directed and participated in the War Crimes set forth in Count Three of the Indictment and the Crimes against Humanity set forth in Count Four of the Indictment, including more particularly the abuse and exploitation of human beings for forced labour in the conduct of aggressive war.
Funk:
The defendant Funk between 1932-1945 was : a member of the Nazi Party, Economic Adviser of Hitler, National Socialist Deputy to the Reichstag, Press Chief of the Reich Government, State Secretary of the Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda, Reich Minister of Economics, Prussian Minister of Economics, President of the German Reichsbank, Plenipotentiary for Economy, and member of the Ministerial Council for the Defence of the Reich. The defendant Funk used the foregoing positions, his personal influence, and his close connection with the Fuehrer in such a manner that: he promoted the accession to power of the Nazi conspirators and the consolidation of their control over Germany set forth in Count One of the Indictment; he promoted the preparations for war set forth in Count One of the Indictment; he participated in the military and economic planning and preparation of the Nazi conspirators for Wars of Aggression and Wars in Violation of lnternational Treaties, Agreements and Assurances set forth in Counts One and Two of the Indictment; and he authorised, directed and participated in the War Crimes set forth in Count Three of the Indictment and the Crimes against Humanity set forth in Count Four of the Indictment, including more particularly crimes against persons and property in connection with the economic exploitation of occupied territories.
Schacht:
The defendant Schacht between 1932-1945 was: a member of the Nazi Party, a member of the Reichstag, Reich Minister of Economics, Reich Minister without Portfolio and President of the German Reichsbank. The defendant Schacht used the foregoing positions, his personal influence, and his connection with the Fuehrer in such a manner that: he promoted the accession to power of the Nazi Conspirators and the Consolidation of their control over Germany set forth in Count One of the Indictment; he promoted the preparations for war ,set forth in Count One of the Indictment; and he participated in the military and economic plans and preparation of the Nazi conspirators for Wars of Aggression, and Wars in Violation of International Treaties, Agreements and Assurances set forth in Counts One and Two of the Indictment.
Papen:
The defendant Papen between 1932-1945 was: a member of the Nazi Party, a member of the Reichstag, Reich Chancellor, Vice Chancellor under Hitler, special Plenipotentiary for the Saar, negotiator of the Concordat with the Vatican, Ambassador in Vienna and Ambassador in Turkey. The defendant Papen used the foregoing positions, his personal influence, and his close connection with the Fuehrer in such a manner that: he promoted the accession to power of the Nazi conspirators and participated in the consolidation of their control over Germany set forth in Count One of the Indictment; he promoted the preparations for war set forth in Count One of the Indictment; and he participated in the political planning and preparation of the Nazi Conspirators for Wars of Aggression and Wars in Violation of International Treaties, Agreements and Assurances set forth in Counts One and Two of the indictment.
Krupp:
The defendant Krupp between 1932-1945 was: head of Friedrich Krupp A.G., a member of the General Economic Council, President of the Reich Union of German Industry, and head of the Group for mining and Production of Iron and metals under the Reich Ministry of Economics. The defendant Krupp used the foregoing positions, his personal influence, and his connection with the Fuehrer in such a manner that: he promoted the accession to power of the Nazi conspirators and the consolidation of their control over Germany set forth in Count One of the Indictment, he promoted the preparation for war set forth in Count One of the Indictment, he participated in the military and economic planning and preparation of the Nazi conspirators for Wars of Aggression and Wars in Violation of International Treaties, Agreements and Assurances set forth in Counts One and Two of the Indictment; and he authorised, directed and participated in the War Crimes set forth in Count Three of the Indictment and the Crimes against Humanity set forth in Count Four of the Indictment, including more particularly the exploitation and abuse of human beings for labour in the conduct of aggressive wars.
Neurath:
The defendant Neurath between 1932-1945 was: a member of the Nazi Party, a General in the S.S., a member of the Reichstag, Reich Minister, Reich Minister of Foreign Affairs, President of the Secret Cabinet Council, and Reich Protector for Bohemia and Moravia. The defendant Neurath used the foregoing positions, his personal influence, and his close connection with the Fuehrer in such a manner that: he promoted the accession to power of the Nazi conspirators set forth in Count One of the Indictment; he promoted the preparations for war set forth in Count One of the Indictment; he participated in the political planning and preparation of the Nazi conspirators for Wars of Aggression and Wars in Violation of International Treaties, Agreements and Assurances set forth in Counts One and Two of the Indictment; in accordance with the Fuehrer Principle he executed, and assumed responsibility for the execution of the foreign policy plans of the Nazi conspirators set forth in Count One of the Indictment; and he authorised, directed and participated in the War Crimes set forth in Count Three of the Indictment and the Crimes against Humanity set forth in Count Four of the Indictment, including particularly the crimes against persons and property in the occupied territories.
Schirach:
The defendant Schirach between 1924-1945 was: a member of the Nazi Party, a member of the Reichstag, Reich Youth Leader on the Staff of the S.A. Supreme Command, Reichsleiter in the Nazi Party for Youth Education, Leader of Youth of the German Reich, head of the Hitler Jugend, Reich Defence Commissioner and Reichstatthalter and Gauleiter of Vienna. The defendant Schirach used the foregoing positions, his personal influence and his intimate connection with the Fuehrer in such a manner that: he promoted the accession to power of the Nazi conspirators and the consolidation of their control over Germany set forth in Count One of the Indictment; he promoted the psychological and educational preparations for war and the militarisation of Nazi-dominated organisations set forth in Count One of the Indictment; and he authorised, directed and participated in the Crimes against Humanity set forth in Count Four of the Indictment, including, particularly, anti-Jewish measures.
Seyss-Inquart:
The defendant Seyss-Inquart between 1932 1945 was: a member of the Nazi Party, a General in the S.S., State Councillor of Austria, Minister of the Interior and Security of Austria, Chancellor of Austria, a member of the Reichstag, a member of the Reich Cabinet, Reich Minister without Portfolio, Chief of the Civil Administration in South Poland, Deputy Governor-General of the Polish Occupied Territory, and Reich Commissar for the Occupied Netherlands. The defendant Seyss-Inquart used the foregoing positions and his personal influence in such a manner that: he promoted the seizure and the consolidation of control over Austria by the Nazi conspirators set forth in Count One of the Indictment; he participated in the political planning, and preparation of the Nazi conspirators for Wars of Aggression and Wars in Violation of International Treaties, Agreements and Assurances set forth in Counts One and Two of the Indictment; and he authorised, directed and participated in the War Crimes set forth in Count Three of the Indictment and the Crimes against Humanity set forth in Count Four of the Indictment, including a wide variety of crimes against persons and property.
Streicher:
The defendant Streicher between 1932-1945 was: a member of the Nazi Party, a member of the Reichstag, a General in the S.A., Gauleiter of Franconia, Editor-in-Chief of the anti- Semitic newspaper ” Der Sturmer ” The defendant Streicher used the foregoing positions, his personal influence, and his close connection with the Fuehrer in such a manner that: he promoted the accession to power of the Nazi conspirators and the consolidation of their control over Germany set forth in Count One of the Indictment; he authorised, directed and participated in the Crimes against Humanity set forth in Count Four of the Indictment, including particularly the incitement of the persecution of the Jews set forth in Count One and Count Four of the Indictment.
Keitel:
The defendant Keitel between 1938-I945 was: Chief of the High Command of the German Armed Forces, member of the Secret Cabinet Council, member of the Council of Ministers for the Defence of the Reich, and Field Marshal. The defendant Keitel used the foregoing positions, his personal influence and his intimate connection with the Fuehrer in such a manner that: he promoted the military preparations for war set forth in Count One of the Indictment; he participated in the political planning and preparation of the Nazi conspirators for Wars of Aggression and Wars in Violation of International Treaties, Agreements and Assurances set forth in Counts One and Two of the Indictment; he executed and assumed responsibility for the execution of the plans of the Nazi conspirators for Wars of Aggression and Wars in Violation of International Treaties, Agreements and Assurances set forth in Counts One and Two of the Indictment; he authorised, directed and participated in the War Crimes set forth in Count Three of the indictment, and the Crimes against Humanity set forth in Count Four of the Indictment, including particularly the War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity involved in the ill- treatment of prisoners of war and of the civilian population of occupied territories.
Jodl:
The defendant Jodl between 1932-1945 was: Lieut.-Colonel, Army Operations Department of the Wehrmacht, Colonel, Chief of OKW Operations Department, Major-General and Chief of Staff OKW and Colonel-General. The defendant Jodl used the foregoing positions, his personal influence, and his close connection with the Fuehrer in such a manner that: he promoted the accession to power of the Nazi conspirators and the consolidation of their control over Germany set forth in Count One of the Indictment; he promoted the preparations for war set forth in Count One of the Indictment; he participated in the military planning and preparation of the Nazi conspirators for Wars of Aggression and Wars in Violation of International Treaties, Agreements and Assurances set forth in Counts One and Two of the Indictment; and he authorised, directed and participated in the War Crimes set forth in Count Three of the Indictment and the Crimes against Humanity set forth in Count Four of the Indictment, including a wide variety of crimes against persons and property.
Raeder:
The defendant Raeder between 1928-1945 was: Commander-in- Chief of the German Navy, Generaladmiral. Grossadmiral, Admiralspektor of the German navy, and a member of the Secret Cabinet Council. The defendant Raeder used the foregoing positions and his personal influence in such a manner that: he promoted the preparations for war set forth in Count One of the Indictment; he participated in the political planning and preparation of the Nazi conspirators for Wars of Aggression and Wars in Violation of International Treaties, Agreements and Assurances set forth in Counts One and Two of the Indictment; he executed, and assumed responsibility for the execution of the plans of the Nazi conspirators for Wars of Aggression and Wars in Violation of International Treaties, Agreements and Assurances set forth in Counts One and Two of the Indictment; and he authorised, directed and participated in the War Crimes set forth in Count Three of the Indictment, including particularly War Crimes arising out of sea warfare.
Donitz:
The defendant Donitz between 1932-1945 was: Commanding Officer of the Weddigen U-boat Flotilla, Commander-in-Chief of the U-boar arm, Vice-Admiral, Admiral, Grossadmiral and Commander-in-Chief of the German Navy, Adviser to Hitler, and Successor to Hitler as head of the German Government. The defendant Donitz used the foregoing positions, his personal influence, and his intimate connection with the Fuehrer in such a manner that he promoted the preparations for war set forth in Count One of the Indictment; he participated in the military planning and preparation of the Nazi conspirators for Wars of Aggression and Wars in Violation of International Treaties, Agreements and Assurances set forth in Counts One and Two of the Indictment; and he authorised, directed and participated in the War Crimes set forth in Count Three of the Indictment, including particularly the crimes against persons and property on the High Seas.
Fritzsche:
The defendant Fritzsche between I933-1945 was: a member of the Nazi Party, Editor-in-Chief of the official German news agency, “Deutsche Nachrichten Buro”, Head of the Wireless News Service and of the Home Press Division of the Reich Ministry of Propaganda, Ministerialdirektor of the Reich Ministry of Propaganda, Head of the Radio Division of the Propaganda Department of the Nazi Party, and Plenipotentiary for the Political Organisation of the Greater German Radio. The defendant Fritzsche used the foregoing positions and his personal influence to disseminate and exploit the principal doctrines of the Nazi conspirators set forth in Count One of the Indictment, and to advocate, encourage and incite the commission of the War Crimes set forth in Count Three of the Indictment and the Crimes against Humanity set forth in Count Four of the Indictment including, particularly, anti- Jewish measures and the ruthless exploitation of occupied territories.
APPENDIX B
Statement Of Criminality Of Groups And Organisations
The statements hereinafter set forth, following the name of each Group or Organisation named in the Indictment as one which should be declared criminal, constitute matters upon which the prosecution will rely inter alia as establishing the criminality of the Group or Organisation :
Die Reichsregierung (Reich Cabinet)
“Die Reichsregierung (Reich Cabinet)” referred to in the Indictment consists of persons who were:
(i) Members of the ordinary cabinet after 30th January, 1933, the date on which Hitler became Chancellor of the German Republic. The term “ordinary cabinet ” as used herein means the Reich Ministers, i.e., heads of departments of the central government; Reich-Ministers without portfolio; State ministers acting as Reich Ministers; and other officials entitled to take part in meetings of this cabinet.
(ii) Members of der Ministerrat fur die Reichsverteldigung (Council of Ministers for the Defence of the Reich).
(iii) Members of der Gebeimer Kabinettsrat (Secret Cabinet Council).
Under the Fuehrer, these persons functioning in the foregoing capacities and in association as a group, possessed and exercised legislative, executive, administrative and political powers and functions of a very high order in the system of German government. Accordingly, they are charged with responsibility for the policies adopted and put into effect by the Government including those which comprehended and involved the commission of the crimes referred to in Counts One, Two, Three and Four of the Indictment.
Das Korps der Politischen Leiter der Nationalsozialistischen Deutschen Arbeiterpartei (Leadership Corps of the Nazi Party)
“Das Korps der Politischeii Leiter der Nationalsozialistischen Deutschen Arbeiterpartei (Leadership Corps of the Nazi Party)” referred to in the Indictment consists of persons who were at any time, according to common Nazi terminology, Politische Leiter ” (Political Leaders) of any grade or rank.
The Politischen Leiter comprised the leaders of the various functional offices of the Party (for example, the Reichsleitung or Party Reich Directorate, and the Gauleitung, or Party Gau Directorate), as well as the territorial leaders of the Party (for example, the Gauleiter).
The Politischen Leiter were a distinctive and elite group within the Nazi Party proper, and as such were vested with special prerogatives. They were organised according to the leadership principle and were charged with planning, developing and imposing upon their followers the policies of the Nazi Party. Thus the territorial leaders among them were called Hoheitstrager, or bearers of sovereignty, and were entitled to call upon and utilise the various Party formations when necessary for the execution of Party policies.
Reference is hereby made to the allegations in Count One of the Indictment showing that the Nazi Party was the central core of the Common Plan or Conspiracy therein set forth. The Politischen Leiter, as a major power within the Nazi party proper, and functioning in the capacities above described and in association as a group, joined in the Common Plan or Conspiracy, and accordingly share responsibility for the crimes set forth in Counts One, Two, Three and Four of the Indictment.
The prosecution expressly reserves the right to request, at any time before sentence is pronounced, that Politische Leiter of subordinate grades or ranks or of other types or classes, to be specified by the prosecution, be excepted from further proceedings in this Case No. 1, but without prejudice to other proceedings or actions against them.
Die Schutzstaffeln der Nationalsozialistischen Deutschen Arbeiterpartei (commonly known as the SS) including Der Sicherheitsdienst (commonly known as the SD)
Die Schutzstaffeln der Nationalsozialistischen Deutschen Arbeiterpartei (commonly known as the SS) including Der Sicherheitsdienst (commonly known as the SD) and all offices, departments, services, agencies, branches, formations, organisations and groups of which it was at any time comprised or which were at any time integrated in it, including but not limited to, the Allgemeine SS, the Waffen SS, the SS Totenkopf Verbande, SS Polizei Regimente and Der Sicherheitsdienst des Reichsfuehrers-SS (commonly known as the SD).
The SS, originally established by Hitler in I925 as an elite section of the SA to furnish a protective guard for the Fuehrer and Nazi Party leaders, became an independent formation of the Nazi Party in 1934 under the leadership of the Reichsfuehrer-SS, Heinrich Himmler. It was composed of voluntary members, selected in accordance with Nazi biological, racial and political theories, completely indoctrinated in Nazi ideology and pledged to uncompromising obedience to the Fuehrer. After the accession of the Nazi conspirators to power, it developed many departments, agencies, formations and branches and extended its influence and control over numerous fields of governmental and Party activity. Through Heinrich Himmler, as Reichsfuehrer-SS and Chief of the German Police, agencies and units of the SS and of the Reich were joined in operation to form a unified repressive police force. Der Sicherheitsdienst des Reichsfuehrers-SS ‘(commonly known as the SD), a department of the SS, was developed into a vast espionage and counter- intelligence system which operated in conjunction with the Gestapo and criminal police in detecting, suppressing and eliminating tendencies, groups and individuals deemed hostile or potentially hostile to the Nazi Party, its leaders, principles and objectives, and eventually was combined with the Gestapo and criminal police in a single security police department, the Reich Main Security Office.
Other branches of the SS developed into an armed force and served in the wars of aggression referred to in Counts One and Two of the Indictment. Through other departments and branches the SS controlled the administration of concentration camps and the execution of Nazi racial, biological and resettlement policies. Through its numerous functions and activities it served as the instrument for ensuring the domination of Nazi ideology and protecting and extending the Nazi regime over Germany and occupied territories. It thus participated in and is responsible for the crimes referred to in Counts One, Two, Three and Four of the Indictment.
Die Geheime Staatspolizei (Secret State Police, commonly known as the Gestapo)
“Die Geheime Staatspolizei (Secret State Police, commonly known as the Gestapo) ” referred to in the Indictment consists of the headquarters, departments, offices, branches and all the forces and personnel of the Geheime Staatspolizei organised or existing it any time after 30th January, 1933, including the Geheime Staatspolizei of Prussia and equivalent secret or political police forces of the Reich and the components thereof.
The Gestapo was created by the Nazi conspirators immediately after their accession to power, first in Prussia by the defendant Goering and shortly thereafter in all other States in the Reich. These separate secret and political police forces were developed into a centralised, uniform organisation operating through a central headquarters and through a network of regional offices in Germany and in occupied territories. Its officials and operatives were selected on the basis of unconditional acceptance of Nazi ideology, were largely drawn from members of the SS, and were trained in SS and SD schools. It acted to suppress and eliminate tendencies, groups and individuals deemed hostile or potentially hostile to the Nazi Party, its leaders, principles and objectives, and to repress resistance and potential resistance to German control in occupied territories. In performing these functions it operated free from legal control, taking any measures it deemed necessary for the accomplishment of its missions.
Through its purposes activities and the means it used, it participated in and is responsible for the commission of the crimes set forth in Counts One, Two, Three and Four of the Indictment.
Die Sturmabteilungen der Nationalsozialistischen Deutschen Arbeiterpartei (commonly known as the SA)
“Die Sturmabteilungen der Nationalsozialistischen Deutschen Arbeiterpartei (commonly known as the SA)” referred to in the Indictment was a formation of the Nazi Party under the immediate jurisdiction of the Fuehrer, organised on military lines, whose membership was composed of volunteers serving as political soldiers of the Party. It was one of the earliest formations of the Nazi Party and the original guardian of the National Socialist movement. Founded in 1921 on a voluntary militant formation, it was developed by the Nazi conspirators before their accession to power into a vast private army and utilised for the purpose of creating disorder, and terrorising and eliminating political opponents. It continued to serve as an instrument for the physical, ideological and military training of Party members and as a reserve for the German Armed Forces. After the launching of the wars of aggression, referred to in Counts One and Two of the Indictment, the SA not only operated as an organisation for military training but provided auxiliary police and security forces in occupied territories, guarded prisoner-of-war camps and concentration camps and supervised and controlled persons forced to labour in Germany and occupied territories.
Through its purposes and activities and the means it used, it participated in and is responsible for the commission of the crimes set forth in Counts One, Two, Three and Four of the Indictment.
General Staff and High Command of the German Armed Forces
The “General Staff and High Command of the German Armed Forces’ referred to in the Indictment consist of those individuals who, between February 1938, and May, 1945, were the highest commanders of the Wehrmacht, the Army, the Navy, and the Air Forces. The individuals comprising this group are the persons who held the following appointments :
Oberbefehlshaber der Kriegsniarine (Commander-in-Chief of the Navy).
Chef (and, formerly, Chef des Stabes) der Seckriegsleitung (Chief of Naval War Staff).
Oberbefehlsheber des Heeres (Commander-in-Chief of the Army).
Chef des Generalstabes des Heeres (Chief of the General Staff of the Army).
Oberbefehlshaber der Luftwaffe (Commander-in-Chief of the Air Force).
Chef des Generalstabes der Luftwaffe (Chief of the General Staff of the Air Force).
Chef des Oberkommandos der Wehrmacht (Chief of the High Command of the Armed Forces).
Chef des Fuhrungstabes des Oberkommandos der Wehrmacht (Chief of the Operations Staff of the High Command of the Armed Forces).
Stellvertretender Chef des Fuhrungstabes des Oberkommandos der Wehrmacht (Deputy Chief of the Operations Staff of the High Command of the Armed Forces).
Commanders-in-Chief in the field, with the status of Oberbefehlshaber, of the Wehrmacht, Navy, Army, Air Force.
SIR DAVID MAXWELL FYFE (continuing the reading of the Indictment):
APPENDIX C
Charges And Particulars Of Violations Of International Treaties, Agreements And Assurances Caused By The Defendants In The Course Of Planning, Preparing And Initiating The Wars
I
Charge: Violation of the Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes signed at The Hague, 29th July, 1899.
Particulars: In that Germany did, by force and arms, on the dates specified in Column I, invade the territory of the sovereigns specified in Column 2, respectively, without first having attempted to settle its disputes with said sovereigns by pacific means.
Column 1………………………………….Column 2
6th April, I941………………..Kingdom of Greece
6th April,1941………………..Kingdom of Yugoslavia
II
Charge: Violation of the Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes signed at The Hague, 18th October, 1907.
Particulars : In that Germany did, on or about the dates specified in Column 1, by force of arms invade the territory of the sovereigns specified in Column 2, respectively, without having first attempted to settle its disputes with said sovereigns by pacific means.
Column 1………………………………….Column 2
1st September, 1939………………..Republic of Poland
9th April, 1940…………………………..Kingdom of Norway
9th April,1940……………………………Kingdom of Denmark
10th May, 1940………………………….Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg
10th May, 1940………………………….Kingdom of Belgium
10th May, 1940………………………….Kingdom of the Netherlands
22nd June, 1941……………………….Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
III
Charge: Violation of Hague Convention III Relative to the Opening of Hostilities, signed 18th October, 1907.
Particulars: In that Germany did, on or about the dates specified in Column 1, commence hostilities against the countries specified in Column 2, respectively, without previous warning in the form of a reasoned declaration of war or an ultimatum with conditional declaration of war.
Column 1………………………………….Column 2
1st September, 1939………………..Republic of Poland
9th April, 1940…………………………..Kingdom of Norway
9th April, 1940…………………………..Kingdom of Denmark
10th May, 1940………………………….Kingdom of Belgium
10th May, 1940………………………….Kingdom of the Netherlands
10th May, 1940………………………….Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg
22nd June, 1941……………………….Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
IV
Charge: Violation of Hague Convention V Respecting the Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers and Persons in Case of War on Land, signed 18th October, 1907.
Particulars: In that Germany did, on or about the dates specified in Column 1, by force and arms of its military forces, cross into, invade, and occupy the territories of the sovereigns specified in Column 2, respectively, then and thereby violating the neutrality of said sovereigns.
Column 1………………………………….Column 2
9th April, 1940…………………………..Kingdom of Norway
9th April, 1940…………………………..Kingdom of Denmark
10th May, 1940…………………………Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg
10th May, 1940…………………………Kingdom of Belgium
10th May, 1940…………………………Kingdom of the Netherlands
22nd June, 1941………………………Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
V
Charge: Violation of the Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Germany, signed at Versailles, 28th June, 1919, known as the Versailles Treaty.
Particulars:
(1) In that Germany did, on and after 7th March, 1936, maintain and assemble armed forces and maintain and construct military fortifications in the demilitarised zone of the Rhineland in violation of the provisions of Articles 42 to 44 of the Treaty of Versailles.
(2) In that Germany did, on or about 13th March, I938, annex Austria into the German Reich in violation of the provisions of Article 80 of the Treaty of Versailles.
(3) In that Germany did, on or about 22nd March, 1939, incorporate the district of Memel into the German Reich in violation of the provisions of Article 99 of the Treaty of Versailles.
(4) In that Germany did, on or about 1st September, I939, incorporate the Free City of Danzig into the German Reich in violation of the provisions of Article 100 of the Treaty of Versailles.
(5) In that Germany did, on or about 16th March, I939, incorporate the provinces of Bohemia and Moravia, formerly part of Czechoslovakia, into the German Reich in violation of the provisions of Article 81 of the Treaty of Versailles.
(6) In that Germany did, at various times in March, I935, and thereafter, repudiate various parts of Part V, Military, Naval and Air Clauses of the Treaty of Versailles, by creating an air force, by use of compulsory military service, by increasing the size of the army beyond treaty limits, and by increasing the size of the navy beyond treaty limits.
VI
Charge: Violation of the Treaty between the United States and Germany Restoring Friendly Relations, signed at Berlin, 25th August, 1921.
Particulars:
In that Germany did, at various times in March, 1935, and thereafter, repudiate various parts of Part V, Military, Naval and Air Clauses of the Treaty between the United States and Germany Restoring Friendly Relations by creating an air force, by use of compulsory military service, by increasing the size of the army beyond treaty limits, and by increasing the size of the navy beyond treaty limits.
VII
Charge: Violation of the Treaty of Mutual Guarantee between Germany, Belgium, France, Great Britain and Italy, done at Locarno, 16th October, 1925.
Particulars :
(1) In that Germany did, on or about 7th March, 1936, unlawfully send armed forces into the Rhineland demilitarised zone of Germany, in violation of Article 1 of the Treaty of Mutual Guarantee.
(2) In that Germany did, in or about March, 1936, and thereafter, unlawfully maintain armed forces in the Rhineland demilitarised zone of Germany, in violation of Article 1 of the Treaty of Mutual Guarantee.
(3) In that Germany did, on or about 7th March, 1936, and thereafter, unlawfully construct and maintain fortifications in the Rhineland demilitarised zone of Germany, in violation of Article I of the Treaty of Mutual Guarantee.
(4) In that Germany did, on or about 10th May, unlawfully attack and invade Belgium, in violation of Article 2 of the Treaty of Mutual Guarantee.
(5) In that Germany did, on or about 10th May, I940, unlawfully attack and invade Belgium, without first having attempted to settle its dispute with Belgium by peaceful means, in violation of Article 3 of the Treaty of Mutual Guarantee.
VIII
Charge: Violation of the Arbitration Treaty between Germany and Czechoslovakia, done at Locarno, 16th October, I925
Particulars: In that Germany did, on or about 15th March, 1939, unlawfully by duress and threats of military might force Czechoslovakia to deliver the destiny of Czechoslovakia and its inhabitants into the hands of the Fuehrer and Reichschancellor of Germany without having attempted to settle its dispute with Czechoslovakia by peaceful means.
IX
Charge: Violation of the Arbitration Convention between Germany and Belgium, done at Locarno, 16th October, 1925
Particulars:
In that Germany did, on or about 10th May, 1940, unlawfully attack and invade Belgium without first having attempted to settle its dispute with Belgium by peaceful means.
X
Charge: Violation of the Arbitration Treaty between Germany and Poland, done at Locarno, 16th October, 1925.
Particulars:
In that Germany did, on or about 1st September, 1939, unlawfully attack and invade Poland without first having attempted to settle its dispute with Poland by peaceful means.
XI
Charge: Violation of Convention of Arbitration and Conciliation entered into between Germany and the Netherlands on 20th May, 1926.
Particulars: In that Germany, without warning, and notwithstanding its solemn covenant to settle by peaceful means all disputes of any nature whatever which might arise between it and the Netherlands which were not capable of settlement by diplomacy and which had not been referred by mutual agreement to the Permanent Court of International Justice, did, on or about 10th May, 1940, with a military force, attack, invade, and occupy the Netherlands, thereby violating its neutrality and territorial integrity and destroying its sovereign independence.
XII
Charge: Violation of Convention of Arbitration and Conciliation entered into between Germany and Denmark on 2nd June, 1926.
Particulars:
In that Germany, without warning, and notwithstanding its solemn covenant to settle by peaceful means all disputes of any nature whatever which might arise between it and Denmark which were not capable of settlement by diplomacy and which had not been referred by mutual agreement to the Permanent Court of International Justice, did, on or about 9th April, 1940, with a military force, attack, invade, and occupy Denmark, thereby violating its neutrality and territorial integrity and destroying its sovereign independence.
XIII
Charge: Violation of Treaty between Germany and other Powers providing for Renunciation of War as an Instrument of National Policy, signed at Paris 27th August, 1928, known as the Kellogg-Briand Pact.
Particulars:
In that Germany did, on or about the dates specified in Column 1, with a military force, attack the sovereigns specified in Column 2, respectively, and resort to war against such sovereigns, in violation of its solemn declaration condemning recourse to war for the solution of international controversies, its solemn renunciation of war as an instrument of national policy in its relations with such sovereigns, and its solemn covenant that settlement or solution of all disputes or conflicts of whatever nature or origin arising between it and such sovereigns should never be sought except by pacific means.
Column 1 – .Column 2
1st September, 1939 – Republic of Poland
9th April, 1940 – Kingdom of Norway
9th April, 1940 – Kingdom of Denmark
10th May, 1940. – Kingdom of Belgium
10th May, 1940 – Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg
10th May, 1940 – Kingdom of the Netherlands
6th April, 1941 – Kingdom of Greece
6th April, 1941 – .Kingdom of Yugoslavia
22nd June, 1941 – Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
11th December, 1941 – United States of America
XIV
Charge: Violation of Treaty of Arbitration and Conciliation entered into between Germany and Luxembourg on 11th September,1929.
Particulars: In that Germany, without warning, and notwithstanding its solemn covenant to settle by peaceful means all disputes which might arise between it and Luxembourg which were not capable of settlement by diplomacy, did, on or about 10th May, 1940, with a military force, attack, invade, and occupy Luxembourg, thereby violating its neutrality and territorial integrity and destroying its sovereign independence.
XV
Charge: Violation of the Declaration of Non-Aggression entered into between Germany and Poland on 26th January, 1934.
Particulars: In that Germany proceeding to the application of force for the purpose of reaching a decision did, on or about 13th September, 1939, at various places along the German-Polish frontier, employ military forces to attack, invade and commit other acts of aggression against Poland.
XVI
Charge: Violation of German Assurance given on 21st May, 1935, that the Inviolability and Integrity of the Federal State of Austria would be recognised.
Particulars:
In that Germany did, on or about 12th March, 1938, at various points, and places along the German- Austrian frontier, with a military force and in violation of its solemn declaration and assurance, invade and annex to Germany the territory of the Federal State of Austria.
XVII
Charge:Violation of Austro-German Agreement of 11th July, 1936.
Particulars:
In that Germany during the period from 11th February, 1938 to 13th March, 1938, did by duress and various aggressive acts, including the use of military force, cause the Federal State of Austria to yield up its sovereignty to the German State in violation of Germany’s agreement to recognise the full sovereignty of the Federal State of Austria.
XVIII
Charge: Violation of German Assurances given on 30th January, 1937, 28th April, 1939, 26th August, 1939 and 6th October, 1939, to Respect the Neutrality and Territorial Inviolability of the Netherlands.
Particulars:
In that Germany, without warning, and without recourse to peaceful means of settling any considered differences did, on or about 10th May, I940, with a military force and in violation of its solemn assurances, invade, occupy, and attempt to subjugate the sovereign territory of the Netherlands.
XIX
Charge: Violation of German Assurances given on 30th January, 1937, 13th October, 1937, 28th April, 1939, 26th August, 1939, and 6th October, 1939, to Respect the Neutrality and Territorial Integrity and Inviolability of Belgium.
Particulars:
In that Germany, without warning, did on or about 10th May, 1940, with a military force and in violation of its solemn assurances and declarations, attack, invade, and occupy the sovereign territory of Belgium.
XX
Charge: Violation of Assurances given on 11th March, 1938, and 26th September, 1938, to Czechoslovakia.
Particulars:
In that Germany, on or about 15th March, 1939, did, by establishing a Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia under duress and by the threat of force, violate the assurance given on 11th March, 1938, to respect the territorial integrity of the Czechoslovak Republic and the assurance given on 26th September, 1938, that, if the so- called Sudeten territories were ceded to Germany, no further German territorial claims on Czechoslovakia would be made.
Charge: Violation of the Munich Agreement and Annexes of 29th September, 1938.
Particulars :
(1) In that Germany on or about 15th March, 1939, did by duress and the threat of military intervention force the Republic of Czechoslovakia to deliver the destiny of the Czech people and country into the hands of the Fuehrer of the German Reich.
(2) In that Germany refused and failed to join in an international guarantee of the new boundaries of the Czechoslovakian State as provided for in Annex No. I to the Munich Agreement.
XXII
Charge: Violation of the Solemn Assurances of Germany given On 3rd September, 1939, 28th April, 1939, and 6th October, 1939, that they would not Violate the Independence or Sovereignty of the Kingdom of Norway.
Particulars: In that Germany, without warning did, on or about 9th April, I940, with its military and naval forces attack, invade and commit other acts of aggression against the Kingdom of Norway.
XXIII
Charge: Violation of German Assurances given on 28th April, 1939, and 26th August, 1939, to Respect the Neutrality and Territorial Inviolability of Luxembourg.
Particulars :
In that Germany, without warning, and without recourse to peaceful means of settling any considered differences, did, on or about 10th May, 1940, with a military force and in violation of the solemn assurances, invade, occupy, and absorb into Germany the sovereign territory of Luxembourg.
XXIV
Charge: Violation of the Treaty of Non-Aggression between Germany and Denmark signed at Berlin, 31st May, 1939.
Particulars: In that Germany without prior warning, did, on or about 9th April, 1940, with its military forces, attack, invade and commit other acts of aggression against the Kingdom of Denmark.
XXV
Charge: Violation of Treaty of Non-Aggression entered into between Germany and U.S.S.R. on 23rd August, 1939.
Particulars:
(1) In that Germany did, on or about 22nd June, 1941, employ military forces to attack and commit acts of aggression against the U.S.S.R.
(2) In that Germany without warning or recourse to a friendly exchange of views or arbitration did, on or about 22nd June, 1941, employ military forces to attack and commit acts of aggression against the U.S.S.R.
XXVI
Charge: Violation of German Assurance given on 6th October, 1939, to Respect the Neutrality and Territorial Integrity of Yugoslavia.
Particulars:
In that Germany without prior warning did, on or about 6th April, 1941, with its military forces attack, invade and commit other acts of aggression against the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.
THE PRESIDENT: The Tribunal will now adjourn until 10 o’clock to-morrow morning.
(The Tribunal adjourned to 21st November, 1945, at 10.00 hours.)
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"In the Beatles song, what line follows ""I should have known better with a girl like you""?" | Beatles - I Should Have Known Better Lyrics | MetroLyrics
I Should Have Known Better Lyrics
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I should have known better with a girl like you,
That I would love everything that you do; and I do,
Hey, hey, hey, and I do.
Whoa, oh, I never realized what a kiss could be,
This could only happen to me
Can't you see, can't you see
That when I tell you that I love you, oh,
You're gonna say you love me too,
Hoo, hoo, hoo, hoo, oh
And when I ask you to be mine,
You're gonna say you love me too
So oh I should realized a lot of things before
If this is love you've got to give me more
Give me more, hey hey hey, give me more
Whoa, oh, I never realized what a kiss could be,
This could only happen to me
Can't you see, can't you see
That when I tell you that I love you, oh,
You're gonna say you love me too,
Hoo, hoo, hoo, hoo, oh
And when I ask you to be mine,
You're gonna say you love me too
You love me too, you love me too, you love me too
Songwriters
JOHN LENNON, JOHN WINSTON LENNON, PAUL MCCARTNEY, PAUL JAMES MCCARTNEY
Published by
Lyrics © Sony/ATV Music Publishing LLC
Song Discussions is protected by U.S. Patent 9401941. Other patents pending.
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What did Hitler call his planned invasion of Britain? | I SHOULD HAVE KNOWN BETTER CHORDS by The Beatles @ Ultimate-Guitar.Com
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I Should Have Known Better Lennon/McCartney (harmonica intro) C G7 C G7 C G7 C G7 C G7 C G7 C G7 C G7 I - - - - - - should have known better with a girl like you, C G7 Am That I would love everything that you do, F G7 C G7 C G7 And I do, hey, hey, hey, and I do. Whoa, ooh C G7 C G7 C G7 C G7 I - - - - - - never realized what a kiss could be, C G7 Am This could only happen to me, F E7 Am Can't you see, can't you see? F C E7 Am That when I tell you that I love you, oh, F C F You're gonna say you love me too - oo - oo - oo - oo, oho, G7 C Am F G7 C G7 C And when I ask you to be mine, you're gonna say you love me too. G7 C G7 C G7 C G7 C G7 So - o - o, I - - - - - - should have realized a lot of things before, C G7 Am If this is love you've gotta give me more, F G7 C G7 C G7 Give me more, hey, hey, hey, give me more. (Guitar solo) C G7 C G7 C G7 C G7 C G7 Am F G7 C G7 C G7 C G7 C G7 C G7 C G7 I - - - - - - never realized what a kiss could be, C G7 Am This could only happen to me, F E7 Am Can't you see, can't you see? F C E7 Am That when I tell you that I love you, oh, F C F You're gonna say you love me too - oo - oo - oo - oo, oho, G7 C Am F G7 C G7 C And when I ask you to be mine, you're gonna say you love me too. G7 C G7 C G7 C G7 C You love me too, you love me too.
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Complete the list of nations for Group 9 in football's 'Euro 2004' tournament - Italy, Wales, Azerbaijan, Yugoslavia, and ...? | Press kits - UEFA EURO - Media – UEFA.org
* FIFA World Cup/FIFA Confederations Cup
Last updated 01/07/2015 15:02CET
Match background Only this chapter
Croatia will look to stay in the hunt for qualification from Group H – and end Bulgaria's slender hopes of a play-off place – in their first game under new coach Ante Čačić.
• Croatia trail Norway (by two points) and Italy (by four), but a win against Bulgaria could ramp up the pressure on the top two, who meet in their final qualifier.
• Bulgaria can only finish third if they win their final two games and Croatia lose theirs. In the event that the sides finish level on points, head-to-head record and then goal difference would separate them.
Previous meetings
• Nikolay Bodurov's own goal in Sofia earned Croatia a 1-0 win in the sides' first Group H meeting.
• Croatia's record in seven encounters with Bulgaria is decent: W4 D2 L1 (W1 D2 L0 in Croatia).
Form guide
• Croatia are without a win in three competitive games (D2 L1) – a run which meant they dropped out of the top two in Group H, with coach Niko Kovač being replaced by Ante Čačić in September.
• Bulgaria have won only one of their last seven qualifiers (W1 D2 L4, with that lone win a 1-0 in Malta). They failed to score in their two September qualifiers, losing 1-0 to Norway and Italy.
Disciplinary
• Ivica Olić serves a one-match ban against Bulgaria; Domagoj Vida, Marcelo Brozović and Mario Mandžukić are all within a booking of a suspension. Mateo Kovačić is available again after his one-game ban.
• Svetoslav Dyakov, Yordan Minev and Ilian Mitsanski are suspended against Croatia; Yordan Minev and Ivelin Popov are a booking away from a ban.
Trivia and links
• Croatia have only once failed to reach the UEFA European Championship finals since independence, missing the cut for UEFA EURO 2000. Bulgaria have not reached a final tournament since UEFA EURO 2004.
• In 14 matches between clubs from these nations in UEFA competition, the Bulgarian sides' record is W4 D3 L7 (W3 D3 L2 at home, W1 D0 L5 in Croatia).
• Bulgarian and Croatian sides have met in ten UEFA youth and age-limit matches, for which Croatia's record is W6 D1 L3.
http://www.uefa.comhttp://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro/qualifiers/season=2016/matches/round=2000446/match=2014047/prematch/background/index.html#croatia+bulgaria+facts
2015-10-10T07:33:37:193
Squad list Only this chapter
cup: 3
Competition facts Only this chapter
UEFA European Championship qualifying records
• There have been 14 qualifying tournaments for the UEFA European Championship with 11 countries participating in all of them: Austria, Bulgaria, Denmark, Hungary, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Spain and Turkey.
• The Soviet Union and Russia combined have also been involved in all 14 qualifying tournaments, as have Czechoslovakia and the Czech Republic.
• Of those ever-present nations, Spain have the most successful record, reaching the final tournament on nine occasions, including the 1964 event which they hosted.
• The most prolific qualifying country are West Germany/Germany, with ten successful attempts out of 11. Their only failure was in their first participation, for the 1968 tournament. They are on a run of ten successful qualifications, broken only by EURO '88, for which they qualified automatically as hosts.
• Discounting host nation exemptions, France and Germany hold the record for consecutive qualifications, from 1992 to 2012. Like West Germany/Germany, the Soviet Union/Russia have enjoyed a record ten successful qualifications – but from a maximum 14 entries.
• The best percentage record for a single country is shared by Germany and the Czech Republic, who both have a 100% success rate, with six and five qualifications respectively. Next best are Croatia, who have qualified four times out of five (80%), from 1996 to 2012.
• Excluding tournament hosts, 2016 organisers France among them, ten countries are on a run of multiple successful qualifications going into UEFA EURO 2016 – Germany (six), Czech Republic, Italy and Spain (five), Sweden (four), Croatia, Greece, Netherlands and Russia (three), and Portugal (two).
• Including tournament hosts, the longest sequences of ongoing consecutive multiple participations at the finals are as follows: West Germany/Germany (11), the Netherlands (seven), France (six), Czech Republic, Italy, Portugal and Spain (five), Sweden (four), Croatia, Greece, Russia (three), and Poland (two).
• Of the 53 nations pursuing a UEFA EURO 2016 spot via the qualifiers, 26 have never featured at a final tournament. Additionally, neither Austria nor Ukraine have ever experienced a fruitful qualifying campaign, their only appearances at the finals being in 2008 and 2012 respectively, when they were co-hosts.
• Gibraltar are the sole association in the UEFA EURO 2016 qualifying field to be making their competition debut. Montenegro are making their second appearance and Kazakhstan their third.
• On just one of their ten successful qualification bids have West Germany/Germany failed to qualify as group winners. That was in 2008, when the Czech Republic edged them into second place, a position that also carried automatic qualification. The longest ongoing streak of qualifying group victories is held by Italy, who have topped their section in each of the last four competitions. Greece have the next best record in that regard, finishing first in the last three qualifying events. Spain are the only other nation to have won their group in the qualifying campaigns for both 2008 and 2012.
• Hungary and the Republic of Ireland share the record for the highest number of qualification matches played by a single nation, with 118 apiece, although the Soviet Union/Russia have contested 119. Twenty-two other countries or combinations have amassed a century or more of qualifying games with 12 – Greece, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Italy, Portugal, Serbia, Belgium, Wales, Finland, Cyprus, Sweden and Malta – joining that number in UEFA EURO 2016 qualifying.
• Spain have registered the most UEFA European Championship qualifying wins, 80, followed by Czechoslovakia/Czech Republic on 75, with the Soviet Union/Russia on 72 and the Netherlands on 71.
• Spain are also the competition's top goalscorers, finding the net 282 times. The Netherlands are second in the list with 248.
• The side with the highest number of defeats are Luxembourg with 91, followed by Malta (84) and Cyprus (72).
• Aside from debutants Gibraltar, two teams have never won a UEFA European Championship qualifier. Andorra have lost every one of their 49 matches; San Marino had lost 59 in a row before the goalless draw against Estonia in November 2014.
• The most goals conceded by one team is 299, by Luxembourg, closely followed by Malta on 287. San Marino are next up on 287 – from just 65 games, in which they have scored a mere seven goals, the fewest by any competing nation bar Gibraltar.
• The Republic of Ireland and Romania have both drawn 35 qualifiers, more than any other side.
• Only five teams have qualified with a perfect record in their group – France (eight victories out of eight, EURO '92 and UEFA EURO 2004), Czech Republic (ten out of ten, UEFA EURO 2000), Germany (ten, UEFA EURO 2012), and Spain (eight, UEFA EURO 2012).
• Italy have the longest ongoing unbeaten UEFA European Championship qualifying run, having avoided defeat in each of their last 28 qualifying matches. Greece's 18-game unbeaten run was ended by Romania on matchday one, Spain's own 18-match streak and Germany's 13-game sequence both ended on matchday two. England (14) are also on a long sequence without defeat. Those five countries all came through the UEFA EURO 2012 qualifying campaign unbowed, but no side avoided defeat en route to UEFA EURO 2008.
• Liechtenstein and Armenia have never qualified for a UEFA European Championship final tournament but boast the players with the most appearances in the qualifying competition, Mario Frick (50) and Sargis Hovsepyan (47).
• Ireland's Keane is the highest scorer in UEFA European Championship qualifying matches with 23 goals. Turkey's Hakan Şükür and Portugal's Cristiano Ronaldo both have 20 goals; the Czech Republic's Jan Koller and Denmark's Jon Dahl Tomasson are both on 19. Two players are on 18 goals: Miroslav Klose (Germany) and Raúl González (Spain).
• The highest number of goals netted in a single qualifying tournament is 13, by Northern Ireland's David Healy ahead of the 2008 finals. Next on the chart are Robert Lewandowski (2016), Davor Šuker (1996) and Klaas-Jan Huntelaar (2012) with 12 apiece.
http://www.uefa.comhttp://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro/qualifiers/news/newsid=2054177.html#euro+qualifying+statistics
2016-07-8T18:11:15:080
Match-by-match lineups Only this chapter
Croatia
1-0 Modrić 46, 2-0 Kramarić 81
Croatia:
Subašić, Milić, Ćorluka, Lovren, Rakitić, Halilović (67 Kramarić), Modrić, Srna, Brozović, Mandžukić (79 Olić), Kovačić (46 Jelavić)
Matchday 2 (10/10/2014)
Subašić, Pranjić, Perišić, Ćorluka, Rakitić (80 Kovačić), Modrić, Srna, Brozović, Mandžukić, Olić, Vida
Matchday 3 (13/10/2014)
Croatia 6-0 Azerbaijan
Goals:
1-0 Kramarić 11, 2-0 Perišić 34, 3-0 Perišić 45, 4-0 Brozović 45+1, 5-0 Modrić 57 (P) , 6-0 Sadygov 61 (og)
Croatia:
Subašić, Pranjić, Ćorluka, Rakitić, Modrić (60 Halilović), Srna, Brozović, Mandžukić, Kovačić (24 Perišić), Vida, Kramarić (76 Olić)
Matchday 4 (16/11/2014)
1-0 Candreva 11, 1-1 Perišić 15
Croatia:
Subašić, Pranjić, Perišić, Ćorluka, Rakitić, Modrić (28 Kovačić), Srna, Brozović (83 Badelj), Mandžukić, Olić (68 Kramarić), Vida
Matchday 5 (28/03/2015)
Croatia 5-1 Norway
Goals:
1-0 Brozović 30, 2-0 Perišić 53, 3-0 Olić 65, 3-1 Tettey 80, 4-1 Schildenfeld 87, 5-1 Pranjić 90+4
Croatia:
Subašić, Pranjić, Perišić, Ćorluka, Rakitić (75 Schildenfeld), Modrić, Srna, Brozović, Mandžukić (87 Badelj), Olić (70 Kramarić), Vida
Matchday 6 (12/06/2015)
1-0 Mandžukić 11, 1-1 Candreva 36 (P)
Croatia:
Subašić, Pranjić (72 Vrsaljko), Perišić, Rakitić, Srna, Schildenfeld, Brozović, Mandžukić, Olić (46 Rebić), Kovačić (92 Leovac), Vida
Matchday 7 (03/09/2015)
Azerbaijan 0-0 Croatia
Croatia:
Subašić, Vrsaljko, Pranjić, Perišić (83 N. Kalinić), Ćorluka, Rakitić, Pjaca, Modrić (71 Brozović), Mandžukić, Badelj (59 Kovačić), Vida
Matchday 8 (06/09/2015)
1-0 Berget 51, 2-0 Ćorluka 69 (og)
Croatia:
Subašić, Vrsaljko, Perišić, Ćorluka, Rakitić (72 N. Kalinić), Pjaca (63 Olić), Modrić, Srna, Brozović, Mandžukić, Vida
Matchday 9 (10/10/2015)
0-1 Mitsanski 14, 1-1 Nazarov 54, 1-2 V. Hristov 87
Bulgaria:
Stoyanov, Popov, Bodurov, Alexandrov (83 V. Hristov), Manolev, Minev, Milanov, Gadzhev, Mitsanski (58 Galabinov), Dyakov, G. Iliev (74 Nedelev)
Matchday 2 (10/10/2014)
0-1 Bodurov 36 (og)
Bulgaria:
Stoyanov, Popov, Zanev (46 G. Iliev), Bodurov, Minev, Popov, Manolev, Milanov, Gadzhev (68 Tonev), Mitsanski (46 Galabinov), Dyakov
Matchday 3 (13/10/2014)
1-0 T. Elyounoussi 13, 1-1 Bodurov 43, 2-1 Nielsen 72
Bulgaria:
Mihaylov, Popov, Bodurov, Popov, Manolev (69 Minev), Minev, V. Hristov (56 Galabinov), Milanov, Tonev, Dyakov, G. Iliev (76 Alexandrov)
Matchday 4 (16/11/2014)
1-0 Galabinov 6, 1-1 Failla 49 (P)
Bulgaria:
Stoyanov, Terziev, Bodurov, Alexandrov, Popov, Manolev, Minev, Galabinov (58 Mitsanski), Milanov (58 Marquinhos), Dyakov, G. Iliev (71 Tonev)
Matchday 5 (28/03/2015)
0-1 Minev 4 (og) , 1-1 Popov 11, 2-1 Mitsanski 17, 2-2 Éder 84
Bulgaria:
Mihaylov, Bodurov, Minev, Alexandrov, Popov (85 Slavchev), Manolev, Milanov (88 Vasilev), Gadzhev, Mitsanski (73 Bozhinov), Dyakov, A. Aleksandrov
Matchday 6 (12/06/2015)
0-1 Popov 56
Bulgaria:
Mitrev, Bandalovski, Bodurov, Minev, Alexandrov (75 Milanov), Popov (81 Chochev), Manolev, Gadzhev, Mitsanski (90 Vasilev), Dyakov, A. Aleksandrov
Matchday 7 (03/09/2015)
0-1 Forren 57
Bulgaria:
Mitrev, Bandalovski, A. Aleksandrov, Bodurov, Minev, Popov, Manolev (61 Tonev), Chochev, Milanov (78 Nedelev), Mitsanski (68 Rangelov), Dyakov
Matchday 8 (06/09/2015)
1-0 De Rossi 6 (P)
Bulgaria:
Mitrev, A. Aleksandrov, Bodurov, Minev (64 Bandalovski), Popov (71 Rangelov), Minev, Chochev, Milanov, Mitsanski, Dyakov, Nedelev (67 Alexandrov)
Matchday 9 (10/10/2015)
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Norway national football team
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Norway
(October 1993, July–August 1995)
Lowest FIFA ranking
( Gothenburg , Sweden ; 12 July 1908)
Biggest win
( Bergen , Norway ; 28 June 1946)
Biggest defeat
Round 1, 2000
The Norwegian national football team, controlled by the Football Association of Norway, is the national team of Norway in association football. The team played its first international in 1908. Its home ground is Ullevaal Stadion in Oslo, which seats 25,572 spectators.
Norway has participated three times in the FIFA World Cup (1938, 1994, 1998), and once in the European Championship (2000). The Norwegian national team is the only team that has played Brazil without ever losing to them.
Contents
Main article: History of the Norway national football team
An Olympic team achieved third place in the 1936 Olympics, after beating the hosts Germany earlier in the tournament.
Norway had their most successful period from 1990 to 1998 under the legendary coach Egil "Drillo" Olsen . Together with a rising quality in Norwegian players, Olsen is given much of the credit for taking Norway's national team from obscurity and turning them into a dreaded opponent, respected around the world. At its height in the mid-90's the team was even ranked second on the FIFA World Rankings . Olsen started his training career with Norway with a 6–1 home victory against Cameroon on 31 October 1990 and ended it on 27 June 1998 after a 0–1 defeat against Italy in the second stage of the 1998 FIFA World Cup .
In the 1994 World Cup in the United States , Norway was knocked out at the group stage after a win against Mexico , a defeat against Italy and a draw against the Republic of Ireland . In France 1998 , Norway was eliminated by Italy in the first round of the knock out stage after finishing second in their group, having drawn against Morocco and Scotland and won 2–1 against Brazil . During the 1994 World Cup tournament Norway received some criticism, claiming their somewhat defensive tactics ruined the fun of the game.
The former under-21 coach Nils Johan Semb replaced Olsen after the planned retirement of the latter, but did not manage to achieve the same results as Olsen. He was replaced by Rosenborg coach Åge Hareide at the end of 2003.
Some of Norway's best single results are: Norway– Brazil 2–1 on 23 June 1998 in the World Cup group stage, and Norway–Brazil 4–2 on 30 May 1997. In fact, Norway is the only team in the world who has played Brazil and never lost, winning two matches and drawing on two other occasions.
Association football came to Norway from Great Britain in the 1880s, and quickly became popular both in terms of active players and as a spectator sport. Norway's first football club, Christiania FC was founded in 1885. The oldest club still in existence is Odd Grenland , formed in 1894. In the following years, several more clubs were formed, and in 1902 the Football Association of Norway was formed. Later that year, the inaugural Norwegian Football Cup was held. However, it wasn't until 1908, at the invitation of the Swedish FA , that a national team was put together.
Norway's first-ever international game was played on 12 July 1908 in Gothenburg, Sweden. This was also Sweden 's first-ever international match. Oslo club Mercantile, the reigning cup champions, formed the backbone of the Norwegian side with nine of the eleven players in Norway's lineup.
The match started off good for the Norwegians. Within the first minute, Minotti Bøhn scored the first goal of the game. It went downhill from there. Bøhn did add a second goal, and Hans Endrerud also put his name on the scoresheet. Nevertheless, when the referee blew the final whistle, Sweden had won by a score of 11–3.
It would take two years until the next time a Norwegian national side was put together. Once again, the Swedes were the opposition, and this time it was the Norwegians who held the home-field advantage. It was, however, the Swedes who won the match. This time, the final score was 4–0. Norway also went home with two straight defeats when they participated in the Stockholm Olympics of 1912. The opponents were Denmark and Austria .
Overall, the period between 1908 and 1917 is a sorry chapter in the Norwegian national team's history. In those nine years, Norway failed to win a single game. Rock bottom was reached on 7 October 1917 when Norway were routed 12–0 against Denmark. To this date, this is Norway's heaviest ever defeat.
A new national team coach was hired in 1918. His name was Birger Möller , and he was Swedish. Möller is said to have been an excellent motivator, and spent a lot of time practicing team play and technical skills – and good results followed. On 16 June 1918, after 27 straight games without a win, Norway avenged the embarrassing defeat in Copenhagen the year before by winning 3–1 against Denmark in Oslo . A few months later, Norway defeated Sweden by a score of 5–1 in Gothenburg, which was Norway's first-ever away victory.
Norway's biggest star in the 1920s was unquestionably Einar "Jeja" Gundersen , who scored a total of 26 international goals between 1917 and 1928. Other stars at the time were team captain Gunnar Andersen ( Lyn ), Per Skou (Lyn and Odd) and Asbjørn Halvorsen ( Sarpsborg ). These players formed the core of the side that participated in the 1920 Olympics in Antwerp, where Norway got their greatest win to that date.
In the opening match of the Olympic tournament, Norway faced pre-tournament favorites England . It may have been an amateur side, but England was nevertheless the home of football, and the team was expected to ease past Norway. It is said that Gunnar Andersen was the first to show that the English players were not supermen, by dribbling past several players. His confidence passed on to the other Norwegian players, and when the smoke cleared, Norway had won 3–1 courtesy of two goals by "Jeja" Gundersen and one goal by Einar Wilhelms .
In the next round, Norway faced Czechoslovakia , but there was to be no repeat of the sensational win against England. The Czechoslovakians won the game 4–0.
Norway claimed a few more scalps in the following years, including a 2–0 win against France in Paris in 1923, as well as a few more wins against arch-rivals Sweden. However, in the latter half of the 1920s, the golden era was over. Between 1924 and 1928, Norway won only four matches – all of them against Finland .
The bad spell began to end near the turn of the decade, largely thanks to new star players like goalkeeper Henry "Tippen" Johansen and striker Jørgen Juve , who is Norway's all-time leading scorer on international level with 33 goals. On 23 June 1929, Juve scored twice as Norway defeated Denmark by a score of 5–2 in Copenhagen. It was Norway's first-ever away win against Denmark.
In 1933, Viking 's brilliant inside-forward Reidar Kvammen made his international debut. Two years later, Lyn's wing wizard Arne Brustad made his debut. Furthermore, in 1934, former national team hero Asbjørn Halvorsen returned home after 12 years in Germany . These events mark the start of what is known as Norwegian football's "Bronze Age".
When Halvorsen returned from Germany , he was hired as general secretary of the NFF, and thus also became chairman of the national team's selection committee. At the time, team selection was handled by the selection committee, while the coach's sole responsibility was training the players the selection committee had picked. However, Halvorsen also named himself team coach, and thus became Norway's first "modern" national team manager.
Norway had gotten several good results leading up to the Berlin Olympics, including wins against Austria and Hungary . Even so, few people believed Norway would stand a chance in the Olympic tournament, especially since they were scheduled to face the host nation in the second round (if they could get past Turkey in the opener). The match against Turkey went easier than expected, as Norway won 4–0. The next match was against the Germans , who had demolished Luxembourg 9–0 in their opener. It is said that the FC St. PauliNorwegians were so sure of defeat that they had booked return tickets to Norway two days after the Germany game. If this is true, the travel arrangements would have had to be altered.
In front of a capacity crowd that included Hitler and Goebbels, Norway got a fully-deserved 2–0 win against the hosts. Both goals were scored by Magnar Isaksen , and the win meant that Germany were knocked out and Norway advanced to the semi-finals, where they faced Italy . The match against Italy was a closely-contested one, but the Italians eventually won the game 2–1 after extra time. Arne Brustad scored the Norwegian goal. Next up was the third-place match against Poland , where Brustad scored a hat-trick and guided Norway to a 3–2 victory. Norway had won the bronze medals, and Brustad was hailed as one of the best players of the tournament.
Two years later, Norway took part in their first-ever FIFA World Cup . Norway had qualified after defeating the Republic of Ireland by an aggregate score of 6–5. Reidar Kvammen was the big hero, having scored twice in both matches. The 1938 World Cup was a straight knockout tournament, and in the opening round, Norway were drawn against defending world champions Italy.
The match, which was played in Marseille , was very tight and exciting. Italy took an early lead, but Norway equalised seven minuted before the final whistle, when Brustad ran past the entire Italian defence and slotted the ball past the keeper. A few minutes later, everyone believed that Brustad had added his second, but this goal was disallowed because of a highly disputed offside call. So, just like in the Olympic tournament two years earlier, the game went to extra time – and once again, the Italians came out on top thanks to a goal by Silvio Piola . And just like in the 1936 Olympics, Italy went on to win the entire tournament. There was a small consolation for Brustad later that year, when he was picked in the "Rest of Europe XI" that played against England at Wembley.
On 22 October 1939, Norway lost 4–1 against Denmark in Copenhagen. This would turn out to become Norway's last international match for nearly six years.
When Norway was invaded by Germany in 1940, practically all organized football operations were ceased. Asbjørn Halvorsen was among the figureheads of the sports boycott, and was arrested and sent to a consentration camp. Many other sports figures, including Reidar Kvammen, were also put in concentration camps. Although many players tried to keep fit, and a few illegal matches were organized, the six-year hiatus set Norwegian football back by several years – which became painstakingly evident in the first post-war game against Sweden in Stockholm on 21 October 1945.
Many of the old heroes were in the side that faced Sweden that day. Brustad, Øivind Holmsen and Alf "Kaka" Martinsen had played for the "Bronze Team", while Kristian Henriksen , Knut Brynildsen and Rolf Johannessen had played in the 1938 World Cup. However, six years is a long time in football, and the Swedes, who had not been involved in the war, had a great side in the making, and won the game by a score of 10–0. When Sweden scored their ninth goal, team joker Kristian Henriksen reportedly told his teammates, "OK lads, lets go for a draw". The Bronze Age was over.
Eventually, new players were added to the team towards the end of the 1940s. Two of the biggest names were striker Gunnar Thoresen and defender Thorbjørn Svenssen , who was nicknamed "Klippen" ("The Rock"). Also, Bronze Team hero Reidar Kvammen still had some skills remaining in his feet and became the first Norwegian to reach 50 caps in 1948. Although the team was nowhere near the levels of the pre-war side, they did notch up a few big wins. In 1946, Finland were routed by a score of 12–0, and two years later, Norway won 11–0 against the United States in a match where Odd Wang Sørensen scored five goals – which to this day is the team record for most goals scored by one player in a single game.
In 1949, an 18 year old inside-forward from Ørn-Horten named Per Bredesen made his international debut. He scored in his debut and received rave reviews. Norway had uncovered a new star, and as Norway entered the 1950s, people believed Norway had a new great side in the making. Unfortunately, young Bredesen's national team career was short-lived. In 1952, Bredesen was signed a professional contract with Italian giants Lazio – and according to the NFF's self-imposed amateur rules, he was banished from the national team. In an age where most countries in western Europe had introduced professional football, the old amateur ideals of the 19th century were still the rule in Norway.
Victories were few and far between for the Norwegian national side in the 1950s, and the few games Norway actually did manage to win were usually against fellow minnows Finland and Iceland . Norway did manage a sensational 2–1 win against Hungary in a 1958 FIFA World Cup qualifier, but other than that, there were few highlights. In the return game against the Hungarians, Norway were beaten 5–0.
Thorbjørn Svenssen remained a mainstay in Norway's central defence throughout the decade, and when he finally bowed down in 1962, he had played an amazing 104 full internationals. At the time, he was only the second footballer in history to reach a century of caps (the first was England captain Billy Wright . Another national team star at the time was striker Harald Hennum . His 25 international goals is a post-war record.
Nobody knows what Norway might have achieved if Per Bredesen had been available, but the amateur rules were still in force, even though they were somewhat relaxed in 1960 to allow another Italian exile, Ragnar Larsen , who had recently returned home, to once again play for his country.
In 1959, Norway finished the year with four straight defeats and 22 conceded goals.
Following the dismal end to the last year, Austrian Wilhelm Kment was hired as new national team coach in 1960. Another newcomer was a 17-year-old winger from Brann named Roald Jensen , but became known only by his nickname "Kniksen". The slightly-built teenager was a wizard with the ball, and suddenly, Norway had a new star – and new-found optimism. Another talented youngster, attacking midfielder Olav Nilsen made his debut a couple of years later. Nilsen would be a mainstay in the side throughout the decade. "Kniksen" on the other hand, went abroad just like Per Bredesen before him, and thus became disqualified from further national team play.
There was little improvement to be found in the results column, but once in a while, Norway pulled off a shock result. They won against Sweden and Holland in 1962, and defeated Scotland by a score of 4–3 in 1963. However, this fine win was followed by a 9–0 defeat against Poland , just to confirm that despite the occasional victory, Norway were still among the bottom-feeders of European football.
In the 1966 FIFA World Cup qualifiers, Norway emerged as serious contenders for qualification for the first time in three decades. Though the home-based amateur only rule was retained, Norway boasted a promising side including Finn Seemann, Harald Berg, Olav Nilsen and Egil Olsen. All told, they finished runners up behind France with 7 points (3 wins, 1 draw and 2 defeats) with two narrow defeats to France proving costly.
One of Norway's most shocking results in the 1960s was the victory against Yugoslavia in a 1966 FIFA World Cup qualifier. The Yugoslavs had finished second in the 1960 European Championship a few years earlier, and was rated as one of the continent's top sides – but they had to travel home from Ullevaal with a 3–0 defeat in their bags thanks to goals from Finn Seemann , Odd Iversen and the new star player from northern Norway, Harald "Dutte" Berg . Norway also played well against France in this qualifying campaign, but both matches ended with narrow defeats. This was nevertheless the closest Norway had come to reaching a major tournament since the glory days of the 1930s.
Norway once again faced France in the qualifying tournament for the 1970 FIFA World Cup . The home match ended with a rather predictable 3–1 defeat, but in the first leg in Strasbourg , Norway had pulled off another shock result and won the game 1–0. Odd Iversen scored the only goal of the game. France never recovered and were eventually eliminated by Sweden.
Among the other notable facts, it might be mentioned that Fredrikstad defender Roar Johansen played 54 consecutive internationals between 1960 and 1967. Not even Thorbjørn Svenssen managed a streak like that. Another piece of trivia was that goalkeeper Kjell Kaspersen scored on a penalty in the 7–0 friendly win against Thailand in 1965. This makes Kaspersen the only goalkeeper to have scored for the Norwegian national side.
In 1969, the self-imposed amateur rule was finally abolished, and foreign-based professionals like "Kniksen" and Finn Seemann could once again play with the flag on their chest. It also meant that domestic stars like Odd Iversen and Harald Berg could move abroad without jeopardizing their national team eligibility.
However, the rule change did not improve the results. If anything, the national team's results in the early 1970s got even worse. During the UEFA Euro 1972 qualifying campaign, Norway picked up only one point in six games, and in a 1974 FIFA World Cup qualifier against Holland, Norway lost 9–0. The next year, they suffered a perhaps even more humiliating result by losing against Luxembourg .
There were, however, a few bright spots. A new star emerged in the form of Tom Lund , who made his international debut in 1971. A playmaker in the Johan Cruyff mold, "Tommy" was without question a great player. Many consider him to be the Norway's finest player ever, but even he couldn't carry the team on his own, and Norway continued to finish last in their FIFA World Cup and UEFA European Championship qualifying groups.
In the late 1970s, however, there were signs of improvement. Guided by Tom Lund and new head coach Tor Røste Fossen , Norway defeated both Sweden and Switzerland in the qualifying campaign for the 1978 FIFA World Cup . The win against Sweden was somewhat marred by Svein Grøndalen 's vicious tackle on Swedish star player Ralf Edström , but when Norway played their last World Cup qualifier away against Switzerland, they still had a theoretical chance of reaching the finals. However, the game ended with a 1–0 defeat, and Norway once again had to stay home.
In addition to the "A" team, Norway also fielded an Olympic side in the late 1970s. To play for the Olympic side, you had to be an amateur, and not have played any World Cup qualifiers. The Olympic side was, in other words, a "B" side, but their matches are nonetheless regarded as full internationals by the NFF (but not recognized by FIFA ). The Olympic team got quite good results, and in 1979, they qualified for the Moscow Games after beating Finland and West Germany 's amateur side in the qualifiers. Arne Larsen Økland became the hero with the winning goal against the Germans. Incidentally, Økland became a professional in the Bundesliga shortly afterwards.
The Olympic side never got the chance to play in the Olympics, because Norway boycotted the games along with the United States and most of the Western European countries as a protest against the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.
The 1980s got off to a promising start for Norway with a victory against Bulgaria . The good run continued with a 6–1 win against Finland (a game where Pål Jacobsen scored four goals) and victory against Switzerland in a World Cup qualifier. Even a 4–0 loss against England at Wembley did not kill the optimism, because after all, England were one of the best teams in the world – at least in the eyes of the Norwegian public.
Narrow defeats against Hungary and Romania in the spring of 1981 ensured that Norway once again failed to reach the World Cup finals , but they still had pride to play for when England entered Ullevaal on 9 September 1981. Norway's previous five encounters against England's full-time pros had all ended with heavy defeats and a combined goal difference of 2–24. Few people believed that trend was about to end that day. The most optimistic pundits hoped for a narrow defeat. In this game, Norway had Tom Lund and the new star Hallvar Thoresen back in the side. Both had missed the match at Wembley the year before.
The match started badly for Norway. England got off to an early lead through Bryan Robson , but Norway clawed their way back into the game, and midway through the first half, Norway got an equaliser from a Tom Lund cross. The goal was awarded to Roger Albertsen , but television replays have later shown that Albertsen did in fact not touch the ball, and Lund's cross went straight into the net. When Hallvar Thoresen added a second shortly before half time, the shock was in the making. Despite a heavy English pressure in the second half, Norway held on, and had achieved (in the eyes of the Norwegian media) their greatest result ever. It was after this game that radio commentator Bjørge Lillelien gave his famous "Your boys took a hell of a beating" routine.
Led by Tom Lund, Norway had a fairly good team in the early 1980s. In 1982, Norway beat Yugoslavia 3–1 in a UEFA Euro 1984 qualifier with goals by Lund, Økland and Åge Hareide . At the halfway mark, Norway looked to have a good chance of reaching the European Championship. However, Tom Lund retired at the end of the 1982 season, and without their playmaker, Norway was once again a mediocrity and gained only one point in the remaining Euro qualifiers, and once again finished last in the group.
The Olympic team was also put back together, this time to qualify for the Los Angeles Olympics. Norway only finished third in the group, behind Poland and the GDR – but when the Eastern Bloc later decided to boycott the 1984 Olympics, Norway were handed the vacant spot. In the finals, Norway gave a pretty good performance. The opening game against Chile finished goalless, and the second game against France finished with a narrow defeat, which meant that the 2–0 victory in the final game against Qatar was to no avail. Norway were knocked out in the group stage. On the bright side, the Olympic team included several players who would become mainstays in the "A" team in the following years, such as Per Egil Ahlsen , Terje Kojedal , Tom Sundby and last but not least goalkeeper Erik Thorstvedt .
The team got a few more scalps in the mid-1980s. In 1985, Norway won 2–1 away against defending world champions Italy , and the next spring, future world champions Argentina were defeated 1–0 at Ullevaal. However, both these matches were friendlies, and in the games that really mattered, Norway were still also-rans. A few weeks after the win against Italy, Norway lost 5–1 at home to Denmark in a World Cup qualifier. In short, Norway in the 1980s was a team that could beat anyone on a given day, but they could also lose against anyone on a given day – and there were a lot more bad days than good days.
In October 1990, national team coach Ingvar Stadheim resigned after a bad start to the Euro 92 qualifying campaign. His replacement was U21 coach Egil "Drillo" Olsen , and this coaching change would signal the start of Norway's best period in modern times. Olsen's style of play may not always have been pretty to watch, and got a lot of criticism both at home and abroad, but the style got results.
In terms of individual players, Norway in the early 1990s was probably not the best team in their history. Only defender Rune Bratseth and goalkeeper Erik Thorstvedt were regarded as true stars on the international level. These two formed the backbone of a side that otherwise included youngsters like Øyvind Leonhardsen , Stig Inge Bjørnebye , Lars Bohinen and Erik Mykland .
The first indication that Norway had a great team in the making came in the Euro qualifier against Italy on 5 June 1991, where goals from Bohinen and Tore André Dahlum led the side to a 2–1 win. Earlier that night, the Norwegian U21 side had defeated the Italian youngsters 6–0. Norway failed to reach the European Championship finals, but they remained in contention until the very last game, and finished a respectable third behind Soviet Union and Italy.
Towards the end of the Euro qualifiers, Olsen recalled former youth prodigy Kjetil Rekdal , who had been out of the national team for more than two years after a failed spell in the Bundesliga. As the midfield anchorman, Rekdal would become one of the team's most important players throughout the 1990s.
In the qualifying tournament for the 1994 FIFA World Cup , Norway were drawn in the same group as England , Holland and Poland . Getting to the World Cup from this group was impossible, according to the pundits – but Olsen had other ideas. The qualifying campaign got off to a great start with a 10–0 win against minnows San Marino . This match was followed by a surprising win against Holland, and when Norway managed a draw in the away game against England through Kjetil Rekdal's 35-yard screamer, the Norwegian public were starting to believe that the national team might actually reach the finals.
The road to the World Cup continued in 1993, when Norway won 3–1 against Turkey , followed by a great 2–0 win against England and a somewhat fortunate goalless draw against Holland in Rotterdam. The World Cup tickets were secured on October 13, when Norway defeated Poland by 3–0 in Poznan after goals by Jostein Flo , Jan Åge Fjørtoft and Ronny Johnsen . Norway had reached the World Cup finals for the first time since 1938. In October 1993, Norway had managed the amazing feat of being ranked the second best team in the world (behind Brazil) on the FIFA World Rankings .
The finals were somewhat of a disappointment for the Norwegian team. The tournament got off to a fine start with a win against Mexico in a match that won't go down in history as a classic. Substitute Kjetil Rekdal scored a late winner. This match was followed by a 0–1, 11–10 men defeat against Italy, and after two games, all four teams in the group had collected three points. This meant that Norway would progress to the next round with a win against the Republic of Ireland . They would also progress with a draw if the match between Italy and Mexico got a winner. The match against Ireland ended in a disappointing goalless draw – and since the Italy v Mexico game also ended with a draw, Norway were knocked out by the slimmest of margins.
Next up was the UEFA Euro 1996 qualifiers. Norway looked like qualifying through most of the campaign, but stumbled in the last two games against the Czech Republic and Holland, and were knocked out. At this point, Bratseth and Thorstvedt had both retired and been replaced with Henning Berg and Frode Grodås respectively. Two other new faces in the qualifying campaign for the 1998 World Cup were young strikers Tore André Flo and Ole Gunnar Solskjær . Solskjær scored twice in the 5–0 win against Azerbaijan , and was later signed by Manchester United F.C. . Flo got his breakthrough on the international stage when he scored twice in the 4–2 friendly win against Brazil at Ullevaal. Norway clinched the World Cup spot with a 4–0 win against Finland two rounds before the end of the qualifying campaign.
Just like 60 years earlier, Norway had reached a World Cup played in France . History would repeat itself in more ways. Just like in the last World Cup, Norway were unimpressive in the opening matches. The first two matches against Morocco and Scotland ended with draws, which meant that Norway faced the difficult task of beating Brazil if they were to advance to the second round.
"23 June 1998" and Marseille will always be remembered as the date and venue of one of Norway's greatest victories. Brazil did have most of the attacking play, and when Bebeto gave the Brazilians the lead after 78 minutes, it looked like Norway were heading for another early exit. However, in a few minutes, Tore André Flo got an equalizer, and when he was obstructed in the area two minutes before the final whistle, Norway got a penalty. Kjetil Rekdal fired the penalty into the back of the net. Norway had come from behind to win against Brazil, and advanced to the second round – once again in Marseille, and once again against Italy.
The match against the Italians was a disappointing performance from the Norwegians. Italy got an early lead through Christian Vieri , and Norway rarely threatened the solid Italian defence – and just like in 1938, Norway were knocked out of the World Cup by Italy. This loss also ended Norway's undefeated run of 17 matches, a record for the team. After the tournament, Egil Olsen stepped down as national team coach and was replaced by his assistant Nils Johan Semb .
Semb's style of play was roughly the same as his predecessor's, although new players like Steffen Iversen , John Carew and John Arne Riise were added. After a slow start to the UEFA Euro 2000 qualifying campaign, Norway won their last seven games and reached the European Championship finals for the first time in their history. The finals started well, but ended with disappointment. In the opener, Norway got a deserved win against Spain through Steffen Iversen's goal. In the second match, Norway played poorly and lost 1–0 against Yugoslavia , but Norway would still qualify for the second round if they could win their last group match against Slovenia . A draw would also be good enough if the match between Spain and Yugoslavia ended with a draw or a Yugoslavia win.
In what must be described as an awful match, the game between Norway and Slovenia ended goalless. In the other match, Yugoslavia had a 3–2 lead after 90 minutes, which would be enough for Norway to advance. However, when Spain scored twice in stoppage time to win the game, Norway were knocked out. After the tournament, Semb had to suffer a lot of criticism for his tactics.
A slow start to the 2002 FIFA World Cup qualifiers did not stop the criticism. After five games, Norway had gained only two points, and after a decade of glory, it became clear that Norway would not reach the finals in Korea and Japan . Norway did finish the qualifying campaign with two wins, but it was too little, too late.
Despite the ever-increasing criticism, Semb remained in charge for the UEFA Euro 2004 qualifiers , where Norway eventually finished second behind Denmark , and faced a two-leg playoff against Spain. In the away leg, Norway got a respectable 2–1 defeat, which provided some cautious optimism before the return leg at Ullevaal. However, the return leg was a nightmare for the Norwegians. Spain dominated the game completely and won 3–0. After this match, Semb resigned.
Norway's next national coach became former national team hero Åge Hareide , who was hired in January 2004, having coached Rosenborg BK to the domestic league title the previous season. The team, which was dubbed "New Norway", won their first six games, although it must be said that many of these games were against second-rate opposition. In the 2006 FIFA World Cup qualifying campaign, results have been varying – ranging from an impressive 3–0 win against Slovenia to a disappointing home defeat against Scotland. Norway eventually finished second behind Italy, and played the Czech Republic in a playoff to reach the finals. In the first playoff match the Czech Republic won 1–0 in Oslo. Norway lost the match 0–1 in Prague on 16 November 2005, thus failing to make it to the 2006 FIFA World Cup .
In the UEFA Euro 2008 qualifiers Norway was drawn in a group with Greece , Turkey , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Hungary , Moldova , and Malta .
On 16 August 2006, Norway faced Brazil in a friendly match at Ullevaal Stadium. The game ended 1–1, and Norway remained unbeaten by the Brazilians.
A successful start to the UEFA Euro 2008 qualifiers followed, breaking a run of eight games without victory, as Norway won 4–1 in Hungary, their largest away win in a qualifier since October 2001, after a string of "amateurish mistakes" by the hosts. It was followed by another victory, against Moldova, but after that, Norway scored only one point in the next three qualifying matches. The team improved with two home ground 4–0 wins in a row (against Hungary and Malta). They also showed great shape by beating Argentina 2–1 in a friendly match at Ullevaal. Then they got a 1–0 victory in Moldova before drawing 2–2 with Greece, in a match Norway had the upper hand. Norway then played away to Bosnia and Hercegovina, winning 2–0 without really impressing. This gave Norway a very good chance of qualification if they won their following game against Turkey. However, Norway lost 1–2 after a poor performance, and were eliminated in the final round of qualification, with Turkey securing their place with a victory against Bosnia and Hercegovina.
Norway competed against Netherlands , Scotland , Macedonia and Iceland in Group 9 of the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifiers in Europe, considered by many to be the weakest of the 9 groups due to Norway's poor play in recent matches. After draws with Iceland, Scotland and Macedonia and two defeats to the Netherlands, Norway managed a surprising offensive outburst during a 4–0 win over Scotland in Oslo .
Following the weak 2008 season, during which Norway did not win a single game, coach Hareide announced his resignation on 8 December 2008. On 14 January 2009, it was announced that former coach Egil Olsen would temporarily replace him. Olsen's comeback game resulted in a 0–1 win against Germany. However, Norway would tie with Macedonia 0-0 on June 6 and suffered a 2-0 defeat against Holland. As it looked all over for Norway to the Norwegian media and fans, Norway defeated Scotland 4-0. Goals from John Arne Riise , 2 of them from Morten Pedersen , and another from Erik Huseklepp kept their chances alive. However, a 1-1 tie with Iceland slowed down Norway. John Arne Riise scored early in the game, but Eiður Guðjohnsen equalized. Scotland defeated Macedonia 2-0. Now needing the Netherlands to win Scotland and needing to win Macedonia, Norway defeated Macedonia 2-1 with goals from Thorstein Helstad and John Arne Riise early in the match. While at Hampden Park, Eljero Elia scored the winner for the Netherlands to eliminate Scotland and give Norway second. However, due to Norway having the weakest record of all the nine runners-up they failed to qualify for the World Cup play-offs.
In November 2009, it was announced that Egil Olsen would manage the national team through the UEFA Euro 2012 qualifying . He would also have an option to lead the team in UEFA Euro 2012 , should they succeed to qualify. After this, Ståle Solbakken , who currently manages F.C. Copenhagen , would take over as manager of the national team.
FIFA World Cup history
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In Greek mythology, who was the sky god, son and husband of Gaia? | 1000+ images about Merci Ouranos on Pinterest | Mothers, Gaia and Greek mythology
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OURANOS (or Uranus) was the primeval god (protogenos) of the sky. The Greeks imagined the sky as a solid dome of brass, decorated with stars, whose edges descended to rest upon the outermost limits of the flat earth. Ouranos was the literal sky, just as his consort Gaia was the earth.
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Who wrote the books, 'Lost Horizon' and 'Goodbye Mr. Chips'? | Uranus
Uranus
by Ron Leadbetter
Uranus, also known as Ouranos, was the embodiment of the sky or heavens, and known as the god of the sky. He was the first son of Gaia (the earth) and he also became her husband. According to Hesiod, their children included the Titans: six sons ( Oceanus , Coeus , Crius , Hyperion , Iapetus and Cronus ) and six daughters ( Theia , Rhea , Themis , Mnemosyne , Phoebe and Tethys ). There were other offspring: the Cyclopes , (who were named Brontes, Steropes and Arges and were later known as "one eyed giants"), and also the three monsters known as the Hecatonchires , who each had one hundred hands and fifty heads. Their names were Briareus, Cottus and Gyes. Other offspring of Uranus and Gaia were the Erinyes , who were spirits of punishment and goddesses of vengeance. The Erinyes avenged wrongs which were done to family, especially murder within a family. After Uranus had been castrated, his blood fell to earth (Gaia) and conceived the Giants. These were of monstrous appearance and had great strength. Similiarly, in some versions Aphrodite is believed to have risen from the foam created by the sex organs of Uranus after they were thrown into the sea by his son Cronus .
Uranus was aghast by the sight of his offspring, the Cyclopes and the Hecatoncheires. (In a differing version Uranus was frightened of their great strength and the fact that they could easily depose him). He hid them away in Tartarus (the bowels of the earth) inside Gaia, causing her intense pain. The discomfort became so great that she asked her youngest son, Cronus, to castrate his father, as this would cease his fertility and put an end to more monstrous offspring. To accomplish this deed Gaia made an adamantine sickle, which she gave to Cronus. That night Uranus came to lay with Gaia. And as the sky god drew close, Cronus struck with the sickle and cut off Uranus's genitals. From the blood that fell from the open wound were born nymphs and giants, and when Cronus threw the severed genitals into the sea a white foam appeared. From this foam Aphrodite the goddess of love and desire was born.
A slightly differing version tells of Uranus being so vast that he could cover Mother Earth (Gaia) and easily take advantage of her fruitfulness, but Gaia tired of her exuberant fertility and begged her sons to free her from the excessive embrace of Uranus. All refused except Cronus. Armed with a sickle he castrated Uranus, and the blood which fell from the mutilation gave birth to the Erinyes (Furies), the Giants and the Meliae (Nymphs of the manna ash trees). And when Cronus threw the sickle into the sea the island of Corfu, home of the Phaeacians, sprang up).
After Uranus (the sky) had been emasculated, the sky separated from Gaia (the earth) and Cronus became king of the gods. Later, Zeus (the son of Cronus) deposed his father and became the supreme god of the Greek Pantheon.
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Who was the Greek goddess of justice and retribution? | 1000+ images about Gods of Justice & Retribution on Pinterest | Statue of, Michelangelo and Romanticism
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Themis is the Greek Goddess of Divine Order and Law. She is one of the Titans, the children of Ouranos and Gaia, the oldest of the Gods. With her consort/brother Zeus, she bore the Horae (Goddesses of the Hours) and the Moirae (Goddesses of Fate). Themis presided over the laws of both Gods and men; when she was disregarded, she sent the Goddess Nemesis to deliver retribution. Themis is often depicted blindfolded and holding a set of scales, the original model of “blind justice”. (for zs <3)
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For which US President did Walter Mondale serve as Vice-President? | ADRASTEIA - the Greek Goddess of Justice (Greek mythology)
ADRASTEIA
Also known as ADRASTEA
Goddess of Divine Retribution
We know the type... "Whoops...who said that?" The daughter of ANANKE , ADRASTEIA is really RHEA in disguise, and is also identified with NEMESIS .
GodNote: Sorry this Adrasteia article is a bit short. We have sent our Data Dwarves off to find more nuggets of information. Updates coming soon.
ADRASTEIA FACTS AND FIGURES
Celebration or Feast Day : Unknown at present
Good/Evil Rating : Unknown at present
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Saunders, Chas, and Peter J. Allen, eds. "ADRASTEIA - the Greek Goddess of Justice (Greek mythology)." <em>Godchecker</em>. Godchecker.com / CID, 09 Jan. 2014. Web. 4 January 2017.
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09 January 2014 by Rowan Allen.
Editors: Peter J Allen, Chas Saunders
References: Coming soon.
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'New Bats In Old Belfries' and 'Mount Zion' are works by which famous poet? | John Betjeman
John Betjeman
1906 - 1984
Sir John Betjeman was the Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom from 1972-1984 and was a notable poet, writer, and broadcaster. His more famous works include Mount Zion (1932), Continual Dew (1937), Old Lights for New Chancels (1940), New Bats in Old Belfries (1945), A Few Late Chrysanthemums (1954), Poems in the Porch (1954), Summoned by Bells (1960), High and Low (1966), and A Nip in the Air (1974).
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Raymond Massey starred as which character in the TV medical drama 'Doctor Kildare'? | 10 Great John Betjeman Poems Everyone Should Read | Interesting Literature
10 Great John Betjeman Poems Everyone Should Read
Posted by interestingliterature
The best poems by John Betjeman – and some interesting facts about them
Sir John Betjeman (1906-1984) was UK Poet Laureate from 1972 until his death, and became one of Britain’s best-loved poets of the twentieth century. When his Collected Poems was published in 1955, it was a bestseller. Below is our selection of Betjeman’s best poems, along with a short summary of each poem and a link to where you can read it. Do you agree with this list? We’ve arranged them in roughly chronological order, rather than attempting to rank them in a ‘best to worst’ or ‘worst to best’ order. What would you pick as Betjeman’s best poem?
‘ Death in Leamington ‘. This was one of Betjeman’s first published poems, appearing in the 1932 volume Mount Zion, Betjeman’s first collection. It describes the lonesome death of an old lady in the English midlands spa town (presumably to suggest its ordinariness: death, like Larkin’s nothing , happens anywhere), and, even though it’s an early poem, it already displays Betjeman’s eye for small everyday details, such as the tea-things and the landlady turning down the gas in the hall.
‘ The Arrest of Oscar Wilde at the Cadogan Hotel ‘. This poem was published in Betjeman’s second volume of poems, Continual Dew, in 1937. As the title suggests, it describes Wilde’s arrest at the London hotel following his
failed attempts to sue the Marquis of Queensberry for libel. Wilde would subsequently stand trial for ‘gross indecency’; he would be found guilty and condemned to two years’ hard labour. Watch out for the Cockney speech of the two plain-clothes arresting officers.
‘ Slough ‘. The opening lines of this poem are probably Betjeman’s most famous. Like ‘The Arrest of Oscar Wilde at the Cadogan Hotel’ it appeared in Continual Dew. Because of its blistering attack on the industrial trading estate that Slough became in the 1930s, many residents of the Berkshire town have objected to Betjeman’s tone in the poem, especially the notion that bombing Slough may be the best thing for it (it proved oddly ominous, since two years after the poem was published, when WWII broke out, Slough would be bombed by the Germans). Betjeman’s daughter publicly apologised for her father’s poem in 2006!
‘ In Westminster Abbey ‘. Published in 1940 in Betjeman’s third volume, Old Lights for New Chancels, ‘In Westminster Abbey’ reflects its wartime publication date. The poem pokes fun at the idea of believing oneself superior because one is a) upper-class, b) a good Christian woman, c) English, and d) white. Bomb the Germans, the speaker of the poem entreats while praying to God – but keep the English safe. The poem is a fine example of how genteelly but powerfully satirical Betjeman could be.
‘ A Subaltern’s Love Song ‘. No list of Betjeman’s best poems would be complete without this. One of Betjeman’s best-loved poems, this is the ‘Miss J. Hunter Dunn’ one (its opening line is more famous than its actual title). Published in 1945 in Betjeman’s fourth collection, New Bats in Old Belfries, ‘A Subaltern’s Love Song’ is a love song of a peculiarly English kind. The Joan Hunter Dunn who inspired the poem was a real person , who died in 2008 – Betjeman met her during wartime in 1940 and was struck by her, and wrote ‘A Subaltern’s Love Song’ about what it might be like for the two of them to play tennis, fall in love, and get engaged (Betjeman was a married man when he wrote the poem, and the relationship with Miss J. Hunter Dunn remained a fantasy rather than a reality). A ‘subaltern’, by the way, is an officer in the British army below the rank of captain.
‘ Christmas ‘. Betjeman wrote several poems about Christmas, and this one, from his 1954 volume A Few Late Chrysanthemums, is probably the best of them. Like Thomas Hardy ‘s ‘The Oxen’ (which, along with Betjeman’s poem, we include in our pick of the best Christmas poems ), Betjeman’s ‘Christmas’ sees the speaker of the poem yearning to believe in the story of the nativity. Betjeman (who was a Christian, though a doubting one) seems to conclude that it is true.
‘ How to Get On in Society ‘. This short poems sticks the knife into the pretentious world of the upper-middle classes. It appeared in A Few Late Chrysanthemums in 1954. Betjeman wrote ‘How to Get On in Society’ as part of a
competition in Time and Tide magazine in December 1951, where Betjeman invited readers to write another stanza for the poem. A short analysis of the poem, along with a parody of Betjeman’s poem (which he proclaimed to be better than his own!), can be found here .
‘ Diary of a Church Mouse ‘. A fine example of Betjeman’s Chaucerian style, ‘Diary of a Church Mouse’ (1954) is another piece of gentle mockery of a certain class of person – here, fair-weather Christians who use the church when it suits them but are nowhere to be seen for most of the year. Betjeman uses animals to make his point, and it’s not hard to see why this has become one of Betjeman’s most popular poems – it appeals to people of all ages, and even those who miss the satire.
‘ Archibald ‘. Archibald Ormsby-Gore was, according to Betjeman, the one person who never let him down. Archibald was also, famously, a teddy bear – and the inspiration for Sebastian Flyte’s teddy Aloysius in Evelyn Waugh’s Brideshead Revisited. This poem reflects Betjeman’s fondness for his stuffed toy, and helps to explain why Betjeman became, for Britain, ‘the nation’s teddy bear’. Archibald, and Betjeman’s toy elephant Jumbo, were in his arms when he died in 1984.
‘ The Last Laugh ‘. This short poem was written late in Betjeman’s life and reflects the mixture of tender melancholy and humour that pervade his other work, though there is a deeper awareness of death and (like his friend Philip Larkin) a terror of dying lurking behind the poem.
We had to leave John Betjeman’s 1960 blank-verse autobiography, Summoned by Bells, off the list, but if you’ve feasted on the ten shorter poems listed above and are hungry for more of Betjeman’s quintessentially English loveliness, you can read Summoned by Bells, and all of his other best poems, in John Betjeman Collected Poems
, published by John Murray.
Image (top): John Betjeman Statue by Martin Jennings, St Pancras Station, London (author: Christine Matthews), Wikimedia Commons . Image (bottom): The John Betjeman Centre Memorabilia Room showing the office from his home in Trebetherick (author: Neil Kennedy), Wikimedia Commons .
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